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.§“1
184 Proceedings of Eoyal Society of Edinhurgli. [sess..
calculating vapour pressure, relative humidity, and dew-point from
dry and wet bulb observations agree very badly — indeed, at times
disagree very remarkably. I have reduced some of my observations
by means of Guyot’s Smithsonian Tables (last edition) as well as
those of Mr Glaisher. Here are examples of the differences that
may occur (the temperatures are expressed in degrees Fahrenheit): —
Dry.
Wet.
Differ-
ence.
Vapour Pressure.
Relative Humidity.
Dew-point.
Glaisher.
Smith-
sonian.
Glaisher.
Smith-
sonian.
Glaisher.
Smith-
sonian.
20-2
17-3
2-9
•037
•062
34
55
- 3-3
8-0
20-3
19-4
0-9
•078
•094
73
87
13-1
17-0
36-8
30-0
6-8
•109
•084
50
41
20-3
14-5
42-7
36*5
62
•ICO
•135
59
49
1 29-1
1 25-0
Considering the few experiments made when testing the apparatus^
at low levels, the results appear to agree fairly well with those of
Glaisher’s Tables, but the number of these is not sufficient to
warrant any definite statement.
The need for additional experiments is obvious. Eesults at
summer temperatures are wanted to complete the diagram ; and, to
determine how far pressure influences the other factors, a series of
simultaneous experiments must be made at two extreme stations
at least, and, if possible, also at an intermediate one. To ensure
perfect comparability of data, special precautions must be taken,
for instance, by having the dry and wet bulbs always in analogous
conditions by using some aspiration psychrometer, and it would be
Avell at the same time to record the readings of other instruments
used for determining the hygrometric conditions of the atmosphere.
In conclusion, I would thank the Directors of the Ben Nevis
Observatory for giving every facility for carrying out these experi-
ments, and to the observatory staff, especially to Messrs Omond and
Eankin, for their help, without which the number of the experiments
would have been much less. I am also especially indebted to
Professor Tait and Dr Buchan, who have aided me in every way in
planning and discussing the results of this research ; and I thank
Mr James Wood for helping me with the calculations.
1893-94.] Professor Ewart on Digits in the Horse.
185
The Second and Fourth Digits in the Horse : their
Development and Subsequent Degeneration. By
J. C. Ewart, M.D., Kegius Profe.ssor of Natural
History, University of Edinburgh.
Preliminary.
(Read March 5, 1894.)
During the last fifty years not a few familiar and apparently
quite uninteresting structures have all at once assumed unusual
importance and arrested the attention of naturalists in all parts of
the world. This is especially true of what used to he known as
rudiments, of what we nowadays generally designate vestiges.
Of all the known vestiges, the most familiar are perhaps the
“splint ” bones of the horse. For long the interest in these splints
was extremely limited, but since it was shown that they correspond
to the functional second and fourth metacarpals and metatarsals
of other vertebrates they have attracted the notice of both com-
parative anatomists and palseozoologists, and are now invariably
looked upon as affording strong evidence in support of the view
that the horse has descended from polydactylous ancestors.
Since, through the work of Gaudry, Marsh, Cope, and others, it
became possible to construct a wonderfully complete pedigree for the
horse family, and especially since Huxley, in his address on “ Fossil
Horses,” gave a graphic account of the ancestors of recent horses,
many have wished that, by way of making the relationship with
Hipparion still more certain, “ rudiments ” of the phalanges of the
second and fourth digits could be shown to persist at the ends of the
“splints.” Gegenbaur once suggested that there might be latent
“germs” of the lost digits, but apparently no one has hitherto
discovered the “ germs ” or rudiments in the embryo or found the
vestiges in the adult. This being the case, it may seem strange that
I am now in a position to assert that it is all but impossible to study
the development of the horse without observing the development
and subsequent degeneration of the second and fourth fingers and
toes, or to examine the adult skeleton without seeing their vestiges..
1 86 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
To throw, if possible, some light on polydactyly in the horse, I was
recently led to study the development of the skeleton of the limbs.
One result has been the discovery of the long-missing phalanges
of the second and fourth digits. Their rudiments have been recog-
nised and their development and subsequent degeneration followed
until they lose their identity and become inseparably connected
with their respective metacarpals and metatarsals, to form what are
familiarly known as the “ buttons ” of the “ splints.”
It seems to be generally admitted that one of the first steps in
the formation of the joints of the digits consists in the division of
the primitive rods of cartilage into segments by discs of embryonic
cells. The segments eventually give rise to the phalanges, while
the cellular discs seem to be especially concerned in the formation
of the various parts of the joint, e.g.^ the articular cartilages, the
capsule, and the membrane lining the joint cavity.
I have not hitherto succeeded in finding distinct articular discs in
the second and fourth digits of the horse, even in very small
embryos ; but I have observed in some cases clear lines running
across the rods of cartilage in the position of the joints. It is
possible that, owing to abbreviation (or to arrest) in development,
true discs are never formed in these useless digits. Though clear
evidence of phalanges was not found in a 20 mm. embryo, I made
out easily enough the position of the metacarpo-phalangeal joint in
a 25 mm. embryo. In this embryo there was no indication of a
joint cavity or capsule, but a very thin layer of cells* separated a
terminal nodule (representing the phalanges) from the metacarpal
proper.
This terminal portion (fig. I.), when removed, was seen to present
at its proximal end a slightly concave surface. The distal end of
the metacarpal was smooth and slightly rounded, and composed of
apparently normal cartilage cells.
The cartilage forming this nodule was found, on further exami-
nation, to be so invested with cells and fibres that it was impossible
to ascertain whether either of the phalangeal joints had been
developed. Partly because of its minute size, and partly because
of its interest, I did not care to sacrifice it to the microtome.
* These cells probably represent an articular disc.
1893-94.] Professor Ewart on Digits in the Horse. 187
Vestigial structures are generally supposed to reach their maxi-
mum development early, and then to either degenerate or dis-
appear. From the material already examined, it seems the second
and fourth digits reach their highest development when the embryo
is from 30 cm. to 40 cm. in length. For example, in an embryo
35 cm. in length the second and fourth digits were remarkably
complete. Including the metacarpals, they varied in length from
3-2 to 3*5 cm. — the phalangeal portions varying from 3 to 4 mm.
188
Proceedings of Eoyal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
Each metacarpal and metatarsal consisted of an ossified shaft and of
cartilaginous extremities ; the proximal piece of cartilage measured
from 4 to 5 mm., the distal from IJ to 2 mm. The phalangeal
part consisted of an elongated piece of cartilage representing the
first and second phalanges (1, 2, Fig. II.), and of a small terminal
portion representing the third phalanx (3, Eig. II.). The large
piece was articulated to the slightly-rounded end of the epiphysis
by an imperfectly-formed joint. The joint between the second and
third phalanges looked as complete as the basal joint, hut, as
sections showed, this was not the case. In some sections the
epiphysis of the metacarpal was completely separated by a distinct
gap from the first phalanx, hut, in the case of the second and
third phalanges, though there was a deep cleft extending well
across between them, the separation was never complete. The
formation of a joint between the first and second phalanges in the
specimens examined had either never been attempted or it had been
arrested at the initial stages. At the most, there was a shallow
cleft on what appeared to he the anterior or extensor aspect.'^
Having once recognised that there is a piece of cartilage beyond,
and quite distinct from, the epiphysis at the distal end of the meta-
carpals and metatarsals, there is never any difficulty in making out
the metacarpo-phalangeal and metatarso-phalangeal joints. But in
most cases it is extremely difficult to define the phalanges, more
* The practical absence of a joint between the first and second phalanges is
extremely interesting. Granting that the effects of disuse are not transmitted,
it is all but impossible to account for the gradual reduction of digits generation
after generation, century after century. Anything that throws light on the
'modus operandi of reduction is therefore well worth recording. In man the
little toe is slowdy changing from a three-jointed to a two-jointed toe. This
degeneration has often been ascribed to boot-pressure, and has been again and
again brought forward as an example of the transmission of acquired characters.
The condition of the second and fourth digits in the embryo horse, considered
along with the fusion of the first and second phalanges of a “restored” second
' digit of a foal in my collection, may be held to prove that degeneration of the
digits is, apart from any external influence, accompanied by an arrest in the
formation of the phalangeal joints. External pressure could not, of course, be
a factor in the degenerative process in the case of the horse. Hence the reduc-
tion of a digit may be said to consist not only of an arrest in the growth of the
phalanges but also of an arrest in the formation of the joints between them —
not, as might have been expected, by the disappearance, one after another, of
the phalanges from below upwards. Why this arrest should take place in some
digits and not in others, and proceed at an increasing rate generation after
generation, is, as already indicated, extremely difficult to explain.
1893-94.] Professor Ewart on Digits in the Horse.
189
especially the terminal phalanx. This is due to the fact that the
vestigial fingers and toes are encased (wrapped up like mummies) in
several layers of extremely dense connective tissue. In the 35 cm.
embryo I only succeeded in completely unwrapping the second
digit of the right manus, after prolonged maceration in cedar-wood
oil.* When the investing structures were removed this digit had
the appearance shown in figure II. The terminal phalanx was
■curved inwards, and was almost an exact miniature of the corre-
sponding phalanx in the manus of the polydactylous foal’s foot
already referred to. Even more remarkable than the shape of the
phalanx is the fact that its apex was encased in a small cellular cap
(fig. II. a). This cap, which was easily detached, is difficult to
account for. It may represent the bony cap which I recently found
on the large middle digit of the horse, f or it may correspond to one
or more of the deeper la37-ers of the hoof.
The second digit of the manus is the one most frequently found
in polydactylous horses. This being the case, it is worth noting
that the phalanges of the second digit of the manus in normally
developing horses appear to be always larger and better developed
than those of the fourth, and also that the vestigial digits of the
manus seem to be better developed than those of the pes.
In no instance have I found the second and fourth digits better
developed than in the 35 cm. embryo. In most of the older
embryos examined marked degeneration had already set in.
In some cases, up to within two months of birth, they, though
much larger, closely resembled the digits in the 35 cm. embryo.
In other cases the joint between the second and third phalanges
early disappeared, with the result that each of the second and
fourth fingers and toes were represented by single elongated
pieces of cartilage connected by a fairly well-formed joint to the
npiphysis at the end of their respective metacarpals and metatarsals.
Hence it may be inferred that the second stage in the retrogressive
process consists in the complete disappearance of all indication of a
joint between the first and second phalanges and the all but complete
disappearance of the joint between the second and third phalanges.
I may mention that on removing the investing tissues I noticed what
looked extremely like vestiges of the flexor tendons.
t Ewart, Jour, of Anat. and Phys., January 1894.
190 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh.
The smallest embryo in which all three phalanges were more or
less completely fused was 60 cm. in length. Figure III. represents^
a longitudinal section through the distal portion of the second digit
of the pes. This figure is an extremely important one. I have
considered very anxiously and fully all the possible objections to
my interpretation of the facts established, and, as far as I can see,
the only possible criticism is that the cartilages I look upon as
representing phalanges are only epiphyses. The section figured
fully disposes of this criticism. It shows the ossified distal end of
the shaft (s) of the second metatarsal supporting a cartilaginous
epiphysis (e), which, when examined with a high power, presented
all the characteristic appearances in a typical epiphysis. If this
cartilage (e) is the epiphysis of the metatarsal, the piece of carti-
lage (1) beyond must be something else. The piece of cartilage (1)
cannot be an epiphysis, for an epiphysis is never articulated to
its shaft ; it must, in fact, represent one or more of the phalanges
of the second digit. Convincing proof of this is afforded by the
presence of the joint at the end of the epiphysis. Dr Hepburn,
who has made a special study of joints,* on seeing the specimen
from which the drawing was made, without knowing anything of
its origin, at once stated that it showed an arrested diarthrodial
joint, ^.e., a joint which in an imperfect way resembled the joints
of our fingers and toes. When first dissected there was free move-
ment at the metatarso-phalangeal joint represented in the section,
and when the capsule of the joint at the end of the fourth
metatarsal was opened a droplet of fluid was seen to escape.
That this is possible will be at once evident if the extent of the
cavity of the capsule is taken into account. Hence it may be held
as proved that, up to at least the sixth month of foetal life, the
metacarpo-phalangeal and metatarso-phalangeal joints, though not
w^ell formed, are quite distinct and functional. Figure IV. repre-
sents the fourth digit of the manus in an eight-months’ foetus,
figure Y. the same digit in a nine-months’ foetus, while figure VI.
shows the condition of the second digit one month after birth.
In figure IV. the epiphysis is now much shorter, and the shaft
of the metacarpal (II.) is expanded at its lower end, and there is an
indication of where the terminal phalangeal joint originally existed,
* Journ, of Anaf. and Physiol., vol. xxiii. p. 507.
1893-94.] Professor Ewart on Digits in the Horse. 191
In the specimen represented in figure V. the metacarpo-phalangeal
joint and the capsule Avere Avell developed, and the tip of the digit
(perhaps the relatively small third phalanx) was pointed and
slightly movable. The epiphysis of the metatarsal (II.) was still
cartilaginous. Figure YI. shows the distal end of the now fully-
developed second metacarpal. The distal epiphysis, which is noAV
very short, is ossified and fused to the shaft — only a faint streak
indicating the line of junction. The free end of the epiphysis i&
rounded and completely grasped by the now concave proximal end
of the first phalanx. The cavity of the metacarpo-phalangeal joint
had completely disappeared. I was not a little surprised to find in
the one-month foal a separate terminal phalanx freely movable on
the now greatly altered piece of cartilage representing the first and
second phalanges. The fourth digit of the same manus was smaller
and all the phalanges had completely blended.
To complete the “ buttons,” all that is now necessary is that the
united phalanges should undergo ossification, and afterwards fuse
Avith their respective metacarpals and metatarsals. A fully developed
“ button ” is represented on fig. VII. When the ossification sets in,
hoAV many centres appear, and when the last trace of the presence of
phalanges is obliterated, I have not yet been able to determine, but,,
in all probability, early in the second year the “ buttons” completely
coalesce Avith their “splints.”
Having shoAA'ii that the second and fourth digits make their
appearance during the development of the horse, another link has
been added to the chain of evidence in favour of the horses of to-
day being closely related to the three-toed horses of the Pikermi
and other Miocene deposits, and remotely related to the primitive
polydactylous horse-like forms of the Lower Eocene. It may, in fact,
be said that the last link in the chain of evidence has at last been
forged, and that there is noAv less than ever any escape from the
conclusion that the horse has descended from polydactylous
ancestors. Further, the presence of “rudiments” of the second
and fourth fingers and toes in the embryo may help us in account-
ing for the occasional presence of extra digits in fully-developed
horses.
192 Mr G. A. Berry on Focus of Concavo-Conex Lenses, [sess.
note on the Focus of Concavo-Convex Lenses the
Surfaces of which are of Equal Curvature. By
George A. Berry, M.B., F.B.C.S. Ed.
(Read December 18, 1893.)
The ophthalmic surgeon has frequently to prescribe convex
lenses of less than four inches focus for the correction of the
optical defect in the eye left by removal of the intransparent
crystalline lens in the operation for cataract. Occasionally, too,
equally strong concave lenses are required to correct high degrees
of short sight.
Sometimes it is necessary to ascertain if the optician has ground
a particular lens accurately according to prescription. The readiest
method of doing this is to take a lens of opposite sign to, and same
focus as, that prescribed, and observe whether or not, when the
lenses are placed in contact, they neutralise each other.
In the case of weak lenses (of more than four inches focus), a
practical neutralisation is got when plus and minus glasses of equal
strength are combined. For strong convex lenses, however, a
stronger concave, and consequently for strong concave a weaker
convex lens is required to produce the effect of neutralisation.
The positive effect given by the combination of equally strong
concave and convex lenses is more marked, and therefore appreci-
able with weaker lenses, on putting the concave surface next
the eye, than when the combined lenses are held in the Opposite
way.
The two lenses, plus and minus, of equal strength when held
together so that one surface of each lens are in contact, are equiva-
lent to a lens the two surfaces of which are of equal curvature, but
one convex and the other concave.
The properties of such a lens, inasmuch no doubt as it probably
cannot be put to any use for which other forms of positive lenses
are not more suitable, do not seem to have been studied.
From the accompanying figures it is seen that F, or the distance
1893-94.] Mr G. A. Berry on Focus of Concavo-Conmx Lenses, 193
along the axis (measured from the other surface) at which a ray
parallel to the axis before refraction meets it after refraction, has
the following values according as the ray impinges on the convex
or concave surface first : —
From fig. 1-
F =
Esin
sin{ (« - r). - {r' -i')}
where E is the radius of both surfaces, and i, i' and r, r' the angles
of incidence and refraction at the two surfaces. The relation
between these angles is given by
and
sin?^ =/>tsinr,
sin / = (X sin i" ,
sin i' = sin r — sin {i - r) .
From fig. 2 —
and
VOL. XX.
F =
sin i
E sin r'
sin{(r' -'i')- (i - r)}
= sin r + g sin (^ - r)
)
12/4/94
X
194 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgh. [sess.
For axial rays these general values become respectively
■ {-)
■ (^)
The difference between these two values of the principal focal
distances (measured from the opposite surface) is evidently
2R
fX-l
(For IX — 1-5 the difference is 4R.)
The principal points (as can be shown to be the case in other
ways) must therefore lie to the side of the convex surface at
It
distances respectively of from each surface and separated by
fx-l
a distance = t.
If the principal focus be measured from the principal points, we
It
have to add or subtract from the above values.
fX-l
It then becomes in both cases
which shows that the focus of such a lens increases directly as the
square of the radius of either surface^ and inversely as the thichness.
(y) may be written
1 fxR R
t fX -I ' IX
by which its relation to the formula for refraction at one surface is
shown.
/ 6R2\
(For ju,= 1-5 y becomes F = ) *
The difference between (a) and (/?), or, in other words, the
position of the principal points, accounts for the different degree of
neutralisation produced according as one side or other of a com-
bined convex and concave lens of equal focus is held to the eye.
1893-94.] Mr G. A. Berry on Focus of Concavo-Convex Lenses. 195
0
From the formula (in which /x = 1 *5) we see that by mak-
ing t = 3R, F = 2R.
These measurements have been given to this lens (shown), which
is therefore focussed when in contact with the object looked at if
the convex surface be next the eye, but has to be withdrawn to 4/3
its thickness if looked through in the opposite direction. This is
shown as illustrating, in the most exaggerated manner, the difference
in the focus as measured from each surface.
The great spherical aberration of a lens whose surfaces are of
equal curvature must render it of little or no practical use. Pos-
sibly, under certain conditions, such a lens might be used to
counteract the aberration of a much stronger concave lens.
If two piano-cylindrical lenses (of the kind in general use for the
correction of simple astigmatism) of equal strength and opposite
signs be combined so that their axes coincide while their plane
surfaces are in contact, the result is, of course, a lens having the
effect of a much weaker convex cylinder. Owing to greater
spherical aberration, a cylindrical lens of this kind produces a
greater astigmatic effect than an ordinary piano-cylindrical lens of
the same strength. For instance, by the combination of convex
and concave piano-cylinders of 20 cm. focus and thickness 5 mm.,
the focus according to the above formula is 12 metres. Yet such a
lens causes a greater astigmatic effect than a piano-cylinder of
4 metres focus.
The two concavo-convex cylindrical lenses shown have respec-
tively for each surface a radius of 5 cm. with thickness 7T5 mm.,
and therefore focus 2‘3 metres, and a radius of 10 cm., thickness
4*45 mm., and focus 13 '5 metres.
From recent observations with Javal’s ophthalmometer, it has
been shown that in many cases of corneal astigmatism the degree
of astigmatism at different parts of the cornea is far from being the
same. It seems just possible that in some cases of this kind a
better correction might be got by means of a concavo-convex
cylinder, so that in this direction there might be a practical
application.
196 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Telegraphic Communication by Induction by Means of
Coils. By Charles A. Stevenson, B.Sc., F.R.S.E.,
M.Inst.C.E. (With Two Plates.)
(Read March 19, 1894.)
In 1892, I suggested that communication could he established
between ship and ship by means of coils,* and as a trial of the
system on a large scale has recently been made with the view
of establishing communication between North Unst lighthouse,
situated on Muckle Flugga, and the mainland (fig. 1), thence to
the lighthouse station at Burrafiord, a distance of two miles, a
record of the trials may he of interest to the Society.
The induction of one spiral on another has been long known,
but with a very strong battery current it has been found impossible
to bridge a greater distance than 100 yards,! so that as a means of
practical communication it was impossible. It has also been long
known that communication could he established by means of
parallel wires, and disturbances in wires no less than ten miles
apart had been detected. For many years this system has been
under discussion, and only last month a series of elaborate experi-
ments at Loch Ness has been made by Mr Preece on this parallel
wire system on the most approved methods ; but I trust to be able
to show that the parallel wire system J; must give place to the
method of communicating by coils.
It is evident that if two coils are placed so that their axes are
coincident, their planes being parallel, or if they be placed so
that their planes are in the same plane, they will be in good posi-
tions to expect electric currents sent in one to be apparent by
induction in the other. For a given diameter, and where the
electrical energy is small and the number of turns small, the first
position is best, but where the energy is great and the number of
turns great — in fact, when it is wished to carry the induction to
many times the diameter of the coils — then it will be found that it
is better to let the two coils be in the same plane, as, when the axes
are coincident and the coilsa great distance apart in comparison
with the diameter, the difference of distance from one side of the
* Engineer, vol. Ixxiii. p. 292. t Jour, of Society of Arts, vol. xlii. p. 274.
+ British Ass. Reports, 1886, p. 546 ; 1887, p. 611.
1893-94.] C. A. Stevenson on Telegraphic Communication. 197
coil, say top of primary coil to top and bottom of secondary,
becomes almost a vanishing quantity ; whereas, when the coils are
lying on their side in the same plane, the difference of distance from
back of primary to back of secondary, and from front of primary
to front of secondary, does not fall off so fast, and consequently is
more efficacious. Besides, it becomes impracticable to erect coils
of large diameter with their planes vertical, but it is easy to lay
them on their sides. It is also impracticable to introduce a core in
these large coils, although the effect would thereby be intensified,
and where compactness is necessary a core is advantageous.
A number of experiments were made in the laboratory to dis-
cover the laws of the action of coils on each other, with a view of
calculating the number of wires, the diameter of coils, the number
of amperes, and the resistance of the coils that would be necessary
to communicate with Muckle Flugga, and, after a careful investiga-
tion, it was evident that the gap of 800 yards could, with certainty,
be bridged by a current of one ampere with coils of nine turns of
N’o. 8 iron wire in each coil, the coils being 200 yards in diameter.
Two coils, about 850 yards centre to centre, were erected at
Murrayfield (and I may here thank Mr Gibson, telegraph engineer
of the General Post Office, and his staff, and also Mr Asher of the
National Telephone Company, and Messrs Clement & Francis of
the North British Eailway, for their valuable assistance), one coil
being on the farm of Damhead, and the other on the farm of
Saughton, and as nearly as was possible on a similar scale, and the
coils of similar shape,* as was wished at Muckle Flugga.
On erecting the coils, communication was found impossible, owing
to the induction currents from the lines from Edinburgh to Glasgow,
the messages in these lines being quite easily read, although the
coils were entirely insulated and were not earthed. The phonopore
which the North British Railway Company have on their lines
kept up a nearly constant musical sound, which entirely prevented
observations. On getting the phonopore stopped, it was found that
100 dry cells, with 1*2 ohms resistance each and 1’4 volts, gave good
results, the observations being read with great ease in the secondary
by means of two telephones. The cells were reduced in number
* Shape of coil, circle, square, or rectangle, &c., is not very material, and in
practice must be altered to suit circumstances, as for instance in a ship
(fig. 2).
198
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgli.
[SESS.
down to 15, and messages could still easily be sent, the resistance
of the primary being 24 ohms, and the secondary no less than
260 ohms. If the circuit had been of good iron, with soldered
joints, and well earthed, the resistance should have been only
60 ohms. The induced current therefore generated in the secondary
would therefore be in the ratio of 480 to 210, or with this great
resistance, allowing for the resistance in the two telephones in
multiple, we got practically only half the current we would have
got if the line had been a permanent in place of a temporary one.
A trial was made of the parallel wire system, and with 20 cells
the sound was not heard, and with 100 cells it was heard by me as
a mere scratch in comparison with the sound with the coil system
with 15 cells. A trial was made with a phonopore, and the coils
worked with 10 cells with perfect ease, and a message was received
with only 5 cells. Speech by means of Deckert’s transmitter was
just possible, but it is believed that if the hearing circuit had been
of less resistance it would have been easy to hear.
It is difficult to understand how this system of coils, in opposi-
tion to the parallel wire system, has not been recognised as the best.
For, assume that with the arrangements we had, we heard equally
well with 100 cells by both systems, both having the same base
(200 yards), then by simply doubling the number of turns of wire,
and using thick wire of low resistance, the effect would have been
practically doubled, whereas, by the parallel wire system, there is
nothing for it but to increase the battery power, which, for ^practical
working^ becomes an impossibility. The difficulty of the current is
thus removed by using a number of turns of wire. There is shown
on the following diagram (fig. 3) the result of simply increasing
the diameter with a given length of wire, keeping current and
resistance the same. It shows that the larger the diameter the
better ; in fact, with a given length of wire, a straight one is the
best. But this is not practicable ; what is wanted is to get induction
at a great distance from a certain given base with a small battery
power, and the laboratory experiments and the trials in the field
show that the way to overcome the difficulty of the current is by
using a number of turns of wire The secret of success is to
apportion the resistance of primary and secondary and the number
of turns on each to a practical battery power.
Coil System. — (1) At 850 yards from centre to centre of coils
1893-94.] C. A. Stevenson on Telegraphic Communication. 199
averaging each 200 yards diameter, it was found that, with a
phonopore, messages were sent with 5 dry cells. The resistance
in primary being 30 ohms, and the resistance of secondary 260
ohms, the current being *23 ampere, which, with 9 turns, gives 2
ampere turns. (2) With a file as a make and break it worked
with 10 cells, giving ’4 ampere or 3 ’6 ampere turns.
Parallel Wire System. — (3) With a file as a make and break,
and with parallel lines earthed, it was heard with 100 cells, giving
IT ampere. Fig. 4 shows the variation with number of turns on
one coil, the current and resistance remaining constant.
The calculation of the diameter necessary to hear a given distance
is simple, from the fact that the hearing distance is proportional to
the J of the diameter of one of the coils, or directly as the
diameter of the two coils, so that, with any given number of
amperes and number of turns to hear double the distance requires
double the diameter of coils, or double the number of turns, and
so on. But this is within certain limits, for when the coils are close
to one another the law does not hold.
There is one point which seems to have been cleared up by these
trials, which has even this month been a subject of discussion in
London, and that is, whether or not the parallel wire system is
actuated by induction or conduction, and there is little room for
doubt, from the fact that both circuits were insulated, and was thus
a case of pure induction, that to a large extent it is induction ; in
fact, that they act together, and it will depend how the ends are
earthed, or, in short, what is the distance bridged in comparison to ,
the breadth of base, which predominates. Where the wires are
long in comparison with the distance bridged, conduction will be
the main working factor, but when the base is small, and the
distance bridged is large in comparison, induction will be the main
factor, and the number of turns then increases the effect..
The primary coil was insulated in the Murrayfield trials, as at
Muckle Flugga it must be so, the impracticability of making and
maintaining the sea connections necessitating this, and the secondary
was earthed, as is most convenient at Muckle Flugga. When the
secondary was also made a complete insulated metallic circuit, there
seemed to be little difference in the result.
There is one other point to which reference must be made. Mr
Preece has been repeating the experiments brought before this
200 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
Society on 30th January 1893, and he found, if rightly reported,
that when the hearing wire was floating he got results, hut when
it was allowed to descend that no observations could he got ; he
attributes this to reflection from the surface of the water ; this,
however, is unlikely, as the reason that no sounds were then heard
was that the major part of the wire lay on an equipotential line.
Electro-magnetic waves enter or leave salt water practically unim-
paired, as the following diagram (fig. 5) will show, where A is a
wire suspended 10 feet above salt water and B is a wire sunk in
salt water. On trial, it was found, as stated in my paper read
before this Society in January 1893, that there was no practical
difi“erence in air or salt water to the propagation of electro-magnetic
waves, in or out the distance to which waves went, the distance
to which the currents could be heard being immaterial whether the
detector was sunk or in air.
It has been attempted to be shown that the coil system is not only
theoretically but practically the best. Meantime, my brother has
recommended the Commissioners of l!^’orthern Lighthouses to erect
the coil system at Muckle Flugga, and the Commissioners have
approved, and I hope that we may soon hear of this novel system
of communication being erected at the most northern point of the
British Isles, where the laying down and after-maintenance of a sub-
marine cable is practically impossible. This system is also applicable
to our warships, to assist in their manoeuvring, by the establishment
of instantaneous communication unaffected by wind or weather.
The application of the coil system to communication with light-
vessels is obvious, namely, to moor the vessel in the ordinary way,
and lay out from the shore a cable, and circle the area over ’which
the lightship moorings will permit her to travel by a coil of the cable
the required diameter, which will be twice the length of her chain
cable. On board the vessel there will be another coil of a number of
turns of thick wire. Ten cells on the lightship and ten on the shore
will be sufficient for the installation. The system erected at Kentish
Knock and other light-vessels is expensive in moorings, and is liable
to derangement, and requires special appliances; whereas, by the
coil system there can be no derangement, and the vessel can be
moored in the ordinary way. A call arrangement and telephones
complete the installation.
Vol. XX.
i roc Roy. Soc. Edin.
Mr. C. a. Stevenson on Telegraphic Communication
BY Induction by means of Coils.
A klTCBlE y
Vol. XX.
Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed in.
Mr. C. a. Stevenson on Telegraphic Communication
BY Induction by means of Coils.
V
Q:
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Vol. XX.
|Proc7 Roy. Soc. Edin.
, Mr. Kimura on Electrical Properties of Iron.— plate ii.
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
1893-94.] Prof. Tait on Clerk- MaxivelVs Ec[uations.
213
Note on the Antecedents of Clerk-Maxwell’s Electro-
dynamical-Wave-Equations. By Prof. Tait.
(Read April 2, 1894.)
The first obvious difficulty which presents itself, in trying to
derive Clerk-Maxwell’s equations from those of the elastic-solid
theory, appears in the fact that the latter, being linear, do not
impose any relations among simultaneous disturbances. Thus, for
instance, they indicate no reason for the associated disturbances
which, in Maxwell’s theory, constitute a ray of polarised light.
Hence it appears that we must look on the vectors of electric and
magnetic force, if they are to be accounted for on ordinary dyna-
mical principles, as being necessary concomitants, qualities, or
characteristics of one and the same vector-disturbance of the ether,
and not themselves primarily disturbances. From this point of
view the disturbance, in itself, does not correspond to light, and
may perhaps not affect any of our senses. And the very form of
the elastic equation at once suggests any number of sets of two
concomitants of the desired nature, which are found to be related
to one another in the way required by Maxwell’s equations.
For the moment, as sufficiently illustrating the essential point
of the above remarks, I confine myself to disturbances, in the free
ether, such as do not involve change of volume. The elastic equation
is
e=
with the limiting condition
SV0=O . *
[Had not this condition been imposed, the dynamical equation
would have involved, on the right, the additional term
(a2_Z,2)vSV0.]
* Stokes “On the Dynamical Theory of Diffraction,” Caml. Phil. Trans.,
ix. (1849).
214 Proceedings of Boy al Society of Edinhurgh. [sess.
From any vector satisfying these equations let us derive (by means
of the operators dfdt and a V , which are the only ones occurring
in the equation of motion) the concomitants
€ = ^, ix= — aV 6 j
or e = ^, fJi=-aV6, &c., (kc.
and we have between them Clerk-Maxwell’s equations
€ = aV fjL, /4=— aVc,
with the conditions
SVe = 0, SV/x = 0.
The extension to dielectrics, whether they he isotropic or not, is
obtained at once : — and it secures (in the latter case) all the sim-
plicity which Hamilton’s linear and vector function affords. Thus
the properties of double refraction, wave-surfaces, &c., follow almost
intuitively.
When we come to conducting bodies, we have to introduce
further conditions. But I do not enter on these at present, as the
problem is essentially altered in character. FTor do I, for the
moment, discuss the bearing of the above notions upon the profound
question of the possible nature of electricity and of magnetism.
There is a sort of analogy to the above, in the case of sound.
For it is not the (vector) disturbance of the air which affects the
sense of hearing, hut the (scalar) concomitant change, or rate of
change, of density.
Thus, possibly, the widely different results obtained by observers
of the alteration of plane of polarisation in diffracted light, may all
really he in accordance with Stokes’ splendid investigation : — if we
look upon light as an effect produced by the concomitants of the
ether disturbance, and not directly by the ether disturbance itself.
1893-94,] Dr Munro on Rise and Progress of Anthropology. 215
The Rise and Progress of Anthropology. By Robert
Munro, M.A., M.D. (With a Plate.)
(An Address delivered at the request of the Council, May 7, 1894.)
However far back written records conduct us in an investigation
of the early history of mankind, it can no longer be maintained that
they cover hut a small portion of man’s existence on the globe.
That human racial characters were broadly marked, some 6000 years
ago, has been surmised from an analysis of the ancient wall paintings
of Egypt. Thus, in the tombs of the kings at Thebes are to be
seen, to this day, coloured and highly expressive portraits of the four
principal races who then frequented the Nile valley ; and it is a
remarkable fact that their distinguishing peculiarities, as depicted
in the conventional eye and reddish-brown colour of the Egyptian,
the fair-skinned and blue-eyed Lybian, the aquiline profde of the
Semite, and the thick lip and curly hair of the Negro, are equally
descriptive of their modern representatives. But if, during this
long period, physical changes in these races have been so slight as
to be almost inappreciable at the present time, what, it may be
asked, must have been the duration of mankind in prehistoric times,
whilst these persistent distinctions were being worked out under
the influence of natural laws ? Erom this point of view commem-
orative inscriptions, pictorial paintings, hieroglyphs, traditions, &c.,
lead us scarcely beyond the threshold of the dim vista which is
made to converge in the remote past at a time when the ancestors
of the white-, black-, and red-skinned people were one undivided
stock. Similar deductions have been drawn from a stud}’" of the
elements of speech, growth of culture, religious customs, and other
deep-seated phenomena of human civilisation. Hence it has been
argued that these general considerations alone furnish prima facie
grounds for believing that, long before the rise of the earliest
empires of antiquity, human characteristics had already been
differentiated.
216
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
It was not, however, till a time to which the recollection of
many now living extends that the scattered elements of Anthro-
pology assumed sufficient coherency to he formulated into a science,
and to give expression to a theory of man’s origin more in accord-
ance with observed facts than that which regarded him as the
sudden product of a creative fiat. As time progresses, the scientific
discoveries which gave rise to this important change of opinion are
apt to he forgotten, in the midst of the engrossing social and intel-
lectual problems which are daily springing up in the ever-widening
field of human activity. Let me, therefore, very briefly bring to
your recollection some of the more outstanding features of these
discoveries, and of the intellectual upheaval which so speedily led
to the recognition of Anthropology as an important branch of
human knowledge.
Prior to the publication of Sir Charles Lyell’s work on The
Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, isolated discoveries
were recorded, from time to time, in dilferent parts of Europe, dis-
closing facts which, in the opinion of a few savants, could only he
accounted for by assigning to Man a higher antiquity than was then
the current opinion. These discoveries consisted, for the most part,
of the remains of Man — bones and industrial relics — associated with
the bones of extinct animals, in undisturbed deposits of Quaternary
times. The reception at first given to this class of evidence in
scientific circles may be estimated from the following notes on a
few of the earlier discoveries. It was about the beginning of the
second quarter of this century that Kent’s Cavern, near Torquay,
first became a subject of interest, owing to the researches of the
Eev. J. MacEnery, who asserted that he found in it flint imple-
ments, associated with the bones and teeth of extinct animals, below
a thick continuous sheet of stalagmite. But the legitimate inference
from these facts, viz., that Man was contemporary with these ani-
mals, and lived before the deposition of the stalagmite, had little
chance of being accepted when opposed by the teaching and
authority of so famous a geologist as Dr Buckland, author of the
Reliquim Diluviance and The Bridgewater Treatise on Geology and
Mineralogy.
The facts on which Mr MacEnery based his conclusions were
verified by fresh excavations in the cavern made by Mr Godwin-
1893-94.] T>v Mumo on Rise and Progress of Anthropology. 217
Austen, F.G.S., in 1840, and by a committee appointed by the
Torquay Natural History Society in 1846. Papers embodying
the results of these investigations were read at the Geological
Society of London, and at the meeting of the British Association
for 1847. But, according to Mr Pengelly, the reception accorded
to these researches was not encouraging, and the inconvenient con-
clusions arrived at were given to an apathetic, unbelieving
world.”
Another discovery of a similar character was the Windmill-Hill
Cavern, at Brixham, explored in 1858, under the auspices of a com-
mittee appointed by the Eoyal and Geological Societies of London.
The first paper on the result of this investigation was read by Mr
Pengelly in September 1858, at the meeting of the British Associa-
tion then held at Leeds, in which it was announced that “ eight
flint tools had already been found in various parts of the cavern,
all of them inosculating with bones of mammalia at depths varying
from 9 to 42 inches in the cave-earth, on which lay a sheet of
stalagmite from 3 to 8 inches thick, and having loithin it and on it
relics of the lion, hyena, bear, mammoth, rhinoceros, and rein-
deer.”
This paper, to use the phraseology of Mr Pengelly, produced a
decided “awakening,” besides indirect results of the highest im-
portance.
Nor did analogous discoveries on the Continent fare much better.
In 1829 Dr Schmerling commenced his memorable researches in
the caverns of the province of Liege. The evidence of man’s
antiquity revealed by his investigations consisted of flint imple-
ments, and the actual remains of human skeletons, among which
was the famous Engis skull, associated with the bones of hyena,
lion, rhinoceros, mammoth, reindeer, and cave-bear. This indefa-
tigable explorer published an account of his discoveries in two
splendid volumes, with an atlas of 74 plates (1833-4), in which,
in the most unequivocal language, he contended for the con-
temporaneity of Man with these extinct animals : but, owing
chiefly to the influence of the doctrine taught by the great
naturalist Cuvier, his opinions and arguments did not receive the
attention they merited. Eemains of Man found in caverns were
thus summarily disposed of by Cuvier : — “ On a fait grand bruit, il
218 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
y a quelques mois, de certain fragments humains trouves dans des
cavernes a ossements de nos provinces meridionales, mais il suffit
qu’ils aient ete trouves dans les cavernes pour qu’ils rentrent dans
la regie ” {Discolors sur les revolutions du Globe, p. 89).
The discovery by M. Boucher de Perthes of rude flint implements,
associated with the bones of the mammoth and other extinct
animals, in the ancient gravel beds of the valley of the Somme, at
various levels considerably above the present highest flood-marks
of the river, equally failed to attract scientific attention. An ac-
count of his researches, under the title Antiquites Celtiques et Ante-
diluviennes, was published in 1817, but for upwards of ten years
it lay absolutely unheeded.
Interest in these novel speculations became now greatly enhanced
in consequence of equally important and far-reaching discoveries in
the collateral sciences. The entire borderland of geology and
anthropology was being better understood, especially as regards the
remarkable glacial phenomena of Quaternary times in northern and
western Europe ; and archaeology proper, independently of its new-
born palaeolithic phase, had acquired a wider significance, owing to
the more rigid and scientific methods adopted in its study. The
Scandinavian savants, despairing of being ever able to elucidate the
early history of their country by means of the ancient Sagas and
other traditionary sources, were now subjecting the archaic remains,
so profusely scattered over the country, to the most crucial tests
which scientific ingenuity could devise. All departments of know-
ledge— geology, hydrography, conchology, zoology, botany, and
ethnology — were enlisted in this national work. In this manner,
and with such resources, they examined peat mosses, graves, mega-
lithic monuments, refuse heaps, and, in short, everything that was
likely to throw light on the culture and civilisation of the pre-
historic people of their country. The successive discoveries of
Kqkkenmpddings in Denmark and lake-dwellings in Switzerland,
with the vast and varied wealth of prehistoric materials which
they disclosed, now also began to attract universal attention.
While these problems and numerous side issues were being dis-
cussed, the scientific world was startled in 1859 by the publication
of Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species. In this work the author
advocated, with singular completeness and ability, that the various
1893-94.] Dr Munro on Rise and Progress of Anthropology. 219
species of plants and animals now extant, and being continued by
the ordinary laws of generation, had been derived from pre-existing
forms by secondary causes — a process which he designated under
the name of Natural Selection. The key to this theory is to be
found in the severe struggle for existence which all organisms have
to maintain, not only against their natural enemies, but against
the overcrowding of their own species. The outcome of a contest
under conditions where it is only possible for a limited number to
find the means of subsistence, is the survival of the fittest and the
extinction of the weakest. In this manner Mr Darwin traced the
origin of Man through a series of intermediate forms back to proto-
plasm, without the intervention of repeated cataclysms and special
creative dramas, as was generally held by the earlier geologists.
“ As all the living forms of life,” says Mr Darwin, “ are the lineal
descendants of those which lived long before the Cambrian epoch,
we may feel certain that the ordinary succession of generation has
never once been broken, and that no cataclysm has desolated the
whole world” {Origin of Species, p. 428).
Like all great discoveries, the grandeur of Mr Darwin’s concep-
tion lay in the simplicity and transparency of its truth ; and as a
small particle leavens the mass, so the words “ struggle for exist-
ence” and ‘‘survival of the fittest ’’set the whole philosophical
world into a ferment. Indeed, it is impossible to exaggerate the
profound effect produced on his fellow-men by the doctrine
thus taught by Mr Darwin. Many of the greatest naturalists of
the day at once discarded their former creeds and adopted the evo-
lution theory of life ; and at the present time it may be well asked
who and where are its opponents ? Evolution was then by no means
a new idea, but hitherto no naturalist had formulated a modus
operandi of its laws. Lamarck believed in the development of the
higher animals, but he adduced no evidence in support of his belief
beyond the vaguest hypothesis. On the other hand, Cuvier, who
had the amplest evidence daily before his eyes, was so blinded by
his preconceived notions, that he failed to take advantage of the
strange palaeontological materials among which he worked.
Foremost among the galaxy of eminent men who took part in the
exciting controversies which the “ Origin of Species ” gave rise to
was the celebrated geologist, Sir Charles Lyell, whose work on the
220 Proceedings of Boyal Society of Edinhurgli. [sess.
Antiquity of Man greatly helped to consolidate the doctrines of
Anthropology. In this work the author collected the previously
recorded materials hearing on the early history of Man from all
parts of the world. The effect of its accumulated details was
so overwhelming that there could no longer be any doubt that
the existence of humanity on the globe must he relegated far
back into the Quaternary period. With the general acceptance of
the doctrine of evolution and man’s great antiquity terminates what
may he called the struggling period of Anthropology.
Henceforth a new impetus was given to the study of this science
by the conviction that in the meanest traces of man’s early career
were to be found more important materials for a history of humanity
and civilisation than in all the treasures that could he collected from
the ruins of the greatest empires of the historic world. The wide
morphological gap between Man and the other animals still living
suggested a correspondingly long period for his development, in the
course of which it was expected that some evidence of the stages
through which he had passed might have become stereotyped in the
geological records. Where to find and how to interpret these
records were now the chief problems at issue and to their solution
the savants of all countries braced themselves with an energy that
augured final success. Societies were founded in London, Paris,
and other centres of intellectuality, for the express purpose of fol-
lowing up the new-found trail of humanity ; and to popularise and
disseminate their doctrines, numerous periodicals and special works
were published. In the year 1865, at a special meeting of the
Italian Society of Natural Science held at Spezzia, was founded the
“Congres International d’Anthropologie et d’Archeologie Prehis-
toriques,” the first meeting of which was held in the following year
at Neuchatel. Subsequent meetings have been held at Paris (1867),
London (Norwich, 1868), Copenhagen (1869), Bologna (1871),
Brussels (1872), Stockholm (1874), Buda-Pesth (1876), Lisbon
(1880), Paris (1889), and Moscow (1892). The published proceed-
ings of these congresses contain the most complete records of the
progress of the science, especially as regards Europe. After the
cloud of scepticism which enveloped its early and evolutionary
stages had been swept aside. Anthropology found a footing at the
British Association, at first as a sectional department, but since
1893-94.] Dr Munro on Rise and Progress of Anthropology. 221
1884 it became expedient to devote a special section for the exclu-
sive consideration of its doctrines.
As already remarked, it was the coalescence of the greatly ex-
tended power of deciphering unwritten records with the almost
coincident teaching of Darwin which first enabled the antiquary to
look beyond the horizon of historic vision, and so to discover
materials for a science of Anthropology. So long as it was main-
tained that Man had been ushered on the arena of life specially
equipped, morphologically and teleologically, for the struggle of
existence, there was no room for such a science, as its range would
be necessarily restricted to the operations and modifications of
mankind during the last five or six thousand years — a field already
sufficiently covered by the ordinary historical methods of research.
From the new standpoint. Anthropology has a much wider scope, and
embraces the origin, development, and civilisation of mankind. Its
object is to trace the career of Man through space and time, amidst
the vicissitudes of his ever-changing environments, during the ages
which have elapsed since he first diverged from his quadrupedal
congeners. During this long period there were many influences at
work, all of which have to be carefully noted ; the causes which led
to the physical and mental endowments which gradually trans-
formed him from Animal hrutum to Homo sapiens ; the methods
and processes by which he discovered and utilised the forces of
nature, and constructed a system of civilisation on the principles of
intelligence ; and finally, the means by which he learned to dis-
tinguish between good and evil, in consequence of which he became
a responsible being, and laid the foundations of a science of con-
science and ethics.
To analyse and systematise the evidences on which these momen-
tous issues are based is the special province of Anthropology. What-
ever opinion may be formed as to the adequacy of the argumenta-
tive materials already collected in support of the conclusions arrived
at, one thing is certain, that they cannot be ignored. They are
culled from the widest possible range of mental and physical
phenomena, and are rapidly accumulating. On the present occa-
sion it will be sufiicient for my purpose to take a bird’s-eye view
of them under the following heads : — (1) Ethnology, (2) Language,
(3) Structural relationship of Man with other living Organisms, (4)
222 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Fossil Man, (5) Handicraft Products of Man, (6) and lastly. The
hearing of Geology on the Prehistoric Kemains of Man.
I do not propose to discuss here the amount and respective values
of the materials so classified, hut merely to give a few illustrative
examples of the manner in which they are brought together through
these different channels, and made to fit complementary niches in
the construction of the science of Anthropology.
(1) Ethnology. — In regard to ethnology, it is almost unnecessary
to say anything. The geographical distribution of the various races
of Man, the physical peculiarities of the bodies and features, — the
conformation of the skull, the size and structure of the brain, the
colour of the skin, eyes, and hair, — together with the products of
different civilisations scattered over the globe, are amongst the most
essential elements which enter into this science. At the present
time, indeed, great prominence is given to the collection and assort-
ment of such ethnological materials brought by travellers from all
parts of the world.
(2) Language. — Knowledge may be communicated from one
individual to another by gestures, sounds, pictures, and characters
or letters representing definite ideas, according to a pre-arranged
system ; and it belongs to the science of Anthropology to trace the
growth of all these methods to their primary sources. The value of
language when stereotyped in books and inscribed stones, such as
the hieroglyphic and pictorial monuments of Egypt and the cunei-
form tablets of Assyria and Babylonia, is so apparent that I need
not dwell on this phase of the subject. On the other hand, spoken
language is too transient to be reckoned of much consequence in
determining the racial distinctions of mankind. The geographical
distribution of a language does not always coincide with that of the
people who invented it ; and, indeed, a given speech may altogether
cease to be a living means of intercommunication, while its original
inventors survive and continue to flourish under one borrowed from
a different race. The fact that the Celtic language, which formerly
prevailed over a large area in Western Europe, is now only to be
found in one or two isolated corners, lends no support to the theory
that a similar fate has overtaken the people who first introduced it.
If we look underneath the superficial crust of modern civilisation,
even in the most Saxonised part of England, we find the change of
1893-94.] 'Dr; Mxmxo on Rise and Progress of Anthropology. 223
speech to be in many instances merely a gloss over the more per-
sistent racial characters of a former people. Coelum non animum
mutant, qui trans mare currunt. It is indeed seldom that the most
evanescent peculiarities of a people disappear altogether without
leaving some traces behind them : even the fragments of a vanished
language, when carefully looked for, will be found fossilised in the
names of the outstanding features of the country — its mountains,
valleys, rivers, lochs, forests, rdinates of all kinds. The grandest characteristic of Quaternions is
heir transparent intelligibility. They give the spirit, as it were, leav-
-,ag the mere letter aside, until or unless, it seems necessary to attend.
;0 that also. In this respect they give a representation analogous to
die real image of a planet in the focus of an object-glass or mirror:
— all that is obtainable is ihere^ and you may apply your micro-
scopes and micrometers to it if you please. But, theoretically at
least, you may dispense with them and have recourse to your eyes
and your yard-stick alone, if you increase the focal length, and along
Sv^ith it the aperture, of your object-glass sufficiently. Of course
Newton’s “ most serene and quiet air ” would be indispensable. For
the development of this feature of my subject, and for illustrative
examples, I refer to the B. A. Address above cited; and to the
Address to the Edinburgh University Physical Society, alluded to
by Prof. Cayley.
To those who have read Poe’s celebrated tale. The Purloined
Letter, it will be obvious that the contrast between these two
views of Quaternions is even greater than that between the
Parisian Police and M. Dupin himself, though of very much the
same kind.
There was a time, in their early history, when Professor Cayley’s
view of Quaternions was not merely a correct one, it was the only
possible one. But, though the name has not been altered, the
thing signified has undergone a vital change. To such an extent,
in fact, that we may almost look upon the quaternion of the
latter half of this century as having, from at least one point of
view, but little relation to that of the seven last years of the
earlier half.
Hamilton’s extraordinary Preface to his first great book shows
how from Double Algebras, through Triplets, Triads, and Sets, he
finally reached Quaternions. This was the genesis of the Quatern-
ion of the forties, and the creature then produced is still essentially
the Quaternion of Prof. Cayley. It is a magnificent analytical
279
1893-94.] Prof. Tait on the Quaternion Method.
conception; but it is nothing more than the full development of
tlie system of imaginaries y, h ; defined by the equations
= -1,
with the associative, but not the commutative, law for the factors.
The novel and splendid points in it were the treatment of all direc-
tions in space as essentially alike in character, and the recognition
of the unit vector’s claim to rank also as a quadrantal versor.
These were indeed inventions of the first magnitude, and of vast
importance. And here I thoroughly agree with Prof. Cayley
in his admiration. Considered as an analytical system, based
throughout on pure imaginaries, the Quaternion method is elegant
in the extreme. But, unless it had been also something more,
something very different and much higher in the scale of develop-
ment, I should have been content to admire it : — and to pass it by.
It has always appeared to me that, magnificent as are Hamilton’s
many contributions to mathematical science : — his Fluctuating Func-
tions, and his Varying Action, for instance: — nothing that he (or
indeed any other man) ever did in such matters can be regarded^, as
a higher step in pure reasoning than that which he took when he
raised Quaternions from the comparatively low estate of a mere
system of Imaginaries to the proud position of an Organ of Expres-
sion ; giving simple, comprehensive, and (above all) transparently
intelligible, embodiment to the most complicated of Real geometrical
and physical relations. From the most intensely artificial of systems
arose, as if hy magic, an absolutely nahiral one !
Most unfortunately, alike for himself and for his grand concep-
tion, Hamilton’s nerve failed him in the composition of his first
great Volume. Had he then renounced, for ever, all dealings with
i, j, h, his triumph would have been complete. He spared Agag,
and the best of the sheep, and did not utterly destroy them ! He
had a paternal fondness for i, j, k ; perhaps also a (not unnatural)
liking for a meretricious title such as the mysterious word Quatern-
ion ; and, above all, he had an earnest desire to make the utmost
return in his power for the liberality shown him by the authorities
of Trinity College, Dublin. He had fully recognized, and proved to
others, that his i, j, k were mere excrescences and blots on his
improved method : — but he unfortunately considered that their
280 Froceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
continued (if only partial) recognition Avas indispensable to the
reception of his method by a world steeped in Cartesianism !
Through the whole compass of each of his tremendous volumes
one can find traces of his desire to avoid even an allusion to h ;
and, along with them, his sorrowful conviction that, should he do
so, he would be left without a single reader. There can be little
doubt that, by thus taking a course Avhich he felt to be far beneath
the ideal which he had attained, he secured for Quaternions at
least the temporary attention of mathematicians. But there seems
to me to be just as little doubt that in so doing he led the vast
majority of them to take what is still Professor Cayley’s point of
view j and thus, to regard Quaternions as (apparently at least)
obnoxious to his criticisms. And I further believe that, to this
cause alone, Quaternions owe the scant favour with which they
have hitherto been regarded.
[I am quite aware that, in making such statements, I inferentially
condemn (to some extent, at least) the course followed in my own
book. But, since my relations with Hamilton in the matter have
been alluded to more than once, and alike incompletely and incor-
rectly, by Hamilton’s biographer, I may take this opportunity of
making a slight explanation, not perhaps altogether uncalled for.
That Hamilton can altogether have forgotten the permission (limited
as it was) which he had given me, when, a little later, I proposed
to avail myself of it {strictly within the limits imposed) seems in-
credible. Mr Graves should either have let the matter alone, or have
gone into much greater detail about it. As it stands, he virtually
represents Hamilton as being unaccountably capricious. The fol-
lowing extract from the letter (of date July 10, 1859) in which
Hamilton gave his sanction to my writing a book on the subject,
speaks for itself. I had, of course, no rights in the matter : — and I
cheerfully submitted to the restrictions he imposed on me ; especially
as I understood that he expressly (and most justly) desired to be the
first to give to the world his system in its vastly improved form.
“ [2] If I shall go on to speak of my views, wishes, or feelings, on the
subject of future publication, I request you beforehand to give to any
such expression of mine your most indulgent construction ; and not to
attribute to me any jealousy of you, or any wish to interfere, in any
way, with your freedom, as Author and as Critic.
1893-94.] Prof. Tait on the Quaternion Method.
281
[3.] If we were altogether strangers, I could have no right to address
you on such a subject at all. [Here follow, as an example, some allusions
(which need not he quoted) to a then recent pamphlet of Mobius, dealing
with the Associative Principle in Quaternion Multiplication.] But
between you and me, the case is perhaps not exactly similar ; as we
have so freely corresjDonded, and as you are an Author in the same
language, and of the same country ; — England, Scotland, and Ireland,
being here held to have their sons compatriots.
[4.] To Mobius’s excellent Pamphlet, it is likely that I may return.
Meanwhile I trust that it cannot be offensive to you, if I confess, —
what indeed your No. 38 encourages me to state, — that in any such
future publication on the Quaternions as you do me the honour to
meditate, I should prefer the establishment of ‘ Principles ’ being left, for
some time longer, — say even 2 or 3 years, — in my own hands. Open to im-
jDrovement as my treatment of them confessedly is, I wish that improve-
ment, at least to some extent, to be made and published by myself.
Briefly, I should like (I own it) that no book, so much more attractive to
the mathematical public than any work of mine, as a book of yours is
likely to be, should have the apj)earance of laying a ‘Foundation’ :
although the richer the ‘ Superstructure,’ on a previously laid founda-
tion, may be, the better shall I be pleased. I think, therefore, that you
may be content to deduce the Associative Law, from the rules of -i, j, h ;
leaving it to me to consider and to discuss whether it might not have been
a fatal objection to these rules^ if they had been found to be inconsistent
with that Principle.
[7.] For calculation, you know, the rules of f, j, Jc are a sufficient basis,
although of course we have continual need for transformations, such as
YyYPa = aSfiy - ^Sya,
which may at last be reduced to consequences of those rules ; and also
require some Notation, such as S,V,K,T,U, which I have been glad to
find that you are willing, at least for the present, to retain and to employ.
But my peculiar turn of mind makes me dissatisfied without seeking to
go deeper into the philosophy of the whole subject, although I am
conscious that it will be imprudent to attempt to gain any lengthened
hearing for my reflections. In fact I hope to get much more rapidly on
to rules and operations, in the Manual than in the Lectures ; although
I cannot consent to neglect the occasion of developing more fully my
conception of the Multiplication of Vectors, and of seeking to establish
such mult[iplication] as a much less arbitrary process, than it may seem to
most readers of my former book to be.”
I do not now think that Hamilton, with the “ peculiar turn of
mind ” of which he speaks, could ever, in a hook, have conveyed
282 Proceedings of Royal Society of PJdinliwgh. [sess.
adequately to the world his new conception of the Quaternion. I
got it from him by correspondence, and in conversation. AVhen
he was pressed to answer a definite question, and could he kept to
it, he replied in ready and effective terms, and no man could express
vivd voce his opinions on such subjects more clearly and concisely
than he could : — but he perpetually planed and repolished his
printed work at the risk of attenuating the substance : and he
fatigued and often irritated his readers by constant excursions
into metaphysics. One of his many letters to me gave, in a few
dazzling lines, the whole substance of what afterwards became a
Chapter of the Elements ; and some of his shorter papers in the
Proc. R. I. A. are veritable gems. But these were dashed off at a
sitting, and were not planed and repolished.
Should I be called upon, in the future, to produce a fourth edition
of my book, the Chapter which Prof. Cayley so kindly furnished
for the third edition will probably preserve by far the greater part
of the allusions to i, j, k (except, of course, the necessary intro-
ductory and historical ones) which it will contain.]
In the sense above explained, I consider Prof. Cayley’s remarks to
be so far warranted, hard to bear though some of them undoubtedly
are. But the Quaternion, when it is regarded from the true
point of view^, is seen to be untouched, in fact unassailable, by any
criticism based upon such grounds as reference to co-ordinates. It
occupies a region altogether apart. To compare it to a pocket map
is to regard it as a mere artificial mode of wrapping up and conceal-
ing the ^, j, h or the x, y, z which are supposed to be its ultimate
constituents. To be of any use it must be unfolded, and its neatly
hidden contents turned out. But, from my point of view’’, this
comparison is entirely misleading. The quaternion exists, as a
space-reality, altogether independent of and antecedent to i, j, k or
X, y, z. It is the natural, they the altogether artificial, weapon.
And I venture further to assert (1) that if Descartes, or some of
his brilliant contemporaries, had recognized the quaternion, (and it
is quite conceivable that they might have done so), science would
have then advanced with even more tremendous strides than those
which it has recently taken ; and (2) that the wretch who, under
such conditions, had ventured to introduce i, j, k, would have been
justly regarded as a miscreant of the very basest and most depraved
1893-94.] Prof. Tait on the Quaternion Method.
283
character ; possibly subjected to “ brave punishments,” the peine
forte et dure at the very least ! In a word, Hamilton invented the
Quaternion as Prof. Cayley sees it ; he afterwards discovered the
Quaternion as I see it.
If Quaternions are to be compared to a map, at all, they ought
to be compared to a contoured map or to a model in relief, which
gives not only all the information which can be derived from the
ordinary map but something more : — something of the very highest
importance as regards the features of a country.
A much more natural and adequate comparison would, it seems
to me, liken Co-ordinate Geometry (Quadriplanar or ordinary Car-
tesian) to a steam-hammer, which an expert may employ on any
destructive or constructive w’ork of one general hind, say the crack-
ing of an egg-shell, or the welding of an anchor. But you must
have your expert to manage it, for without him it is useless. He
has to toil amid the heat, smoke, grime, grease, and perpetual din
of the suffocating engine-room. The work has to be brought to the
hammer, for it cannot usually be taken to its work. And it is not
in general, transferable ; for each expert, as a rule, knows, fully and
confidently, the working details of his own weapon only. Quatern-
ions, on the other hand, are like the elephant’s trunk, ready at any
moment for anything, be it to pick up a crumb or a field-gun, to
strangle a tiger, or to uproot a tree. Portable in the extreme,
applicable anywhere : — alike in the trackless jungle and in the
barrack square : — directed by a little native who requires no special
skill or training, and who can be transferred from one elephant to
another without much hesitation. Surely this, which adapts itself
to its work, is the grander instrument ! But then, it is the natural,
the other the artificial, one.
The naturalness of Quaternions is amply proved by what they
have effected on their first application to well-known, long threshed-
out, plane problems, such as seemed particularly ill-adapted to treat-
ment by an essentially space-method. Yet they gave, at a glance,
the kinematical solution (perfectly obvious, no doubt, when found) of
that problem of Permat’s which so terribly worried Viviani ! And,
without them, where would have been even the Circular Hodograph,
with its marvellous power of simplifying the elementary treatment
of a planet’s orbit ? I could give many equally striking instances.
284
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgh. [sess.
As to the necessity, in modern mathematical physics, for some
substitute for what I must (with all deference to Prof. Cayley) call
the cumbersome, unnatural, and unwieldy mechanism of co-ordi-
nates, I have elsewhere fully expressed my own opinion, and
need not repeat it.
Of course it will be obvious from what precedes that I adhere to
every word of the first extract which Professor Cayley has made
from my original Preface.
The phrase which he afterwards extracts for comment : — “ such
elegant trifles as Trilinear Co-ordinates ” : — seems somewhat too
sweeping, and I should certainly hesitate to use it without quali-
fication. But the context shows that, in my Preface^ it was used
to characterize the so-called “Abridged hTotation ” which had then
been for some years introduced into Cambridge reading and
examinations, not at all because of its superiority in completeness
to the ordinary y system : — and therefore not on scientific
grounds: — but mainly for the purpose of “aggravating” students,
whether in the lecture-room or in the Senate House, at very small
additional labour on the part of the lecturer or the examiner. But
I made no reference whatever to Quadriplanar Co-ordinates ; for
which I feel all due respect, not altogether free from an admixture
of wholesome awe !
1893-94.] Prof. Tait on Compression of Ordinary Liquids. 285
On the Application of Van der Waals’ Equation to the
Compression of Ordinary Liquids. By Prof. Tait.
(Read June 4, 1894.)
In a paper, read for me to the Society in January last {ante, p. 245),
I pointed out the difficulties I had met with in trying to reconcile
Van der Waals’ equation with Amagat’s experimental data for
common liquids, and I promised to recur to the question when the
state of my health should permit. I now find that, as I had then
only surmised, the constants in Van der Waals’ equation necessarily
become non-real when we try to adjust it to Amagat’s data.
The proof of this assertion is very simple. Suppose the equation
BT
to hold for any three pairs of values of p and v ; say p and a , q and
h , r and c . Eliminating BT among the three resulting equations,
we have
+ + ^ (g5+^-)-(rc + -)
The values of A are therefore to be found from the quadratic
^ _ %{pq{a -h)) = 0.
Write, for brevity,
-D ^ r\ ^
B =
a - h
so that one at least of P, Q, E is essentially negative, if p, q, r be
all positive. The condition that the values of A shall be real is
{ :S(P(a& -hc-\-ca))Y + 42(PQ(a - &) V) > 0 .
286
Froceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
But it is an obvious theorem of ordinary algebra, that, whatever be
the quantities involved, the two expressions
and
(lx + my + nzY + {xyij - mf + yz((ni - nf + zx(n - Vf)
(x + y + z)(px nd-y + n^z)
are absolutely identical except in form.
Hence the condition for real values of A is simply that
Q + + caf + Q(a5 -^hc- caf + B( - + ca)‘^
shall be positive : — i.e. that its factors shall have the same sign.
To compare with experiment, let us take r = l atm., c = 1 ; and
find the relation between the values of p and q , the pressures when
the volume is reduced to a = 0‘9, and & = 0*95, respectively.
The factors of the above quantity are
0-05 OT 0-05
-^(0-95)2 ■*'2(o-9)2 (0-95)2(0'9)2
, ^ 0-05(0-805)2 0-l(0-906)2 0-05(0'995)2
(0-95)2 +1 (0-9)2 (0-95)2(0-9)2
or, quite approximately enough for our purpose,
-JP + 2-228^ -1*234
and + 2*816g - 1*886 .
In the latter form each has been divided by the (essentially
positive) multiplier of p ; and, as p and q are each of the order
1000 atm., the last terms may usually be disregarded. Thus it
appears that the values of A cannot be real if pjq lie between the
approximate limits 2*23 and 2*82. But from Amagat’s data we
easily calculate the following sufficiently accurate values : —
Ratio of Pressures at 0° C. for Volumes 0*9 and 0*95.
Bisulphide Methylic Ethylic Chloride Propylic
of Carbon. Alcohol. Alcohol. of Ethyl. Alcohol.
Ether.
2*51 2*61 2*65 2*65 2*69 2*71 2*73
[The values of q range from 458 atm. in the case of ether to 1166
atm. in that of water.] All of these ratios lie well within the limits
1893-94.] Prof. TdAt on Compression of Ordinary Liqiiids. 287
of the region in which the constants of Van der Waals’ equation
are non-real ; though they are, as a rule, nearer to the upper than
to the lower limit.
But it is well to inquire what values A assumes at the limits of
this region, when it has just become real. A rough calculation
shows that when^/g = 2'23 we have A= - 18*lg (a tension)', and
for = 2'82 , A = 20^ . Outside these limits A has of course two
values.
It thus appears that Van der Waals’ equation becomes altogether
meaningless except for liquids in which the compressibility alters
very much with increase of pressure : — i.e. for substances which
have just assumed the liquid form under considerable pressure.
For, of course, under the lower limit we are dealing with substances
naturally in a state of tension. As I said in my previous paper,
this state of things is due mainly to the factor with which A
(if taken as corresponding to my II) is affected. There is little
doubt that the II term in my formula does increase as the volume
is diminished, but much more slowly than in the inverse ratio of
the square of the volume.
(Added, 6/6/94.) It may be interesting to look at the above
result from a different point of view, so as to find why it is im-
possible to reconcile the general equation of Yan der Waals with
the experiments of Amagat.
For this purpose let us take jS as independent variable, and
(using the same data as before) find the value of pjq. Eliminating
BT and A, we obtain the equation
from which, at once,
^ - o-)(a - - e‘)(a - - P )
In the further discussion of this equation we may neglect the
last term (which is usually very much smaller than the preceding
term, and becomes infinite for the same values of ^). Its only
288
Proceedings of Royal Society of EdinhurgJi.
noticeable effect is to slightly alter the values of p for which pjq
vanishes. We therefore have, to a quite sufficient approximation,
P
= 2*1712
where the literal factors have been retained in the more important
p
portion. The value of ^ in terms of p is thus seen to be a
numerical multiple of the ratio of the corresponding ordinates of
two equal and similarly situated parabolas, whose vertices do not
1893-94.] Prof. Tait on Compression of Ordinary Liquids. 289
coincide. The first cuts the axis of x at h and cajic + a), the second
at a and hcfh + c), so that the second lies wholly within the first
while y is negative. They intersect in the single point whose
abscissa is abcl{ah-\- hc + ca). These parabolas are shown in the cut
opposite.
The values of yjq are the ordinates of the chief curve. This has
three asymptotes : — two parallel to y, and cutting xat a and bc/(b + c)
respectively; and the third at a constant distance, 2T712, from the
axis of X. Its maximum ordinates are given by the equation
or 0 = (ab -hbe + ca)x^ - 2abc x .
Thus the maximum (at A in the cut) is on the axis of y ; and the
minimum (at P>) corresponds to x = 0‘6321. Their values are 2 ’228
and 2 '8 16 respectively ; and the ordinate of the point of intersection
of the construction-parabolas lies midway hetw^een them.
Thus, since the minimum numerically exceeds the maximum, the
curve has no ordinate intermediate to these values ; and therefore
no selection of real constants can make Yan der Y^aals’ equation
applicable to a liquid in which the pressure, required to reduce its
volume by 10 per cent., exceeds that required for a 5 per cent,
reduction, in any ratio between 2 '2 2 8 and 2 ’8 16.
Moreover, in accordance with what has been said above about the
term A/?;^, it is only while the ratio of pressures exceeds the higher
of these limits that this term represents a pressure, and not a
tension. For the graph of Ajq in terms of /5 is easily seen to be a
rectangular hyperbola whose asymptotes are parallel to the axes ;
cutting X at bcjib -f c), and y at b’^d^fb^ — c^). The curve cuts x at 5,
and so its ordinates are positive from bcjib + c) to &, only.
VOL. XX.
23/7/94.
T
290 Proceeclings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
Note on Magnetic Induction in Nickel Tubes. By
Professor C. G. Knott, D.Sc., and A. Shand, Esq.
(Read June 18, 1894.)
This paper is a continuation of a paper communicated to the
Society in July of last year, the publication of which was withheld
until the whole subject could be treated as one. In the previous
paper we discussed the magnetic induction in Iron and Steel Tubes.
These tubes, and the nickel tubes now under discussion, were con-
structed primarily for the purpose of investigating their changes of
volume under magnetisation but it seemed advisable to study as
many of their magnetic properties as possible.
In the meantime an interesting paper by Professor Grotrian on
“ The Magnetisation of Hollow and Solid Iron Cylinders ” has been
published in Wiedemann’s Annalen (Band 50, 1893). His tubes
were considerably shorter than ours, and had much thinner walls.
Many of the results obtained are, however, very similar. In a
recent paper (Wiedemann’s Ann., Band 51, 1894) Dr H. du Bois
discusses the most important of these results as illustrative of self-
demagnetisation in magnetic bodies whose linear dimension is not
very great compared to their breadth.
This mode of regarding the subject is a very suggestive one, and
seems sufficient as an explanation of the broad result that in weak
fields the magnetic moment of a hollow bar is equal to the magnetic
moment of a solid bar of the same length and breadth. Thus, with
the six iron bars, five of which were hollow, we obtained in a field
of 20 C. G. S. units total magnetic inductions proportional to the
numbers
665, 700, 702, 709, 703, 724,
where the first refers to the tube of widest bore, and so on in order of
diminishing bore to the last, which refers to the solid bar. Similarly
* Ptoc. Boy. Soc. Edin., vol. xix. pp. 85, 249, 1892.
1893-94.] Prof. C. G. Knott and A. Shand on Nickel Tubes. 291
for the steel tubes in the same field we obtained the total inductions
proportional to
590, 604, 570, 605, 593.
In general, then, in low fields, the magnetic inductions in iron or
steel tubes of the same material and external dimensions tend to
equality, being independent of the size of the bore. In other
words, the apparent average permeability in low fields is inversely
as the cross section of the metal.
In very high fields again, the magnetic moments are proportional
to the cross section of the metal, or the apparent average permea-
bilities tend to equality.
These few results are here introduced to facilitate a comparison
with the results for nickel.
In our experiments four nickel bars were used, three of which
were hollow. All were of the same length (47 cm.) and the same
external diameter (4*2 cm.). The internal diameters and the areas
of section of the metal were as follows : —
Tube.
Diameter of Bore in cm.
Area of Section of
Metal in cm.^.
I. .
2-543
8-776
11. .
1-586
11-879
III. .
0-692
13-478
IV. .
0
13-854
Ko. I. nickel corresponds fairly well, as regards its various
relative dimensions, with No. II. of Iron or Steel; and No. III.
nickel corresponds with No. V. of Iron or Steel. The tubes were
all cut from the same original bar of rolled nickel ; and the solid
cylinder (No. IV.) from another bar rolled from the same original
casting.*
In high fields, the result obtained with the nickel is the same as
* The long bars were supplied to order by Henry Wiggin & Co., Birming-
ham, and the tubes were turned and bored by Aitken & Allan, Edinburgh.
292 Proceedings of Eoyal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
in the case of the iron and steel, the apparent average permeabilities
being equal, — above 16 in a field of 585 C. G. S. units.
In low fields, the results obtained with the nickel tubes do not
quite agree with those obtained with the iron and steel. There are
indications, however, that somewhat similar conditions are fulfilled,
as the following numbers may serve to show ; —
Induction in Low Fields.
Field.
Tube I.
Tube II.
Tube III.
Tube lY.
4
85
113*6
103*6
7
179
234
229
207
22
850
935
1050
1043
30
1210
1340
1490
1486
585
4600
6000
6900
6920
Thus, in sufficiently low fields, Ho. III. has a distinctly greater
induction than Ho. lY., and Ho. II. than Ho. III. ; hut there is no
indication of Ho. I. similarly exceeding Ho. II. The tendency
seems to he in the other direction ; for the induction in Ho. I. is
proportionately smaller than that in Ho. II., the lower the field.
There are several reasons why the explanatioii mentioned above
should fail to apply to the case of the nickel.
The mathematical theory of magnetic induction is based upon
certain assumptions which are approximately realised when iron
and steel are subjected to small magnetising forces. Thus, in iron
tubes, the residual magnetism is barely appreciable in low fields,
and the magnetisation is proportional to the magnetising force.
Hence the relation given by theory is fairly applicable, namely.
1 =
Ic
l+hP
H,
where I is the magnetisation, H the field, 7c the susceptibility, and P
the “ demagnetising factor,” as Du Bois terms it — a quantity whose
value depends on the form of the body. Its value can be calcu-
1893-94.] Prof. C. G. Knott and A. Shand on JSfidkd Tubes. 293
lated for the ellipsoid, and is
7T in the case of the sphere.
O
It
vanishes for very elongated bodies, like wires. In such cases, when
P is negligible, the ratio l/H measures the susceptibility.
When, however, the magnetised body is not very elongated, the
value of P becomes appreciable ] and Lord Rayleigh has shown
how, by a simple graphic construction, we can pass from the
magnetisation curve of a long thin wire to that of an oblate spheroid
of any eccentricity. Kow, the susceptibility of iron in vanishingly
low fields has a value of about 30 or 40. Hence, in bars whose length
is not more than 12 times the breadth, the ratio I/H is a measure
rather of l/P than of k. Por this condition of things we have
approximately
PI = H.
If a is the area of section of the metal of the tube or bar, the
magnetic moment is
Ia = H^*
But this is practically the same for all the tubes ; consequently
the demagnetising factor is proportional to the area of section of the
metal.
If we try to apply the same reasoning to the case of the nickel
tubes, we are met by two difficulties. In the first place, there is a
considerable residual magnetism even in the lowest fields — as much
as 52 per cent, in field 4. [This residual magnetism has a well-
marked maximum — 66 per cent, in the tube of widest bore — in a
field of 25 or 30, just a little lower than the field for which I/H
has a maximum value (Wiedemann’s Wendepunkt).'] Then, in the
second place, the susceptibility of nickel in vanishingly low fields is
probably not greater than 5 or 6. Thus we cannot hope to find the
relation
I-
k
1+kT
H
even approximately applicable; and still less can we regard the
ratio I/H as measuring the reciprocal of the demagnetising factor.
Experimentally there is a further source of discrepancy in the
results ; for it is very difficult to get nickel (which has once been
294 Proceedings of Boyal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
magnetised) into a magnetically “ neutral ” condition by the process
of reversals.
Eowland gives 17'6 as the maximum value for A;, the true suscep-
tibility. The apparent maximum susceptibilities for the four nickel
bars were found as follows : —
A;' = 6-6, 5-4, 5*2, 5T .
Assuming the relation It yl*P) , we get
and find for the four corresponding values of P the numbers
P=‘095, -128, T35, T39 .
The areas of section of the metal are in the ratios of the numbers
‘095, -127, T45, T49 .
To satisfy the law that the demagnetising factor is proportional to
the cross-section, these corresponding numbers should be in the
same ratio, each to each. The first two pairs are in accord ; and
so are the third and fourth pairs. But otherwise there is an
obvious discrepancy. Nevertheless, when we consider the numerous
probable sources of discrepancy between theory (admittedly approxi-
mate) and experiment, it is matter rather of surprise that there
should be any concordance.
1893-94.] Prof. Knott and A. Shand on Magnetic Strains. 295
Note on the Volume Changes which accompany Mag-
netisation in Nickel Tubes. By Professor C. G,
Knott, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., and A. Shand, Esq.
(Read July 2, 1894.)
In the note which recorded the first observation of the volume
effects of magnetisation,* the nickel tube experimented with was
formed by rolling up a sheet of ordinary commercial nickel to the
convenient size.
We are now able to record the preliminary results obtained with
the nickel tubes described in the preceding Note on Magnetic
Induction. Broadly speaking, the behaviour of the nickel resembles
the behaviour of certain of the Iron Tubes as described in previous
communications, f
The volume changes were measured in exactly the same way as
formerly described, namely, by the motion of the liquid meniscus
in a capillary tube which passed through the stopper of the metal
tube, and was in continuous communication with its interior. The
decrease of volume in the tube of widest bore (No. I.), when the
field was 600 and the corresponding average magnetisation 700, was
so large that it had to be measured with the naked eye. The
meniscus moved outwards through a distance of 3 centimetres,
which corresponded to a volume change of 2*4 cubic millimetres.
This, with a total internal volume of 224*47 cubic centimetres, gives
a dilatation of fully - 10~b With the tube of intermediate bore
(No. II.) the volume change in the same field was *63 cubic milli-
metres, corresponding to a dilatation of a little less than - 10“^
Finally, with the tube of narrowest bore (No. III.) the volume
change in field 600 was *42 cubic millimetres, giving a dilatation of
- 2*3 X 10~®. These values are all considerably greater than the
* “On the Effect of Longitudinal Magnetisation on the Interior Yolume of
Iron and Nickel Tubes. By Professor C. G. Knott {Proc. Roy. Soc. Eclin.,
vol. xviii., 1891).
t Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xix. pp. 85, 2'49, 1892; see also Brit. Ass.
Reports (Edinburgh Meeting), 1892.
296 Proceedings of Eoyal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
values obtained with the iron tubes under similar conditions (see
voL xix. p. 251).
The following table shows the more striking features of the
volume changes of the three nickel tubes in various fields. Under
each heading of field is a column containing the corresponding
cubical dilatations for the three tubes. The volume changes can be
easily calculated by multiplying the dilatations by the volumes of
bore, which are given in the second column : —
Table of Cubical Dilatations x lOh
'rul)e.
Volume
c.c.
10
15
1
35
Field.
62 1 102
150
200
400
1 600
I.
224-47
-0-5
0
+ 0-8
0
-9
-24
-47
-67
- 98
-110
II.
87-58
...
-0-7
0
+ 1
0
-10
-35
-53
- 79
- 87
III.
17-88
+ 1-0
+ 2-5
+ 9
0
-36
-84
-207
-236
In the following table a direct comparison is made between the
dilatations and the average intensities of magnetisation in the metal
of the tubes. For in all probability it is the magnetisation rather
than the magnetising force that is essentially involved. _ The
magnetisations were obtained directly from the experiments de-
scribed in the preceding Note on the Magnetic Induction in Nickel
Tubes (p. 277) : —
Cubical Dilatations x lOh
Tube.
50 1
80 1
' 150 1
Intensity of Magnetisation.
230 1 300 1 340 | 410
1 500
600
1 700
I.
- -3
0
+ 0-8
0
-3-5
-7
-14
-27
- 55
-110
II.
- -7
0
+ 1
+ 1
0
- 4-5
-19
- 48
- 87
III.
+ 2
+ 7-5
+ 9
+ 7-5
0
-32
-125
-236
From these tables certain broad conclusions may at once be
drawn.
1893-94.] Prof. Knott and A. Shand on Magnetic Strains. 297
1. In high fields and with high magnetisations there is decrease
of volume in the interior of all three tubes ; hut, below a certain
moderate field, the dilatation is positive. The field and magnetisa-
tion at which this change of sign occurs are highest for the tube of
thickest wall (III.) and lowest for the tube of thinnest wall (I.).
2. With Tubes I. and II. the dilatation is, however, negative
in still lower fields ; and the field and magnetisation at which this
other change of sign occurs are higher for the tube of thicker
wall (II.). Down to the lowest field in which a measurable change
of volume for Tube III. was obtained, there was no evidence of
a negative dilatation. But, as this lowest field was only 21 ’4
(whereas it was possible to measure changes of volume in Tube I.
in as low a field as 4*7), it is impossible to say anything definite
regarding the behaviour of Tube III. in very low fields.
3. The connection that is here indicated between the thickness
of the wall and the field in which the dilatation changes sign, hints
at a penetration of effect through the walls as the field increases in
strength.
4. It is curious to note that the dilatations in the tube of inter-
mediate bore are, as a rule, numerically smaller than the correspond-
ing dilatations in the tube of widest bore, and yet the tube of
narrowest bore gives by far the greatest values for the same quantity.
This is not what our experience with the iron tubes would have led
us to expect.
Prom experiments on different specimens of nickel strips and
wires, Mr Bidwell * found for the elongations in field 600 the values
-lOTxlO-’^ and - 240 x lO’h Assuming that our nickel tubes
have similar elongations, we might calculate the elongations trans-
verse to the lines of magnetisation. But such a calculation, though
plausible enough in the case of the very thin- walled tube discussed
in the earliest paper of 1891, is clearly quite out of the question here.
In all probability the elongations of tolerably thick bars and tubes
will differ materially from the elongations of wires and thin strips.
* See his Paper “On the Changes Produced by Magnetisation, &c.,” Phil.
Trans., vol. clxxix., 1888, A, pp. 205-230.
298
Froceedings of Royal Society of Eclinhurgh.
Note on Professor Cayley’s Proof that a Triangle and
its Reciprocal are in Perspective. By Thomas Muir,
LL.D.
(Read April 4, 1892.)
The vertices of the original triangle being
(tti , , y^) , {a^ , ^2 5 72) 5 ’ /^3 5 73) 5
the conic being
^2 ^2 ^ ^2 _ 0 ,
and Aj , ,
C
1 5 •
A =
. . . being defined by the nine equations
L%lL,
I “'1^273 !
involved in the single matrical equation
«1
/3i
7i
-1
A:
A.
^3
«2
A
72
=
Bs
«3
A
73
Cl
c.
C3
the equations of the lines joining the corresponding angles of the
two triangles are found to be
(Bi7i - + (Ciai-Aiyi)y + - \a^)z = 0^
(^272 ~ ^2^2)^ “t (C2ct2 — Asf^t^y + (A2/32 — '^2^2)^ ~ ^ r
(^373 ~ d- (Cgu^ - A^y^y + (Ag^3 — Bgag);^ = 0^ ;
and what is required, of course, is to show that these lines must
meet in a point ; i.e., that
^i7i - - ^i7i ^1^1 -
^272 “ ^2(^2 ^2^2 ~ -^272 -^2(^2 ~ ®2^2 “ ^ *
^373 ~ ^3^3 ^3®''3 ~ “^373 “^3/^3 ~ ^3®3
Professor Cayley effects this by a transformation of the elements
of the determinant, and then by developing at length the deter-
minant so found.*
Portunately this tedious process is quite unnecessary, as the sum
* See Quarterly Journal of Math., i. pp. 7-10, or Collected Math. Papers,
iii. pp. 5-7.
Dr Muir on a Triangle and its Reciprocal. 299
of the elements in each column is manifestly zero. In fact we may
say that 1)7/ definition
+ B2tt2 + Bgttg = 0 , RiPi + A2^2 + ^3^3 == ^ 5 ^l7l + ^272 + ^
+ C2tt2 + Cgttg = 0 , + Q>2^2 ■!“ ^3/^3 ~ ^ ’ ^l7l ^272 ^373 ~ ^ ’
or, more fully, that
Aj A2 A3
«i Pi 7i
1 0 0
Bi B2 Bg
^2 P2 72
=
0 1 0
Cl C2 C3
®3 /^3 73
0 0 1
300 Proceedings of Royal Society of RdinhurgJi.
A Problem of Sylvester’s in Elimination.
By Thomas Muir, LL.D.
(Eead April 4, 1892.)
1. The problem in question with its solution appeared in the
Cambridge Mathematical Journal, vol. ii. pp. 232-236, being given
by Sylvester to show how his recently discovered “dialytic” method
might be applied to ternary quadratics. The given equations are
Ay^-2C'xij + -Bx^ = 0\
Bz2 - 2A!yz 4- = 0 > (a)
Cx^^-^^'zx +Az^ = 0) ;
and Sylvester’s solution consists in deducing from them three other
equations
Cz^ + Cxy - A!zx - B'y^ = 0
A'x‘^ + Ayz - 'Exy - Czx = 0 V (^8)
B'y2 + ^zx - Cyz - A!xy = 0 j ^
and then eliminating x^, y^, z^, yz, zx, xy ; the result being
. c
B
-2A'
•
c .
A
-2B'
B A
-2C'
A' .
A
-C'
-B'
. B'
.
-C'
B
-A'
C'
-B'
-A'
C
This determinant on being expanded, not without considerable
trouble, is found to be equal to
2(ABC + 2A'B'C' - AA'2 - BB'2 - CC'2)2
2
A C' B'
C' B A'
B' A' C
2
Dr Muir on ProUem of Sylvester's in Elimination. 301
so that the desired resultant comes out finally in the simple form
the determinant in which ( A , say) is nothing more nor less than
the discriminant of the quadric
2. It is impossible to note a result like this without the imme-
diate uprise, in one’s mind, of two questions, viz., (1) Is there no
simpler way of obtaining the eliminant by means of the dialytic
method ? (2) How comes the given problem to be connected with
present short paper is to contribute towards the answering of these
questions.
3. As regards the first of them, it is clear at the outset that if
we are to avoid a determinant of high order, like Sylvester’s, we
must not retain in the same equation terms in £cy, yz, or zx along
with terms in y^, or but must aim at obtaining a set of equations
involving only one of these two triads. How, as Sylvester’s derived
set of equations may be got from the original set by looking upon
A, E, C as the unknowns in the latter and solving accordingly, it is
suggested to us to write the given equations in the form
and, as it were, solve for z^. This procedure leads to the
equations
A C' E'
C' E A' =0,
E' A' C
Asx? -1- Ey2 + Cz^ 4- 2A'yz + 2~B'zx -i- 2C'xy .
the finding of the discriminant of a quadric? The object of the
This set (y) resembles Sylvester’s ; and, we may note in passing,
from the two taken together we have the resultant
302 Proceedings of Poyal Society of Edinhurgh.
BC
.
AA'
-BB'
-CC'
.
CA .
- AA'
BB'
-CC'
. AB
-AA'
-BB'
CC'
A'
A
-C'
-B'
B'
-C'
B
-A'
.
C'
-B'
-A'
C
where, of course, the determinant is no simpler than Sylvester’s.
That it leads to the same result is easily made clear by first multi-
plying the 4th, 5 th, and 6th rows by BC, CA, AB respectively,
and then dividing the first three columns by BC, CA, AB respec-
tively. We thus obtain
1
ABCx
A'
thence
ABCx
1 . .
. 1 .
. . 1
A'
-B'
-C'
. -A'
B'
-C'
1 -A'
-B'
C'
BC
-CC'
-BB'
. -CC'
CA
-AA'
C' -BB'
-AA'
AB
A'
-B'
-C'
-A'
B'
-C'
-A'
-B'
C'
BC - A'2
A'B' -CC'
C'A' - BB'
A'B' -CC'
CA - B'2
B'C' - AA'
C'A" -BB'
B'C' -AA'
AB -C'2
and finally
ABC
A C' B' 2
C' B A'
B' A' C
4. It is of importance to notice that since any one of the equations
(y) may also be got from the equations of the original set (a) by
mere addition or subtraction of multiples, e.g.^
7i = i( - + Aa^ - Btt3),*
* Of course there are similar operational equations for the obtaining of
and 73, because any one of the original equations is derivable from another of
Dr Muir on ProUem of Sylvester’s in Elimination. 303
the dialytic method cannot he applied to the six equations (a) and
(y). In fact, these sets must, for dialytic purposes, be looked on as
identical.
5. But now taking (/?), and eliminating xy, yz^ zx by means of
(ttj), (a2), (ttg), we obtain
A'C(A'C'-BBV + B'C(B'C' - AA')y2 + C'(AA'2- 2A'B'C' + BB'2)22 =
Similarly
A'(BB'2-2A'B'C' + CC'V + B'A(B'A' - CC'y + C'A(C'A' - BB')s2
and
A'B(A'B' - CC')x2 + B'(CC'2-2A'B'C' + AA'%2 + C'B(C'B' - AA>2
From these we have
C(A'C' - BB') C(B'C' - AA') AA'2 - 2 A'B'C' + BB'^
BB'2 - 2A'B'C' + CC'2 A(B'A' - CD) A(0'A' - BB')
B(A'B' - CD) CC'2 - 2 A'B'C' + AA'2 b(C'B' - A A')
or, multiplying the columns by A, B, C, and dividing the rows by
C, A, B respectively,
A(A'D - BB') B(B'C' - AA') AA'2 _ 2A'B'C' + BB'2
BB'2 - 2A'B'D + CC'2 B(B'A' - CD) C(DA' - BB')
A(A'B' - CC') CC'2 - 2A'B'C' + AA'2 c(c'B' - AA')
ithe determinant in which is equal to
C'2-AB
AA' - B'C'
BB' - C'A'
B'
A'
BB'-C'A'
CC'-A'B'
A'2 - BC
X
C'
A'
AA' - B'C'
B'2 - AC
CC'-A'B'
C'
B'
that is.
A2
X ( - 2A'B'C') .
6. Next, taking {(B-^ and (yg), and eliminating we obtain a
set of equations involving only yz, zx, xy, viz.,
them by changing the letters in accordance with the indications of the cycles
O'
—a mode of derivation that naturally applies to the equations of every other
set likewise.
304 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh.
A(BB'-A'C>;2 + B(AA'-B'C>z + - K^)xy 0 \
A(A'2-BC)?/^ + B(CC' - B'A>^z; + C(BB' - C'A>y = 0 I (e)
A(CC'-A'BV + B(B'2-CA>a; + C(AA' - C'B>?/ = 0 j
the resultant of which is immediately seen to he
ABC . A2 = 0.
7. Again, taking the same two equations viz. (yg), and now
eliminating xy, we obtain an equation involving xz^ yz, z^ — that is
to say, involving the simple unknowns x, y^ z, tlie full set being
(BB'-A'C> + (AA'-B'C')y + (C'^ -AB)^ =0*^
(A'2 -BC) a: + (CC'-B'A')y + (BB' - C'A> = 0 I (^).
(CC'-A'B> + (B'2 -CA)2/ + (AA'-C'B> = 0 j
Here the resultant is in a still simpler form, viz ,
A2 = 0.
8. We have thus arrived at the resultant in three different ways
by means of a determinant of the third order, viz.,
in § 5, where the unknowns are x^, z^ ;
in § 6, where the unknowns are yz, zx, xy \
and in § 7, where the unknowns are x^ y, z .
There are other ways, however ] and though none of them is any
simpler than that of the preceding paragraph, it is nevertheless
interesting to see them, especially when they are brought into
comparison with those already obtained.
Thus, taking (^j), (^2)5 eliminating x^ and z‘^ from (ag), we
have.
A(CC' - A!^')yz + (2A'B'C' - AA'^ - CCy.x + C(AA' - B'C')xy = 0
A(BB' - CA:)yz + B(AA' - B'C' )zx + (2 A'B'C' - BB'2 - KM‘^)xy = 0
(2A'B'C' - CC'2 - BB'2)y^ + B(CC' - A'B>x + C(BB' - C'A>y = 0
where it would be easy to show that the resultant takes the form
2A'B'C'*A2 = 0;
indeed the determinant here and the determinant of § 5 are trans-
formable into one another by changing rows into columns. It is
much more important, however, having now got two sets of equations
in yz^ zx, xy, to compare the one with the other. Doing so, we find
Dr Muir on Prohlem of Sylvester’s in Elimination. 305
that any equation of the one set, say, differs from an equation
in the other set, (eg) say, in only one term. Consequently, by sub-
traction there results
(2 A'E'C' - AA'2 - CC'2 - EB'2 -f ABQ)zx = 0 ,
whence A = 0 .
Here, for the first time, A does not appear in the second poiuer.
9. Leaving now the subject of the modes of obtaining the elimi-
nant, let us see how the given problem comes to be connected with
the finding of the discriminant of a quadric.
Taking the quadric
Ax" -f Bif 4- Cz? -f 2A'yz -t- 2^'zx -t- 2Cxy ,
let us suppose it resolvable into real factors, viz.,
a-^x -h B{y + and a^x + + y^. ;
then the coefficients of the three expressions are connected by the
six relations
^iy2'h ^27i ~ >
^l/?2 — L , yi®2 d" y2®’l “ j
yiy2=C, ai^2 + a2^] = 2C'.
Substituting in the last three the values of a.2,p2j72 obtainable
from the first three, we have
CP,^+By,^==2A'P,yA
Ayi2+ Cai2=-2E'yiai >
Ba,^ + Ap,^ = 2G\p,) ^
which are exactly the three equations of Sylvester’s problem.
VOL. XX. 10/11/94
u
306 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
Note on Dr Muir’s Paper, “A Problem of Sylvester’s in
Elimination.” By Professor Cayley.
(Received November 6, 1894.)
I in part reproduce this very interesting paper for the sake of a re-
mark which appears to me important, I write (a, h, c^f, g, h) in place
of Muir’s (A, B, C, A', B', C'), and take as usual (A, B, C, F, G, H)
and K to denote (he - /^, ca — ab — Jd, gli - a/, hf - bg, fg - ch)
and the discriminant abc - af^ - bg"^ - eld + 2/^/l
I then write
U = - 2fyz + cy'^ , P = fx^ 4- ayz - hzx - gxy , L = hex^ + afyz - hgzx - dixy ,
Y = cx^ - 2gzx + , Q = gy‘^ - hyz + hzx - fxy , M = cay" - afyz + hgzx - dixy ,
AV = ay‘^ - 21ixy + hy^^ , R = lid - gyz - fzx 4- cxy , N = ahd - afyz - hgzx 4- dixy .
The equations U = 0, V = 0, W = 0, imply P = 0, Q = 0, R = 0,
hut observe that P, Q, R are not the sums of mere numerical
multiples of U, V, W ; we in fact have identically
2y;sP = - -b y‘^Y -b W ,
^zxq= -y^^Y + z^W ,
Ixy'R — x‘^\J + yW - z'^W .
If then U = 0, V = 0, W = 0, we have also P = 0, Q = 0, R = 0,
and we can from the six equations dialytically eliminate x‘^, y‘^, z%
yz, zx, xy^ thus obtaining a result, Determinant = 0, which is = 0 ;
this is in fact Sylvester’s process for the elimination.
But L, M, N are sums of mere numerical multiples of U, V, AV,
viz., we have
2L= -aU + Z^V-bcAY,
2AI= aU~?>Y + cAY,
2N= aU + iV-cW,
so that the original equations U = 0, V = 0, AA^ = 0 are equivalent to
and may be replaced by L = 0, AI = 0, N = 0.
Muir shows that we have identically
l.-fV =x(Ax + Hy + (Sz),
M - p-Q = y(^^x -b By + F^) ,
N - 7iR = z((jx -b Fy -b Cz) ,
1894-95.] Prof. Cayley on Dr Muir's Pamper on Elimination. 307
where observe that the first of these equations is
(>2 - ayz){hz^ - 2,fyz + c^/) \
- (/?/2 - byz)(cx^ - 2gzx + az^) > = 2xyz(Ax + Hy + G^)
- )
and similarly for the second and third equations.
He thence infers that the elimination may be performed by elimi-
nating X, y, z from the equations
Ax -p Hy -p G;^ = 0
Hx -p By + ¥z = 0
G:r -P Fy -P C;s = 0
viz., that the result is
A, H,
H, B,
G, F,
G
F
C
= 0, that is K2 = Q as before.
The natural inference is that K being =0, the three linear
equations in (x, y, z) are equivalent to two equations giving for the
ratios x: y :z rational values which should satisfy the original
equations U = 0, V = 0, W = 0: the fact is that there are no such
values, but that K being = 0, the three equations are equivalent to
a single equation : for observe that combining for instance the first
and second equations, these will be equivalent to each other if only
~ = ^ = that is, AB-H2 = 0, GH-AF = 0, HF-BG = 0,
which are cK = 0, /K = 0, yK = 0, all satisfied by K = 0 ; and simi-
larly for the first and third, and the second and third equations.
It will be remembered that the true form of the result is' not
K = 0 but K2 == 0^ and this seems to be an indication that the three
equations should be, as they have been found to be, equivalent to
a single equation.
The problem may be further illustrated as follows : instead of
the original equations U = 0, V = 0, W = 0, consider the like
equations with the inverse coefficients (A, B, C, F, G, H), viz..
B;^2 _2Fy;^ +Cy2 = 0,
C;^;2 ^2Gzx +Az‘^==0,
Ay2 - 2H.x'y -p B^2 = q ,
308 Proceedings of Boyal Society of Edinhurgh. [sess,
so that the result of the elimination should be
(ABC - AF2 - BG2 - CH2 + 2FGH)2 = 0 .
Here considering in connection with the triangle x = 0, y = 0y z = 0
(say the vertices hereof are the points A, B, C), the conic
(a, A c,f g, hfx, y, z)^ = 0
the first equation represents the pair of tangents from the point A
to the conic, the second the pair of tangents from the point B to
the conic, and the third the pair of tangents from the point C to
the conic. The first and second pairs of tangents intersect in four
points, and if one of the third pair of tangents passes through one
of the four points, then it is at once seen that the conic must touch
one of the sides x = 0, y = 0, z = 0 of the triangle, viz., we must
have hc-f^ — 0, ca-g‘^== 0, or ab - Jd = 0. But we have a — BC - F^,
&c., or writing = ABC - AF^ - BG^ - CH^ + 2FGH, then these
equations are A = 0, K^B = 0, K;^C = 0, all satisfied by = 0.
We may regard Kj = 0 as the condition in order that the conic
(a, h, c, f g, h){x, y, zf — 0 may be a point-pair : the analytical
reason for this is not clear, but we see at once that if the conic be
a point-pair, then the three pairs of tangents are the lines drawn
from the points A, B, C respectively to the two points of the point-
pair, so that the three pairs of tangents have in common these two
points. Regarding = 0 as the condition in order to the existence
of a single common point, and recollecting that the true result of
the elimination is = 0, the form perhaps indicates what we have
just seen is the case, that there are in fact two common points of
intersection : but at any rate the foregoing geometrical considera-
tions lead to Ki = 0, as the condition for the coexistence of the
three equations.
I remark in conclusion that I do not know that there is any
general theory of the case where a result of elimination presents
itself in the form q, as distinguished from the ordinary form
fi = 0.
1893-94.] Mr Gregg Wilson on Reproditction of Edible Crab. 309
The Reproduction of the Edible Crab {Cancer pagurus). By
Gregg Wilson, M.A., B.Sc., IN'atural History Laboratory,
University of Edinburgh. Communicated by Professor J. C.
Ewart, M.D., F.R.S.
(Read March 19, 1894.)
During the last two winters I have had considerable opportunity
of making observations on the reproduction of the edible crabs of
the Northumberland coast ; and though my results are still incom-
plete, and some of them, as, for instance, those relating to the
size of sexually mature crabs, are chiefly of local importance, I
think the meagreness of past work on the subject, and its practical
importance in connection with fishery legislation, justify me in
publishing some account of what I have seen. I reserve for a
subsequent paper many details, the full significance of which it is
impossible to understand without further observation.
Male and female crabs can very readily be distinguished from
one another. As they lie back upwards, the well-arched or
“rounded” shell of the females is enough to enable fishermen
to separate them from the flatter males ; and even the size of the
great claws in relation to the length of the shell is, I have observed,
a sufficient characteristic : in the male the circumference of the
claws is greater than the length of the cephalo-thorax, while in the
female it is considerably less.*
* In a few crabs taken at random the measurements were as follows : —
Breadth.
Length.
Right Claw.
Left Claw.
Male .
6 in.
3f in.
4J in.
4f in.
5| „
3| „
44 „
44 „
n * •
s.
3| „
4 „
3| „
Female
8 „
4 „
44 „
>}
71 „
H „
4 (almost)
4 jj
6| „
^2 >>
3§ in.
3| „
3 J • •
„
2f »
34 „
310 Proceedings of Boyal Society of Edinhurgh, [sess.
Then the view of the ventral surface makes the sex equally
plain : the female has a broad up-tucked abdomen or “ flap/'"
margined with long hairs, and bearing on the side next the body
four pairs of modified, biramous, hairy appendages ; the male
exhibits a much narrower and more pointed flap, that bears twO'
pairs of hard, channelled styliform appendages, which are adapted
for the transmission of milt, just as those of the female are suitable
for giving attachment to the spawn. Under the flap, too, opposite
the third pair of walking-legs, the female has two large and very
distinct apertures, through which the roe is extruded ; the male has
its genital apertures at the ends of soft funnel-shaped processes
from the basal joints of the fifth pair of walking-legs.
But if the sex is easily determined, the same cannot be said of
the periods of sexual activity. The females, after spawning, carry
their ova under the flap for several months ; and so fishermen at
certain places find the “ berried crab ” during a great part of the
year, and conclude that the spawning occurs at any season. On
the other hand, at some places it is a rare thing to find a crab in
berry, and a chance occurrence leads to a generalisation as to the-
spawning- time, with the result that, in such districts, almost any
month in the year may be stated as the time of spawning.
I have proceeded to settle the matter by examining the repro-
ductive organs of large numbers of crabs, and by keeping crabs
in “bullies,” or crab-stores, and in boxes.
Following the first method, I ascertained that, towards the end
of the year — in the last two or three months — and in January, the-
female crabs that were caught might be sorted into two lots : those
that had recently cast, and were not preparing to spawn soon, and
those that had not recently cast, and had well-developed ovaries..
A third class exists at the time, namely, those that have recently
spawned ; but these conceal themselves so well, that I only
obtained specimens from my bullies.
The soft crabs or recent casters have pale ovaries, that show
no development of ova to the naked eye ; the hard crabs have
brilliant orange or scarlet ovaries, with ova distinctly visible, and
often, because of their softness, seeming larger under the microscope
than the tenser extruded ova taken from under a crab’s flap.
The catch, then, from October to February, so far as it consists
1893-94.] Mr Gregg Wilson on Reproduction of Edible Crab. 311
of mature female crabs, — and they form a very large proportion at
that time, — is made up of caster crabs, which are worthless for
trade purposes, and spawning crabs, which, of course, are specially
valuable for the up-keep of the species, and might well be protected
by law wherever there is evidence of a decline in the fishery.
What, from a scientific point of view, is equally worthy of note,
is that it seems as if the spawning took place only every second year
of the crab’s life. As the casters have undeveloped roes in the
autumn, it is not likely that they are prepared to spawn till late
in the following year ; and, on the other hand, the crabs that are
hard and prepared to spawn in autumn probably carry their ova
through a considerable part of the next year, and appear as casters
with undeveloped roes in the following autumn.
At no time have I found ova undergoing segmentation within a
crab ; and the old idea, that fertilisation is internal, must be
abandoned. F. Buckland and Spencer Walpole say in their
“Report on the Crab and Lobster Fisheries” (1877): “The
crab carries its ova during the early period of pregnancy inside
its shell.” Milt undoubtedly is passed by the male crabs into
the body of the females ; but it does not affect the roe before
extrusion. It is received in flask-shaped receptacula seminis, that
open off the oviducts quite near the genital apertures. They
are well-valved, and seem to retain the motionless spermatozoa for
long periods.
The ripe male is found in all the months in which I have
examined crabs. There is a popular belief that milting takes
place when the females have newly cast; and the idea is
founded on the well-established fact that, when the females are
casting in the rock-holes along our coasts, they are commonly
watched over by hard males. But it is noteworthy that the
sentry is sometimes an unripe male ; and sometimes a female is
found guarding a soft male. These instances, taken together with
the fact that males are found fully ripe long after casting is over,
lead me to doubt the accepted view. I have noticed, too, that
while I have carried a male and female shorewards from one of
their rocky holes, the hard claws of the male have very readily
passed through the soft casing of the caster ; and it has occurred
to me that such damage would almost necessarily result to the
312 Proceedings of Boyal Society of Edinhurgh. [sess.
female, if impregnation were to be effected immediately after
exuviation.
A point that, I think, has hitherto escaped notice is that the
sperms that are found in the vasa deferentia of the male crab are
never free, but always in packets, which may be either globular or
elongated and bolster-like. Usually I have found the milt contained
in the receptacula seminis of females to consist of a paste of free
sperms.
From crabs kept in confinement I have learned nothing as to
the milting process ; but several facts as to the time and mode of
spawning have been established. In the middle of December 1891
a Cresswell fisherman found that eight out of about thirty crabs
that had been left in his crab-store for nearly a month had become
berried since he put them in. In lllovember 1892 another Cress-
well man put forty or fifty crabs into a hully ; and after a few days,
on taking them out, he found that two of them had new spawn on
them. In December of the same year I myself put a number of
crabs into a hully, and on the 16th of January 1893 I found that
one of them had been berried for some time, and another was in
the act of spawning. Lying on its back, with the flap well raised,
it had a pool of spawn between its walking legs, and into this it
plunged, time after time, the endopodites of the anterior abdominal
appendages, which were then moved to and fro, so as to distribute
a share of the semi-fluid mass to the other abdominal appendages.
A considerable quantity of the extruded spawn lay on the floor of
the hully, and was washed away by the next tide.
Again, on last Christmas day, four of a number of crabs that were
being kept for me at Beadnell were found to have become berried.
I have not been able to ascertain how long the berries are carried
by the mother crab. Various attempts have been made to keep the
crabs that have become berried in confinement, but have failed;
and as the conditions were far from natural, this is not surprising :
one could not expect successful hatching in hullies that were dry
for two or three hours every tide. In June of last year, and again
in August, the ova of some crabs that had been found in spawn
some time previously hatched out.
Little is known about the habits of the berried crabs. That they
do not feed much is made probable by the small number that are
1893-94.] M]’ Gregg Wilson on Reproduction of Edible Crab. 313
taken in the creaves ; and one case that has been brought to my
notice suggests that perhaps they bury themselves under sand for a
time : one was found well covered with sand in a pitcher that was
brought up on a fisherman’s line from a sandy bottom at Holy
Island. It is not till May that they are got in considerable num-
bers, even at the parts of the coast where they are most abundant ;
so it would appear that it is only when the time for the hatching
out of the spawn comes near that they begin to feed at all freely.
They are almost invariably found on sand ; and the fact that they
are got congregated in certain districts indicates that there is
migration * connected with either the spawning act or the hatching
out of the ova.
A matter of as great importance, from an economic point of view,
as the determination of the spawning time, is to ascertain the size
of maturity. At present crabs that are under inches are pro-
tected by law, and in the English Channel this is sufficient to
ensure that all will reach the spawning size. In the North, how-
ever, it is otherwise : I have only comparatively rarely seen a
mature female crab smaller than 6 inches, and usually 6J inches is
the adult size. This conclusion, which is based on an examination
of many ovaries, is confirmed by the general experience of the
Northumberland fishermen, many of whom say they have never
seen a berried crab less than 7 inches across, though a fishery
officer was able to give me a shell measuring only inches, as
belonging to the smallest berried crab he had ever seen.f There is
* The whole subject of the migration of crabs has been much discussed :
they are, in fact, fished offshore in the early months of the year, and inshore
later on ; but it is constantly urged that this is no proof of seasonal migration,
and that a storm in summer is enough to stir up crabs well offshore, while in
winter the inshore crabs may be buried. But a Beadnell man has got some
definite results of labelling experiments for me : two crabs out of twelve that
were marked and liberated at the shore in December 1892 were recovered in
1893, — one in March, 1| miles out ; the other in April, fully 3 miles from the
coast. Another, labelled in December, and put into the sea 2 miles out, was
recovered in July close to the beach.
t To illustrate my method, I give an abstract of my notes on twenty-
two hard (selected) female crabs that were examined on 5th October : —
Of 4 from 5§ inches to 6 inches all were immature.
Of 8
Of 10
I 4 were immature.
1 4 were mature and ripe,
all were mature and ripe.
7
314 Proceedings of Boy al Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
serious danger of the destruction of the crab fishery at some parts
of our coast, owing to the number that are allowed to breed being
inadequate to keep up the species.
Males are mature when much smaller. Most of those above 41-
inches that I have examined have been ripe ; and several smaller
than inches have proved to be adults. But even males, it seems
to me, might with advantage be protected till they reach a higher
limit than the legal 4 J inches ; for the low price brought by the
small crabs is not the equivalent of the probable gain if they are
returned to the sea. In one case a male of 4| inches measured
inches immediately after casting.
1892-93.] Dr J. Gibson on Composition of Sea- Water. 315
On the Chemical Composition of Sea-Water.
By John Gibson, Ph.D.
(Read July 3, 1893.)
The question as to the perfect uniformity or otherwise of the
chemical composition of sea-water is one of great difficulty and
complexity. It is quite certain that, broadly speaking, great
differences do not exist, so that a conclusion can only be arrived
at by the application of methods of analysis of great refinement,
and then only if the limits of experimental error inherent in these
methods be satisfactorily determined.
Thus the late Prof. Dittmar, when discussing the results of the
analytical work in his “ Challenger ” Eeports (vol. i. p. 26), makes the
following statement : — “ When we compare the percentages of the
several components with the respective means, we frequently meet
with differences which lie decidedly beyond the probable limits of
the analytical error ; hence the variations must be owing partly to
natural causes. Unfortunately, whatever these causes may be, they
must in their effect on the numbers be presumed to be, to a certain
extent, of the nature of observational errors, and to this extent
they are in our reports inseparably entangled with the analytical
errors.”
The fact is that direc chemical analysis, meaning thereby the
quantitative determination of the several constituents of sea-
water, has hardly reached that degree of perfection which is
requisite. Moreover, the labour involved in making one full
analysis of sea-water is very great, and a satisfactory conclusion
would require a very large number of such analyses to be carried
out with every refinement. As this is beyond our reach, it becomes
a matter of great importance to arrive at some method whereby the
existence of slight differences in chemical composition may be
indicated and recorded in such a manner as to admit of comparison
with each other, even though the method does not give us directly
a perfectly full and clear knowledge of the nature of the differ-
ences which it indicates, but only their cumulative effect. I have
316 Proceedings of Boyal Society of Edinhurgh. [sess
described and applied a method of this nature, which consists simply
in the determination of a certain ratio which is necessarily a constant,
if the assumption be made that there is no appreciable difference
in the chemical composition of sea-water in different localities.
This ratio, following the example of Dittmar, I have denoted
D. Dittmar uses this letter to denote a ratio which varies with the
temperature, though it is constant for any given temperature.
Thus he puts
jy 4S.-4W,
Where
48^ = The specific gravity of sea-water at the temperature t referred
to pure water at 4° C. as standard.
W^ = The specific gravity of water at the temperature t referred to
water at 4° C. as standard.
\ = The total halogen, calculated as chlorine, per kilo, of sea-water.
Dittmar determined the value of D for a mixture of “ Challenger ”
sea- water samples at a number of different temperatures, and showed
that with these mixtures the values of D for different temperatures
when calculated by an equation D = a + ht + ct^ were in very close
approximation to those found experimentally.
He came to the conclusion that for a given temperature the ex-
cess of the specific gravity of sea-water over that of pure water is
proportional to is obvious that if the assumption thus made
be correct for all sea-waters, we may in every case calculate x from
the known density or the density from a known x- ^’or
and
A-,W, = Dx.
Dittmar determined x experimentally, by a special modification
of Yolhard’s method, in 315 of the “Challenger” samples, and
compared these with the theoretical values calculated from
Buchanan’s observed specific gravities by means of the formula
“ D
The differences x ~X i^etween the theoretical values and those
actually found are given in Table I. column 9 of his Eeport. It
1892-93.] Dr J. Gibson on Gom'position of Sea- Water. 317
must be noted that in calculating Dittmar added on 0"04
(water = 1000) to Buchanan’s specific gravities in order to undo the
correction to vacuo which these contain, and so bring the results
into accord with his experimental conditions. These differences, as
they stand in Dittmar’s Report, greatly exceed the limits of the
experimental errors to which Buchanan and Dittmar respectively
admit their methods to be liable. Buchanan estimates the experi-
mental error in his determination at not more than ’05 (water at
4° C. = 1000). This corresponds to ± *035 in x “X? and Dittmar
calculates his errors in his determinations of \ at certainly not more
than ± 0'03. Errors, therefore, of ± 0*065 might reasonably be
expected. ISTow excluding, as Dittmar did, some five or six alto-
gether abnormal values for x' - x> these differences ranging
from -1- 0*245 to - 0*231. Errors of -f- 0*100 and upwards occurring
frequently, while errors of -0*100 are of so very frequent occur-
rence as to strike the eye at once on a cursory inspection of the
table. Dittmar calculates that a constant correction of - 0*042
should be applied to these differences (x' — x) they stand in his
Report, and formulates the net result of his inquiry by putting
X ~ X~ ~ 0*042 + S ,
“ where S is a variable quantity, of which the chances are even that
it is less or greater than 0*06, and about 8 against 2 that it is less than
0*12.” Very unfortunately Dittmar, for some reason or other, did
not determine experimentally the density of those waters in which
he determined x- Having failed to trace any connection between
geographical distribution and the slight differences in chemical
composition which he observed in the case of 77 “Challenger”
samples, which he subjected to a full analysis, and having come
to the conclusion that such differences, if any, were negligable,
it is perhaps not to be wondered at that this task was not under-
taken. One thing Dittmar actually did was to make an invalu-
able investigation into the thermal expansion of sea-water, which
made it possible to reduce the specific gravity determinations
made by Mr J. Y. Buchanan to a common standard temperature.
The standard temperature adopted was 15*56° C. or 60° F.
Some years ago, at a meeting of this Society, I gave it as my
opinion that these difierences (x - x) by Dittmar should not
318 Proceedings of Eoyal Society of Edinhurgh. [sess.
be attributed merely to experimental errors, but in great measure
to actual differences in the relative proportions of the saline con-
stituents in the various samples, and stated further that certain
oceanic areas appeared to be characterised by positive or negative
values for these differences.
At that time, however, I was misled by a most unfortunate
error of calculation in certain of my determinations of and
was under the impression that differences similar to those of the
“Challenger” samples could frequently be traced in samples collected
near our own shores. This not only led me into certain erroneous
speculations regarding the conditions obtaining in the North Sea,
but prevented me from perceiving the full bearing of my results on
the questions raised by the “Challenger” Eeport.
It would serve no useful purpose to enter into a detailed
explanation of the somewhat extraordinary circumstances which
combined to prevent me from detecting an error for which, after
all is said and done, I am responsible.
I confine myself to stating that in those cases where in
my Reports* samples of North Sea or Arctic water appear as
giving values for D = 1 ’47, or thereabout, a constant correction of
-fO '00447, applied to the logarithms of the values x? will bring
these cases into perfect agreement with the others. This does not
apply to the samples collected in the Cattegat, the Sound, the
Baltic, and the Norwegian fiords. The high values (D) for these
samples remain unaffected, and are to be explained by their con-
taining salts derived from the land, as stated in my Report.
The value T4556 for D, which I gave as characteristic of the
Atlantic water round our shores, has recently been confirmed by
Mr H. N. Dickson in a very able paper, to which I shall have
occasion to refer again.
As used by me, D has a more restricted significance than that
given to it by Dittmar. It is defined by putting
P oSq-IOOO^
X
where qSq = density of sea- water at 0° C. referred to that of pure
water at the same temperature, x = total halogen calculated as
chlorine per kilo, of sea-water.
* Seventh Animal Report of the Fishery Board for Scotland (1888), p. 409.
1892-93.] Dr J. Gibson on Composition of Sea- Water, 319
The values for were determined by direct weighings of
portions of the different sea-waters measured at 0° C. in a modified
form of Sprengel tube, and then dividing the weights thus found by
the weights of equal volumes of distilled water measured also at
0° C. in the same Sprengel tube.
All the weighings were fully corrected for the displaced air, the
density of which was calculated from observations of the tempera-
tures at the time of weighing, of the barometric height and of the
wet and dry bulb thermometer.
The determinations of ^ were made by Dittmar’s modification
of Yolhard’s method, exactly in the manner described by Dittmar
in his “ Challenger ” Eeport.
The degree of accuracy of which this method is capable may be
gathered from the following summary of my corrected results : —
In 122 samples of sea-water obtained from the Moray Firth, the
Pentland Firth, the North Sea, and including seven surface-samples
from high northern latitudes (62° Klat. to 79° N.lat.), the following
values for the ratio
oSq-IOOO
X
= D were obtained : —
Mean of 122 determinations, . . . 1’4563
Maximum ,, ... 1*4585
Minimum ,, ... 1*4535
This corresponds to a range of differences of from -f 0*024 to
-0*042, according as we compare the effect of the mean value for
D with the effect of the maximum or minimum values respectively
in calculating from the density.
The first and most obvious bearing which this result has is, that
whatever explanation may be given of the magnitude of the differ-
ences X - y in the “ Challenger ” Report, they cannot possibly be due
to the method used by Dittmar in his determinations of x- This
becomes the more clear when we remember that the values
which Dittmar gives for x are, generally speaking, the mean of
two determinations, whereas mine are derived from single deter-
minations.
If then they are due to experimental errors, we must attribute
them almost entirely to Buchanan’s specific gravity determinations.
There is, however, another possible explanation. These differences
320 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
might be due to alterations in the chemical composition of a number
of the samples combined with the effect of evaporation, due to
imperfect stoppering on others. Such an explanation would have
the effect of invalidating, to a great extent, the labours of these
eminent observers, but I am glad to say that it appears to me
that this apprehension is unfounded.
Dittmar’s estimate of the constant hydrometer error is based upon
the assumption that his estimate of the value for D was applicable
to all the samples which he examined. It must, however, be
remembered that he determined this value for D not in a number of
different samples, but in a mixture made from a number of different
samples. Obviously if the value for D varied appreciably in samples
from different localities, the result of his experimental determinations
of the value for D would depend upon the selection which he made.
Although there is, unfortunately, little or no information available on
this point. I am pretty certain that his value was distinctly too high
for many of the samples which he examined, and very much too low
for others. Be this as it may, his method of reasoning undoubtedly
led him to underestimate the importance of one part of his work.
He made a direct experimental comparison between the results of
his plunger method for the determination of specific gravity and
those obtained by Buchanan’s hydrometer method, and in making
this comparison he used the identical hydrometer with which
Buchanan worked on .board the “ Challenger.” Hov/, Mr H.
Dickson has recently stated, in the paper to which I have already
referred, that he found a constant difference between the values
for qSq as determined by my method and those obtained by using
a “ Challenger” hydrometer, and reducing the observed value 48^ to
qSq by means of Dittmar’s tables — the use of which tables he more-
over shows introduces no appreciable error. Further, as Mr Dickson
points out, the amount of this constant difference was identical with
that observed by Dittmar in comparing his plunger method with
Buchanan’s hydrometer method.
Thus the result of direct experimental comparison between
Buchanan’s hydrometer method and two gravimetric methods,
differing greatly from each other, was that Buchanan’s hydrometers
gave, in the case of waters having a density approximating to
1028, a result which is too low by 0-12.
1892-93.] Dr J. Gibson on Composition of Sea- Water.
321
Mr Dickson further showed that the difference observed by him
varied with the density, being zero for observations made in pure
water. To the value for this difference he gave the form
a = -0042 („So-l).
Mr Dickson’s observations were made with waters collected in
the English Channel having values for near 1028. By applying
to the results obtained with the particular hydrometer which he
employed, when reduced to qSq, a constant correction of +0*12, and
using these corrected results along with chlorine determination
made by the Volhard-Dittmar method, he obtained values for D
agreeing very closely indeed with those obtained by me.
His lowest value for D out of 42 determinations being 1*449 and
his highest 1*458; the probable value for D in two sets of observa-
tions being 1*4548 and 1*4554 respectively.
A consideration of the bearing of these several investigations
led me to attempt a recalculation of the values for \~X ^
number of typical cases taken from the “ Challenger ” Reports,
using Dittmar’s values for the chlorine per kilo., Buchanan’s
specific gravities (48^5.53) reduced by Dittmar’s tables to qSq
plus Dickson’s correction of -f0*12 and my value for D, viz.
1*4560. In almost every case the result was a correction of the
values for \ “ X given in Dittmar’s Report, Table I., of approxi-
mately-f 0*100.
This correction altogether alters the apparent significance of these
values. The large number of samples which in Dittmar’s Report
are associated with values for x “X? ranging from, say, - *180 to
- *030, give, after applying this correction, values for f according
Avithin reasonable limits with the values for x determined experi-
mentally by Dittmar. On the other hand, those samples with values
from zero to -h 0*245 in Dittmar’s Report all show a difference be-
tween the calculated and the experimental result which distinctly,
and, indeed, in many cases very greatly, exceeds the limits of ob-
servational error. I have also recalculated the values for D in a
number of typical cases with the result that a large proportion of
the “ Challenger ” samples give values for D approximating closely
to that found to be characteristic of the sea-water derived from the
Atlantic Ocean between 50° and 80° N. lat.
18/3/95
VOL. XX.
X
322 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhergli. [sess.
On the other hand, about one-third of the samples give values
for D above 1*464, and ranging up to 1*483, while only some twelve
or fifteen samples give values for D falling below 1 *449. To put
the matter in another light : In the case of more than two-thirds
of the 315 “Challenger” samples with which Dittmar made deter-
minations of Xi there is to all appearance an entire absence of
grounds for suspecting either that Buchanan’s specific gravity deter-
minations were inaccurate, or that appreciable evaporation or
chemical change had taken place during the years which elapsed
between their collection and their examination by Dittmar.
With regard to the remaining samples, we have no choice between
assuming either an inaccuracy in the specific gravity determinations
or some chemical change occurring between the time of their collec-
tion and their examination by Dittmar, or, finally, that they were
originally of appreciably different chemical composition.
This latter assumption appears to me to have by far the greatest
probability on experimental grounds alone, but this probability is
increased when we consider the case in the light of a critical
examination of the results of Dittmar’s full analyses of 77 of the
“ Challenger ” samples of sea-water and in connection with geo-
graphical and with vertical distribution. The full discussion of this
side of the question I must reserve for a future communication, when
I have completed all the necessary calculations, and have had time
to consider each case separately. I have, however, made rough
diagrammatic representations of the distribution of the “Challenger ”
waters giving normal and abnormal values for D and f ~ X*
charts used for this purpose, showing the course of H.M.S. “ Chal-
lenger,” were kindly given to me by Dr John Murray. These
I lay before the meeting.
1894-95.] Dr Muir on the Adjugate Determinant.
323
On a Theorem regarding the Difference between any
Two Terms of the Adjugate Determinant. By
Thomas Muir, LL.D.
(Read December 3, 1894.) '
1. If we take the set of equations
a^j?M + a^zw + agryw + a^xyz = 0
\yzw + + h^xyiu + h^iyz = 0
e^yzw + e^zw + c^xyw + e^yz = 0
d^yzw + d^xzio + d^xyw + d^yz -• 0 J ^
the eliminant of which is
\a^h^e^d^,
and from the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd eliminate xyw and xyz, from the
2nd, 3rd, and 4th eliminate xyz and yzio^ from the 3rd, 4th, and 1st
eliminate yziu and xzw, and from the 4th, 1st, and 2nd eliminate
xzw and xyw, we obtain the set
1^1 ^3 1^2 ^3 ^4!^ ~ ^ 1
\b^e^d^\z + \b^e^d^\y = 0
\cgi-^a^io + \c^d-^^a^z = 0
\d^a^h^x + \d^a2b^w = 0 J ,
the eliminant of which is clearly
1^2^3^4H^3^4^lH^4^1^2l’l ^1^2^31 I ^1^3^4H ^2^4^1 H%^1^2H ^4^2^31 ’
We are thus led to conclude that the first form of the eliminant is
a factor of the second.
The attempt to prove this, and the investigation of the form of
the quotient, have brought to light a new theorem in determinants,
which promises to he of some considerable importance.
2. The theorem is to the effect that the difference between any
two terms of the adtjugate determinant is divisible by the original
determinant.
Taking, for shortness’ sake, the determinant of the 5th order
\af)^c^d^e^\ or A
IA1B2C3D4EK!,
with its adjugate
324
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
let us first establish a few simple cases, in order that the
principle at the basis of the demonstration may become familiar,
and the law of formation of the quotient come gradually into
evidence. ^
The simplest of all cases is where the two terms differ in only
two of the elements, — for example, the terms A^B2C3D^E5 and
A1B2C3D5E4. Here it is evident that
A1B2C3D4E5 — AJB2C3D5E4 = A3^B2C3*1D^E5|.
But ID4E5I, as a minor of the adjugate and of the 2nd order, is
equal to A multiplied by the complementary minor of the corre-
sponding minor in the original determinant. Hence
Next, taking the case where three of the elements differ, we
have
^1^2^3^4^5 ~ ^1^2^4^5^3 ~ -^1^2^3^4^5 “ ^1^2^3^5®4
-f AJB2C3D5E4 — Aj^B2C4Df^E3 ,
= A,B2C3-|D,E,| - AiB2D,.1C3EJ,
= { Aj^B2C3*ja]^&2'^3l - AjB2D5-| aj&2^5l} ■ ^ •
And now, as if quite generally, let us take the terms A5BJC4D3E2
' and A2B4C1D5E3. Directing our attention to the interchanges
which must take place between indices of the former in order to
transform it into the latter, we see that the intermediate stages of
transformation may be
A2B4C4D3E3.
Affixing each of these, first with the negative sign and then with the
positive sign, to the difference in question, we have
A5B1C4D3E, - A2B4CiD5E3= A5B1C4D3E0 - A5B4C4D3E2
+ A5B4C1D3E0 - A2 B4C4D3E5
-I- A2B4C4D3E5 - A2B4C4D5E3,
= AgD3E3 -| B4C4 I - B4CJD3 -I AgEg) + A2B4C1 •) D3Eg ),
= I A5T)3E2* I 1 — B4C4D3' ) | + A2B4C4’ | , A .
1894-95.] Dr Muir on the Acljugate Determinant. 325
3. Of course a different series of interchanges of indices may be
taken to effect the transformation of A5BJC4D3E2 into A2B4C4D5E3 ;
and, if so, a different form of the cofactor of A will be obtained.
For example, we may interchange the indices of A and E, the
indices of B and C, and then the indices of D and E, the inter-
mediate terms thus being
A2B4C4D3E3,
A2B4C4D3E3.
This will give us
A5B1C4D3E0 - AoB4CiD3E3= A3B1C4D3E2 - A2B1C4D3E,
+ A2B4C4D3E5 — A2B4C4D3Eg
+ A2B4C].D3Eg — A2B4C]DgE3 ,
= - B4C4D3-I A2Eg 1 -1- A2D3Eg-l B4C4 1 -f A2B4Ci-| D3Eg ( ,
= { - BjC4l)3‘j + A2D3Eg*j ^2^365 1 + A2B4Cj‘| «4&2^4 I } ‘ A
The two results are not at variance, for the difference between
them is
- I -^2^5 I 1 ^1^4 I ’
i.e., D3 • { — 1*1 h^egd^ |* A -|- | h-^c^d^ j*l a^d^e^ 1'
f.e., 0.
4. To obtain the result in any given case it is not necessary to go
through the whole process of proof. The cofactor may be written
down with ease as soon as the so-called “ intermediate terms ” have
been ascertained. Thus, if the cofactor of A in AJB2C3D4E3
- A3B4C2D3Ej be wanted, we write down the given terms with the
“ intermediate terms ” placed in order between them — viz.,
A1B2C3D4E3,
A5B4C3D2E1 ,
“^5^4^2^3^1 ’
and ask ourselves what factor is common to every consecutive two.
The answer being B2C3D4 , A5C3Ej , A^B^E^ , the required cofactor
is seen to be
^2^3^4*1 ^2^3'^4 1 "b "^5^3®1*1 1 -^5^4^1*1 '^1^4% i >
326
Proceedings of Royal Soeiety of Edinburgh. [sess.
the minus sign in the last term being due to the fact that the last
of the three common factors occurs first along with CgDg instead
of C2D3.
5. In the case where the original determinant is of the 3rd order,
the cofactor takes a peculiar form which is worth noting. For
example, by the theorem we have
~ ” ^1^1 ~ -^2^2} * ^ *
But
— — ^2^2 ~ ~ 1^2^31 “■ ^2 1^1^31 ’
= - ^^1«2^3 + ^1^3^2 - ^2^1^'3 + «^2^3^1 ?
= af>2^i ~ •
And so in other cases : Consequently, in the case of determinants of
the ?>rd order, the difference of any two terms of the adjugate is
divisible by the original determinant, the quotient being the difference
of the corresponding terms of the original determinant.
6. This special theorem is easily seen to be its own Comple-
mentary. There is thus suggested a different mode of proving the
general theorem — viz., by means of the Law of Complementaries.*
Taking the case of the difference A5BJC4D3E2 - A2B4C1D5E3
above dealt with, we begin with the corresponding difference in
the original determinant, and proceed as follows : —
+ af-^cfl^e^ - af^eff^^e^
+ ^2^4^1^3% ~ ^2^4^1^5% >
= - b^cff^f ^265 I + %^3%-| ^1^4 I + ^2^4^l1 I;
whence by the Law of Complementaries
A5biC4D3E2 — A2B4CiDgE3 = A ■ { — B4C4D3* 1 \ -f A2l)3E5‘l \ + A2B4C4*| },
as was to be shown.
7. The theorem applies, however, not only to the adjugate
itself, but to any minor of the adjugate ; that is to say, the difference
of any two terms of any minor of the adjugate determinant is a
multiple of the original determinant.
* Trans. Boy. Soc. Edin., xxx. pp. 1-4.
1894-95.] Dr Muir on the Acljugate Determinant. 327
For if to each of the two terms in question, T^, T2 say, there be
prefixed as a factor one and the same term S of the complementary
minor, we obtain two terms of the full adjugate, the difference of
which, STj - ST2, not only contains the original determinant A as a
factor, but, as the proof of this in § 2 shows, contains S as well, S
in fact remaining unaltered throughout the various steps of the
proof. Consequently - T2 is a multiple of A.
8. Of course this latter theorem does not really depend upon the
former. A more natural mode of procedure perhaps would have
been to enunciate them from the first as one theorem, beginning
with the minor of the 2nd order of the adjugate and proceeding
upwards to the full adjugate.
It is, however, interesting to note that the case for the full
adjugate of one order leads to that for certain minors of adjugates
of higher orders. Thus for the full adjugate of the 3rd order we
have
ffilC.2 I’l M V3 1 - 1 «iC3 li ai&2 11 hh 1 = 1 r{ - I ^2^3 I “ ^3 I
and from this, by the Law of Extensionals, the additional letter and
suffix being taken, we derive
I I ‘I <^2^3^4 I1 I ~ 1 II ^^2^4 II \
= I «i&2C3t^4 I X { - I %^^4 11 1 - 1 M4 1} ,
which is a particular case of the theorem for a minor of the adjugate
of the 4th order.
Similarly, by taking the additional letter and suffix e^, we have
1 I I a^^dj^e^ \ *1 h-^egd^er^ j - | a^c.^d-^Q^ ] 1 a^j^d^e^ 1*1 h.^c^d^e^ |
= 1 ®l^2*^3d4^5 1 * { ~ I a^d^e^ | 'j &2^3^4^S I ~ I ^3^4^5 1 1 I } J
which is a particular case of the theorem for a lower-ordered minor
of the adjugate of the 5th order ; and of course the series may be
continued indefinitely.
328 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
On the Measurement of Simple Reaction Time for Sight,
Hearing, and Touch. By Prof. Rutherford, M.D.,
F.R.SS. Bond, and Edin.
(Read July 10, 1894.)
{Abstract.)
Sensori-motor reaction time is the interval that elapses between
the stimulation of a sense organ and a motor response. The
physiological process involved consists of {a) an afferent factor, — the
stimulation of a sensory terminal, and transmission of an impulse
along sensory nerve fibres to the brain; (^) a psychical factor,
involving an act of sensory perception and the voluntary production
of a motor impulse ; (c) an efferent factor, — the transmission of an
impulse along motor nerve fibres, and consequent contraction of
muscle.
To render the reaction simple, discrimination is eliminated from
the act of perception by repeating the same sensation again and
again without altering its character ; and choice is eliminated from
the voluntary act by giving the same motor response again and
again. In the author’s experiments the motor response was given
in the usual way by the right forefinger closing an electrical key.
The stimulus for sight was the movement of a flag attached to a
lever ; that for hearing w^as a click, given by transmitting an
induction shock through a telephone ; that for touch was an induc-
tion shock, or a ' mechanical tap. The moments of stimulation and
response were recorded on a cylinder, and also on a pendulum myo-
graph, and the time interval was measured with a chronograph and
tuning-fork in the usual way. The pendulum myograph, although
not hitherto employed in such experiments, is very advantageous in
experiments on hearing and touch. Successive curves are super-
imposed, so that variations in the time of successive reactions are
visible at a glance, and can be readily compared and measured.
The record can be readily photographed and thrown on a screen
for demonstration.
329
1893-94.] Prof. Rutherford on Beaction Time.
Tlie reaction times, as measured by the author’s methods, differ
considerably from those of some German observers. In observations
made on eight intelligent healthy men, varying in age from nineteen
to sixty-two, the reaction time for sight varied from 0'1662 second
to 0*2202 second, and was mostly between 0*20 and 0*22 second.
The reaction time for hearing varied from 0*1448 second to 0*1930
second, and was mostly between 0*15 second and 0*16 second.
The reaction time for touch varied from 0*1416 second to 0*1906
second in the different cases. The shortest time is that following
stimulation of the cheek: it varied from 0*141 second to 0*157
second. When the skin of a finger was stimulated the reaction
time varied from 0*142 second to 0*190 second, but was mostly
from 0*15 second to 0*18 second in the different cases. There
was no evident relation between the age of the individual and
the length of his reaction time. In a limb the reaction time is
generally longer the greater the length of sensory nerve traversed
by the impulse ; but there may be considerable variations in the
reaction times for different districts in the field of touch that are
not explicable by diff“erence in the length of sensory nerve traversed,
but are probably due to difference in the closeness of relation
between centres for tactile sense in the brain and the motor centre
for the hand. It may therefore happen that a response is given
sooner by the hand when its skin is stimulated, than when the
mucous membrane of the mouth is stimulated, although in the latter
case the impulse has a much shorter tract of sensory nerve to
traverse.
When the response is given by the right hand, the shortest
reaction times for hearing and touch are obtained by stimulating
the right ear and right cheek, so that the sensory impulse may be
transmitted directly to the left side of the cerebrum, from which
the motor impulse for the right hand emanates. In the experi-
ments on sight, both eyes were used at same time. The influence
of fatigue on the reaction time for hearing and the remarkable
restorative effect of tea were demonstrated in photographs thrown
on the screen.
330 Proceedings of Royal Soeiety of Edinburgh. [sess.
An Experiment on the Influence of Thyroid Feeding on
the Proteid Metabolism in Man. By J. J. Douglas,
M.B., C.M., F.R.C.P. Eciin. {From, the Research Laboratory
of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh.)
(Read January 7, 1895.)
The peculiar train of symptoms which have been found to follow
removal of the thyroid gland in animals, and the connection of
myxoedema with changes in the thyroid, have been known for a
number of years.
The discovery that the onset of the symptoms may be prevented
by the grafting of pieces of thyroid, and that myxoedema may be
cured by the internal administration of the gland substance, clearly
indicates that the thyroid gland forms something which exercises an
important influence on the metabolic changes in the body. A study
of the symptoms after removal of the gland and of myxoedema would
lead to the belief that in both the ordinary rate of metabolism is
diminished. Does the administration of thyroid act by stimulating
the diminished metabolism ? The remarkable loss of weight which
accompanies thyroid feeding suggests that such is the case. So
far, however, only one observation appears to have been made upon
the subject. Ord and White published {Brit. Med. Jour., 1893,
p. 217) the results of their observations on a case of myxoedema
treated with thyroid feeding. The nitrogen of the ingesta and the
total nitrogen of the urine, as well as the urea, were daily estimated.
Whether the nitrogen of the ingesta was directly estimated each
day, or whether it was simply calculated from diet tables, does not
appear. Nor are the methods of estimating the nitrogen and urea
described. The observations extended over a period of six days
during which no thyroid was given, and over thirty-three days
during which thyroid was administered. The patient lost weight.
The nitrogen of the urine increased in amount, and enormously ex-
ceeded the nitrogen of the ingesta. The metabolism of the proteids
was, in fact, markedly increased.
Such an observation shows the influence of thyroid feeding in
stimulating the proteid metabolism in myxoedema. But has it the
331
1894-95.] Mr J. J. Douglas oti Thyroid Feeding.
same effect in health? To elucidate this question the following
experiment was performed.
Ex'periment.
The subject was a patient in the Edinburgh Koyal Infirmary,
placed at my disposal through the kindness of Dr Byrom Bramwell.
Kate M‘G , aged 22, a domestic servant, suffering from lupus of
the face, hut otherwise healthy. She was not confined to bed, but
was not allowed out of the ward. She was instructed to keep care-
fully all urine and faeces, and to eat the whole of the diet provided
and nothing else, and in all these respects she was most exemplary.
On the first day of the experiment the patient was given un-
limited quantities of the food intended for her fixed diet, and told
to eat as much as seemed to satisfy her. This was found to be as
follows : —
Oatmeal, . . . . . .
80
grms.
Wheaten Biscuits, ....
150
33
Butter, ......
20
33
Sugar, ......
40
33
Rice, ......
75
33
Mince Collops (cooked),
Liebig’s Extract, ....
100
33
12
33
Cheese, . . .
40
33
Milk (condensed), ....
80
c.c.
Tea Tabloids, .....
6
33
This diet was adhered to throughout the experiment. All the
various articles were weighed in the laboratory, and sent to the
hospital each day. The oatmeal and rice were weighed raw, and
cooked in the ward. At the beginning of the experiment a large
quantity of mince collops was cooked and sterilized in a large flask,
and the quantity required weighed out daily.
The nitrogen of this diet was determined by Kjeldahl’s method,
and was found to be as follows
Oatmeal,
Biscuits,
Bice,
Mince Collops, .
Liebig’s Extract, .
Cheese,
Milk,
2*70 per cent.
1-92
1*05
5-31
))
jj
J5
8*5
5-75
1*9
3J
3 3
33
Total
2T6 grms.
2-91
•78
5-31
1-02
2*30
1-52
33
33
33
33
33
33
35
332 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
The quantity of the fluid was not limited.
The diet agreed with the patient. The pulse and temperature
remained normal throughout. For the first three days she was
kept on the diet alone ; for the next five she had thyroid tabloids
(Burroughs & Welcome’s) in increasing doses, and for the last two
days of the experiment the thyroid extract was stopped. It had
been intended to carry on the experiment a little longer, but the
patient began to menstruate, which made it impossible. That men-
struation has no disturbing influence on the metabolism has been
shown by recent work done under von ISToorden’s direction. The
patient was weighed periodically. All the nitrogen estimations
were done by Kjeldahl’s method. The fasces were first mixed with
dilute HgSO^, and dried at 100° C.
Influeyice on Metabolism.
Weight
Nitrogen
Urine.
Faeces.
Total
Nitrogen
excreted
in grms.
Date.
in
Kilos.
of Food
in grms.
Quantity
in c.cms.
Sp. Gr.
Nitrogen
in grms.
Weight
(dried)
in grms.
Nitrogen
in grms.
11.10.94
53-7
16*00
750
1025
11-277
0
0
12.
5 ?
825
1027
12*284
24
2*194
14*478
13.
? 3
1220
1021
12*810
15
1*233
13*043
14.
53*7
3 3
1736
1015
14*001
33
2*795
16*796
T¥ of a
gland.
15.
3 3
1900
1017
15*051
23
1*403
16*454
3 3
16.
3 3
2200
1013
15*510
26
2*089
17*589
tV of a
gland.
17.
1680
1018
Lost
46
3*135
5 J
18.
51-4
” 1
i 1500
1022
15*490
23
1*132
16*622
1 gland.
19.
3 3
1400
1021
16*100
28
1*799
17*899
20.
51-0
3 3
1120
1024
15*800
33
1*841
17*641
During the experiment 16 grins, of nitrogen were taken per diem.
Before the administration of thyroid 1*71 grms. were, on the
average, daily excreted in the faeces. Thus 14*29 grins, were
absorbed. During these two days an average of 12*5 grms. were
excreted in the urine, leaving a daily gain of 1*79 grms. of nitrogen,
or 11*2 grms. proteid, ^.e., 53*7 grms. of flesh.
1894-95.] Mr J. J. Douglas on Thyroid Feeding. 333
During and after the administration of thyroid 2*08 grms. of
nitrogen were daily excreted in the faeces, so that 13 ’9 2 grms. were
absorbed. The daily excretion in the urine was on an average
15’3 grms., so that there was a daily loss of D4 grms. of nitrogen
from the tissues, ^'.e., of 8*75 grms. of proteid, or a daily loss of
42*0 grms. of flesh, or 294 grms. during the period.
In these calculations — 1 grin. N”. = 6'25 grms. Proteid = 30 grms.
Flesh {Munk Ueher die Fjrndhrung, p. 1 3).
But during this period the patient lost between 3000 and 4000
grms,, and it would appear, therefore, that the metabolism of the
non-nitrogenous constituents was very greatly increased, An exam-
ination of the excretion of carbon dioxide during thyroid feeding is
highly desirable.
Absorption of Proteids during Thyroid Feeding.
The average excretion of nitrogen in the faeces was —
Before feeding P713 grms. = 10'7 grms. proteid.
During „ 2T08 „ =13T „ „
After „ 1-820 „ =1P3 „
It would thus appear that thyroid feeding interferes with the
absorption of the proteids of the food.
Conclusions.
The experiment clearly indicates —
Isf. That thyroid feeding markedly increases the proteid meta-
bolism in health as well as in myxoedema.
^nd. That its action is immediate, and continues for at least two
days after it has been stopped.
3?y/. That the loss of weight is probably more due to waste of non-
nitrogenous tissues as fat than to waste of nitrogenous
tissues.
AtJi. That the absorption of proteids is diminished while the
thyroid is being taken.
■ I have to thank the superintendent of the laboratory. Dr Noel
Paton, for assistance and advice in carrying out this observation.
334 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
Further Note on the Volume Changes which accompany
Magnetisation in Iron and Nickel Tubes. By Pro-
fessor C. G. Knott, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., and A. Shand, Esq.
(Read February 18, 1895.)
In our last communication (read July 2, 1894) we gave the broad
results for three nickel tubes of various bores (see vol. xx. p. 296).
In these experiments the screw stopper through which the capillary
glass tube passed was made of brass. This brass stopper was used
because of the comparative difficulty of working nickel. We were
led, in the course of some tentative experiments, to use this brass
stopper with one of the steel tubes. Now, in the earlier experi-
ments with the iron and steel tubes, we had used an iron stopper.
We were hardly prepared, however, to find that the mere substitu-
tion of a brass for an iron stopper should produce such a marked
effect, not only on the amount of change of volume in given mag-
netic fields, but also on the manner in which the volume change
varied as the field increased or decreased steadily.
This result at once proved that it was absolutely necessary to
furnish the nickel tubes with a nickel stopper ; and, in the present
note, we give a comparison of the volume changes in Steel Tube Y.
with (1) an iron stopper, (2) a brass stopper, and of the volume
changes in Nickel Tube I. with (1) a nickel stopper, (2) a brass
stopper. The numbers in the first column give the magnetic fields,
the others represent dilatations or changes per unit volume, the unit
being 10'^ cubic centimetre.
Field.
Steel Tube V.
Nickel Tube I.
Iron Cap.
Brass Cap.
Nickel Cap.
Brass Cap.
560
-587
- 0"6
-110
-107
500
-42
- 9-6
-109
-106
400
-30
-18
-107
- 98
300
-18
-12
- 96
- 89
200
0
- 7-2
- 72
- 67
100
+ 7-2
- 2*4
- 29
- 23
50
+ 3*0
- 1-2
- 4-5
- 4*5
1894-95.] Prof. Knott and A. Shand on Magnetic Strains. 335
In the case of the nickel tube, the difference in the two columns
is not of any great moment. With the nickel cap or stopper the
changes of volume are slightly greater. This is very much what
one would naturally expect to find. For the nickel stopper has
the effect of lengthening by an inch or so the magnetisable bar, and
the tube portion of the bar so lengthened will be more effectively
magnetised than when the stopper is of a non-magnetic metal.
But it will be noticed that the behaviour of the steel tube is
greatly altered when the brass cap is substituted for the iron cap.
Thus there is no change of sign in field 200 when the brass cap is used,
and there is no maximum negative dilatation in field 400 when the
iron cap is used. In short, the character of the stopper has a marked
effect upon the whole character of the strain. It is easy to see that
the iron stopper will tend to increase the induction into the tube ; but,
except in the way of diminishing the induction, and so altering the
accompanying change of length, we cannot credit the brass stopper
with any effect upon the longitudinal strain. It is as a disturbing
factor in the transverse strain that we must consider it. It does
seem extraordinary, however, that a stopper, whose hampering
action is confined to one end of a fairly long tube, should, by its
inability to yield to the magnetising forces acting on it, produce
such a marked effect upon the volume changes taking place in the
tube as a whole. A closer investigation of the phenomenon may
throw some light on the character of the strain accompanying
magnetisation.
336 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
Notes on a Peculiarity in the Form of the Mammalian
Tooth. By J. Smith, M.D. (Illustrated.)
(Read December 3, 1894.)
The ideal type of a mammalian tooth is here assumed to be a
modified cone, or, as in certain molar teeth, a combination of
cones, the vertex or vertices, as the case may be, corresponding
either to the apex of the fang, or to the free extremity of the
crown, or to both, as in the typical canine tooth, where two cones
seem united by their bases. (Fig. 4.)
Such cone is supposed to be one of considerable altitude, with
the axis at right angles to the base. In the natural tooth, however,
the axis would, under various circumstances, be more or less bent,
or arched, or oblique in its direction, and the cone itself laterally
compressed or flattened, or in various other ways modified. (Figs.
1, 2, 3.)
In the morphology of the joints and certain other parts of the
skeleton the principle of a spiral or curve of double curvature has
been traced by the researches of Meyer, Danger, Henke, Meissner,
Goodsir, and others ; and so far back as 1858, a short paper by me,
“ On the Condyle of the Human Lower Jaw,” and, in accordance
with such views, was communicated to this Society by Professor
Goodsir. Further inquiries led me, in 1864, to advance the pro-
position that a spiral tendency was indicated in the form of the
human tooth, although in its case, owiug to various causes, this
confirmation is in many instances comparatively indistinct. Since
that time, again, a number of observations made on the teeth of
various orders of mammals have suggested some additional views
on this subject, as not only interesting in a morphological and
teleological aspect, but possibly of some surgical importance.
Speaking generally, then, the single-fariged mammalian tooth, as
represented by such elongated and compressed cone, seems to be
again modified by being twisted upon itself. This ranges from the
faintest trace of a s]3iral indicated in the form of the tooth, as if it
1894-95.] Dr J. Smith on the Mammalian Tooth.
337
were slightly rotated on its long axis, to the development of what
resembles a complete screw thread winding round its whole length
as a central pillar or columella, the thread of such screw increasing
in breadth and thickness with the diameter of the conical surface
round which it is developed.
The Monodon or Narwhal (fig. 5) affords, perhaps, the best marked
example of a spiral tooth with which naturalists are acquainted.
In the tusk of this animal the whorls forming the spire are very
complete throughout its whole length, which sometimes extends to
10 or 12 feet. In perfect specimens each whorl is separated from
the other by a well-marked suture, forming a screw of considerable
pitch, and winding round the tooth in such a manner as to render
its appearance similar to that of some of the tapering spiral shells
of the Gasteropods, such as the Turritelidse. These teeth in the
Narwhal have been erroneously described, even by such authorities
as Cuvier, Owen, C. S. Tomes, and others, as incisors. Professor
Sir William Turner, however, has shown them to be unmistakably
canines, and belonging entirely to the true maxillary bone of each
side. In their case a curious departure takes place from that sym-
metry of form normally exhibited in corresponding structures on
the two sides of the body. Of these two canines there is rarely
more than one developed, and that is the Left one, the Right being
usually suppressed. In some instances both teeth are present, but
there appears to be no instance of the Right tooth being developed,
and the Left suppressed. In this left tooth the spiral winds from
right to left, constituting what is familiarly known as a left-hand
screw ; occasional examples, however, have been met with where,
in the adult animal, both teeth are developed, and what seems
remarkable in these cases is, that the direction of the screw — that
is, from right to left — is found to be the same in each tooth ; while
this arrangement is still more widely established as the general rule,
by finding in the foetal Narwhal, of which more numerous specimens
are at our command, that the spiral markings, although less distinct,
are of the same character in the two teeth, while neither one nor
other of them have been as yet erupted. Curiously enough, the
direction of the screw characteristic of these teeth corresponds to
the principle of construction prevailing in the mammalian dentition.
Another group of the cetacea, known as the Ziphiods, affords an
4/4/95.
VOL. XX.
Y
338 Proceedings of Uoyal Bocidy of Edinburgh. [sess.
almost equally well-marked although somewhat different form of
spiral construction in the teeth of some of its species, as in the
Mesoplodon Layardi described by Professor Turner in the “ Chal-
lenger Reports.” This animal presents some very remarkable
features in the character of these organs : two dental structures
exist on the lower jaw, one on each side, which curve upwards and
outwards, then obliquely backwards, and finally turn inwards until
they cross each other like a loose belt buckled above the upper jaw
or snout, so that the lower jaw cannot be depressed, or the mouth
opened, except to a ver}^ limited extent. The curve or spiral taken
by these teeth is more difficult to describe, or even to recognise,
than in the case of the Narwhal ; but, unlike it, the spiral is sym-
metrical— that is, it takes a reverse direction on opposite sides of
the head. By far the largest portion of the tooth is formed by the
fang. This consists of a flat broad plate, somewhat crescentic or
falciform in its outline, with the concave edge looking upwards and
forwards — one extremity of the crescent being rooted in the lower
jaw — from which this flat crescent-shaped plate rises with its inner
surface in relation to the outside of the upper jaw, and is finally
carried backwards, and bent or twisted across the dorsum of the head
or snout (fig. 6). It is exclusively in the fang of the tooth that this
peculiar contour is established, the crown proper taking no part in
such flexure, since that portion of the tooth is represented merely
by a small triangular protuberance situated upon the flat surface of
the upper and extreme end of the fang. The somewhat complex
curvature here described approaches what would result from wind-
ing a flat strip of flexible metal or other material very obliquely
and for about one turn round a column of considerable diameter —
such columnar axis being then withdrawn, leaving the strip to
represent the thread of the screw thus formed.
The two examples here given may serve to typify the modes in
which a spiral construction presents itself in the long axis of certain
mammalian teeth — being in the one case illustrated by the thread
of the screw-nail, and in the other more or less by the worm of
the cork-screw. Along with such spiral configuration, however,
which seems almost universal, it is impossible to overlook another
peculiarity of form in many teeth, and with which it is indissolubly
associated. This is the bend or arching throughout their whole
1894-95.] Dr J. Smith on the Mammalian Tooth. 339
length occurring in numerous well-known examples among these
organs. This bend or arching, extending from the alveolar attach-
ment to the crown extremity of the tooth, forms, in many animals,
an arc equal to the greater part of a circle, or is even somewhat
more extensive, a complete ring being occasionally constituted by
the tooth, the tip or free extremity returning to a spot somewhere
about the situation of the formative pulp. The general rule, how-
ever, is, that the arc thus formed is not that of a circle described
upon one plane, or of a discoid character, but oblique in the course
it follows, so that the free extremity, instead of impinging upon,
passes on one or other side of the alveolar or maxillary end of the
tooth, the primary curve again being at the same time of such a
nature that, instead of a ring, it approaches in character more to a
logarithmic spiral.
The upper canine or tusk of the Walrus affords an example where
some of these morphological features are easily discernible (fig. 7).
This tooth projects downwards at about a right angle with the jaw,
and is so bent as to form an arc of a very large circle, having the
convexity directed forwards and somewhat outwards. The body of
the tooth consists of a very elongated and laterally compressed cone,
so that a transverse section of it would exhibit an oval or elliptical
form. The bend in these organs is too apparent to require any
remark ; but that a spiral turn is also given to them on the long
axis, may, in addition to what is perceptible on mere ocular inspec-
tion, be demonstrated by looking at the two cut surfaces of any
cross section, when the varying direction in the vertex diameter of
the ellipse presented at either end will indicate the twist or turn
on its long axis which the tooth is taking.
So far, again, as concerns the bend taken by the Walrus tusk,
a much more pronounced arc is described by those of some other
animals ; a circumstance occasionally interfering with the axial
torsion being so clearly followed out. The incisors of the Elephant,
the canines of the Hippopotamus, the enormous tusks of the extinct
Mammoth, &c., describe, in the arc presented by some of them, a
large portion or even the whole of a circle, so deflected outwards,
however, that instead of a true ring it forms one of 'those curves of
double curvature already spoken of, thus enabling the free extremity
to pass on one side of the animal’s head. The long axis twist.
340 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
however — making allowance for such flexure— is still quite trace-
able in all these examples, and is directed, as it generally seems to
be throughout the mammalia, from the mesial side of the base
towards the outer side of the free extremity of the tooth, or as if the
exposed portion of the tooth had been rotated slightly backwards
and inwards. In the Hippopotamus this configuration, owing to the
trihedral form of the canines, admits of a different mode of demon-
stration (fig. 8). The lower canine — the most typical tooth in this
animal — presents three surfaces, constituting a prism, with one of its
faces directed posteriorly. On making a more careful examination
of this face, it will he found that at the base of the tusk it looks
partly outwards as well as backwards, while, as we approach its
apex, the aspect of this posterior plane is gradually altered till it
looks exclusively backwards, thus showing the tooth to have been,
as it were, rotated backwards and inw'ards at its extremity for
about a quarter of a turn on its long axis.
In the Suidae, again, both the axial rotation and the bending of
the tooth upon itself are well represented. Taking the canines of
the Phacocaerus or Wart-Hog as a typical example, they constitute
horn-like organs projecting from the sides of the mouth, those from
the lower jaw curving outwards and upwards, while the formidable
tusks of the upper jaw curve outwards, — forwards and then upwards
also, — so that when the mouth is closed the anterior convexity of
the upper is in relation with the posterior concavity of the lower
tooth (fig. 9). Greater complexity in regard to the direction of
the long axis spiral is here occasioned not only by this remarkable
corniform bend or arching of the tusk, but by the upper tusk
pointing upwards while properly it ought to point downwards
instead. While this upward curvature of the upper canine is
unusually conspicuous in the Wart-Hog, the same peculiarity attains
its maximum character in the Babyroussa Hog, where the upper
canines assume this upward bend, not after issuing from the mouth,
hut where they seem actually to emerge from the upper aspect of
the superior maxilla, piercing the integuments above them, and pro-
truding through the skin at each side of the snout (fig. 10). In this
manner they present the appearance of two long and slender horns
arching upwards and backwards, each describing more than a semi-
circle, the extremity of which just clears the side of the animal’s
1894-95.] Dr J. Smith on the Mammalian Tooth. 341
head. An apparent discrepancy in the development of the upper
canine of the Babyroussa in this way presents itself. The tooth
seems to spring from the upper instead of the lower or oral border
of the superior • maxilla, and would thus suggest an inversion of its
formative structure ; but in other members of the Suidse it has been
shown that while the upper canine, at an early stage of its develop-
ment, necessarily points downwards, the tooth, as it increases in
length, curves upon itself, and, departing from the primary direction
in the original axis of its alveolus, describes in its growth a circular
sweep till its free extremity at last points upwards. And if it be
kept in mind, along with this, that after the eruption of a tooth the
alveolar walls continue to extend and adapt themselves alongside
the lengthening fang, the difficulty is so far met, since the dental
germ may have followed the usual course of development, while the
subsequent mode of growth, accompanied by an altered form and
direction of the alveolus, has produced in the Babyroussa what is
possibly no more than an exaggerated example of similar peculiarities
seen in other members of this family. There is another circum-
stance connected with such curved teeth which also renders the
axial twist less certainly determinable, and that is its being in their
case frequently ill-marked and often abnormal, in so much that the
tusk, instead of passing to the outer side of the head, occasionally
inclines inwards and infringes upon or actually perforates the skulk
The normal direction of the spiral, however, may be realised in a
well-formed specimen of any of these exceptional organs by suppos-
ing the tooth to be restored to the condition of a straight spire, and,
in such as those of the Babyroussa, the alveolus and contained
upper tusk to be completely inverted, when the sj)iral turn will be
perceived to be the same as in the case of other animals, where the
crown or exposed portion of the tooth appears as if it were rotated
on its long axis somewhat backwards and inwards.
In the Rodentia, the incisors are illustrative of the same pecu-
liarities in form and construction. The combined free-cutting
portion and the imbedded fang of these organs constitute a very
much-prolonged tooth where the axial torsion is readily perceived,
especially in the larger animals belonging to this order, such as the
Capybara, the Porcupine, or the Paca, in which latter animal the
twist is very apparent, the spiral winding in the same direction as
342 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
in the other examples given, namely, as if the tooth were rotated
on its long axis slightly backwards and inwards at its free extremity.
Besides exhibiting this spiral rotation, these teeth are generally
also very much bent or arched, the arch in some cases measuring
fully half a circle. Neither this arching, however, nor certain
curvatures necessarily resulting from following the contour of the
jaw in which they are for so long a distance deeply implanted,
interfere with the axial spiral under notice being easily traced.
The foregoing examples are selected from among teeth of persis-
tent growth, or where the pulp-structures continue the development
of the tooth during the animal’s lifetime. In such teeth, however,
as those where growth and development cease with the completion
of the fang or root, the same principles are exhibited in their con-
formation. Many of these teeth are bent or arched like some of
those previously mentioned. In those which best display this
formation, the crown and fang appear like two cones united by their
bases, such as the canines of the Carnivora (fig. 4). Viewed in profile,
they commonly present a crescentic form, extending from the free
extremity of the crown to the termination of the root ; the arc thus
formed, however, being in all of them comparatively inconsiderable.
With regard to the spiral in their long axis it is different ; this
character is quite apparent in all, and in many of them is equally
well-marked, as it is in those already specified, and the line of
torsion is in the same direction — namely, from the mesial side of
the fang diagonally across the front of the tooth to the distal
side of the crown. Among teeth of this character some fair
examples are presented by the Seals. The simplest type of tooth
in these animals is that where it consists of two cones united by
their bases — the smaller cone forming the crown, the larger and
somewhat ovate-shaped one forming the fang. The whole tooth is
bent till it approaches an arc of about a quarter of a circle ; and if
such a tooth be imagined to be grasped at the crown by the finger
and thumb of one hand, and at the fang end by the finger and
thumb of the other, and the two extremities be supposed to be then
rotated for a quarter of a turn in ojDposite directions, it will enable
the configuration of the tooth to be realised. Much the same may
be said of such teeth as the canine in the Lion, Tiger, Bear, Ac.,
where very similar characters are presented, both in the bend and
1894-95.] Dr J. Smith 07i the Mammalimi Tooth, 343
axial rotation, as well as in the external form of the tooth. The in-
cisors of the Horse afford another obvious and well-defined example
of the same peculiarities (figs. 11 and 12). These teeth, crown and
fang conjointly, are bent backwards so as to form an arc having its
convexity directed anteriorly. Seen from the front, the tooth appears
as a cone of which the cutting edge represents the base and the
apex of the fang the vertex, such cone being twisted on its long
axis in a similar manner to the other teeth already noticed. Upon
closer inspection, however, the appearance of the fang seems
to indicate something more than mere axial rotation, and rather
suggests the winding round it of what would be equivalent to a
double screw thread. Taking an upper incisor as an example, one
such thread is traceable in a somewhat salient track winding very
obliquely round the front of the tooth from the distal side of the
crown towards the mesial side of the fang ; and, posteriorly, another
similar thread is found, now, however, winding from the mesial
side of the crown to the distal side of the fang : thus constituting
a double-threaded screw combination developed on the conical body
of the root. In using the term “ screw thread,” it must, of course,
be understood as employed not with geometrical exactitude, but
merely as indicative of an oblique form of surface development
imparting to what would otherwise be merely a simple cone or wedge
a certain amount of a halicoid conformation, probably giving addi-
tional steadiness to the fang, and altering the nature and direction
of those forces acting upon a tooth in the exercise of its functions.
Among the Primates, the large canines of the male Gorilla, the
Orang, and the Mandrill, may serve to exemplify how the teeth in
these animals accord with the description of the turn apparent in
the crown and fang of others already mentioned. But, as we
ascend in the scale of animal life, these characters seem to become
less perceptibly marked until the human species is reached, when
little more than vanishing traces of them seem to remain.
This comparatively feeble marking of the teeth in Man makes it
more difficult to recognise in them so perspicuously the principle of
formation found in the more typical illustrations adduced. And, in
addition to this fading from the original model, the disadvantage
in the human tooth is increased by malformations and irregularities
in the form and development of the fang — there being like
344 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhttrgh. [sess.
irregularity in their position more common in the teeth of the
human subject than in those of the lower animals. At the same
time, while they may not so manifestly exhibit the screw thread
appearance, they sufficiently indicate an axial turn or twist in their
construction. This in many cases becomes more easily perceptible
on looking along the tooth on its long axis from the apex of the fang
towards the crown, when the tendency to a slight spiral or winding
in the contour will be at once apparent, the crown face of the tooth
being turned inwards at its distal border, while the fang extremity
inclines in an opposite direction.
A somewhat curious circumstance attaches to the formation of
the multiple- fanged teeth — the molars — in the human subject. In
a lower molar tooth, with its two fangs well developed (fig. 13) —
the larger and better marked being anterior, and the smaller posterior
— each will be found somewhat flattened as in the single-fanged
teeth, and, like them, each one indicating the same bias towards the
spiral tendency they present. Each fang in this way appears as if it
belonged to a single-fanged tooth, but that two such teeth had been
fused together at their crowns so as to constitute one double-fanged
molar.* Both these fangs are in the lower molars besides bent
so as to be directed somewhat backwards. In the upper molars,
however, where each tooth possesses three instead of two fangs,
of much the same form as those of the lower jaw, the direction
taken by one of them seems to differ from the others (fig. 14).
The three fangs are arranged so that two of them are situated one
behind the other on the outer or buccal side of the tooth, while the
third is placed in the inner or palatal side of these. The two
external fangs resemble those of the lower molars in being directed
backwards; but in by far the greater number of instances the internal
or palatal fang — the larger of the three — points, in the normally-
formed tooth, slightly forwards, while the spiral rotation on its long
axis would at the same time appear, in contrast to the others, as if
it were reversed. These appearances are not very easily described,
but they correspond to what would occur if the original tooth pulp
* An hypothesis of this kind has been advanced in regard to the molars of
the Elephant and some other animals — extending even to Man — by Rose,
Knkenthal, Dybowski, Gervais, Gandry, and others, in contradistinction to
those, such as Leche, who believe the molars to be simple teeth.
Dr J. Smith on the Mammalian Tooth.
1894-95.]
346 Proceedings of Poyal Society of Edinbtcrgh. [sess.
could be imagined to have consisted, at some period of its existence,
of a row of three pulps arranged in juxtaposition one behind the
other, and the series of three subsequently folded back upon itself
so that one of them was brought to the inside or palatal side of the
others, without interfering with its individual formative growth.
Perhaps the shortness of the maxillary border might account for
something of this nature actually occurring by way of affording
more accommodation.
Any teleological explanation of such characters in the configura-
tion of the dental organs here noticed is obscure. Accidental cir-
cumstances altogether extraneous to the tooth’s development, pro-
perly so called, may in certain cases possibly exercise some influence
in their production. The natural growth of the jaw — or, on the
other hand, its defective or restricted growth — may also contribute
a certain moulding influence during the later period of the tooth’s
development. The facts, however, remain the same. Perhaps the
most important practical bearing exercised upon the wellbeing of
the tooth, rests in the conversion of the fang from what would other-
wise be a simple wedge or cone to something approaching a screw ;
thus obviating the effect of direct pressure or impact in the line of
the tooth’s long axis, driving it into the socket, with the result of
deepening and widening it each time such force is exerted, and
so loosening the implanted fang. It seems, then, unnecessary to
adduce any greater number of illustrative examples of the con-
formation than has been here advanced as characteristic of the
mammalian teeth. There are, without doubt, instances where such
conformation is far from being obvious, and there are others where
an undoubted departure from it occurs. But, as a general rule,
that a typical construction of the kind under notice exists, would
appear to be sufficiently evident. The remarks here offered are not
pretended to be either exhaustive or confirmative of the question,
but are rather intended to be of the nature of a retaining note
which may be further developed at some future time.
1894-95.]
Absorption of Carbohydrates.
347
On the Absorption of Carbohydrates by the Intestinal
Epithelium : An Experimental Inquiry into Pavy’s
Theory of the Action of the Epithelium on Carbo-
hydrates. By D. Noel Paton, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., and G.
Lovell Gulland, M.D., F.R.C.P.E. {From the Research
Laboratory of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh.)
(Read January 21, 1895.)
One of the most important conclusions arrived at by Pavy in his
Physiology of the Carbohydrates^ is that the intestinal epithelium
acts as a barrier to the passage of carbohydrates into the circulation
by converting them into fats (p. 248 et seq.).
Although the fact that the amount of sugar in the portal blood
varies with the amount of carbohydrates taken would seem to
indicate that the intestinal epithelium passes sugar on to the blood
for the most part unchanged, the well-known observations on the
conversion of carbohydrates to fats in the animal body suggest at
least the possibility that such a change as that maintained by Pavy
may take place.
The experimental data on which he bases his conclusions are,
however, eminently unsatisfactory. Because he finds that, in
rabbits fed upon oats, the intestinal epithelium contains fat
globules, and the lacteals a milky fluid, he concludes that the fats
are formed from the carbohydrates of the oats, although the oats
used are said to have contained 5 per cent, of fats — about as much
as is contained in moderately fat ox flesh. The presence of such an
amount of fat entirely vitiates the conclusion that the fat seen in
the epithelial cells is derived from the carbohydrates.
The following experiments seem very clearly to indicate that the
fats seen in the epithelium in Pavy’s experiments are derived from
the fats of the oats and not from the carbohydrates.
In these experiments the following methods were employed : —
348
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
Method of Examination.
The intestines of the animals were examined, in the earlier
experiments, in three different ways — by scraping, by cutting
sections with the freezing microtome, and by sections cut in
paraffin. In the first case, the intestine, at varying distances
below the entrance of the pancreatic duct, was opened as soon as
the animal had been killed by chloroform ; the villi were scraped ;
the scrapings were spread out on cover-glasses, mounted in 2 per
cent, osmic acid, left for several hours, and then examined in the
same fluid, or in glycerine run in beneath the cover-glass.
In the second case, the portions of intestine taken were put into
a large quantity of 2 per cent, osmic acid for twenty-four hours, to
ensure a thorough blackening of all fat, and were then cut at once
with the freezing microtome, and examined in glycerine.
In the third case, after fixing as above in osmic acid, the pieces
of intestine were washed in water for twenty-four hours, then
rapidly hardened in alcohol of increasing strength, cleared on xylol,
left in the paraffin bath for twenty-four hours, cut in the usual way,
and mounted in xylol balsam. Flemming has shown that xylol, of
all the clearing agents, has least effect on fat which has been
blackened by osmic acid. We took care to expose the specimens to
absolute alcohol and xylol for the shortest time that was consistent
with complete dehydration and clearing, and we found, after the first
half-dozen experiments, that our specimens, prepared in this way, not
only showed no signs of solution of fat having taken place, but that,
from the more perfect clearing of the tissue, we could see fat in them
in cases where it was not to be made out by the two first methods.
The paraffin sections had also, of course, the advantage of being
much clearer and more regular in thickness than those cut by freezing.
In the later experiments, therefore, we confined ourselves
entirely to the last method. We were careful, in almost every
case, to examine at least two pieces of intestine, one taken a few
inches below the pancreatic duct, the other at a lower level, near
the termination of the small intestine.
Experiments.
Experiment 1 Oats deprived of Fats.~\\0 grins, of oats were
1894-95.]
Absorption of Garholiydrates.
349
pounded in a mortar with ether, and left in a bottle with ether for
several hours. The ether was decanted off, and the oats extracted
in the same way six times. The ether extract weighed 3*3 grms.
Two rabbits were starved for two days. To one the oats, de-
prived of fat as above described were given, to the other 110
grms. of oats from the same sample, not so extracted. Both
rabbits took the food well — the whole quantity being consumed in
about twelve hours. Twelve hours after, the rabbits were killed,
and a piece of intestine four inches below the opening of the
pancreatic duct was taken from each, along with a piece near the
ileo-c8Bcal valve. In the first rabbit no fat could be detected in any
of the cells, but in the second, fat in small and scattered globules
was found in the cells at the tops of many of the villi.
Experiment II. — Two rabbits which had been in the same cage,
and were in good condition, were taken. A was fed on oats ; B
received rice, which, however, it did not take well. On the second
day of the experiment it was fed on turnips, which it took greedily.
They were kept on these diets for ten days, ^nd both maintained
their weight.
Weight in Grms.
15/11/9. 26/11/94.
A. Oats, .... 1510 1512
B. Turnips, . , . . 1780 1735
Oats contain about 5 per cent, of fat — 5’6 of the dry substance.
Turnips contain about 0*2 per cent, of fat — 1*5 of the dry
substance. In oats, fats are to carbohydrates as 1 to 11.
In turnips, fats are to carbohydrates as 1 to 47.
On the 26th the animals were killed, and the intestine examined
as described above.
In A there was a very small amount of fat in very small globules,
and entirely at the tips of the villi. In B no fat whatever could
be detected.
But it is only by experiments upon animals in which the ali-
mentary canal can be readily and completely emptied that satisfac-
tory results on this subject can be obtained. For this purpose rats
350 Proceedings of Boy al Society of EdinhurgJi. [sess.
are eminently suitable. Even after a copious meal, in from twelve to
twenty-four hours the stomach and small intestine are found empty,
and absorption is completed, as is shown by the next Experiment.
Experiment III. — Five rats were starved for twenty-four hours
and then one. A, was killed, and the others were fed on beef fat
and water. The food was given at night, and was freely eaten.
In the morning the residue was removed from the cages. After
four hours, one of the rats, B, was killed ; another, C, was killed
after twenty hours ; another, D, after twenty-five hours ; and the
last, E, after forty-eight hours.
From the middle of the small intestine a small piece was taken
in each case, and treated as above described.
A showed no sign of fat.
B showed the absorption of enormous quantities of fat. The
whole length of each villus, right down to the mouths
of the Lieberkiihnian glands, was involved in the absorp-
tion ; but while at the tips of the villi the fat globules
were so large and numerous that nothing could be seen
of the epithelial cells, towards the bases they greatly
diminished in size and number.
C, D, and E showed no signs of fat absorption.
Having thus shown that absorption from the intestine is in the
rat completed within twenty-four hours, the following experiments
were made: —
Experiment IV. — Four white rats were starved for twenty-four
hours. In the evening —
A got 17 grms. of lean horse flesh.
B got 7 grms. of starch and sugar.
C got II grms. of ox fat.
D got no food, and was found dead next morning. The others
were killed in the morning, after feeding for twelve
hours.
On examining the intestine, fat absorption was going on actively
in C. In A and B and D there was no sign of fat in the intestine
or epithelium.
1894-95.]
Absorption of Carboliyclrates.
351
Experiment V. — Two white rats were starved for twelve hours,
and then fed on hard-boiled white of egg, starch, and water.
White of egg contains 0*3 per cent, of fat (see Mnnk, Ueber die
Erndlirung, p. 142).
The food was given in the evening, and the residue removed in
the morning. A large quantity had been taken.
A was killed after three hours.
B was killed after seven hours.
No fat was found in the intestinal epithelium of either.
Conclusions.
These experiments clearly show —
1st, That the fat found in the intestinal epithelium of rabbits
fed on oats is derived from the fats of the oat.
2nd, That there is not evidence that carbohydrates are con-
verted to fats by the intestinal epithelium in the course
of absorption.
352 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
Note on Normal Nystagmus. By Prof. Crum. Brown.
(Read February 4, 1895.)
When, with head fixed, we allow the eyes to wander over a fixed
scene before us, we find that the eyes do not move continuously, but
by jerks, so that what we see is really a series of separate pictures,
each of which is at rest, the jerk from one position to the next
being so rapid that we practically see nothing during the change of
picture. That this is so can be shown if we have a bright light —
say, an incandescent electric lamp — in the field of vision. After
allowing the eyes to wander over the scene before us, we find, on
closing the eyes, that we see a series of separate sharp secondary
images of the bright light. Even when we make an effort to move
the eyes continuously we find, by means of the secondary images,
that we have not succeeded in doing so.*
If, instead of keeping the head absolutely still, we move it, we
find that in this case also the lines of glance — that is, the lines
along which we look during the intervals between the jerks — remain
fixed in reference to fixed external objects. It is obvious that
during the interval between two jerks the muscles of the eyeballs
must act so as exactly to compensate for the movement of the head,
and this whatever be the axis about which the head is moving.
Even when this axis is the line of vision, the compensating move-
ment takes place, as may be shown by a simple experiment.
Select an object upon which the eye is to be kept rigorously fixed
during the movement of the head. This object should be about 15°
or 20° distant from the bright light. Now, keeping the eye
fixed on the mark, incline the head towards one shoulder, thus
rotating it about a fore-and-aft axis, and then shut the eyes. We
* There is a device, however, by means of which we can move our eyes con-
tinuously so as to see, not a series of fixed pictures, but one moving pieture, and
get, not a number of distinct and sharp after-images of the bright object, but a
band composed like a continuous spectrum of an infinite number of images,
each infinitely near its neighbours. We can obtain tins result if we have a
moving object in the field, and keep our eyes constantly fixed on it.
1894-95.] Prof. Crum Brown on Normal Nystagmus. 353
shall see distinct sharp after-images of the light, showing that the
eyes were, during the glances, fixed relatively to external objects,
and therefore rotating relatively to the head about a fore-and-aft
axis at the same angular rate as the head relatively to external
fixed objects and in the opposite sense. All these compensating
movements of the eyeballs relatively to the head have the effect of
giving us a succession of fixed pictures of fixed things across which
we see any really moving object move. We thus obtain that sense
of the steadiness of the external world which is of great use to us
in moving about in it.
These compensatory movements of the eyes are successful only
when the angular movement of the head is not too rapid, for there
is a maximum rate beyond which the eyeball cannot go : if the
head moves faster than that, the eye does indeed make an effort to
compensate and give us steady pictures, but these efforts are only
partially successful. We can wag our head faster than the eyeballs
can move; and when we do so, we see the world wag in the
opposite direction; but the really fixed external objects which we
see wagging do not seem to describe nearly so large an angle as the
head actually does : the movements of the eyes compensate to a
certain extent, though not completely, the movement of the head.
When we look for the cause of the phenomena we have been
describing, we encounter a difficulty which is of the same kind as
that which meets us in almost every question concerning our
senses. We have been accustomed from our earliest infancy to use
our senses, and our power of moving our eyes, our head, and our
hands, so as to obtain, in ordinary cases, a consistent notion of what
goes on around us ; and we cannot usually tell how much of our
information has come to us through one channel, and how much
through another ; but I think I shall be able to show that there
are at least two causes of the normal nystagmus I have been de-
scribing. Helmholtz, who has described most of these phenomena,
and has shown how they satisfactorily explain some striking and
interesting optical illusions, refers them exclusively to the effort to
fix external objects. We do not see anything very well unless we
look at it, and to look at it we must keep our eyes fixed on it for
an appreciable, though it may be a very short, time. This effort of
fixation satisfactorily explains the jerkings of the eyes when the
3/4/95.
VOL. XX.
z
354 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgh, [sess.
head is fixed ; and if this cause is efficient when the head is fixed, it
must also be operative when the head is moving.
But there are cases in which the compensating movement of the
eyes cannot be explained in this way. These movements take
place when the head rotates even when the eyes are shut, as was, I
believe, first noticed by Dr Breuer, whose observations have been
confirmed by every one who has taken the trouble to repeat his
experiment. The whole facts clearly enough point to a reflex
action, the sensory organ being the semicircular canals of the
internal ear. It has often been objected to the kinetic theory of
the action of the semicircular canals, that it is only under special
experimental conditions that we are aware of the sensations of
rotation, and that it is absurd to suppose that such a sense should
only now be discovered. But though ice pay no attention, as a
rule, to messages coming to our brain from the ampullae, the motor
centres of the muscles of our eyeballs are not so negligent, and we
benefit here, as in many other cases, by reflex action, of which we
may be nearly or quite unconscious.
The conclusion to which the foregoing considerations seem to
lead us is, that we see things fixed which are fixed in relation to
our lines of glance — that is, the lines along which we look during
the usually short intervals between jerks of the eye. This is all so
clearly expressed by Prof. Mach in his Beitrdge zur Analyse der
EmpfindungeUy that one is surprised to find in the same book what
seems a direct contradiction.
“ Wir dachten ims bisher der Einfacbheit wegen imr die fixirenden Augen
bewegt, hingegen den Kopf (und nberhaupt den Korper) ruhig. Drelien wir
nun den Kopf ganz beliebig, obne ein optisches Object absichtlich ins Auge
zu fassen, so bleiben die Objecte hierbei ruhig. Zugleich kann aber ein
anderer Beobachter bemerken, dass die Augen wie reibungslose trage Massen
an den Drehbewegungen keinen Antheil nehmen. Noch auffallender wird
der Vorgang, wenn man sich continuirlich langere Zeit um die Verticalaxe,
von oben gesehen etwa im Sinne des Uhrzeigers, herumdreht. Die offenen
Oder geschlossenen Augen drehen sich dann, wie Breuer beobachtet hat,
etwa zehnmal auf eine voile Umdrehung des Korpers gleichmassig
verkehrt wie der Uhrzeiger, und ebenso oft r u c k w e i s e im Sinne des
Uhrzeigers zuriick.” ... “ Niemand wird sich bei Wiederholung der
Beobachtung der Ueberzeugung verschliessen konnen, dass man es mit einer
durch die Korperdrehung refiectorisch ausgelosten automatischen (unbewus-
sten) Augenbewegung zu thun hat. Wie diese Bewegung zu Stande kommt,
bleibt natiirlich zu untersuchen. Eine einfache Vorstellung ware die, dass von
1894-95.] Prof. Crum Brown on Normal Nystagmus.
355
zvvei antagonistischen Innervationsorganen der ihnen bei der Korperdrehung
gleichmassig zufliessende Reiz, von detn einen wieder mit einem gleichmassi-
gen Innervationsstrom beantwortet wird, wahrend das andere immer erst nach
einer gewissen Zeit wie ein geflillter und plotzlich umkippender Regenmesser
einen Innervationsstoss abgibt. Fiir uns geniigt es vorlaufig zu wissen, dass
diese automatische conipensirende unbewusste Augenbewegung thatsachlich
vorhanden ist.
“Die langsamere unbewusste compensirende Augenbewegung (die ruckweise
hinterlasst keinen optischen Eindruck) ist also die Ursache, dass die Objecte
bei Kopfdrehungen ihren Ort beizubehalten scheinen, was fiir die Orientirung
sehr wichtig ist. Drehen wir nun mit dera Kopf in demselben Sinn, das
fixirte Object wechselnd, auch willkiirlich die Augen, so miissen wir
durch die willkurliche Innervation die automatische unwillkiirliche ii b e r-
compensiren. Wir bediirfen derselben Innervation, als ob der ganze
Drehungswinkel vom Auge allein zuriickgelegt worden ware. Hierdurch
kliirt es sich auf, warum, wenn wir uns umdrehen, der ganze optische Raum
uns als ein Continuum und nicht als ein Aggregat von Gesichtsfeldern
erscheint, und warum hierbei die optischen Objecte festliegend bleiben.
Was wir beim Umdrehen von unserm eigenen Korper sehen, sehen wir aus
klarliegenden Griinden optisch bewegt.
“So gelangen wir also zu der praktisch werthvollen Yorstellnng unseres
bewegten Korpers in einem festliegenden Raum e.” (Pp. 59-61.)
“ Wirstellen uns auf eine Briickeund betrachten das unter derselben durch-
fliessende Wasser. Dann empfinden wir gewohnlich uns in Ruhe, das
Wa ss er aber in Bewegung. Liingeres Hinblicken auf das Wasser hat aber
bekanntlich fast regelmassig zur Folge, dass plotzlich die Briicke mit dem
Beobachter und der ganzen Umgebung dem Wasser entgegen in Bewegung zu
gerathen scheint, wahrend umgekehrt das Wasser den Anschein der Ruhe
gewinnt. Die relative Bewegung der Objecte ist in beiden Fallen
dieselbe, und es muss demnach einen triftigen physiologischen
Grund haben, warum bald der eine, bald der andere Theil der Objecte bewegt
empfunden wird. Um dies bequem
untersuchen zu konnen, habe ich mir
einen einfachen Apparat construirt, der
in Figur 18 dargestellt ist. Ein einfach
gemusterter Ledertuchlaufteppich wird
horizontal iiber zwei 2 m lange, 3 m
von einander in Lagern befestigte Wal-
zen gezogen, und mit Hlilfe einer Kurbel
in gleichmassige Bewegung gesetzt. Quer
iiber den Teppich, etwa 30 cm iiber
demselben, ist ein Faden ff mit einem Knoten K gespannt, der deni bei A
aufgestellten Beobachter als Ruhepunkt fiir das Auge dient. Folgt der
Beobachter mit den Augen den Zeichn ungen des im Sinne des Pfeiles
bewegten Teppichs, so sieht er diesen in Bewegung, sich und die Umgebung
aber ruhig. Fixirt er hingegen den Knoten, so glaubt er alsbald mit dem
ganzen Zimmer dem Pfeile entgegen in Bewegung zu gerathen, wahrend er den
Teppich fiir stillstehend halt. Dieser Wechsel des Anblicks vollzieht sich je
nach der Stimmung in liingerer oder kiirzerer Zeit, gewohnlich nach einigen
Secunden. Weiss man einmal, worauf es ankommt, so kann man ziemlich
356 Proceedings of Boy al Society of Edinburgh. [sess,
rasch iind willkiirlicli mit den beiden Eindriicken wechseln. Jedes Verfolgeii
des Teppichs bringt den Beobacbter zum Steben, jedes Fixiren von K oder
Nichtbeachten des Teppiclis, wobei dessen Zeicbnungen verschwimmen, setzt
den Beobacbter in Bewegung.” (Pp. 65, 66.) ^
My experience does not coincide with that of Prof. Mach, as
given in the passage last quoted. When I look over the
parapet of a bridge at the water flowing below, I see the water
move and the bridge steady when my lines of glance are fixed
relatively to the bridge, but I can fix points in the moving water,
masses of froth, or eddies, or hits of stick ; and when I do so, and
jerk my eyes from one portion of the moving mass to another, then
my lines of glance being fixed relatively to the water, I see the
water at rest and the bridge moving. In the same way, on a moon-
light night, when there are light clouds in the sky, we can see the
moon moving and the clouds fixed, or the clouds moving and the
moon fixed, according as our lines of glance are fixed relatively to
the clouds or to the moon. So when, in a railway station, there
is another train alongside of ours, and one of the trains begins to
move, we can see either our own train or the other one moving,
that train seeming fixed which is fixed relatively to our lines of
glance.
1894-95.] Dr Gilchrist on Torsion of the Molluscan Body. 357
On the Torsion of the Molluscan Body. By J. D. P.
Gilchrist, M.A., B.Sc., Ph.D. Communicated hy Professor
Ewart, F.R.S.
(Read January 21, 1895.)
There is strong evidence for supposing that the Mollusca are
derived from a bilaterally symmetrical animal, having a median
digestive tract and lateral excretory organs. This animal was
further characterised by the physiological character of its dorsal
integument, which had the property of secreting a peculiar sub-
stance— conchiolin. This, though in itself capable of affording
some protection to the animal, becomes impregnated with carbonate
of lime, thus providing the animal with a hard coating sufficient
to resist the attacks of all but the most powerful of its enemies,
while at the same time it forms a strong external skeleton to which
the muscles of the body can be attached. This conchiolin, how-
ever, unlike chitin, does not seem to lend itself to the formation of
jointed appendages or metameric segmentation, with which we are
so familiar in another group, the Arthropoda.
These are the primary facts on which the general features of the
Mollusca are mapped out, and to which they owe their well circum-
scribed character as a group. Other secondary factors come in
which determine the classification of the sub-groups, and, as we
shall see, tend to modify even the primary characters we have
mentioned. These depend on the various modes in which the
animal can utilise for the purpose of protection the calcareous
plates or shells with which it is provided. One common mode is
by a number of such plates along the dorsal surface, so arranged
that even when the animal is detached from its support they are
capable of being so folded together as to inclose the animal com-
pletely— a mode of protection similar to that adopted by the
armadillo among Mammalia. Mollusca protected in this way belong
to the group which has been named the Polyplacophora. Such an
arrangement evidently does not interfere with the primitive bilateral
symmetry of the animal, and this group approaches nearer to the
type of the primitive Mollusc than any other.
358 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgli. [sess.
It may happen, however, that the animal takes to other modes
of life, or acquires other means of defence, and the old and some-
what inconvenient mode of protection is rendered superfluous, and
is dispensed with. Thus we find a group — the Ajplacophora —
where in the adult all traces of a shell are lost.
Another well marked division of the Mollusca is constituted by
those forms protected by two shells only. These are laterally
placed, and by being closely approximated can afford a secure protec-
tion for the animal which lies in the space between them. Such
an arrangement would be, of course, impracticable in a crawling
animal, but is well adapted to the peculiar mode of feeding of this
animal. Such a mode of protection has a modifying effect on the
head and foot region, but the bilateral symmetry of the animal is
still retained. This group might be called the Di;placopliora. Some
of these forms (e.y., Galeomma) may be regarded as exhibiting a ten-
dency towards an aplacophorous condition.
By far the greater majority of the Mollusca, however, are animals
which possess, or have possessed, a single shell as a means of protec-
tion. This group might be called the Monoflacofhora. The shell,
being capable at all times of containing the animal, must necessarily
be in the form of a gradually enlarging tube. In its growth it may
increase equally all round its edge, in which case it assumes a conical
shape j or it may grow more at one side than the other, in which
case it has a coiled form of a definite geometrical shape. In animals
which have a burrowing mode of life (Dentalium), or are free-
swimming (Xautilus), the carrying of this heavy burden has little
or no effect on the bilateral symmetry of the body ; but in the case
of the Gasteropoda or crawling forms, where the animal has to bear
the weight of its shell, an entirely new factor is introduced, viz.,
a torsion of the body. At the side, usually the left, on which the
shell bears most heavily, the gill, nephridium, &c., either become
wholly atrophied, or change their position so as to lie on the
opposite side. There is a corresponding change in the organs of the
right side, which pass over towards the left ; and in the anus, which
now comes to occupy an anterior position. Spengel has pointed
out a striking confirmation of this in the crossing of the pleuro-
visceral nerves brought about by this torsion.
In this group — the Monoplacophora — we find, as we did in the
1894-95.] Dr Gilchrist on Torsion of the Molluscan Body. 359
Polyplacophora, the same phenomenon of the disappearance of
the shell in forms which, from emhryological and anatomical
evidence, we know to have been once possessed of a shell — as
in the groups of the Cephalopods, the Pteropods, the Pulmonates,
and the Opisthobranchs. The indirect reasons for dispensing
with a shell have probably been the acquiring of other means of
safety — such as new organs of defence and offence, protective re-
semblance, &c.
The question arises as to what becomes of the torsion of the body
in those forms in which its mechanical cause (the shell) is removed.
The chief object of the present paper is to note the results which
have followed this process, which is none the less a true physio-
logical experiment that it has been performed by nature. Is this
twisting of the body undone ? Does the organism regain its primitive
symmetry ? Do the atrophied organs reappear ?
The group of the Opisthobranchs is peculiarly suited for this
investigation, as we find in it all stages from the shelled to the
completely shell-less forms. In describing the various changes in
the topography which follow the removal of the shell, chief atten-
tion will be paid to the position of the pallial cavity (shaded part
in figures), the position of the gill (indicated by its line of
attachment to the body), the position of the heart, and of the
nephridial, genital, and anal apertures. A description of the neph-
ridium itself would have been of great interest, but enough material
was not at hand for this investigation. Due allowance must be
made for possible contraction and contortion caused by fixing re-
agents. The specimens examined were chiefly from Naples : some
of the rarer forms were kindly sent me by Mr J. P. Hill, University
of Sydney, and were useful for comparison.
"We may note, in the first place, certain general features of the
organism in the shelled forms. There are two parts of the body
which must bear a definite relation to the shell, and therefore to
each other, viz., the mantle which secretes the shell and the foot,
which, along with the whole animal, can be withdrawn into the
shell for protection. When, however, the shell disappears, these
two organs are, as it were, set free to develop in any direction, and
there is practically no limit to their possible transformation. As a
matter of fact, we do find very different lines of development taken
360 Proceedings of Boyal Society of Edinhurgli. [sess.
in different forms. This has an important bearing on the topo-
graphy of the body.
Fig. 1 represents the relative positions of the organs in the pallial
cavity of a Prosobranch. The figure is diagrammatic. It must be
remembered that the gill and osphradium are attached to the roof
of the mantle cavity, and are thus drawn up into a position in which
the osphradium is to the actual left of the gill. It will be noted
that the gill and osphradium are situated to the left in the mantle
cavity, and that the latter is in a direct line, with a funnel-like pro-
longation of the mantle (the siphon). This left side may be regarded
as the inhalent side, and the right side as the excretory j and it
would appear that the necessity (endeavour*?) of getting a pure
supply of water, and the formation of an external organ (siphon) to
appreciate the direction of stimuli, have something to do with the
position of this organ. As a result we have the pallial cavity
brought forward and to the left.
These considerations will explain the condition which we find in
the first Opisthobranch we take up, viz.. Bulla. There is no turreting
of the shell, a condition associated with the position of the mantle.
Fig. 2 will show that the position of the pallial organs is quite
different from that in the case just mentioned. The gill is now
1894-95.] Dr Gilchrist on Torsion of the Molluscan Body. 361
turned towards the right side, and the heart lies obliquely to the
body, almost in the reverse direction to that in fig. 1. The most
noteworthy change is, however, in the osphradium, both as to its
structure and position. It has become quite a rudimentary organ,
its function being probably taken up by a new set of organs alto-
gether, viz., two patches of olfactory epithelium on either side of
the head region (fig. 2, rhin.). We shall see that these new organs
become more highly developed, and finally appear as well differen-
tiated “ rhinophora,” with which the simpler form is probably
homologous. Meanwhile the osphradium becomes completely rudi-
mentary, and finally disappears altogether. It will be seen from
the figure that the genital opening lies well within the pallial
cavity, and that the anus occupies a posterior position ; the mantle
itself is also of less extent than in fig. 1.
The next form we take up is Acera (fig. 3). The foot here is
much larger, and extends laterally in the form of distinct “ pleuro-
podia.” The gill faces slightly more towards the posterior, but the
heart does not point in the posterior direction so much as in Bulla.
This is perhaps due to the fact that the pallial cavity may be firmly
closed by a sphincter-like contraction, in which the anterior limb of
the gill attachment is drawn away from the heart and sidewards.
This mechanism may be observed in the living animal, the slightest
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
362 Proceedings of Eoyal Soeiety of Edinburgh. [sess.
touch at the entrance of the pallial cavity being sufficient to cause
it to be abruptly closed. Perhaps also to be explained by this is
the fact that the genital opening has now considerably changed its
position, so that, when this contraction occurs, it is completely shut
out from the pallial cavity. This is the first indication of the wide
separation of the genital opening from the others, which is so
marked a feature of many other forms among the Opisthobranchs.
In Acera, also, we find the first trace of the disappearance of the
shell. It is thin and membraneous. This condition is evidently to
be attributed to the change in the position of its secreting organ, the
mantle, — for it, like the foot and the animal generally, shows a ten-
dency to come out of the shell. It lies partially reflected over the
outside of the shell. We do not therefore necessarily require to
call in the aid of natural selection to account for the disappearance
of the shell.
Such forms as Doridium (fig. 4) or Philine (practically fig. 4) are
illustrations of further progress in the same direction. Here the
pallial organs are turned much further backward ; the shell is now
completely enveloped by the mantle; the visceral region is about
equal to the cephalic region.
The forms we have been considering are all animals in which the
first stages only of the disappearance of the shell are seen, viz., it
becomes enveloped by the mantle ; the coiling becomes less marked
1894-95.] Dr Gilchrist on Torsion of the Molluscan Body, 363
and wider, a fact no doubt due to the diminished rate of growth of
the shell in proportion to the growth of the animal ; and this, again,
is connected with the enveloping by the mantle.
The fact that there is present a shell still capable of containing
part of the viscera has an important bearing on the position of the
mantle cavity. Viewing the animal from above, as in the diagrams,
it would appear as if the mantle and organs associated with it were
shifted to the posterior of the body. This, however, is not to be
considered as actually the case if we are to compare these forms
with others in which the shell is quite flattened out, and where the
viscera formerly contained in the coiled shell now descend into the
foot. Here the shell and visceral mass have merely fallen or
been dragged backwards, and there is not a true morphological
translation of parts. This position, which it is difficult to regard as
other than the result of a purely mechanical strain, is also reflected
in the dragging backward and twisting of the heart (see figs.).
The habits and environment of the animals are quite in keeping
with this, as they are found (especially Doridium and Philine)
crawling amongst debris and mud or sand.
Before leaving the Cephalaspidea we may mention a form —
Gasteropteron — belonging to this group, but which does not fit in
very well either to this division or those following, owing to the fact
that it is adapted to a pelagic or semipelagic mode of life. It
presents nothing of much interest in the torsion of the body. The
pallial organs lie on the right side ; the shell and mantle are much
reduced, especially the former.
With the exception of this form, we have found that the shell in
the Cephalaspidea is still an important structure to which the rest
of the organism must be conformed. When, however, we pass
over into the group where the shell is quite flattened out or dis-
appears, these two organs — the mantle and the foot — begin to
show peculiar specialisations, and become, as the shell formerly
was, important factors in determining the topography of the
body. There are two extremes : — 1st, the foot may be much en-
larged, and specialised into locomotory and respiratory organs, while
the mantle remains small or disappears ; 2nd, or vice versa^ the mantle
may enlarge and the foot remain stationary in its development.
364 Proceedings of Boyal Society of Edinhurgli. [sess.
Taking first the forms in which the foot preponderates, we come
to a number of molluscs of which Aplysia is a type. The forms
examined were various species of Aplysia, Dolabrifera, Dolahella,
Notarchus, and Lobiger. These do not differ in any important
detail as to the position of the pallial cavity, and fig. 5 (of Aplysia)
will serve to give a general idea of the position of the pallial organs
of the whole. These are all situated on the dorsal part of the
animal, in contrast to the previous group, where they had a tendency
to be turned towards the right side of, and even partly under, the
visceral mass. There is here no dragging backwards of any part, as
indicated specially by the position of the heart. In Aplysia the
pallial organs are crowded into the middle dorsal position by the
surrounding pleuropodia, thus approaching a well-known Nudb
branch arrangement (fig. 6). This is even more marked in Dola-
brifera, where the pleuropodia (more particularly the left) tend to
disappear, and the “ pallial complex ” is much reduced, as in the
Nudibranchs, the resemblance to which is still further increased by
the posterior position of the mantle cavity. Several species of
Aplysia examined showed, on the other hand, transition stages
between the position met with in the Cephalaspidea and that de-
scribed here for Aplysia limacina, A. depilans, &c. This was found
to be the case in A. piperata, A. brasiliana, &c.
1894-95.] Dr Gilchrist on Torsion of tlio Molluscan Body. 365
Dolahella and Nofcarchus may be regarded as specialisations in
the opposite direction where the pleuropodia, instead of climbing
up the side of the animal as it were, increase so much both above
and below the viscera as to envelop them like a sac.
Lobiger is interesting, as showing a tendency of the pleuropodia
to divide into lobes, perhaps foreshadowing the numerous dorsal pro-
cesses of the Nudibranchs.
There is nothing calling Tor special nbtice in the arrangement in
Umbrella, which is adapted for a special mode of life — lying buried
in mud and debris. The most striking features are ithe large foot
and the development of the mantle edge into finger-like sensory and
glandular processes, instead of being reflected over the shell. The
great extension of the gill is also noteworthy, and the transforma-
tion of the anterior part of it prepare us for the greater transforma-
tion we meet with in the Nudibranchs.
We have been following the line of development in which the
anal, nephridial, and genital opening, along with the gill, tend to
take up a median and posterior position, this being obviously in co-
ordination with the growth of the pleuropodia (foot). A gap in the
series occurs here ; and it is not till we pass over into the hfudi-
branchs that we find further change in this direction, and these
changes are then so radical as to throw doubts on the homology of
some of the parts. For instance, in Polycera (fig. 6) the anal and
Fig. 6.
366 Proceedings of Eoyal Society of Edinhurgh. [sess.
nephridial openings are practically in the middle line, and are
surrounded by the gill ; but so different is the structure of this gill
that it might well be a new formation. Again, we may ask are the
dorsal processes or cerata (cer.) the homologues of the pleuropodia ?
The genital opening is now near the head region, in the position of
the anterior end of the genital furrow (fig. 5, gen. /.) in previous
forms.
In the case of Fiona (fig. 7) the gill has disappeared, and the
function of respiration seems to be entirely performed by the dorsal
processes, which have greatly increased in number.
Fig. 7.
In both these forms we meet, for the first time, with a total dis-
appearance of the osphradium along with the pallial cavity. There
are, however, well developed rhinophora in the head region.
As to the homology of parts here suggested, it cannot be main-
tained with absolute certainty ; but the line of development we
have been following in the Tectibranchs has prepared us for every
one of the transformations we now meet with in these Nudibranchs.
Another line of development is, however, to be traced from the
Acera type. The mantle may preponderate in development, causing
a considerable displacement of the pallial organs, not as before,
towards the dorsal surface, but rather laterally and ventrally. The
1894-95.] Dr Gilchrist on Torsion of the Molluscan Body. 367
mantle cavity proper disappears, and the mantle projects on all
sides, leaving a groove between it and the foot. The pallial organs
lie in this groove on the right side, and show some important varia-
tions in position.
Pleurobranchus (fig. 8) may he taken as a type of this arrange-
ment. The various pallial organs are arranged practically in a line.
There are well developed rhinophora; no osphradium, hut in its
place an opening (gl) which leads into a glandular sac of unknown
function. I^ephridial opening and gill are situated alongside of
each other, while the anus is just behind the gill.
A closely allied form, Pleurobranchea (fig. 9), diflfers curiously in
some details. The foot shows no broadening out as in Pleuro-
branchus : the mantle is reduced to a mere ledge round the body,
and the shell has been found to exist only in a very reduced condi-
tion. The genital opening is further removed from the head region
and the gland above mentioned; gill and nephridial opening are
situated posteriorly, and occupy a striking position relatively to each
other. As will be seen from the figure, the gill is now the leading
organ in the backward retreat. It is difficult to suppose this to be
the result of a “ favourable variation,” as it is just between two
excretory organs. Perhaps this has something to do with the fact
that in passing over to the Nudibranchs we find a form in which
368 , Proceedings of Boyal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
the gill has disappeared, while the respiratory function is taken up
by a number of lamellae, into which the edge of the mantle has
split up (compare a similar phenomenon in Patella). This is the
case in Pleurophyllidia, the relative position of whose pallial organs
agrees with that in Pleurobranchea. From this the further step
towards the condition in Tritonia is easy — where the mantle pro-
cesses become divided up into typical l^udibranch appendages, the
mantle organs still retaining the lateral linear position.
Conclusions.
We may sum up what we have now arrived at concerning the
torsion of the Molluscan body looked at from this negative point of
view of the untwisting after torsion. With the disappearance of
the osphradium there is a turning backwards of the pallial complex
(Bulla), and with the falling backwards of the visceral mass there
is a dragging backwards of the heart, and further retreat of the
pallial organs, with diminution of the pallial cavity (Philine).
When the shell becomes flattened out or rudimentary it ceases to
exercise any distorting influence on the body, and the foot and
mantle become the modifying factors, leading to characteristic
variations. In the Nudibranchs the original bilateral symmetry of
the Mollusca (c/. fig. 6) is apparently resumed, but the lost organs
of the one side do not again reappear.
It will have been noted that in all these variations there is
usually present an obvious mechanical cause (coming into play only
during post-embryonic life), such as the inclination of the heavy
shell to one side, causing a one-sided pallial cavity ; the dragging
forward of the mantle by a sensory organ, and backward by excre-
tory organs, both under the control of and exercised by the animal ;
the falling backwards of the shell and visceral mass, due to mode
of life; the consequent dragging backwards of the heart; the
becoming rudimentary of the shell, due to change in the position of
its generating organ, the mantle. Natural selection with indefinite
variation will, of course, account for these changes, as it will for
any change that cannot be proved to be positively injurious to the
animal or the species. Such a proof is perhaps impossible, yet
every case of possible definite variation with a possible mechanical
1894-95.] Dr Gilchrist on Torsion of the Molluscan Body, 369
cause increases the probability against the latter solution being
applicable to all cases.
Finally, we may note the significance of the indications we have
met with in the Tectibranchiata, that there are two lines of develop-
ment, according to the relative preponderance of the mantle or foot.
We have traced these through intermediate forms to what appear
to be two corresponding groups in the FTudibranchiata. Judging
from this evidence alone, therefore, we would presume that the
cerata are neither the homologues of the mantle (Pelseneer) nor of
the foot (Herdman), but that they may be the one or the other in
different cases, and there is no reason why they should not some-
times be both. Professor Herdman has shown that the cerata are
not innervated exclusively by the pleuro-visceral nerves (mantle
nerves), as was previously supposed, nor by the pedal nerves
(pleuropodial nerves), but that they are innervated from the one
or the other, or both sources, in different forms. He infers from
this that here innervation is not to be trusted as a guide to homo-
logy of parts. If, however, these apparently conflicting facts be
taken in conjunction with the lines of development in the imme-
diate ancestors of the group, it will be apparent that they afford
valuable confirmatory evidence for the conclusions here arrived at,
viz., that the various forms in the Nudibranchiata are to be referred
back for interpretation to the Tectibranchiata, where there may be
preponderance of the mantle on the one hand or the foot on the
other, or maybe equal development of both, for it is not to be
supposed that the two lines of development are the only alterna-
tives, or even that they are exclusive of each other (Doris ?). Other
variations certainly exist in the Nudibranchiata, only a few forms
of which we have considered.
[Explanation
37 0 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh.
[SESS.
EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.
Positions are given as viewed from above, except (as in the osphradium, fig.
1, and the nephridial opening, fig. 5) where this does not indicate true morpho-
logical position, for reasons explained in the text. The shaded part indicates
the extent of the pallial cavity. The lettering in all the figures is the
same, viz. : —
an. , anal opening.
au.f auricle.
cer., cerata.
ct., ctenidium.
gen.j genital opening.
gen.f., genital furrow.
gl., gland.
neph., nephridial opening.
os., osphradium.
pleur., pleuropodia.
rhin., rhinophora.
siph., siphon.
tent., tentacles.
ven., ventricle.
Fig. 1. A siphonate Prosobranch.
Fig. 2. Bulla.
Fig. 3. Acera.
Fig. 4. Doridium.
Fig. 5. Aplysia.
Fig. 6. Polycera.
Fig. 7. Fiona.
Fig. 8. Pleurobranchus.
Fig. 9. Pleurobranchea,
1894-95.] on ProUem of Sylvester' s in Elimination. 371
Further Note on a Problem of Sylvester’s in Elimination.
1. A first note on this subject, viz., the elimination of x, y, z
from the equations
was communicated to the Society in April 1892. By reason of my
immediate departure for South Africa, the manuscript was not
prepared for the press, and the paper was consequently not printed
until this year. In the meanwhile, both Professor Tait and Lord
McLaren had written notes on the subject, under the impression, I
fear, that the object of my original paper was to obtain in any way
an easy solution of the problem.
2. The method of elimination which Professor Tait employs
(Proc., xix. pp. 131, 132) is the so-called Method of Symmetric
Functions. He puts the equations in the form
solves as it were for and substitutes in the identity
Lord M‘Laren’s method (Proc.^ xix. pp. 264, 265) is the same : but
he solves for ^/r;, in the first and second equations, and sub-
stitutes in the third. The eliminant is obtained as a square in both
cases, although in the latter this is overlooked.
By Thomas Muir, LL.D.
(Read May 6, 1895.)
3. If it had formed part of my plan to go outside the dialytic
372
Proceedings of Boyal Society of Edinburgh, [sess.
method, I might have given a solution founded on the same prin-
ciple as these, but much simpler by reason of the fact that the
particular form of the equations renders the actual solution of them
unnecessary. For, as they stand, each equation may he viewed as
an assertion regarding the sum of its roots; and, writing them
explicitly in this form, we have
1+f
1+1
i i
= 2«3
= 2^1 ■
= 2%
and therefore by multiplication
yj2 ^2 ^2 y-2 ^
= + ief‘ + - 4 ,
which is the desired result.
My printed paper shows, however, that I had a more important
object than this in view.
4. The first fresh point to which I now wish to direct attention
is the question of the occurrence of the eliminant in the form of a
square. In elucidation of it we cannot do better than take a more
general set of equations than Sylvester’s, and observe the way in
which the eliminant of the former degenerates into that of the
latter.
Such a set of equations is
Kif - 2C'xy + ~ ^ )
~ 2A'yz + ^ ^ i^)
-2B'zx + Fz^ = 0 ) ^
where in the third terms P, Q, E, take the places of the A, B, C of
the original set, and where each equation is derived from another
of the set by changing the letters in accordance with the diagrams
1894-95.] Dr Muir on ProUem of Sylvester's in Elimination. 373
5. From (a) we first obtain the set corresponding to Sylvester’s
derived set for the simpler problem, viz.,
2CQA'.t2 +(ABC + PQK)yz- 2BCC'zo;- 2QBB'zy = 0
2AEBy - 2RPCV^ + (ABC + PQR>a;- 2CAA'xy = 0
2BPC'z2 - 2km yz - 2PQ A’^^ + (ABC + T(iU)xy = 0
the mode of derivation being indicated by the operational formula
PB^2(ai) - PQa;2(a2) - BAy2(a3) = - xy(/3^) .
6. Another similar set is got by solving (a) for x'^, z^ in terms
of yz^ zXf xy, viz..
(ABC + PQR)z2 = 2RPC'icy + 2 ABB'^a; - 2APAy '
(ABC + PQR)y2 = 2BCC'xy - 2BqB'zx + 2PQA'y^ -
(ABC + PQR)22 = _ 2GBC'xy + 2QRB'zx + 2CAAV2;
• • (y)
7. Substituting in (/3) for xy, yz, zx by means of (a) we obtain
three equations in y’^, viz..
2A'(2CQA'B'C' - BC^C'^ - B'^Q,m)x^
+ B'{(ABC + PQR)RC' - 2AQRA'B'}y2
+ C'{(ABC + PQR)BB' - 2BCPA'C'}22 = 0 . . . (8)
and two others.
8. From (a), as we have seen, x'^ can be expressed in terms of
yz, zx, xy, so that substitution in (^j) gives us a set in yz, zx, xy,
viz.,
2QR{(ABC + PQR)B'-2CPA'C' }xy
+ {4ACPQA'2 - (ABC + PQR)2}yz
+ 2BC{(ABC + PQR)C'-2AQA'B'}saj = 0 . . (c)
9. Proceeding in a converse way, viz., using (^^) and to give
us and 2^, each expressed in terms of yz, zx, xy, and then substi-
374 Proceedings of Eoyal Society of Ediribiirgh. [sess.
tuting in (a), we obtain another set in the same variables. The
result is
B{2AQA'B'-C(ABC + PQE)} yz
+ 2 (B2CC'2 - 2BQ A'B'C' +
+ Q{2BBB'C'- A'(ABC + PQB)}ir2/ = 0 . . . (^
and two others.
10. Lastly, by eliminating xy from (/Ig) and (yg), we have the
equations in it*, y, z, viz.,
2QE{(ABC + PQE)B' - 2CPA'C' }x
+ 2AC{(ABC + PQE)A' - 2BEB'C' }y
+ {4BCPEC'2-(ABC + PQE)2}2: = 0. . . (y).
and two others.
11. From these sets of equations several forms of the eliminant
are obtainable. All of them are a little forbidding in appearance,
and the calculation of the expansion of them may seem trouble-
some ; but if attention be paid to the fact that any term leads to
two others by means of cyclical substitution, the work will be found
comparatively easy. ^ The same fact makes it also desirable to use
a symbol, such as 2, for shortly expressing cyclical sums of three
terms. Thus
iBC . EP . C'2
would stand for
BC • EP . C'2 + CA . PQ . A'2 + AB • QE • B'2,
where, it may be observed, the multiplication points are used to
separate the letters of one cycle from those of another.
12. Perhaps, for our present purpose, the best form of writing
the eliminant, as thus calculated, is
(ABC + PQE)^ 4- 64ABC • PQE . A'^B'^C'^ + 32ABC • PQE • A'B'C'(ABC 4- PQE)
- 8(ABC 4- PQE)(4A'B'C' 4- ABC 4- PQE)2(AB • QE • B'2)
4- 16(A2B2C2 4- P2Q2E2)I:(A • Q • A'B')
4-16l:(A2B2.Q2E2.B'4)
- 8(ABC4-PQE)(ABC-PQE)2A'B'C'.
1894-95.] T)v Mxxiv on ProUem of Sylvester s in Elimination. 375
It is seen to be of the 12 th degree, so that the seemingly small
increase in generality made in Sylvester’s equations by putting in
one place P, Q, K for A, B, C raises the degree of the eliminant
from the 3rd to the 12th. This is the more noteworthy, because
had the full increase in generality been made — that is to say, had
the given equations been any three ternary quadrics whatever — the
degree of the eliminant would have been no higher.
13. Putting now P, Q, R = A, B, C, we first notice that the last
term - 8(ABC + PQR)(ABC - PQR)2A'B'C' disappears, and then
that the remaining portion becomes
IGA^B^C^ + 64A2B2C2 • A'2B'2C'2 + GIASB^C^ . A'B'C'
- 32 ABC(ABC + 2 A'B'C')(AB • BC • B'2 + BC • CA • C'2 + CA • AB • A'2)
+ 32A2B2C2(A . B . A'2B'2 + B • C • B'2C'2 + C • A •
+ 16(A2B2 . B2C2 . B'4 + B2C2 . C2A2 . C'2 + C2A2 . A2B2 . A'4) .
Of this 16A2B2C2 is a factor, and the cofactor is
A2B2C2 + 4A'2B'2C'2 + 4 ABC • A'B'C'
- 2(ABC + 2 A'B'C')(BB'2 + CC'2 + AA'2)
+ 2(AB . A'2B'2 + BC • B'2C'2 + CA • C'2A'2)
+ (B2B'4 + C2C'^ + A2A'4),
which is easily seen to be the square of
ABC + 2A'B'C' - AA'2 _ ^B'2 - CC'2 .
14. But now that the more general eliminant has been calcu-
lated, a most important property of it makes its appearance, viz.,
that it is symmetrical with respect to the interchange
/A, B, C\
Vq, R, P/ .
An examination of the original equations shows (see § 17) that this
is as it ought to be, and the hope is raised that a determinant form
of the eliminant may be discovered which will bear the said sym-
metry clearly on the face of it. After many trials I have succeeded
in obtaining this very interesting determinant form, the equations
from which it is derived being those which involve the compound
variables
y?? , zx^ , cry2 , xyz .
376
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh.
15. Taking the four equations
[SESS.
Ayh - 2G'xyz + Qx^z = O'l
Bz^ - 2A'yz^ + Byh = 6
Cx^z-2B'z^x+Bz^ =0j
Bxz^ - 2A!xyz + Bxy^ = 0 J
which are got from the original equations simply by multiplying by
z and a?, we see that y\ z^, <^x may he dialytically eliminated.
Doing this we have
or
A . (^xh. - 20! xyz
B B . - 2A'yz‘^
P . - 2B' Cxh
B Bxy"^ - 2A'xyz
= 0,
2ABA'yz^ + (ABC + + 2 ARB'^y^ _ (2KPC' + 4AA'B>y^ = 0 .
From this, by the cyclical substitution, two other equations in the
same variables are obtained, and therefore only one more is wanted
for elimination. Now the original equations may he written
Ay^ - C'xy = C'xy - 1
Bz^^ - A!yz = A!yz - j.
- B'zx = B'zx - P^2 J
and thus by multiplication we have
or {Ay - Q'x)i^z - h!y){Cx - B'z) = {Cy - (^x){A!z - Ry)(B'aj - P^)
(ABC + PQE - 2A'B'C').t2/z + 2(CC'A' - QRB')*^^/ + 1:(RB'C' - CAA')a^/ = 0
Again, from the original equations it is clear that
2{B'Ry - 3A'B'^ - A!Cx){Ay^ - 2G'xy + = 0 ,
and this, after performing the operations indicated, we find to he
l^A!B'axyz + i(QRB' - CG'A!)xhj - 2(5RB'C' + CAA') V = 0 . . . .
But the coefficients of xhj in (i) and (ii) differ only in sign, conse-
quently by addition we have the equation of the desired form, viz.,
- ^(4RB'C' + 2CA.M)Aj + (ABC + PQR + 16A'B'C')a:2/z = 0 .
1894-95.] on ProUem of Sylvester sin Elimination. 377
The four equations thus obtained therefore are
(ABC+PQR)i/02+ 2CQA'2a;2+ 2CRC'a:2/2- (2QRB'+4CC'A>y2=0
2APA'?/z2+ (ABC+PQR)2a;2+ 2ARB'a;2/2- (2RPC'+4AA'B')a;y2=0 f
2BPC'2/22+ 2BQB'2ic2+ (ABC+PQR)a;2/2 _ (2PQA'+4BB'C')a;t/z=0 f
-(2ABB'+4PC'A')?/22-(2BCC'+(4QA'B')zx2_(2CAA'+4RB'C')a;y24.(ABC+PQR+16A'B'C')a;2/2=0 ) ,
and the eliminant derived from them is
ABC + PQR 2CQA' 2CRC' 2QRB' + 4CC'A'
2APA' ABC + PQR 2ARB' 2RPC' + 4AA'B'
2BPC' 2BQB' ABC + PQR 2PQA' + 4BB'C'
2ABB' + 4PC'A' 2BCC' + 4QA'B' 2CAA' + 4RB'C' ABC + PQR + IGA'B'C' .
16. The great interest attaching to this very neat form of the
eliminant lies in the fact that the effect of making the interchange
/A, B, C\
VQ, r, p/
is simply to change rows into columns and vice versa^ so that its
symmetry with respect to the said interchange is evident at a
glance.
Still more interesting is the degenerate form obtained from it
for Sylvester's case. After making the requisite substitution
P, Q, R = A, B, C, the factors 2 A, 2B, 2C, 2, C, A, B can be
struck out, and the result is
B
A'
C'
BB' + 2C'A'
A'
C
B'
CC' + 2A'B'
C'
B'
A
AA' + 2B'C'
BB' + 2C'A'
CC' + 2A'B'
AA' + 2B'C'
ABC + 8A'B'C'
The result to be expected, however, is
B A' C' 2
A' C B'
C' B' A ,
and thus we have the curious identity
B
A'
C'
BB' + 2C'A'
A'
C
B'
CC' + 2A'B'
C'
B'
A
AA' + 2B'C'
BB' + 2C'A'
CC' + 2A'B'
AA' + 2B'C'
ABC + 8A'B'C'
B
A!
C'
=
A'
C
B'
C'
B'
A
2
378 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgh. [sess.
— that is to say, we have found an axisymmetric determinant loliich
is the square of one of its own primary coaxial minors.
To establish this identity directly we have only to subtract from
the 4th row B' times the 1st row, C' times the 2nd row, and A!
times the 3rd row ; for by this operation the first three elements of
the 4th row vanish, and the fourth element becomes
B A' C'
A' C B'
C' B' A .
17. If, instead of choosing the variables zx^^, xif, xyz^ we had
taken the similar set x^y, y\ z?x, xyz, the result would have been
practically the same ; for the set of equations in the latter four
variables is
(ABC+PQR)a;22/+ 2APA'^22;+ 2BPC'2;2a;- (2ABB'+4PC'A')a;2/2 = 0 ^
2CQA'a;2?/+ (ABC+PQR)y224- 2BQB'22a;_ (2BCC'+4QA'B')a;2/2=0 f
2CBC'a;22/+ 2ARB'?/2z+ (ABC+PQR)22a:- (2CAA'+4RB'C>2/^=0 t
- (2QRB'+4CC'A')a:22/ - (2RPC'+4 AA'B')y22 - (2PQA'+4BB'C')z2a;+(ABC+PQE,+16A'B'C')a:2/2=0 J ,
and the eliminant differs from that of the preceding paragraph in
form only, the rows of the one being the columns of the other.
The explanation of this is to be found in the fact that the
interchange
(A, B, C, a:, y, z
Q, E, P, —
^ ' X y z
leaves the original equations unaltered.
18. It might be thought that the equations connecting a?, y^, z^,
xyz would lead to a simple symmetrical form of the eliminant.
This, however, does not seem to be the case, the equations being
(Q2Rj3 + CBy)x3 + 2ARC'i32/3 + 2BPB'y^3 _ 2A')3y . xyz
2CQC'cUc3 + (R2py 4- A2Ca)2/3 + 2BPA'y4:3 - 2B'ya . XlJZ
2CQB'aa;3 + 2ARA'/32/3 + (P2Qa + B‘^AS)z^ - 2C'aj3 . xyz
2CQ A'ic3 + 2 ARB'?/3 + 2BPC'z;3 + ( ABC + PQR + 4:MB'C,')xyz
where a = 4A'2-BC, ;8 = 4B'2-CA, y = 4C'2-AB, and the
eliminant is consequently of the 18th degree.
19. Although the various sets of derived equations in the fore-
going may seem to be obtained from the original set in haphazard
1894-95.] Dr Muir on Prohlem of Sylvester’s in Elimination. 379
ways, such is not necessarily the case ; and it is not difficult to
indicate a general mode of procedure for obtaining them.
From the original equations, by multiplying each in succession
by Xy y, Zy we obtain nine equations in the ten unknowns
x^y y^y z^ ; xhjy y\ z^^x ; xy‘^y yz^y zx? ; xyx .
The tenth equation wanted for the purpose of elimination Sylvester
obtained * by writing the original equations in the form
(Ay - C'x)y + (Qa; - 0'y)x = 0
(fiz- A!y)z + {Ry - A!z)y =0 -
{Vz--B'x)z +{Cx-'B'z)x = 0^
and eliminating z, y, x, the residt being
(Pa;-B'a:)(Ry-A'^)(Qa^-C'y)
+ (Bz - A'y)(Ay - C'a;)(Ca; - B';^) = 0 ,
or
2(CC'A' - QEB>2y + 1:(RB'C' - CAA>y2 + (aBC + PQB - 2 A'B'C>y;2
It is easily shown, however, that this is not the simplest form of
the tenth equation. For from the seventh equation, by multi-
plying by A'B', we have
AA'B'y% + QA'B'^a;2 - 2A'B'C'a!y^
and similarly BB'C% + BB'C'a:y2 - 2 A'B'C'ajye = 9 >
and CC'A'a;2y + PC'A'ys2 - 2A'B'C'xy^ = 0 j
and consequently
tcC'AVy + tviB'C'xy‘‘ - ^M'B'O'xyz = 0.
From this and Sylvester’s equation by subtraction we have
- 2QRB Vy - icAA V + (ABC + PQB + 4A'B'C>2/z = 0 ,
which, besides being much simpler, still retains the property of
symmetry with respect to the interchange
/a, B, C, y, z\
iQ> f t]
and is thus unique.
Now, if we denote x^y y^, z^y a;2y, . . . . , xyz by 1, 2, 3, . . . , 10,
it is seen that the ten equations respectively involve the variables
* For another mode, see § 15.
380 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
1.4, 7
2.5, 8
3, 6, 9
2,4, 7
3, 5, 8
1.6, 9
5, 9, 10
6, 7, 10
4, 8, 10
4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10.
Consequently, if we wish to obtain a relation connecting certain of
the variables, we select m + 1 of these equations involving the said
variables and m others, so that we may be able to eliminate the m
variables which are not desired and retain those which are. Thus,
supposing we wish to obtain four equations involving 1, 2, 3, 10, as
was the case in § 18, we take the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, 6th, 7th equations,
which involve these variables, and four others, viz., 5, 6, 8, 9, and
from these five equations eliminate the latter set of unknowns.
One equation of the desired kind having thus been got, two others
follow from it by cyclical substitution. The requisite fourth equa-
tion, which transforms into itself by the cyclical substitution, is got
by taking the tenth equation along with the first six, and eliminating
the six variables 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
20. The method applies not merely to the variables
. . . ., which are of the 3rd degree. For supposing the equations
in xy, yz^ zx (see § 6) are wanted, we have only to seek for an
equation in xhj, xyz^ zx^, that is, in 1, 4, 10, 9, and, when it has
been got, strike out the common factor x^ and derive the two other
equations by cyclical substitution. The 1st, 6 th, and 8th equations
enable us to do this, as they involve respectively 1,4,7; 1,6,9 ; 6,7,10;
that is to say, only two variables (6, 7) besides those wanted.
Thus, writing the three equations in the form
’ » -1- kxy"^ ~ ^ I
- 2B'ic%) + 'Pz‘^x = 0 1-
- 2A'xyz -t- K.r?/2 + Bz^x = 0 J
1894-95.] Dr Muir on Problem of Sylvester’s in Elimination. 381
we have
qx^-20'x^y
- 2k'xyz
A
K
= 0,
or
x{ - 2APMyz - (ABC + PQR)a;2 + 2 ABB'a-2 + 2V;RC'xy} = 0 ,
as it ought to be.
Further, by making in this the interchange
'A, B, C, X, y, z
Q, R, P,l, -
X y z
we obtain
- 2QCA':c2 _ (ABC + PQR)t/^ + 2qKB'xy + 2BCC'^a; = 0 ,
which is another equation of like form (§ 5).
21. Not essentially different from this general method is another
process which consists in taking the determinant of the 10th order
connected with the above-mentioned ten equations, and transforming
it into a determinant of lower order by adding multiples of rows
(not columns) so as to increase the number of zero elements. For
example, the initial form of the determinant being
Q . .
. R .
. . P
. A .
B
C
-2C'
Q
2A
R
A
-2B'
P
B
-2C'
R
B
-2 A'
-2B'
Q
-2C'
-2A'
-2B'
-QEB' -RPC' -PQA' -CAA' - ABB' -BCC' ABC + PQR + 4 A'B'C'
we may multiply the 4th, 5th, and 6th rows by R, P, Q respectively,
and then subtract from them C, A, B times the 1st, 2nd, 3rd rows
respectively. This gives us
382 Proceedings of Eoyal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
QR
2AA'
.
- 2C'E
-AB
.
.
RP
2BB'
-2A'P
-BC
2CC'
.
PQ
-CA
,
-2B'Q
.
.
A
.
.
Q
-2C'
B R . . -2 A!
G ... V . -2B' ^
-QRB' -RPC' -PQA' -CAA' - ABB' -BCG' ABC + PQR + 4 A'B'C' . j
Here the elements 2AA', 2BB', 2CC' can easily he rendered zero,
and after them the elements - QRB', - RPC', - PQA' in the same
columns. When this has been done the first three columns will
resemble the first three columns of the original determinant, so
that the simplification made upon that determinant can be repeated, 1
with the effect of reducing the order by as much as before. The 9
result then will be
2ARB'
2APA'
cr
- 2EPC' - 4AA'B'
cr
2BPC'
2BQB'
- 2PQA' - 4BB'C'
2CRC'
or
2CQA'
- 2QEB' - 4CC'A'
- 2CAA' - 4RB'C' - 2 ABB' - 4PC'A' - 2BCC' - 4QA'B' o- + 16 A'B'C'
where o- stands for ABC + PQR. How this is exactly the form of
the eliminant found in § 15— a result not to be surprised at if we
consider that the process now gone through is closely allied to the
process of eliminating the six variables y^, y\ z^x from
the ten equations of § 19,
1894-95.] Sodium Mercaptide on Dibromo-Malonic Ether, 383
Note on the Action of Sodium Mercaptide on Dibromo-
Malonic Ether. By Prof. Crum Brown and Robert
Pairbairn, B.Sc.
(Read March 18, 1895.)
We examined the action of sodium mercaptide on dihromo-
malonic ether in the hope that in this way we might obtain the
substance C(S — 02115)2(00002115)2. We found, however, that
the reaction takes a different direction, and that what happens is
represented by the equation
2CBr2(COOC2H,)„ + 4NaSC2H5 = ^coO^h')^ + 2(C2H5)2S2 + 4NaBr .
The same action took place whether the dihromo-malonic ether
was dissolved in ether and gradually added to the sodium mercap-
tide suspended in ether, or the dihromo-malonic ether and the
mercaptide were each dissolved in alcohol and mixed. The product,
after the ether or alcohol was distilled off, was distilled in vacuo.
The fraction passing over between 200° and 250° soon solidified as
a yellow crystalline mass. This was very soluble in benzene, and
very sparingly so in ligroin ; slightly soluble in alcohol, in ether, and
in hot water; practically insoluble in cold water. It was easily
purified by dissolving it in the smallest possible quantity of benzene,
and then adding ligroin. From the mixture the substance sepa-
rated in large transparent monoclinic crystals. Analysis gave the
following results : —
I. 0T914 grm. substance gave 0*3684 CO2 and 0*1173 H2O
II. 0*1878 „ „ 0*3595 „ „ 0*1071 „
■r TT Calculated for
CiAoOs.
C, . . . 52*48 52*22 53*17
H, . . . 6*81 6*33 6*33
The crystals fused at 57°. There could he no doubt that the
substance was the “ dicarhintetracarhonsaure athylester” of Conrad
384 . Proceedings of Eoyal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
and Guthzeit, who give the fusing-point 58° (Liebig’s Annalen^
214, 76).
In the more volatile product, distilling under ordinary pressure
between 150° and 160°, the sulphur was determined : —
0*1812 grm. substance gave 0*689 1 BaS04
S,
Found
. 52*2
Calculated for
(CsHsbS^.
52*4
1894-95.] Dr R. Munro on Lahe-clivelling Research.
385
A Sketch of Lake-dwelling Research. By Robert Munro,
M.A., M.D.
(An Address delivered at the request of the Council, March 4, 1895.)
The comparative security afford sd to birds by island-retreats
could not fail to have attracted the attention of man from the very
dawn of his reasoning faculties, and it is probable that, as
soon as he acquired sufficient skill to enable him to cross a
creek or a river, he occasionally resorted to such means of pro-
tection. From the natural to the artificial island was but a stage
of transition which, in the course of time, would be readily bridged
over by his progress in mechanical knowledge. To some such
sequence in the phenomena of human civilisation must be assigned
the origin of those strange habitations known as lake-dwellings.
As a means of defence, an island-fort, or village, rudely constructed
of timber and situated on the shallow margin of a lake, could offer
but little resistance against an attack conducted on the principles of
modern warfare. Very different, however, would be the result
where the assailers were limited to the appliances in use in pre-
and proto-historic times. On this point we are not without some
historical evidence, as it is recorded that the dwellers in Lake
Prasias successfully defied the military resources of a Persian army ;
and even, as late as 1566, an attacking party from an English
army under Deputy Lord Sydney equally failed to capture a
crannog near Omagh, in Ireland. But whatever may have been
the primary object of these structures, or the precise circumstances
which led to their development, one thing is certain that they
continued, for many centuries, to be the characteristic abodes of
the early inhabitants of Central Europe wherever the necessary
hydrographical conditions were to be found. The remarkable
development of the system in Central Europe during the Stone and
Bronze Ages seems to have come to a sudden end within pre-
historic times, and, indeed, so completely had the custom fallen
into desuetude, that scarcely a trace of it has survived in the
VOL. XX. 6/5/95. 2 B
386 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
traditions or annals of those very countries in which lake-dwellings
were most abundant. To have rescued so singular a phase of
human civilisation from oblivion is one of the greatest triumphs of
pre-historic archaeology. I propose, therefore, to describe briefly
the circumstances which led to the discovery of the sites of so many
of these ancient dwellings, and to convey some general idea of the
extraordinary wealth of archaeological material brought to light
by subsequent investigations.
The actual starting-point of lacustrine research may be dated to
an incident which took place in Dublin upwards of half a century
ago. It appears that early in the spring of 1839 curiosity
was roused at the Museum of the Eoyal Irish Academy by the
frequency of the visits of a local dealer offering for sale objects of
a miscellaneous character, many of which were of rare antiquarian
value. These objects were said to have been found in a peat-bog in
the County of Meath, and their assortment in such a place seemed
so strange to Dr Petrie that he resolved to go and visit the locality.
Accordingly, he and Surgeon Wilde (afterwards Sir W. Wilde)
started in search of the mysterious find, and were conducted to the
peat-bog of Lagore, near the village of Dunshaughlin. Here, within
the boundaries of a drained lake and under a thick covering of
peat, was an artificial mound then partially exposed by peat-cutters.
This mound had been well-known to bone collectors for upwards of
ten years, during which time, it is said, they had dug out and ex-
ported to a factory of bone manure in Scotland no less than 150 cart-
loads of bones. The mound was of a circular shape, slightly raised
above the surrounding plain, and measured 520 feet in circumfer-
ence. Along its margin were “ upright posts of black oak, measuring
from 6 to 8 feet in height ; these were mortised into beams of a
similar material, laid flat upon the marl and sand beneath the bog,
and nearly 16 feet below the present surface. The upright posts
were held together by connecting cross-beams, and fastened by large
iron nails.”
That the nature of this mound was correctly interpreted by these
eminent archaeologists may be gathered from the abstract of Sir
William Wilde’s paper on the Lagore crannog in the Proceedings of
Irish Academy for 1840, from which the above extract is taken.
It would appear, however, that no great efforts were made to secure
1894-95.] Dr R. Munro on Lake-dwelling Research. 387
the relics for the museum, — a circumstance greatly to he regretted,
as this crannog is justly regarded as one of the most important and
richest in archaeological remains ever found in Ireland. The late
Lord Talbot de Malahide, writing in the Archaeological Journal for
June 1849, says : — “A great portion of these valuable relics became
the property of the late Dr Dawson, Dean of St Patrick’s, and on
his decease were purchased, with the rest of his Irish antiquities,
and presented to the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy. Surgeon
Wilde also presented to the same institution a valuable collection of
the bones found in the same locality. Mr Barnwall, the owner of
the soil, still possesses some remnant of this treasure, after having
been plundered to a considerable extent by dishonest servants ;
and those specimens which I possess, representations of some of
which are given in illustration of this paper, I owe to the liberality
and kindness of the same gentleman.”
But, in addition to its wealth of industrial remains, the Lagore
crannog possesses a special value in the fact that frequent references
have been made to it in the Irish Annals. Hence may be deter-
mined with tolerable accuracy the period of its occupancy. Thus,
in 843 A.D., we read that Cinaedh “ plundered the island of Loch
Gabhor and afterwards burned it, so that it was level with the
ground.” It would appear, however, to have been rebuilt after
this catastrophe, as, in the year 933, we find it stated that ‘‘the
island of Loch Gavor was pulled down by Aulair O’Hivair.”
A few months after the discovery at Lagore, an island, “ artificially
formed of timber and peat,” became exposed upon the lowering of
the water in Roughan Lake near Dungannon. Another, in similar
circumstances, came to light in Lough Gur, County Limerick, from
which a vast collection of bones and a number of antiquities were
obtained — among the latter being a stone-mould for casting bronze
spear-heads. Mr Shirley, in his “Account of the Kingdom of
Barney,” describes a crannog which had been previously known as
“ The island Ever MacCooley’s house.” “ The foundations of this
ancient house,” writes Mr Shirley, “ were discovered in the autumn
of 1843, 7 feet below the present surface of the earth, in the
little island at Lisanisk, and 2 feet below the present water level
of the lake a double row of piles were found sunk in the mud ;
they were formed of young trees from 6 to 12 inches in diameter.
388 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinlurgli. [sess.
with the hark on. The area enclosed by these piles, from which
we may judge of the size of the house, was 60 feet in length by 42
feet in breadth.”
Ill 1846 Mr Shirley describes, in the Archaeological Journal, two
other crannogs — one in Lake Monalty and the other in Loch-na-
Glack — which yielded relics of a miscellaneous character, among
them being several objects typical of the Bronze Age, as well as
others of mediaeval and more recent times, such as a gun-barrel and
a pistol-lock.
About this time the crannog of Ballinderry near Moate, County
Meath, became known, which, judging from the number of objects
in the Dublin Museum said to have been found in it, must have
been also rich in relics.
But the most important subsequent discoveries were due to the
workings of the Commission for the Arterial Drainage and Inland
Navigation of Ireland, which brought to light no less than 22
crannogs throughout the Counties of Boscommon, Leitrim, Cavan,
and Monaghan. Deports of these crannogs by the engineers of
the Board of Works, along with plans, maps, sections, and a large
assortment of relics, were deposited at the time in the Museum of
the Eoyal Irish Academy. The objects collected on them would
appear to be of the usual heterogeneous kind, but, unfortunately,
they were indiscriminately mixed up with the other Irish
antiquities in the museum, so that, with the exception of those
illustrated in Wilde’s Catalogue, ' and a small collection which found
a resting-place in the British Museum, few of them can now be
identified.
While these crannog investigations were thus steadily progressing
ill Ireland, an independent discovery was announced in Switzerland
which, not only gave a new significance to the Irish discoveries
but, almost immediately, opened up one of the most prolific fields
of pre-historic research which has ever come under the cognisance
of archaeologists. This discovery was indirectly due to the ex-
ceptional cold of the winter of 1853-54, which caused the water in
Lake Zurich to sink to a lower level than any previously on record
"—being one foot lower than the celebrated mark on the stone of
Stafa, which preserves the record of a similar phenomenon in 1674.
Ill these circumstances two of the inhabitants of Ober-Meilen
1894-95.] Dr K Munro on Lahe-dwdling Research. 389
wliose vineyards came close upon the shore of the lake, began to
extend them by enclosing portions of the exposed shore with a
stone wall, and filling in the space with mud so as to bring its
surface above the ordinary level of the water. In the course of these
operations the workmen observed, in the mud taken from the bed
of the lake, portions of rotten posts, together with stone axes, flint
implements, and other worked objects of horn and bone, which
excited their curiosity. Next day Mr Aeppli, the village school-
master, heard through his scholars of the curious things turned up
in these diggings, and as soon as his day’s duties were over he went
to see the place. After inspecting some of the objects which the
workmen had laid aside, Mr Aeppli thus expressed himself to the
interested bystanders : — “ Hier hat die Menschenhand gearheitet^ das
sind Wertzeuge und Gerdthe, die der Mensch einst gehraucht hat ;
Hire Form gehdrt mensehlicher Thdtigheit an.’’^ {Die Pfalilhauten in
den Schiveizer-Seen^ p. 8, F. Staub.) He then wrote a short account of
what he had seen, and sent it to the Antiquarian Society at Zurich.
Within four hours of the dispatch of his epistle three representatives
of the Society arrived at Ober-Meilen, among them being the
president. Dr Ferdinand Keller.
After careful consideration of the facts. Dr Keller came to the
conclusion that the piles had supported a platform upon which
huts had been erected, and that, after a long period of occupancy,
the entire structures were destroyed by a conflagration.
This important deduction, fanned by the traditional stories of
submerged cities long current among the fishing community, spread
rapidly among the Swiss people and produced an immediate army
of explorers who commenced a vigorous search for similar remains
in this and the adjacent lakes. Guided partly by the recollection
of previous finds, the significance of which became now apparent,
and partly by the knowledge of local fishermen who, from practical
experience of disasters to their fishing gear, could at once point to
numberless fields of submerged woodwork, the efforts of these
pioneer Lacustreurs were speedily crowned with the greatest success.
In the spring of the same year the famous station, known as the
Steinberg at Nidau, was discovered, as well as many others in the
Lakes of Bienne, Neuchatel, and Geneva ; so that before the rej)ort
of the Ober-Meilen discovery could be published in the Transactions
390 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
of the Antiquarian Society of Zurich, Dr Keller had equally
intsresting materials from other stations to record. This report,
which appeared towards the close of 1854 under the title Die
Keltischen Pfahlhauten in den Schweizerseenf at once attracted the
attention of archaeologists throughout Europe.
Prominent among those who took part in these earlier researches
may be mentioned Professors Morlot, Desor, Troyon, and Kiitimeyer,
all well-known authors of works on lacustrine archaeology ; Col.
Schwab and Mr Muller of Bienne, whose united collections of lake-
dwelling antiquities now form the greatest attraction to their
native town ; MM. Eorel of Morges, father and son, whose collec-
tion has only recently found an appropriate resting-place in the
Museum of Lausanne ; Mr Jacob Messikommer, the indefatigable
explorer of the famous Pfahlbau at Kohenhausen; Mr Albert
Jahn of Bern, Dr Uhlmann of Miinchenhuchsee, Mr Caspar Lohle
of Wangen, Col. Suter of Zofingen, Mr Ullersberger and Dr
Lachmann of XJeherlingen, &c., &c. But foremost among them all
stood Dr Keller himself who, from time to time, issued systematic
reports according as fresh materials came to hand. These reports,
6 of which appeared prior to 1866, the date of the first English
edition of Keller’s work, were compiled partly from the author’s
personal observations and partly from data supplied by local
explorer's in the various districts investigated.
The immediate outcome of the publicity thus given to the exist-
ence of a pre-historic lacustrine civilisation in Switzerland was a
systematic search for similar remains throughout Europe. But,
before discussing such concurrent researches, I will briefly notice
one or two subsidiary events which, at a later period, v/’ere the means
of greatly facilitating the exploration of the Swiss lake-villages.
To dredge the bed of a lake with hand-worked appliances in a
small boat was a slow process, always expensive and often unpro-
ductive. Yet such was the enthusiasm with which this kind of
work was carried on, year after year, sometimes at the expense of
archaeological societies but more frequently by private resources,
that there is scarcely a cantonal museum in Switzerland but
contains a collection of lacustrine relics secured by these laborious
means.
It often happens that antiquarian remains are incidentally brought
1894-95.] Dr R. Munro on Lake-dwelling Research.
391
to light in the course of agricultural operations. Such works are,
however, usually confined to small lakes and hogs. The idea of
partially lowering the surface of the extensive sheets of water in
the Jura valley, comprising the Lakes of Bienne, Neuchatel, and
Morat, was too chimerical to be ever entertained by archaeologists.
But what was inconceivable and utterly beyond hope from this
point of view became, in the interests of agriculture, not only a
practical problem, but is now an accomplished fact. Between
these three lakes there stretches a vast mossy district, known as
the “ Gross Moos,” through which the combined surplus water of
the two latter finds its way to the former. This surplus water
again emerges from Lake Bienne and is carried off by the Lower
Thielle which, before the “ Correction des Eaux du Jura^^ united with
the Aar a few miles down the valley. As the surface of these
three lakes is nearly on the same level, it is more than probable
that, in pre-historic times, their waters formed one united sheet
which, in the course of time, became separated into three lakes by
the interposition of the sedimentary and peaty deposits now form-
ing the “ Gross Moos.” Their connecting channels, the Broye and
the Upper Thielle, owing to the sluggishness of the flow, became
gradually raised by the constant deposition of mud — thus pro-
portionately raising the level of the confined waters, and render-
ing the surrounding lands more and more liable to submergence.
Also, the river Aar, though passing quite in the vicinity of Lake
Bienne, went a long way beyond it, and often caused great havoc
by flooding the richly cultivated lands which it traversed until it
joined the Lower Thielle.
To remedy these defects the Swiss Government entered on the
gigantic project of deepening the entire waterway, from the junction
of the Lower Thielle with the Aar to the outlet of the Broye, in
Lake Morat. The scheme also included the cutting of a new
channel for the Aar, by means of which it would be entirely
diverted from a considerable extent of its old course and made to
debouch into Lake Bienne by a straight and much shorter route.
The hydrographical effect of these works, begun in 1868 and only
completed a few years ago, was to lower the surface of the lakes
from 6 to 8 feet.
In the winter of 1871-72, these operations began to tell on Lake
392
Proceedings of Boyal Society of Edinhurgh. [seskS.
Bienne, but it was some years later before the others became sensibly
affected. When, however, the works were finished, the permanent
effect on these lakes, especially on Lake Neuchatel, was very
marked — harbours, jetties, and extensive tracts of shore-land being
left high and dry by the subsiding waters. This was the harvest-
time of archaeology. Many of the sites of the lacustrine villages
became dry land, and were visited by crowds of eager searchers ;
even fishermen forsook their normal avocation, finding it more
profitable to fish for pre-historic relics. Government at last
interfered with this indiscriminate “ howking,” and passed a law
restricting the privilege of excavating to the authorities of the
respective Cantons in whose territories the stations happened to be.
Thus, besides a large number of relics collected in the stuff raised
up by the dredging machines, the “ Correction des Eaux du Jura,”
as the undertaking was called, greatly facilitated the investigation
of the lake-dwellings along the Jura waters.
Another class of works which produced results favourable to
lacustrine archaeology was the deepening of harbours, the construc-
tion of jetties, &c., in the larger lakes, such as those of Zurich,
Constance, Geneva, and Annecy. As an example, I may just
instance the extensive alterations recently executed in the environ-
ments of the town of Zurich which have so entirely changed the
aspect of the town in the immediate vicinity of the lake that
visitors, whose recollection of it dates farther back than these
transformations, would hardly recognise the locality. A splendid
bridge now spans the outlet of the Limmat, and on both sides of
it are elegant promenades, gardens, and ornamental quays, which
occupy what was formerly part of the lake. The filling up of this
large area necessitated the use of dredgers, by means of which gravel
and mud were raised from the most convenient shallows along the
shore and transported as required. Among the localities selected for
such operations were the “Grosser Hafner” and the outskirts of
Bauschanze. The rich loamy deposits of the “ Haumessergrund ”
at Wollishofen were found to be a suitable soil for the floral and
horticultural gardens. All these localities turned out to be the
sites of lake-dwellings, and yielded an enormous amount of industrial
remains of all ages. Indeed, the collection of relics from Wollis-
hofen, now deposited in the Museum of Zurich, must be considered
1894-95.] Dr R. Muriro on Lahe-divelling Research, 393
one of the most important in the whole series of lake-dwelling
antiquities.
Sometimes the construction of a railway skirting the shore of a
lake was the means of bringing important material to light, as was
the case at Concise and Gresine. It was in consequence of
information supplied by the engineers of the Mont Cenis and Culoz
Railway, while conducting excavations at the latter place in 1856,
that the existence of lake-dwellings in Lake Bourget became first
known, although no advantage was taken of the discovery for several
years afterwards. However, in 1862, at the instigation of Baron
Despine and M. Desor, the Societe Savoisienne, made some preliminary
investigation with most encouraging results. Subsequently, and at
various times, independent researches were carried out by a number
of experienced archseologists, among whom may be mentioned Le
Comte Costa de Beauregard, MM. Rabut, Perrin, Revon, Cazalis
de Fondouce, and Chantre, all of whom secured more or less
extensive collections. It may be interesting to note that through
the liberality of Sir Augustus W. Franks, M. Rabut’s collection is
now in the British Museum.
It would be impossible in this sketch to convey anything like an
adequate idea of the successive investigations and discoveries which
have been made on the sites of the Swiss lake-dwellings during
the last 30 or 40 years, and which have so greatly enriched the
principal museums of Europe with lake-dwelling remains. For
such details I must refer you to the many special works now
published on the subject. I shall therefore proceed to notice briefly
the concurrent researches instituted in other European countries,
beginning with the valley of the Po.
In 1851 while the harbour of Peschiera, at the south end of
Lake Garda, was being deepened, numerous bronze implements,
associated with decayed wooden piles, were found in the mud at
a particular spot near the north mole of the fortress, which, how-
ever, attracted no special attention at the time. The bronze objects
were laid aside by the workmen and sold as old metal. A few
articles were fortunately sent to the K. K. Antiken Cabinet at
Vienna. In 1860 further alterations in this harbour became
necessary, and again similar objects were found in the dredged
stuff. The works were, on this occasion, conducted under the
394 Proceedings of Royal Society of Pdinhurgh. [sess.
supervision of M. Lorenz and Col. von Silber, who, in the interests
of archaeology, collected and preserved the bronze objects. On its
being afterwards suggested that they were relics of a palafitte, like
those recently discovered in Switzerland, Col. von Silber sent an
assortment of them to Dr Keller, with an explanatory statement of
the circumstances in which they were found. In this notice Col.
von Silber writes : — “ Lately, when reading the reports of the Swiss
lake-dwellings, I remember the occurrence of a great number of
pieces of burnt clay found in the mud. These pieces were of a
blackish colour, remarkably thick, and without any definite form.
I do not doubt that they have been fragments of the clay covering
the huts of the lake-dwellings.”
These reported discoveries induced the eminent archseologist. Dr
E. Ereihorn von Sacken, to visit Peschiera for the purpose of
investigating the reputed Pfahlhauten. In addition to special
researches conducted by himself he had correct details of the results
already obtained, and, from these sources, he drew up an admirable
report, published in 1864, which clearly established the fact that
there had been, in this part of Lake Garda, a true pile-dwelling of
the Bronze Age.
Meantime, archseologists were on the look out for palafittes in
other parts of the lake. As early as 1861, Cav. Martinati detected
piles at a place called Eocca di Garda, near Bardolino, which he
considered to be the remains of lake-dwellings ; and Dr Alberti
found similar evidence in two localities further south, viz., II Bor
and Porto di Pacengo. But the story of the Lake Garda palafittes
becomes now blended with another trail of research which had its
origin, as follows, in the western region of the Po valley.
In July 1860 M. Gabriel de Mortillet wrote a letter to Sig.
Cornalia, president of the Italian Society of Natural Sciences at
Milan, suggesting that remains analogous to those in the Swiss
lakes might be found in the lakes of Lombardy. The reading of
this letter elicited one or two statements of archseological impor-
tance. The vice-president, Sig. Antonio Villa, recalled the fact that
a bronze axe-head and some flint arrow-heads had been found in
the turf-bog of Bosisio, at a depth of 10 feet; and the president
mentioned that he possessed similar weapons which had been
found, along with human bones, in the peat-beds of Brenna.
395
1894-95.] Dr K. Munro on Lake-dwelling Researeli.
Shortly afterwards the celebrated naturalist, Gastaldi, in an article
in II Nuovo Gimento, directed attention to certain antiquities which
the turf-cutters were in the habit of finding in the “ Torbiera di
Mercurago.” Subsequently, Gastaldi visited this locality and, along
with Professor Moro of Arona, made further researches, the result
of which was to leave no doubt that they had here to deal with
the remains of a true palafitte. During the next two years
Gastaldi’s report was considerably enlarged by additional finds at
Mercurago ; hut nothing further of a definite character occurred
till the summer of 1863, when Professors Desor and de Mortillet
made a visit to Lombardy in search of lake-dwellings.
These distinguished archaeologists were joined by Professor
Stoppani of Milan, and the result of their labours was the speedy
discovery of several settlements in Lake Yarese. The investiga-
tions were energetically continued by Stoppani after the departure
of his friends. Under the auspices of the Italian Society of Natural
Sciences he made an exploratory tour of all the lakes in North
Italy with encouraging results. In Lake Garda he found traces of
palafittes in several places, particularly in the Gulf San Felice di
Scavola, where some half-a-dozen sites were detected.
Since these initiatory proceedings the number of sites of lake-
dwellings in North Italy has greatly increased, there being now
scarcely any of the smaller lakes and turbaries which have not
yielded more or fewer remains of this character. They have not
yet been found in the larger Lakes of Lombardy, a fact sufficiently
accounted for by the physical conditions of these glaciated and
rock-cut basins whose rapidly shelving shores afford but a scanty
holding for piles.
In addition to the ordinary palafittes there is, in the eastern part
of the Po valley, another class of ancient habitations, known as
Terremare^ which are so closely allied to the former that virtually
they may be described as land palafittes. They are a later develop-
ment of the lacustrine system, and, as soon as this relationship was
recognised, their subsequent investigation became merged in that
of the palafittes. Previous to this, however, the Terremare have a
specially interesting history of their own which may now appro-
priately be adverted to.
Shortly after the middle of last century, certain artificial
396 Proceedings of Royal Society of EdinhurgTi. [sess.
deposits of an earthy substance found scattered over the provinces
of Parma, Eeggio, and Modena, in the shape of large fiattish
mounds, became known to agriculturists as possessing great fertilis-
ing power — a property which henceforth was turned to advantage
by using their contents as manure. To such an extent has this
practice been carried that many of these deposits, covering in most
instances many acres in extent, have now entirely disappeared.
In the course of the excavations various objects of antiquity were
found by the workmen, such as Roman coins and tiles, implements
of bone, horn, bronze, &c. ; the bones of domestic and wild animals,
and, occasionally, human bones. But such discoveries failed for
a long time to lead to any scientific investigation ; and when these
mysterious mounds happened to be referred to by the early writers
of this century each had a theory of his own to account for them.
Thus the celebrated naturalist, Venturi, assigned them partly to
the Boh, a Celtic race, who here, according to him, cremated their
dead warriors, and ceremoniously threw their weapons and animals
taken in war into the burning pyres ; and partly to the Romans,
who selected these heaps for their dwellings and burial-places.
Others supposed them to be the sacred and traditional cemeteries
of successive races ; and it is a curious fact that many of these
mounds are to this day crowned by a modern church or convent,
around which the Christians have been in the habit of burying their
dead. Nor did the opinion of Gastaldi, published in 1861, throw
much light on the matter. Seeing that the Terremare were
invariably situated near a running stream, he considered them the
heterogeneous debris of different ages—Roman graves, cremations,
and funeral feasts, — which had been washed down and re-arranged
by floods. But these, and all similar theories, based on the sup-
position that they were the abodes of the dead, were not in
harmony with the domestic character of the pottery and implements
turned up. The starting-point of a long series of researches by
Professors Pigoriiii and Strobel, which have now completely cleared
up the problem, was the announcement in 1861 that the remains
of a palafitte, analogous to those found in lakes and peat-bogs, were
to be seen beneath the true terramara-deposits at Castione dei
Marches!. Nearly 100 of these mounds have now been more or
less investigated, with the result that there can no longer be any
1894-95.] Dr R. Mimro on Lake-dwelling Research,
397
doubt that they are the sites of ancient villages constructed on
piles, and fortified by an earthern dyke and a ditch. In their
construction one uniform plan was adopted. Having selected a
suitable site, always four-sided and orientated but, of course, varying
in size according to the requirements of the community, the construc-
tors proceeded to surround it with a ditch, the excavated material
being thrown up in the form of a dyke on the inner side. The
area thus enclosed was then thickly planted with stakes, the tops
of which were brought to a common level, and over them a wooden
platform was laid. On this platform cottages made of light timbers
and clay were erected. Thus, in a very simple manner, was con-
structed a fortified village, access to which was secured by one or
more wooden bridges spanning the surrounding ditch. The vacant
space beneath the common platform became a convenient receptacle
for all sorts of refuse, including lost and worn-out objects of
industry. When, in the course of time, this space became filled
up the te/rramaricoli, in order to avoid the labour of having to
remove the debris which would otherwise accumulate around them,
adopted the ingenious method of constructing a brand new plat-
form above the former. It seems that a preliminary step to the
carrying out of this project was to set fire to the entire village, thus
at one coup getting clear of all sanitary difficulties as well as of a
number of uninvited guests. Having thus started with a clean
bill of health, they elevated the dyke to the requisite height, and
planted stakes, as formerly, for the support of the new platform
and huts — the stakes in this case penetrating only into the accumu-
lated rubbish of the former village. This mode of procedure
appears to have been repeated over and over again, until, in the
course of ages, the successive deposits accumulated to a height of
15 or 20 feet.
One great objection to this theory, when first propounded by
Chierici, was the fact that, except sometimes in the lowest stratum,
piles were rarely met with in terramara-deposits. But the difficulty
has been satisfactorily accounted for by the readiness with which
wood becomes decomposed, when placed in circumstances which
render it liable to be alternately dry and wet. Chierici conclusively
showed that, although the actual piles had entirely disappeared by
decomposition, their former existence could be still demonstrated
398 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
by tbe permanence of the holes in which they stood. On this
point he relates that, on one occasion, in a space measuring 210
square metres he counted no less than 124 “huche di pali.” Nay,
more, some of these holes had become filled up with infiltrated
material which subsequently hardened and formed actual casts of
the original wood.
The scarcity of fuel in Italy has fostered the habit of utilizing
peat-bogs to the fullest extent; and for this purpose the smaller
basins, which have become nearly filled up with combustible
material, are occasionally completely cleared out. From an
archseological point of view no exploration could be more satis-
factory than such undertakings, as, with a little care on the part of
the workmen, all stray objects are bound to fall into their hands.
It so happened that two small basins so treated, viz., Lagozza, in
the province of Milan, and Polada, near Desenzano, contained the
remains of a lake-dwelling, and both of them have yielded such a
valuable series of relics that the entire life-history of their inhabi-
tants can be portrayed.
Perhaps there is no locality in Europe which contains a greater
variety of the vestiges of past humanity than the valley of the Po.
The unique discoveries made in the cemeteries of Bologna and
surrounding district clearly reveal the footsteps of the successive
races who inhabited the Circumpadana during, and subsequent to,
its occupancy by the lake-dwellers. The lower beds of the
terramara-mounds contain the earliest relics of the Bronze Age in
Europe, while the upper ones are so intermingled and overlapped
with Etruscan, Gaulish, and Roman remains that it is by no means
an easy task to decipher their entanglements. But the ethnological
problems suggested by these various civilizations I must for the
present pass over.
Among the more important of later investigations in North Italy
may be mentioned those conducted at Peschiera and II Mincio (De
Stefani), in Lake Eimon (Lioy), in the small Lake of Arqua-
Petrarca, near Padua (Cordenons), in the Lakes of Yarese and
Monate, and in the terramara of Eontanellato, near Parma (Pigorini).
On the Isola Yirginia, a prettily-wooded island in Lake Yarese,
there is a museum, erected by Sig. Ponti of Milan, which contains
a large assortment of lacustrine relics collected in the neighbourhood.
399
1894-95.] Dr R. Munro on Lake-dwelling Research.
At the request of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Vienna
Professor Von Hochstetter made an investigation of the Lakes of
Carinthia and Carniola in search of lake-dwellings, a report of
which was published in 1864:. But the result was, in the main,
of a negative character, and with the exception of the Keutscha-
chersee, the indications of Pfahlbauten observed were too prob-
lematical to be of much scientific value. It was confidently
expected that traces of them would be found in the Zirknitzersee,
as the Chronicler Valvasor (1689) relates that on this lake there
was an old bridge the piles of which he himself had seen, but,
though carefully explored by Von Hochstetter and Dr Deschmann,
nothing of the character suggested was found.
Another locality surmised by Von Hochstetter to contain lake-
dwellings, was the great Moor at Laibach. This surmise originated
in the fact that, a few years previously, a couple of canoes and a
few objects had been dug out of the moss. But it was some twenty
years later before the very characteristic examples, whose industrial
remains now fill a large room in the Laibach Museum, were dis-
covered and investigated.
The first report of lake-dwellings in the Attersee was published
in 1871 by Count Wurmbrand and Mr Simony, and during the
following five years further notices appeared, accordingly as fresh
materials came to hand.
The most interesting of all the stations in the Austrian lakes was
that at See, in the Mondsee, the exploration of which, in 1872
and subsequent years, was due to the indefatigable energy of Dr
Much of Vienna, who realized thereby a large and instructive
collection of antiquities.
An important station of the Bronze Age was found at the Rosen
Insel, in the Lake of Starnberg, and investigated under the superin-
tendence of M. von Schab, the Government law officer at Starnberg.
The settlement exposed by peat-cutters in the extensive deposits
of peat at the upper end of the Federsee was constructed on
principles analogous to those of the artificial islands. Instead of
a platform raised on piles, there was a solid basement formed of
layers of wood intermingled with clay and other materials. Mr
Frank of Schussenried, its explorer, is in possession of a very fine
collection of relics, all of the Stone Age. Among them I was
400
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
shown a consolidated mass of a black-looking material, which, on
close inspection, was seen to be composed of grains of wheat. But
the curious feature of this relic was that it retained the impression
of a finely-woven tissue, evidently that of the sack in which the
grain had been kept.
Among the earlier lacustrine discoveries in N’orth Germany were
those described by Dr Lisch, curator of the Antiquarian Museum
at Schwerin. In 1863 peat-cutters began to find in the Lattmoor,
near the town of Wismar, industrial relics which, on being looked
into, proved to be remains of lake-dwellings. The lowering of
the Persanzigersee, in the same year, disclosed a small island sur-
rounded by a curiously constructed series of wooden compartments,
the purpose of which had, for several years, puzzled antiquaries.
Ultimately their mystery was explained by the discovery of similar
structures in some of the other lakes in hforth Germany, which
were shown to he the basements of lake-dwellings. Another
structure of a similar type became exposed, about the same time,
in the Aryssee, in consequence of the artificial lowering of its
waters. The relics found on this settlement were of so mixed a
character as to give rise to a discussion about its age, some archseo-
logists maintaining that it must he dated as far hack as the Stone
Age. On the other hand. Professor Virchow, who has devoted
much attention to lacustrine research, believes that it, as well as
many others in North Germany, belongs to a more recent period
than that of the lake-dwellings of Switzerland and South Germany.
Accordiug to him, some of the former have actually been proved
to he synchronous with the BurgwMle, which originated with the
Slavish people.
Before the construction of the great sea-dykes in Holland, nearly
the whole of West Friesland would have been in that hybrid con-
dition described by Pliny, in which it was difficult to say whether
it belonged to sea or ■ land {dubiumque terrae sit, an pars mavis).
“Here,” says this writer, “a wretched race is found, inhabiting
either the more elevated spots of land, or else eminences artificially
constructed, and of a height to which they know by experience
that the highest tides will never reach. Here they pitch their
cabins ; and when the waves cover the surrounding country far
and wide, like so many mariners on board ship are they,” etc.
1894-95.] Dr R. Munro on Lake-dwelling Research. 401
At the present time this region is richly cultivated, and looks as
if it were a dead level, and it is only on close inspection that certain
elevations of considerable extent, called Terpen^ scattered irregularly
over the country, can he detected. It is on such elevations that
villages and churches are generally built, and, till they accidentally
attracted the attention of agriculturists within recent years, nobody
seemed to have thought anything about their origin. They are now
proved to have been originally constructed as pile-dwellings, pre-
cisely similar to the Terremare, and are probably the actual mounds
seen and described by Pliny. They might therefore be more appro-
priately designated as marine-dwellings.
Like the Terremare of Italy, the Terpen are largely excavated on
account of their rich ammoniacal deposits, which are used by
agriculturists as guano. The industrial remains found in the course
of these operations are of a very miscellaneous character, and give
a vivid picture of the civilization of their inhabitants from Roman
times down to the twelfth century. Among the relics I noticed such
objects as the shells of eggs (hen and goose), some of which were
unbroken, a flute made of the shank bone of an animal, large casks,
canoes, loom weights, toilet combs, iron bridle -bits, beads of glass
and amber, Anglo-Saxon, Byzantine and Roman coins, bronze pots,
pottery, etc., etc.
Thus the spirit of research, awakened by the discoveries in
Switzerland, stimulated archaeologists everywhere to be on the qui
rive for such remains, and gradually led to the accumulation of
extensive collections of lake-dwelling remains throughout Central
Europe.
In the progress of these continental discoveries Irish archaeologists
could not fail to be highly interested, seeing that they themselves
had already touched the fringe of the subject, and henceforth
crannog-hunting was pursued among them with renewed vigour.
The annals were now carefully searched for references to crannogs ;
and many of the localities thus indicated were identified and
partly explored. In 1857 Sir W. Wilde published the first part of
his well-known catalogue of the antiquities in the Museum of the
Royal Irish Academy, in which he gave an excellent account of
the crannogs. In it the author states that 46 were known up
to date, and predicts that many more would be exposed as the
VOL. XX. 6/5/95 2 c
402
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
drainage of the country advanced — a prediction which has been
amply verifiBd, as every succeeding year has seen an increase to their
number. N"ow the total number of Irish cranuogs is upwards of
200. In the following year Dr Keller expatiated on the analogy
between the Irish crannogs and the Swiss Pfahlhauten, in the
Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Zurich ; while Troyon
and others discussed the subject in the Ulster Journal of Archaeo-
logy. Meanwhile, reports of further discoveries in various localities
throughout the country were published by Sir W. Wilde, Dr
Reeves and Mr Ed. Benn.
The next in chronological sequence to contribute to the explora-
tion and literature of Irish crannogs was Mr G. H. Kinahan, whose
first paper on the subject appeared in 1863. This was quickly
followed by a number of other monographs which greatly helped
to disseminate a correct knowledge of their structure and distribu-
tion. A few years later Mr Wakeman contributed a series of
valuable articles on crannogs — many of which he himself explored
■ — to the Journal of the Royal Archaeological Society of Ireland.
But to refer to the numerous archaeologists who have subsequently
taken an interest in the Irish crannogs would greatly exceed the
limits now at my disposal. Let me say, however, that this field
of research is by no means exhausted in Ireland. At the present
time a crannog at Moylarg, Co. Antrim, is in the process of in-
vestigation by the Rev. Mr Buick of Cullybacky which, to judge
from the two reports already published, promises to be of unusual
interest. A complete monograph on a typical Irish crannog is
greatly to be desired, as, notwithstanding the numerous explora-
tions already recorded, I cannot recall a single instance that can be
so characterized. Even some of the later discoveries, such as the
two artificial islands which became temporarily exposed in Lough
Mourne, while this basin was being converted into a reservoir to
supply Belfast with water, was merely indiscriminately “ howked ”
by all and sundry. When I visited these crannogs in August
1882, some weeks after they became accessible on foot, I was
informed that many objects of archaeological value had been picked
up by the pro tern, explorers. One article which, through the
courtesy of the finder, I had an opportunity of inspecting, turned
out to be of exceptional interest, because of its extreme rarity, viz.,
1894-95.] Dr R. Munro on Lake-dwelling Research.
403
an iron-socketed Celt. (See Lake-dwellings of Europe, fig. 125,
No. 1.) But such defects must not always be laid at the doar of
archaeologists, as in many cases the opportunity for investigation is
past before any knowledge of the discovery finds its way to a com-
petent authority. This, unfortunately, was the case with that
remarkable and unique find at Lisnacroghera (the hangman’s fort),
first described by Mr Wakeman in 1884.
The special interest attached to that find lies in the unmistakable
art character (Late Celtic) of a series of military weapons and articles
of dress found in a localized part of a peat-bog within the boundaries
of a partially-drained lake, consisting of iron swords with bronze
sheaths ornamented with Late Celtic patterns, iron spears in long
wooden handles with bronze mountings, and other bronze objects,
some of which are the mountings for shields. It is difficult to
specify precisely all the objects belonging to this group, but it
included, at least, four complete sets of armour, all of which must
have been dropped within the limits of a very circumscribed area,
as they were found on the plot of one man. Subsequent inquiries
of the owner of this plot elicited the fact that much decayed wood-
work had been encountered in one particular spot, which he well
recollected because of the annoyance it gave them in their peat-
cutting operations. This wood had, however, been all removed
without being seen by any one competent to form an opinion of its
structural character. Associated with these Late Celtic relics was
an assortment of the usual miscellaneous objects found on crannogs.
Hence the theory that there was in this bog a genuine crannog, on
which a mortal struggle took place between a troop of cavaliers
armed cap-a-pie, and the holders of the crannog fort, has some
foundation in fact.
The merit of being the first to direct attention to Scottish
crannogs belongs to Dr Joseph Robertson, who brought the subject
before the Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland in a
paper read on December 14, 1857. The facts adduced by Dr Robert-
son consisted chiefly of historic references to island-forts and sub-
merged wooden structures exposed in the course of the drainage of
lochs and marshes during the last and early part of this century.
But although this kind of evidence conclusively proved the exist-
ence of crannogs it gave little information as to their nature
404 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
and function in the social organisations of the times. The first
great discovery which brought them on the field of practical research
was made in the Loch of Dowalton, Wigtownshire, about thirty
years ago. In order to drain the extensive meadows occupying the
western portion of the Dowalton valley, the proprietor. Sir William
Maxwell, Bart., conceived and successfully carried out a project of
draining the loch by cutting a new outlet through the narrow lip
of rock which, at a certain portion of its margin, was the only
barrier between its waters and the lower ground beyond. This
excavation was completed during the summer of 1863, and, as the
waters subsided, a group of five or six artificial islands gradually
emerged, like a scene in fairyland, from the bosom of the lake.
The antiquarian remains collected on these islands ultimately dis-
closed a picture of early Scottish civilization hitherto unknown to
historians or to archaeologists. Sir Herbert Maxwell, to whom the
event was especially exciting on account of the bewilderment of
the aquatic birds which were in the habit of frequenting the loch,
and the tragic fate of its fish, gives the following reminiscence of
the circumstances which led to the recognition of the true nature
of the islands : — “ I remember when Lord Lovaine was taken
down to see the drainage operations in 1863, that the islands
were just appearing above the subsiding waters. His lordship
had, I think, just returned from Switzerland, where he had visited
the lake-dwellings there. My father told me that he exclaimed
‘ Why, here are just the things I have been looking at in the Swiss
lakes.’”
In August of that year. Lord Lovaine (now Duke of Northumber-
land) read a descriptive account of these crannogs at the Newcastle-
upon-Tyne meeting of the British Association.
A couple of years later. Dr Stuart, Secretary of the Society of
Antiquaries, visited Dowalton, and, owing to the more complete
drainage of the loch, was enabled to examine the islands under
more favourable conditions. The result of his labours was an
elaborate paper to the Society, in which he gave a detailed account
of their structure and of the relics found on them ; and to which he
added all the facts he could glean elsewhere, including some of the
contents of the unpublished paper of Dr Robertson.
Among the industrial remains collected on and around these islands
1894-95.] Dr R. Munro on Lake-dwelling Researeh.
405
were canoes, bronze dishes of Roman origin, bracelets and beads of
glass, bronze brooches and other ornaments, crucibles and iron slag,
perforated axe-heads and hammers of iron, fragments of Samian
ware, querns, hammer stones, a leather shoe stamped with a pattern,
etc., etc. From the undoubted Roman element which characterised
a considerable number of these relics, the habitable period of the
Dowalton lake-dwellings must be relegated back to the early
centuries of the Christian era.
Since the publication of Dr Stuart’s paper, in 1866, little progress
was made in the exploration of Scottish crannogs, although traces of
them were occasionally noticed throughout the country, till the
discovery and excavation of the Lochlee crannog in 1878-79. This
was the commencement of a series of explorations, conducted under
the auspices of the Ayr and Galloway Archaeological Association,
which culminated in the excavation of no less than six typical
crannogs throughout the counties of Ayr and Wigtown. From a
careful consideration of the relics thus collected there can be no
ambiguity as to the testimony they afford of the peaceful occupation
of their owners. Indeed, among a very large and varied assort-
ment of objects indicating the prosecution of various industries, the
war-like element is but feebly represented by a few iron daggers
and spear-heads, one or two tips of the cross-bow bolt, and a
quantity of so-called sling stones. Among the rarer objects the
following may be mentioned : — two spiral finger-rings of gold, and a
crucible containing particles of this metal ; a gold coin of Saxon
origin — supposed to have been originally a forgery, as it was made
up of two thin gold plates and a copper core ; two cup-marked
stones, one of which had the cup surrounded by two concentric
circles ; a pendant of jet in the form of a cross inscribed in a
circle and ornamented with small incised circles ; a conical object
of rock-crystal highly polished and having some resemblance to
the settings on early book-covers ; a flat piece of ash wood having
both sides ornamented with an incised spiral pattern ; and a
remarkable fringe-like apparatus made of the long stems of a moss
{PoUjtriclium commune).
But the scientific interest of the investigation of crannogs is not
confined to the purely archaeological remains found among the
debris. The structural features of the islands and of the houses
406
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
erected upon them have occasionally been elucidated by the
exposure of portions of undisturbed wood- work. On this point the
recently excavated craiinog of Lochan Dughaill, in Argyllshire,
has furnished evidence of an exceptionally interesting character,
inasmuch as it conclusively proves that the house was circular and
not, as in former instances, rectangular.
Persons who have never taken part in the actual excavation of
a crannog can hardly realize the fascination of this kind of work.
Should the debris turn out to be rich in relics, even the most cynical
visitors catch the enthusiasm and watch each turn of the spade
with absorbing interest. Every inch of upturned stuff is carefully
scanned, and the merest trifles showing workmanship are eagerly
picked up. To genuine archaeologists the odds and ends of the
kitchen -midden, such as food refuse, broken pottery, stray ornaments,
worn-out implements and weapons, are veritable treasures.
The earlier evidence adduced in support of the existence of lake-
dwellings south of the Scottish border was, in most instances, too
fragmentary to he of scientific value. Of this character were the
structures in some of the Meres of Norfolk and Suffolk, described
by Sir Chas. Bunhury, Professor Newton, and the Eev. Harry
Jones : also the reputed pile-structure in Cold Ash Common, Berks,
noticed by Dr S. Palmer.
In 1866 General Pitt-Rivers communicated to the Anthro-
pological Society of London a paper entitled “A Description of
Certain Piles found near London Wall and Southwark, possibly the
remains of Pile-Buildings.” The author commenced by observing
that his attention was directed to the locality by a short paragraph
in the Times of the 20th Oct., stating that upwards of twenty cart-
loads of bones had been dug out of the excavations which were being
made for the foundations of a wool warehouse. Here, in a bed of
peat, seven to nine feet thick, intervening between the accumulated
debris of modern London and a bed of gravel, the workmen came
upon a number of wooden piles whose tips penetrated into the
gravel. Scattered through this peat were numerous articles of
human workmanship ; also several kitchen-middens containing the
nondescript remains of human occupancy. The majority of the relics
were of Roman origin, and included coins, tiles, pottery, and articles
of dress. In addition to these there were others of ruder construe-
1894-95.] Dr R. Munro on Lake-dwelling Research. 407
tion made of bone and horn, such as knife handles, spear-heads, a
couple of bone skates, etc.
In 1870 a circular island, near the shore of the Lake of Llangorse,
Wales, was shown by the Rev. Mr Dumbleton to have been con-
structed after the manner of the stockaded islands or crannogs. In
the course of the excavations, remains of a log-flooring, charcoal,
food refuse, etc. were turned up, but among them there was no
relic of sufficient character to give a clue to the period when the
island was constructed or inhabited.
In 1880 the Drainage Commissioners of Holderness found it
necessary to deepen some of the drains in that low-lying district, and
when this was being done Mr Thomas Boynton’s attention was
directed to some prepared wood-work and bones of animals found in
the stuff thrown out which he regarded as evidence of a lake-
dwelling. Such remains were observed at five different localities,
two of which have since been more or less explored, with the result
that there could be no doubt that they were the sites of human
habitations, having some structural resemblance to the fascine lake-
dwellings of Switzerland. Some very curious implements made of
the articulated ends of the long bones of some large bovine animals,
a flint scraper, a stone axe, a bronze spear-head, and a portion of
two jet braclets are the chief relics hitherto recorded.
These meagre records comprise nearly all the results of lacustrine
research in England previous to the discovery of the Glastonbury
lake-village in the spring of 1892. The site of this remarkable
settlement occupies some three or four acres of a flat-meadow,
within the boundaries of what is supposed, on good grounds, to
have been formerly a lake or marsh. Before excavations were begun
all that the eyB could discern, on the undisturbed surface, were
sixty or seventy low mounds huddled in the corner of a field. Only
about one-third of these mounds have, as yet, been systematically
explored, and, so far, the original surmise that each mound formed
the site of a hut resting on a substratum of beams and brush-wood
is entirely confirmed. The operations of last summer were almost
entirely confined to tracing the village border which has now been
uncovered to the extent of 550 feet, or about one-third of its total
circumference. According to Mr Bulleid, the discoverer and in-
vestigator of the village, the following facts have been established
408 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
(a). That the village was originally surrounded by the water
of a shallow mere.
{h). That five feet of peat accumulated during the occupation,
(c). That a strong palisading of beams, piles, and brush-wood
surrounded and protected the village.
{d). That the ground work of the village near its margin is
artificial in some places for a depth of five feet.
A vast assortment of the heterogeneous debris of human
occupancy has been gathered on and around the site of the village,
including two complete skulls and other bones of man. One of
the skulls shows. a deep cut as if made by a sword. Many of the
industrial relics exhibit the special characteristics of the style of art
known as “Late Celtic,” the importation of which into Britain
preceded, by two or three centuries, the occupation of the island
by the Eomans ; nor does it appear that any of them has been
influenced by Koman art. This, indeed, is one of the most interest-
ing features of the Glastonbury find, and hence, should this pre-
Koman character be maintained throughout, its antiquities cannot
fail to shed an unexpected light on one of the obscurest peciods of
British history within pre-historic times.
I find it impossible to attempt to give an adequate idea of the
number, technique, and purposes of these relics. Suffice it to say
that they are made of various materials — stone, flint, bronze, iron,
bone, horn, glass, pottery, etc. Among the bronze objects are
fibulae, spiral finger-rings, penannular brooches, and an elegant bowl.
Of bone or horn we have needles, pins, handles, long-handled combs,
etc. The pottery is often highly ornamented, and some of the
devices show unmistakably Late Celtic art. Among the objects
of wood are a canoe, the frame-work of a loom, a decorated stave of
a bucket, part of the axle of a wheel, with a couple of spokes in
their place. On my last visit to Glastonbury I observed a leaden
weight shaped like a cheese having the middle of the rim bulging
out a little. It weighs 4 oz. 229 grs. This is the only article
in the collection of which there may be entertained a suspicion
that it has had a Boman origin.
Before concluding this sketch I wish to refer to two recent
discoveries which came under my notice last autumn in Bosnia,
and which, in my opinion, fall to be classified as pile-structures.
1894-95.] Dr R. Munro on Lake-dwelling Research.
409
One of these was made near Bihac, on a small island in the bed
of the River Una. Here, in a confined area, some 30 paces long
by 20 broad, were encountered the stumps of closely-planted
stakes in the midst of a large mass of the heterogeneous
debris of human occupancy, such as broken bones of domestic
and wild animals, some cereals, seeds, and fruits ; fragments
of pottery, spindle whorls, and some half dozen stone moulds for
casting bronze celts, together with a large variety of implements,
weapons, and ornaments of bronze and iron. Among the relics are
some characteristic specimens of La Tene culture, while others
belong to Roman and medieval times. From the numerous
photographs, plans, and sections, taken during the excavations,
there can be little doubt that Herr Radimsky, who conducted the
investigation on behalf of the Government, is right in regarding the
habitation which stood in this place as a pile-structure. The Una
has here a very sluggish course, and for this reason, as well as the
existence of some lacustrine deposits in the neighbourhood, it has
been surmised that a lake of considerable dimensions formerly
occupied this part of the valley. But whether in lake or river
the remains in question must be regarded as coming under the
category of lake-dwellings, Radimsky informs me that he has
good grounds for supposing that four or five other similar stations
may be found in this locality.
The other “ find ” is at a place called Butmir, in the plain of
Ilidze, about eight miles to the west of Sarajevo. Some time ago
it was observed, while digging the foundations of a dairy, that the
soil turned up contained fragments of pottery, flint implements,
stone axes, and many other remains of a primitive people. A
perpendicular section of a portion of this accumulated debris, from
six to eight feet in height, showed that the clay, mould, charcoal,
and ashes, of which it was chiefly composed, were arranged in
strata more or less parallel with here and there wavy undulations.
The relic-bed lay immediately over a fine adhesive yellowish clay
and occupied an area of several acres. The finding of occasional
hollows in this clay suggested to Herr Radimsky, who carried
out extensive excavations for the purpose of determining the
nature of the settlement, that they might have been the founda-
tions of the huts of the inhabitants. I do not think that this
410 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgh. [sess.
theory offers a consistent explanation of the facts. I may observe
that the present fertile plain of Ilidze is composed of the materials
brought down by a number of streams and rain-wash from the
surrounding hills, and it is highly probable that in earlier times the
basin was more or less a lake. Indeed, in winter, portions of it
close to this very spot become still submerged, and in the neigh-
bouring ditches the water lies quite stagnant. The yellow clay, on
which the culture beds of Butmir repose, was formed by the
deposition of a fine sediment in still water, and between it and the
beds above there is no clearly-defined line of demarcation, as bits
of charcoal were frequently seen imbedded in the clay to a depth of
several inches — thus showing that the charcoal and clay were
concurrently deposited. The hollows in the underlying clay vary so
much in depth, area and outline, that it is absurd to regard them as
the foundations of the original huts. Had they presented even some
approach to uniformity in outline, however fantastic, the theory
might be feasible. I hold they are nothing more than the clay pits
from which the inhabitants extracted the clay used in the con-
struction of their huts and in the manufacture of pottery. In
support of this view I may point to the immense quantities of
broken dishes found in the settlement, and also to the burnt clay
castings of the timbers of which the walls of the huts were made,
and so largely found in the upper strata of the relic-bed. It seems
to me that the entire phenomena, especially the stratification of the
materials, can only be explained on the supposition that the huts of
the inhabitants stood on platforms supported by piles, and that
the refuse containing lost, broken, and worn-out implements had
gradually accumulated in the vacant space underneath. This
question led to an animated controversy at the Congress of
archeeologists and anthropologists held at Sarajevo last August;
but, of course, the present is not a suitable occasion for entering
on the merits of the discussion. A monograph on this “ find,”
illustrated with beautifully coloured plates of the relics, is now in
course of publication by the Government, and as soon as it appears
the point will be determined.
I have now transported you on the wings of imagination over a
wide geographical area, extending from Ireland to Bosnia, and
from North Germany to Italy, and shown you that everywhere
1894-95.] Dr K Munro on Lake-dwelling Research.
411
within its confines the habit of constructing lake- and marsh-
dwellings was prevalent in former times. Of the culture and
civilization of the inhabitants of these obsolete dwellings, as dis-
closed by the technique of the stray objects left behind them, I have
not spoken, as it is a department which lies beyond the scope of
this address. Let me, however, just say in a very few words that
an analysis of the evidence shows that the lake-dwellers were not a
homogeneous people, except where the system became first
developed in the early Neolithic Period. There is reason to believe
that many of the Stone Age settlements, especially in Switzerland,
continued to flourish during the Bronze Age, without any discon-
tinuity of the race, till the sudden introduction of iron into general
use, which seems to have been coincident with the appearance of a
new people on the scene who subjugated the lake-dwellers and
destroyed their villages. The sporadic lake-dwellings, found out-
side the area of their early development, belong almost exclusively
to the Iron Age. Except among a few localized groups these
secondary, or as they may be called historic, lake-dwellers had no
common bonds of affinity either as regards civilization, race, or
language. The vast majority of the Scottish and Irish crannogs
flourished in early medieval times, a statement which, according
to Virchow, is equally applicable to their analogues in North
Germany. The well-known station of La Tene, at the north end
of the Lake of Neuchatel — believed by the earlier explorers to have
been a true lake-dwelling — is now shown to have been an oppidum
or fort of the Helvetians situated at the outlet of the lake when
its waters stood at a lower level than they did in modern times.
The remarkable and unique style of art, disclosed by its remains,
seems to be identical with that known in Britain as “Late Celtic.”
It is, indeed, the striking similarity observed between the objects
found at Glastonbury and those indicative of La Tene civilization,
now found throughout a large portion of Europe, that gives to the
English discovery its exceptional importance. It furnishes an
ethnological clue which both historians and archaeologists would
do well to consider. Eor this reason alone the Glastonbury trouvaille
bids fair to equal in archaeological value anything of the kind
previously known.
412
Proceedings of Royal Soeiety of Edinhurgh. [sess.
On a Human Cyclops. By Alexander Bruce, M.D.,
F.K.C.P.E. (With Three Plates.)
(Read March 2, 1891.)
While the occurrence of the condition termed Cyclopia cannot be
considered as altogether a rare event, the obscurity in which its
pathology is still involved makes it desirable that a full description
of every case should be put on record. The specimen in my
possession was that of a well-formed female embryo which had
apparently reached the seventh month. With the exception of
the malformation to be specially considered, there was no abnor-
mality either in its external appearances, or in the structure and
disposition of any of its viscera.
In the face the first point to attract attention was the remarkable
lozenge-shaped single aperture in the middle line above the mouth,
which was overhung by a small pendulous projection of skin
attached to the forehead immediately above its centre. This pro-
jection, which was evidently the only representative of the nose,
was moveable, and presented the appearance shown in fig. 1, some-
what like that of a miniature champagne bottle. It was attached
by its narrow end and presented a slight dimple at its free
extremity. One’s first impression on examining the median
aperture was that it represented a single eye in the middle line, but
a closer inspection revealed the fact that it was evidently formed
by the fusion of the appendages of the two eyes, there being on
either side a distinct upper and lower eye-lid provided with well-
formed eye-lashes. The upper eyedids were closely fused in the
middle line, but between the lower lids was a small fleshy projec-
tion which was probably the representative of the caruncula
lachrymalis. Above each upper eye-lid there was a distinct eye-
brow. The floor of the cavity was somewhat irregular and lined
by a highly vascular membrane, through which no indication of an
eye could be detected. Below the median eye no indication of a
nose was seen. The lips were well formed, except that the small
1890-91.] Alexander Bruce on a Human Cyclops.
413
projection in the middle of the upper lip was absent. The ears
were also well formed. The forehead was somewhat high and
narrow, and sloped somewhat rapidly backwards. When looked
at from the side the head appeared unduly elevated in the frontal
region, while the part of the occiput which lay immediately behind
the lambdoidal suture was inclined almost at a right angle to the
posterior or vertical part of the bone.
On removing the scalp the anterior fontanelle was found to be
almost entirely closed, while there was a narrow oval gap between
the posterior halves of the two parietal bones which was closed by
membrane. The dura mater was of normal thickness at the vertex,
but the falx cerebri was somewhat defective, presenting less than
half the normal depth of that structure. The tentorium cerehelli.,
especially in the part ivhich projects in the middle line above the
vermiform lobe of the cerebellum, was considerably thickened, and
was somewhat difficult to detach from the brain.
The cerebrum was found imperfectly divided into two hemi-
spheres (fig. 3), while the cerebellum, pons, and medulla presented
an almost normal appearance, the only abnormality in the latter
being the nearly complete absence of the anterior pyramids, so
that the two olivary bodies almost met in the middle line (fig. 2).
Similarly the pons seemed smaller than usual. The cerebellum
was completely uncovered by the cerebrum (figs. 3, 4). The two
corpora quadrigemina could be seen in the small gap between the
cerebrum and cerebellum. The cerebrum had the shape represented
in figs. 2, 3. When seen from above it somewhat resembled that
of a pigeon. The great longitudinal fissure was very shallow, being
about a quarter of an inch deep at its posterior part. Two extremely
shallow sulci ran from before backwards (as shown in fig. 3)
almost parallel to the great longitudinal fissure. When seen from
below the cerebral hemispheres were folded posteriorly over the
corpora quadrigemina somewhat as a mushroom is over its stalk
(fig. 2). They had a rounded edge and an undermined surface.
Between the pons and the cerebrum was a large globular mass
imperfectly divided into two lateral halves by a shallow groove
extending forwards from the upper margin of the pons. There
were no crura cerebri, and no distinct interpeduncular space.
Above the globular mass was a small spherical projection whiclp
414 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
appeared to represent an enlarged pituitary body. There was no
evidence of olfactory lobes, or of optic nerves. The remaining
cranial nerves were all present, and for the most part appeared
normal. The third nerve came to the surface in a groove immedi-
ately in front of the pons, and about a quarter of an inch on either
side of the middle line. Its size was perhaps slightly subnormal.
The fourth nerves were extremely fine threads in the normal position.
The sixth pair seemed attenuated. The seventh, eighth, ninth,
tenth, and eleventh were normal, as was also the twelfth or
hypoglossal nerve, except that, owing to the absence of the pyramids,
the groove on the inner side of the olivary body in which the
hypoglossal nerve appears was very near the middle line. The
membranes covering the cerebrum, cerebellum, and medulla were
quite normal, but there was a remarkable thickening of the jpia-
arachnoid extending round the globular mass described above, and
surrounding and partly concealing the infundibulum, and pituitary
body. The thickening extended to the posterior surface of the
globular mass, and passed forwards until it became continuous with
the cerebral mantle. The pineal gland was not found in its normal
situation, but I am not prepared to maintain that it was absent,
as it is possible that it was accidentally removed with the tentorium
cerebelli.
The vascular system of the brain. — The arteries of supply, viz.,
the vertebrals, basilar, and carotids appeared small in size but
otherwise normal. The branches of these arose in their normal
positions. The anterior cerebrals passed forwards between the en-
larged infundibulum and the cerebral envelope, and then ascended
in the shallow median fissure to the vertex of the cerebrum, while
the middle cerebral passed outwards in the substance of the thickened
membranes to the concave under surface of the lateral portion of the
hemisphere. A small posterior-communicating branch united the
middle and posterior cerebrals on either side.
There was no trace of the pulvinar, corpora geniculata, or
brachia to the corpora quadrigemina. The corpora quadrigemina
were quite distinct and moderately well developed.
The brain was carefully hardened in toto for two months in Muller’s
fluid, and then cut into transverse sections about J inch thick.
In the interior of the brain there was no indication of the
1890-91.] Alexander Bruce on a Human Cyclops.
415
presence of the corpus callosum, fornix, or septa lucida, and there
was, consequently, no differentiation of the lateral from the third
ventricles. At the bottom of the shallow longitudinal fissure the
two hemispheres were connected by white brain substance about
one-quarter of an inch in thickness, hut this did not present any
of the characters of the corpus callosum. A peculiar structure com-
posed of cerebral substance, whose relationships were not at first
apparent, was found in the interior of the single ventricular cavity.
It extended almost to the anterior extremity of this cavity, and
appeared to be formed of an invagination of the posterior wall of
the cerebral mantle. Fig. 5 shows the appearance of this structure
as seen from its anterior aspect. It had the shape of a horse-shoe,
the ends pointing downwards and being attached to the cerebral
substance at a level slightly below that at which the section was
made. The anterior margin was rounded, and on its surface
numerous vessels ramified. Fig. 6 shows the appearance of this
structure as seen from behind. The dark space v. represents that
part of the ventricular system continued backwards underneath
the cavity of the horse-shoe-shaped structure, which must, I think,
he considered as the equivalent of the third ventricle, while the
narrow slit l.v. seen on the left side points to the hinder extremity
of the part of the ventricular system superior to the arched
structure which may be regarded as the lateral ventricle.
Between the dark slits marked v. and l.v. are two curved bands
or laminse of white matter, convex backwards. The anterior or
narrower of these bands is separated from the posterior or broader
band by a narrow convex space. This interval was occupied by a
little vascular connective tissue. Both laminae at their outer
extremities passed into the substance of the hemispheres. Examina-
tion of a series of microscopic sections indicated that the upper
and lower laminae became continuous round the anterior margin of
the horse-shoe-shaped structure depicted in fig. 5, while the inferior
laminae at its extremities became fused with the rudimentary basal
ganglia. The relationships of this peculiar structure seemed to me
to indicate that it had been formed in the same way as the velum
interpositum of the normal brain, namely, by an ingrowth of
vascular connective tissue of the pia mater carrying before it a
duplicature of the posterior cerebral wall, but that, contrary to what
416 Proceedings of Boy al Society of EdinbiirgJi. [sess.
happens in the normal brain, this growth was too feeble to reach
the anterior wall of the ventricle and to reduce the brain substance
covering it to a single layer of cubical epithelium.
Below the cavity v. the representatives of the two optic thalami
were fused together over the mesial plane, except where a small slit
remained to represent the infundibuliform portion of the third
ventricle. The pituitary body (p.b.) was found surrounded with
thickened membranes (fig. 6).
Fig. 7 was drawn from a section made through the optic thalami
immediately behind the infundibulum about the anterior part of
the large globular mass described above, and shows the fusion of
these structures with a narrow slit between them. A series of
sections made backwards showed that this narrow slit-like ventricle
terminated below the commencement of, and was not in communica-
tion with, the aqueduct of Sylvius. Above, it joined the laige
ventricular cavity of the hemisphere. It was, therefore, evidently,
a much narrowed third ventricle. The manner in which the
cerebral mantle folds over the optic thalami is well seen in this
diagram. In order to ascertain the condition of the thickened
membranes round the fused optic thalami, etc., and the condition of
the optic nerve, which had not as yet been detected with the naked
eye, a series of microscopic sections was made through the globular
body in front of the pons varolii. Fig. 8 is drawn from a section
through the hinder portion of the optic thalamus, and shows the
great thickness and vascularity of the membranes. The two
thalami are completely fused together, with the exception of two
small openings in the mesial plane, of which the anterior is the
extreme lower extremity of the infundibulum, and the posterior
the upper portion of the aqueduct of Sylvius. Beneath the
infundibulum are seen nerve fibres decussating with each other —
few in number, but which, from their position, could only represent
imperfectly-developed optic tracts.
Staining by Weigert’s haematoxylin method demonstrated the
existence of medullation of these fibres.
Sections made immediately below this level showed extremely
well the remarkable thickening of the membranes (fig. 9).
Sections through the nuclei and roots of origin of the third nerve
demonstrated that, to all appearance, these were normal. The fillet
1890-91.] Alexander Bruce on a Human Cyclops.
417
and red nucleus were both present, but the crustal portion of the
crura cerebri was quite absent, and with it, therefore, all indication
of the pyramidal tracts.
The contents of the median eye were removed, and, after harden-
ing, cut into transverse vertical sections. These revealed the pre-
sence of two rudimentary eyes in which the lens, the retina, and the
choroidal pigment layer could be more or less distinctly made
out. The appearance is shown in PI. III. The retina presented a
most remarkable appearance. In the mesial plane it was found in
an extraordinarily convoluted condition, so that it had assumed in
places an almost tubular structure. This is indicated in the middle
of the figure. There was no doubt, however, that this was really
composed of retinal elements and not of a Schneiderian membrane,
as was suggested to me, for every here and there a perfectly
distinct retinal structure could be made out. There can be little
doubt, I think, that the optic vesicles in their forward growth had,
as it were, lost their way, and grown partly along the mesial
plane, and partly laterally towards the two eyes. The two eyes
were embedded in a somewhat fatty connective tissue, in which
could be found indications of the lachrymal gland. Internal
to the lenses on either side was a small nodule of cartilage whose
origin was somewhat doubtful, but which probably represented
an attempt to form some of the bones of the nose. There
were large haemorrhages in various positions external to the
choroidal pigment, and amongst the convoluted folds of the retina
was a granular substance, in all probability formed of vitreous
humour.
Sections at posterior levels to the above demonstrated the exist-
ence of several of the ocular muscles — the external, inferior, and
superior recti being quite easily recognised.
The optic nerve was single, and presented on transverse sections
a convoluted structure containing elements closely resembling those
seen in the retina.
DESCRIPTION OF THE SKULL.
I. Base of the cranial cavity (fig. 10). — The presphenoid bone
and the ethmoid were completely absent, but in the middle line,
in their place, was a foramen bounded {a) laterally by the two
VOL. XX. 9/5/95 2 D
418 Proceedings of Eoyal Society of Edinhurgli. [sess.
somewhat deformed and elongated lesser wings of the sphenoid
bone, (&) anteriorly by the frontal bone, and (c) posteriorly by the
sella turcica of the sphenoid bone. The post-sphenoid bone and
the greater wdngs were almost normal. The sutures in front of the
two petrous portions of the temporal bone formed almost a straight
line across the skull. Apparently this was the result of the
greater wings of the sphenoid being abnormally approximated to
each other. The position of the sutures of the remaining bones
entering into the floor of the cranial cavity is, as shown by fig. 10,
quite normal, with the exception of that between the two frontal
bones which was absent posteriorly. There was a minute foramen
in the floor of the sella turcica, which probably represented the
remains of Eathke’s canal.
II. The anterior aspect of the hones of the face (fig. 11). — In
the place of the two orbits and nasal bones was a large median cavity,
nearly elliptical in shape, measuring transversly ~ in., and vertically
about ~ in. This was bounded above by the frontal bone, and
laterally by the malar and a small portion of the superior maxillary
bone. There was no trace of the ethmoid, vomer, nasal, or
lachrymal bones, or of the nasal process of the superior maxillary
bones. The median cavity between the lesser wings of the sphenoid
and the two sphenoidal fissures are seen in the diagram. On the
floor of the cavity there projected backwards from the superior
maxillae, over the distance of about half an inch, a flat plate of bone
J in. broad. This apparently represented the orbital plates of the
superior maxillary bones which had become fused in the middle
line owing to the absence of the bony structures which normally
intervene. The frontal bones presented a boss-like projection
about ^ in. above the orbit, from which the lateral parts of the bone
sloped somewhat rapidly backwards and outwards. Above this pro-
jection a slight trace of median suture was seen. On the internal
aspect of the bone the orbital plates were not horizontal, but sloped
gradually upwards into the more vertical portion of the bone. In
the superior maxillae the two infra-orbital foramina were within
■jQ in. of each other. There were no pre-maxillary bones. The
malar bones seemed normal in form and in their articulations,
but their anterior extremities were abnormally approximated, owing
to the defective development of the superior maxillae. The lower
1890-91.] Alexander Brace on a Human Cyclops.
419
jaw was normal in form, but projected about in. beyond the
superior maxilla, apparently owing to the defective development
of the latter. In the sphenoid bones the greater wings had their
outer surfaces directed a little more forward than normally.
The foramen caecum was situated nearly \ in. from the hinder
margin of the frontal bone. At this point the defective falx
cerebri commenced as a single layer. Below this point the falx
had split into two layers directed outwards towards the anterior
lips of the lesser wings of the sphenoid, including between them a
small triangular space, into which a small portion of the anterior tips
of the cerebrum projected.
III. Description of the base of the skull. — The roof of the
mouth was formed by the two palatal processes of the superior
maxillary bones, which united in the normal way in the middle
line. The palate bones presented a peculiar appearance. Instead
of being horizontal they were directed obliquely upwards and back-
wards, and apparently articulated directly with the basi-sphenoid
bone. The nasal cavity was thus completely absent. The space in-
cluded between the orbital plates of the superior maxillae above and
their palatal processes below, between the anterior portion of the
superior maxillae in front and the palate bones behind, was occupied
by a large sinus, which was probably the equivalent of the two
antra of Highmore. The space between the two palate bones and
the basi-sphenoid and occipital bones was nearly hemispherical,
with a diameter of about |- in.
In this case we have to deal with a malformation in which the
following facts have to be accounted for : —
1. The fusion of the two eye-lids with each other so as to form
a single oval aperture.
2. The formation of two rudimentary eyes in which the lenses
are separate, while the retina and optic nerve are single.
3. The absence of certain bones of the face and skull which
are normally present in the mesial plane.
4. The absence, or rather displacement with imperfect develop-
ment, of the nose.
5. Certain defects of development of the cerebral hemispheres
and crura cerebri, described above in detail.
It is obvious that the malformation must have been produced at
420
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
a very early stage of intra-uterine life before the union of the
fronto-nasal with the maxillary processes. Some cause must have
been operative which has pushed the fronto-nasal process upwards,
approximated the two eyes and ocular apertures, fused the two
optic vesicles, and prevented the development of the pre-sphenoid
bone and the bones of the nasal septum. In our ignorance of the
order in which these events took place there must be always a
difficulty in determining the true cause. Was it, for instance, a
primary compression of the two eyes towards the middle line, and an
upward displacement of the fronto-nasal process, or was it a primary
compression, with fusion, of the two optic vesicles, and a consequent
directly forward growth of these structures? It will be obvious
that any cause which directs the optic vesicles forward will prevent
the development of those cartilaginous and ultimately bony consti-
tuents of the skull which lie between the two optic foramina and
in the nasal septum. These are the pre-maxillary bone, the nasal
process of the superior maxillary, the nasal bones, the lachrymals,
the ethmoid and vomer — in fact, the very structures which are
absent from my case. Misformed growth of the optic vesicles will
also displace the fronto-nasal process upwards, and approximate or
fuse the two eyes and ocular apertures. An intra-cranial cause,
therefore, capable of fusing the two optic vesicles together, would
appear to be able to produce cyclopia. On the other hand, a similar
condition might be produced by any external pressure capable of
approximating the two eye-balls. An examination of the cases
recorded in Dareste’s work on “ The Production of Monstrosities ”
shows that pressure of the head-fold of the amnion may produce
this effect. Kundrat has also shown in “ Arhinencephalie ” that the
result of this will be to press the two optic vesicles more closely
together, and to drive the cerebro-spinal fluid in a backward
direction — for the most part into the diverticulum connected with
the pineal gland, which thus becomes dilated into a large cyst.
According to Kundrat, there is almost invariably also a dilatation
of the cavities of the forebrain. There is also sometimes a dropsical
condition of the third ventricle, with a more or less complete
atrophy of the optic thalami, and a similarly dilated condition of
the primary optic vesicle, which remains single ; or, more rarely, the
two optic thalami may be fused into one. According to Kundrat,
Proc. R(y,Soc Edin, Vol.XX
DR BRUCE ON A HUMAN CYCLOPS — Plate 1.
MtFa-rlaTie &.Er3)dnc.Lith”Edinf
Vol.XX
Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed in.
BRUCE ON A HUMAN CYCLOPS. Plate II.
Fig 7
Fig. 8
M'Fairlane J. Ersliin., LiUirf EdinT
petincL
Vol.XX.
Proc. Rqy.Soc Ed in
BRUCE ON A HUMAN CYCLOPS. Plate HI.
'infi
•wM 0 r
f A
'M'-' Farla^e &. Erskine . Litb’*? Edin^
1890-91.] Alexander Bruce on a Human Cyclops.
421
this condition is almost invariably due to pressure of the head-fold
of the amnion. It is obvious that a dilatation of the third ventricle,
occurring at an early stage, may drive forward its floor so that the
optic vesicles form a single fused cavity, and so cause cyclopia.
It is probable that this is a very frequent cause, hut it is not the
one operative in my case, where there was neither pineal cyst nor
dilated ventricle.
The two optic thalami, on the other hand, are all hut completely
fused together, as are also the two crura cerebri. This fusion is
associated with an excessive development of the lepto-meninges
round them, by a fusion of these with thickened pachy-meninges at
the junction of falx and tentorium, and also by an almost complete
disappearance of the optic tracts. The causation of this chronic
meningitis is not evident, but its occurrence is apparently so un-
common in the described cases of cyclopia that it cannot be looked
upon as a change secondary to the malformation. However produced,
it is certainly capable of causing the fusion of the two thalami, and of
altering the optic vesicles from an antero-lateral to a directly-forward
course. I would submit, then, as a possible separate, or at least
contributing, cause of cyclopia, a limited pachy- and lepto-menin-
gitis. The occurrence of this meningitis may serve to explain the
restrained ingrowth of pia mater to form the velum interpositum,
and therefore the imperfect atrophy of the brain substance within
the cerebral vesicle.
The remaining changes in the crura, pons, medulla, and cord
were mainly due to the absence from them of the descending tracts
from the cerebrum.
422
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgh. [sess.
On M. Dubois’ Description of remains recently found in
Java, named by him Pithecanthropus erectus. With
Remarks on so-called Transitional Forms between
Apes and Man. By Professor Sir William Turner,
F.R.S.
(Read February 4, 1895.)
Since the time when naturalists were led, by the publication of
Charles Darwin’s far-famed work on the Origin of Species hy
Natural Selection^ to consider that Man might have been derived
through a process of evolution from lower forms of animal life,
attention has repeatedly been called to remains, more or less
fossilised, which were thought to be transitional forms between the
lower animals and Man.
One of the most remarkable specimens studied from this point
of view was the well-known Neanderthal skull, discovered in 1857,
along with some bones of the limbs and ribs, in a limestone cave in
the Neander Valley. Unfortunately, it consisted only of the
calvaria or skull-cap, which was characterised by the great promin-
ence of the glabella and supra-orbital ridges, the flattening of the
vertex, the slope upwards and forwards of the occipital squama
from the protuberance of that bone, and the long, straight squamosal
suture, in all of which it approximated to the configuration of the
crania of anthropoid apes. On the other hand, its estimated
capacity of 1230 cubic centimetres and its glabello-occipital length
of 200 mm. much exceeded the corresponding measurements in
anthropoid apes, and approximated it to many aboriginal Australian
crania : whilst, in its breadth of 144 mm., it considerably exceeded
the transverse diameter of the cranium of the Australian savage.
Its length-breadth index is 72. By some observers it was regarded
as transitional between man and apes, and Professor King of Galway
designated it Homo Neanderthalensis. Professor Huxley made a
careful analysis of its characters in Man’s Place in Naturef and
whilst speaking of it as the most pithecoid of human crania up to
that time discovered, he showed its affinities to the skulls of some
* London, 1863. Also supplementary paper in Nat. Hist. Rev., July 1864.
1894-95.] Prof. Sir Wm. Turner on Pithecanthropus erectus. 423
of the Australian aborigines, which are flattened on the vertex, and
to crania belonging to the people of Denmark during the Stone period.
He regarded it as a human skull forming the lowest term of a series
leading gradually upwards to the best developed human crania,
and stated that the Neanderthal man was in no sense intermediate
between man and apes.
In a paper which I read to this Society thirty-one years ago,* I
compared the Neanderthal skull with a number of specimens both
of savage and British crania in the Anatomical Museum of the
University. I showed that the Neanderthal characters are closely
paralleled in skulls of existing savage races, and even in occasional
specimens of modern European crania ; and that the large transverse
parietal diameter compensated for the brain space lost by the re-
treating forehead and flattened occiput. Shortly after the publi-
cation of this paper. Dr — now Sir Arthur — Mitchell presented me
with a calvaria found in Aberdeen, whilst digging the foundations
of Gordon’s Hospital, which is built on the site of the Blackfriars
Monastery with which a burial-ground had been connected. This
specimen confirmed, in a very striking manner, the demonstration
which I had previously given. f The conclusion above arrived at is
now so generally accepted, that anthropologists not unfrequently
refer to specimens of the crania of both savage and civilised races,
which they are examining, as possessing Neanderthaloid characters.
Subsequent to the discovery of the Neanderthal skull, other crania
have been obtained which exhibit approximately similar characters.
Two of the most remarkable of these were procured along with
other bones of the skeleton, in 1886, in a terrace at the mouth of a
cave at Spy, Belgium, and have been described by MM. Fraipont
and LohestjJ who regard them as belonging to the same race as the
man of the Neander Valley. Associated with these skeletons were
bones of existing mammals, and of the extinct Rhinoceros Uchorinus
and mammoth, also examples of worked flints. They came to the
conclusion that whilst the men of Spy had possessed a number of
pithecoid characters to a greater extent than in any other human
* Abstract in Proc. Boy. Soc., Edinburgh, January 18, 1864, and in extenso
in Quart. Jour, of Sc., April 1864.
t The calvaria was described and figured in the Quart. Jour, of Sc,, October
1864.
X BccJierches etlinographiqucs sur Us ossements humains, &c. Gand, 1887.
424 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
race, yet that they still appeared to be human, and that between
them and an undoubted anthropoid ape there was an abyss ;
though the interval was not quite so great as that between the
men of Spy and the fossil Dryopithecus of the Middle Miocene
period.
MM. Fraipont and Lohest attached considerable importance to
the form and extent of the antero-posterior curvature of the condyles
of the femur, and to modifications in the curvatures of the articular
surfaces of the head of the tibia, so as to make them conform to
the large articular surfaces of the femoral condyles. They con-
sidered that with such an extent of curvature backwards of the
femoral condyles, the erect human position would not have been
possible, and that the trunk had been projected forwards. They
are inclined to think that the attitude of these men, when standing,
partook more of that of anthropoid apes, and was therefore more
pithecoid than human.
Dr Collignon had previously called attention,* in his description
of the human skeletons found in 1869 at Bollwiller, in the Depart-
ment of the Upper Rhine, to the backward slope (retroversion) of
the head of the tibia, which gave the articular surface an oblique
direction from above downwards, and from before backwards. He
regarded it as a character akin to that found in the gorilla, associated
with demi-flexion of the leg, and rendering the vertical attitude
difficult, so that the body was less erect during progression than
in existing men.
In a review! of MM. Fraipont and Lohest’s memoir, Dr Collignon
expressed the opinion that the characters of the head of the tibia
in the Bollwiller skeletons, existed in a higher degree in the tibiae
of the men of Spy. In the following year M. Fraipont published
an account J of a fresh examination of the tibiae obtained at Spy,
and corroborated Dr Collignon’s opinion. He stated that the in-
curvation of the head upon the body of the tibia was very accentu-
ated in these skeletons, and he considers that he is, as a result of
this additional inquiry, still more justified in concluding that the
men of Spy had an attitude less vertical than existing man, and
* Revue d’ Anthropologie, 1880, vol. iii. pp. 406, 412.
t Revue d' Anthropologie, 1887, 3rd series, vol. ii. p. 742.
+ Ibid., March 1888, vol. iii. p. 145,
1894-95.] Prof. Sir Wm. Turner on Pithecantliivpus erectus. 425
that Man has acquired a more erect position since the Quaternary
period.
In a memoir on the skeleton of a man referred to the Quaternary
period, which was exposed in October 1888, along with flint flakes
and worked portions of reindeers’ bones and horns, at Reymonden,
in the commune of Chancelade, in the Dordogne, Professor Testut
described * a broken tibia, the upper end of which had the same
backward direction as in the skeletons from Bollwiller and Spy.
He regarded it as an ape-like character, indicating that in the
standing position the knees projected more prominently forwards
than in existing races. The skull was dolichocephalic, the length-
breadth index being 72. The cranial capacity, taken by Broca’s
method, was 1730 c.c., which is greatly in excess of the mean of
modern European men.
In arriving at the conclusion as to the signification of the form
and direction of the femoral condyles and the superior articular
end of the tibia, these observers had not sufficiently taken into
consideration the influence which position or attitude would
exercise in modifying the bones of the limbs, and the effects which
would be produced by occupation, habit, and muscular action on
the bones, wffien in the plastic stage of growth. In the memoir
which I published in 1886 on Human Skeletons, in the Reports
of H.M.S. Challenger,^ I called attention to the squatting attitude
assumed by so many savage races, as a factor to be considered in
determining the shape of the pelvis and the curvature of the
lumbar spine. I also pointed out the influence which might be
exercised on the form and extent of the areas for muscular attach-
ment on the scapula, in those races of men who are in the habit
of climbing trees in search of food, or for other objects.
The influence of the squatting posture in modifying the form
of the external condylar surface of the tibia, and in extending the
articular areas of the tibio-astragalar joint in savage races, has now
been worked out in detail by Professor Arthur Thomson, of Oxford. J
* Bulletin de la Soe. d' Anthropologie de Lyon, t. viii., 1889. Lyon, 1889.
+ Zoology, Challenger Expedition, part xlvii., 1886, pp. 58, 77, 88. See
also my Lecture on Variability in the Skeleton in different Races of Men, in
Journ. of Anat. and Phys., April 1887, p. 473, vol. xxi.
X Journ. of Anat. and Phys., July 1889, vol. xxiii. p. 616, and additional
paper in the same Journal, Jan. 1890.
426 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
Professor Manouvrier published in the following year an elabo-
rate paper on retroversion of the head of the tibia, and on
the attitude of man in the Quaternary period.* He examined
several hundred tibiae of neolithic men, modern Parisians and
savage races, and arrived at the conclusion that, in a notable
proportion of these, tibiae occurred in which the head was as
strongly inclined backwards as in the men of Spy, and in some
instances, as in the tibiae of the Indians of California, even more
so ; and yet these people assume, without a shadow of doubt, a
vertical attitude when standing.
Professor Havelock Charles has studied the bones of the lower
limbs in natives of the Punjab,! who habitually assume the squat-
ting attitude. He confirms Professor Thomson’s observations on
the articular surface of the head of the tibia, and the additional
facets at the tibio-astragalar joint. He also figures the retroversion
of the head of the tibia, and describes modifications in the upper
and lower articular ends of the femur, and in the acetabulum, all
of which he associates with the squatting position.
It is obvious, therefore, that position and habit materially
modify the forms of the bones, and that characters which MM.
Collignon and Fraipont thought to be indicative of an inability
to attain, in the full sense, the erect attitude, were due to the
customary position of squatting, which both ancient and modern
savages assumed when at rest. We have no evidence, therefore,
that Quaternary man was not as capable of raising his body to
the erect attitude as the men of the present day ; and Professor
Testut’s observations further show that a tibia with a retroverted
head may be associated with a skull of unusually high internal
capacity.
Thus the retroversion of the head of the tibia, to which the above
observers attached so much importance, is of no value as a proof of
the existence of a transitional form between man and apes.
A few months ago, M. Eugene Dubois, surgeon in the army of
the Indian Netherlands, published! a memoir descriptive of some
bones recently found in Java. From the title of his work, “ Pi-
* Memoires de la SocUt4 d' Anthropologie de Paris, 2nd series, t. iv., 1890.
t Journ. of Anal, and PJiys., Oct. 1893, April 1894, vol. xxviii.
+ Batavia, 1894.
1894-95.] Prof. Sir Wm. Turner on Pithecanthroims erectns. 427
tliecanthropus erectus, eine menschenahnliche uebergangsform,” it is
obvious that he considers he has established the existence of a link
connecting together apes and man. He names this supposed link
Pithecanthropus erectus ; and as he believes it to differ in characters
from man on the one hand, and apes on the other, he proposes to
found a new family in the Primates, intermediate between Simiidae
and Hominidae, to which he gives the name Pithecanthropidae.
He defines the characters of this family as follows : —
Brain case, absolutely and in relation to the size of the body
much more spacious than in Simiidae, but less spacious than in
Hominidae : contents of the cranial cavity about two-thirds of the
average contents of that of man ; the slope forward of the occipital
bone below the protuberance and superior curved line much stronger
than in the Simiidae. Teeth, although retrogressing, yet of the
type of the Simiidae. Femur, in its dimensions, like the human,
and constructed for progression in the erect attitude.
He believes that the successive stages of evolution up to man are
represented by the following forms : — Protohylohates, a primitive form
of Hylobates; Anthropopithecus sivalensis, a form of Chimpanzee of
the later Miocene or older Pliocene Period ; Pithecanthropus erectus,
a late Pliocene or early Pleistocene mammal ; lastly. Homo sapiens.
The specimens on which these conclusions are based are a
calvaria or skull-cap ; an upper third molar tooth, which he says is
the right ; a left femur. They were procured in the neighbour-
hood of Trinil, in the district of Ngawi, in the Residency of Madiun,
on the left bank of the river Bengawan in Java. In September
1891 the molar tooth was got about 1 metre below the dry season
mark of the river. A month later, and 1 metre distant from the
spot where the tooth was lying, and on the same level, the calvaria
was found. In August of the following year, also during the dry
season, and 15 metres (nearly 49 feet) higher up the stream, and
on the same level, the left femur was excavated. During the dry
season of 1893 search was made for other remains, but without re-
sult. The bones were embedded in the bank of the river from 1 2-
15 metres below the plain in which the river had excavated its
bed. The bank was formed of Pleistocene alluvial deposits, con-
sisting largely of re-arranged andresite tuffs — the loose ejectamenta
of volcanic eruptions.
428
Proceedings of Royal Society of EdinhurgTi. [sess.
Skull-Cap.
This consists of the vault of the cranium from the glabella and
supra-orbital arches in front to two finger-breadths below the
occipital protuberance (inion) and superior curved line. It is a
long ovoid, 185 mm. in glabello-occipital length; 130 mm. in its
greatest transverse breadth ; 90 mm. in breadth immediately
behind the orbits, a dimension which, the author says, would
probably have been 4 mm. greater in the unbroken skull. The
highest point of the vault of the skull was in the parietal region,
and was 62 mm. above a sagittal line drawn horizontally backwards
from the glabella to the inferior curved line of the occiput. The
relation of length to breadth w^as as 100 to 70, so that the skull
was dolichocephalic. The supra-orbital ridges and glabella had
great prominence, and the frontal sinuses were well developed.
The greatest sagittal depth of a frontal sinus was 24 mm. The
sagittal diameter of the cranial cavity was 155 mm. The thickness
of the occipital bone a little below the inferior curved line was 4 ’5
mm. The frontal bone was slightly keeled in the line of the ob-
literated frontal suture, and the other sutures of the cranial vault
were obliterated. The general surface of the outer table of the
skull was smooth, and there was an absence of bony ridges. The
vault of the skull had an arch much below the European human
skull, but higher than that of anthropoid apes. The supra-inial
part of the occipital bone sloped upwards and forwards from the
inion, as in the hleanderthal skull, whilst the infra-inial part, to which
the muscles of the back of the neck were attached, sloped down-
wards and forwards to where the foramen magnum had been,
though the actual position of this hole cannot be stated with
certainty. The forward slope of the nuchal part of the occiput
was, without doubt, in relation to the curve of the encephalon and
the greater volume of the cerebrum in relation to the cerebellum,
which one associates with the erect attitude. From the obliterated
condition of the sutures the skull was obviously that of a person
not below middle life. Dubois thinks, from the absence of ridges
and from the superior temporal lines on the opposite sides of the
skull being quite independent, that the cranium must have been
1894-95.] Prof. Sir Wm. Turner on Pitliecanthro'pus erectus. 429
that of a female. In the projection of the glabella and supra-
orbital ridges the skull had, however, characters which one is
accustomed to regard as masculine.
The cerebral cavity was, for the most part, filled with a stony
mass, so that the capacity of the skull-cap could not be directly
ascertained. Even if the calvaria had been free from its stony
contents, the absence of the base of the skull would have made it
impossible to obtain a direct determination of the entire cranial
capacity.
From a comparison of the length, breadth, and arch of the vertex
of the skulls of the chimpanzee and of two specimens of hylobates,
with their actual capacity as determined by measurement, and
from the measurements of the length, breadth, and arch of the
vertex of the fossil, M. Dubois arrives at the conclusion that the
actual capacity of the fossil cranium had been about 1000 cubic
centimetres, that is, about double the capacity of the cranium of
the gorilla, and about two-thirds of the capacity of a well-formed
European cranium. Dubois recognises that the Java calvaria
approximates more to the human type than to that of the anthro-
poid apes ; thus it is much more spacious, its vault is more
highly arched, the supra-orbital arches are less projecting, the
diameters generally are greater, and the downward and for-
ward slope of the nuchal part of the occipital bone is more
pronounced than in the Simiidae. N’otwithstanding these human
characters, he does not regard it as a human skull.
As the University Museum contains a number of examples of
the crania of the larger anthropoid apes, as well as a large collection
of human crania, illustrating the different races of men, I have
thought that it would be useful to compare Dubois’ description and
measurements with these specimens.
As regards the glabello-occipital length, the Java calvaria is 54
mm. longer than the mean of two chimpanzee skulls, one of which
is an old male ; 54 mm. longer than a male orang, and 65 mm.
longer than a female orang. It is more difficult to make a com-
parison with the skull of the gorilla, as in this animal the strongly
projecting occipital crest gives a length out of all proportion to the
proper glabello-occipital diameter. Thus in a remarkably fine
male, the glabello-cristal length is 217 mm., whilst in an adult
430 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgh. [sess.
female with a slight crest it is 153 mm., and in a young specimen,
where the occipital crest is only just indicated, the long diameter
is 132 mm.
In its greatest breadth the Java fossil is 32 mm. broader than
the greatest mean breadth of the two chimpanzees and the female
orang. It is 21 mm. broader than the mean of five adult male
gorillas, 30 mm. broader than the female, 35 mm. broader than the
young specimen. The breadth of the apes’ skulls was taken in the
squamous region.
The frontal diameter behind the orbits was, in the Java fossil,
20 mm. greater than in the chimpanzees, and 28 mm. more than
in the orangs. It was 19 mm. greater than the mean of five male
gorillas, 24 mm. greater than in a female gorilla, and 22 mm.
greater than in a young specimen. In the undamaged state of the
Java fossil, as Dubois thinks, this diameter was probably 4 mm.
greater than in the specimen as it now exists.
In the external dimensions of length and breadth, it is clear that
the Java fossil is very much larger than the corresponding dimen-
sions of the great anthropoid apes, except as regards the length
of the largest skulls in the male gorilla, which are so materially
elongated by the development of the occipital crests.
In the following Table the dimensions of the Java calvaria and
of the anthropoid apes, which I have measured, is given : —
Age. Sex. Length.
Breadth.
Post Orh. Br.
Cub. Cap.
Java calvaria (P. erectus?), Ad. ?
185
130
90
1000?
Chimpanzee,
Ad. $
132
98
70
350
„ {ccdms .?),
Ad. $
130
98
69
360
Orang,
Ad. $
131
100
62
440
,, ...
Ad. $
120
98
62
360
Gorilla,
Ad. $
190
113
72
480
,, ...
Ad. $
182
113
68
470
,, ...
Ad. i
205
105
73
520
,, ...
Ad. $
217
106
67
590
,, ...
Ad. $
176
107
74
410
,, ...
Ad. $
153
100
66
420
,, ...
Young, ?
132
95
68
355
In the apes the length was inio-glabellar, but in the gorillas it included the
crista occipitalis.
1894-95.] Prof. Sir Wm. Turner on Pithecanthropus erectus. 431
Dubois draws a sagittal line between the most projecting part of
the glabella and the inferior curved line of the occiput, and traces
the profile outline of the Java specimen. He states that the
highest point of the cranial vault is 62 mm. higher than the
sagittal horizontal line, a dimension which, to the long diameter of
the skull, is as about 1 to 3. Although in its vault considerably
lower than the European, it is, on the other hand, very appreciably
higher than either in the chimpanzee or gibbons.
In comparing the length of the skull in the Java specimen with
that of the anthropoid apes, it must be kept in mind that, although
in the Java fossil the glabellar projection is stronger than in
human crania generally, yet that, neither absolutely nor relatively,
is it so prominent as in the skulls of the chimpanzee and gorilla.
In my memoir on human crania, in the Eeport of H.M.S.
Challenger * I described a method of taking the internal capacity
of the skull, which seemed to me to give more precise results than
those of Broca and other craniologists. I have employed this
method in the determination of the capacity of the crania of the
anthropoid apes, specified in the Table, and in taking the measure-
ments I have on this, as on so many other occasions, been
indebted to my Museum Assistant, Mr James Simpson. The
adult male gorillas ranged from 410 to 590 c.c., giving a mean of
494 c.c. The Java skull possessed, therefore, according to Dubois’
estimate, twice the capacity of the mean of the five male gorillas, and
more than twice that of the female gorilla. It was two and a half
times as capacious as the mean of the two orangs, and approached
to three times the capacity of the skull of the chimpanzee.
In comparing the Java specimen with human crania, M. Dubois
almost entirely limits himself to a comparison with the European
skull. It is obvious, however, that to obtain a proper conception of
its affinities, the comparison should not be restricted to highly
developed European races, but rather it should be looked at side by
side with a race now dwelling under savage conditions. There is no
doubt that, as compared with a dominant European race, the cranial
capacity of the Java specimen, if the accuracy of Dubois’ estimate be
accepted, is much below that of such a people, for example, as the
modern Scot. Thus the capacity of the skulls of 50 Scotsmen in
* Zoology, Challenger Expedition, part xxix. p. 9, 1884.
432 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
the University Museum, taken according to the method to which
I have already referred, gave a mean of 1492*8 c.c., and ranged
from 1770 to 1240 c.c.; that of 23 Scotswomen had a mean of
1325 C.C., and ranged from 1625 to 1100 c.c. The mean of the
Scotsmen closely approximates to Welcker’s measurements of
Europeans generally, quoted by Dubois, and places the fossil, in
its capacity, as much below the European mean as it is above the
mean capacity of the male gorilla.
If we now take the aboriginal Australians as an example of the
modern savage, we find them to be a low-typed, purely dolicho-
csphalic race presenting many features of correspondence with the
Java specimen. The glabella and supra-orbital ridges are, in a
large majority of Australian skulls, massive and projecting. A
keel is not unfrequently found in the line of the obliterated
frontal suture, and the vault of the cranium is, in many specimens,
feebly arched. As regards the length of the skull, the mean
glabello-occipital length of 25 Australian men was 190 mm., that
of 13 women was 177 mm. — giving as the mean of the two sexes
183*5 mm., which almost exactly corresponds with the Java
specimen. The greatest breadth of the Australian men was, on the
average, 131 mm., and of the women 127 mm., so that the Java
fossil practically corresponded in breadth to the men, and was
slightly broader than in the women. The post-orbital frontal
breadth was, on the average, 97*6 mm. in the men and 92 mm. in
the women, which was slightly more than the breadth in the
corresponding region in the fossil.
As regards internal capacity, it is very rare for an Australian
skull to measure 1500 c.c., though I have measured a man from
Queensland who reached 1514 c.c., one from the De Grey river
1450 C.C., and one from South Australia 1400 c.c. The average of
24 Australian men was, however, only 1286 c.c., and of 12 women
1106 c.c. In the men, no specimen was below 1000 c.c., but one
was only 1044 c.c. In the women five specimens were below 1100
C.C., and three of these measured 930, 946, and 998 c.c. respectively.
Granting, therefore, the accuracy of M. Dubois’ estimate of 1000
c.c. for the fossil, and if it be as he supposes of the female sex,
three Australian women were below it in capacity, and a consider-
able number were only a little more capacious.
(
1894-95.] Prof. Sir Wm. Turner on Pithecanthropus crectus. 438
In the skulls of other savage races in the University Museum,
namely, Andaman Islanders, Admiralty Islanders, Bush people,
Yeddahs and hill tribes of India, I find 17 specimens ranging from
1000 to 1092 c.c. Two of these were probably males and the rest
females. It follows, therefore, that a human cranium, smaller in
its capacity than 1100 c.c., is yet sufficiently large for the lodgment
of a brain,' competent to discharge the duties demanded by the life
of a savage.
Upper Molar Tooth.
The isolated tooth was found 1 metre distant from the calvaria.
The crown is described as forming an unequal triangle, with one
lateral and two median rounded angles ; the base was turned for-
wards and a little concave ; the transverse diameter of the corona
at the base was 15*3 mm., and the greatest sagittal diameter on the
inner side was 11*3 mm. In the direction from before backwards
it was very short. On the one side, the two anterior cusps were
tolerably well developed, but on the other side the posterior median
cusp was much reduced, and the postero-lateral scarcely developed.
In consequence of this, the connecting band between the anterior
median and the postero-lateral cusp did not exist, and the hollows
of the grinding surface were quite irregular. This surface was
only slightly worn in places. The tooth had two strongly diverging
fangs, which projected somewhat obliquely backwards, the obliquity
being due, M. Dubois thinks, to the fact that there had not been
much space for the tooth in the sagittal diameter of the jaw. The
median root measured from the neck 13 mm. ; it was transversely
compressed; the lateral root was 15 mm. long: on the inner side it
was broadly and deeply forked, owing to the fusion of an anterior
shorter, and a posterior longer fang, both of which were compressed
from before backwards. The form of the tooth indicated that,
notwithstanding its great breadth, it had undergone a strong
retrogression in the sagittal direction, which pointed to a corre-
sponding retrogression in the entire dentary arcade. Dubois states
that the tooth is larger than the corresponding molar in Man,
and the grinding surface more rugose. On the other hand, it is
not so strongly developed as in the gorilla and orang, nor so rugose.
In commenting on this description one is, in the first instance,
disposed to raise the question whether the tooth belonged to the
VOL. XX. 10/6/95 2 E
434 Proceedings of Royed Society of Edinhurgh, [sess.
skull, the calvaria of which was found in its neighbourhood.
From the fact that the grinding surface was only slightly worn, one
would not be prepared to associate it with a skull, where all the
sutures of the vault were so obliterated, as in the Java calvaria.
As regards the size of its crown, I have compared it with the teeth
of the anthropoid apes in the University Museum. It is some-
what larger than the third upper molar in the skulls both of the
chimpanzee and orang. In the adult male orang the crown of the
upper wisdom was 11 mm. in sagittal, and 13 mm. in transverse
diameter ; in the female the corresponding diameters were 9 mm.
and 12 mm. It is almost equal in size to the corresponding tooth
in one of the male gorillas, but it is distinctly smaller than in the
three other males. Compared with the female gorilla, its diameter
in one direction is 1*3 mm, greater, and in the other 1*7 mm. less.
It was distinctly larger than the upper wisdom tooth in Europeans.
Compared with the corresponding tooth in a number of Australian
skulls, it was also greater in the dimensions of its crown ; but in a
male skull, from the Riverina district of U. S. Wales, the transverse
diameter of the crown of the corresponding tooth was as high as 14
mm., and the sagittal diameter, on the inner side, was 9 mm., and
on the outer 10 mm. It is, I think, by no means clear that this
tooth is from a human jaw, and is not rather that of an anthropoid
ape. That it belonged to a gorilla or chimpanzee is out of the
question, as these apes are African and not Asiatic in their
habitat. The question arises if it may not have been that of a
large orang, in which case the area occupied by this ape would
have been more extensive than Borneo and Sumatra, its present
habitat, and would have included Java. The general configuration
of the crown is indeed not unlike that of the wisdom tooth of an
adult orang ; though, without having the tooth before one for
examination and comparison, one does not wish to express too
positive an opinion.
Left Femur.
This isolated bone was found nearly 50 feet higher up the river
bank than the calvaria. It was only slightly injured, at the head,
great trochanter and the lower articular ends. It had, however, a
large irregular pointed exostosis, growing from the inner and back
part of the shaft, below the small trochanter. It was an adult
1891-95.] Prof. Sir Wm. Turner on PitliecantliTopus erectus. 435
bone, and its surface was not smoothed down by friction against
extraneous objects. Its length from the highest point of the head
to a line connecting the lowest points of the two condyles was 455
mm. In his description of the bone, M. Dubois recognises many
features of correspondence with the human femur ; in the shape of
the head, that of the trochanters and of the anterior inter-trochanteric
line; in the development of the ridge for the insertion of the
gluteus maximus ; in the angle formed by the neck with the shaft,
in the compression of the neck, in the form of the lower articular
end, and of the inter-condyloid fossa, and in the presence of a linea
aspera, it repeats the human characters, so much so, indeed, that
Dubois has no hesitation in concluding that the femur could be ex-
tended, both on the trunk and leg, as to admit of the erect attitude.
On the other hand, he states that it differs from the human
thigh bone, in the absence of an angulus medialis or line separating
the anterior convex surface from the inner surface ; in the inner
surface being convex and not concave ; in the popliteal surface
having less definite lateral boundaries, and being somewhat convex
and not flat, whilst the inter-trochanteric crest is less elevated,
narrower and turned inwards, so that this line is not straight, but
concave. These supposed points of difference are, he considers, of
sufficient moment to distinguish it from the human bone, and to
approximate it to the femur of anthropoid apes. In arriving at
this conclusion, M. Dubois has not had before him, for purposes of
comparison, a sufficient number of human femora, and has not
realised the variations which occur in the bone in those areas where
he conceives that the Java specimen differs from the femur in Man.
Prom the examination of a large number of femora, both European
and exotic, I am able to state that the characters which Dubois
considers not to be human are occasional varieties in the femur of
Man, so that they lose all significance as marks of differentiation
from the human femur.
There can be no doubt that the Java femur is a human bone,
but whether it is the thigh bone of the skeleton to which the
calvaria belonged is, I think, extremely doubtful. The distance at
which it was found from the skull-cap and the fact that it was
lying in an alluvium brought down in the course of a tropical river,
show that the remains were only loosely associated with each other,
436 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
and had not of necessity any organic connection. The sharpness
of its contours and of the pointed exostosis are characters which
it is difficult to reconcile with the condition presented by the
calvaria. On the supposition that it was of the same age as the
calvaria, as to which, however, there is, I think, some doubt, it
showed few signs of rubbing or injury as com^pared with what the
skull itself has suffered. Consequently, I am not disposed to think
that the characters of the femur are of any moment in our interpre-
tation of the skull-cap, which must be weighed on its own merits.
In the projection of the supra-orbital ridges and glabella, and in
the shape of the occipital region, the Java calvaria bears such a re-
semblance to the Neanderthal skull that, the latter being regarded
as human, one sees no reason why, in these respects, the Java fossil
should not likewise be human. In both, also, the cranial vault
has a low arch, though M. Dubois considers that, in this respect
and in the internal capacity, the fossil is below the skull from the
Neander Valley. As regards the capacity, the injured state of the
specimen only admits of an approximate estimate, but, on the basis
that it was about 1000 c.c., sufficient evidence has been adduced
in this communication to show that, in the dolichocephalic
aborigines of Australia, the crania in a number of instances were
only slightly above that figure, and in some even below it, whilst
in other savage races, an equally low capacity is occasionally found.
In my judgment, therefore, there is nothing in this character to
lead one to say that the skull was not a human skull. If we
accept the view that the Pleistocene deposit in Java, in which this
specimen was found, is of the same geologic age as the European
Pleistocene, there is nothing in the configuration of the skull-cap
to place it in a different category from those remains of human
Quaternary Man obtained in Europe, which have already been
referred to as possessing similar characters.
Erom the above criticism it will be seen that I am unable to accept
M. Dubois’ opinion that we have in these remains evidence of a new
genus and species intermediate between man and apes. The exist-
ence of such a transitional form is still a matter of speculation, and
has not been placed on the basis of ascertained fact.
1894-95.]
Mr J. B. Hannay on Drops.
437
On Drops. By J. B. Hannay.
(Read May 6, 1895.)
The formation of drops, their variation with density and chemical
composition of the liquid forming them, and their variation with
temperature and frequency, have been the subject of investigation
by several chemists and physicists, yet investigators are by no
means at one as to the definition of a drop or the cause of its
parting from the flowing liquid.
The first investigation by which it was sought to find a definition
of a standard drop, and to discover the laws regulating its formation,
was that carried out by Guthrie,* who was, however, driven to the
conclusion that no perfect drop exists, but that every drop is more
or less imperfect. It is well known that the quicker the rate of
dropping the larger is the size of the delivered drop ; and Guthrie
explained this by supposing that when a drop parts from a solid sup-
port, a portion of the root or stem of the drop is torn back by the
attraction of the solid from which the drop falls. Guthrie allowed
his drops to fall from a rounded surface, and he supposed that when
the flowing of the liquid to the solid was quick the attraction of
the solid for the liquid was more fully satisfied, and hence a smaller
portion of the root of the drop was torn back to satisfy the attrac-
tion of the solid.
According to Guthrie, a full normal drop could not exist, all drops
being more or less imperfect.
This conclusion may be tested by making a liquid drop from it-
self, by which the question of the attraction of a solid is entirely
eliminated, and this may be done in two ways. The first is to ascer-
tain whether or not there is a variation in the size of the drops into
which a smooth running stream divides as it falls, when the rate is
varied. This is a case of a liquid entirely dissociated from any
solid. The second method is to allow a liquid to drop from a column
of its own substance retained in position by retaining walls to
which the liquid does not adhere. This second condition may be
easily attained by using mercury as the liquid, and dropping it from
* “On Drops,” Froc. Roij. Soc.^ vol. xiii.
438 Proceedings of Royal Society of Ediiiburgh. [sess.
a dry clean glass tube of the greatest width which is compatible
with preventing the air entering and the mercury running out.
An attempt was made to ascertain the size of the drops into which
a stream of varying velocity divides, by counting them by means
of an apparatus which I described in 1878,* by which the falling
drops actuated a j)en which recorded each drop on a revolving
cylinder. While it was easily proven that the same law holds good
for drops formed in this manner as for those dropping from a solid,
the difficulties of manipulation rendered this method of little value
for accurate work.
The second method was carefully investigated, and the results
are fully detailed in the paper referred to, in which it was clearly
shown that a liquid dropping from itself (sustained in column form
by walls which it did not wet) gave the same variation of size with
rate as when dropped from a solid.
This method absolutely precludes the idea of a portion of the
drop being torn back by adhesion to the solid, as there is no solid
to which the mercury could adhere.
The conclusion arrived at was that the neck of a drop forms a
tube through which liquid is flowing into the drop, and after a drop
begins to fall it receives an accession of liquid during the time
taken to complete the rupture of the neck, this accession varying
directly as the flow. Besides this, it seemed probable that owing to
the “ stump ” of the drop following after the falling drop the life-
time of the neck might be lengthened.
This led to a conclusion diametrically the opposite to that of
Guthrie — viz., that a true drop is one of which the rate is infinitely
slow, and all other drops are greater than a true drop, and not less,
as Guthrie concluded.
The weight of a true or normal drop is therefore easily found by
determining the difference of weight with rate, and reducing the
rate to zero, which then gives the weight of a drop at the moment
it begins to part.
If it be true that the increase in the weight of a drop with rate
is due to the influx of liquid through the neck while rupture is
taking place, it is clear that the size of drops will not be accurately
* Trans. Toy. Soc. Edin.^ vol. xxiii. 697.
1894-95.]
Mr J. B. Hannay on Drops.
439
related to any of the chemical or physical properties, but must also
depend partly on the mechanics of flow.
That the size of drops of solutions of salts in water has no con-
nection with the viscosity or internal friction, is easily shown by
comparing the numbers obtained by experiments on friction
of that kind detailed in a paper published in 1879,* with the
variation in the weight of drops of such solutions. Thus some
solutions greatly increase the rate of flow, while others retard it ;
but no connection is directly traceable between such rates and the
size of the drops, as shown in the following table : —
Salt in Solution.
Strength.
Time.
Difference.
Weight of Drop.
Water alone
370"
0"
0*1040 grm.
KI
4 times normal
243"
- 127"
0*1094 „
))
2 times normal
297"
- 73"
0*1076 ,, expl.
5)
Normal
312"
- 58"
0*1063 „
KNO3
) J
340"
- 30"
0-1080 ,, sp. gr.
4K2SO4
i 9
394"
+ 24"
0-1071 ,,
iMgS04
5 9
490"
4- 120"
0-1070 „
Here we see that KI and KNOg increase the rate of flow or
diminish the internal friction, while and MgSO^ decrease the
rate of flow ; yet the KI solution of double the normal strength and
MgSO^ of normal strength form almost identical drops.
It therefore became important to minutely examine the con-
ditions under which a drop falls, especially the time taken for
rupture, and to determine accurately what occurs during the
rupture of the neck. It was found that to obtain constant results
it was essential to have the most absolute freedom from impurity ;
and the tube from which the drops fell was heated almost to its
softening point after each change of solution, so that any grease or
impurity which might have contaminated it was entirely destroyed.
The method of regulating the rate of dropping was to cause the
solution to drop at the lowest rate required by interposing a
capillary tube in the flow, and then increasing the rate to any
extent required by air pressure. In this way any required rate
could be at once obtained.
In order to study the conditions under which a drop parts from
its root or stem, water was allowed to drop through oil of different
* “On the Microrlieomoter,” Trans. Roy. Soc.
440
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinbm^gli. [sess.
densities and viscosities, and oils were allowed to drop up through
water, so that by the slow parting of such drops the method of
parting could he investigated.
As the experiments of dropping water in pure olive oil gave very
constant results, I will use the numbers obtained in this way in
illustration of my conclusions.
The conditions were studied by dropping distilled water from a
tube 5*9 mm. internal and 7 '6 mm. external diameter, at a tem-
perature of 20°, in saturated air and in pure olive oil. It was
clearly seen when dropping in oil that the rupture of the drop from
the end of its supporting column was an operation taking some time,
and from the moment the neck began to narrow till it parted was
about 2*8 seconds. When the rate was quicker there was very
little difference in the time taken to complete the rupture, and at the
highest rate at which observations could be made it was not over
3 seconds. Then it was also seen that the root of the drop left
behind was always the same size no matter what the rate. The
stump was measured by viewing with a cathetometer, and the
following numbers obtained when dropping oil in air : —
Growth Time of Drop.
Length of Stump.
Mean of Ten Observations.
12"
78°
7-5"
77°
4-3"
78°
1-9"
79°
0-6"
80°
0-3"
78°
From this we see that all the liquid which flows down during
the rupture of the neck passes into the drop, and that the neck parts
at the highest point.
The cause of the rupture of the neck was then studied, and it was
found that it was due to two causes — namely, surface tension and
gravity. This can be proved in several ways. When water is
delivered in a solid stream into oil from a tube of the same diameter
as that from which the drops were produced, and if, during de^
livery, the tube be raised at a suitable speed, then the water can
be delivered into the oil as a straight rod (as in fig. la). But at
intervals along this rod there rapidly form constrictions, generally
somewhat irregular ; but when the stream has been delivered very
1894-95.]
Mr J. B. Haniiay on Drops,
441
steadily, often quite regular (as at fig. 16), which quickly close up just
as at the root of a drop, and divide the stream into drops (as at c).
In this case, as the rod as a whole is gently falling, and all parts
are equally acted upon by gravity, there is no force pulling the rod
asunder, yet it divides into drops similar to those formed when
dropping from a similar tube. The size of a normal drop in oil is
*4096 C.C., and when dropping at the rate of 10" to a drop the
volume is increased to *5611 c.c. ; while the drops formed from a
cylinder of water as above, have a volume of *5470, which shows
that the determining factor in the formation and parting of a drop
is surface tension.
The part played by gravity in determining the weight at which
a drop will fall consists in its downward pull tending to deform a
drop which without gravity would be a sphere, as can be seen by
dropping a non-miscible pair of liquids of equal density one in the
other, when the drop grows indefinitely into a large sphere. When
gravity pulls the drop out of its spherical form and forms a cylin-
drical neck, the contractile force of the liquid surface will not permit
of this form, but at once starts a constriction which shears through
the neck and detaches a drop.
Some experiments which throw light on the function of the neck
of the drop may be detailed here. If, in forming the rod-like drop
of water in oil (as at fig. la), we stop the upward motion of the de-
livery tube while the flow continues, we obtain a formation like
fig. 2a. The resistance of the oil to the fall of the water causes an
accumulation at the lower end of the elongated neck in the form of
a large drop. The long neck may be maintained intact so long as
a sufficient flow is kept up, but when it becomes long it wriggles
like something endowed with life, and the surface tension or con-
tractility causes constrictions to appear and shift from place to place
without causing any rupture (as at fig. 26).
When the stream is diminished the contractile force overcomes
' the power of the stream to keep the tube open, and the tube is
severed (as at fig. 2c), a new bulb forming higher up ; or if the flow
be suddenly stopped (as at c?), the entire stem separates into drops.
The division is seldom very regular, as the neck is in active wriggling
motion at the moment of rupture.
In order to study the conditions of parting, water was dropped in
442 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgh. [sess.
oil and in air, and mercury was also dropped in air, so as to obtain
three different conditions of parting.
The following are the numbers for water in oil : —
Growth Time
of Drop.
120"
27"
11*3"
Vol. of Drop.
•4096
•4607
•5611
Quantity passing through Neck
after Uupture had begun.
•0091
•0570
•1479
Kesidue.
•4005
•4037
•4132
The quantity passing through the neck was calculated by multiply-
ing the rate of flow by the time of rupture of the neck, — 3 seconds.
By subtracting this quantity from the observed drop we ought to
get a normal drop, so that the figures in the column headed “ residue ”
ought to be exactly the same, and we see that is not the case. After
some study the cause was found in the viscosity of the oil, which
resists the downward movement of the growing drop ; so that on
measuring the extreme width of the drops with a cathetometer at
different rates, it was found that the higher the rate the larger was
the drop, as shown by its greater diameter.
In the case of water dropping in air, this effect had quite dis-
appeared, while in the case of mercury in air an effect of an opposite
character was manifested.
In the case of water dropping in oil, the time taken to cut off the
neck after the drop was ripe could be measured with ease, and was
found to be independent of rate; but in the case of mercury
dropping in air direct observation could not be made, so the time of
rupture of the neck was calculated by finding how long the flow
must have continued through the closing neck in order to account
for the increase in weight.
Rate of
Calculated Time Occu-
Addition to
Normal
Observed Drop
Flow.
pied by Rupture.
Drop through.
Drop.
at given Rate.
6-431
X -036"
•2315
+
4119
•6434
4-594
X *042" =
•1884
-i-
4119
•6003
2-450
X -0515"
•1262
+
4119
•5381
1-252
X -0707"
•0885
+
4119
•5004
0-5788
X
o
oo
-4
•0504
+
4119
•4623
0-4598
X -104"
•0478
-1-
4119
•4597
From these numbers we see that the quicker the rate the shorter
must have been the duration of the neck after rupture had com-
menced. This apparently anomalous decrease of the time arises
from the same cause as the opposite effect in the case of water in
1894-95.]
Mr J. B. Hannay on Drops.
443
oil — i.e. it is connected with the motion of the forming drop. We
saw that the viscosity of the oil buoyed up the water drop, and so
caused undue increase in the size of the drop, independent of its
increase through the neck. In the case of mercury in air, the time
of the rupture of the neck actually varies, the shape and size of the
ripe drop being always the same. The reason of the varying life-
time of the neck is found in the downward velocity of the parting
drop. When the rate is very slow the mercury composing the drop
starts to fall from rest, and the rate of the closing of the neck in this
case is entirely controlled by the contractility or surface tension 3
but as the rate increases, the mercury is already in downward motion
at the moment of its beginning to part, so that its velocity of descent
is greater the quicker the rate, and it actually tears the drop away
from its root, and closes the neck more quickly than would result
from the action of the contractile power of the liquid 3 and the great
density of the mercury emphasises this action.
The effect of gravity on the formation of drops can be very
prettily illustrated when dropping water in oil by introducing (by
means of a small pipette with a capillary delivery point) some dense
solution into the interior of the drop, when a small drop will form
and detach itself (as shown in fig. 3, a, h and c).
The conclusions at which I have arrived by an examination of
the closing neck are similar to those held by Tate {Phil. Mag.
1864), who concludes that “ the weight of the drop is sensibly pro-
portional to the diameter of the tube from which it falls, hence the
force which holds the drop is a surface one, and not one oj general
cohesion.”
This is clearly shown by comparing the weights at which the
neck of a water-drop is ruptured when dropping in air or in oil from
the same tube. Taking a wide tube, the weight in air is 0T78
grm. In oil the neck is ruptured by a weight of only 0*052 grm.,
or about one-third. The drop, however, has a volume of 0*585
C.C., or fully three times that of water in air. In this case, the
material of the neck is identical, and the interior water is in no
way affected 3 while the neck of the water-in-oil drop is wider than
that of the water-in-air drop, yet the force required to produce the
conditions for rupture is only one-third. The only change in the
condition is that of the outer skin of the drop. Had the liquid any
444
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhi^rgh. [sess.
1894-95.]
Mr J. B. Hannay on Drops.
445
property of cohesion like solids, the pull required to rupture the
neck would depend on the diameter of the neck, and would he inde-
pendent of the medium in which the drop was formed.
A similar conclusion was arrived at by Duclaux {cinn. Gh. Phys.
[4] xxi.), who points out that it is only an extremely thin envelope
of the drop which influences its size and shape. Summing up, he
says: — “II n’est pas dificile de montrer que, non seulement
Ihnfluence de cette couche est considerable mais qu’elle est pre-
dominante, et que la cohesion du liquid ou en general toute force
dependante des surfaces en contact n’a pas d’action sensible.”
Duclaux shows that the weight of a drop is profoundly modified
by the condition of the outer skin ; and by dropping water in a
vessel whose walls were wet with alcohol, he showed that the dim-
inution of the size of the drop was so great that it could only be
accounted for by supposing that the alcohol formed a thin layer on
the drop, which then acted as though its entire bulk were of the
same composition as the outer skin. It appeared to me that this
question might be more accurately examined by employing a liquid
insoluble in water to form the film. An apparatus was fitted up as
at fig. 4, where A is the measuring bulb and B the tube from
which the drops fall. This tube was sealed into a wider tube C,
which served to keep the dropping tube surrounded by water
although passing through the rubber stoppers D and E.
A lower vessel F, formed with a side well G, in which lay the
liquid through whose vapour the drops were to fall, was fitted by a
rubber stopper to the dropping tube B, having a lower bulb H,
fitted with a stopcock I, sealed on after the stopper K was passed
over the tube, so that the dropped liquid might be quickly removed
for examination.
A tube L with a stopcock gave free access to the air, so that the
pressure throughout was that of the atmosphere, and it also served
to introduce the liquid in whose vapour the drops were to be
found.
Two liquids were used, — Absolute Alcohol and Benzine.
The temperature chosen was 37°, so that there might be a con-
siderable quantity of the vapour present, and as the water was
dropped at 20° there was a tendency for the vapour to quickly con-
dense on the cooler drop.
446
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
The weiglit of the normal water drop was 0*1081.
,, „ alcohol „ 0*0307.
„ „ benzine „ 0*0449.
The water was then dropped in the vapours at different rates,
and the weights corrected so as to reduce them to what they would
have been at zero rate so that they might he comparable : —
Growth Time.
Water in Vapours at 37°.
Alcohol.
Benzine.
1"
0*0983
0*0940
17*5"
0*0947
0*0816
50"
0*0928
0*0613
We see clearly the influence of allowing time for the condensation
of the vapour in the decreasing drop with increasing growth-time ;
but in the case of alcohol the effect is not so marked, as the alcohol
mixes with the water, and hence the surface is continually renewed,
whereas the benzine, being practically insoluble, accumulates entirely
on the surface.
The liquids were raised to a temperature within a few degrees of
their boiling points, and the water dropped more quickly, with the
following results
Growth Time 0-5".
Water in Alcohol Vapour. Water in Benzine Vapour.
0*0326 0*0534
It will be seen that notwithstanding the solubility of the alcohol
in the water, its action when there is a sufficient supply is more
potent than the benzine.
This is owing to its solubility. The capillary height of two non-
miscible liquids in the same tube depends not only on the specific
gravities of the two liquids and the capillarity of the upper liquid,
but also on the action of the meniscus separating the two liquids ;
whereas, when the liquids are freely miscible, the height depends
only on the mean density and the capillary action of the upper
surface.
Hence with the benzine experiment the drop (had the capillarity
of benzine controlled it) ought to have weighed *0449, whereas,
owing to the limiting surface between the benzine and water, it
weighed *0534, an increase of 18*9 per cent, j whereas with alcohol
the weight was ;0326 instead of *0307, an increase of 6*1 per cent.,
1894-95.]
Mr J. B. Hannay on Drops.
447
no doubt due to the surface layer containing a trace of water. The
drops were reduced to such a size as would represent alcohol of
94 per cent. ; whereas, on analysis, they contained only 5*62 per cent,
of alcohol.
Tranbe {annalen 265, 27-55), by an examination of certain
organic alcohols and acids, concludes that the volume of the drops
is proportional to the rise in height in the capillary tube, and the
principal object in the present investigation was to examine this
relationship when saline solutions are employed. The drops were
calculated to zero rate and the experiments conducted at 20°, water
being taken as 100 in each case : —
Salts.
Solution. Drop (Water 100).
Capillary Constant
(Water 100).
KI
Normal 101*3
101*3
JMgS04
,, 103*4
103-2
iNa2S04
„ 100*4
100-3
KNOg
„ 103-0
102*8
NH4CL
4 times normal 108*1
108-3
From these numbers it is clear that the size of the drop is in
close agreement with the capillary constant.
In conclusion, then, the weight of a normal or infinitely slow drop
is controlled by its surface tension or contractility ; while, when
dropping in practice, it is modified by the rate of flow, by its
gravity, the viscosity of the medium in which it drops, and by its
rate of fall, all of which affect the life-time of the closing neck.
448 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
On the Eendering of Animals Immune against the Venom
of the Cobra and other Serpents ; and on the Antidotal
Properties of the Blood-Serum of the Immunized
Animals. By Professor Thomas R. Fraser, M.D., F.R.S.
(With a Diagram.)
(Read June 3, 1895.)
{Abstract.)
One of the most striking and interesting of the many traditions
and current beliefs regarding venomous serpents is that a power
may be acquired of freely handling them without injury, and even of
successfully resisting the poisonous effects of their bites.
The Psylli of Africa, the Marsi of Italy, the Gouni of India, and
other ancient tribes and sects, were stated to have been immune
against serpents’ bites, and to have been able to exercise a remark-
able influence over even the most venomous of these animals ; and
these attributes have been explained on the supposition that
serpents’ blood was present in the veins of the members of these
tribes and sects.
In more modern times, and, indeed, at the present day, the same
belief is stated in the writings of travellers ; and it has been
expressed by poets and novelists, and among the latter, with a
half-admitted conviction of its reality, by Wendell Holmes, in his
Romance of Destiny.
In “a new and accurate Description of the Coast of Guinea,”
published in 1705, by William Bosman, an account is given of the
great “ reverence and respect ” of the negroes for snakes worshipped
by them as gods ; in connection with which the following state-
ments are made : — “ But what is best of all, is, that these idolatrous
snakes don’t do the least mischief in the world to mankind ; for, if
by chance in the dark one treads upon them, and they bite or sting
him, it is not more prejudicial than the sting of millepedes. Where-
fore, the natives would fain persuade us that it is good to be bitten
or stung by these snakes, upon the plea that one is thereby secured
and protected from the sting of any poisonous snake. But here,”
he proceeds to remark, “ I am somewhat dubious, and should be loth
1894-95,] Antivcnene and Immunization against Venom. 449
to venture on the credit of their assertions, because I have
observed that the gods themselves are not proof against these
venomous serpents, much less can they protect us against their bite.”
Drummond Hay, in his work on Western Barbary, gives a
description of the performances of four members of a sect of snake-
charmers, called the Eisowy (Aissaivi), who freely handled, and
allowed themselves to be bitten by serpents proved to be venomous
by a rapidly fatal experiment performed on a fowl. At the ter-
mination of the exhibition, the Eisowy, apparently as a usual per-
formance, “commenced eating or rather chewing” a poisonous
snake, “which, writhing with pain (to quote Mr Hay’s words)
bit him in the neck and hands until it was actually destroyed
by the Eisowy’s teeth.” He states that, on another occasion,
at Tangier, a young Moor, who was witnessing the perform-
ances of a snake-charmer, ridiculed his exhibition as a delusion,
and having been dared by the Eisowy to touch one of the serpents
the lad did so, was bitten by one of them, and shortly afterwards
expired. In connection with my subject, a special interest is
attached to the account given by Mr Drummond Hay, and repeated
in its main features by Quedenfeldt in the Zeitsclirift fur Ethnologie
of 1886, of the origin of this Eisowy (Aissaivi) sect, and of the
immunity which they claim. The founder, Seedna Eiser, was being
followed through the desert of Soos by a great multitude, who,
becoming hungry, clamoured for bread. On this, Seedna Eiser
became enraged, and turning upon them he uttered a common Arabic
curse, “ kool sim,” which means “ eat poison.” So great was their
faith in the teaching of the saint, that they acted upon the literal
interpretation of his words, and thereafter ate venomous snakes and
reptiles ; and from that time they themselves and their descendants
have been immune against serpents’ bites.
In the writings of many other travellers similar evidences may
be found of a belief in the possession of a power successfully to
resist the poisonous effects of serpents’ bites. The same belief pre-
sents itself in the conviction, prevailing in several parts of the
world, that a non-fatal bite by a poisonous serpent, provided
marked symptoms have followed, confers protection against subse-
quent bites ; and in the tales of the performances by the snake-
charmers of the present time. These performances have been
VOL. XX. 10/6/95 2 F
450
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
graphically described, among others, by Hooker and Ball in their
Journal of a Tour in Marocco and the Great Atlas^ hut only to
he dismissed as impostures, rendered possible by the previous
extraction of the poison-fangs, or by some other disabling
operation. Although, possibly, the performances are at times, or
even frequently, impostures, it almost appears as if this conclusion
were arrived at more because of their improbability and their
apparent defiance of knowledge regarding the effects of serpents’
venom, than because of satisfactory or sufficient proof having been
obtained of the conclusion. Some of the facts which I shall bring
before the Society will, on the other hand, show that this conclusion
can no longer be justified on the ground that the asserted facts imply
impossibilities.
It may he instructive to associate with this belief in the posses-
sion, under certain conditions, by human beings of a power success-
fully to resist the poisonous effects of serpents’ venom, and with
the evidences in its support, the further belief that venomous
serpents are themselves protected against the effects of bites
inflicted upon them by individuals both of their own and of other
species. On mere anatomical grounds it is difficult to understand
how serpents could escape the absorption of their own venom
through mucous surfaces, even admitting that absorption of venom
does not occur in normal conditions of these surfaces. Yeriom
must, however, be so frequently introduced into their bodies, in
situations where absorption could not fail to occur, by the bites in-
flicted upon them by other serpents, that the conclusion seems
inevitable that they possess some protective quality, without which,
probably, no venomous serpents would now be in existence. Hot
only have many general observations been made in support of this
belief, but it has been proved to be correct by direct experiments,
such as those made by Fontana of Tuscany more than a century
ago, and by Guyon, Lagerda, AVaddell, Kaufmann, and Sir Joseph
Fayrer.
This, and other evidence, pointing to the existence of protection
against venom, not only in serpents themselves, but also, in certain
exceptional circumstances, in human beings, several years ago
originated a wish to further investigate the matter. It was
obviously suggested that if protection occurs, it must be caused by
1894-95.] Antivencnc and Immunization against Venom. 451
some direct result of the absorption of venom ; and, therefore, that
its existence could be proved or disproved by experiment. In the
former event, the first steps would already have been taken to
obtain, by further experiments, results likely to be of value in the
treatment of poisoning by serpents’ venom ; and, indeed, likely to
be of importance in even the wider field of general therapeutics.
With these objects, endeavours were made to collect a sufficient
quantity of venom ; but the collection has proceeded but slowly,
and only after several years has a supply gradually been accumulated
sufficiently large to render it probable that definite results would
be obtained before the supply of venom had become exhausted in
the experiments.
I received my first supply of cobra venom in 1879, from Surgeon-
Colonel Moir, lately of Meerut, and afterwards — also in small
quantities — from the late Dr Shortt of Madras, and from Sir
Joseph Fayrer, the Thakore of Gondal, and Dr Phillips. Larger
quantities were subsequently obtained from Surgeon-Captain
French, and through the kind efforts of Sir William Mackinnon,
Director-General of the Army Medical Department, from each of
the Presidencies of India. Early in this year, an additional supply
was received from Surgeon-Colonel Cunningham of Calcutta, and
this gentleman has quite recently sent a further large quantity of
several grammes of dry venom.
But, besides these specimens of the venom of the cobra of India,
I have also been fortunate in obtaining specimens of venoms from
other parts of the world.
From America, Dr Weir Mitchell of Philadelphia — whose work
on the chemistry and physiology of serpents’ venom constitutes the
great advance of the century on the venom of viperine serpents —
has supplied me with the venom of three species of rattlesnakes
— viz., Crotalus horridus, C. adamanteus, and C. durrisus, and also
with a specimen of the venom of the Copper Head [Ttigonocephalus
contortrix).
From Australia, Dr Thomas Bancroft, of Brisbane, has at various
times sent specimens of the venoms of the black snake {PseudecMs
porphyriacus), the brown snake (Diemenia superciliosa)^ and of a
large unidentified snake of the Diamantina district of South
Australia (probably a new species of Diemenia).
452 Proceedings of Royal Society of EdinhurgJi. [sess.
From Africa, the kindness of Mr Wm. Smith, a distinguished
naturalist of Cape Town, of Dr Brock of the Orange Free States,
and of Dr John Murray and Mr Van Putten of Cape Colony, has
placed at my disposal small quantities of the venom of the pufi
adder {Vipera arietans)^ the night adder {Aspidelaps lubricus),
the yellow cobra {Naja liaie), and the “King Hals Slang” or
“ Kinkas ” (Sepedon hsemacliates) ; and Dr John Anderson, formerly
Professor of Natural History at Calcutta, has, only last week, for-
warded to me living specimens of the Vipeva cerastes^ to be followed
by living specimens of the cobra, which his present connection with
the zoology of Egypt has given him peculiar facilities to obtain.
In the meantime, however, further evidence has been obtained
in support of the reality of the probabilities to which I have
referred. Sewall, using the venom of the rattlesnake, Kanthack
that of the cobra, and Kaufmann and Phisalix and Bertrand that of
the viper, obtained experimental evidence of the possibility of
producing by “ inoculation ” a certain slight degree of resistance
against the toxic effects of these venoms. The relationship of
such observations to the recent discoveries in connection with the
toxines of Tetanus, Diphtheria and other diseases, could not long
remain unrecognised. Dr Bancroft and others have recently
suggested “that the blood of animals rendered immune to snake
venom might be found of service as a remedy in snake-bite.”
Within the last few months, Phisalix and Bertrand have obtained
experimental indications of the antidotal power of the blood-
serum of animals immunized, but only to a low degree, against the
venom of vipers ; while Calmette, working in the Pasteur Institute
of Paris, after several unsuccessful endeavours had led him to
express the opinion that immunity against snake venom could not
be produced, afterwards succeeded in obtaining evidence of its
production, and of the power of the blood-serum to counteract the
effects of venom.
In the case of many of the venoms which I have had the
good fortune to obtain, the quantity at my disposal was not
sufficient for experimental examination on the plan that seemed
desirable, and, besides, the examination of each of them would require
several months of work. In this, the first portion of the investiga-
tion, therefore, the venoms that have been used are only four in
1894-95.] Antivcnene and Immunization against Venom. 453
number, those, namely, of the cobra of India {Naja trijpudians), of
the Crotalus horridus of America, of a large colubrine snake,
probably a species of Diemenia, from South Australia, and of the
Sepedon hannachates of Africa. The venoms are therefore those
of the most deadly of the poisonous serpents of Asia, America,
Australia, and Africa, respectively ; and further, they are representa-
tive of the chief differences that occur in the composition and action
of venoms, for they are derived from members of the two great
groups of the colubrine and viperine serpents.
My supply of cobra venom being much larger than that of any
of the others, this venom was chiefly used in the experiments ;
and in all of those to be referred to to-night, the administration was
effected by subcutaneous injection.
An essential preliminary to exact investigations with active sub-
stances must always be the determination of the activity of the
substances. The only convenient method for doing this is to
define the smallest dose capable of producing death for any given
weight of animal — that is, the minimum-lethal dose. The venoms
in their natural state are inconstant in activity, mainly because of
variations in the quantity of the water which they contain. The
cobra venom has, however, nearly always been received in the form
of a dry solid ; but when this was not so, it has been dried in vacuo
over sulphuric acid.
Outside of India, there are few persons skilled in the hazardous
task of taking venom directly from living serpents. Accordingly,
with a few exceptions, the other venoms were not received in a
pure form, but in the form of the dried venom glands. From
these glands, however, the poisonous constituents may easily be
extracted with water, and, on evaporating the solution over sul-
phuric acid, an active dry venom is obtained, containing, however,
other substances besides those which are active. I am not in a
position, therefore, to make any statement in regard to the relative
activity of the different venoms. For the objects in view, what
only is necessary is that the exact minimum-lethal dose should be
known of each venom in the state in which it is used, whether it be
pure or diluted with a certain small amount of inert matter.
Each of the four venoms was, however, found to be very active,
but the cobra venom especially so, — a part of the difference between
454 Proceedings of Pmjal Society of Edinhurgh. [sess.
its activity and that of the other venoms being, no doubt, due to
the above circumstances.
Experiments were made with cobra-venom on several animals —
as the guinea-pig, rabbit, white rat, cat, and the innocuous grass
snake of Italy [Tropedonotus 7iatrix). Very considerable differences
were found to occur in the minimum-lethal dose for these animals.
For the guinea-pig, the minimum-lethal dose per kilogramme was
*00018 grm.; for the rabbit, *000245 grm. ; for the white rat, *00025
grm. ; for the cat, somewhat less than *005 grm. ; and for the grass
snake, the relatively large dose of *03 grm.* Cobra venom thus
takes a position among the most active of known substances, rival-
ling in its lethal power the most potent of the vegetable active
principles, such as aconitine, strophanthin, or acokantherin.
These facts having been ascertained, attempts were next made to
render animals proof against lethal doses, by administering to them
a succession of gradually increasing non-lethal doses. These were,
for the first few doses, in some of the experiments, one-tenth of
the minimum-lethal, in others one-fifth, in others one-half of the
minimum-lethal, and in others almost as great as the minimum-
lethal. At varying intervals, the doses were repeated, and by-and-
by gradually increased, until the actual minimumdethal had been
attained. The subsequent doses, by gradual increments, exceeded
the minimum-lethal, and after five or six times the minimum-
lethal had been reached, it was found that the increments could be
further increased, so that each became twice, four times, and latterly
even five times the minimum-lethal, and still the animal suffered
little, and, in many cases, no appreciable injury.
This brief statement, however, does not represent the experi-
mental difficulties that were encountered. It describes the course
of events in the altogether successful experiments. Non-success,
however, was frequent, and many failures occurred before experi-
ence indicated the precautions and conditions that are necessary for
success.
Serpents’ venom exerts what may broadly be described as a
duplex action. It produces unseen functional disturbances, and it
* Guinea-pig, nearly ^tli millig. I Kitten (6 weeks), 2 millig.
Rabbit, nearly ^tli millig. i Cat, 5 millig.
White Rat, 4th millig. 1 Grass Snake, 3 centig.
1894-95.] Antivencne and Immunization against Venom. 455
also produces visible changes. The latter are of a highly irritative
character, causing intense visceral congestions in the lungs, kidneys
and other organs, and, when given by subcutaneous injection, on
all the structures of the skin and subjacent parts. There are
apparently also some definite changes produced in the blood, with
regard to which several important facts have been discovered by
Dr Martin of the University of Sydney. Irritative effects
are obviously produced by cobra venom, even in non-lethal
doses, and with greatly increased virulence by doses that exceed the
minimum-lethal ; but, in respect to this action, the other three
venoms used are greatly more active than the venom of the cobra.
Evidence was obtained to indicate that in the process of immuniza-
tion, a diminution occurs in the intensity of these local actions; but
this diminution does not proceed so rapidly as that in the unseen
functional or other changes which are the more direct causes of
death and, further, the local irritative changes, after having been
produced, are slower to disappear than the unseen functional dis-
turbances. Until these facts had been appreciated, and, indeed,
even with the adoption of precautions suggested by them, frequent
failures occurred. The apparently contradictory results, accordingly,
were obtained of the production, by gradually increasing doses, on
the one hand, of a protection against quantities much above the
minimum-lethal, so perfect that no apparent injury was caused;
and, on the other hand, of an intolerance so decided that death was
produced by the last of a succession of gradually increasing doses,
no one of which was so large as the minimum-lethal. The latter
unfortunate event was frequently displayed in guinea-pigs, and
attempts to carry immunization in them to a high point were found
to be extremely difficult.
Notwithstanding these difficulties, however, such gratifying
results have been obtained as that rabbits could at last receive, by
subcutaneous injection, so much as ten, twenty, thirty, and even the
remarkable quantity of fifty times the minimum-lethal dose, with-
out manifesting any obvious symptoms of poisoning. (See Diagram.)
Almost the only observable phenomena were a rise in the body
temperature, which continued for a few hours after the injection,
and which contrasts with the fall that occurs, after the administra-
tion of even non-lethal doses, in non-protected animals ; and a loss
456 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
of appetite, which usually, though not invariably occurred, and was
probably the cause of a temporary slight fall in weight during the
day or two days succeeding each injection. On the other hand,
during the process of successful immunization, the animals increased
in weight, they fed well, and appeared to acquire increased vigour
and liveliness. This has been frequently exemplified in the smaller
animals, such as rabbits ; and also, very conspicuously, in an aged
and previously sedate horse, which, in the process of immunization,
has now received eleven times the estimated minimum-lethal dose.
It is marvellous to observe these evidences of the absence of
injurious effects, and even of the production of benefit in an animal
which, for instance, has received in one single dose a quantity of
venom sufficient to kill, in less than six hours, fifty animals of the
same weight, and, in the course of five or six months, a total
quantity of venom sufficient to destroy the lives of 370 animals of
the same species and weight. There are few facts in the whole
range of biology more calculated to arrest the attention or produce
astonishment in the mind of the observer !
With the cobra venom, I have also immunized cats, both by
subcutaneous and by stomach administration j but the significance
of the latter method of administration must be reserved for a future
communication. As I have stated, a horse is also being immunized ;
and I have to express my obligations to Principal Williams and
Professor W. Owen Williams, for granting me the accommodation
of their establishment, and to Mr Davis, M.E.C.V.S., also of the
New Veterinary College, for much valuable assistance.
Following the same plan of research with the three other
venoms, it was found that the minimum-lethal dose per kilogramme
for rabbits of the Diamantina venom is *0015 grm. ; of the venom
of Sejjedon lixmachates, ’0025 grm.; and of the venom of Crotalus
*004 grm.* The Crotalus venom is, in its purity, altogether com-
parable with the cobra venom ; and the determinations, therefore,
show that cobra venom is sixteen times more powerful than Crotalus
or rattlesnake venom. This venom, as well as the two others, how-
ever, much exceed cobra venom in the intensity of their local
* Diamantina venom, milligramme. ’
Sepedoii Immachates, 2\ ,,
Crotalus horridusy 4 „
1894-95.] Antivencne and Immunization against Venom. 457
action. When death is produced by Crotalus venom, the sub-
cutaneous tissues become extensively infiltrated with a large quan-
tity of blood and of blood-stained serum, the underlying muscles
are reduced to an almost pulpy blood-stained substance, and post-
mortem decomposition occurs very soon after death. Similar
changes in the subcutaneous tissues, but to a rather less degree,
are caused by the Diamantina venom, and in addition, hsematuria,
or more probably hsemoglobinuria, was invariably produced by lethal
and even by large non-lethal doses. I mention these circumstances
to indicate the perfection of the protection which is produced by
the administration of successive gradually increasing doses ; for
they can be so adjusted that a dose of each venom, even six
times larger than the minimum-lethal, may be administered without
producing more than an inconsiderable and often scarcely observable
degree of local destructive effect.
In the meantime, the process of protection against the latter
venoms has not advanced further than six times the minimum^
lethal dose. This, however, has been sufficient to allow experi-
ments to be made by which it has been demonstrated that when
an animal has acquired a resistant power over more than the
minimum-lethal dose of one venom, that animal is also abl'e—suc-
cessfully to resist the lethal action of a dose above the minimum-
lethal of other venoms. To a rabbit protected against cobra venom,
a dose above the minimum-lethal of Sepedon venom has been
administered ; to rabbits protected against Crotalus venom, doses
above the minimum-lethal of Diamantina and of cobra venoms have
been given; to rabbits protected against the Diamantina venom,
doses above the minimum-lethal of Crotalus and Sepedon venoms
have been given, and in each case the animal has recovered, and
but few symptoms of injury were produced. At the same time, in
other experiments, evidence was obtained that animals protected
against a given venom are capable of resisting the toxic effect of
that venom more effectually than the toxic effects of other venoms.
My experiments have not yet proceeded sufficiently far to show
for what length of time the protection conferred by any final lethal
dose may last. I propose to make some experiments which will
give definite information in regard to this point, which may possibly
lead to practical applications. It has incidentally been discovered,
458 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
however, that protection lasts for at least a considerable period of
time, even when the last protective dose has not been a large one.
For example, to a rabbit which had last received twice the mini-
mum-lethal dose of Crotalus venom, the same dose was administered
twenty days subsequently, and it altogether failed to produce any
toxic symptoms.
Before passing to the next part of my communication, it may be
stated that as yet no sufficient data have been obtained for affording
an explanation of these remarkable facts. It is obvious that the
blood of protected animals must contain some substance or sub-
stances which are not present in the non-protected animals, by
which the lethal and toxic effects of venoms are prevented. I have
observed that when the blood-serum of protected animals is added
to a solution of venom, a distinctly observable reaction occurs, and
this reaction may be of significance when considered along 'v^ith
circumstances, which will be stated in the remaining part of this
communication, and especially with the circumstance that the
blood-serum itself possesses but little physiological activity. This
protective substance may be produced in the body by the influ-
ence of the venom, but it is also conceivable that the substance is
actually a part of the venom itself, which gradually accumulates
under repeated administrations, whereas the lethal and toxic con-
stituents of the venom are more rapidly destroyed or eliminated.
Having thus succeeded in producing a high degree of protection
in animals against the toxic effects of serpents’ venom, the blood-
serum of these animals was, in the next place, collected for the
purpose of testing its antidotal properties. In this portion of the
investigation, the method followed was essentially the same as that
described in a communication made by me to this Society in 1871,
on “The Antagonism between the Actions of Physostigma and
Atropia,” as it appeared to be the most direct method for obtaining
accurate knowledge of the value of an antidote.
A few preliminary experiments were early made with the
serum of animals in whom the protection had not been carried
to a high degree, and they were sufficient to show that antidotal
properties are possessed even by this serum. It soon became
apparent that in order to obtain some reasonable approximation to
constancy in the conditions of the experiments, it was necessary
1894-95.] Antivcncnc and Immunization against Venom. 459
that the serum should be in such a state that it would remain
unchanged during at least several weeks. It was found that this
could be insured without any appreciable loss of antidotal power
by drying the freshly separated serum in the receiver of an air-
pump, over sulphuric acid, after it had been passed through a
Chamberland’s filter. A perfectly dry and easily pulverisable solid
was thus obtained, which may be kept unchanged for probably an
indefinite time, and from which a normal serum can readily be
prepared as required, by merely dissolving a definite quantity of
the dry serum in a definite quantity of water.
To this serum, whether in the dry form or in solution, it would
be convenient to apply the name “ antivenene.^^
The experiments now to be described were made with anti-
venene derived from the mixed serum of three rabbits, which had
last received a dose of cobra venom equivalent to thirty times the
minimum-lethal. I avoid the expression “immunized against”
thirty times the minimum-lethal dose, for, as a matter of fact, an
animal is always protected, or immunized, against a dose consider-
ably above the last which it had received.
The experiments were so planned as to obtain, in three or four
different conditions, as exact a definition as possible of the antidotal
power of the antivenene. In the meantime, four series of experi-
ments have been undertaken on rabbits. In one series, the venom
was mixed outside of the body with the antivenene, and im-
mediately thereafter the mixture was injected under the skin
of the animal; in the second series, the venom and antivenene
were almost simultaneously injected into opposite sides of the
body ; in the third series, the antivenene was injected some
considerable time before the venom ; and in the fourth series, the
venom was first injected, and thirty minutes afterwards the
antivenene. In the experiments of the third and fourth series, also,
the venom and antivenene were injected under the skin of opposite
sides of the body.
All, or nearly all, the experiments required- to define the exact
quantity of antivenene that is sufficient to prevent death from
different lethal doses of venom have as yet been made only in the
first and fourth of these series. They are, however, in some
respects the most important of the series : as the conditions for
460 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
exactitude in simultaneous administration are perfectly obtained in
the first series, and it, therefore, should constitute the basis for
comparison between antivenenes derived from different sources ;
and as upon the results of the fourth series must depend the actual
practical application of antivenene to the treatment of poisoning by
serpents’ bites.
In the experiments of the first series^ the doses of cobra venom
administered were the minimum-lethal, twice the minimum-lethal,
thrice the minimum lethal, and four times the minimum-lethal. In
the case of each dose, experiments were made with different quan-
tities of antivenene so as to determine the smallest quantity required
to prevent death. In order to render it certain, in this and the other
series, that a lethal dose was always administered in the experiments
with the so-called minimum-lethal, the minimum-lethal indicated by
the previous experiments was not used, but instead of it a slightly
larger dose (*00026 instead of *000245 grm. per kilogramme).
When this certainly lethal dose, capable of causing death in five
or six hours, was mixed with antivenene and the mixture then
injected under the skin, it was found that so small quantities of
antivenene were sufficient to prevent death, as *5 c.c., *25, *1, *05,
•02, -01, -005, -004 c.c. (J, of a c.c.) for each
kilogramme of the weight of the animal. With *0025 c.c. (4^),
however, the animal died. The antivenene was therefore found
to be so powerful as an antidote, in the conditions of these
experiments, that even the part of a cubic centimetre, equiva-
lent to about one part of a minim, acted as an efficient
antidote. Even with the smaller of these doses of antivenene,
there was almost no symptom of poisoning produced. In the
experiments of this series with twice the minimum-lethal dose,
recovery occurred when the doses of antivenene were *75 c.c., *7 c.c.
and *6 c.c. per kilogram, but *5 c.c. per kilogram failed to prevent
death. In the experiments with thrice the minimumdethal dose of
venom (a dose capable of producing death in less than two hours),
recovery occurred when the doses of antivenene were 1*5 c.c. and
1 C.C., but death occurred with *8 c»c. And even the enormous dose
of four times the minimum-lethal failed to produce death, or indeed
any observable disturbance, when it had previously been mixed with
2 c.c. of antivenene for each kilogramme of animal.
1894-95.] Antivenene and Immunization against Venom. 461
In the second series, experiments have been made only with
twice the minimum-lethal dose of venom. When this dose was
injected into the subcutaneous tissue of one side of the body, and
immediately thereafter a dose of antivenene, it was found that doses
of 1 C.C., 2 c.c. and 3 c.c. per kilogramme failed to prevent death,
but that 4 c.c. and 5 c.c. per kilogramme were able to do so.
In the third series, the experiments have as yet been made with
only the minimum-lethal of cobra venom, and they show that *4 c.c.
per kilogramme of this antivenene is able to prevent death, when
given thirty minutes before the venom.
In the fourth series, where the results are likely to give the
clearest indications of the antidotal value of antivenene, it was
found that recovery occurred in the experiments in which 1-5 c.c.,
1 C.C., and *8 c.c. per kilogramme of antivenene were injected thirty
minutes after a certain minimum-lethal dose of venom, but that the
antivenene was insufficient in quantity to prevent death when *75
c.c. per kilogramme or less was administered. In this series, further,
it was found that 5 c.c. per kilogramme of antivenene was a suffi-
cient dose to prevent death after twice the minimum-lethal dose of
venom; but that 2 c.c,, 2*5 c.c., 3 c.c., and 4 c.c. per kilogramme
were insufficient.
The experiments of this series are especially interesting, as nearly
all the animals showed symptoms of poisoning before the antivenene
had been administered. Even in the fatal experiments, the dura-
tion of life was greatly prolonged by the administration of anti-
venene ; and it is probable that in many instances a second injection
of antivenene, made half-an-hour or an hour after the first, would
have prevented death.
It has thus been established, on the clearest evidence, that the
blood-serum (antivenene) of animals protected against large lethal
doses of venom is able, in varying conditions of administration,
perfectly to prevent lethal doses of the venom of the most poisonous
of serpents from producing death in non-protected animals.
In order to obtain some evidence bearing on the question as to
whether the more powerful antivenene is produced by the long con-
tinued administration of small non-lethal doses of venom, or by the
administration of doses gradually increasing until a large lethal dose
is reached, a few experiments were made with the serum of a rabbit
462 Proceedings of Royal Society of Rdinhurgh. [sess.
which had received one-tenth part of the minimum-lethal dose nearly
every two days during a period of three months and one week, and also
of one which had received the one4ourth part of the minimum-lethal
dose nearly every four days during a period of three months and
three weeks. I did not find that the antidotal power of the anti-
venenes obtained from these animals was great, or nearly so effective
as the antivenenes obtained from animals which had finally received
a dose much in excess of the minimum-lethal. When mixed with
venom and then injected, 3 c.c. per kilogramme of these antivenenes
were insufficient to prevent death from somewhat more than the
minimum-lethal dose of venom, but 5 c.c. per kilogramme were suffi-
cient to do so.
I have also administered 1 *5 c.c. per kilogramme of cobra antivenene
thirty minutes after a dose one-twelfth larger than the minimum
lethal of the venoms, respectively, of the Sepedon licBmacliates^ the
Crotalus liorridus, and the Diamantina serpent ; and the rabbits
experimented on have recovered. This successful result is all the
more remarkable when the intensely destructive local effects of each,
but especially of two, of these venoms is recollected.
The experiments establishing, and to some extent defining, the
antidotal power of cobra venom, further, have been made on animals
peculiarly susceptible to the poisonous action of serpents’ venom,
a circumstance of importance in considering the probable value of
the antivenene when used as an antidote in the treatment of ani-
mals of less susceptibility, among whom there appears to be sufficient
evidence to place human beings. The minimum-lethal dose for
man probably approximates that of the cat, rather than that of
vegetable feeders such as the rabbit, guinea-pig, and white rat.
It is also to be remembered that, in the meantime, the experi-
ments have been restricted to a definition of the antidotal power in
certain rigidly adhered to conditions, which were not always the most
favourable for the mere prevention of death. Indications have indeed
been obtained which render • it highly probable that death may be
prevented from occurring more certainly by several administrations,
rather than by one administration of antivenene, and also by the
introduction of the antivenene into the same parts as the venom,
rather than into distant parts.
It would be important also to increase the number of the experi-
1894-95.] Antivcnenc and ImmvMization against Venom. 463
ments with the larger of the lethal doses of venom as yet adminis-
tered, and, it may he, to employ still larger doses j although, for
practical application, the larger of the doses that have already been
used, as they produce death in about an hour, need not he increased.
To these purposes I hope to apply the antivenene soon to he
prepared from the rabbits which have already reeeived fifty times
the minimum-lethal dose of venom.
For the actual application of the antivenene to the treatment of
snake-poisoning in man, an endeavour is being made to obtain the
large quantity that is requisite, from a horse now receiving con-
siderable lethal doses of cobra venom. From this source, also, it is
hoped that a sufficient quantity will be obtained to allow of the
examination of the chemical properties of the antivenene to be
continued, with the object of discovering the constituent or con-
stituents by which the antidotal effects are produced. If the
isolation of the antidotal constituent or constituents can be effected,
an antivenene of greatly increased power will be obtained, and the
range of efficient application will be increased. For these objects,
however, it will be necessary to administer to the horse much larger
doses than it has yet received ; and the chief difficulty in doing this
is to obtain a sufficient supply of cobra venom. By the great’
kindness of Surgeon-Colonel Cunningham, 9 grms. of dry venom
have already been obtained, but in order to carry the protec-
tion to fifty times the minimum-lethal dose, other 30 grms.
would be required. I have reason to hope that the India Office
will succeed ini making arrangements for procuring even this large
quantity.
The subject is one of practical importance to India, where the
destruction of human life by venomous serpents is represented by
an annual mortality of 20,000, and where the failure of all methods
of treatment* has led to the introduction of a system of extermina-
tion of venomous serpents — apparently futile in its results — in the
carrying out of which large sums of money have been expended.
In considering the probabilities of success by antivenene treat-
* “After long and repeated observation in India, and subsequently in
England, I am forced to the conclusion that all the remedies hitherto regarded
as antidotes are absolutely without any specific effect on the condition pro-
duced by the poison.” — Sir Joseph Fayrer On the Nature of Snake Poison.
464 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
ment, it is also to be recollected that antivenene can be obtained
even more powerful than that which was used in the experiments
which have been described ; and that, judging from the statistics of
Fayrer and Wall, in 75 per cent, of fatal cases in man death does
not occur until from three to twenty-four hours after the infliction
of the bite. This latter fact appears to indicate that in the great
majority of the fatal cases the dose of venom does not much exceed
the actual minimum-lethal; and, therefore, is not so large as the
doses whose lethal action has been prevented from occurring in
the experiments that have been described ; in which, further, the
conditions for success in preventing death were not the most
favourable that could have been adopted.
It appears to me, however, that an interest and importance
as great as can be derived from this practical application of
the facts which I have brought before the Society, are to be
found in their relation to the cause and treatment of many of the
most fatal of diseases — those, namely, which are produced by
organisms that have found their way into the body. The evidence
in favour of the curative value of the antitoxines derived from
animals immunized against the toxines of these diseases, seems
to receive an additional confirmation from these facts. They also
bring distinctly before us the circumstance that there are limits
to this curative power, dependent on the dose of the toxine to be
counteracted, on the special antidotal activity of the antitoxine that
is used, and on the duration of the time during which the toxine
has had an opportunity of exerting its poisonous action before the
antitoxine is administered. If these and other conditions interfer-
ing with successful treatment are not determined and recognised,
unmerited discredit is likely to be attached to remedies which
alone of all remedies may be capable of preventing death in these
diseases, by counteracting the effects of minimum-lethal and larger
doses of the toxine.
IMMUNIZATION OF A RABBIT AGAINST 50 TIMES THE MINIMUM-LETHAL DOSE OF COBRA VENOM.
%
in
D
O
D
Z
P
z
o
o
w
n
z
z
o
u
I
H
Line represent Administrations of Venom.
1894-5.] Antivenene and Serpents Blood-Serum.
465
Further Observations on Antivenene, and on the Pro-
duction of Immunity against Serpents’ Venom ; with
an Account of the Antidotal Properties of the Blood-
Serum of Venomous Serpents. By Professor Fraser,
M.D., F.E.S.
(Read July 15, 1895.)
{Ahstract.)
At the time when my former paper was communicated to the
Society, I was engaged in investigating several subjects closely
related to those dealt with in that paper, but in regard to which
the experimental work had not advanced sufficiently to allow
definite statements to be made.
I propose, to-night, to make some statements on these subjects.
Antivenene of Rahhits protected against fifty times tlie minimum-
lethal dose. — A description has already been given of the steps by
which protection against fifty times the minimum-lethal dose of cobra
venom had been produced in rabbits. The antidotal power of the
antivenene derived from these rabbits has now been examined.
When this antivenene was mixed with twice the minimum-lethal dose
of cobra venom and the mixture injected under the skin of a rabbit, it
was found that recovery occurred if the dose of antivenene was '7 c.c.
or *6 C.C., but that the animal died if the dose was *5 c.c. or A c.c. per
kilogramme. As *65 c.c. per kilogramme of the antivenene derived
from rabbits which had last received thirty times the minimum-lethal
dose is able to prevent death when mixed with the same lethal dose
of venom, this result is an unexpected one. It appears to show that
the blood-serum of a rabbit which had last received thirty times the
minimum-lethal dose of venom is almost as powerful as an antidote
as the blood-serum of a rabbit which had last received fifty times the
minimum-lethal dose. If this be the case, it is suggested that for any
given species of animal there is a maximum limit to the quantity of
antivenene which can be produced or retained in the blood, and that,
in the case of the rabbit, this maximum limit is reached when the dose
is thirty times the minimum-lethal or even somewhat less. It is also
suggested that this maximum- limit is reached before the maximum
protection of the animal has been produced ; for, undoubtedly, an
VOL. XX. 20/7/95. 2 G
466 Proceedings of Boyal Society of Edinhurgh. [sess*.
animal which had last received fifty times the minimum-lethal dose
will survive a larger subsequent dose of venom than an animal
which had last received only thirty times the minimum-lethal dose.
It is probable, therefore, that protection depends not only on the
presence in the body of an antidotal substance, but also on a
modification in the reaction of the tissues, produced by frequently
repeated administrations, which lessen the susceptibility of the
tissues to the injurious action of the venom.
Antivenene derived^ from the Horse. — Since my former communi-
cation, also, the blood-serum of the horse, then referred to, has been
examined. The process of protection had been begun in February
with one-fifth the minimum-lethal dose, estimated from the results
obtained in other herbivorous animals. This dose was repeated in
seven days, and again in five days. One-third the estimated
minimum-lethal dose was next administered, then, on two occasions,
one-half, then three-fourths, and then the actual minimum-lethal dose.
By successive increments, the subcutaneous injections were con-
tinued until fifteen times the minimum-lethal was administered, four
months and a half after the protecting process had been commenced.
Distinct general disturbance, including a rise of temperature, was
produced by the earlier doses. The later and larger doses, however,
have produced almost no general reaction, although both the earlier
and the later doses have caused considerable local effects, and,
conspicuously, subcutaneous oedema and necrosis of portions of the
skin.
Ten days after fifteen times the estimated minimum-lethal dose had
been administered, blood was taken, with careful antiseptic pre-
cautions, from the left jugular vein, and a considerable quantity of
serum has thus been obtained. A small portion of this serum was
preserved in the liquid state, but the greater part was dried in vacuo
over sulphuric acid. It yielded 1 1 *5 per cent, of solids in the form
of a brittle substance, which was easily broken into bright, trans-
parent, orange-yellow fragments.
The antidotal properties of this serum have been examined in
two series of experiments. In the first, the serum, or antivenene,
was mixed with cobra venom outside of the body ; and in the second,
cobra venom was injected thirty minutes before the serum.
In the former series of experiments, it was found that ’005 c.c.,
467
1894-5.] Antivenene and Serpents' Blood-Serum.
•004 C.C., *003 C.C., *002 c.c., and ’001 c.c. per kilogramme were each
sufficient to iwevent death from somewhat more than a minimum-
lethal dose of venom, hut that -0005 c.c. (20V0) insufficient.
As the antivenene obtained from protected rabbits which had
last received thirty times the minimum-lethal dose failed to prevent
death, in the same conditions of experiment, when its dose was
*0025 c.c. (4^0^11 of a c.c.), the antivenene obtained from the horse
is about twice as powerful as an antidote as the antivenene of
rabbits protected against thirty and even fifty times the minimum-
lethal dose.
When given thirty minutes after the same lethal dose of venom,
this serum, further, was able to prevent death when the quantity
injected was only ’5 c.c. per kilo.
In considering these results it must be recollected that the
minimum-lethal dose of venom for horses has not yet been defined,
and that no other data are available for forming an estimate than
those derived from the determinations described in the former com-
munication, which have been made in a few herbivorous animals.
The dose last given to the horse may, therefore, have been consider-
ably more than fifteen times the minimum-lethal dose. On the other
hand, it may be the case that the maximum production or retention
of antivenene occurs in the horse and other herbivorous animals with
fifteen times the minimum-lethal dose, or, to use a chemical phrase, that
with this dose the saturation-point of the blood has been reached.
Several interesting and practically important subjects for inves-
tigation are thus suggested, with regard to which information is
likely to be obtained by an examination of the antivenene of the
horse now undergoing protection, after the administration of the
larger doses of venom which it is intended should be given.
Although it is certainly desirable that a still more powerful
antivenene should be obtained, the antivenene already obtained is
of sufficient antidotal power to be applied to the treatment of
snake-bite in man ; and I propose to send the greater part of it to
India for this purpose.
For practical use, it is obvious that the antivenene in the dry
state has advantages over a liquid preparation — in respect, for
example, to portability, resistance to decomposition, and facility of
subdivision into doses.
468
Proceedings of Roycd Society of Edinhurgh. [sess.
Some of these advantages are apparent when the specimens, now
exhibited, of 15 c.c. of liquid antivenene are compared with the
specimens of dry antivenene representing 15 c.c. of serum.
The facts which I had previously communicated to the Society
show that the dry antivenene retains the original antidotal power
of the liquid serum.
With this antivenene I have also made an experiment which
illustrates its value when used as an antidote in actual practice,
rather than when used merely for the purpose of defining its antidotal
power in the rigidly adhered-to conditions of the experiments which
have been described. ‘5 c.c. per kilogramme having been found to
be about the smallest quantity that can prevent death when given
thirty minutes after rather more than the minimum-lethal dose of
venom, this dose of venom was administered to a rabbit, and thirty
minutes afterwards the insufficient dose of "4 c.c. per kilogramme of
antivenene. In three hours, the animal was lying extended with
the head resting on the floor, limp and unable to stand ; the
respirations were infrequent and shallow ; the cardiac action was
feeble and irregular ; and rattling sounds were being produced in
the throat, from the excessive salivary and bronchial secretions
always caused by toxic doses of cobra venom. A second dose,
consisting of ’6 c.c. of antivenene, was now injected under the skin ;
and very soon a marked improvement occurred in the condition of
the animal, the respirations becoming deeper, and the cardiac action
stronger and more rapid, and without irregularity. An hour
subsequently, a third dose of antivenene, consisting of ’5 c.c. per
kilogramme, was injected ; and further improvement was produced,
so that all toxic symptoms soon disappeared, and the animal was
restored to a nearly normal state, from which no relapse occurred
until perfect recovery had become established.
Influence of Diet in modifying the Minimum-Lethal Dose. — I
have already drawn attention to the remarkable difference in the
minimum-lethal dose of venom for herbivorous as contrasted with
carnivorous animals. If tliis difference be due, in any impor-
tant degree, to the effects, transmitted and individual, of the
special diet of each of these two groups of animals, it seemed
probable that the minimum-lethal dose might be modified by
changing the diet of any animal in whom this could be done
1894-5.] Antivencne and Bmyentd Blood-Serum. 469
without much deterioration of health ; for example, by restricting
the diet of a herbivorous animal to animal food.
A number of young white rats, accordingly, were put on an animal
dietary, as soon as they had been weaned ; and, with the slight
addition of a little vegetable food once or twice a week, found
necessary to maintain them in fairly good health, this dietary was
continued for seven weeks. To one of the rats, a dose of cobra venom
one-and-a-half times greater than the minimum-lethal was then
administered by subcutaneous injection, and, although marked
symptoms of poisoning were produced, the rat recovered. Two
weeks subsequently, the animal dietary having been continued,
another of these white rats received twice the minimum-lethal dose,
and it also recovered after a temporary illness. The experiments
could not be carried further, as the other members of This family
had fallen into bad health, and one after the other had died before
this time.
In animals whose progenitors had subsisted mainly upon a
vegetable diet, the conversion of the diet into that of carnivorous
animals is, therefore, alone sufficient to reduce the vulnerability to
venom, and to cause, in this respect, an approximation to the
resistance of a carnivorous animal.
This fact appears to indicate that the toxic effects of serpents’
venom are dependent to a large extent upon an influence on the
blood, an influence as yet only partially and imperfectly recognised.
Protection produced by Stomach Administration. — In the experi-
ments which I have hitherto described, and, indeed, apparently in
all others made in this new subject of Serum Therapeutics, protec-
tion has been produced by the subcutaneous or, less frequently, the
intra-venous injection of the venom or other toxic substance.
These methods of administration are attended with inconveni-
ences, which, it seemed possible, might be avoided were the toxic
substance introduced into the stomach or other part of the
alimentary canal. Ho doubt, the probability of thus producing
protection is opposed by the fact, recognised even at the time of
Celsus, and corroborated by such modern observers as LaQerda,
Weir Mitchell, Fayrer and Brunton, and Calmette, that serpents’
venom is either altogether inert, or nearly so, when it is introduced
into the stomach or any other part of the alimentary canal,
470
Proceedings of Royed Society of Edinhurgh. [sess.
Even assuming that venom so introduced is inert, or nearly so,
as a poison, it does not necessarily follow that it is incapable of
producing protection ; for this protection is, in part at least,
dependent on the presence in the blood of a substance or substances
which possess no distinct toxic action, and which may therefore he
present in the blood as a result of the administration of venom,
even although the venom did not produce any evident poisonous
symptoms.
In order to obtain some evidence on this subject, the process for
producing protection already described was applied to a cat, with
the modification that the doses of venom were introduced into the
stomach instead of being injected under the skin.
Taking as a basis the minimum-lethal dose by the latter method of
administration, the cat received at intervals of from two to five
days, one-fifth of the minimum-lethal dose on eight occasions, then
one-fourth, and one-third ; and at longer intervals, the minimum-
lethal, twice, four times, six times, eight times, ten times, and so
on, until, on the 116th day, a dose eighty times larger than the
minimum-lethal was introduced into the stomach.
hio observable disturbance was produced by any of these doses.
As in further administrations, doses of upwards of a gramme of
dry venom would have been required, the experiment was not
continued beyond this point, for such large quantities would have
soon exhausted the rapidly-diminishing supply of venom.
Eight days after the animal had received by the stomach a dose
of venom representing eighty times the minimum-lethal if given sub-
cutaneously, a dose of venom corresponding to one and a half times
the minimum-lethal was injected under the skin. No obvious general
symptoms followed the administration of this dose, hut some local
oedema and skin necrosis were produced, and the animal has
remained in good health until the present time.
During this experiment, an opportunity occurred for obtaining
other facts of some interest. It happened that when the adminis-
trations of venom were commenced, the animal was already
pregnant, and on the 54th day of the experiment two healthy
kittens were born. These kittens were fed exclusively on the
mother’s milk, the mother continuing to receive gradually increasing
doses of venom.
1-894-5.] Antivenene and Serpents Blood-Serum. 471
One of tlie kittens, when fifty-seven days old, and when the
mother had last received a dose equivalent to thirty times the
minimum-lethal if given subcutaneously, received, by subcutaneous
injection, twice the minimum-lethal dose of cobra venom ; and only
slight symptoms, consisting chiefly of drowsiness and loss of
appetite, were produced, from which the kitten completely recovered
in a few hours.
The second kitten, when sixty-nine days old, received, also by sub-
cutaneous injection, thrice the minimum-lethal dose ; but the protec-
tion produced through the mother’s milk was insufficient to antagonise
this large dose of venom, and death followed the administration.
Evidence in favour of the production of protection by stomach
administration, as well as of the toxic feebleness of venom when
given by this channel, has been obtained with white rats also. Single
doses, corresponding to 10, 20, 40, 200, 300, 600, and 1000 times
the minimum-lethal if given subcutaneously, were given by stomach
administration to each of seven different white rats. Sleepiness
and loss of appetite, lasting for a day or two, were the only effects
produced even by the larger of these enormous quantities, and all
the animals entirely recovered.
A further experiment was made on the white rat which had
received 1000 times the minimum-lethal dose. Seven days after this
dose had been administered, and when the animal was apparently in
good health, twice the minimum-lethal dose was injected under the
skin. Distinct though not serious toxic symptoms were produced,
consisting of sleepiness, anorexia, and increase of salivary and
bronchial secretion ; but in less than twenty-four hours these
symptoms had disappeared, and the animal was soon afterwards in
a perfectly normal state.
It 'would, therefore, appear that although serpents’ venom, even
in enormous quantities, fails 'to produce any toxic effects when
introduced into the stomach, it still confers upon the animal a
certain and not inconsiderable degree of resistance against the toxic
effects of subsequent lethal doses of venom. That it does so by
causing an antidotal substance to be present in the blood is also
manifest from the result of the experiment on the kitten, which
had been fed with milk derived from a parent receiving venom by
the stomach.
472 Proceedings of Boyal Society of Edinburgh. [sess;
In circumstances which are no doubt exceptional, some of these
results would admit of useful practical application.
They probably also offered an explanation of the protection
apparently enjoyed by certain snake-charmers, as well as by indi-
viduals who claim to be protected, whether members of special
sects or not ] for subcutaneous injection is not likely to be the
method, and it certainly was not the method several hundreds of
years ago, employed for the introduction of the protection-producing
venom into their bodies.
Antidotal Properties of the Blood-Serum of Venomous Serpents. —
The results of these experiments may explain also the clearly-
established protection possessed by venomous serpents themselves.
They, as well as other circumstances, render it important to
determine whether the blood of venomous serpents contains, as does
that of artificially-protected animals, an actual substance possessing
antidotal qualities.
In order to arrive at some definite conclusion on this subject, I
have made endeavours to obtain living venomous serpents, and also
the serum separated from their blood.
Last year, an arrangement was concluded with one of the best
known of the importers of wild animals to supply me with living
cobras. He, however, has not succeeded in doing so, because
of some exceptional difficulties; but, as an alternative,, he has
recently sent me several living specimens of the Hamadryas
{Ophiophagus elaps), a serpent of greater size and more aggressive
disposition than the cobra, and reputed to be at least as deadly
as it.
A few days after their arrival, it was observed that moulting
was about to commence ; and as the condition of health is
deteriorated during this process, blood has not yet been taken
from any living Hamadryas. One of them, however, became
sickly and died. A short time after its death, the neck blood-
vessels were opened, and, as coagulation fortunately had not
occurred, a small quantity of blood was collected, from which a
little blood-serum afterwards separated. As no liquid venom
could be obtained from this Hamadryas, this serum has been
tested against cobra venom. Two experiments were made, in
which it was mixed with slightly more than the minimum-lethal.
1894-5.] Antivencne and Serpents' Blood-Serum. 473
dose of cobra venom, and the mixture then injected under the skin
of rabbits. When the quantity of Hamadryas serum was '15 c.c. per
kilogramme of animal, death was not prevented : but as the animal
did not die until more than seven hours, an antidotal effect had
apparently been produced by this quantity of serum. In the second
experiment, a larger quantity of serum was used — namely, *25 c.c.
per kilogramme, and the result was entirely successful ] for not only
did the animal survive, but no decided symptoms of poisoning were
manifested during the six hours in which the animal remained
under nearly continuous observation.
Two experiments were also made in which this antivenene was
administered thirty minutes after rather more than the minimum-
lethal dose of cobra venom. In the first, the dose of antivenene
was *3 c.c. per kilogramme ; but this dose was found to be an
insufficient one, for the animal died in four hours. In the second
experiment, *5 c.c. per kilogramme of antivenene was administered,
in the same conditions as in the former experiment, and it proved
to be a sufficient quantity, for the animal recovered, after manifest-
ing only slight toxic symptoms.
I hope by-and-by to extend these observations with blood-serum
and venom, taken in more favourable circumstances, from the other
and larger Hamadryas, which are now apparently in a state of
excellent health.
It has, however, already been possible to confirm these results
with the blood-serum and venom of another species of serpent.
Dr Thomas Bancroft, of Brisbane, Australia, has recently sent me
the dried blood-serum of three black snakes {Pseudecliis porpliy-
riacus) of that country, and also some dried venom removed from
the poison-glands of the same three serpents.
The venom, as it has reached me, is not a very active one, the
minimum-lethal dose for rabbits being between *003 and *0035
gramme for each kilogramme of animal. At the same time, although
this serpent is a member of the Colubrine family, the irritative
effects at the position of injection, and even more so on the kidneys
following its absorption, are intense. In all the experiments made
with the venom alone, the urine voided within a few hours was of
a dark red, almost black colour, and was found to contain a large
quantity of hsemoglobin, but no blood-cells.
474 Proceedings of Royal Society of EcUnhurgh. [skss.
Althougli the quantity of dry serum was small, there was
sufficient to allow three experiments to he made, for the purpose of
determining if it can prevent death from being produced by a lethal
dose of venom, when the two are mixed together before
administration. In one of these experiments, the dose of serum
was 1 C.C., and that of venom *0035 gramme per kilogramme of
animal ; in the second, the dose of serum was *5 c.c., and the dose
of venom the same as in the first experiment ; and in the third
experiment, the dose of serum was 1 c.c., and that of venom *004
gramme per kilogramme of animal. In each case, the gratifying
result was obtained that the animal survived the administration
of these lethal doses of venom.
It has thus been shown that venomous serpents themselves
possess a definite substance in the blood-serum, which possesses
antidotal properties against their OAvn venom and the venom of
other species of serpents.
It is probable that the substance is produced from venom shed
upon the mouth-surface, and absorbed into the blood from this
surface or elsewhere in the alimentary canal, and also from venom
absorbed directly into the lymphatics and blood-vessels of the
poison-glands. At the same time, the protection which is enjoyed
by several species of serpents may also be produced by venom
introduced into the body with the venomous snakes on which some
of them, and especially the Hamadryas, largely subsist.
The blood - serums of the two species of venomous serpents
that have been examined are certainly not so powerfully antivenene
as the serum which can be obtained from artificially protected
animals. They have, however, been obtained in conditions which
are not the most favourable for determining the true value of the
blood-serum of serpents. This can probably only be done in the
countries in which the serpents are found.
If this natural antivenene be found to be powerful, then a new,
and in some respects convenient, source for antivenene will become
available ; but even if the antidotal power be not so great as that of
the serum of artificially protected animals, it is possible that its value
may be increased, and a sufficiently powerful antidote obtained,
more rapidly than with entirely unprotected animals, by injecting
several successive doses of venom into the serpents themselves.
1894-5.] Cranial and Spinal Nerves of Elasmobranelis. 475
On the Dorsal Branches of the Cranial and Spinal Nerves
of Elasmobranchs. By J. C. Ewart, M.D., F.R.S.,
Eegius Professor of Natural History, and P. J. Cole, Zoological
Department, University, Edinhurgli,
(Read March 18, 1895.)
The Cranial Nerves.
I. The Glossopharyngeal. — The glossopharyngeal is usually looked
upon as the most typical of the cranial nerves. In Amia, according
to Allis,* it consists of post- and prse-hranchial branches, a visceral
or pharyngeal branch, and a dorsal branch which takes part in
innervating the lateral line system — supplying by a single twig
one of the sense organs of the lateral canal, and in addition a row of
pit organs. Hitherto a branch of the IX has not been found passing
to any of the lateral sense organs in Elasmobranchs. In a paper on
the Lateral sense organs of Elasmobranchs,! the IX nerve was traced
to the skin over the auditory region, but no branch was found passing
to any of the sense organs. It was, however, subsequently found
supplying one or more of the sense organs immediately in front of
the most anterior organs supplied by the lateralis nerve. Collinge,
in a recent paper “ On the Sensory Canal System of Fishes,”.]: says :
— “ Ewart has suggested that possibly the most anterior portion of
the lateralis canal may be innervated by nerve fibres from the glosso-
pharyngeal nerve previous to its leaving the cranial cavity. So far,
he has failed in Loemargus to find any branches which pass to either
the sensory or ampullary canals from this nerve. In Polyodon I
have met with similar results, the anterior portion of the lateral
canal being innervated by a branch of the vagus.” Recently we
have found that, as in Amia, the glossopharyngeal sends branches to
the lateral sense organs. In a specimen of Lcemargus, which had
* “ Anat. and Devel. of the Lateral Line System in calva,” Jour.
Morph., vol. ii.
t J. C. Ewart, “ Sensory Canals of Lcemargus,'' Trans. Boy. Soc. EcUn.,
vol. xxxvii. p. 78.
X “ Sensory Canal System of Fishes ” (Ganoids), Quart. Jour, of Mic. Sci.,
vol. xxxvi. p. 519.
476 Proceedings of Boycd Society of Edinhiirgh. [sess.
lain for some time in spirit, the dorsal branch of the IX, in addition
to sending two twigs to the skin over the auditory capsule, supplied
the three sense organs of the lateral line lying immediately posterior
to the commissural canal (see fig. 1). This dorsal branch leaves the
main trunk anterior or proximal to the ganglion, and, after accom-
panying the main trunk for a short distance, runs upwards through
the cartilage of the auditory capsule. When about half wmy up it
bends slightly inwards and forwards, and, before leaving the capsule,
Fig. 1. — Diagram of dorsal branch of IX of Loemargus microcephalus. Gl.,
glossopharyngeal ; D., dorsal branch. Xote the 3 twigs to the canal. 1.,
Lateral canal; Ic., commissural (lateral) canal; cut., cutaneous branches;
D'., branch to inner-postero W'all of cranium ; L., lateralis ; L'., branch of
lateralis to commissural canal and most anterior portion of lateral canal.
divides into two branches — the slender branch to the most anterior
sense organ leaving the capsule by a foramen placed lower than
the other and easily escaping notice. A corresponding branch
has not yet been found in Raia or in any other Elasmobranch. It
may be mentioned that in Amia, according to Allis {ibid., p. 516),
the dorsal branch arises by a separate root, which may pass through
the skull by a separate foramen, and has a distinct ganglion ; but
no ganglion cells were found in the dorsal branch of Lcemargus. In
1894-5.] Cranial and Spinal Nerves of Elasmobranchs. 477
Lcvmarrjus, as shown in fig. 1, there is a further twig which, run-
ning posteriorly, curves round, and is closely applied to the inner-
postero wall of the cranium, coursing slightly downwards, and
being distributed to the fibrous tissue between the muscles and the
cranium.
X. The Vagus. — In Loemargus the vagus consists of six main
trunks, each provided with a ganglion. Of these only one — the
lateralis — supplies sense organs. No dorsal branches were observed
passing either from the four hranchials or from the visceral trunk.
On the other hand, the lateralis receives fibres (probably sensory)
from the rest of the Xth as it passes through the vagus canal, and
the first branch, in addition to innervating the anterior sense organs
of the lateral line, sends twigs to the skin immediately behind the
auditory capsule. In Torpedo the most anterior branch of the
lateralis not only springs from the lateralis trunk proximal to its
ganglion, but presents a distinct swelling near its origin, in which lie
a number of ganglion cells. This is evidently the result of split-
ting, and resembles the condition of things found in the facial. This
branch sends fibres to the skin, and probably also to the sense
organs of the lateral canal. In addition to the branch to the skin
from the lateralis, the two first branchial nerves apparently sent deli-
cate branches to the skin on a level with their corresponding clefts.
These, however, on careful examination were found to arise from
the lateralis. It is worth mentioning that each of the four branchial
nerves of the Torpedo arises by a distinct root, and possesses a
well-marked ganglion — there being, as in Loemargus and Raia, six
ganglia in connection with the vagus.
VII. The Facial. — The facial used to be described as consisting
of two equal portions — the portio dura and the portio mollis or
auditory nerve. Gegenbaur on morphological, and Balfour and
Marshall on embryological grounds, looked upon the auditory nerve as
a dorsal branch of the facial, and not as the equivalent of the portio
dura. Others have considered the auditory nerve as of segmental
value, for the following reasons : — (1) because of the presence of
a ganglion ; (2) the supposed existence of a cleft between the
spiracular and first branchial clefts ; and (3) because it develops
like an ordinary segmental nerve. If, as is probable, the auditory
organ is derived from a lateral sense organ, the auditory nerve will
478 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgh. [sess.
correspond to the dorsal branch of the IX. In all probability further
investigation will show that the dorsal branch of the Yllth, by a
process of splitting, has given rise in Elasmobranchs to five distinct
branches, viz., auditory, superficial ophthalmic, buccal, hyoman-
dibular, and a cutaneous branch, supplying the skin in front |of the
auditory capsule.
Fig. 2. — Spinal nerves of Raia dissected with 1" lens. Semi-diagram-
matic. STc., skull; v.G., vertebral column; 6\c., spinal cord; d.r., dorsal
root ; V.T., ventral root ; d.d., dorsal branch from dorsal root (dorsal-dorsal) ;
v.d.^ dorsal branch from ventral root (ventral-dorsal) ; m.p., muscular plexus —
enters muscle at about level of 20th spinal. This fig. represents the nerves
somewhat spread out, but the dorsal roots are really applied to one another,
so that the dorsal branches from the ventral root come up between the ganglia
on the dorsal roots, and are in all cases closely applied to them. Hence, until
dissected, they appear to arise from the dorsal roots.
V. The Trigeminus. — The recognised dorsal branches of the Vth
are the superficial ophthalmic and the profundus, which supply the
1894-5.] Cranial and Spinal Nerves of Eiasmoh^anchs. 479'
skin and gelatinous tissue of the snout. Allis failed to find any
branches of the Yth passing to sense organs, but recently Collinge
has described an otic branch of the Yth passing to sense organs in
Folyodon, We have hitherto failed to find, either in Loemargus or
Raia, any branches of the Yth passing to sense organs.
The Spinal Nerves.
I. Raia. — In contrast to other Elasmobranchs, no spinal nerves
pass through the cranium in the skate. A typical spinal nerve
may be said to have the following dorsal branches {e.g., fig. 2, 8) :
— (a) one from the ventral root (ventral-dorsal), closely applied tOy
and receiving fibres from, the ganglion on the dorsal root as it comes
up, and going with other ventral-dorsals to form a plexus dis-
tributed to the muscles applied and dorsal to the vertebral column ;
{h) another from the ganglion on the dorsal root (dorsal-dorsal), not
receiving any fibres from the ventral-dorsal, and distributed to the
skin. Whilst the greater proportion of the spinal nerves of the
skate may be resolved into the above elements, there is still a very
considerable amount of variation, and fig. 2 is a semi-diagrammatic
representation of the anatomy of the first 13 spinal nerves of a
single specimen of R. batis, in which the following variations were
observed : — (1) ventral-dorsals 1, 2, 3, very much larger than the
others. Nps. 1 and 2 are sometimes described as the ventral roots
of the vagus, but they are distinctly spinal nerves, though possessing
no dorsal roots ; (2) ventral-dorsals 3 and 7, immediately after their
origin, divide into two large nerves, which do not assist in forming
the muscular plexus ; (3) ventral-dorsal 5 accompanies dorsal-dorsal
4 instead of 5 ; (4) ventral-dorsal 6 divides into two branches — one
accompanying the dorsal-dorsal, and the other assisting in the for-
mation of the muscular plexus ; (5) ventral-dorsal 10 passes through
the edge of the ganglion on the dorsal root — (on other specimens
it was demonstrated, both by dissections and sections, that the ventral-
dorsal passed right through the ganglion, but this is certainly
unusual); (6) ventral-dorsal 11 unites with the dorsal-dorsal; (7)
ventral-dorsals after 10 were extremely fine, and could only be
traced with great care ; (8) there were two dorsal-dorsals on 10 and
12, and three on 13.
480 Proceedings of Royal Society of Eclinhurgli. [sess.
II. Lcemargus.- — We do not find in Lsemargus the same variation
in the spinal nerves that is so characteristic of the skate. The
ventral roots of the first three pass through the cranium, and, as in
the skate, the first two have no dorsal roots, the first again (a very
fine nerve) having, apparently, no dorsal branch. The second has
a dorsal branch coming up through the cranium to the skin. The
third ventral root (the dorsal root of which passes through the
vertebral column) has a dorsal branch coming up through the
cranium to the skin, hut in passing the ganglion on the dorsal root
it becomes attached to and receives fibres from it. The anatomy
of all the other spinal nerves examined was of the same character ;
and, it may be mentioned, this origin of the dorsal branch, principally
from the ventral root, with fibres from the dorsal root, resembles
the condition found in man.
1894-95.] Mr J. C. Beattie on Alloys in a Magnetic Field. 481
On the Behaviour of various Alloys in a Steady Magnetic
Field. By J. C. Beattie. (With Two Plates.)
(Read July 15, 1895.)
(a) The transverse effect.
The direction of the transverse effect in a conductor cannot be
given by a knowledge of the magnetic properties of a body, for we
find, if we assume the direction to be positive in magnetic bodies,
negative in diamagnetic, that nickel, palladium, platinum, manga-
nese, zinc, cadmium, antimony are exceptions. Again, if we look
for a relation between the direction of the Thomson effect and that
of the transverse effect, we have another long list of exceptions,
including antimony, cadmium, zinc, platinum, bismuth. On the
other hand, if we arrange the metals in a thermoelectric series, we
find that, with the one exception of cobalt, the metals from bismuth
to silver have a negative transverse effect; those from zinc to
tellurium a positive ; and the agreement goes further, for bismuth,
which is at one end of the series, has a large transverse negative
effect ; and as we go up the series, the effect decreases in numerical
value ; while tellurium, which is at the other end, has a large
positive effect, and as we come down the effect again decreases.
If we assume that a relation exists between the transverse effect
and thermoelectricity, we should expect that a conductor thermo-
electrically negative to bismuth would give a large negative effect ;
while from a conductor at the other end of the series we should
expect a positive effect whose magnitude depended on the position
thermoelectrically occupied.
i^’ow, various alloj^'s show peculiarities in their thermoelectric
properties. Those of bismuth-antimony are thermoelectrically
negative to bismuth, those of ir antimony-zinc, antimony-cad-
mium, &c., are positive to antimony. If these give a transverse
effect, is its direction and magnitude determined by the thermo-
electric position of the alloy considered h The table given below
gives the results of experiments made with a number of alloys.
VOL. XX. 14/10/95. 2 H
482 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
The usual arrangement of the plate for measuring the transverse
effect was used. The notation used agrees with that of former
papers, only here the total, instead of the half -galvanometer read-
ing of the transverse effect, was divided by the primary reading to
obtain the effect per unit current : this multiplied by the thickness
of the plate is the number given as transverse effect per unit
current per unit thickness; this latter is proportional to the
rotatory coefficient E.
The galvanometer used was a d’Arsonval ; the uniform field was
created by the ring-formed electromagnet previously used.
The plates v/ere protected from air-currents, and, to avoid heating,
a pause of several minutes was made between the different observa-
tions.
Alloys arranged in a thermoelectric series.
Sign of effect
Effect per unit current
Wiedemann’s Lehre der Electricitdt,
in component
per unit thickness of plate
Bd ii., s. 256-61 (Dritte Auflage).
metals.
for field, 5610 c.g.s. units.
19 ‘5 Bismuth, 1 Antimony, .
- +
-1-17
10 Bismuth, 1 Antimony, .
- +
- -5657
4 Bismuth, 1 Antimony,
- +
- -5257
Bismuth (pure).
-
- -2800
2 Bismuth, 1 Antimony,
- +
- -1356
19*5 Bismuth, 1 Lead, .
-0
- -0155
9 ’8 Bismuth, 1 Lead, .
-0
0
4*9 Bismuth, 1 Lead, .
Antimony, ....
-0
-t -0137
-1-
4- -01752
6 Antimony, 1 Zinc, .
-t -1-
-1- -01438
806 Antimony, 406 Zinc, 121 Bis.,
+ -f -
-h -1438
806 Sb., 406 Zn.,
+ +
-h -1056
Sb., Zn., Cd.,
+ -f -t
4- -3960
806 Sb., 696 Cd., 150 Bis., .
+ -t- -
-h -2423
1 Ah., 1 Cd., ....
-1- -1-
-t -1613
806 Sb., 696 Cd.,
+ +
4- -6065
/with 2000
Tellurium,
o • « 1 J oiuus extra
-t- z oi-< inserted in
Vgalvanometer.
If we compare columns (2) and (3), we see that neither the
direction nor the magnitude of the transverse effect can he pre-
dicted from a knowledge of its value in the metals separately : for
example, a small quantity of antimony ( -i- ) added to bismuth ( - )
gives an alloy with an extremely large negative effect (see curve I.,
fig. 1, diagram I.). Again, an alloy of antimony ( + ), zinc ( + ),
bismuth ( ~ ), has a positive transverse effect nearly ten times larger
1894-95.] Mr J. C. Beattie on Alloys in a Magnetic Field. 483
than in antimony. Antimony and zinc, taken in quantities pro-
portional to their atomic weights, give an effect which is not inter-
mediate in value between those of antimony and zinc separately,
but one which is much greater than in antimony ; and so on for
the other alloys.
Before comparing columns (1) and (3) we must note that the
transverse effect is not in all cases a simple one ; for example, in
the alloys of bismuth and antimony, bismuth-lead, the effect is
certainly made up of two parts, one proportional to the first power
of a given function, probably the magnetisation, and the other to
the third power of the same function. The sign given in the 3rd
column refers to the first of these, and we see that it is determined
by the alloy’s thermoelectric position.
So much cannot, however, be said about the numerical value :
various discrepancies are to be found at the positive end of the
series, but these are such as could be accounted for by a variation
in the thermoelectric position. To answer this question it would
be necessary to examine the thermoelectric properties in the different
plates used, which, however, was not in this case attempted.
If we consider the above results with those already obtained for
other metals and alloys, we arrive at the following result : — With
the exception of cobalt^ the simple transverse effect {Hall effect) in
conductors has its direction certainly, and its magnitude probably,
determined by the thermoelectric power of the conductor considered.
ib) The Variation of Resistance.
The modification of the Wheatstone bridge method, due to Lord
Kelvin, was employed to measure the variation. The galvanometer
reading for a given field strength — the bridge having been previously
arranged so that no current passed through the galvanometer when
the field was off — divided by the primary current, was taken as pro-
portional to the variation of resistance. Unfortunately the per-
centage variation was not determined.
It is well known that in bismuth the variation of resistance is
great, and it was found that in the bismuth-antimony alloys the
variation was greatest in those alloys which contained the greatest
484 Proceedings of Roycd Society of Edinhurgli. [sess.
proportion of bismuth ; in the bismuth-lead alloys also the variation
decreased as lead was added — (compare fig. 4, diagram II., and fig.
3, diagram I.). In the antimony-cadmium-bismuth alloy a small
variation was observed. In the alloy of 6 parts antimony to 1 of
zinc a small variation was also observed ; but in 806 antimony
406 zinc a variation was not observed, nor could it be observed in
the antimony-cadmium alloys.
In all cases the variation was an increase. Only one position
of the plate was considered, viz., that in which the plate’s length
stood perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.
The results would seem to indicate that the variation of resistances
of an alloy in a steady magnetic field can he predicted from a Ttnoiv-
ledge of the resistance variation of the metals composing the alloy.
(c) The relation between the Transverse Effect and the Variation
of Resistance.
The equations used were
and
/\n = ±E
+ ^2(7^)^ = ±V
where A n and E are the variation of resistance and the numerical
value of the transverse effect respectively as before defined. The
relative values of the constants are given in the table of results ;
the only peculiarity to be noticed is the negative value of Co for the
alloy 19*5 bismuth 1 antimony; that is, that part of the transverse
effect which is proportional to has the same sign as the
component which is proportional to ( A n)^ ; the two effects working
together give the extremely large negative result observed. In the
other alloys of bismuth-antimony and in those of bismuth-lead the
sign of C2 is positive, and the result is that either the original
negative effect becomes positive with higher fields, or at any rate
reaches a maximum numerical value.
1894-95.] Mr J. C. Beattie on Alloys in a Magnetic Field. 485
It is to be noted that the second effect only appears in the bis-
muth alloys : for example, in tellurium, with an extremely large
positive effect, the latter is proportional to A?4h See “On varia-
tion of resistance in Nickel, Antimony, Tellurium.”
{d) Numerical Residts and Diagrams.
Bismuth-antimony alloys. These are easily cast, and the plates
can be brought down to almost any desired thinness by simply
filing.
Plate I.
Bismuth, 13*4 grms.; antimony, *7 grms.
/Length; 29 9 \
■< Breadth : 17 ’5 >mms.
(Thickness; -76)
Temp. 17° C.
\/ A + ^2( \/ A = Trans, effect.
Field.
Trans, effect.
An
\/ An
1,360
- *4422
•0363
•1906
2,890
-•8601
•1154
•3397
5,610
-1-5015
•2921
•5405
-2-36
- 1-4
11,050
- 2-3335
•5703
•7552
-2-39
-1-2
14,620
-2-8029
•7265
•8523
-2-40
-1*2
15,640
-2-9634
•7774
•8817
-2-44
-1-2
17,000
-3-0710
1
486
Proceedings of Boyal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
Plate II.
r Length: 23*0 ^
Bismuth, 8 ‘5 grms. ; antimony, *85 grms.I Breadth : 12*0 j-mms.
I Thickness : ITgJ
Temp. 17° C.
Field.
Trans, effect.
An
<
2,890
- -3206
5,610
- -4877
•2301
•4800
11,050
- -6725
-4409
•6640
14,620
- -7244
•5885
•7661
15,640
- -7507
•6276
•7922
17,000
- *7216
In this plate the transverse effect was very unsteady, varying as
much as 10 per cent, for the same field strength.
Plate III.
Bismuth, 8 '5 grms.
; antimony, 2 '15 grms.
Temp. 19° C.
r Length :
1 Breadth :
1 Thickness :
29-4\
11- Vmms.
1-1 j
Field.
Trans, effect.
An
V An
2,890
- -2854
5,610
- -4779
•1247
•3531
11,050
- -6611
•2394
•4893
14,620
- -6792
•2941
•5423
15,640
- -6561
•3046
•5519
17,000
- -6459
•3330
•5770
In this plate also the transverse effect was very unsteady.
1894-95.] Mr J. C. Beattie on Alloys in a Magnetic Field. 487
Plate IV.
! Length : 27 \
Breadth : 12 >mms.
Thickness: 1*2)
Temp. 23° C.
Field.
Trans, effect.
An
\/ An
Ci{An)^ c^{An)i -■
^1
= trails, effect.
5,610
- -1130
•0276
•1661
11,050
- -1633
•0606
•2461
-•69
+ •51
14,620
- -1896
•0846
•2909
- -69
+ •50
15,640
- -1949
•0911
■3018
- -69
+ •53
17,000
- -19
In diagram I., fig. 1, the field strength in c.g.s. units is measured
along the x axis ; the transverse effect per unit current along the y
axis ; curves I, II, III, IV give the relation of the transverse
effect to field strength for the plates so numbered. B refers to a
plate of pure bismuth. Antimony’s corresponding curve would lie
on the opposite side of the x axis. Compare with table on page
482, and with remarks on pages 483 and 484.
If fig. 4 be taken as given in natural size, then II, III, B are
half natural size, I is -J natural size.
In diagram II., fig. 4, the relation between'the variation of resist-
ance and the field strength for Plates 1., II., III., IV. is given.
The X axis is the axis of field strength : the y axis that of resistance
variation per unit current as given by the galvanometer reading.
The scale is the same for all the figures.
It will be noticed that the figure I is similar to the corresponding
figure for pure bismuth. Figures II, III, IV, on the other hand,
are straight lines.
488
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
Bismuth-Lead Alloys. — These also are easily cast, and easily
worked into a proper shape. It is of advantage to have the plates
very thin, as the transverse effect decreases very rapidly as lead is
added.
Plate V.
/ Length : 30*0 \
Bismuth, 19*5 grms. ; lead, 0*7 grms. Breadth: 18*0 Vmms.
V Thickness : 1*15 )
Temp. 19° C.
Field.
Trans, effect.
An
\jAn
c^An^ + c^Aid' =
= Trans, effect.
1,760
- -0229
'0157
'126
2,890
- '0272
•0285
'169
4,400
- -0202
•0617
•248
- -211
+ 2-1
5,610
- -0135
'0727
•270
- -208
+ 2-3
11,050
+ •0395
•1310
•362
- -217
+ 2-5
14,620
+ '0632
'1679
•409
- -215
+ 2'2
15,640
+ ‘0672
•1769
'421
- -206
+ 2-0
17,000
+ -0702
'1863
•431
- '210
+ 2'0
Bismuth,
Plate VI.
13*7 grms. ; lead, 1*4 grms. <
Temp. 20° C.
/ Length :
J Breadth :
V Thickness :
29-5 X
1 6 ’8 Vmms.
•75 )
Field.
Trans, effect.
An
An^
c-^An^ + c^An^ ■■
= Trans, effect.
2,890
- '0038
•0120
•108
5,610
'0000
'0255
•160
- '071
+ 2-8
11,050
+ '01648
'0488
'221
-•072
+ 3-0
14,620
+ '0239
•0586
•241
- '070
+ 2'9
15,640
+ '0281
•0631
'251
- -070
+ 2-9
17,000
+ '0301
•0671
'259
- -071
+ 2-8
1894-95.] Mr J. C. Beattie on Alloys in a Magnetic Field. 489
With a third alloy — VII. Bismuth, 13 grms. ; lead, 2*4 grms. —
the transverse effect was observable and was throughout positive.
The equation = transverse effect only holds if we take
a weak field as our starting field ; if we take one of the higher ones
and combine it with all others, the constants obtained with the
high fields are much less than those obtained with low ones. In
fact, the transverse effect for high fields is practically proportional
to
In diagram I., figs. 2 and 3, we have the transverse effect and
variation of resistance for a pure bismuth plate — B, fig. 2 ; and for
the alloys V, VI, VII. Compare diagram I., fig. 1, diagram II.,
fig. 4.
In fig. 3 it will be noticed that V resembles the corresponding
bismuth curve, while VI and VII are concave towards the x axis,
VII more so than VI.
Curve B in fig. 2, is drawn to scale J, V and VI to scale unity.
Antimony-Zine Alloys. — Difficult to cast, and difficult to bring
into proper form. The plates used were in many cases not quite
regular throughout.
Plate VIII.
/■Length: 25’25 \
Antimony, 18 grms.; zinc, 3 grms. < Breadth: 14’75 Vmms.
V Thickness : 1 ’08 )
Temp. 20° C.
Field.
Trails, effect.
5,610
+ -0134
>
1
11,050
+ •0241
14,620
+ -0322
1
A small increase in re-
sistance observed.
15,640
+ -0347
17,000
+ -0376
J
1
490
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgh. [s
Plate IX.
/ Length : 30’0 \
Antimony, 806; zinc, 406 < Breadth: 9*0 Imins.
( Thickness : 3*3 )
Field.
Trans, effect.
5,610
+ *0320
11,050
+ *0643
14,620
+ •0855
15,640
+ -09088
17,000
+ -0933
In diagram II. , fig. 5, the relation between the transverse effect
per unit current and the field for plates VIII. and IX. is shown.
Both figures are drawn to the same scale, and in them the
difference of thickness is not taken into account ; both are straight
lines. Cf. Kundt’s figures for gold and silver, Wiedeman'nis
Annalen, Bd. 49, 1893.
Antimony-Cadmium Alloys. — Difficult to work with on account
of brittleness.
Plate X,
/ Length : 20*0 \
1 Antimony, 1 Cadmiums Breadth: 10*0 Vmms.
(-Thickness: 3*18/
Temp. 23° C.
Field.
Trans, effect.
5,610
+ -0504
11,050
+ •0957
14,620
+ •1159
No variation of resist-
ance observed.
15,640
+ -1313
17,000
+ •1405
1894-95.] Mr J. C. Beattie on Alloys in a Magnetic Field. 491
Plate XI.
/ Length : 30‘0 \
806 Antimony, 696 Cd. mms.
^ Thickness : 5’0 /
Field.
Trans, effect.
5,610
+ *1213
1
I
11,050
+ *2809
I
! Xo variation of resist-
ance observable.
14,620
+ *3623
I
15,640
+ •3885
Fig. 6, diagram II., gives the relation between transverse effect
and field strength. The two curves are again straight lines.
Plate XII.
/ Length : 33*4
Antimony 806, Zinc 406, Bismuth 12 W Breadth: 16*3 J'mms.
V Thickness : 2*06 )
Field.
Trans, effect.
5,610
+ •0698
1
i
11,050
+ •1373
1
14,620
+ •1855
[ Kesistance variation not
1 observable.
15,640
+ -2036
17,000
+ •2154
)
1
1
492
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
Plate XIII.
/ Length : 30*0 \
806 Antimony, 696 Cd., 150 Bismuth Breadth: 14*0 >mms.
V Thickness: 2'14 )
Field.
Trans, effect.
5,610
+ -0557
11,050
•1446
14,620
•2087
15,640
•2296
17,000
•2398
I A small increase of re-
! sistance was observed.
Pig. 7, diagram II., gives the relations for plates XII. and XIII.
Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin. Vol. XXi
On the Behaviour of Various Alloys in a Steady Magnetic Field.
Observed Field
Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin. Vol. XX.
On the Behaviour of Various Alloys in a Steady Magnetic Field.
Observed Field
C -sf
1894-95.] Variation of Resistance in a Magnetic Field. 493
On the Variation of Resistance in a Steady Magnetic
Field observed in Nickel, Antimony, and Tellurium
Plates. By J. C. Beattie. (With a Plate.)
(Read July 15, 1895.)
Whether the variation of resistance in conductors in a steady
magnetic field depends on the field strength, on the magnetisation,
or on both, does not seem to be definitely settled. The various
experimental methods as yet used are fundamentally similar in
principle, and have the disadvantage that the experiments are
difficult to perform.
A method where the experimental difficulties are very few is to
be found in the comparison of the variation of resistance for any
given field-strength with some other phenomenon whose depend-
ence on the field-strength or on the magnetisation is already known,
and whose exact determination offers no experimental difficulties.
Such a phenomenon is the transverse effect. Kundt has shown
that this is in iron, nickel, cobalt, gold, and silver proportional to
the magnetisation. In antimony and tellurium, however, we can
only infer the relation by a comparison of their curves with those
for the above metals, or for bismuth (pure), where the same rela-
tion holds.
That for antimony, viz., tho curve showing the relation of the
transverse effect to the magnetic field, is a straight line agreeing
with those for gold and silver ; we are justified, therefore, in assum-
ing the transverse effect in antimony to be — as in gold and silver —
proportional to the magnetisation. The corresponding curve for
tellurium is also approximately a straight line, or, more exactly,
two straight lines concave to the field-axis, which again suggests
that the transverse effect is proportional to the magnetisation.
On account of the short time at my disposal, I found it impossible
to investigate iron and cobalt plates, and in nickel only the varia-
tion of resistance perpendicular to the lines of magnetic force was con-
494 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
sidered. I propose, later, to consider the magnetic metals more
thoroughly. In tellurium and antimony the variations of resistance
perpendicular to the lines of magnetic force were considered.
The notation is the same as that of my other papers, viz.: by
transverse effect is meant the galvanometer reading divided by the
primary current ; in nickel, however, the readings of four observa-
tions are added together.
The variation of resistance was measured by the Wheatstone
bridge method, as modified by Lord Kelvin. The galvanometer
reading — the bridge being first arranged so as to give no current
with the electromagnet off — divided by the primary, was taken as
its measure.
The results for the three metals can be summed up as follows : —
The decrease of resistance in a nickel plate placed perpendicular
to the lines of force in a steady magnetic field, and the increase of
resistance in plates of antimony and tellurium similarly placed, are
proportional to the magnetisation sguared.
Numerical Results and Diagrams.
The temperature of the room was about 25° C. when the experi-
ments were made.
^ Length: 33'0
Antimony, . . Breadth: 18*5 Vmms.
( Thickness : 1*07;
I. Plate cut from a Block of Star Antimony and worked into
proper form hy filing.
Field.
Trans, effect
observed.
An (A?i)3
observed.
Cl Vaw = Trans, effect.
5,610
+ “0229
11,050
+ “0426
+ •0408
•202
+ ■21
14,620
+ •0569
•0659
•242
•23
15,640
+ *0601
•0745
•273
•22
17,000
+ “0630
•0874
•295
•24
1894-95.] Variation of Resistance in a Magnetic Field.
495
II. Plate cast from same Uock of Antimony.
Length; 4L5 j
Breadth : 25*8 > mms.
Thickness : *4 )
Cj J^n = E.
Field.
Trans, effect
observed.
A.n V An
observed.
1
Trans, effect
calculated.
\/ An
calculated.
5,610
•0438
•066
7,820
•0587
•0081
+ •09
•652
+ -0589
•088
11,050
•0793
•0139
•118
•672
+ -0785
•119
13,600
•0968
•0214
•146
•663
•0971
•145
14,620
•1061
+ -0249
•158
•671
•1050
•159
15,640
•1147
•0299
•173
•663
•1151
•172
17,000
•1189
•0311
•177
•672
•1178
•178
Average ’6655.
Diagram II., figs. 12 and 11, shows the relation between Field
Strength and Transverse Effect and Field Strength and Varia-
tion of Resistance for Plate II.
( Length : 25*0 \
Tellurium, . . .4 Breadth: 13 *5 Vmms.
I Thickness : 2*78 J
Field.
Trans, effect
observed.
An \/ An 1
observed.
Cl
Trans, effect
calculated.
An^ calcu-
lated.
5,610
+ 2-81
+ •037
+ •19
+ 14-7
+ 2-72
+ •19
7,820
3-85
•0726
•27
14-2
3-87
•269
11,050
5-30
•142
•37
14-3
5-30
•37
13,600
6-45
•208
•46
14-0
6-59
•45
14,620
7-05
•248
•49
14-4
7-03
•49
15,640
7-64
•279
•53
14-4
7-59
1 -53
Average 14'3.
496 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgli.
The transfer effect in this metal is extremely great ; in observing
it an extra 2000 ohms had to he inserted in the galvanometer.
[ Length : 56*0 j
IV. Mckel, . .< Breadth : 12*5 >mms.
( Thickness : T )
Field.
Trans, effect
observed.
An
observed.
Cl
Trans, effect
calculated.
V An cal-
culated.
2,890
- *0317
- -0037
- -0608
•52
- -0324
- -0598
3,230
- -037
- -0050
- -0707
•53
- -0377
- -0699
5,610
- *0462
- -0069
- -0839
•55
- -0449
- -0872
7,820
- *0470
- -0084
- -0911
•55
- -0485
- -0900
11,050
- -0491
•0088
- -0939
•52
- -0498
- -0926
13,600
- -0518
•0094
- -0969
•53
- *0514
- -0977
Fig. 9, diagram III., gives the relation between Field Strength
and Variation of Eesistance for Tellurium ; fig. 10 that between
Transverse Effect and Variation of Resistance.
The corresponding curves for nickel are given in figs. 8 and 7,
respectively.
Antimony, Tellurium. Nickel.
Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin. Vol. XX.
On the Variation of Resistance in a Steady Magnetic Field.
Diagram III.
X Calculated
1894-5.] Prof. Tait on Systems of Plane Curves.
497
Systems of Plane Curves whose Orthogonals form a
Similar System. By Prof. Tait.
{Ahstract.)
(Read May 6, 1895.)
While tracing the lines of motion and the meridian sections of
their orthogonal surfaces for an infinite mass of perfect fluid dis-
turbed by a moving sphere : — the question occurred to me “ When
are such systems similar ? ” In the problem alluded to, the equa-
tions of the curves are, respectively,
(r/«)2 = cos0, and (r/by = sin d .
It was at once obvious that any sets of curves such as
(r/ a)'^ = cos 0 and {rlh)m = sin 6
are orthogonals. But they form similar systems only when
= 1 .
Hence the only sets of similar orthogonal curves, having equa-
tions of the above form, are {a) groups of parallel lines and (&) their
electric images (circles touching each other at one point). As the
electric images of these, taken from what point we please, simply
reproduce the same system, I fancied at first that the solution must
be unique : — and that it would furnish an even more remarkable
example of limitation than does the problem of dividing space into
infinitesimal cubes. (See Proe. vol. xix. p. 193.) But I found
that I could not prove this proposition ; and I soon fell in with an
infinite class of orthogonals having the required property. These
are all of the type
>-^ = (tan6») (1).
which includes the straight lines and circles already specified. The
next to these in order of simplicity among this class is
1
r = ae 2 cos20 cos 0 .,
^
with r = b&^ sin 0 .
In order to get other solutions from any one pair like this, w’e must
take its electric image from a point whose vector is inclined at tt/I
or Stt/I to the line of reference. For such points alone make the
VOL. XX. 2 I
498
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh.
images similar. And a peculiarity now presents itself, in that the
new systems are not directly superposahle : — but each is the per-
version of the other.
If we had, from the first, contemplated the question from this
point of view, an exceedingly simple pair of solutions would have
been furnished at once by the obviously orthogonal sets of logarithmic
spirals
r = a^^ , r = b^~^\
and another by their electric images taken from any point whatever.
The groups of curves thus obtained form a curious series of spirals,
all but one of each series being a continuous line of finite length
whose ends circulate in opposite senses round two poles, and having
therefore one point of inflection. The excepted member of each
series is of infinite length, having an asymptote in place of the point
of inflection. This is in accordance with the facts that : — a point of
inflection can occur in the image only when the circle of curvature
of the object curve passes through the reflecting centre, and that no
two circles of curvature of a logarithmic spiral can meet one another.
We may take the electric images of these, over and over again,
provided the reflecting centre be taken always on the line joining
the poles. All such images will be cases satisfying the modified
form of the problem.
If we now introduce, as a factor of the right hand member of (1),
a function of B which is changed into its own reciprocal (without
change of sign) when 0 increases by tt/2, we may obtain an infinite
number of additional classes of solutions of the original question ;
and from these, by taking their electric images as above, we derive
corresponding solutions of the modified form. We may thus obtain
an infinite number of classes of solutions where the equations are
expressible in ordinary algebraic, not transcendental, forms.
Thus we may take, as a factor in (1), taii2(0 + a). The general
integral is complicated, so take the very particular case of m=l,
a = 77 14c. This gives the curves r = a ^ ^ ^ ^^/(i+tanex Again,
(I -h tan Oy
let the factor be tan (0 - a) tan {0 + a). With m = 1, and tan a
= ^/n/3, we get the remarkably simple form
such examples may be multiplied indefinitely.
^=1 -l!
a
But
Meetings of the Royal Society — Session 1892-93.
Monday, 2'^th November 1892.
General Statutory Meeting. Election of Office-Bearers. P. 1.
Monday, 5ih December 1892.
Sir Douglas Maclagan, M.D., President, in the Chair.
The Chairman gave an Introductory Address. P. 2.
The Hon. Lord McLaren, Vice-President, presented, in name of the
Committee of Subscribers, Sir George Reid’s portrait of the General
Secretary.
The following Communications were read : —
1. Note on Uniform Convergency of Series. By Professor Cayley.
P. xix. 203.
2. Note on a certain Locus. By Professor P. H. Schoute, of
Groningen. Communicated by Professor Tait. P. xix. 208.
3. On the Division of Space into Cubes. By Professor Tait. P. xix.
193.
Monday, \ Wi December 1892.
Sir Douglas Maclagan, M.D., President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. Obituary Notice of the late Thomas Nelson. By W. Scott
Dalgleish, Esq., M.A., LL.D. P. xix. Iviii.
2. On a further Development of Kjeldahl’s Method of Organic
Analysis. By Dr C. Hunter Stewart. From the Public Health
Laboratory, University of Edinburgh. T. xxxvii. 743.
3. On the Madder-staining of Dentine. By W. G. Aitchison
Robertson, M.D., D.Sc. From the Physiological Laboratory of the
University of Edinburgh. Communicated by Professor Rutherford.
P. XX. 14.
4. On some recent Innovations in Vector Theory. By Professor
C. G. Knott. P. xix. 212.
500 ProceediTigs of Royal Society of Edinlurgh. [sess.
Tuesday, \0tli January 1893.
Professor Sir W. Turner, F.E.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. On some Modifications of the Water-bottle and Thermometer for
Deep Sea Research. By John Y. Buchanan, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. (The
instruments were exhibited.) P. xix. 238.
2. On Electrolytic Synthesis of Dibasic Acids. Part VI. — On the
Electrolysis of Ethyl Potassium Dialkylmalonates, and on Secondary
Reactions occurring in the Electrolysis of Ethyl Potassium Salts of
Dibasic Acids. By Professor Crum Brown, F.R.S., and Dr James
Walker. P. xix. 243 {Abstract). T. xxxvii. 361.
3. On the Comparative Histology and Experimental Physiology of
the Spleen. By Arthur J. Whiting, M.D. From the Physiological
Laboratory of the University of Edinburgh. Communicated by Professor
Rutherford. P. xix. 21 {Abstract).
Monday, \^th January 1893.
Professor Copeland, Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. Obituary Notice of the late Dr Keiller. By Dr T. A. G. Balfour.
P. xix. xxxvi.
2. Obituary Notice of the late Sir George Macleod. By the Rev.
W. H. Macleod, B.A. (Cantab.), B.D. P. xix. xl.
3. On the Present State of Knowledge and Opinion in regard to
Colour Blindness. By William Pole, F.R.S. L. and F.R.S.E. T.
xxxvii. 441. P. XX. 103.
The following Candidates for Fellowship were balloted for, and
declared duly elected Fellows of the Society : —
Donald Beith, Esq., W.S.
Alexander Low Bruce, Esq.
Alexander Edington, M.B., C.M.
Monday, 2>0th January 1893.
Professor Sir Douglas Maclagan, President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. Obituary Notice of the late Sir George Airy. By Professor Cope-
land. P. xix. iii.
1892-93.]
Meetings of the Soeiety.
501
2. Obituary Notice of the late Sheriff Forbes Irvine. By Sheriff
^Eneas Mackay. P. xix. xxiii.
3. A New Solution of Sylvester’s Problem of the Three Ternary
Equations. By the Hon. Lord McLaren. P. xix. 264.
4. On some Observations made, without a Dust-Counter, on the
Hazing Effects of Atmospheric Dust. By John Aitken, E.R.S. P.
XX. 76.
5. Induction through Air and Water, at great distances, without the
use of Parallel Wires. By C. A. Stevenson, M.Inst.C.E. P. xx. 25.
Monday, 6Pi February 1893.
Sir Arthur Mitchell, K.C.B., Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. On the Particles in Fogs and Clouds. By John Aitken, F.R.S.
T. xxxvii. 413. P. xix. 260 {Abstract).
2. On a New Apparatus for Counting Bacterial Colonies in Roll
Cultures. By J. Buchanan Young, M.B., B.Sc. From the Public
Health Laboratory of the University of Edinburgh. Communicated
by Sir Douglas Maclagan. P. xx. 28.
3. Preliminary Note on the Hygrometric State of the Atmosphere at
Ben Nevis Observatory. By Mr A. J, Herbertson. Communicated
by Dr Buchan. P. xx. 177.
4. On Properties of the Parabola. By Professor Anglin. P. xx. 35.
The following Candidates for Fellowship were balloted for, and
declared duly elected Fellows of the Society : —
Dr Frederick W. Barry.
Arthur George Perkin, Esq.
R. S. Fancourt Barnes, M.D.
Patrick Hehir, M.D.
Monday, '2,0th February 1893.
The Hon. Lord M‘Laren, Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. On the Structure of the Eurypteridcc. By Malcolm Laurie, B.A.
Communicated by Dr Ramsay Traquair. T. xxxvii. 509.
2. On the Early History of some Scottish Mammals and Birds. By
the Rev. Professor Duns, P. xx. 50.
3. On the Digestion of Sugar in Health. By W. G. Aitchison
Robertson, M.D., D.Sc. Communicated by Professor Rutherford.
From the Physiological Laboratory of the University of Edinburgh.
P. XX. 30 {Abstract).
502
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
Monday, Wi March 1893.
Professor Geikie, Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. Obituary Notice of Professor J. Couch Adams. By the Astron-
omer-Eoyal for Scotland. P. xx.
2. A new Algebra, by means of which Permutations may be trans-
formed in a variety of ways, and their Properties investigated. By
T. B. Sprague, M.A. T. xxxvii. 399.
3. On the Compressibility of Liquids, in connection with their
Molecular Pressure. By Professor Tait. P. xx. 63.
The following Candidates for Fellowship were balloted for, and
declared duly elected LVllows of the Society : —
C. G. H. Kinnear, F.E.I.B.A.
Eobert Howden, M.B., C.M.
George Sandison Brock, M.D.,’C.M.
W. L. Calderwood, Esq.
Monday, 20th March 1893.
Sir Arthur Mitchell, K.C.B., Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. Preliminary Note on Observations of the Minor Planet Victoria
in 1889. By Dr D. Gill, H.M. Astronomer at the Cape of Good Hope.
P. XX. 47.
2. On a remarkable Glacier-Lake, formed by a branch of the
Hardanger-Jokul, near Eidfibrd, Norway. By Dr Egbert Munro.
P. XX. 53.
Monday, Zrd April 1893.
Sir Douglas Maclagan, M.D., President, in the Chair.
Specimens and Preparations of the New Opium Alkaloid, Xanthaline,
discovered by Messrs T. and H. Smith & Co., were exhibited and
remarked on by Mr Hill.
The following Communication was read : — ■
Alexander Eangabes ; Poet, Statesman, and Archfeologist. By
Emeritus Professor Blackie.
1892-93.]
Meetings of the Society.
503
The following Candidates for Fellowship were balloted for, and
declared duly elected Fellows of the Society : —
Professor Ludwig Becker, Ph.D.
Joseph Tillie, M.D.
Monday, May 1893.
Sir Douglas Maclagan, M.D., President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. Breath-Figures. By John Aitken, Esq. P. xx. 94.
2. On the General Eliminant of Three Equations of Different Degrees.
By the Hon. Lord M‘Laren.
3. On certain Concretions from the Lower Coal Measures, and the
Fossil Plants which they contain. By H. B. Stocks, Esq. Communi-
cated by Dr John Murray. P. xx. 69.
The President announced that the Geographical Society of Berlin had
awarded the Humboldt Medal to the Challenger Expedition, and had
resolved to place the Medal in the hands of Dr John Murray as the
personal Eepresentative of the Achievements of the great Enterprise.
The following Candidates for Fellowship were balloted for, and
declared duly elected Fellows of the Society : —
George A. Berry, M.D., F.E.C.S.
J. Macvicar Anderson, Esq., Architect.
Walter E. Archer, Esq.
Monday, l^th May 1893.
Sir William Turner, M.B., F.E.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. On the genus Helodus, Agassiz. By Dr Eamsay H. Traquair,
F.E.S.
2. Preliminary Account of a Natural History Collection made on a
Voyage to the Gulf of St Lawrence and Davis Straits. By Mr Alex-
ander Eodger. Communicated by Professor D’Arcy Thompson. P.
XX. 154.
Monday, 5th June 1893.
Sir Douglas Maclagan, M.D., President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. Preliminary Note on the Compressibility of Aqueous Solutions,
in connection with Molecular Pressure. By Professor Tait. P. xx.
141 {Abstract).
504 Proceedings of Boy al Society of Edinhurgh. [sess.
2. On an observed Eelation between tbe Carbonic Acid and the
added Moisture in the Air of Inhabited Kooms. By Charles Hunter
Stewart, B.Sc., M.B. From the Public Health Laboratory of the
University of Edinburgh.
3. Approximate Determination of the Path of a Kotating Spherical
Projectile. By Professor Tait. T. xxxvii. 427.
4. Graphic Process for the Attraction of a Solid of Eevolution on
a Particle in its Axis. By G. Eomanes, Esq. Communicated by
Professor Tait.
Monday, l^th June 1893.
The Hon. Lord M‘Laren, Vice-President, in the Chair.
Dr James E. Talmage, Curator of the Deseret Museum, Salt Lake
City, Utah, exhibited Crystals of Selenite of extraordinary size and
purity from the County of Wayne in Southern Utah. The occurrence
of these Crystals has been described by Dr Talmage in Science,
vol. xxi. (No. 524), pp. 85-87, New York, Feb. 1893. Dr Talmage
presented two very beautiful specimens to the Society, and was thanked
for his communication and for the specimens by the Chairman.
The following Communications were read : —
1. Obituary Notice of Professor James Thomson. By Professor Tait.
2. Obituary Notice of Professor Dittmar. By Professor Crum Brown,
F.R.S. P. XX. hi.
3. On the Physical Geography of the Clyde Sea Area. Part III.
Temperature. By Dr H. R. Mill. T. xxxviii. 1.
Monday, 2>rd July 1893.
Professor James Geikie, F.R.S. , Vice-President, in the Chair.
An invitation, to Fellows, to attend the Adelaide Meeting of the
Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, was read.
The following Communications were read : —
1. On the Chemical Composition of Sea Water. By John Gibson,
Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the Heriot-Watt College. P. xx. 315.
2. On the Hourly Variation of the Rainfall at Ben Nevis Observatory.
By Alexander Buchan, LL.D.
3. On the Path of a Rotating Spherical Projectile, II. By Professor
Tait. T. xxxvii. 427.
4. An Experimental Study of Intra-ocular Therapeutics. By Dr
Chasseaud. Communicated by Dr Noel Baton.
The following Candidate for Fellowship was balloted for, and
declared duly elected a Fellow of the Society : —
The Rev. John M‘Murtrie, M.A., D.D.
1893-94.]
Meetings of the Society.
505
Monday, \Wi July 1893.
Sir Douglas Maclagan, M.D., President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. Magnetic Induction in Iron and Steel Tubes. By Professor C. G.
Knott and A. Shand, Esq.
2. Attraction by Graphic Processes. By G. Komanes, Esq. Com-
municated by Professor Tait.
3. Observations on the Development of the Human Brain. By
Johnson Symington, M.D.
4. On Species of Penguin observed during the Sealing Voyage of
the S.S. “Active” in the Neighbourhood of Erebus and Terror Gulf.
By C. M. Donald, M.D. Communicated by Professor D’Arcy W.
Thompson. P. xx. IVO.
5. The Diurnal Fluctuations of the Barometer on Ben Nevis during
Clear and Foggy Weather respectively. By Alexander Buchan, LL.D.
6. Elimination of Powers of Sines and Cosines between two Equations.
By the Hon. Lord M‘Laren. P. xx. 145.
7. The Chairman reviewed the work of the Session.
Meetings of the Royal Society — Session 1893-94.
GENEKAL STATUTORY MEETING,
Monday, 21th November 1893.
The following Council were elected: —
President.
Sir DOUGLAS MACLAGAN, M.D., F.R.C.P.E.
Vice-Presidents.
Sir Arthur Mitchell, K.C.B., LL.D.
Sir William Turner, M.B., F.R.S.
Professor Copeland, Astronomer-
Royal for Scotland.
Professor James Geikie, LL.D.
F.R.S.
The Hon. Lord M‘Laren, LL.D.
The Rev. Professor Flint, D.D.
General Secretary — Professor P. G. Tait.
Secretaries to Ordinary Meetings.
Professor Crum Brown, F.R.S.
John Murray, Esq., LL.D.
Treasurer — Adam Gillies Smith, Esq., C.A.
Curator of Library and Museum — Alexander Buchan, Esq. , M. A. , LL. D.
506
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Rev. J. Sutherland Black, M.A.
Robert Kidston, Esq., F.G.S.
Professor John Gibson, Ph.D.
Professor James Blyth, M.A.
Professor D’Arcy Thompson.
Professor J. Shield Nicholson.
Professor Chrystal, LL.D.
Dr J. Batty Tuke, F.R.C.P.E.
Alexander Bruce, M.A.,
F.R.C.P.E.
Professor Frederick 0. Bower,
M.A., F.R.S.
Professor J. G. M‘Kendrick, LL.D.,
F.R.S.
A. Beatson Bell, Esq. , Advocate.
Ordinary Members of Council.
Dr
By a Resolution of the Society (19th January 1880), the following Hon.
Vice-Presidents, having filled the office of President, are also Members of the
Council : —
His Grace the DUKE of ARGYLL, K.G., K.T., LL.D., D.C.L.
The Right Hon. LORD MONCREIFF of Tulliebole, LL.D.
The Right Hon. LORD KELVIN, LL.D., D.C.L., P.R.S., Foreign
Associate of the Institute of France.
Monday y 4=th December 1893.
Professor Copeland, Astronomer-Royal for Scotland,
Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communication was read : —
On Bistratification in the Growth of Languages, with special reference
to Greek. By Emeritus Professor Blackie. T. xxxvii. 615.
The following Candidates for Fellowship were balloted for, and
declared duly elected Fellows of the Society : —
The Rev. Thomas Hardie Turnbull.
Mr James Macdonald.
Monday, ISth December 1893.
The Rev. Professor Duns in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. Note on the Focus of Concavo-convex Lenses, the Surfaces of which
are of Equal Curvature. By Dr George Berry, F.R.C.S. P. xx. 192.
2. On Torsional Oscillations of Wires. By Dr William Peddie.
3. On certain Electrical Properties of Iron Occluding Gases. By Mr
S. Kimura, Graduate in Physical Science of the Imperial University of
Tokyo, Japan. Communicated by Professor C. G. Knott. P. xx. 203.
4. The Ether — an Idea of Sir John Herschel Modernised. By Mr
S. Tolver Preston. Communicated by Professor C. G. Knott.
1893-94.]
Meetings of the Soeiety.
507
Monday j \Wi January 1894.
Sir Douglas Maclagan, M.D., President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. Obituary Notices of the late : —
{a) Dr William F. Skene, Historiographer-Koyal for Scotland.
By Professor Mackinnon. P. xx. xxxiii.
(b) Dr William Burns Thomson, F.K.C.P.E. By Dr James L.
Maxwell.
2. On Two Stereo-isomeric Hydrazones of Benzoin. By Professor
Alexander Smith, B.Sc., Wabash College, Indiana, U.S.A. P. xx.
201.
3. On the Compression of Fluids. By Professor Tait. P. xx. 245
{Abstract).
The following Candidates for Fellowship were balloted for, and
declared duly elected Fellows of the Society : —
Francis John Allan, M.D., C.M.
J. Angus Cameron, M.D.
Mr Herbert Bolton.
Principal John Cook, M.A.
Charles Henry Gatty, M.A., LL.D., F.L.S.
Monday, 2^tli January 1894.
Professor Copeland, Astronomer-Koyal for Scotland,
in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. On the Kate of Fermentation of Sugars. By W. G. Aitchison
Robertson, M.D., D.Sc. Communicated by Professor Rutherford.
P. XX. 164 {Abstract).
2. The Indian Currency Experiment, with special reference to the
Foreign Trade of India. By Professor J. S. Nicholson.
Monday, bth February 1894.
Dr Copeland, Astronomer-Royal for Scotland, Vice-President,
in the Chair.
At the request of the Council, Dr John Murray gave an Address
“ On the Floor of the Ocean at Great Depths.”
508 Proceedings of Royal Society of Ediriburgh. [sess.
The following Candidates for Fellowship were balloted for, and
declared duly elected Fellows of the Society : —
Lieut.-Col. Frederick Bailey.
Professor John Struthers, M.D., LL.D.
Alfred Hill, M.D., M.B.C.S.
James Burgess, C.I.E., LL.D.
Mr Archibald Denny.
Monday, February 1894.
Sir Douglas Maclagan, M.D., President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. Obituary Notice of Professor Alphonse Louis Pierre Pyramus de
Candolle. By Professor Frederick 0. Bower, F.R.S. P. xx.
2. On the Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere of Certain
Places in Great Britain and on the Continent : — with Remarks on the
Relation between the Amount of Dust and Meteorological Phenomena.
Part III. By John Aitken. T. xxxvii. 621.
3. Suggestion as to the possible Nature of Electrification. By George
Romanes, Esq. Communicated by Dr C. G. Knott.
Monday, bth March 1894.
Sir William Turner, F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : — •
1. Obituary Notice of Professor William Morse Graily Hewitt, M.D.
By Professor A. R. Simpson, M.D. P. xx. v.
2. On the Division of a Parallelepiped into Tetrahedra. Part I. — The
Cube. By Professor Crum Brown, F.R.S. T. xxxvii. 711.
3. On the Second and Fourth Digits in the Horse, — their Development
and Subsequent Degeneration. By Professor J. C. Ewart, F.R.S. P.
XX. 185.
The following Candidates for Fellowship were balloted for, and
declared duly elected Fellows of the Society : —
Walter John Mabbott, M.A.
J. M. M. Munro, M.I.E.E.
Edward Whymper, Esq.
1893-94.]
Meetings of the. Society.
509
Monday^ \^ih March 1894.
Professor Geikie, F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. Obituary Notice of the Kev. Thomas Brown. By Professor Duns,
D.D. P. XX. X.
2. On the Division of a Parallelepiped into Tetrahedra. Part II.
By Professor Crum Brown, F.E.S. T. xxxvii. 711.
3. The Reproduction of the Edible Crab {Cancer pagurus). By Gregg
Wilson, M.A., B.Sc., Natural History Department, University of Edin-
burgh. Communicated by Professor Ewart, F.R.S. P. xx. 309.
4. Telegraphic Communication by Induction by means of Coils. By
C. A. Stevenson, B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. P. xx. 196.
Monday^ 2nd April 1894.
Sir Douglas Maclagan, M.D., President, in the Chair.
The Chairman announced that the Council had made the following
awards : —
1. The Gunning Victoria Jubilee Prize for 1891-4 to Alexander
Buchan, Esq., LL.D.
2. The Keith Prize for 1891-3 to Professor T. R. Fraser, F.R.S.
3. The Makdougall-Brisbane Prize for 1890-92 to H. R. Mill, Esq.,
D.Sc.
4. The Neill Prize for the period 1889-92 to John Horne, Esq.,
F.G.S.
At the request of the Council, an Address on “ The Climatic
Conditions of the Glacial Period” was given by Professor Geikie,
F.R.S., Vice-President R.S.E.
A Note on the Antecedents of Clerk-Maxwell’s Electrodynamical
Equations, by Professor Tait, was laid on the table. P. xx. 213.
Monday., 1th May 1894.
Sir William Turner, F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.
At the request of the Council, Dr Robert Munro gave an Address
“ On the Rise and Progress of Anthropology.” P. xx. 215.
The following Candidates for Fellowship were balloted for, and
declared duly elected Fellows of the Society : —
John Shand, M.D., F.R.C.P.E.
Malcolm Laurie, B.Sc., B.A., F.L.S.
John Jackson.
510
Proceedings of Royal Soeiety of Edinhurgh. [sbss.
Monday, 2\st May 1894.
Sir Douglas Maclagan, M.D., President, in the Chair.
PRIZES.
The Gunning Victoria Jubilee Prize for 1890-93 was presented
to Alexander Buchan, Esq., LL.D., for his varied, extensive, and
extremely important contributions to Meteorology, many of which
have appeared in the Society’s Publications.
The President, on presenting the Prize, said : —
During the past twenty or thirty years. Dr Alexander Buchan
has carried on a large number of scientific investigations. Some of
these deal with general questions in meteorology, and others with
the meteorology of the British Islands — many of the latter treating
especially of the meteorology of Scotland.
The results of these researches have been made known in a long
series of papers to learned societies.
Among the more important of these may be mentioned : —
“ On the Mean Atmospheric Pressure and Prevailing Winds of
the Globe.”
“ The Climatology of the British Islands — Temperature, Pressure,
Winds, Rain, and Thunderstorms.”
“The Weather and Health of London and other Places” (con-
jointly with Sir Arthur Mitchell).
“ The Storms of Europe.”
“ The Rainfall of Scotland over Twenty Years.”
“Prevailing Winds of Scotland.”
“ Extreme Temperatures and Rainfall of Scotland.”
“ Interruptions in the Regular Rise and Fall of Temperatures in
the course of the Year.”
“ On the Meteorology of Ben Nevis : especially on the Change of
Pressure and Temperature with Height, and the Influence of Strong
Winds on the Barometer.”
“ On Atmospheric Circulation ” : one of the “ Challenger ” Reports,
giving, with full and elaborate tables and maps, the mean monthly
and annual temperature and pressure of the globe, together with
the prevailing winds and diurnal fluctuation of the barometer.
In this Report the meteorology of the ocean is for the first time
seriously investigated.
Dr Buchan’s researches and papers are among the most important
1893-94.]
Meetings of the Society.
511
contributions to meteorology in recent years, and have placed him
in the foremost rank among living meteorologists.
Some of these papers have appeared in the publications of the
Society, and most of them have, in the first instance, been com-
municated to its meetings.
For the above reasons, the Council of the Society have awarded
to Dr Buchan The Triennial Gunning Victoria Jubilee Prize.
The Keith Prize for 1891-3 was presented to Professor T. R.
Fraser, F.R.S., for his papers on Strophanthus liispidus, Strophan-
thin, and Strophanthidin, read to the Society in February and June
1889 and in December 1891, and printed in Vols. XXXV.,
XXXVI., and XXXVII. of the Society’s Transactions.
The President, on presenting the Prize, said : —
The Prize Committee recommended that the Keith Prize be
awarded to Professor Thomas R. Fraser, F.R.S., for his papers on
Strophanthus liispidus, read before the Society in February and June
1889, and in December 1891, in which he has given a complete
history of this plant, embracing — 1st, its botany ; 2nd, its chemistry,
including the discovery of its active principle, strophanthin ; 3rd,
its pharmacology, showing its powerful physiological action on the
heart ; and 4th, its uses in practical medicine as a remedy in heart
affections.
The Makdougall-Brisbane Prize for 1890-92 was presented to H.
R. Mill, Esq., D.Sc., for his papers on the Physical conditions of
the Clyde Sea Area, Part I. being already published in Vol.
XXXVI. of the Society’s Transactions.
The President, on presenting the Prize, said : —
The Prize has been awarded to Dr Mill for his papers on the
Physical conditions of the Clyde Sea Area.
These give (1) A Summary of the Physical Geography of the
Region, with special reference to the orographical and bathymetrical
configuration, and to rainfall ; (2) Observations on the Variations
of Salinity in the water of different parts of the area for a consider-
able period ; and (3) a discussion of very numerous temperature
observations at all depths, extending over several years. The work,
as a whole, elucidates the influence exerted by configuration on
seasonal heat-changes in sea-water, the nominal sequence of these
512 Proceedings of Boy at Society of Edinhurgh. [sess.
changes, and the relations between the temperature of water and
air.
The Neill Prize for the period 1889-92 was presented to John
Horne, Esq., F.G.S., for his investigations into the Geological
Structure and Petrology of the North-West Highlands.
The President, on presenting the Prize, said : —
Mr Horne is one of our most distinguished field geologists, and
has borne a leading part in working out the extremely complicated
structure of the North-West Highlands — the result of his and his
colleague’s labours having greatly increased our knowledge of
“ mountain-building.” During the past five years he has published
the results of these and other correlated investigations in the
Journal of the London Geological Society, the Transactions of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh, and other scientific journals, &c. In
conjunction with Mr B. N. Peach he has established the existence
in the North-West Highlands of the Olenellus Zone of the Cam-
brian System — a very important addition to our knowledge of the
stratigraphical geology of our islands.
Mr Horne is also distinguished for his researches in glacial geo-
logy, and within the present and immediately preceding years
(1892, 1893, 1894) has made interesting and valuable communica-
tions upon the subject. In 1892 he was appointed chairman of a
committee of the Geological Section of the British Association to
investigate certain fossiliferous glacial deposits, with a view to ascer-
taining their exact geographical horizon. The report of this com-
mittee, presented at last meeting of the Association, was drafted by
Mr Horne, and is a distinct addition to our knowledge.
The following Communications were read : —
1. On some Problems of Evolution. By Professor D’Arcy W.
Thompson.
2. On a new form of Water-Collecting Bottle. By Mr H. N.
Dickson. P. xx. 252.
3. On the Determination of Sea Water Densities by Hydrometers
and Sprengel Tubes. By Mr W. S. Axdbrson. Communicated by
Dr John Murray.
4. On the Origin and Distribution of Manganese Oxides and
Manganese Nodules on the Floor of the Ocean. By Dr John Murray
and Mr Egbert Irvine. T. xxxvii. 721.
5. On the Constitution of the Earth’s Crust on the Continents and
beneath the Oceans. By Dr John Murray.
1893-94.]
Meetings of the Society.
513
Monday, '2^th May 1894.
Prof. James Geikie, Yice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. The Chemical and Bacteriological Examination of Soil. With
special reference to the Soil of Grave- Yards. By James Buchanan
Young, M.B., D.Sc. From the Public Health Laboratory, University
of Edinburgh. T. xxvii. 759.
2. The Pallial Complex of Dolabella (sp. ?). By J. D. F. Gilchrist,
M.A., B.Sc., Ph.D. Communicated by Professor Ewart, F.R.S. From
the Natural History Laboratory of the University of Edinburgh. P.
XX. 264.
3. Hydrolysis in some Aqueous Salt-Solutions. By James Walker,
D.Sc., Ph.D. P. XX. 255.
Monday, Pth June 1894.
The Hon. Lord M‘Laren, Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. On the Application of Van der Waals’ Equation to the Compression
of Ordinary Liquids. By Professor Tait. P. xx. 285.
2. Note on some Fossils from Seymour Island in the Antarctic Regions,
obtained by Dr Donald. By Messrs G. Sharman and E. T. Newton,
Communicated by Professor Geikie. T. xxxvii. 707.
3. On Certain Difficulties in the Study of Classical Zoology. By
Professor D’Arcy Thompson.
Monday, l^th June 1894.
Sir William Turner, F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. On the Path of the Meteor of May 18th, 1894. By The Astron-
omer-Royal FOR Scotland.
2. On the Elastic Equations of the Ether in Aeolotropic Dielectrics.
By Professor Tait.
3. A Comparison of the Extra-tropical Marine Fauna of the Northern
and Southern Hemispheres. By Dr John Murray.
4. Further Illustrations of the Range of Application of Van der
Waals’ Equation. By Professor Tait.
5. Magnetic Induction in Nickel Tubes. By Dr C. G. Knott and
A. Shand, Esq. P. xx. 290.
514 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgh. [sess.
Monday, 2nd July 1894.
The Hon. Lord McLaren, Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. Co-ordinates versus Quaternions. By Professor Cayley. P. xx.
271.
2. On the Intrinsic Nature of the Quaternion Method. By Professor
Tait. P. XX. 276.
3. Note on the Volume Changes which accompany Magnetization in
Nickel Tubes. By Dr C. G. Knott and A. Shand, Esq. P. xx. 295.
4. On Histological Changes produced in Nerve Cells by their Func-
tional Activity. By Gustav Mann, M.B. Communicated by Professor
Rutherford.
The following Candidates for Fellowship were balloted for, and
declared duly elected Fellows of the Society : —
Robert Mackenzie, M.D.
William Shield, M.Inst.C.E.
Philip R. D. Maclagan.
Tuesday, \0th July 1894.
The Hon. Lord McLaren, Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. On the Measurement of the Simple Reaction Time of Hearing,
Sight, and Touch. (With Experimental Illustrations.) By Professor
Rutherford, F.R.S. P. xx. 328.
2. The Estimated Total Amounts of the Principal Substances in
Solution in the Ocean, and the Source of these Substances. By Dr
John Murray.
Monday, \Mh Jidy 1894.
Professor Chrystal, Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. On the Circulation of Water in the Faero-Shetland Channel and
the North Sea. By Mr H. N. Dickson.
2. Note on the Compressibility of the Water of the Great Salt Lake,
Utah. By Professor Tait.
3. On the Solution of Systems of Equations by means of Deter-
minants. By the Hon. Lord McLaren.
4. Preliminary Note on the Use of Phosgene in preparing Compound
Ethers. By Professor Crum Brown.
5. On the Fossil Fishes of Forfarshire. By Dr R. H. Traquair,
F.R.S.
6. The Chairman reviewed the work of the Session.
1894-95.]
Meetings of the Soeiety.
515
Meetings of the Royal Society — Session 1894-95.
GENERAL STATUTORY MEETING.
Monday, 2^th November 1894.
The following Council were elected : —
President.
Sir DOUGLAS MACLAGAN, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., LL.D.
Vice-Presidents,
Professor Sir 'VVilltam Turner, M. B.
Professor Ralph Copeland, Ph.D.,
Astronomer- Royal for Scotland.
Professor James Geikie, LL.D.,
F.R.S.
The Hon. Lord McLaren, LL.D.,
F.R.A.S.
The Rev. Professor Flint, D.D.
Professor John G. M‘Kendrick,
M.D., LL.D.,F.R.S.
General Secretary — Professor P. Guthrie Tait, M.A., D.Sc.
Secretaries to Ordinary Meetings.
Professor Crum Brown, M.D., F.R.S.
John Murray, Esq., LL.D., Ph.D.
Treasurer— V'Ki'Liv R. D. Maclagan, Esq., F.F.A.
Curator of Library and Museum — Alexander Buchan, Esq., M.A., LL.D.
Councillors.
Professor D’Arcy W. Thompson,D.A.
Professor J. Shield Nicholson,
M.A., D.Sc.
Professor George Chrystal, M.A.,
LL.D.
Dr J. Batty Tuke, F.R.C.P.E.
Dr Alexander Bruce, M.A.,
F.R.C.P.E.
Professor Frederick 0. Bower,
M.A., F.R.S.
A. Beatson Bell, Esq., Advocate.
Sir Arthur Mitchell, K.C.B.,
LL.D.
Professor Thomas R. Fraser, M.D.,
F.R.S.
Dr Robert Munro, M.A.
DrD. NoelPaton, B.Sc., F.R.C.P.E.
Cargill G. Knott, Esq., D.Sc.
By a Resolution of the Society (19th January 1880), the following Hon.
Vice-Presidents, having filled the office of President, are also Members of the
Council : —
His Grace the DUKE of ARGYLL, K.G., K.T., LL.D., D.C.L.
The Right Hon. LORD MONCREIFF of Tulliebole, LL.D.
The Right Hon. LORD KELVIN, LL.D., D.C.L., P.R.S., Foreign
Associate of the Institute of France.
516 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgh. [sess.
Tuesday, 2*1 th November 1894.
Professor Copeland, Astronomer-Eoyal for Scotland,
Vice-President, in the Chair.
Professor M‘Kendrick read a Paper on “ Observations with the
Phonograph, with Experimental Illustrations.”
Monday, 2»rd Decemher 1894.
Professor Geikie, E.K.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. Notes on a Peculiarity in the Form of the Mammalian Tooth.
By John Smith, M.D. P. xx. 336.
2. The Development of the Miillerian Duct of Amphibians. By
Grego Wilson, M.A., B.Sc. Communicated by Professor Ewart.
3. On a Theorem relating to the Difference between any two terms
of the Adjugate Determinant. By Thomas Muir, LL.D. P. xx. 323.
4. A new Method for Correcting Courses : — by an Instrument for
the purpose. By Dr George Hay, Pittsburg, Pa. Communicated by
Dr C. G. Knott.
5. Note on the Constitution of Volatile Liquids. By Professor Tait.
6. The Isothermals of Ethylene. By the Same.
Mr R. G. Alford and Mr J. E. Talmage were balloted for, and
declared duly elected Fellows of the Society.
Monday, llth December 1894.
The Hon. Lord M'Laren, Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read:- —
1. Obituary Notice of Donald Beith, Esq., W.S. By Patrick
Murray, Esq., W.S. P. xx. 7.
2. Notes on Germination in Ponds and Rivers. By H. B. Guppy,
Esq., M.B.
3. Experiments on the Hall Effect, and on some related actions in
Bismuth. By J. C. Beattie, Esq. Communicated by Professor Tait.
T. xxxviii.
4. Attraction by Graphic Processes. — Deductions. By George
Romanes, Esq. Communicated by Professor Tait.
1894-95.]
Meetings of the Society.
517
Monday j 1th January 1895.
The Rev. Professor Flint, D.D., Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. On a Case of Yellow-Blue Colour Blindness, and its Bearings on
the Theory of Dichromasy. By W. Pbddie, Esq., D.Sc. Tr. xxxviii.
2. On Metabolism in Thyroid Feeding. By John Douglas, M.B.
P. XX. 330. From the Laboratory of the Royal College of Physicians.
3. Anatomy of Vermiform Process and Csecum. By Richard Berry,
M.B. From the Laboratory of the Royal College of Physicians. Com-
municated by Dr Noel Paton.
4. On the Ultimate’' State of a System of Colliding Particles, and
the Rate of Approach to it. By Professor Tait.
The following Candidates for Fellowship were balloted for, and
declared duly elected Fellows of the Society : —
Albert H. Turton, F.C.S.
, Charles Bright, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., M.I.E.E.
Monday^ 21st January 1895.
Professor Sir William Turner, F.R.S., Vice-President,
in the Chair.
The following Communications were read
Obituary Notices of 1. General Robert Maclagan, R.E., LL.D.,
F.R.A.S. By Major-General R. Murdoch Smith, K.C.M.G., R.E.
P. XX.
2. Alexander Leslie, M. Inst. C.E. By James Brand, Esq. P. xx.
3. William Durham. By Professor C. G. Knott, D.Sc. P. xx.
4. On the Absorption of Carbohydrates from the Intestine. By G.
Lovell Gulland, M.D., and D. Noel Baton, M.D., F.R.C.P.E. P. xx.
347.
5. On the Torsion of the Molluscan Body. By J. D. F. Gilchrist,
B.Sc., Ph.D. Communicated by Professor Ewart, F.R.S. P. xx. 357.
6. On a Curious Property of Determinants. By Professor Tait.
Mr Philip R. D. Maclagan was admitted a Fellow of the
Society.
518
Proceedings of Royal Society of Ediiiburgli. [sess.
Monday^ ith February 1895.
Professor J. G. M'Kendrick, F.P.C.P.E., LL.D., F.E.S.,
Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. Obituary Notice of Dr Sanderson. By Dr Buchan. P. xx.
2. Note on Normal Nystagmus. By Professor Crum Brown, F.K.S.
P. XX. 352.
3. On M. Dubois’ account of Pithecanthropoid Kemains recently
found in Java. By Sir W. Turner, F.B.S. P. xx. 422.
The following Candidates for Fellowship were balloted for, and
declared duly elected Fellows of the Society : —
The Most Hon. The Marquis of Lothian, K.T.
John Macintyre, M.D.
Surgeon-Major Henry Halcro Johnston, D.Sc., M.D.
Monday j February 1895.
The Hon. Lord McLaren, LL.D., Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. A Theorem regarding the Equivalence of Systems of Ordinary
Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients, and its
Application to the Theory of such Systems. By Professor Chrystal,
LL.D. T. xxxviii. 163.
2. Note on Volume-Changes in Iron and Nickel Tubes when
Magnetized. By C. G. Knott, D.Sc., and A. Shand. P. xx. 334.
3. On a Case of Yellow-Blue Blindness. Comparison with the
Case described by v. Vintschgau and Hering. By W. Peddie, D.Sc.
T. xxxviii. I
Surgeon-Major H. H. Johnston was admitted a Fellow of the
Society.
Monday^ ith March 1895,
Sir Douglas Maclagan, M.D., President, in the Chair.
At the request of the Council, Dr Munro gave an address —
“A Sketch of Lake-Dwelling Besearch.” P. xx. 385.
1894-95.]
Meetings of the Society.
519
The following Candidate for Fellowship was balloted for, and
declared duly elected a Fellow of the Society ; —
Thomas Oliver, M.D., F.R.C.P., Professor of Physiology in
the University of Durham.
Mr R. G. Alford was admitted a Fellow of the Society.
Monday, \^th March 1895.
The Rev. Professor Flint, D.D., Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. Note on the action of Sodium Mercaptide on Dibromomalonic
Ether. By Professor Crum Brown, F.R.S., and Robert Fairbairn,
B.Sc. P. XX. 336.
2. The Dorsal Branches of Cranial and Spinal Nerves in Elasnio-
branchs. By J. C. Ewart, F.R.S., and F. J. Cole. P. xx. 475.
3. On Phosphorescent Sandstones. By Dr R. H. Traquair, F.R.S.
4. Note on the Electro-magnetic Wave Surface. By Professor Tait.
Monday, Isf April 1895.
Sir Douglas Maclagan, M.D., President, in the Chair.
A Paper on “ The Glaciation of Two Glens,” by His Grace The Duke
OF Argyll, was read at the request of the Council. T, xxxviii. 193.
The following Candidates for Fellowship were balloted for, and
declared duly elected Fellows of the Society : —
D. Deuchar, F.I.A., F.F.A.
James Napier, M.A.
George Sandeman, M.A.
Wednesday, 17th April 1895.
Professor Sir Douglas Maclagan, M.D., President, in the Chair.
At the request of the Council, Professor W. M. Flinders
Petrie, D.C.L., delivered a Lecture “ On a New Race in Egypt.”
(With Lantern Illustrations.)
Mr David Prain and Mr D. Deuchar were admitted Fellows
of the Society.
520
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgh. [sess.
Monday, Wi May 1895.
Professor Sir William Turner, Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. On Drops. By J. Ballantyne Hanna y. P. xx. 437.
2. Further Note on a Problem of Sylvester’s in Elimination. By
Thomas Muik, LL.D. P. xx. 371.
3. On the Results of some Experiments with Potash Manures. By
R. Patrick Wright, F.H.A.S., West of Scotland Technical College.
Communicated by Dr A. P. Aitken.
4. On the Conditions for a Kink in the Path of a Projectile. By
Professor Tait.
5. Systems of Plane Curves whose Orthogonals form a similar System.
By Professor Tait. P. xx. 497.
Professor Oliver was admitted a Fellow of the Society.
The following Names proposed hy the Council were balloted for,
and these were elected : —
As British Honorary Fellotvs.
Sir J. William Dawson, C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., late Principal of
M‘Gill University, Montreal.
Albert C. L. G. Gunther, Ph.D., F.R.S., Zoological Department in
the British Museum, London.
John Russell Hind, LL.D., F.R.S., Corresponding Member of the
Institute of France.
Sir Charles Todd, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., Government Astronomer,
Adelaide, South Australia.
As Foreign Honorary Fellows.
Ludwig Boltzmann, Professor of Physics in the University of
Vienna.
Gabriel Auguste Daubr:^e, of the Institute of France.
EuEUTHkRE - Elie - Nicolas Mascart, Professor of Physics and
Meteorology, Paris.
Carl Menger, Professor of Political Economy in the University of
Vienna.
Max von Pettenkofer, Professor of Hygiene in the University of
Munich.
Jules Henri Poincar^ of the Institute of France.
1894-95.]
Meetings of the Society.
521
Monday, 20th May 1895.
Professor Copeland, Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. Hygrometric Kesearches at Ben Nevis, Fort William, and Mont-
pellier. By Mr A. J. Herbertson. Communicated by Professor Tait.
T. xxxviii.
2. On the Shapes of Leaves. By Professor D’Arcy Thompson.
Dr Egbert Mackenzie was admitted a Fellow of the Society.
Monday, Zrd June 1895.
The Hon. Lord McLaren, Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. On a Case of Dichromasy : Disc, Spectrum, and Contrast Tests.
By Dr W. Peddie. T. xxxviii.
2. On the Eendering of Animals Immune against the Venom of the
Cobra and other Serpents ; and on the Antidotal Properties of the
Blood-Serum of the Immunized Animals. By Professor Thomas K.
Fraser, F.E.S. P. xx. 448.
The following Candidates for Fellowship were balloted for, and
declared duly elected Fellows of the Society : —
Dr Thomas Savage, Professor of Gynaecology, Mason College,
Birmingham.
David Wilson Barker, Captain-Superintendent Thames Nautical
Training College, H.M.S. “Worcester,” Greenhithe, Kent.
Monday, 11th June 1895.
Professor Chrystal in the Chair.
The following Communications were read : —
1. On the Kelation between the Variation of Kesistance in Bismuth,
in a steady magnetic field, and the Kotatory or Transverse Effect. By
Mr J. C. Beattie. Communicated by Dr C. G. Knott. T. xxxviii.
2. On Torsional Oscillations of Wires. By Dr W. Peddie.
3. On the Marine Fauna of the Great Southern Ocean. By Dr John
Murray. T. xxxviii.
Mr WLlliam Thomson was admitted a Fellow of the Society.
522
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgh. [sess.
Monday^ Isif July 1895.
Professor M^Kendrick, M.D., F.K.S., Vice-President, in
the Chair.
The Chairman announced that the Council had awarded the
Makdougall-Brisbane Prize for the Biennial Period, 1892-94, to Pro-
fessor James Walker, University College, Dundee, for his work
on Physical Chemistry, part of which has been published in the
Proceedings of the Society, Yol. XX. pp. 255-263. In making
this award, the Council took into consideration the work done by
Professor Walker along with Professor Crum Brown on the Electro-
lytic Synthesis of Dibasic Acids, published in the Transactions of
the Society.
The following Communications were read : —
1. Obituary Notice of the late Dr Hugh Cleghorn. By Professor W.
C. MTntosh, F.R.S. P. XX.
2. On the Granular Leucocytes. By G. Lovell Gulland, M.D,
Communicated by Dr Noel Baton.
3. Preliminary Note on the Thermo-electric Properties of hot and
cold, chemically similar, Metals. By W. Peddie, D.Sc., and A. H.
Firth, Esq.
4. On the Secretion of Carbonate of Lime by Marine Organisms
at different Temperatures. By Dr John Murray and Eobert
Irvine, Esq.
Monday^ l^th July 1895.
Sir Douglas Maclagan, M.D., President, in the Chair.
The President presented the Makdougall-Brisbane Prize for the
Biennial Period, 1892-94, to Professor James Walker, University
College, Dundee, for his work on Physical Chemistry.
When the Prize was presented. Professor Crum Brown said —
Successful work of the kind done by Professor Walker requires
not only great experimental skill and a sound knowledge of
Chemistry, but also a comprehensive grasp of the relations of the
physical sciences and familiarity with the mathematical methods
necessary for intelligently discussing the phenomena. These
qualifications Professor Walker possesses, and he has applied
them with great success.
1894-95.]
Meetings of the Society.
523
As examples of his work I may mention his papers on “The
Vapour Pressure of Aqueous Solutions,” “The Affinity Constants
of Weak Bases and of Organic Acids,” “The Hydrolysis of Salts,”
and “The Boiling Points of Homologous Compounds.”
I cannot allow this opportunity to pass without testifying
to Professor Walker’s great ability as an investigator in pure
Chemistry. Besides the investigations which he and I carried on
together, and of which the results were published in the Society’s
Transactions, he has, since he left Edinburgh, published valuable
papers on Camphoric Acid and its Derivatives, which throw much
light on their constitution.
The following Communications were read : —
1. Obituary Notice of the late Thomas Stevenson, M.Inst. C.E. By
the late Professor Swan. P. xx.
2. Specific Gravities and Oceanic Circulation. By Dr Buchan. T.
xxxviii.
3. Further Observations on Antivenene, and on the Production of
Immunity against Serpents’ Venom ; with an Account of the Antidotal
Properties of the Blood-Serum of Venomous Serpents. By Professor
Fraser, M.D., F.E.S. P. xx. 465.
4. Determination of the Co-efficient of Kesistance of Air to a moving
Sphere. By Professor Tait.
5. On the Geometrical Type of the Surfaces of Univalve Shells. By
S, Kimura, Esq. Communicated by Dr Knott.
Burgess, C.I.E.
7. On the Fossil Flora of the Yorkshire Coal Field. (First Paper.)
By Egbert Kidston, Esq. T. xxxviii.
8. On the Behaviour of Various Alloys in a Steady Magnetic Field.
By Mr J. C. Beattie. P. xx.
9. On the Variation of Eesistance in a Steady Magnetic Field observed
in Nickel, Antimony and Tellurium Plates. By the Same. P. xx.
10. Eemarks on the Work of the Eecent Session. By the President.
6. Nine-place Tables
By Dr James
( 524 )
Donations to the Library of the Royal Society from
1893 to 1894.
I. Transactions and Proceedings of Learned Societies,
Academies, &c.
Adelaide. — Philosophical Society. Transactions and Proceedings. Vols.
XVI.-XVIII. 1892-94. 8vo.
University. Calendar for 1894.
American Association for the Advancement of Science. — 41st Meeting
(Rochester, 1891). 42nd (Madison, 1892).
Amsterdam. — Kon. Akademie van Wetenschappen. Verhandelingen.
Afd. Natnnrkunde. 1®*® Sectie. Deel I. 2. 1893-94. 2<^®
Sectie. Deel I., II. No. 1, III. — Afd. Letterkunde. Deel I.
1, 2, 3. 1893-94. — Verslagen en Mededeelingen, Natuurkunde.
3® Rks., Dl. IX. 1893. — Letterkunde. 3® Rks., Dl. 9, 10.
1893-94. — Jaarboek, 1892-93. — Poemata Latina.
Wiskundig Genootschap. Nienw Archief voor Wiskunde. 2®
Reeks, Deel I. 1. Opgaven VI. 1-4. — Revue Semestrielle des
Publications Mathematiques. Tom. 1, 2, 3.
Flora Batava. 301-308 Afleveringen. {From the Dutch Govern-
ment.)
Australia. — Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science.
Reports, 4th and 5th Meetings, 1892-93,
Baltimore. — Johns Hopkins University. American Journal of Mathe-
matics. Vols. XV., XVI. 1893-94. — American Chemical
Journal. Vols. XV., XVI. 1893-94. — American Journal of
Philology. Vols. XIII., XIV., XV. 1. 1893-94.— Studies
from the Biological Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity. Vol. V. 2-4. 1894. 8 VO. — University Studies in
Historical and Political Science. 11th and 12th Series. —
University Circulars. 1893-94.
Johns Hopkins Hospital. Bulletin, Nos. 32-45. Reports, Vols.
3 and 4.
Basel. — Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Verhandlungen. Bd. X. 1893-94.
8 VO.
Batavia. — Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory. Observations.
Vols. XIV, XV. 1891-92. — Regenwaarnemingen in Neder-
landsch Indie. 13 and 14® Jaarg. 1891-92. 8vo.
Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen. Ver-
handelingen. XLVIII. 1. 8vo. — Tijdschrift voor Indische
Taal-Land-en Volkenkunde. Deel XXXVII., XXXVIII. 1, 2.
8vo.— Notulen, Deel XXXI., XXXII. 1, 2. 1893-94.
Kon. Natuurkundig Vereeniging. Natuurkundig Tijdschrift voor
Nederlandsch Indie. Dl. 52, 53. 1893-94. 8vo.
s. 1893-94.] Donations to the Library.
525
Belfast. — Natural History and Philosophical Society. Proceedings, 1891-
92. 1893-94.
Bergen. — Museum. Aarsberetning. 1892-93. 8vo. — On the Develop-
ment and Structure of the Whale. Part I. By G. Guldberg
and Fr. Nansen. 1894. 4to.
Berlin. — K. Akademie der Wissenschaften. Abhandlungen, 1892-93. —
Sitzungsberichte. 1893-94.
Physikalische Gesellschaft. Fortschritte der Physik im Jahre 1887-
88. 1^® Abtheil. — Allgemeine Physik, Akustik. 2*® Abtheih
— Optik, Warmelehre, Elektricitiitslehre. 3® Abtheil. — Physik
der Erde. Berlin. 8vo.
Deutsche Meteorologische Gesellschaft. Zeitschrift. 1893-94.
8 VO.
Preussisches Meteorologisches Institut. Ergebnisse der Meteoro-
logischen Beobachtungen im Jahre 1893. 4to. — Ergebnisse
der Niederschlags-Beobachtungen im Jahre 1891, 1892. 4to.—
Ergebnisse der Beobachtungen an den Stationen II. und III.
Ordnung im 1894. 4to. — Berichte, 1891-93.
Deutsche Geologische Gesellschaft. Zeitschrift. Bde. I.-XVI.,
XXIV.-XLVI. 8vo.
Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt. Wissenschaftliche Abhand-
lungen. Bd. I. Thermometrische Arbeiten von Prof. Dr J.
Pernet. 1894. 4to.
Vorschlage zu gesetzlichen Bestimmungen iiber elektrische
Maalseinheitungen. Nebst kritischem Bericht uber den
Wahrscheinlichen Werth des Ohm nach den bisherigen Mes-
sungen verfasst von Dr E. Dohrn. 1893. 8vo.
Das Gesetz von der Erhaltung der Energie und seine Bedeutung
fiir die Technik, von. A. Slaby. 1895. 4to.
Bern. — Beitrage zur geologischen Karte der Schweiz. Lief. XVIII. 1®*^
Suppt. 1893. XXIV. 3*® Abtheil. 1894. XXXII. 1894.
4to. (From the Commission Fe'derale Ge'ologique.)
Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Mittheilungen. Nos. 1279-1334.
1892-93. 8vo.
Berwickshire. — Naturalists' Club. Proceedings. Vols. XIII. 2, XIV. 1.
1891-92. 8vo.
Birmingham. — Philosophical Society. Proceedings. Vol. VIII. 1893-94.
8 VO.
Bologna. — Accademia d. Scienze delV Istituto di Bologna.
Memorie. Ser. V., Tom. II., III. 1891-92.
Bombay. — Government Observatory. Magnetical and Meteorological Ob-
servations for 1891-92. Bombay. 4to.
Natural History Society. Journal. Vols. VII. 3, 4, VIII., IX.
1, 2. 1893-94.
Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Journal. Vol.
XVIII. 1891-94.
Bonn. — Naturhistorischer Verein der Preussischen Rheinlande und West-
falens. Verhandlungen. 1893-94. 8vo.
526 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgh. [sess.
Bordeaux. — Socie'te' des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles. Memoires. 4^
Ser., Tom. II., III., IV., et App. 1892-94.
Societd de Gteografhie Gommerciale. Bulletin. 1892-94. 8vo.
Boston. — Boston Society of Natural History. Proceedings. Yols. XXV.
3, 4, XXVI. 1, 2. 1892-94. 8vo. — Occasional Papers. No.
4. — Geology of the Boston Basin. Vol. I. Parts 1 and 2, and
Maps. 1894. 8vo.
American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Memoirs. Vol. XII.
No. 1, 1893.— Proceedings. Vols. XXVII.-XXIX. 1891-94.
Brera. — See Milan.
British Association for the Advancement of Science. — Report of the Meet-
ing at Edinhurgh, 1892 ; Nottingham, 1893 ; Oxford, 1894.
Brunswick. — Verein fur Naturwissenschaft. J ahresherichte. 1 889-9 1 .
Brussels. — Academie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres, et des Beaux-Arts de
Belgique. Memoires. XLVIII., XLIX. 1892-93. — Memoires
Couronnes. XLVI. 1892. — Memoires Couronnes et Memoires
des Savants Strangers. T. 50-52. 1890-93. — Bulletin, 1893-
94. 8 VO. — Annuaire, Annees, 1894-95. 8vo.
Socie'te' Scientifique. Annales. Annees, 1891-92, 1892-93. 8vo.
Bucharest. — Academia Eomana. Analele. Tom. XII., XIV., XV.
1889-93. — Also Documents relating to the History of Rou-
mania. 1892-94.
Institut Mete'orologique. Annales, Tom. VI., VII., VIII. 1890-92.
4to.
Buda-Pesth. — Hungarian Academy of Sciences. Almanac, 1893. —
Memoirs (Math, and Nat. Sciences), XXV. 1-3 ; (Philology),
XXIII. 1, 2 ; and Bulletin, 1890, (Math, and Nat. Sciences), X.,
XI. 1-5. — Reports (Philology), XVI. 1-3 ; (Historical), XVI. ;
(Political Sciences), XI. 5, 6 ; (Natural Sciences), XXII., XXIII.
1, 2 ; (Mathematical), XV. 2, 3. — Mathematische und naturwis-
senschaftliche Berichte aus Ungarn. Bd. X. 1, 2. 1891-2. —
Ungarische Revue, 1893, 1-5. — And other Publications of the
Hungarian Academy, or published under its auspices.
Buenos-Aires. — Oficina Meteorologica Argentina. Anales. Tom. IX.
1893-4.
Calcutta. — Asiatic Society of Bengal. Proceedings. 1893-94. 8vo. —
Journal (Philology, Natural History and Anthropology).
Vols. LXII., LXIII. 1893-94. 8vo.
Indian Museum. Catalogue of Coins, by Chas. J. Rodgers.
1894. 8vo.
Royal Botanic Gardens. Annals, Vol. IV. Fob 1893.
See also Indian Government.
California. — Academy of Sciences. Proceedings. 2nd Ser. Vol. III.
Pt. 2. 1893. — Occasional Papers. Nos. 3 and 4. 8vo.
University of California. Bulletins and Biennial Reports. 1893-
94. — Reports of Agricultural College. 1893-94. — Bulletin
of the Geological Department. Vol. I. No. 34. — And Miscel-
laneous Pamphlets.
527
1893-94.] Donations to the Library,
California. — Lick Observatory. Publications, Vols. II. and III. 1894.
4to. — Terrestrial Atmospheric Absorption of the Photographic
Kays of Light, by J. M. Schseberle. Sacramento, 1893. 8vo.
State Mining Bureau. Annual Reports, 11th. 1892.
Cambridge. — Philosophical Society. Transactions. Yol. XV. 4. 1894.
4to. — Proceedings. VIII. 1-3. 8vo.
Cambridge (U.S.). — Harvard College. Museum of Comparative Zoology
at Harvard College, Annual Reports. 1892-93, 1893-94. —
Bulletin. Vcls. XXIII.-XXV. 1893-94. 8vo. — Memoirs.
Vol. XIV. Nos. 2, 3. 1892-93. 4to. — Vol. XVII. No. 3. 1894.
4to.
Bulletins. Vol. VII. 1893-94.
Astronomical Observatory. Annals. Vols. XXXI. Pts. 1 and 2,
XXXV., XL. 1-3, XLI. 1, 2. 1893-94. — Annual Reports.
1893-94.
Canada. — The Royal Society of Canada. Proceedings and Transactions.
Vols. X., XI. 1893-94. 4to.
Geological Survey of Canada. Annual Reports (N.S.). Vol. V.
1893. 8 VO. — Contributions to Canadian Palaeontology. Pt.
IV. 1892. 8vo. — Catalogue of the Minerals. 8vo. 1893. —
Catalogue of a Stratigraphical Collection of Canadian Rocks.
1893. 8 VO.
Canadian Society of Civil Engineers. Transactions. Vols. VII.,
VIII. 1. 1893-94.
Cape of Good Hope. — Royal Astronomical Observatory. Annals. Vol. I.
Pts. 2-4. — Reports. 1879-1893. 4to. — Heliometer Observa-
tions for Determination of Stellar Parallax, by Dr David
Gill. 1893. 8vo.
Gassel. — Verein fur Naturkunde. Bericht, XXXIX. 1892-94.
Catania. — Accademia Gioenia di Scienze Naturali. Atti. Ser. 4% Tom.
V. , VI., VII. 1892-94. 4to. — Bolletino Mensile. Fas. 30-38.
1893-94.
Chapel Hill, North Carolina. — E. Mitchell Scientific Society. Journal,
1893.
Christiania — Den Norske Nordhavs-Expedition. Zoologi. XXII. Ophiu-
roidea, by Jas. A. Grieg. 4to.
Videnskabs-Selskab. Forhandlinger, 1892-93.
University. Archiv for Mathematik og Naturvidenskab. Bd.
XVI. 1. 1893.
Beskrivelse af en Raeke Norske Bergarter, af Dr Th. Kjerulf.
1892. 4to.
Nyt Magazin. XXXIII. 1892-93.
Norwegische Meteorologische Institut. Jahrbuch, 1891.
Norwegische Commission der Europaischen Gradmessung.
Resultate der Pendelbeobachtungen von. 0. E. Schiitz. 8vo.
1894.
Cincinnati. — Society of Natural History. Journal. Vols. XVI., XVII.
1-3. 1893-94.
528 Proceedings of Boyal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
Connecticut. — Connecticut Academy. Transactions. VIII. 2, IX. 1. 1893.
Copenhagen. — Academie Royale de Copenhague. Memoires. Classe des
Sciences. 6® Serie. Vol. VII. 6-9. 1893-94. — Oversigt. 1893-
94. 8vo. — E Museo Lundii. En Samling af Afhandlingar.
Bd. 2, 1. 1892. 4to.
Naturhistorish Forening. Videnskabelige Meddelelser. 1892-93.
Danske Biologiske Station. I)et Videnskabelige Udbytte af
Kanonbaaden “ Hanchs ” Togter. Pt. V. 1893. 4to. — Beret-
ning, III., IV. 1892-94.
Cordoba {Republica Argentina). — Academia Nacional de Ciencias de la
Repuhlica Argentina. Boletin. Tom. XII., XIII., XIV. 1.
1890-94.
Ohservatorio Nacional Argentino. Eesnltados. Tomo XVI.
Durclimusterung Catalogue. Pt. I. 22° to 32°. 4to.
Cornwall. — Royal Institution. Journal. Vol. XI. Pt. 2. 1893.
Royal Geological Society. Transactions. Vol. XI. 5-9.
Cracow. — Academie des Sciences. Bulletin. 1893-94. — Together with
the Academy’s Publications on Mathematics, Philology, History,
&c., for 1893-94.
Dantzic. — Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Schriften. Bd. VIII. 3, 4. 1892-
94.
Davenport. — Academy of Natural Sciences. Proceedings. Vol. V. Xo. 2.
Delft. — Ecole Poly technique. Annales. Tome VIII. 1, 2. 1894. 4to.
Denison University {Granville, Ohio). — Bulletin of the Scientific
Laboratories. Vol. VII. 1892.
Dijon. — Academie des Sciences. Memoires. 4^^“® Serie. Tomes III., IV.
1892- 94.
Dorpat. — University. Inaugural Dissertations. 1892. — Meteorologische
Beobachtungen. 1892. 8vo.
Dublin. — Royal Irish Academy. Proceedings. Series III., Vol. II. 4, 5,
III. 1-3. 1893-94. — Transactions. Vols. XXIX., XXX. 5-14.
1893- 94. — “Cunningham Memoirs.” No. 10. 1894. 4to. —
Todd Lectures. Vols. I. Pt. 1, II. Pt. 2, V. 1889-94. 8vo.
Royal Dublin Society. Scientific Proceedings. (New Series.)
Vols. VII. 5, VIII. 1. 1893. 8vo. — Scientific Transactions.
Vols. IV. 14, V. 1-4. 1894. 4to.
Edinburgh. — Royal Scottish Society of Arts. Transactions. Vol. XIII. 3,
4. 1894. 8vo.
Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. Transactions. 5th
Series. Vols. V., VI. 1893-94.
Botanical Society. Transactions and Proceedings. Vol. XIX. pp.
233 to end of Vol. ; Vol. XX. Pt. 1. 1894. 8vo.
Mathematical Society. Proceedings. Vols. I., X.-XII. 1892-94.
8vo.
Royal Scottish Geographical Society. Scottish Geographical Maga-
zine. Vols. IX., X. 1893-94. 8vo.
Geological Society. Transactions. Vols. VI. 4, 5, VII. I. 1893-
94. 8vo.
529
1893-94.] Donations to the Library.
EcUnhurgh. — Scottish Meteorological Society. Journal. Vols. IX., X.
1891-92. 8vo.
Royal Observatory. Edinburgli Circulars. Nos. 41-43. 1893-94.
Royal Physical Society. Proceedings. Session 1893-94. 8vo.
Royal College of Physicians. Laboratory Keports. Vol. V.
1894.
Monthly and Quarterly Keturns of the Births, Deaths, and
Marriages registered in Scotland. 1893-94. {From the Registrar-
General.)
East of Scotland Engineering Association. Proceedings. Vol. I.
1891- 92.
Ekatherinehourg. — Socie'te' Ouralienne Amateurs des Sciences Naturelles.
Bulletin. Tomes XIII., XIV. 1893-94.
Erlangen University. — Inaugural Dissertations. 1891-93.
Physicalisch-Medicalische Societdt. Sitzungsberichte. 1893.
Essex Field Club. — The Journal of (The Essex Naturalist). Vol. VII.
1893-94. 8vo.
Essex Institute ( U.S.). — See Salem.
Frankfurt-a-M. — Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Abhand-
lungen. Bd. XVIII. 1-3. 1893-94. 4to. — Berichte. 1893-
94. 8vo.
Frankfurt-am-Oder. — Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein. Societatum Litterae.
1893-94.— Helios, Bd. XI., XII. 1893-94.
Geneva. — Socide' de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle. Memoires. Tome
XXXI. 2. 1892-93. 4to.
Genoa. — Museo Givico di Storia Naturale. Annali. Vol. XIII. 1893.
Giessen. — University Inaugural Dissertations. 1892-93.
Glasgow. — Philosophical Society. Proceedings. Vols. XXIV., XXV.
1892- 94. 8vo.
Gottingen. — K. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften. Abhandlungen. Bd.
XXXIX. 1893. 4to. — Nachrichten. 1892-94. 8vo. — Gelehrte
Anzeigen. 1893-94.
Graz. — Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein fur Steiermark. Mittheilungen.
Jahrg. 1891-93. 8vo.
Greenwich Royal Observatory. — Spectroscopic and Photographic Eesults,
1890-91. 4to.
Astronomical, Magnetical, and Meteorological Observations.
1890-91. 4to.
Groningen. — University. Jaarboek. 1877-V8 to 1893-94. 8vo.
Haarlem. — Hollandsche Maatscha'ppij der TVetenschappen. Archives
Neerlandaises des Sciences Exactes et Naturelles. Tomes
XXVI. 4, 5, XXVII., XXVIII. 1893-94. 8vo.
Oeuvres Completes de Christian Huygens. Vol. V. 1893.
Muse'e Teyler. Archives. Serie II., Vol. IV. 1, 2. 1893-94.
Teyleds Tweede Genootschap. Verhandelingen. Deel III. 3®Stuk.
1894. — Atlas Ned. Penningen. Stuk 3-5. Fol. 1893-94.
Teyler' s Godgeleerd Genootschap. Verhandelingen. Deel 13, 14.
1893- 94.
2 L
VOL. XX.
530 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
Halifax (N.8.). — Nova Scotian Institute of Science. Proceedings and
Transactions. 2nd Ser., VoL I. 2, 3. 1894. 8vo.
Halle. — K. Leopold- Car olinisch-Deutsche Ahademie der Naturforscher.
Nova Acta (Verhandlnngen). Tom. 57-60. 1893-94. 4to.
Leopoldina. Heft 28, 29. 1892-93. 4to.
Verein fiir Erdkunde. Mittlieilungen. 1893-94. 8vo.
Hamburg. — Verein fur Naturwissenschaftliche Unterhaltung. Verhand-
liingen. Bd. VII., YIII. 1886-93. 8vo.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein. Abhandlungen ans dem Gebiete
der Naturwissenschaften. Bd. XII. 3® Folge, Bd. 1. 1893.
Helsingfors. — Finska Vetenskaps-Societeten. Acta Societatis Scientiarum
Fennicae. Tom. XIX. 1894.
Ofversigt. Bd. XXXV. 1892-93. 8vo. — Bidrag til Kannedom
af Finlands Natur och Folk. Haft 52, 53. 1893. 8vo.
Institut Me'te'orologique Central. Observations Meteorologiques
faites en Finlande, 1881-2 a 1887-8. Observations Meteoro-
logiques faites a Helsingfors. Vols. III.-XI. (in 5 Vols.).
4to.
Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica. Acta. VIII. 1890-93. —
Meddelanden. Hft. 17, 18. 1890-92.
Societe' de Ge'ographie de Finlande. Fennia. VI.-IX., XI.
1892-94.
Hongkong Observatory. — Observations and Kesearches during 1891-92.
Fob
Indian Government, Calcutta. — Geological Survey of India. Kecords.
Vols. XXVI., XXVII. 1893-94. — Palseontologica Indica.
Series IX. Jurassic Fauna of Cutcb. Vol. I. Pt. 1. Echi-
noidea, by J. W. Gregory. 1893. 4to. — A Manual of the
Geology of India. 2nd Ed. By R. D. Oldham. 1893. 8vo.
Scientific Memoirs, by Medical Officers of the Army of India.
Pt. 8. 1894.
Trigonometrical Survey. Vol. XV. 1893. 4to.
Archceological Survey of India. Epigraphia Indica. Pts. 12-16.
(N.S.). Vol. III. Pts. 1-5. 1893-94. 4to.
New Imperial Series. Vols. XV., XVII. 1894. 4to.
South Indian’ Inscriptions, Tamil. Vol. II. Pt. 2. 1892. 4to.
The Bower Manuscript. Edited by A. F. Rud. Hoerne. Pt. 1,
Pt. 2, fasc. 1. 1893-94. 4to.
Annual Progress Report of the Archaeological Survey Circle in
the North-West Provinces and Oudh. By A. Fuhrer. 1891.
4to.
Botanical Survey of India. Records. Vol. I. Nos. 1-4. 1894.
8vo.
Discovery of the Exact Site of Asoka’s Classic Capital of Patali-
putra, the Palibothra of the Greeks. By L. A. Waddell. 1892.
4to.
lowa.—Geological Survey. Vol. I. : First Annual Report, 1894. Vol.
II. : Coal Deposits of Iowa. 8vo.
531
1893-94.] Donations to the Library.
Japan. — Seismological Society. Seismological Journal. Vols. II., III.
1893-94.
College of Science of the University of Tokio. Journal. Vols. VI.,
Vil., VIII. 1. 1893-94.
Medicinische FaculUit der Kaiserlich-Japanischen Universitdt.
Mittheilungen. Bd. II. 1. 1893. 8vo.
Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Natur- und Volkerkunde Ostasiens zu
Yokohama. Mittheilungen. Hft. 51-54, and Suppt. 1893-94.
Asiatic Society. Transactions. Vols. XXI., XXII. 1, 2. 1893-
94. 8 VO.
Jamaica. — Institute of Jamaica. Journal. Vols. I. 6-8, II. 1. 1893-94.
Jena. — Medicinish-Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft. Jenaisclie Zeit-
schrift fiir Natur wissenschaft. Bd. XXVIII., XXIX. 1. 1893-
94. — Denkschriften. Bd. IV., V., VIII. 1893-94. 4to.
Kasan. — Societe' Physico-Mathe'matique de Kasan. Bulletin. Tom.
III., IV. 1, 2. 1893-94.
Imperial University. Uchenuiya Zapiski. 1893-94.
Ohservatoire Magne'tigue et Mete'orologique. Observations. 1894.
8vo.
Kew Observatory. — Eeports. 1883-92. — History of the Kew Observatory,
by E. H. Scott. 8vo.
Kiel. — Universitdt. Inaugural University Dissertations. 1892-93.
Commission zur Wissenschaftlichen Untersuchung der Deutschen
Meere. Wissenschaftliche Meeresuntersuchungen. Bd. I.
Heft 1. 1894. 4to. — Ergebnisse der Beobachtungsstationen.
1892- 93. 4to.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein. Schriften. Bd. IX., X. Heft 1.
1893.
Kiev University. — Universitetskiya Isvyaistiya. 1893-94.
Lausanne. — Socie'td Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles. Bulletin. 3® Serie.
XXIX., XXX. 1893-94. 8vo.
Leeds. — Philosophical and Literary Society. Eeports. 1892-93. 8vo.
Leipzig. — Kdnigl. Sdchsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften. Berichte.
Math. Phys. Classe. 1893-94. — Philologisch-HistorischeClasse.
1893- 94. 8 VO.
Abhandlungen der Math. -Phys. Classe. Bd. XIX., XX., XXI.
1-3. 1893-94.— Phil. Hist. Classe. Bd. XIV., XV. 1. 1893-
94. 8vo.
Leyden. — Nederlandsche Dierkundige Vereeniging. Tijdschrift. Deel IV.
1-4. 1893-94.
Lille. — Socidd 'Ge'ologique du Nord. Annales. XX., XXI. 1893. 8vo.
Universite de France. Travaux et Memoires des Facultes de
Lille. Tome II. 7-9. 1892.
Liverpool. — Biological Society. Proceedings and Transactions. Vols.
VII., VIII. 1892-94.
Observatory. Meteorological Eesults as deduced from Observa-
tions taken during 1889-91 and 1892-93. 8vo. {From the
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London. — Society of Antiquaries. Proceedings. Vols. XIV. 3, 4, XV.
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Archseologia ; or Miscellaneous Tracts relating to Antiquity.
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Anthropological Institute. Journal. Vols. XXII., XXIII., XXIV.
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Nautical Almanac and Astronomical Ephemeris for the Years
1897, 1898. {From the Lords of the Admiralty.)
Challenger Expedition. Summary of Scientific Kesults. 2 vols.
1895. 4to. {From the Government.)
Royal Astronomical Society. Monthly Notices. Vols. LIII., LIV.
1893-94. 8vo.
Chemical Society. Journal and Abstracts of Proceedings. 1893-
94. 8vo.
Society of Chemical Industry. Journal. 1893-94.
Clinical Society. Transactions. Vol. XXV. Suppt. Report on In-
cubation and Contagion. Vols. XXVI., XXVII. 1893-94. 8vo.
International Maritime Congress. Minutes of Proceedings. 5
Parts. 1893. 8vo.
Institution of Civil Engineers. Minutes of Proceedings. Vols.
CXI.-CXVIII. 1893-94. 8vo.— Index. Vols. LIX.-CXIV.
Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Proceedings. 1893-94.
8vo.
Royal Geographical Society. Geographical Journal. Vols. III., IV.
1893-94.
Geological Society. Quarterly Journal. Vols. XLIX., L. 1893-
94. — Abstracts. 1893-94.
Geologists^ Association. Proceedings. Vol. XIII. 1893-94.
Horticultural Society. Journal. Vols. XVI., XVII. 1, 2. 1893-94.
Imperial Institute. Year-Book. 1894.
Institute of Brewing. Transactions. Vols. VI., VII. 1893-94.
East Indian Association. Journal. Vol. XXV. 1893. 8vo.
Linnean Society. Journal. Zoology. Vols. XXIV., XXV.
1893-94.— Botany. Vols. XXIX., XXX. 1893-94. 8vo.
Transactions. Second Series. Botany. Vol. III. 8-11, IV. 1.
1893-94.— Zoology. Vol. V. 8-11, VI. 1, 2. 1893-94. 4to.
Proceedings. 1890-93. 8vo.
Royal Society of Literature. Transactions. XV., XVI. 1, 2.
8vo. 1894.
Mathematical Society. Proceedings. Vols. XXIII., XXIV., XXV.
Nos. 450-499. 1893-94. 8vo.
Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society. Transactions. Vols.
LXXV.-LXXVII. 1892-94. 8vo.
Royal Meteorological Society. The Meteorological Record :
Monthly Returns of Observations made at the Stations of the
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London. — Quarterly Journal. Vols. XVIII.-XX. Nos. 85-92. 1893-94.
Meteorological Office. Eeport of the Meteorological Council to the
Royal Society. Report for Year ending 31st March
1892. 1893. 8vo.
Hourly Readings. 1890. 4to.
Weekly Weather Reports. Vols. X., XI. 1893-94. 4to.
Meteorological Observations at Stations of Second Order.
1888-90. 4to.
Report of the International Meteorological Congress at
Munich, August 26th to September 2nd, 1891. 1893. 8vo.
Royal Microscopical Society. Journal. New Series. 1893-94.
8vo.
Mineralogical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Mineralogical
Magazine and Journal. Nos. 46-48. 1893-94. 8vo.
British Museum. Catalogue of Birds. Vols. XXI.-XXIII.
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8 VO. — Illustrations of Lepidoptera Heterocera. IX. 1893. 4to.
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Madreporarian Corals. Vol. I. 1893. 4to. — Catalogue of
English Coins, Anglo-Saxon Series. Vol. II. 1893. 8vo. —
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Pathological Society. Transactions. Vols. XLIV., XLV. 1893-
94. 8vo.
Pharmaceutical Society. Journal. 1893-94.
Royal Society. Philosophical Transactions. Vols. CLXXXIV.,
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1893- 94. 8 VO.
Catalogue of Scientific Papers (1874-1883). Vol. X. Gis-Pet.
1894. 4to.
Royal Institution. Proceedings. Vols. XIII. 3, XIV. I. 1893-
94. 8vo.
Statistical Society. Journal. Vols. LVI., LVII. 1893-94. 8vo.
Zoological Society. Transactions. Vols. XIII., Nos. 6-9. 1893-94.
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matiche, Memorie. Serie II. Vol. V., VI. 1893-94. 4to.
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Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. Comptes Eendus,
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Association Frangaise pour VAvancement des Sciences. Compte
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Bureau international des Poids et Mesures. Travaux et Memoires,
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Societe de Ge'ographie. Bulletins, XIII. 1893. XIV. 1894. —
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la Russie. Livr. 4-12. 4to.
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Cap Thordsen, Spitzberg. Tom. I., II. 1887-93. 4to. —
Observations dn Magnetisme Terrestre faites a Upsala, en 1882-
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Geoddtische Commission. Die Schweizerische Dreiecknetz. Bd.
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the Broken Hill Lode and Barrier Ranges Mineral Fields.
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Venice. — B. Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti. Atti. Ser. VII.,
Tom. III. 4-10, IV., V. 1-3. 1893-94. 8vo.
Victoria. — Royal Society of Victoria. Proceedings. N.S. Vols. IV. 2,
V, VI. 1893-94.
Victorian Patents and Patentees. XXIII. 1888. 4to. {From
the Government.)
Vienna. — Kais. Akademie der Wissenschaften. Denkschriften. Math.-
Naturwissenschaftliche Classe. Bde. LIX., LX. 1892-93. —
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94. 4to. — Sitzungsberichte der Math.-Naturwissenschaftlichenen
Classe. Bde. CII., CIII. 1893-94. — Philosoph.-Historische
Classe. Bde. CXXVII.-CXXX. 1893-94. 8vo. — Almanack.
1892-93. 8vo. — Mittheilungen der Prahistorischen Commis-
sion. Bd. I. No. 3. 1893.
K. K. Central- Anstalt fur Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus.
Jahrbticher, Neue Folge ; fur 1891, 1892. 4to.
K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt. Verhandlungen. 1893-94.
Abhandlungen. Bd. VI. 2. 1893. XV. 3-6. 1893. XVII. 3.
1894. 4to.
Jahrbiicher. Bde. XLII., XLIII. 1892-93. 8vo.
K. K. Naturhistorisches-Hof museum. Annalen. Bde. VI., VII.
3, 4, VIII. 1893-94.
Zoologisches Institut. Arbeiten. Tom. X. 3. 1893.
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1893-94.]
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Statistics. 1892-94. 4to.
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ceedings. XVI., XVII. 1893-94. — Reports, 1892.
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13th. 1889-92. 4to.— Monographs. Vols. XVII.-XXII.
1891-93. 4to.
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Region. Contributions to North American Ethnology. Vol.
VII. 1890. 4to.
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letins. Vol. II. Nos. 26-30. 1894.
United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries. Report. 1888,
1889-91. — Bulletin. X.-XII. 1890-92. 8vo.
Smithsonian Institution. Miscellaneous Collections. Vols. XXXV.
(Guyot’s Meteorological Tables) ; XXXVI. (Bibliography of
Chemistry). 1893. 8vo. — Contributions to Knowledge. Vol.
XXVII. S. P. Langley. — Experiments in Aerodynamics. The
Internal Work of the Wind. Vol. XXIX. 1891-93. 4to. —
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Mammalogy.) Bulletins. Nos. 2, 3, 4. 1893. — North American
Fauna. No. 7. 1893. 8vo.
542
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Wellington. — New Zealand Institute. Transactions and Proceedings.
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Keport. 1891-92. — Manual of New Zealand Coleoptera, by
Capt. Thomas Broun. Pts. V., VI., VII. 1893. 8vo.
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4to. — The New Zealand Official Handbook. 1893-94. 8vo.
Wisconsin. — Academy of Sciences. Transactions. Vol. IX. 1, 2. 1892-93.
8vo.
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Circle Observations, 1887-92.)
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Zurich. — Schweizerische Meteorologische Central- Anstalt. Annalen fiir
1891, 1892. 4to.
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1893-94. 8vo. — Neujahrsblatt. Nos. 96, 97. 4to.
II. Donations from Authors.
Amagat (M. E. H.). Recherches sur Telasticite des Solides et la compres-
sibilite du Mercure. Paris, 1891. 8vo.
Memoires sur I’Elasticite et la Dilatabilite des Fluides jusqu’aux
tries hautes Pressions. Paris, 1893. 8vo.
Arnoux (Gabriel). Arithmetique Graphique. Les Espaces Arithmetiques
Hypermagiques. Paris, 1894. 8vo.
Baxendell (Joseph). Borough of Southport. Meteorological Observa-
tions, 1892. Southport. 18mo.
Bergbohm (Dr Julius). Entwurf einer neuen Integralrechnung auf Grund
der Potenzial-Logarithmal-und Nunieralrechnung. 2*® Heft. Leip-
zig, 1893. 8vo.
Bickerton (A. W.). A New Story of the Stars, I. Christchurch, N.Z.,
1894. 12mo.
Bort (Leon Teisserenc de). Report on the Present State of our Knowledge
Respecting the General Circulation of the Atmosphere. London,
1893. 4to.
Bramwell (Byrom), M.D., &c. Atlas of Clinical Medicine. Vols. I., II.,
III., Pt. 1. Edinburgh, 1892-94. Fob
Brioschi (Francesco). Notizie sulla Vita e sulle Opere di Arturo Cayley.
Roma, 1895. 4to.
Buchanan (J. Y.). Sur la densite et I’alcalinite des eaux de I’Atlantique
et de la Mediterrannee. Paris, 1894. 4to.
Burgess (James), C.E., LL.D. Notes on Hindu Astronomy and the History
of our Knowledge of it. (Ex. Jour.B. As. Soc.) Hertford, 1893. 8vo.
Cappie (James), M.D. The Intra-Cranial Circulation and its Relation
to the Physiology of the Brain. Edin., 1890. 8vo.
1893-94.]
Donations to the Library.
543
Cayley (Arthur), Sc.D., F.E.S. Collected Mathematical Papers. Vols.
VI., VII. Cambridge, 1893-94. 4to.
Cobb (N. A.). Plant Diseases and their Kemedies. Diseases of the Sugar-
Cane. Sydney, 1893. 8vo.
Collins (F. Howard). Twelve Charts of the Tidal Streams on the West
Coast of Scotland. London, 1894. 4to.
Cyclopaedia (The), or Universal Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Liter-
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London, 1819. 4to. {Presented by Mrs Thomas Stevenson.)
Evans (William), F.K.S.E. The Mammalian Fauna of the Edinburgh
District. Edin., 1892. 8vo.
Flint (Prof. Eobert). History of the Philosophy of History. Historical
Philosophy in France and French Belgium and Switzerland. Edin-
burgh and London, 1893. 8vo.
Fritsche (H.). Ueber die Bestimmung der geographischen Lange und
Breite und der drei Elemente des Erdmagnetismus durch Beobach-
tung zu Lande sowie erdmagnetische und geographische Messungen
an mehr als 1000 verschiedenen Orten. St Petersbourg, 1893. 8vo.
(Dr H.). Die magnetischen Localabw^eichungen bei Moskau
und ihre Beziehungen zur dortigen Local- Attraction. Moskau, 1893.
8vo.
Galileo. Le Opere di Galileo Galilei. Edizione Nazionale sotto gli
auspicii di sua Maesta il Ee dTtalia. Vols. III., IV. Firenze,
1892-94. 4to. {From the Minister of Public Instruction of Italy.)
Gibson (George Alex.), M.D., &c. Cheyne-Stokes Eespiration. Edin.,
1892. 8vo.
Guppy (H. B.), M.B. Eiver Temperature. Pt. 1. Its daily changes
and method of observation. (Ex. B. Phys. Soc. Proc., VII.) Edin.,
1894. 8vo.
Haeckel (Prof. Ernst). Zur Phylogenie der Australischen Fauna. Jena,
1893. 4to.
Systematische Phylogenie der Protisten und Pflanzen. ler
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Hale (George E.). The Solar Faculse. London, 1894. 8vo.
Hehir (Surgeon-Captain Patrick). Memorandum on the Opium Ques-
tion. Evidence forwarded to the Eoyal Opium Commission.
Hyderabad-Deccan, 1894. Fol.
Horne (John Fletcher), M.D., &c. Trephining in its Ancient and
Modern Aspect. London, 1894. 8vo.
Hume (Wm. Fraser). Chemical and Micro- Mineralogical Eesearches on
the Upper Cretaceous Zones of the South of England. London,
1893. 8 VO.
Jackson (James). Tableau de di verses Vitesses exprimees en Metres
par seconde. 1893. 8vo.
Johnston (Surgeon-Major H. H.). The Eelative EflS.ciency of certain
Filters for removing Micro-Organisms from Water, with special
reference to the Nordtmeyer-Berk field and Pasteur-Chamberland
Filters. (Thesis.) Edinburgh, 1894. 8vo.
544
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh. [sess.
Johnston (Surgeon-Major H. H.). Eeport on the Eelation between
Malarial Fever among Her Majesty’s White Troops at Port Louis,
Mauritius, and the Meteorological Elements of Temperature, Eain-
fall and Eelative Humidity for the year 1889. Edinburgh, 1894. 8vo.
Kantor (S.). Premiers Fundaments pour une Theorie des Transforma-
tions P^riodiques univoques. Napoli, 1891. 4to.
Kelvin (Lord). Popular Lectures and Addresses. Vols. 1 (2nd ed.), 2,
and 3. London, 1891-94. 8vo.
— — — Mathematical and Physical Papers. Vol. III.: Elasticity, Heat,
Electro-Magnetism. London, 1890. 8vo.
Latif (Syad Muhammad). History of Panjab from the remotest Anti-
quity to the Present Time. Calcutta, 1891. 4to.
M^Aldowie (Alex. M.), M.D., &c. The Birds of Staffordshire. Stoke-
upon-Trent, 1893. 8vo.
Macfarlane (Prof. Alex.), M.A., D.Sc., &c. On the Definitions of the
Trigonometric Functions. Boston, 1894. 8vo.
— The Principle of Elliptic and Hyperbolic Analysis. Boston,
1894. 8 VO.
Manchester (The), Ship Canal. Reprinted from “Engineering,” Jan.
26, 1894. London, 1894. 4to. {From Jas. Ahernethy, Esq.,
Memb.InsLC.E., F.E.S.E.)
Manouvrier (L.). Etude sur les Variations morphologiques du Corps
du Femur. 8vo.
Mathematics. Index du Eepertoire bibliographique des Sciences Mathe-
matiques, publie par le Commission permanente du Eepertoire.
Paris, 1893. 8vo. {From the Commission.)
Mendenhall (T. C.). Determination of Gravity with Half-Second Pen-
dulums on the Pacific Coast, in Alaska, and at Washington. Wash-
ington, 1892. 8vo.
Micheli (Marc). Alphonse de Candolle, et son (Euvre scientifique.
Geneve, 1893. 8vo.
Mohorovicic (A.). Der Tornado bei Novska. Agram, 1893. 8vo.
Monaco (S. A. Albert Prince de). Eesultats des Campagnes Scienti-
fiques accomplies sur son Yacht. Fasc. I.-VII. Monaco, 1889-
94. 4to.
Sur les premieres Campagnes Scientifiques de la “ Princess Alice.”
Paris, 1894. 4to.
Mukhopadhyay (Asutosh), M.A., F.E.S.E. Yn Elementary Treatise on
the Geometry of Conics. London, 1893. 8vo.
Munro (Eobert), M.A., M.D. On Trepanning the Human Skull in Pre-
historic Times. Edin., 1893. 4to.
Ocague (Maurice d’). Sur la Determination Geometrique du Point le
plus Probable, donne par un Systeme de Droites non convergentes.
1893. 4to.
Pepper (Wm.), M.D. Force vs. Work. Duodenal and Gastric Ulcers.
Hepatic Fevers. Frequency and Character of the Pneumonias of
1890. Yaricose Aneurisms of the Aorta and Superior Vena Cava.
Continued Slight Fever. 1884-1892. 8vo.
1893-94.] Donations to the Library. 545
Piette (Ed.). L’Epoque Eburneene et les Eaces Humaines de la Periode
Glyptique. Saint Quentin, 1894. 8vo.
Prain (David). Memoirs and Memoranda, chiefly Botanical. (Eeprints
from Periodicals, 1887-1893.) Calcutta, 1894. 4to.
Eae (John). Life of Adam Smith. London, 1895. 8vo.
Richardson (Ralph). Corsica. Notes on a recent visit. Edin., 1894.
8vo.
Roberts (Isaac). A Selection of PhotograjDhs of Stars, Star-Clusters, and
Nebulae, together with Information concerning the Instruments and
the Methods employed in the pursuit of Celestial Photography.
London (1894). 4to.
Rylands (Thomas Glazebrook). The Geography of Ptolemy elucidated.
Dublin, 1893. 4to.
Saint-Lager (Dr ). Considerations sur le Polymorphisme de quelques
Especes. Du genre Bupleurum. Paris, 1891. 8vo.
Un chapitre de Grammaire a I’usage des Botanistes. Paris?
1892. 8vo.
Saw-Sein-Ko. A Preliminary Study of the Kalyani Inscriptions of
Dhammacheti, 1476 a.d. Bombay, 1893. 4to.
Shield (Wm.), M.Inst.C.E. Principles and Practice of Harbour Con-
struction. London, 1895. 8vo.
Soundings taken (in various oceans) by the India-Rubber, Gutta-Percha,
and Telegraph Works Co. (Limited), from 1889-1894. 2 pts. (1895.)
8 VO. {Presented by the Company.)
Stevenson (David A.). Notes on the Progress of Lighthouses. With a
reply to a discussion of the paper. (Ex. Proc. Inter. Maritime Con-
gress^ 1893.) London. 8vo.
Swedenborg (Emanuel). Works. 5 vols. London, 1883-93. 8vo.
{Presented, along with other Publications, by the Swedenborg Society.)
Walmsley (R. Mullineux), D.Sc., &c. Electricity in the Service of Man.
By R. Wormell, D.Sc. {Frora the German of Dr A. R. von
Urbanitzky.) Revised and enlarged by R. Mullineux Walmsley.
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1894. 8vo.
Warne (Charles), F.S.A. The Celtic Tumuli of Dorset. London, 1866.
Eol.
Ancient Dorset. The Celtic, Roman, Saxon and Danish Anti-
quities of the County. Bournemouth, 1872. Eol. {Presented by
C. Holland Warne, Esq., Brighton.)
White (W. N.), C.B., LL.D. A Manual of Naval Architecture. 3rd Ed.
London, 1894. 8vo.
Whitney (Prof. W. D.). The Veda in Panini. On Recent Studies in
Hindu Grammar. The Native Commentary to the Atharva-Veda.
8vo.
Wilde (Henry). On the Origin of Elementary Substances, and on some
New Relations of their Atomic Weights. London, 1892. 4to.
2 M
VOL. XX.
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OBITUARY NOTICES.
John Couch Adams. By Professor Copeland.
(Read March 6, 1893.)
At Lidcot farm, in the rural parish of Laneast, some seven miles to
the west of Launceston, in Cornwall, on June 5th, 1819, was born
John Couch Adams, whose name will ever be inseparably associated
with the discovery of Neptune. Educated at Devonport, he entered
St John’s College, Cambridge, in October 1839. He graduated as
Senior Wrangler and first Smith’s Prizeman early in 1843, and
shortly afterwards was elected a Fellow of his college, and became
one of its mathematical tutors. As a student, he had read in Airy’s
Report on the Progress of Astronomy during the Present Century
about cei'tain unexplained perturbations of Uranus, as shown by
Bouvard’s tables of that planet, and at once perceived that they
probably arose from the action of an unknown member of the solar
system. Seeing, however, that no merely superficial research could
throw light on the subject, he, for the time, contented himself with
jotting down on Saturday, July 3rd, 1841, the following memoran-
dum ; — “Formed a design, in the beginning of this week, of inves-
tigating, as soon as possible after taking my degree, the irregularities
in the motion of Uranus which are yet unaccounted for ; in order to
find whether they may be attributed to the action of an undiscovered
planet beyond it, and, if possible, thence to determine approximately
the elements of its orbit, &c., which would probably lead to its
discovery.”
The investigation must indeed have been taken up immediately
after his graduation, for already, in 1843, by combining the modern
observations with the residuals of Bouvard’s equations, on the assump-
tion of a circular orbit for the unknown planet, a first solution was
ii Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh.
obtained which showed that an agreement between observation and
theory might be brought about. Further, earlier data still wanting
were supplied by the Astronomer-Eoyal, who, in February 1844,
sent to Adams all the Greenwich observations of Uranus.
In other quarters the irregular motion of Uranus had attracted
attention. Our countryman. Dr Hussey, had proposed an extended
search for an outer planet, combined with a partial survey of the
heavens. The illustrious Bessel had devoted considerable time to
an attempted explanation, at first on the hypothesis of an elective
attraction on the part of Saturn. Failing health compelled him to
hand the work over to one of his assistants, whose health in turn
also gave way before anything was accomplished beyond a reduction
of the older observations. The Royal Academy of Sciences of
Gottingen, however, proposed the Theory of Uranus as their mathe-
matical prize ; and although Adams tells us that his college duties
prevented him from attempting the complete examination of the
theory, which a competition for the prize would have required, yet
this fact, together with the possession of such a valuable series of
observations, induced him to undertake a new solution of the problem.
With indomitable perseverance the subject was now attacked by the
sure method of successive approximations. Hot one solution, but
several solutions were obtained, differing little from each other.
Gradually more and more terms of the perturbational series were
taken into account, until at last, in September 1845, he was able
to communicate to Professor Challis the definite values he had
obtained for the mass, the heliocentric longitude, and the elements
of the orbit of the assumed planet. Slightly corrected results were
communicated to the Astronomer-Royal a month later. But 4-dams
did not rest content. The excentricity being larger than was pro-
bable, the whole investigation was again repeated, using a less mean
distance. The final result was communicated to Mr Airy in the
beginning of September 1846.
Meanwhile, on Hovember 10th, 1845, the brilliant young French
astronomer, Le Verrier, had presented to the French Academy a
most thorough investigation of the orbit of Uranus as perturbed by
Saturn and Jupiter, taking into account several minute perturbations
neglected by Bouvard. This he followed up by a second memoir
presented on the 1st of June 1846 (or nine months later than
Obituary Notices. ' iii
Adams’s decisive communications to Challis and Airy), in which the
outstanding perturbations of Uranus were explained by the action of
a planet whose position agreed very closely with that indicated by
Adams. This close agreement by two investigators, each working
in ignorance of what was being done by the other, at once set
Professor Challis to work on a search for the planet, but the want of
a proper star-map necessitated the survey of a relatively considerable
area of the heavens. In the course of this survey the planet was
actually seen on August 4th and 12th, 1846, but failing a comparison
of the observations, it was not then recognised as the object so eagerl}^
sought for. That no search was made at Greenwich is explained by
the simple fact that they had no telescope at all suited to the
work.
On the last day of this month of August 1846, Le Verrier sub-
mitted to the Academy in Paris a third memoir, in which the mass
of the unknown planet was worked out, together with new elements
and limiting values for its heliocentric place. Eighteen days after-
wards, Le Yerrier wrote to Dr Galle, then Encke’s assistant at Berlin,
asking him to look for the planet in the assigned place, and holding
out a hope that it might even be recognised by its disc. The planet
was found the very day, September 23rd, on which Le Verrier’s
letter reached Berlin. Everything favoured the search — Galle was
an accomplished observer, the instrument was one of Fraunhofer’s
masterpieces, and Galle cordially accepted the aid of the young
astronomer D’Arrest, then a student at the Berlin Observatory.
D’Arrest contributed notably to the immediate finding of the planet,
by suggesting the use of Bremiker’s section (Hora xxi.) of the
Equatorial Star-maps, then in course of publication by the Berlin
Academy. This very sheet had just been struck off, but had not yet
been distributed, although a copy was lying at the Berlin Observa-
tory. Galle estimated the planet’s diameter at about 3", but in his
letter to Le Yerrier says it was not much to trust to, except under
very favourable atmospheric conditions, and adds, ‘‘c’est principale-
ment la carte qui a facility la recherche.” The place of the stranger
was accurately determined by midnight, and again on the following
evening, when it was found to have moved about 64 seconds of arc
in the interim. From Dr Galle’s letter it is also interesting to find
that Bremiker’s map was not the only new publication pressed into
iv Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgli.
the service, as the final determining star was taken from the British
Association Catalogue, which had just been placed in the hands of
astronomers.
On October 1st, Professor Challis heard of the successful search
at Berlin, and on turning to his notes, not only readily identified
the new planet amongst the numerous stars which he had recorded
nearly two months before, but also found that it had again been
seen on September 29th, when, aided by a hint from Le Verrier’s last
paper, the observer singled out the planet from 300 stars, and
appended to it the note “ it seems to have a disk.” The next night
was cloudy at Cambridge, and, as has just been said, the news of the
discovery came the following day.
It is not too much to say that the whole world rang with these
tidings, but for a moment it seemed as if a painful international
rivalry might arise as to the relative merits of the two great mathe-
maticians to whom science owed one of her grandest triumphs.
Better counsels, however, prevailed ; and with an impartiality that
will ever be regarded with satisfaction, the Testimonial of the Royal
Astronomical Society was awarded to Le Verrier as well as to Adams
in 1848. The Institute of France made Adams one of its corre-
sponding members, as did also the Academy of Sciences of St
Petersburg and many other societies. From Oxford he received
the honorary degree of D.C.L., and that of LL.D. from Dublin and
Edinburgh. He was elected an Honorary Fellow of this Society in
1849.
In 1851, Adams became President of the Royal Astronomical
Society, to which position he was again elected in 1874. In
1858, he was appointed Professor of Mathematics in the University
of St Andrews, but he returned to Cambridge in the following
year, to take up the Lowndean Professorship of Astronomy and
Geometry, which he held until his death. Three years later, he
became Director of the University Observatory. Apart from many
observations of planets, comets, &c., the zone + 25° to -f 30° of
stars down to the ninth magnitude was observed under his superin-
tendence with the Cambridge transit-circle as a component part of
the great international work set on foot by the Astronomische
Gesellschaft. The actual observations are all finished and the
reductions far advanced.
Obituary Notices.
V
The Gold Medal of the Koyal Astronomical Society was awarded
to Professor Adams in 1866 for his researches on the moon’s parallax
and acceleration. After the great display of the Leonid meteors
in the same year, Adams undertook the difficult task of determining
their period. The researches of Professor H. A. Newton, of Yale
College, had already shown that they must move in one of five
definite orbits, but the difficulty was to decide which of them they
followed. Here, again, Adams invoked the perturbations to solve
the problem, and as the result of a most profound investigation,
showed beyond all doubt that the periodic time of the meteors is
33 J years. This orbit, it is scarcely necessary to add, closely
resembles that of Comet 1866, I., as was first pointed out by Pro-
fessor C. F. W. Peters.
Professor Adams communicated 43 papers to scientific societies,
according to the Royal Society’s Catalogue. To the Nautical
Almanac he contributed valuable tables of the moon’s parallax, and
a Continuation of Damoiseau’s Tables of Jupiter’s Satellites. His
classical Explanation of the Observed Irregularities in the Motion of
Uranus appeared in the Appendix to the Nautical Almanac for the
year 1851.
Professor Adams died at Cambridge Observatory on January 21st,
1892, after having been more or less an invalid for fully two years.
Those who knew him most intimately cannot sufficiently express the
profound impression made on them by his great gentleness and
unassuming manner.
VI
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Professor William Dittmar. By Professor Crum Brown,
(Read June 19, 1893.)
William Dittmar was born at Umstadt, near Darmstadt, 15tb April
1833. He was the second son of Fritz Dittmar, then Assessor
at Umstadt, afterwards Landrichter at Ulrichstein in Oher-Hessen,
where his attitude towards the revolutionary party, in 1848, led to
his retiring on a pension. He removed to Darmstadt, where
William was apprenticed to the “ Hof-Apotheker.” After passing
the “ Gehulfe Examen ” with distinction, he went to Miihlhausen,
where for several years he served as assistant. He returned to
Darmstadt for the Staats-Examen in Pharmacy, which he passed
with distinction.
He then went to Heidelberg to work in Bunsen’s laboratory,
where he was soon appointed assistant. Sir Henry Eoscoe invited
him to Manchester as his private assistant, and, on his appointment
as Professor of Chemistry in the Owens College, took Dittmar with
him as assistant. In 1861 he became chief assistant in the
Chemical Laboratory of the University of Edinburgh, under Lord
Playfair. In 1869 he went to Bonn, where he acted first as “ pri vat-
docent,” and afterwards as Lecturer on Meteorology at the Agricultural
College at Poppelsdorf. In 1872 he declined the offer of the Chair
of Chemistry in the Polytechnic School at Cassel, and returned to
his old post in Edinburgh. In 1873 he was appointed Lecturer on
Practical and Technical Chemistry in the Owens College, and in
1874 succeeded Professor Thorpe as Professor of Chemistry in
Anderson’s College, Glasgow. This office he held till his death,
9th February 1892. On that morning he lectured, but not feeling
very well, went home in the middle of the day, and, after a few
hours’ illness, died at 11.30. He was a Fellow of this Society
since 1863, and of the Eoyal Society of London since 1882. In
1887 the University of Edinburgh conferred on him the degree of
LL.D. In 1891 the Philosophical Society of Glasgow awarded
him the Graham medal for his investigation into the quantitative
composition of water.
Ohituary Notices.
Vll
Dittmar was a good all-round chemist. His discovery of glutaric
acid showed that he was quite at home in organic chemistry ; hut
it was as an analyst that he was great. His investigation into the
compositions of the specimens of sea- water collected by the “ Chal-
lenger” Expedition is full of instruction in the way such work
should be done. And in all his analytical work, and in all his
teaching, his aim was not so much to perfect or to teach methods of
analysis, as to settle and teach principles from which methods can
be deduced as they are wanted. He was quick to detect sources of
error, and estimate their effect on results. As the great instrument
of the analyst, the balance early attracted his attention, and some
of the most important improvements in the construction of the
balance are due to him. Besides the work already mentioned on
the quantitative composition of water, and on the composition of
sea-water, the determination of the atomic weight of platinum, and
the examination of the hydrates, carbonates, and peroxides of the
alkali metals may be specially noted. Very interesting also are his
investigations into the relation of the composition of acids of
constant boiling-point to the pressure under which they are
distilled.
Dittmar was an admirable teacher. He communicated to his
students something of his own love of accuracy, and, instead of
merely telling them what to do, and seeing that they did it, he
also taught them to think for themselves. The transparent sim-
plicity of his character, and the honest frankness of his manner,
made his friendships close and constant rather than numerous.
Vlll
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgh.
William Forbes Skene, LL.D., D.C.L., Historiographer-Eoyal
for Scotland, &c., &c. By Professor Mackinnon.
(Read January 15, 1894.)
Among the notable Scotsmen of the nineteenth century, William
Forbes Skene will have a foremost place. The author of Celtic
Scotland was born at Inverie, in Kincardineshire, on the 9th of
June 1809, and died in Edinburgh on the 29th of August 1893.
His father was Janies Skene of Eubislaw, a member of an old
Aberdeenshire family. His mother was Jane, daughter of Sir
William Forbes, Baronet of Pitsligo. The family connections
were numerous, and the future historian had, from earliest boy-
hood, unusually favourable opportunities of coming in contact
with the men and women who in his day bore a worthy part in
the life and literature of Scotland. His father was an intimate
friend of Sir Walter Scott, and the son was more than once a
welcome guest at Abbotsford.
Mr Skene was educated at the High School of this city, and
afterwards attended the Universities of St Andrews and Edin-
burgh. Destined for the legal profession, he was apprenticed to
a relative. Sir Henry Jardine, W.S. He became a member of
the Society of Writers to the Signet in 1831, and was, for the
long period of sixty-one years, a well known and honoured citizen
of Edinburgh. He held an appointment in the Court of Session
for many years, becoming latterly Depute-Clerk of the Court.
In the meantime he had become the head of a prominent legal
firm, a position which he retained till his death. In the public
life of the city, whether political or municipal, Mr Skene took
little part. A capable man of business, who had devoted attention
to financial matters, he acted as Director of the Commercial
Bank for over a quarter of a century. His philanthropic spirit
and intimate acquaintance with the country and people, made
him a most valuable Secretary to the Committee which administered
the funds collected to relieve destitution in the Highlands and
Islands after the failure of the potato crops in 1846 and subsequent
Ohituary Notices,
IX
years. Mr Skene gave much time to this work, and wrote
valuable reports describing the operations of the Committee. In
the education of the people he was deeply interested. He served
for a couple of years on the School Board of Edinburgh, devoting
special attention to that branch of the Board’s work which was
directed to the education of destitute and neglected children.
For many years he taught a Bible class on Sabbath, for which
full notes were carefully prepared. Some of these he afterwards
wrote out in connected form, and published under the title of
The Gospel History for the Young. A member of the Episcopal
Church, Mr Skene was connected with St Vincent’s congregation, of
which he was for many years the main prop and stay. St Vincent’s
belonged to what was called the English Episcopal Church in
Scotland; but, mainly through the influence of Mr Skene, the
congregation became united some years ago to the Scottish
Episcopal Church.
A man of many gifts and graces — an accomplished linguist ; a
well-equipped theologian, specially conversant with the develop-
ment of doctrine and ritual ; a proficient in music ; a good talker,
with a fund of anecdote, and not destitute of humour — Mr Skene
was known among his friends. In literature he will be remem-
bered as the most profound student of this century of the history
and institutions of the early inhabitants of Scotland. Capable
men toiled in the same field before Mr Skene’s day. Hot to
go further back than last century, there were the able, if preju-
diced Pinkerton, the dispassionate Innes, the erudite Chalmers.
Within the last fifty years, valuable additions to our stock of
knowledge in one department or another of the subject have
been made by such men as John Stuart, Joseph Eobertson, Bishop
Forbes, Dr M‘Lauchlan, Sir Daniel Wilson, Dr Reeves, Dr Joseph
Anderson, and others. Mr Skene entered into the labours of
these and such men. All that was worth reading, and much
that was not, of what predecessors and contemporaries wrote, he
knew thoroughly.
His own work combined that of the pioneer and the settler.
He explored the ground and tilled it. Mr Skene was fully
alive to the supreme importance of the evidence supplied by
the concrete facts of anthropology and archseology, where such
X Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh.
exist; but his own special labours lay in the departments of
history and literary criticism. Very early he appreciated the
truth that an original authority was foremost in value as in time.
The first point was to ascertain what precisely the old authors
wrote. With respect to many of them — the Eoman writers, for
example — once their exact words were known, the main difficulty
was overcome. One had a reasonable guarantee that the fact
was stated as these men saw it, the report as they heard it or read
it. They were, as a rule, disinterested, and they must be regarded
as on the whole trustworthy witnesses. With respect to native
annalists, things were different. In the case of many of them the
real difficulty may be said to commence after the accuracy of the
text is established. Scottish historians had hitherto treated these
authorities in one of two ways. They accepted them or rejected
them en bloc. But this was surely unwise. The most imaginative
among them occasionally writes history ; the most prosaic frequently
indulges in fiction. The task of the critic is to separate the fact
from the fancy. For this purpose, accurate texts are indispensable ;
but accurate texts alone are not sufficient. The native chronicler
must, at every step, be cross-examined and compared, not merely with
himself, but as far as possible with contemporary writers, native and
foreign. It is only when reliable material is thus obtained that the
labour of the historian proper commences.
Mr Skene was, in many ways, exceptionally fitted for the work
which he took in hand. A busy man all his life, he still could
command leisure. He had a vigorous intellect, a powerful memory,
a judgment in the main calm and clear. He possessed, in no small
measure, the constructive faculty that was able to fit together into
one reticulated whole isolated facts gathered from many quarters,
the historical imagination that could clothe the dry bones with
flesh and skin, and make the dead past live again. One most
essential qualification Mr Skene possessed to which none of his
predecessors could lay claim. Important light is thrown on many
points of early Scottish history by Horse Saga and Welsh Triad.
But, apart from the Roman period, the great mass of material is
to be found in the works of native authors, written in old Gaelic or
in Latin. Mr Skene’s predecessors, as matter of course, could all
read Latin, and one or two of them may have acquired a smatter-
Obituary Notices.
XI
ing of Welsh and J^orse. But, among Scottish historians of the
first rank, he was the only one since the days of George Buchanan
who was able to read a Gaelic manuscript. While a growing lad
his health was delicate, and, on the advice of Sir Walter Scott, his
father sent him for a season to reside with the Eev. Dr Mackintosh
MacKay, minister of Laggan in Badenoch, an accomplished gentle-
man, and, at the time, one of the most scholarly Gaelic students
living. Under this competent guide young Skene studied modern
Scottish Gaelic, a step which very probably shaped the future
course of his intellectual history. In after years he extended his
Celtic researches, not merely to the sister dialects of Irish and
Manx, hut to the kindred Brythonic tongues, especially Welsh.
When, in 1853, Zeuss opened up in his Grammatica Celtica the old
forms of the Celtic dialects to the world, Mr Skene entered upon
the study of old Gaelic with ardour. His previous training, com-
bined with his command of French and German, enabled him to
follow with ease the development of Celtic studies abroad by
Ebel, Schleicher, Windisch, Gaidoz, D’Arbois, Loth, and others.
He was one of the very few in Scotland who bought and read
the continental magazines devoted to linguistic, and largely to
Celtic studies — the now defunct Beitrdge zur Vergleichenden
Spracliforscliung., the Zeitsclirift fur Vergleichende Spradi-
forscliung, and the Revue Geltigue. For some years back Celtic
scholarship in the hands of Stokes, Zimmer, Thurneysen, Bhys,
and others has occupied itself largely with sounds and forms and
accents — the blood, bone, and muscle of grammar. Here a good
grounding in phonetics, a minute verbal study of texts, and an
acquaintance with living dialects are essential. Perhaps Mr Skene
was not in full sympathy with this latest development in Celtic
philology. He ceased to buy Killings Zeitsclirift many years
ago, and even the Revue Celtique was dropped by him in 1887.
Throughout several of his published works, one observes now
and again a failure on the part of the author to grasp the subtleties
of Gaelic and Welsh grammar. One example must suffice. The
title of his great work is Celtic Scotland : a History of Ancient
Alban. In a note {Celtic Scotland, vol. i. p. 1), the author
explains how he adopts the genitive Alban in preference to “ what
he ventures to call the pedantic affectation of using the form
xii Froceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Alba,” which is the old nominative. “ A nominative form derived
from the genitive is,” he says, “ also found ; and the names of
places ending in a vowel seem to have a tendency to fall into this
form in current speech.” In Gaelic, as in other tongues, an
oblique case, through the loss of flexion, is frequently raised to
the nominative. The particular case selected for this preference
is that most frequently heard in current speech, and in place names
the case raised to the nominative is in Gaelic always the locative-
dative, — the genitive never. In this particular instance, the choice
lies not between the old nominative Alba and the old genitive
Alban^ but between the old nominative Alba and the old dative
Albin. The fact is, Alban and Aran are, like lona^ names invented
for use in books and maps only. The correct forms, like Erin
and Ratldin^ are Albin and Arin (in Gaelic orthography Albainn^
Arainn).
When Mr Skene took up his abode permanently in Edinburgh,
he and several gentlemen interested in Celtic literature and
history founded the Iona Club. The club came to an end on the
death, in 1837, of one of its most active members, the late Donald
Gregory, W.S., author of a valuable History of the Western High-
lands and Isles of Scotland. The club published but one volume
of Transactions, a book now rarely met with, the Collectanea de
rebus Albanicis, in which are printed extracts from family charter-
chests, national records, Gaelic MSS., Irish annals and IS’orse
sagas, which throw valuable light on the history of the tribes and
clans of the IN’orth of Scotland. In these early years the Highland
Society of London offered a premium for “ the best History of the
Highland Clans.” Mr Skene competed, and his essay proved the
successful one. It was afterwards enlarged and published in two
volumes in 1837. The Highlaiiders of Scotland, as this work is
entitled, is now a somewhat rare book. With the conhdeace of
youth, Mr Skene states that in the preparation of this essay he had
given a long and attentive examination to the early authorities in
Scottish history, and had thoroughly investigated two new and
most valuable sources — the Icelandic Sagas in their original
language, and the Irish Annals. The author afterwards found cause
to modify several of the views advanced in this early work ; but in
its main features the juvenile production is characterised by the
Obituary Notices.
Xlll
same qualities which distinguish the writer’s maturer labours —
fulness of information, clearness of statement, soberness of
judgment, and a dignified courtesy which ever ruled the pen as well
as the speech and bearing of Mr Skene.
It was in 1859 that Mr Skene became a member of the Royal
Society. A valuable paper by him, afterwards printed in The Four
Ancient Boohs of Wales (vol. i. p. 141), on “The Celtic Topography
of Scotland, and the Dialectic Differences indicated by it,” was read
before the Society in 1865, and printed in vol. xxiii. of its Trans-
actions. He joined the Society of Antiquaries in 1831 ; became a
vice-president of that Society in 1852 ; and was throughout a
frequent contributor to its Proceedings. Papers from his pen on
linguistic, literary, genealogical, and historical subjects appear
frequently from 1852 till 1886. Some of the early papers — e.^.,
“ On Ancient Gaelic Inscriptions in Scotland ” {Proceedings of the
Society of Antiquaries of Scotland^ vol. i. p. 81), “On the Ogham
Inscriptions on the Hewton Stone ” (Ibid., v. 289) — are now super-
seded. Others — e.g., “ The Earldom of Caithness ” (/5^(i., xii. 571)
and “ The Authenticity of the Letters Patent said to have been
granted by King William the Lion to the Earl of Mar in 1171 ”
{Ibid., xii. 603) — are reprinted as appendices in Celtic Scotland
(vol. hi. 441, 448). An elaborate treatise on “The Coronation Stone”
{Proc. Soc. of Ant. of Scot., viii. p. 68) was afterwards published
separately. The greater number of these valuable papers are special
studies on obscure points in Scottish history and bibliography, the
conclusions arrived at being, as a rule, accepted as established in the
author’s more elaborate works.
The services of Mr Skene to Celtic history and literature may
well be termed great. The fact that a man of his ability and
culture set himself resolutely to study the Celtic dialects as an
essential preliminary to the investigation of the history of the tribes
who spoke these dialects, gave an importance and a distinction to
these studies which, in this country, they much needed but did not
always receive. He cannot, indeed, be said to have expelled the lin-
guistic charlatan from his chief stronghold on European soil. We
have still among us educated men who will undertake to explain
obscure Gaelic names without learning to decline a Gaelic noun, and
to correct Highland maps though they cannot spell a Gaelic word.
xiv Proceedings of Boy al Society of Bclinburgh.
To Mr Skene is due the credit of bringing together the very valuable
collection of Gaelic MSS. now deposited for preservation and
reference in the Advocates’ Library, Edinburgh. The Faculty of
Advocates themselves possessed four such MSS. When a com-
mittee of the Highland Society of Scotland (now the Highland and
Agricultural) undertook to conduct an inquiry into the authenticity
of Ossian’s Poems, Gaelic MSS. were sent by the Highland Society
of London and others, with the view to aid the committee in their
labours. The late Major M‘Lachlan of Kilbride was the possessor
of a considerable number of such MSS. ; these had disappeared, but
were eventually found in Glasgow. Through Mr Skene’s represen-
tations the Highland Society and the custodier of the Kilbride
MSS. agreed to deposit their collections in the Advocates’ Library.
A few others were added, and a general catalogue of the whole was
prepared by Mr Skene.^ One of these Gaelic MSS. consists of a
large collection of verse made by James MacGregor, Dean of Lis-
more, in the early part of the sixteenth century (Adv. Lib. Coll.,
xxxvii.). The late Dr MDauchlan of Edinburgh transcribed, trans-
lated, and annotated large extracts from this manuscript, which
were published under the title of The Booh of the Dean of Lismore
by Edmonston & Douglas, of this city, in 1862. To this volume
Mr Skene contributed valuable notes, and an elaborate introduction
on the history of Gaelic, and especially Ossianic, literature. In 1868
appeared the Four Ancient Boohs of Wales in two large volumes,
published by the same Edinburgh firm. The second volume con-
tains copious extracts from the poems in the Black Book of
Carmarthen, the Book of Aneurin, the Book of Taliessin, and the
Bed Book of Hergest, with notes, appendices, and index. The first
volume gives a translation of the Welsh poems into English by the
Kev. D. Silvan Evans and the Kev. Robert Williams, with an
elaborate introduction by Mr Skene, embracing chapters on the
Races of Britain, the Celtic Dialects, the Pictish Language, the
Celtic Topography of Scotland, as well as on the Ethnology and the
early Literature and History of Wales.
Mr Skene’s contributions to the history proper of Early Scotland
^ In course of time, Skene became himself the possessor of several Celtic
MSS., which he bequeathed to the Advocates’ Library collection, but unfortu-
nately those of most value seem to have disappeared.
Ohituary Notices.
XV
are of a two-fold character. There is first of all the collecting, sift-
ing, and arranging of the raw materials for such a history ; and there
is besides the stately pile which he himself constructed out of these
materials. In addition to the papers already spoken of, contributed
to the Transactions of the Iona Club and the Proceedings of the
Society of Antiguaries, falls to be mentioned a translation, with
introduction, notes, and illustrations, of John of Fordun’s
Chronicle of the Scottish Nation, a work which forms vols. i. and iv.
of the Historians of Scotland series. Vol. vi. of the same series is
an adaptation of Dr Reeves’s great work, Adamnan^s Life of St
Columha. In the Scottish edition of this monumental book a trans-
lation of Adamnan’s Latin text by the late Bishop of Brechin is
given, while Dr Reeves’s learned and exhaustive notes are con-
densed and recast by Mr Skene. The most important contribu-
tion of this description to Scottish history made by Skene is
the large volume known as the Chronicles of the Piets and Scots,
edited by him, and published under the direction of the Lord Clerk-
Register of Scotland in 1867, In addition to the Chronicle of the
Piets and the Chronicle of the Scots, there are here gathered together
“ as complete a collection as possible of the fragments which still
remain of the Early Chronicles and. Memorials of Scotland, prior
to the publication of Fordun’s History. The extracts written in
Saxon, Welsh, and Gaelic are accompanied by a translation ; those
written in Latin are left untranslated. In all, fifty-eight documents,
in whole or in part, are printed, with a preface extending to nearly
200 pages of large octavo, giving a description and examination of
the documents. “The first piece, both in point of time and of
importance, is that usually known by the name of the Pictish
Chronicle.’’^ It is in three parts, and Mr Skene is of opinion that
the second and third divisions have been translated from an old
Gaelic original by a scholar who did not always understand his
text. A Gaelic word or phrase is occasionally left untranslated, e.g.,
“ Athelstan filius Advar rig Saxanf — rig Saxan being Gaelic for
“King of the Saxons.” The editor concludes that the Chronicle
proper was written originally in Gaelic at Brechin between the
years 977 and 995.
Mr Skene’s reputation as an historian will rest on his chef-
T oeuvre, Celtic Scotland. This important work, the outcome of
VOL. XX. 2 N
xvi Proceedings of Eoyal Society of Pdinhurgh.
over forty years’ study and research, was published in three
volumes by David Douglas, Edinburgh, 1876-80. Each volume is
practically an independent work in itself. The first treats of the
early races of Scotland, and records the civil and political history
of the various peoples down to the death of Alexander III., when
the purely Celtic dynasty became extinct. The second volume is
entitled “ Church and Culture.” The ecclesiastical history closes
with the twelfth century, when the old Celtic Church came to an
end, and in Scotland Columbanism gave place to Romanism. A
single chapter on the language and learning of the people gives
in outline the leading facts in the literary history of the Scottish
Gael to the middle of last century. The title of the third volume
is ‘‘Land and People.” Here the attempt is made to picture the
social life of the tribes in early times, and of the Highland clans
down to our own day ; the relation of the various classes to each
other ; their land tenure, mode of agriculture, privileges, and
exactions.
The outstanding features of this great work are the fulness and
accuracy of the author’s knowledge, and the conspicuous fairness
with which facts are grouped and conclusions drawn. The style,
one cannot help thinking, is to a certain extent coloured by the
profession of the writer. The reader will look in vain here for the
stately periods of Gibbon, still less for the brilliant rhetoric of
Macaulay. Mr Skene’s style is always dignified, occasionally rising
to eloquence. But, in reading his pages, one is rather reminded o
a memorial for counsel drawn by a masterly hand, the relevant
facts all marshalled with skill, and justifying the “ Opinion,” which
is always argued with ability, and not infrequently with ingenuity
and subtlety.
The plan of the work is not without its disadvantages. The
civil and ecclesiastical cannot always be kept separate. The
ethnological chapters of vol. i., and the discussion on the
legendary origin of tribes and clans in vol. iii., necessarily
overlap. The early history of Scotland presents many . difficult
problems ; but the most insoluble are those dealt with by Mr Skene
in his third volume. The social and domestic life of the Piet is
practically unknown. A glimpse is given in the Book of Deer ;
all else is dark. There mormaer and toisecli and chief of clan
Obituary Notices.
xvii
appear, subordinate to the king who is supreme, and with inherent
though undefined rights in the soil. That the inormaer became
eventually the earl, and the toisech the thane (chief and captain of
clan among the modern Highlanders) seems to be established. But
the relationship of these dignitaries to each other, to the king,
and to the mass of the people ; their mode of life ; their beliefs ;
their judicial system, are shadowy in the extreme. The materials
for filling in the vague outline given in the Book of Deer are to
be gathered from stray notices and allusions in native records,
but chiefly by comparison and analogy from Irish, Welsh, Saxon,
and Norse sources, and these have by no means been exhausted by
Mr Skene.
The case is different with respect to the ecclesiastical history of
these people. The chapter on the literature of the Scottish Celt is
meagre ; but the history of the old Church of Scotland, as written
by Mr Skene, is full and reliable. Additional facts are daily coming
to light ; but the main conclusions arrived at in this volume are not
likely to be materially shaken. In this field the record is fuller,
and the author was perhaps more in sympathy with his subject.
Vol. ii. of Celtic Scotland is virtually accepted as authoritative,
being quoted as such by writers of various creeds. The mission of
Nennius is overshadowed by that of Columba. The early Scottish
Church is essentially Columban, an offshoot of the Church of Ireland.
The creed, organisation, and discipline of the old Church of
Scotland have been the subject of hot controversy. The Apostle
of the Piets was, as Bede says, a presbyter. Mainly because of this
fact, some have held that the Columban Church was Presbyterian.
There were bishops in Iona in early days. To that extent, at least,
the old Gaelic Church in Scotland was Episcopal. But these
bishops had no dioceses, and in the monastery they were under the
jurisdiction of the abbot, who was supreme. One thing is clear.
The early Church of Ireland and of Scotland was not Eoman.
During the fifth and sixth centuries, the Church in the British Isles
was in practical isolation from the Church abroad. Considerable
differences had meanwhile emerged. . But when Columbanus came
into collision with the bishops in France, instead of adopting their
views on the matters in dispute, he stoutly asserted his independ-
ence both of them and of Kome ; and in the great conference at
xviii Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgh.
Whitby, Colman of Lindisfarne upheld the authority of St John and
St Columba as equal to that of St Peter and the Pope. Mr Skene
shows clearly that the early Gaelic Church was not Presbyterian,
Episcopal, or Eoinan, as we understand these terms nowadays.
It had at least two distinguishing and praiseworthy features : it
combined great missionary zeal with literary enthusiasm. Several
ideas and practices, among them its intense monasticism and the
passion for an eremitic life, the old Gaelic Church, by ways and
channels which we do not as yet fully know, borrowed from the
East. Its most peculiar feature was the manner in which the
tribal organisation of the Gael was adapted to the government and
discipline of the monastery. The headship of the tribe or clan was
as to family hereditary ; but, in theory at least, elective as to the
individual. In Iona the bishop, though often spoken of, was a
subordinate person ; the abbot was all and in all. The abbot of
the monastery was, like the head of the clan, selected out of the
family of the person who founded the monastery. This peculiar
arrangement took root and prospered among the Gael. The idea
was native, and very probably it helped to make the Gaelic Church
so intensely national, or, more properly speaking, racial. By the
beginning of the thirteenth century the Columban Church was
externally extinct in Scotland. It is to be regretted that the limit
which Mr Skene had imposed upon himself precluded him from
inquiring to what extent, if any, the old ideas and ways survived
under the Roman organisation that displaced them. A chapter
from his pen on the Highland Church from the thirteenth to the
sixteenth century would be a valuable contribution to the ecclesi-
astical history of Scotland.
The civil and political history of Scotland in early times is
written by Skene with a fulness hitherto unattempted. The
portion of Scotland conquered by the Romans was held but for a
limited period, and upon a precarious tenure. After the with-
drawal of the legions the thick darkness that followed is broken by
the landing in Argyleshire of a colony of Irish Gaels in 503.
During the next 350 years four peoples struggle for the mastery on
Scottish soil — the Gael of Dalriada, the Britons of Strathclyde, the
Saxons of the south-east, and the Piets, wRo lived beyond the
Forth, and, according to Skene, in Galloway. Eventually these race^
Olituary Notices.
XIX
were so far consolidated under Kenneth MacAlpin, a Dalriad, whose
line, amid many vicissitudes, held the throne of Scotland till the
close of the Celtic period. In his chapters on ethnology Skene
discusses the language and race relationship of the Piets, and comes
to the conclusion that they were Celts of the Gaelic rather than of
the British type. The view advanced by Pinkerton, and upheld by
Oldbuck of Monkbarns, that these people were Teutons who spoke
a Gothic dialect, is now exploded. It does not follow that Mr
Skene’s must be accepted. Within the last few years Professor
Ehys, with great learning and no small ingenuity, has argued that
the Piets were of Turanian stock, whose speech was largely overlaid
by loans borrowed from their Gaelic and Brythonic neighbours.
Mr Skene’s proof is mainly linguistic, and is two-fold. If the
ancestors of the Northern Highlanders spoke a language other than
Gaelic, some remains of it would have survived. Again, only on
two occasions is Columba spoken of as using an interpreter when
preaching to the Piets, the inference being that, as a rule, the saint’s
Gaelic speech must have been understood by these people.
The problem cannot, however, be solved on such narrow issues
as these. The questions of blood and language must always be kept
distinct. Anthropology and archaeology may hereafter yield con-
crete evidence which will be decisive of the matter. As things
are, the following facts must be kept in the fore-front. Among the
Piets, succession was through the female. This custom is unknown
among Celts ; it is indeed, so far as we know, non- Aryan. Again,
Bede regarded Pictish as a separate language. The Gael of Ireland
and Scotland looked upon the Piets or Cruithnig, to use the native
term, as a people different from themselves. Cormac, the first
Gaelic lexicographer, gives one or two Pictish words, quoting them
as foreign words, at a time when, presumably, Pictish was still a
living language. The Norsemen called the Pentland Pirth Pett-
land, i.e.^ Pictland Fjord, while the Minch was Skottland Fjord.
Mr Whitley Stokes, after examining all the words in the old records
presumably Pictish, says: “The foregoing list of names and words
contains much that is still obscure ; but on the whole it shows that
Pictish, so far as regards its vocabulary, is an Indo-European and
especially Celtic speech. Its phonetics, so far as we can ascertain
them, resemble those of Welsh rather than of Irish.”
XX Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh.
This splendid record of good work done was duly acknowledged
at home and abroad. As was natural, Celtic societies in Ireland
and Wales, as well as in Scotland, felt pride in honouring the dis-
tinguished historian. The University of Edinburgh conferred the
degree of LL.D. upon Mr Skene in 1865. He became D.C.L. of
Oxford in 1879. Upon the death of Mr Hill Burton in 1881, the
Government of the day, with the full approval of educated Scotsmen
of all classes and creeds, made him Historiographer-Royal for Scot-
land. And in 1888, friends and admirers commissioned Sir George
Reid, now President of the Royal Scottish Academy, to paint his
portrait ; the portrait to remain with Mr Skene during his lifetime,
and at his death to he sent to the National Portrait Gallery,
Obituary J^otices.
XXI
Alphonse Louis Pierre Pyramus de Candolle.
By Professor Frederick O. Bower, F.R.S.
(Read February 19, 1894.)
It has happened not uncommonly in the science of Botany that
more than one generation of a family has followed the same pursuit.
The subject of this notice was the second notable botanist of his
name, and he leaves a son who also pursues the same science.
Augustin Pyrame de Candolle, the father of Alphonse, sprang
from a Provengal family, which had fled from Prance in 1558
to escape religious persecution, and had settled in Geneva. He
appears to have spent his earlier years in Paris, where he was
intimate with the leading men of science ; subsequently he held
the chair of botany at Montpellier; but in 1814 he finally took up
his residence at Geneva, having been appointed to the chair of
botany in his native city. Himself a man of surprising powers of
application, he set on foot that great work of descriptive botany,
the Prodromus Systematis Naturalis, in which it was intended
that all known plants should be arranged according to a natural
system, and described at length. It was into this great enterprise
that Alphonse de Candolle entered in early manhood, and at a
time when his father was still actively at its head. It was to this
that he devoted a great part of his long and strenuous life ; at his
death the great work remains still incomplete, though a wonderful
monument of the capacity and endurance of two generations.
Born at Paris in 1806, Alphonse was still a small child when his
father settled at Geneva. It might have seemed natural that, after
the ordinary period of general education, he should, as the only son,
take up the subject pursued by his father; but the latter, wishing
him to enter a profession of more certain profit, directed him to the
study of law, in which he graduated in 1829. But he had already
in 1824 begun the long series of his botanical publications, which
was continued till 1893 ; his inclinations seem plainly to have been
towards the study of the laws of nature rather than of man, and.
xxii Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh.
after the publication of some botanical notes of minor importance,
we find him in 1830 as the author of his first work on systematic
botany, a monograph of the Campanulacege. This included, in
addition to the more purely systematic treatment of the family, a
very complete statement of the facts relating to its geographical
distribution, and thus it foreshadowed the work which the author
was in later years to accomplish in the two spheres of purely
systematic botany, and of botanical geography.
Alphonse de Candolle was for a considerable time officially con-
nected with the University of Geneva. In 1831 he was appointed
honorary professor, with the duty of assisting his father in the
management of the Botanic Garden, as well as in academic affairs.
In 1835 he was appointed ordinary professor in his father’s place, a
post which he held till 1850, when he retired from the exacting
duties of teaching to labours in the more direct advancement of his
science.
The Prodr omus, already planned by Aug.-Pyr. de Candolle, had
reached its seventh volume when Alphonse de Candolle began to
participate in its production. Prom that point onwards he con-
tributed largely from his own pen to the monographs, while after
his father’s death in 1841 the editorship of the great work was
entirely in his hands. The whole series of 17 volumes (1824-1873)
consists of 13,194 printed pages; of these Alphonse de Candolle
contributed 1387 pages, dealing with 45 families, 438 genera,
and 5511 species. Those who are acquainted with such work will
from these figures form some estimate of the great area of observa-
tion and accurate description over which he must have spread his
energies.
During the half century over which the publication of the
Prodromus extended, botany had been steadily advancing, and the
advance is reflected in the style of the writing put into it by de
Candolle and his collaborators. The descriptions become less brief,
and more attention is given to the geographical distribution of the
species. It is true that comparative morphology, development, and
anatomy do not figure largely, for such branches of the science
were in their infancy at the time when the idea of Prodromus was
conceived. It was inevitable that, in a work of which the publica-
tion of the first part was necessarily separated from the later by so
Ohituary Notices. xxiii
long a period as half a century, the earlier parts should become
obsolete before the work was completed, and no doubt in the
original scheme a much more rapid progress was expected than
actually proved possible. Be this as it may, it was at last found
by Alphonse de Candolle that it was undesirable to attempt to
complete the Prodromus, and in 1873 the work was finally closed,
the Monocotyledons not having been even touched.
This unsatisfactory position has, however, been met by initiating
a separate publication, under the title of the Monograpliioe Phanero-
gamarum, of which the eighth volume is now in the press, the
editorship having been shared by Alphonse and his son, Casimir
de Candolle. The object of this work has been partly to revise
the orders treated in the earlier volumes of the Prodromus^ and
secondly to take up the Monocotyledons, which were omitted from
the Prodromus. A circular letter was issued in 1875 announcing
the scheme and method of the new enterprise. Though well
responded to, only seven volumes of the new work have yet
appeared, including 17 families, eight of which are from the
Monocotyledons. The treatment of the Smilacese in the first
volume, by Alphonse de Candolle himself, showed the wideness of
the new scheme ; for he took into account the anatomy, the
affinities, the geographical distribution, and the fossil representa-
tives of the family.
Here it may not be amiss to mention the extensive collection
brought together originally by the father, and continually growing
under the management of the son. It is probably the largest
private collection in existence, its rival having been the Hookerian
Herbarium, now incorporated with the great collection at Kew.
This, together with the drawings and library, all managed with
the greatest perfection, was willingly placed at the disposal of
visitors, and especially of those who were engaged as collaborators
in the systematic undertakings of the de Candolles.
Working upon this extensive herbarium, among divers families,
gave de (Candolle an opportunity of extending the science beyond
the mere recognition and description of new forms, an opportunity
which he grasped from the first. It has already been remarked
that in his earliest monograph of the Campanulaceae he paid
particular attention to the geographical distribution of the species.
xxiv Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Himself never an extensive traveller, he yet, by careful and
systematic collection of facts, prepared himself to he the author in
1855 of the Geographie hotanique raisonnee^ which is considered to
be his most important work. It was not his object to compile from
books of travel a description of the vegetation of the earth, nor
did he attempt to explain all the known phenomena of distribution
of plants. In his own words his object was “ to seek out the laws
of the distribution of plants upon the earth, by means of a limited
number of facts, which should serve as a basis, and proofs”; ’‘'‘rerum
cognoscere caiisas should be the goal in all true science.” And
again, the principal object should be to show in the distribution of
plants as they are, what may be explained by the actual conditions
of climate, and what depends upon anterior conditions. The work
was divided into three parts : the first dealt with the mode of action
of temperature, light, and moisture upon plants ; the second with
plants from the point of view of their distribution on the globe, the
causes of their origin, their frequency or rarity ; in the third the
different countries were studied from the point of view of their
vegetation.
His introduction of a modified method of the sum of temperatures
was perhaps the most important point. Boussingault had already
introduced the method, calculating the sum of temperatures upon
the rough thermometric mean. De Candolle showed that the true
method of sums of temperatures consists in calculating them above
a certain minimum, from which point the vital phenomena of the
plant in question begin to be active. Each species extends further
northwards as far as it finds a certain fixed sum of heat, thus
calculated, between the day when a certain mean temperature
commences, and that when it ends ; but these rough results are
modified by other conditions ; still, though not mathematically
exact, the method laid down by him gives useful results in con-
nection with the study of the geographical limits of species.
These and kindred subjects occupied the attention of de
Candolle repeatedly in later years ; the most important of his
later geographical writings being that in which he distinguished
among plants six “ physiological groups.” In these were associated
together plants which behave alike with regard to heat and
moisture, and which accordingly may have together passed through
Obituary Notices.
XXV
different geological phases, and are always found in those regions of
the globe where similar conditions occur.
Having thus interested himself in questions of geographical dis-
tribution at large, it seems a natural step in specialisation of such
study that de Candolle should have taken up the question of the
“origin of cultivated plants.” The difficulties of this subject are
not merely botanical, hut ethnological, historical, palaeontological,
and even linguistic ; he arrived at his conclusions by a combination
of all these lines of research. The result of this wide research,
involving such varied and numerous facts, was a hook published in
1882, which takes its place as the first authority on the subject.
The attitude of de Candolle towards evolution was favourable
from the first. Considering that he was already over fifty years of
age when the Origin of Species appeared, it would have been con-
ceivable that his opinions should have been too long held for
change. But, on the other hand, his writings previous to it show
that he was well prepared for some such view. He had already
speculated upon the origin of those “physiological groups” men-
tioned above, and had included in his reasoning observations and
ideas relating to earlier geological periods. He had even recognised
the possibility of new hereditary forms, which should have been
derived from actual specific forms ; hut he felt the difficulty of
such modifications being brought about without the hand of man,
there being little probability that these modifications would he
transmitted in the ordinary course of things ; still he admitted the
possibility of species, under the influence of diverse circumstances,
being modified, and developing accidentally under a new form. To
one who was already in this position, “the origin of species, by
means of natural selection,” would be accepted as a welcome solution
of the difficulty. He wrote in 1862, “Darwin has placed his finger
upon the essential point of the question, by seeking a cause by
which the variations from one generation to another would be
necessarily fixed instead of disappearing”; while in 1873 he wrote,
“ One had believed in this evolution without understanding how it
could operate; selection has come as an explanation how the
changes, once produced, are fixed.”
But it would be impossible here to review all the literary
achievements of this most fertile writer ; for almost seventy years he
xxvi Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinlurgh
was at work, and the mere list of his publications, in which his
contributions to the Prodromus and to the Monographioe appear
only as single numbers, amounts to 235. His botanical subjects
ranged from strict taxonomy, through writings on geographical dis-
tribution, effect of external conditions on plants, and economics, to
the theory and practice of botanical description and nomenclature.
But, like many men of outstanding ability, his energies were at
times diverted into other lines than those of his favourite study ;
bred a lawyer, he doubtless found that early training of value in his
capacity as a member of the Kepresentative Council, which he
entered in 1834. Judging from his mixed writings, his interests
appear to have been wide, with a special bias towards anthropology,
and the amelioration of the conditions of the race ; these tastes
found their expression in his legislative successes.
It was natural that a man with such a scientific record as his
should have received very wide recognition, not only in his own
country, hut throughout the scientific world. The Eoyal Societies
of London, Edinburgh, and Dublin, the Institute of Erance, the
Academies of all the chief capitals of Europe, claimed him as a
foreign member or associate. Our own Society will feel that in
offering him in 1877 a place among the foreign fellows it had
honoured itself. He has gone to the grave full of years and of
honours, leaving as his mark upon the progress of botany such a
record of solid and long-continued work as has seldom been attained
by scientific writers.
Ohituary Notices.
xxvii
Professor William Morse Grailly Hewitt.
By Professor A. R. Simpson.
(Read March 5, 1894.)
Dr William Morse Grailly Hewitt, who was born on 3rd August
1828, matriculated with honours in Chemistry in the University
of London, studied medicine in the University College, and, on
graduating as M.B. in 1850, obtained honours in all the four
branches of the final examination. His knowledge of the scientific
departments was very complete, and he retained his acquaintance
with Anatomy, Physiology, Botany, and Chemistry throughout his
career. After studying for a time in Paris he settled in London,
became associated with St Mary’s Hospital, where for some years
he acted as Registrar, and was Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy
and Zoology.
In 1855 he took thediigher degree of M.D. in London Univer-
sity, and the following year became a Member of the College of
Physicians.
He had been alone among his compeers to win honours in
Midwifery at his graduation, and he soon began to direct his
activities mainly to the obstetric department of medicine, and was
largely influential, along with Dr Tyler Smith, in founding the
London Obstetrical Society, of which he was the first Secretary.
This ofiice he held for six years, when he became one of the Vice-
Presidents, and afterwards President. In 1858 he was appointed
Physician to the Samaritan Hospital for Women, and in 1859
Physician to the British Lying-in Hospital. He had already
become Assistant Physician- Accoucheur to St Mary’s Hospital, and
Lecturer on Midwifery and the Diseases of Women and Children
in the St Mary’s Hospital Medical School. In 1865 he was called
to fiU the Chair of Midwifery in the University College of London,
becoming at the same time Physician- Accoucheur to the University
College Hospital, and Director of the Obstetrical Department. The
duties of the professorship and its associated offices he fulfilled with
xxviii Proceedings of Royal Soeiety of Edinburgh.
assiduity and distinction for twenty-one years, during which he
published a valuable work on the Diseases of Women, and many
important memoirs, which placed him in the front rank of the
obstetricians of his time, and led to his being elected as Honorary
Fellow of the Obstetrical and Gynjecological Societies of Edinburgh,
Berlin, Boston, Helsingfors, &c.
Whilst his most numerous and important contributions were made
to Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Professor Grailly Hewitt wrote also
some papers of permanent value and interest on Whooping-cough
and other diseases of childhood, published a suggestive treatise on
Nutrition as the Basis of Treatment in Disease, and more recently
discussed, in two communications to The British Medical Journal^
the subject of Visual Disturbance as a Cause of Sea-Sickness.
He became a Fellow of the Eoyal Society of Edinburgh in 1889.
He had retired for some time from active service, and died in
London on 27th August 1893, “in such peace,” says the Lancet's
obituarist, “ that the beautiful lines of his well-known John William
Inchbald seemed to be written as if for him —
‘ Is it deep sleep, or is it rather death ?
But anyhow it is, and sweet is rest ;
No more the doubtful blessing of the breath.
Our God hath said that silence is the best.’ ”
Olituarij Notices.
XXIX
Rev. Thomas Brown, D.D. By Professor Duns, D.D.
(Read March 19, 1894.)
Thomas Brown was born on the 23rd of April 1811, in the manse
of Langton, Berwickshire, of which parish his father, the Rev. John
Brown, D.D., was minister. Mr Brown entered the University of
Edinburgh in 1826, and, at the close of his Arts course, was
enrolled as a student of divinity. His academical record was that
of an able and diligent student, who gave himself earnestly to the
work of the classes, and took a lively interest in more than one
university debating society. Mr Brown was licensed as a proba-
tioner of the Church of Scotland in 1835, and in 1837 was settled
as parish minister of Kineff, Presbytery of Fordoun, Aberdeenshire.
At the Disruption of the Church in 1843, Mr Brown joined the
ministers and laymen who then formed the Free Church. In 1848
he was married to Miss Wood, a member of an old and well-known
Edinburgh family.* In 1849 he accepted a call to be minister of
the Dean Free Church, Edinburgh, and in this position made
thorough proof of a ministry solid, full of instruction, and withal
attractive.
Mr Brown was elected a Fellow of this Society in 1861. In
* On her father’s side, Miss "Wood was connected with the Woods of War-
riston, and on her mother’s with those of Largo. Towards the opening of the
present century, the former was represented by a popular physician, who
figures in Kay’s Edinburgh Portraits as “Lang Sandy Wood,” but was also
known by a kindlier name. In a clever parody of “ Childe Harold,” which
appeared in Blackwood, May 1818, beginning, “ I stood, Edina, on thy Bridge
of Sighs,” we have the following lines : —
“ Munro once ruled and Gregory now reigns ;
George Bell now feels the pulse which John Bell felt.
Dispensaries, infirmaries, and chains
Purge, slash, and clank, where’er the cities belt
Girdles it in — a space that may bp smelt !
So we go on, I fear to little good.
Meanwhile the rivals one another pelt !
Oh for one hour of him who knew no feud.
The octogenarian chief, the kind old Sandy Wood ! ”
It’s pleasant to gather up any separate link like this, and give it a place in the
genealogical chain.
XXX Proceedings of Boycd Society of Edinburgh.
1888 he received the degree of Doctor of Divinity from the Univer-
sity of Edinburgh. In 1890 he was called to the Moderator’s Chair
of the Free Church General Assembly, which he occupied with
dignity, and with much satisfaction to the Church. Dr Brown
died on the 4th of April 1893. Two sons survive him — J. Graham
Brown, Esq., M.D., and J. Wood Brown, M.A., minister of the
Free Church, Gordon, Berwickshire. His brother, Sir John
Campbell Brown, K.C.B., a highly distinguished member of the
Indian Medical Service, predeceased him.
Let this bald and rapid enumeration of the leading family and
public steps in Dr Brown’s life serve as introductory to what, in
the obituary notice for the Proceedings of the Society, is of chief
interest. I refer, mainly, to the records of the work he has done
as one of its Fellows. This work may be looked at under three
divisions Geology, Botany, and Literature.
I. Geology. — In comparatively few districts of lowland Scotland
could a youth with an inborn bent towards natural science have
found fuller scope for observation and research than in that part of
Berwickshire in which Brown was born, and in which he spent his
youth. The environments do not make the man, or determine his
tastes, but much of a life depends on correspondence between
natural bent and surroundings. The latter is ever at hand to
develop, to cherish, and to strengthen, without perfectly satisfying,
the former, and thus to allure to ever higher effort. The geological
and botanical features of Langton parish, and other neighbouring
parishes, are full of interest. Within little more than a gunshot
from the manse, the Lower Carboniferous strata crop out in the
Langton Burn course, with their embedded ichthyolites and remains
of plants. In the same burn course are strata which seem to mark
the meeting-place of the Carboniferous and the Old Bed Sandstone,
while, in near localities, are shales and clays yielding remains of
other plants, mollusca, and fishes. And by a walk of a few miles
he could reach what Hugh Miller describes as “ The deep belt of
Bed Sandstone which leans to the south (in the valley of the
Whiteadder) against the graywacke of the Lammermoors.”
While avoiding details, it seems to me that a brief statement of
the character and scope of his chief contributions to geology appro-
priately fits into this sketch of his life and work.
Obituary Notices,
XXXI
1860. His first paper is singularly free from the defects which gene-
rally characterise first attempts in the literature of any branch of
science. It is entitled, “Notes on the Mountain Limestone and
Lower Carboniferous Eocks of the Fifeshire Coast from Burntisland
to St Andrews.” This paper was read in April 1860, and printed in
volume xxii. of the Transactions. Mr Brown had gone to Elie in
the autumn of 1856 for a few weeks’ rest, and, he says, was induced
to pay some attention to the geology of the district, resuming, for
a brief interval, what was once a favourite pursuit. His ever active
habit of the eye had its reward. A thin bed of limestone, dipping
inland from the shore, caught his attention. Ichthyolite, molluscan,
and crustacean remains were found in it, and as some of these were
well-known Irish forms, they raised the question, — May not this
bed of limestone synchronise with the Irish series in which these
forms occur ? Mr Brown felt he had broken new ground here, be-
cause neither McLaren, nor Landale, nor Anderson, who had worked
much in the neighbourhood, had referred to it. He resolved, in
the face of many difficulties, to work it out, and for several years
devoted his autumn leisure to this. He succeeded, both from the
stratigraphical and palseontological points of view.
1863. “On a Clay Deposit, with Fossil Arctic Shells, recently
observed in the Basin of the Forth.” This bed of clay was dis-
covered, and the attention of geologists first called to it, by Mr
Brown. It was specially interesting to him at the time as, be
thought, indicating the former existence in Scotland of an Arctic
climate — the shells found in it being for the most part exclusively
Arctic, and several of them new to British glacial deposits. He
believed, moreover, that the stratigraphical position of this bed
warranted the inference of a considerable rise throughout the whole
seaboard of the Forth.
1864. “Notice of Glacial Clay, with Arctic Shells, near Errol, on
the Tay.” The shells in the Errol brick-clay were found to be
identical with those at Elie. The area within which these shells
occur thus became greatly enlarged, and, as he thought, it also
favoured his theory touching the rise of the land.
1874. “On the Parallel Eoads of Glenroy,” Lochaber. The
subject has proved a tempting one to students of quaternary
deposits. The theories of their formation were mainly three; — (1)
VOL. XX. 2 0
xxxii Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh.
The Maculloch, Dick-Lander, Milne-Home theory — the glen once
the site of a lake ; (2) The Darwin, Nicol, E. Chambers theory — the
terraces mark the level of an arm of the sea at three different
periods ; and (3) The Agassiz, Buckland, (Mr) Jamieson theory —
glacier lake the glacier, melting at three widely separated periods,
left the marks of this in the terraces.
Dr Brown approached the problem from a new (the biotic) point
of view. That the deposits contain no shells was accounted for by
Darwin alleging that the carbonic acid gas in the rain-water had
destroyed the shells. Mr Brown, remembering that the so-called
shells of diatoms, being siliceous, would not he destroyed by this
gas, resolved to search for diatoms in the terrace deposits, and
diatoms were found which Professor Dickie of Aberdeen, an
acknowledged authority, identified as fresh-water species. This
seemed to favour the first theory just mentioned. It might, indeed,
be asked. Were the data sufficient to warrant the inference"? What-
ever answer may be given, we are indebted to Mr Brown for the
introduction of this new element into these discussions.
1876. Perhaps Mr Brown is seen at his scientific best in the
paper “ On the Old Eiver Terraces of the Earn and Teith, viewed
in Connection with Certain Proofs of the Antiquity of Man,” read
before the Society in the beginning of 1876, and printed in vol. xxvi.
of the Transactions. Before noticing the leading characteristics
of this paper, I may refer to the circumstances which led to it, and,
specially, to the introduction of the speculative element in dealing
with Physical Geology phenomena. In 1838 M. Boucher de Perthes,
Abbeville, France, published his now well-known book, De la
Creation., in which he expressed the belief that he would find
traces of primeval man in the fluviatile gravels of the Somme.
In 1846, in another work entitled De V Industrie Primitive, ou
les Arts et leur Origine, he intimated that his anticipations had
been fulfilled, and in 1847 his Antiquites Celtic et Antediluvienne
appeared, giving great prominence to his discoveries in these
river gravels. For years little or no interest was taken in his
works. But about 1860 the attention of geologists, biologists, and
archaeologists was fixed on them, and a great controversy arose,
in which the giants of the time — Murchison, Lyell, Falconer,
Carpenter, and others — were conspicuous. The crucial inquiry came
Ohitiiary Notices.
XXXlll
to be, “ How was this valley formed ? ” Lyell thought that “ river
erosion” will account for most of the phenomena, but added, “I
should infer considerable oscillations in the level of the land in that
part of France.” Murchison took up the same position, but claimed
for the phenomena the action of much stronger and intenser forces
than Lyell associated with them. In a word, the interest taken in
the alleged facts and their discussion was because of the violent
contradiction they seemed to give to the prevailing notions as to the
time man had been on the earth. That Mr Brown had felt the
influence of all this is clear from the summing-up of the results of
his observations in the valleys of the Earn, the Teith, and the
Spey. As I was myself much interested in the questions raised, I
visited the valley of the Somme just when the discussions were at
white heat ; and when this paper was read, I had an impression that,
had Mr Brown spent a few weeks in Abbeville and its neighbour-
hood, he would not have tried so earnestly to make good an alleged
analogy between the formation of our Scottish river valleys and
those of England and France. There are proofs of oscillations
within the area over which the Somme gravels are spread, to which
there is nothing analogous in the gravels of the Earn and the Teith.
But all this by the way ; and apart from all this, Mr Brown’s paper
bears in every page the marks of thoroughly scientific work — marks
which come out in the careful examination of the valleys, the deter-
mination of the relations of the terraces, their levels above the river-
beds, and their geological sequence as deposits begun at the close
of a glacial period. Then, he argues, came the kames or escars, and
last, the collection of the old gravels of which the river floods formed
the terraces. Eeference is made to the old river terraces of the
Spey in support of the Earn and Teith inferences, and, it is asked,
how are we to explain the action of the river in throwing up
deposits 60 or 80 feet ? The answer is, either by floods sufficient
to raise the channels to that height, or by supposing the bed of the
stream to have been formerly at a higher level than now. Mr
Brown pleads in behalf of the former.
The value of these papers on the geology of the surface cannot
well be over-estimated. They present, in a most lucid and
thoroughly scientific way, questions which still occupy the atten-
tion of geologists. If we are ever to have a trustworthy scheme of
xxxiv Proceedings of Eoyal Soeiety of Edinburgh.
the order of superposition of quarternary deposits, and a biotic
scheme co-ordinate with that of superposition, they are likely to
result from such careful observation and orderly records of rela-
tion and sequence as distinguish Dr Brown’s labours in this
department.
II. Botanical Studies. — Botany was Dr Brown’s earliest and
favourite study. Langton and its environments presented a rich
gathering ground. The parish lies partly in the Lammermoors and
partly in the' well-cultivated fields of the Merse. Moor and moss,
hill and dale, and the wild-wooded valley through which Langton
burn flows, were all that a young enthusiastic botanist could desire.
In 1834 he prepared the notice of the botany of the district for
the “ New Statistical Account.” Among the forms mentioned as
“lately discovered” is Saxifraga hirculus, Dr Johnston’s reference
to which, in his Natural History of the Eastern Borders, is as
follows : — “i/8. hirculus. In a wet moorish spot near Langton wood,
plentiful,. Rev. Thomas Brown, who had the good fortune to add
this beautiful species to the Flora of Scotland.” When Dr Brown
was called to occupy the position of President of the Berwickshire
Naturalists’ Club, during its jubilee year, 1881, he referred to this in
his interesting address. “ I remember well,” he said, “ the enthu-
siasm with which Dr J ohnston welcomed and submitted to the club
the little saxifrage from the Langton Lees, and the Anthoceros
yunctatus from the fields of Gavinton — both at the time new to the
Flora of Scotland.” We have clear proof, in the same address,
that, in his botanical studies, he had much more in view than the
mere gathering of plants and the attainment of expertness in hortus
siccus terminology. It was the living form which specially interested
him — its relations to other forms, its surroundings, its use, the use
of its beauty, and many such-like elements associated with place,
and habits, and appearance and structure. The numerous refer-
ences to him in Dr Johnston’s work show how thoroughly he had
mastered the botany of his native district.
III. Literature. — Dr Brown’s work in this department was
mainly — {a) Biographical, and (h) Historical. Or, perhaps, it
would be better to say that it was history from the biographical
point of view. In a general way, this may be affirmed of both of his
works — Annals of the Disruption, and Church and State in Scotland.
Obituary Notices.
XXXV
But, as the subjects dealt with in them lie outside of those chiefly
dealt with in this Society, I do little more than name them, in
order that the record of Dr Brown’s work, all round, may be as full
as possible. In the Annals he sought to do for the Disruption men
something analogous to what Dr Calamy did for the 17th century
Nonconformists in his Nonconformist s Memorial^ but, both in
subject-matter, in style, and in the gift of supplying a setting for
dry ecclesiastical details and incidents by associating them with
phases of social, domestic, or religious life, which are ever fresh
and interesting, the Annals take the foremost place. The goodly
volume on Church and State in Scotland consists of six lectures
delivered by Dr Brown as “ Chalmers Lecturer.” I may state that,
in 1880, Eobert Macfie, Esq., of Airds and Oban, transferred £5000
to trustees for the founding of this lectureship in memory of Dr
Chalmers, and in connection with the Free Church. I heard all
Dr Brown’s lectures, and was struck with their clear, crisp style,
graphic descriptions, and wide-minded appreciation of praiseworthy
points, irrespective altogether of party considerations.
In the foregoing notes little has been said of his work as a
Christian minister, though it was in this that his best qualities
found highest expression. His friends love to say that, had he
devoted his time to scientific pursuits, he might have taken a distin-
guished place among men of science. But the fact that all the
points of his individuality fell so well into the profession of his
choice makes this doubtful. It was in fulfilling the life-work to
which he was set apart, that his quiet gentlemanly bearing, culti-
vated mien, extensive yet accurate knowledge of books and of men,
his ever thoughtful consideration for the opinions of those from
whom he differed, and his ready though never obtrusive exercise
of the charity that suffereth long and is kind, were signally mani-
fested. Unlike so many of his class, he had qualified himself to
read both branches of the one revelation of God to man, and had
found in Nature not only a revelation but a mental discipline also :
“ Flomo, naturae minister et interpres, tantum facit et intelligit,
quantum de naturae ordine re vel mente observaverit ; nec amplius
scit aut potest.” — Bacon, Nov. Org.^ Aph. i.
XXXVl
Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgh.
Donald Beith. By Patrick Murray, Esq., W.S.
(Read December 17, 1894.)
Donald Beith was the son of Mr Gilbert Beith, farmer, Lochgilp-
head, and was horn there on the 25th of November 1815. When
he was quite a small boy, his father, who was a highly educated
man, detected in a strolling player, called Dunlop, who came to Loch-
gilphead, an excellent classical scholar. He learned that he was
the son of a clergyman in the north of Ireland, and a graduate of
Dublin University. The old man took a great interest in him, and
urged him to give up his wild, wandering life, promising that if he
stayed in Lochgilphead and opened a school, he should have Donald
for his first pupil. This was done with very happy results, and
Donald and his teacher became devoted friends, and in the later
years of Dunlop’s life, when things were low with him, Donald
Beith was his chief support, and no one knows how much he did
for his old teacher. After being educated in Lochgilphead by
Dunlop, he served in a legal office in Campbeltown for some years,
and then came to Edinburgh, and was indentured to the law under
Messrs James Greig & Charles Morton, W.S., Edinburgh. When
he left that firm’s employment he went for some time into the office
of Messrs Gibson-Craig, Dalziel, & Brodie, W.S., and, about the
year 1848, he entered into partnership with Mr Andrew Murray,
W.S., under the firm of Murray & Beith. In the year 1850 he was
admitted a member of the Society of Solicitors before the Supreme
Courts of Scotland, and in 1862 of the Society of Writers to the
Signet. Upon the death of Mr Andrew Murray in 1869, Mr Beith
was appointed to succeed him in the office of agent for the Woods
and Forests in Scotland, an office which he held till his death, and
he was also agent for a number of other Government departments
in Scotland, including the Treasury, the War Department, the
Harbour Department of the Board of Trade, the Board of
Works, the Education Department, the Prison Commissioners
for Scotland, &c. His business was, after the death of Mr
Obituary Notices.
xxxvii
Murray, carried on by himself and the other partners of the
firm of Murray, Beith, & Murray, W.S. In connection with the
inquiries he had to make for the different Government departments
for which he acted, Mr Beith acquired a wide knowledge of all
subjects affecting antiquarian legal matters in Scotland, and was
especially versed in the law of Teinds, Salmon -fishings, and the
different tenures of land in Scotland. He always took a keen
interest in politics, although latterly his official connection with
Government debarred him from active participation in political
affairs. In the earlier years of his professional career he was a
liberal of an advanced type, and did good work for his party when,
as agent for Mr Charles Cowan, he was helpful in defeating
Macaulay as the representative of the city of Edinburgh. At a
later date he acted as agent for Sir Alexander Gibson Maitland,
when the latter defeated Lord Dalkeith in a contest for the seat for
the County of Midlothian. Though holding many progressive liberal
views, Mr Beith had little sympathy with the Home Eule move-
ment, and stood firm with the Liberal Unionists for the maintenance
of the Union. A staunch Eree Churchman, he was an elder in
Free St George’s Church, and no member or office-bearer in that
communion was more thorough and devoted in the practice of his
principles.
His strength of character was great, and it was founded on a
strong and simple belief in the truths of the Bible. He judged
himself severely, but no man was more lenient in his judgment of
others. Charitable to a degree, he was ever ready to lend a helping
hand in the furtherance of philanthropic or religious schemes, more
especially those connected with the Eree Church, but all his kind-
ness and charity were of the most unostentatious nature.
He had a great charm of manner and power of attracting others,
and the affection which he bestowed on his friends bore a fruitful
harvest in the numbers who really mourned his death. He
delighted in hospitality, and in having his friends about him at
home. His zeal for his clients was remarkable, and he was untiring
in the work which he did for them. His whole interests were
centred in his business and his clients, and he rarely took a holiday
or spared himself in any way. On the last day (at the age of nearly
79) on which he attended his office, he wrote letters with his own
xxxviii Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgh.
hand, and then, without telling any one, walked home to undergo
the operation from the effects of which he succumbed ten days later.
He died upon the 9th of October 1894, and he may literally he said
to have died in harness, — a good man, whose chief characteristics
were strong faith in the Christian verities, great simplicity of
character and unselfishness, extreme warm-heartedness and charity,
indomitable pluck, and an undeviating devotion to whatever he
conceived to he his duty.
In 1870 he married the widow of his late partner, Mr Murray,
and is survived by her. He left no family.
Obituary Notices.
xxxix
William Durham. By Professor C. G. Knott, D.Sc.
(Read January 21, 1895.)
William Durham was horn at Edinburgh in November 1834.
He received his education at the Edinburgh High School; but,
much to his own disappointment and that of the rector, was removed
at a comparatively early age and put to business. After spending
some years in the publishing-house of Adam Black, senior, he was
taken into his father’s business of wholesale stationer and paper-
maker. But Mr Durham was, by nature, a student. Science,
especially chemistry, was his chief interest through life. It was
this interest which sustained him in spirit amid the trials and dis-
appointments that are almost inevitable when a man is launched on
a career essentially out of harmony with his whole bent of mind.
When a little over twenty years of age, William Durham set up his
private laboratory at Glenesk House, Loanhead ; and experimental
work occupied much of his attention to the day of his death,
January 23, 1893.
He was one of Professor Tait’s earliest laboratory students, and
his first paper communicated to this Society is a record of work
done there. The title is “ On the Currents produced by Contact of
Wires of the same Metal at different Temperatures,” read 3rd June
1872 {Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin.^ vii. pp. 788-791). The investigation
was undertaken at Professor Tait’s suggestion, and the general result
is that up to temperatures of 325° C. the transient current obtained
by contact of hot and cold platinum wires is proportional to the
difference of temperature. The novelty of the method employed
deserves mention ; and also the peculiar difficulty of getting exactly
similar contacts between exactly similar pairs of’ surfaces at given
temperatures. The constancy in the results obtained by Mr
Durham attests his skill and patience as an experimenter.
Mr Durham was elected a Fellow of the Society in February
1874, and all his other papers have to do with solutions. The most
xl Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgh.
important of these, read January 21, 1878, is on “Suspension,
Solution, and Chemical Combination” (Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., ix.
pp. 537-541). His main conclusions are, that between suspension
and chemical combination there is no break in the series of grades
of solution ; that chemical combination, solution, and suspension
differ only in degree ; and that the attraction of chemical affinity
is not, in all cases at any rate, exhausted when a definite compound
is formed, hut has sufficient power left to form solution or suspen-
sion compounds. His latest paper, on the “ Laws of Solution” {Proc.
Roy. Soc. Edin.., xiv. pp. 381-387), discusses the last conclusion from
the point of heats of combination. The first and second conclu-
sions form the main theme of a very recent paper on “ Solution and
Pseudo-Solution” {Tiuns. Lond. Chem. Soc., 1892), by Messrs Picton
and Linder, who seem to have been unacquainted with Mr Durham’s
pioneer work. Other papers by Mr Durham on the same subject
will be found in vols. xi., xiii., and xiv. of the Society’s Proceed-
ings) also in the Chemical News (1878), in Brit. Assoc. Reports
(1887), and in Nature (vol. xxxvi.). Working at a time when the
modern electrolytic theory of solution was but dimly apprehended,
Mr Durham was unable to develop his views to their full signi-
ficance. We should, perhaps, regard them as a first statement of an
important aspect of the modern theory. In regard to Mr Durham’s
powers as a practical chemist. Professor Crum Brown writes : —
“ When I was asked to report on the means of purifying the Gala
Water, I selected Mr Durham as assistant in the practical work and
analysis, my choice being very much determined by the character
of the papers which he had communicated to the Society. In
that and in other similar work in which I had the advantage
of his assistance, I found his uniform care and accuracy of great
service.”
Mr Durham was the writer of the long series of scientific articles
which appeared with fair regularity, week by week, in the Scotsman
newspaper from October 4, 1886, to December 3, 1892. The more
important of these were republished in hook form under the general
title of Science in Plain Language (A. & C. Black, 1889-91). The
first volume treats of “ Evolution, Antiquity of Man, Bacteria,” &c. ;
the second of “Astronomy — Sun, Moon, Stars,” &c. ; and the
third of “ Food, Physiology,” &c. These titles sufficiently indicate
Obituary Notices.
xli
the wide range of subjects handled by him. The style is easy and
clear, the exposition thoroughly scientific and up to date. Quiet
and retiring in disposition, and almost diffident in manner, Mr
Durham was a man whose native ability was apt to pass un-
recognised by the ordinary eye. But in these articles, so admirable
in their accuracy and in their freedom from all false rhetoric, we
have a lasting revelation of the truthdoving, unostentatious character
of him who wrote them«
xlii Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Alexander Leslie, F.E.S.E. By James Brand, Esq,
(Read January 21, 1895.)
Alexander Leslie, born at Dundee on 16tb September 1844, was
a son of the late Janies Leslie, M.I.C.E., who died just five years
ago. Mr Leslie was educated at the Edinburgh Academy and the
Edinburgh University, and in May 1862 entered the office of Messrs
D. & T. Stevenson, M.I.C.E., the lighthouse engineers.
After serving an apprenticeship of three years with Messrs Steven-
son, during which he was on the Wick Breakwater Works, he was
engaged for some time with Mr MacBey, land surveyor, Elgin, so
as to acquire some experience in land surveying, which could not
be had in the south to the same extent, owing to the country
having all been mapped out by the Ordnance Survey.
He was afterwards engaged in the north of England on the staff
of Messrs Morkle & Prodham, contractors for the Blaydon and
Conside Eailway. He thereafter entered his father’s office as an
assistant in the year 1865, and in 1871 was assumed as partner by
his father, the name of the firm being Messrs J. & A. Leslie.
Mr Leslie took an active share in the business of the firm, which
has been extensive and varied. He was especially engaged in the
construction of the Edinburgh Waterworks (Moorfoot Extension),
Dundee Waterworks (Lintrathen Extension), also waterworks for
Berwick-on-Tweed, Peebles, Dunbar, Peterhead, Thurso, Kirkwall,
Lerwick, Galashiels, Both well, St Andrews, Leven, and many others
of less magnitude. He also carried out harbour works at Montrose,
and drainage works at Kirkwall, Lerwick, &c., and was consulted
as to many other waterworks, among which may be mentioned
Dumfries, Perth, Aberdeen, and Swansea. He acted as Valuator
for the Board of Trade in Scotland under the Eailways Clauses
Act, and was largely engaged in valuations and arbitrations, and in
giving evidence before the Courts on engineering questions.
He was frequently employed in Parliament in supporting schemes
for which his firm were the engineers, and in supporting or opposing
Obituary Notices.
xliii
the schemes of other engineers. He made an excellent witness, and
took care to he always well prepared, and was very ready in picking
up any flaw in his opponent’s case that might emerge in the course
of the inquiry.
He had special experience in the construction of reservoir em-
bankments, and had a remarkably quick eye in detecting faults of
construction in any piece of work. He had a high ideal of what
work ought to be, and it was always his aim, by careful preparation
of specifications and close supervision during execution, to attain
perfection as far as possible. It may safely be said that the works
that have been carried out under his charge bear witness of the
thoroughness of his supervision. Since his father gave up active
work in 1880 he took chief charge of the maintenance of the Edin-
burgh Waterworks, which are varied and extensive, there being
no less than twelve reservoirs, some of great magnitude, and neces-
sarily include a great length of piping over an extensive area of
distribution.
That his services were highly appreciated will be gathered from
the minute of the meeting on 14th December of the Edinburgh
Water Trustees, of which the following is an excerpt : —
“ Prior to considering the business before the meeting, the Convener referred
to the loss the Trust has sustained by the death, on the 7th instant, of
Mr Alexander Leslie, C.E., senior partner of the firm of Messrs J. & A. Leslie
& Reid, the Trustees’ Engineers. During his long connection with the Trust,
Mr Leslie, he said, had been distinguished by the zeal and ability which he
displayed in regard to its affairs, and by his thorough independence and
honesty of purpose, and the faithful manner in which he discharged his duty
to the Trustees and to the public.”
He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and of the
Geological Society of London, and was President for two years of
the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, and only demitted office a few
weeks before his death, when he gave a very interesting address on
the more modern system adopted for the examination of water,
making special reference to the bacteriological aspect of the ques-
tion. Expression was given to the feelings of that Society by his
successor in the Chair in the following terms : —
“ At the meeting of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts last night, the
President (Dr William Taylor) moved that the meeting be adjourned out of
xliv Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgh.
respect to the memory of Mr Alexander Leslie, their late distinguished Presi-
dent ; and that they should record in the minutes an expression of their deep
sense of the loss they had sustained by his death, and of their sincere sympathy
with Mrs Leslie and her family circle in their sudden and severe bereavement.
That day many of them had followed to the grave all that was mortal of their
late beloved President. Few could realise how much he would be missed, for
they all knew that no one loved the Society more than he, or contributed more
towards the elucidation of the varied subjects which came before it. His
mental grasp seemed to be all-embracing, and he seemed to have the power of
mastering the intricacies of a new problem almost before its demonstration
was completed. He worked silently and unostentatiously amongst them, but
his influence was widely felt, and obtained for them the addition to their roll
of many illustrious names. His sudden and early death has stirred every
emotion of sympathy within them, and left a blank which they could not hope
to fill. He dared not speak of what Mr Leslie was to himself personally, and
to all of them who knew him as a friend. He dared not speak of the many
evidences of the ready hand and the generous heart which w^ere indirectly
known to those who experienced them. He was following the dictates of his
own heart, and giving expression to the feelings of all, when he proposed that
they should adjourn. Dr R. M, Ferguson seconded the motion, which was
agreed to unanimously.”
Mr Leslie contributed several papers to the Proceedings of the
Institution of Civil Engineers, among which are accounts of the
Paisley Waterworks and Edinburgh Waterworks, and a description
of the various kinds of salmon-ladders in use in Scotland.
He also contributed to the Eoyal Scottish Society of Arts the
following papers : — Kainfall and Evaporation, an account of Berwick
Waterworks ; Description of an Improved Joint for Levelling Staff ;
an account of the Dundee Waterworks ; and Hotes on Experiments
of the Elow of Water over Triangular Weirs ; for each of which he
received the Society’s silver medal.
Mr Leslie had a highly versatile mind, and was possessed of
many accomplishments. He had travelled much, and his great
sense of humour, coupled with his great powers of observation,
made him an excellent travelling companion, and brought him a
large circle of friends.
His humour was of the old Scottish quality, quaint and pawky,
and evidently inherited from both his parents, as all who enjoyed
the pleasure of his father’s acquaintance and friendship, or of his
uncle’s, on the mother’s side, the late John Hunter, W.S., of Craig-
crook, could easily perceive.
Mr Leslie acted in 1893 as a witness for the Caledonian Eailway
Ohiiuary Notices.
xlv
Company, in the case of Mrs Armour against them, which was an
action of damages arising out of the subsidence of a trench formed
for the construction of a sewer in Stevenston Street, Glasgow. The
water-run of the sewer was about 30 feet from the surface of the
street, and the trench was about 8 feet from the building-line. The
method adopted in constructing the sewer was open casting by means
of hand-piling, and during a heavy rainfall part of the open trench
gave way, and serious injury was done to the adjoining buildings.
Mr Leslie, in the circumstances, was called upon to defend the
method of hand-piling adopted. There were other three methods
suggested, viz., ordinary tunnelling, tunnelling by compressed air,
and steam-driven piling. Mr Leslie had great experience of works
of this nature, his firm having carried through many important
contracts — notably, a portion of the Leith Purification Scheme,
which passed through some of the most important streets in Leith ;
and in preparation of Armour’s case he made many helpful sugges-
tions, not only to those entrusted with the conduct of the case, but
also to his co-witnesses. It was evident that he had profited by
his experience, and one felt that when he spoke he did so as one
having authority. His appearance in the witness-box was quiet,
dignified, and impressive, his evidence being given in a clear, pre-
cise, emphatic manner, coupled with that moderation and fairness
which are always so telling in their effect on those sitting in judg-
ment on the case.
Mr Leslie also acted as a valuator appointed by the Board of Trade
in a question arising out of the construction of the Tollcross Lines,
and in that matter his actions were characterised by promptness and
despatch. He showed that he was a man thoroughly capable of
discharging judicial functions, and his judgment was by the claimant
and by the railway company regarded as being fair and reason-
able.
Mr Leslie was of active habits, and was able to attend to business
to within a week of his death, which came at the last with startling
suddenness. He was cut off at the age of 49, and leaves a widow
and son to mourn his untimely death.
xlvi Proceedings of Boyal Society of Edinhurgh.
General Robert Maclagan, R.E. By Major-General Sir
Robert Murdoch Smith, K.C.M.G., R.E.
(Read January 21, 1895.)
General Robert Maclagan of the Royal (late Bengal) Engineers,
who was horn in Edinhurgh on the 14th December 1820, was the
third son of Dr David Maclagan, Physician to the Forces and
Surgeon-in-Ordinary to the Queen in Scotland. He was educated
at the High School and at the University of his native city.
Subsequently, after the usual course of instruction at the East
India Company’s Military College at Addiscomhe, where he greatly
distinguished himself, he received his first commission as a Second
Lieutenant in the Bengal Engineers in December 1839. Like
other young Engineer officers, he thereupon underwent a thorough
course of practical training at the Royal Engineer Establishment,
Chatham, now designated the School of Military Engineering,
before proceeding to India to enter on the active duties of his
profession. It may not be amiss to point out that, in all proba-
bility, much of the thoroughness and versatility which characterised
his subsequent career was due to the nature of his early training,
viz., a good school and university curriculum under home influences,
followed by two years’ theoretical, and two years’ practical, instruc-
tion in the special subjects appertaining to the duties of a military
engineer. This happy sequence of literary, scientific, and practical
pursuits undoubtedly helped, in large measure, to prepare him for
the varied eventualities of his future career.
Arriving in India, he was appointed to the Bengal Sappers and
Miners, the headquarters of which corps he joined at Delhi in
March 1842, while the British and Indian forces were still engaged
in avenging our previous disasters in Afghanistan. From Delhi he
marched in the same year in command of a company to Firozpur,
where he joined the army of reserve held in readiness to support
the army in the field under Sir Frederick Pollock. On the safe
Obituary Notices,
xlvii
return of the latter, after its victorious campaign, the army of
reserve was broken up, and Maclagan was transferred first to Kurnal,
and afterwards to Karachi, the port of the recently annexed province
of Sind. There, under the energetic Sir Charles Kapier, he acted
for a short time as Executive Engineer until the outbreak of the
Sikh war in December 1845, when, along with his chief, he started
for the Punjab. He arrived at Lahore in time to take part in the
grand review of the British forces on March 5, 1846, by the Com-
mander-in-Chief, Sir Hugh Gough, and the Governor-General, Sir
Henry Hardinge. In the course of the war he was placed in charge
of the works for the defence of Lahore, a most responsible post for
so young an officer. The choice of Maclagan for such a post is, in
itself, ample evidence of the fact that at this early period of his
career he had already gained the confidence of his superior officers.
After a few months’ service at Lahore, which, contrary to expecta-
tion, was not attacked by the Sikh army, he was prostrated by fever,
and sent to Simla. While there he was in the following year
selected for the position with which his name was afterwards to he
so thoroughly identified, that, namely, of Principal of the Civil
Engineering College about to he established at Eurki.
The idea of training young Europeans, Eurasians, and natives in
different branches of civil engineering, so as to fit them for useful
employment in the Public Works Department, was a new one, and
the means adopted for carrying it into effect were, consequently, ex-
perimental. On the selection of the first Principal and Organiser
of the new College depended the success or failure of the experiment.
That, under such circumstances, the Government should have chosen
a subaltern little more than twenty-six years of age, shows clearly
how young Maclagan’s capacity, character, and personality had im-
pressed themselves on his contemporaries.
The result showed that the confidence of the Indian Government
in the young Principal was not misplaced. From the first he dis-
played an extraordinary talent for organisation, and an indefatigable
habit of taking pains. These qualities, combined with a remarkably
genial and kindly disposition, made his reign at Eurki an eminent
success.
When the Mutiny broke out in 1857, measures, in which Mac-
lagan took a prominent part, were at once taken by Colonel Baird
VOL. XX. 2 P
xlviii Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgh.
Smith, E.E., for the defence of the European community in and
around Eurki. The college buildings were put into a state of
defence, and the pupils organised into such an efficient garrison,
that the mutineers thought it prudent to let them alone. What
might otherwise have proved a second Cawnpore was thus happily
averted. Throughout that trying and critical period Maclagan’s
conduct was spoken of by those who were present as beyond all
praise.
In 1861 Maclagan, now a Lieutenant-Colonel, was appointed
Chief Engineer and Secretary in the Public Works Department to
the Government of the Punjab, in which appointment he remained
until his retirement from the service in January 1879, after
attaining the rank of General. During his long administration of
the Public Works Department in the Punjab, much was done in
the making of roads, railways, and canals, and in the erection of
barracks and other public buildings, towards the development of
the resources and the permanent security of what in many respects
is the most important province of the Indian Empire.
In retiring from the public service. General Maclagan merely
exchanged one field of activity for another. In the Proceedings of
the Royal Asiatic Society, of which he was a Member of Council,
and in the latest edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, he found
scope for his literary tastes and researches, more especially in
subjects connected with the East; while his continued interest in
science was evidenced by his Fellowship of the Eoyal Society of
Edinburgh, and of the Eoyal Geographical Society of London, of
which latter, for a number of years, he wsls a most efficient Member
of Council. It was, however, on work of a missionary and philan-
thropic nature that his heart was chiefly set. On it he spared
neither time, money, nor labour, and whatever his hand found to
do in its furtherance he did it with his might.
In every relation of life, public and private, he exemplified, as
few men have done, the apostolic definition of charity, which reads
almost like a categorical description of the character, temper, and
disposition of Eobert Maclagan.
Obituary Notices.
xlix
Dr Sanderson. Ey Dr Buchan.
(Read February 4, 1895.)
Dr James Sanderson was born at Dunbar on May 21, 1812, and
died March 28, 1891. He was educated at the Grammar School
there, and thereafter entered the University of Edinburgh as a
medical student.
After graduation, his first appointment was that of Surgeon on
board the East India Company’s ships “ Marquis of Camden ” and
“ Duke of Argyll,” on voyages to St Helena, Bombay, China,
Calcutta, and Ceylon. In 1836 he was appointed Surgeon in the
Madras Medical Service, and in 1837 did duty with the artillery
corps at St Thomas’s Mount.
He was appointed in 1838 by Lord Elphinstone, then Governor
of Madras, to organise the medical department in connection with
the system of convict labour instituted by his Lordship. For the
successful accomplishment of this Dr Sanderson received the thanks
of the Government. He was next appointed one of the medical
officers of the Heilgherries, which post he occupied for the next
three years.
He was placed on the Presidency Medical Staff in 1844 as Port
and Marine Surgeon, and afterwards was appointed District Surgeon
by the Marquis of Tweeddale, at that time Governor and Com-
mander-in-Chief of Madras. Shortly thereafter he became medical
attendant to his Lordship and suite, and subsequently served in the
same capacity to Sir Henry Pottinger, who succeeded Lord Tweed-
dale as Governor of Madras ; and also to Sir George Berkeley and
General Strachey, Commander-in-Chief of the Madras Army. In
1854 he was appointed Garrison Surgeon of Fort St George,
Madras, and accompanied Lord Harris as medical attendant in his
several tours through the provinces, and returned to England with
his Lordship in 1859.
In the following year he returned to Madras, was appointed
to the Governor’s Body Guard, was sent to Galle to meet Sir
1 Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinhurgh.
William Dennison, whom he accompanied on his tours throughout
the Presidency in 1861-62. He acted as medical attendant to
His Excellency, and also to his successor. Sir Hope Grant, and
their suites. In May 1863 he was placed on the retired India list.
From that time he resided in Edinburgh, and took an earnest and
active part in professional, scientific, philanthropic, and religious
movements. He was elected a Fellow of this Society in 1863, and
for some time was a Member of Council. In the same year he
became a Member of the Scottish Meteorological Society, and a
Member of its Council in 1865, Honorary Treasurer in 1872, and
Honorary Treasurer to the Ben He vis Observatory in 1883, when
the Observatory was established. He was most regular in attendance
at Council, Committee, and General Meetings, and devoted a very
large portion of his time not merely to the more special duties of
Treasurer, but also in forwarding the extension of its membership,
and in promoting whatever tended to increase the efficiency of the
work of the Society.
From the beginning of his career to the end, Dr Sanderson was
an ardent learner. After settling in Edinburgh, he attended several
of the medical classes of the University with the view of being
brought more abreast with the different departments of his profes-
sion ; and latterly, when Dr Whyte began his classes for young
men on Sunday evenings, which are in no small degree academical
in character, he, and his friend, Mr Donald Beith, whose obituary
was read at last meeting, were among the most regular attenders of
the class.
His professional success in India was the result of the remarkable
openness and teachableness of his mind in quest of information
from all quarters, his firmness of character when required, but,
above all, to the unfailing cheeriness of the man, which inspired
hope and ultimate recovery to many a sick-bed. In these vari-
ous capacities he was able to perform most effective service by his
earnestness of purpose, his enthusiastic nature, and his singularly
genial and kindly manner.
Obituary Notices.
li
Dr Hugh Francis Clarke Cleghorn. By Professor
M‘Intosh, St Andrews.
(Read 1, 1895.)
Dr Cleghorn was descended from an old Fife family, his grand-
father having been Professor of Civil and Natural History in the
University of St Andrews, and was born in JN^adras on the 9th
August 1820, his father being then Administrator-General in the
Supreme Court. He was sent home in 182.4, and resided at the
family estate of Stravithie, near St Andrews, till he was twelve
years of age. As a boy he was trained to rural pursuits, and
rendered familiar with agricultural routine. These early lessons
amidst the fine woods of Stravithie, then haunted by the roe-deer
and wild-duck, seemed to have laid the foundation for the love of
flowers, shrubs, and trees that in after-life became so pronounced.
He was sent to the High School of Edinburgh, which he attended
for two years — having for school-fellows the brothers Philip and
Robert Maclagan, William Nelson (afterwards the publisher), and
the Rev. Prof. Milligan, late of Aberdeen.
Leaving the High School, he entered the University of St
Andrews, where, besides the ordinary classes, he had the privilege
of attending a short course of lectures by Edward Forbes on star-
fishes, before the publication of his classic work on that subject.
After studying in the Arts classes for four years, he was apprenticed
in 1837 as a pupil of the distinguished Edinburgh surgeon.
Professor Syme, for five years, holding, however, during the fifth
year, the office of House-Surgeon in the Edinburgh Infirmary.
During his career in Edinburgh, botany, then under the charge of
Prof. Graham, formed a favourite study, and laid a firm hold on
the young surgeon — one of the numerous instances of the brother-
hood that from earliest times has always subsisted between
medicine and biology.
Having graduated at the University of Edinburgh in 1841, and
obtained an appointment in India in 1842, he proceeded, at the
age of twenty- two, by a sailing-ship to Madras — the voyage then
occupying three months. Landing in December, he was attached
to the Madras General Hospital, to study Indian diseases, and
lii Proceedings of Eoyol Society of Edinhurgh.
thereafter, for three or four years, led a life of constant marching
and counter-marching with different regiments. He thus obtained
many opportunities both of learning the native language and of
extending his botanical knowledge, which, originally fostered by a
diligent use of the Edinburgh Botanic Garden, now began to bear
fruit. His other duties consisted of the superintendence of a jail
and the practice of vaccination, besides preparing a collection of
native raw produce for the local museum. Following out a sugges-
tion which he received from Sir William Hooker, he was in the
habit of studying a few plants daily, and thus acquired an extensive
knowledge of the medical and economic plants of India. He was
further encouraged by letters from Sir Eobert Christison, with notes
of iiiquirenda and desiderata relating to Indian drugs, such as
gamboge and chiretta.
His botanical tendencies, indeed, even then attracted considerable
notice, especially his observations on the destruction of the forests,
and he was appointed on the Mysore Commission, chiefly in
connection with this subject. The labours entailed on Dr Cleg-
horn at this time, however, told on his health, and, early in 1848,
sick of Mysore fever, he was sent home. The voyage proved
disastrous, for the ship was totally dismasted, lost five of her able-
bodied seamen, and the passengers were with difficulty landed —
without either luggage or money — at Cape Town. He reached
England at the end of June, but was still in weak health, for an
attack of pleurisy with cough had followed the Mysore fever. He
recruited by botanising in Devonshire ; and thereafter, having
attended the meeting of the British Association in Edinburgh in
1850, he was appointed, with other eminent men, to report upon
tropical forests, and the influence which they exerted on the
climate and the resources of the country. Dr Cleghorn, who
drew up this exhaustive report, had, indeed, early perceived the
immense importance of the tropical forests. He had observed
that, as the population spread out, the people were tempted to
invade the forests and cultivate within them. More than thirty
years ago, so impressed was he by the results of what was known
as the “Kumri” cultivation, that he was instrumental in getting
orders issued by the Government to stop the wasteful system in
Mysore. As Sir Dietrich Brandis and Sir William Muir so clearly
Obituary Notices.
liii
pointed out* some years ago, he was just the man who could best
carry out forestry measures amongst the people of India — without
appearing tyrannical. “ He was,” says his colleague. Sir Dietrich
Brandis, “ known to be a true friend to the natives, and had made
himself familiar with their modes of life and systems of husbandry.
As a medical man his name was also widely known, and he had
acquired much influence amongst the native population ; and,
indeed. Dr Cleghorn’s single-minded desire to promote the welfare
of the people had become evident, not only to the natives, hut also
to leading Government offlcials in Madras, and the confidence they
placed in him was the secret of his subsequent success in this
important matter.” f
About this time Dr Cleghorn contemplated retiring from the
service, and, indeed, his papers were drawn up, when he met Prof.
Forbes Boyle, of King’s College, London, who asked and obtained
his aid in preparing a Catalogue of the Eaw Products in the great
Exhibition of 1851, a task which occupied him ninety days. Forbes
Boyle was very thankful for the valuable help given him by the
young Indian surgeon, for his own health had become somewhat
feeble. He, moreover, gave him letters to the India Office, to Sir
Henry Pottinger, Governor of Madras, and to others. This, and an
improvement in health, led to Dr Cleghorn’s return to India in
1851, and he lost no time in calling on the Governor of Madras,
who took a deep interest in him. He was then given orders to
proceed with a wing of a Queen’s regiment to Tricliinopoly ; but
he had only been there three weeks when he was recalled, and
offered the post of Professor of Botany and Materia Medica in
Madras. Shortly after settling in this congenial office, he was also
put in charge of a number of young forest-olflcers, and no one with
greater aptitude could have been selected, for he was not only
familiar with Indian life and its dangers, but had always been
characterised by his kindly interest in young men, and still more
by his high moral tone and his strictly temperate habits. Thus his
income was increased and his botanical tastes were given free play.
Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, 7th Aug. 1888 ; Trans. xii.
pp. 87-93.
t Sir Dietrich Brandis, Trans. Scot. Arhoric. Soc., xii. p. 90. A generous
tribute to his fellow-labourer, Dr Cleghorn.
liv Proceedings of Boyal Society of Pdinburgh.
For some years he laboured in Madras in these offices, and also
acquired a fair practice in the city, in addition to carrying on the
duties of Port and Marine Surgeon, and afterwards of District
Surgeon of St Thome. But this quiet life was by-and-by broken.
In 1855 he received an invitation to Government House, and found
that, besides Lord Harris, then Governor of Madras, the only other
person present was Sir Arthur Cotton. Before leaving. Lord
Harris asked him to look at a bundle of papers connected with
public works, especially railways, and explained that one of their
difficulties was to get wood for sleepers, adding that Sir Walter
Elliot had said he was the best man to consult. After some further
conversation about a forest department, and the changes that would
be necessary in Dr Cleghorn’s official position, the latter left, saying
that he would think over the matter for a week, as he was doubtful
where he could get assistance. He consulted Sir Walter Elliot, a
man not only of great experience and sagacity, but well-known for
his love of science, and at the end of the week he returned to Lord
Harris, and accepted the task of organising a forest department, and
reporting. He was then transferred from the military to the
revenue department.
He first visited Burmah, and saw the working of the trained
elephants ; next. Dr Thomson of the Calcutta Botanic Garden ; and
obtained from every available source, and at considerable personal
exertion, the necessary information. At the end of two months he
presented his preliminary report to the Governor, embodying the
scheme for a forest department, afterwards to become so important
in India. Sir Dietrich Brandis was appointed by Lord Dalhousie,
the Governor-General, to the newly-acquired province of Pegu, as
Conservator of Forests in Burmah, while Dr Cleghorn worked on
in Madras, and they frequently consulted together, so as to act on
the same lines.
At this time (1861) Dr Cleghorn visited his home in Scotland,
taking a brief holiday of a few months, and marrying Miss Cowan,
daughter of Mr Charles Cowan, late M.P. for Edinburgh. Eeturn-
ing to India, he landed with his wife at Galle in Ceylon, where he
received a telegram from the Government requesting him to return
to Simla. On arrival he was appointed Joint-Commissioner with
Sir D. Brandis for the conservancy of forests. The Governor-
ObitvAiry Notices.
Iv
General further desired Dr Cleghorn to proceed to the Punjab to
examine the forests of Western Himalaya, and to institute a syste-
matic plan of conservancy and management. He spent three years in
exploring the countries adjacent to our north-west frontier, including
part of Kashmir and the Trans-Indus territory. The fine series of
photographs taken during his journey to Kashmir give a vivid idea
of the remarkable geological formation, of the richness of many parts
in pines and other trees, and of the general configuration of the
region.
The two commissioners met frequently, and finally presented
reports. Dr Cleghorn’s was published in 1864, and forms a large
octavo volume, with various maps and plans, exhaustively dealing
with the forests of the Punjab, and in a manner that reflected the
highest credit on his ability as a scientific botanist and experienced
administrator in forestry.
Having thus introduced the system of forest conservancy in the
Punjab, Dr Cleghorn returned to Madras, and carried on the duties
of Conservator of the Forests in that Province. “He had the
satisfaction of accomplishing for the Madras Presidency the same
result, which thirteen years previously he had helped to bring about
in Mysore. The Government prohibited Kumri cultivation in the
forests without previous permission.”* Meanwhile, Sir D. Brandis,
whose experiences of forests were European, for he had studied the
subject in Germany, Saxony, and France, as well as in India, was
appointed the first Inspector-General of Forests to the Government.
Life passed pleasantly in Madras for some years, but his father
dying at Stravithie in 1864, he came home on short leave in 1865.
He also acted as Inspector-General of Forests w^hen Dr Brandis
visited this country in 1867. Finally, he retired from Indian service
in 1869.
Besides his official reports, he published a work in 1861 on the
“ Forests and Gardens of South India ” — in which the conservancy
of the forests, the economical method of supplying fuel, and the
modes of treating the several trees, as well as the condition of the
various gardens, were fully illustrated. As Principal Sir William Muir
stated some years ago,f this work was extremely useful in spreading
* Sir D. Brandis, op. dt.^ p. 90.
t Trans. Eoy. Arbor. Soc., xii. p. 200.
Ivi Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh.
a knowledge of the value of forests, and the best means of assisting
their cultivation. His Indian experiences were also given in many
separate papers published between 1850 and 1870, such as those on
the “ Hedge-plants of India,” “ Sand-binding Plants,” “ Chiretta used
in the Hospitals of Southern India,” “ The Indian Gutta Tree,” “ The
Coco-nut Tree,” “The Varieties of the Mango Fruit,” “The Intro-
duction of Cinchona Trees,” and numerous others dealing with trees,
general vegetation of districts, and accounts of his expeditions, — one
of the latter, viz. that to the higher ranges of the Ananialai Hills,
having been published in the Society’s Transactions. Thus, whether
we regard Dr Cleghorn’s great services to the cause of forestry in
India, his labours in general botany, or his official duties in connec-
tion with the army, it is seen that the Minute of the Government
on his retirement was fully merited. It runs as follows : — “ His
long services, from the first organisation of forest management in
Madras, have, without question, greatly conduced to the public good
in this branch of administration; and in the Punjab also Dr
Cleghorn’s labours have prepared the way for the establishment of
an efficient system of conservancy and working the forests of that
province.”
In the summer of 1869 he was suddenly called, by the serious
illness of Prof. Walker Arnott, to undertake the duties of his class
in the University of Glasgow. He then gave a complete course of
lectures on Systematic Botany, besides conducting the various
excursions of the class.
Dr Cleghorn now took up his residence at his estate of Stravithie,
and entered keenly into every philanthropic movement in the
county. As justice of the peace, and member of most of the
important county committees, his time was fully occupied. His
efforts to promote the cause of temperance also deserve grateful
remembrance. As prison visitor, by his kindly sympathy and
advice, he obtained a hold on many an unfortunate criminal, whom,
on discharge, he was the first to assist pecuniarily, as well as to aid
in obtaining employment.
While thus largely occupied with philanthropic and county
business, he still found time to pursue his favourite studies of
botany, and especially of forestry. In 1870, ten students of forestry,
who had been driven from the banks of the Phine by the contending
Ohituary Notices.
Ivii
armies, were placed under his care. He continued their studies hy
a course of twenty lectures on forestry in the United College, St
Andrews, which were attended also by the general students of the
University, attracted no less by the interesting nature of the subject
than by the great experience and the sympathetic bearing of their
teacher. The grounds of Stravithie were studded with rare pines
and shrubs, and he was ever ready to invite and welcome botanical
and other visitors to see them. Nature had been lavish in the
botanical treasures of his neighbourhood, and by judicious planting,
art greatly increased its amenity. He was one of the leading
members, and President in 1870, of the Botanical Society of Edin-
burgh, his presidential address being devoted to a review of the
advances in botany since he joined the Society in 1839, and a
summary of the present state of the science in Scotland. The con-
genial presence of old friends like Sir Douglas Maclagan, the late
Professors J. H. Balfour, Sir Robert Christison, and others, at this
Society, and at the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, was to
him a constant source of pleasure. He was indefatigable in advanc-
ing the interests of the latter Society, and he was twice President.
For many years he selected candidates for the Indian Forest-Service,
and it was his evidence before the Forestry Committee of the House
of Commons that was mainly instrumental in the formation of a
Forest Board to promote the proper training of young men for forest-
service, and which also led in part to the establishment of a Forest-
Branch in the Engineering College at Cooper’s Hill, Surrey. On
retiring from the India Office, he received a complimentary acknow-
ledgment of his services from the Secretary of State, mentioning,
amongst other things, that all the present forestry-officers in India
had passed through his hands. For ten years he acted as Examiner
in Botany in the University of Edinburgh, and no one more assidu-
ously or more conscientiously performed his duties. For twenty
years he was also Examiner in Forestry to the Highland and Agri-
cultural Society.
No one was more active or more persevering in furthering the pro-
ject of an International Forestry Exhibition when it was mooted in
Edinburgh in 1883, and his extensive acquaintance with those most
likely to aid on the Continent, in America, and in the Colonies, was
of signal service to the executive. The success of this important
Iviii Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Exhibition, indeed, was largely due to his unceasing efforts ; and
further, he roused public attention to the need of more complete
and systematic training in forestry than was then available. The
importance of the conservation of the forests of the country, and of
their extension, both for the sake of amenity and economy, were
prominently brought out by the Exhibition itself, by the various
papers connected with it, and by several lectures he was instru-
mental in appending. By his influence the Board of Agriculture
agreed to give a sum of £100 per annum, and the Highland and
Agricultural Society £50 per annum, while the sum of £1000, then
anonymously given, most generously came from himself — all to
found a Chair of Forestry in the University of Edinburgh, a project
he had kept in view for some years. He succeeded in a way
which only high purpose and skilful diplomacy could, and now a
Forestry Lectureship is permanently established. The first lecturer
was Dr William Somerville, who now holds the Professorship at
Durham, and the present holder is Col. Bailey, R.E., who was lately
in charge of the Forest School of the N.W. Provinces of India.
The gratitude of all students of forestry was thus worthily won by
his indefatigable exertions and his generous help. It is satisfactory
to know that his botanical library also goes to the University of
Edinburgh.
Further, besides extending the interests of the Department in
London and Edinburgh, he did not forget the efforts that were then
being made in the University of St Andrews to widen the sphere
of teaching, especially by the introduction of Botany into the cur-
riculum. His counsel and encouragement were always at the ser-
vice of those working in this direction. Accordingly, when lectures
on botany were commenced in 1887, he most kindly gave numerous
lecture-diagrams, a botanical cabinet and herbarium, a series of
reference-books, and took a personal interest in the success of the
class, then under Dr J. H. Wilson, now of the Yorkshire College,
Leeds. He also gave prizes to the best students, and invited them
to Stravithie to botanise, and in various ways encouraged the new
lectureship. A year or two afterwards he intimated that he
intended to give £1000 to the Chair of Natural History in St
Andrews, formerly held by his relative. Prof. Hugh Cleghorn. The
struggling lectureship in Botany, however, was more in need of it,
Obituary Notices.
lix
and lie was advised to make it secure by this handsome donation.
He agreed ; and the necessary document was there and then drafted,
at that time anonymously. In the formation of a Botanic Garden
in the University he took a deep interest, and spoke at the opening
ceremony in the Garden in the summer of 1888, especially dwelling
on the practical skill which the young lecturer (Dr Wilson) had
shown in arranging the natural orders of plants.
Dr Cleghorn’s distinguished career in India, his unselfish devotion
to the good of the community, and his active efforts to advance
science — especially in the two Universities with which he was more
immediately connected — did not pass unnoticed. In 1885 the
University of St Andrews bestowed on him the honorary degree of
Doctor of Laws. He was made an Honorary Fellow of the Botanical
Society, a distinction limited to six British subjects; and he was
elected also an Honorary Member of the Scottish Arboricultural
Society, and a Vice-President of the Literary and Philosophical
Society of St Andrews, — his last appearance having been made
before the latter body, viz., in reading a paper by Mr Coldstream
on Fruit-growing in India, a subject he had long advocated. He
was also elected Assessor to the University Court of the University
of St Andrews by the General Council, and he held this office with
great acceptance till failing health necessitated his retirement — to the
regret of his friends in the University. Finally, at a meeting of the
Scottish Arboricultural Society in 1888, he was presented with his
portrait, subscribed for by all classes, from peers to foresters and
horticulturists, and a sum of <£200, which latter he suggested
should go to form a forest-library. On this occasion a graceful
tribute was paid by Principal Sir William Muir to Dr Cleghorn’s
services to science, and to arboriculture in India and in this country ;
and he concluded by announcing that the “ Hugh Cleghorn
Forest-Library” would be placed in the Museum of Science and
Art, Edinburgh. Nothing, in short, could have been more agreeable
to the recipient, or more honourable to the large number of distin-
guished men who had subscribed, and some of whom were present.
The career of Dr Cleghorn was singularly varied, but throughout
there runs the thread of a true devotion to science, especially to
botany and forestry. His services to the State in India and at
home, in the cause of the latter, have been noteworthy, and will
lx Fromedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh.
long remain to testify to his perseverance, his breadth of view, and
his great powers of observation. As a philanthropist and educa-
tionalist, again, he played an important part — in fostering all that
w^as good in life on the one hand ; and on the other, in giving
substantial encouragement to science in the Universities, and in
aiding them to extend their influence amongst the people.
He was a man of high personal character, a genuine Christian,
and a generous landlord. His genial and kindly hearing every-
where gained him esteem. Tor some time he had been in failing
health, and in early spring he somewhat suddenly broke down,
peacefully passing away in his quiet home at Stravithie, mourned
by all around him, and by a wide circle of friends elsewhere.
Ohituary Notices.
Ixi
Thomas Stevenson, C.E. By Professor Swan.
(Read July 15, 1895.)
Thomas Stevenson was born in Edinburgh on the 22nd July
1818. His and my own grandfather was Thomas Smith, the first
engineer to the Board of Northern Lights ; and his father was
Robert Stevenson, who succeeded Mr Smith in that office, which
he held for the long period of forty-five years, and who was the
designer of the Bell Rock Lighthouse. This tower, built under his
personal superintendence before the days of steam navigation, on a
lowdying reef continually submerged during neap-tides, was a work
of peculiar difficulty, and its successful accomplishment an achieve-
ment probably not yet surpassed in lighthouse construction.
Thomas Stevenson and I received our first schooling from Alex-
ander Brown, then well known in Edinburgh as a highly-accom-
plished teacher of English, but who was also an exceedingly severe
disciplinarian. Neither of us suffered much from Brown’s tawse,
even although they were not only in continual use in inflict-
ing palmies, but also not unfrequently in what might be termed
unlimited flogging. But Tom had rather frequent experience of
being “ kept in ” after school hours, on account of lessons imperfectly
prepared ; and, in years long after the times of Brown and of the
High School of Edinburgh, might be heard to say that none of the
troubles and trials of his manhood were so hard to bear as the
sufferings he had endured at school. School discipline in those
days was indeed too often a system of merest terrorism and repres-
sion, or repressive terrorism. I have a lively recollection when a
book, then familiarly known as Ruddiman's Latin Rudiments,
was first put into my. hands, how I had a strong desire to discover
whether any occult relation subsisted between the words “ Ruddi-
man ” and “ Rudiments.” But I dared not ask my tutor, to whom
putting questions was a crime, and who would have ordered me
reprovingly to hold my tongue and mind my lesson.
From Brown’s school Tom proceeded to the High School of
Ixii Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Edinburgh, where he received the education in classics which that
institution afforded. Throughout, like many others of its scholars
who in after life have distinguished themselves, his position was
at best that of respectable mediocrity. Yet he succeeded in accom-
plishing what, in those days at least, was not so very common. He
carried away with him some knowledge of Latin, which he was
able to revive and heartily enjoy in later years. A predilection for
letters, although doubtless inherited, was, in spite of his stern dis-
cipline, evoked into conscious activity by his master, Alexander
Brown, and must have received further development at the High
School ; for, from an early period, he displayed a noteworthy love
of books, and early became an ardent book collector. In these days
it was far easier than it now is to pick up old books at moderate
prices ; and, even within the very limited means placed at his dis-
posal, he evinced much good taste and judgment in his purchases.
Among these was a copy of uEsof^s Fables with Bewick’s woodcuts,
now in my possession. But his chief triumph was falling in with
a copy of the excessively rare Croniclis of Scotland of Hector Boece
(Edinburgh, 1527).
In default of becoming an engineer like his father — an aspiration
which as yet had received no encouragement — it was but a natural
outcome of his love of letters, and still more of their material
embodiment in the shape of books, that he should now have con-
templated the calling of a printer as a possible alternative. In
accordance with such prospects, about this time he had got made
for himself a working model of a printing press. This was not a
mere toy, but a regular “ Columbian ” press ; and his notion was
to write essays of his own, and to print them. I remember one
fragment which thus went through the press. It was written in
typical Johnsonian English, due to the inspiration of Rassellas,
Prince of Abyssinia, and other writings of the great lexicographer,
caught under the contagious enthusiasm of Alexander Brown. But
a ready use of his fingers, unless it were in writing, was not one of
Tom’s natural gifts, and the work of compositor and pressman was
speedily abandoned.
But now it was time that he were choosing a calling for life. His
tastes and aspirations were for his father’s profession. But already
his elder brothers, Alan and David, had adopted it ; and it seemed
Obituary Notices.
Ixiii
as if there were not room left for Tom. Accordingly lie chose, at
least provisionally, what he liked next best, and was received,
without a regular apprenticeship, into the printing-office of Dr
Patrick Neill, his father’s much esteemed and life-long friend.
Here he found, I believe, sufficiently congenial employment, and the
days went pleasantly by, but varied by, at least, one sufficiently
startling experience. One morning when on his way to the print-
ing-office in the Old Fishmarket Close, when it was blowing a
furious gale of wind, a heavy chimney-pot from some of the lofty
High Street lands fell so close to his feet that a fragment of it
rebounding from the pavement, cut his dress, but happily without
striking his body ; and thus it may be said that his temporary
typographical pursuits had in more ways than one nearly lost him
for his great life’s work as an engineer. Now, however, he entered
his father’s office before he had completed his eighteenth year.
He afterwards superintended the construction of various works,
among which was the lighthouse on Little Ross Island ; and it was
while thus engaged that he wrote a paper on the geology of that
island. This was published in 1843 ; but a still earlier paper,
which appeared in 1842, “On the Defects of Rain-gauges, with the
description of one of an improved form,” was the first of a series
of writings, in course of time, contributed to various scientific
societies and journals embracing a very wide field, and which
included lighthouse and harbour engineering, lighthouse optics,
experiments on the force of waves, meteorology, and other subjects.
In 1846 he became a partner with his brothers Alan and David, of
whom the former, who had succeeded his father as engineer to the
Board of Northern Lights in 1843, in 1853, owing to ill-health,
resigned that post, when his brother David was appointed in his
place as engineer to the Board, and in 1855 Thomas was con-
joined with David in the engineership. During their joint tenure
of office, extending over a period of thirty-two years, they de-
signed and erected numerous beacons and lighthouses, among which
the lighthouses on Dhu Heartach and the Chicken’s Rocks were
works of no ordinary difficulty. During his brief term of active
professional work, Alan Stevenson had designed and personally
superintended the erection of the magnificent lighthouse tower on the
Skerryvore Reef, and had also introduced into the Scottish light-
VOL. XX. 2 Q
Ixiv Proceedings of Boyal Society of Edinhiorgli.
house system Fresnel’s dioptric apparatus, on the construction of
which he made some important improvements, among which were
the employment of diagonal in place of rectangular joints in Fresnel’s
refractory apparatus, and with the same object — namely, of obtain-
ing more uniform distribution of light — diagonal astragals in the
lighthouse lanterns. With a like spirit his successors remodelled
many of the earlier Scottish lighthouses, replacing the older reflector
apparatus by the lenses and other agents of the dioptric system ;
and it was in this work that Thomas achieved the well-earned and
world-wide reputation of being first in his time in the improvement
of lighthouse apparatus, “by whose devices,” it has with literal
truth been said, “ the great sea-lights in every quarter of the world
now shine more brightly.”
Augustin Fresnel (b. 1788), in June 1819 placed by the Govern-
ment of France on the Commission des Phares, in August of the
same year submitted to the Commission his design of a polyzonal
lens, which he proposed should supersede the reflectors then in
use in the lighthouses of France. Owing to the then imperfect
condition of the art of glass-working, difficulties were at first ex-
perienced in the manufacture of these lenses, which were only
overcome by new methods of Fresnel’s own devising ; and it was
not until July 1823 that the famous old lighthouse tower at
Cordouan, where it had been determined to inaugurate the new
system of lighthouse illumination, was lit up by means of lenses
in place of the reflectors which had served since 1799.
Meanwhile Fresnel had communicated to the Academy of
Sciences, on 29th July 1822, his Memoire sur un nouveau systems
d'eclairage des Phares. This, the only considerable published
writing on his “ new lighthouse system” proceeding from his own
pen, consists in a description of his polyzonal lenses and their
arrangement for revolving lighthouse appai?atus, where, in order
to save light which would otherwise be lost by upward divergence,
each large lens is accompanied by a smaller one placed above in
connection with an inclined mirror, the effect of the arrangement
being to increase the duration of the flash from the great lens.
But he died in 1827, and thus but the five remaining years of
his brief term of life were afforded him in which to work out his
dioptric system of lighthouse illumination ; but in these years the
Obituary Notices.
Ixv
optical agents which he had devised — each perfect of its kind —
were two in number, — his polyzonal lens, in which the centre and
radius of curvature for each zone are separately computed, so as
almost entirely to get rid of spherical aberration, and his totally
reflecting lighthouse prisms. Eut the application of these agents
to the design of his fixed light apparatus he did not live to see
actually constructed in all the details in which he had conceived
them. It was not until further experience in the manufacture of
lighthouse apparatus had rendered it practicable that his designs
were for the first time carried out in Scotland by Alan Stevenson,
and then, as at length constructed after what we cannot doubt was
Fresnel’s own ideal design, his fixed light apparatus may be regarded
as a thing perfect of its kind. Similarly, his revolving light
arrangements, as they left his hands, more especially when viewed
in the light of subsequent improvements, wear the aspect of being
but a first attempt ; and, accordingly, Alan Stevenson when con-
templating the arrangements to be made for his lighthouse of
Skerryvore, dissatisfied with those of Fresnel, introduced the
substantial improvement of adding fixed prisms below Fresnel’s
revolving lenses, these Fresnel-prisms, manufactured in Paris,
being the first ever constructed for the large dimensions of a
first-order light. Had Fresnel’s life been prolonged, there is every
reason to believe that the dioptric system of lighthouse illumi-
nation would have received further development at his own hand ;
but now, when that hand was for ever still, the distinction of
being his chief successor in the work of improving lighthouse optical
apparatus did not fall to any one among his own countrymen, but
was reserved for Thomas Stevenson, the subject of this memoir.
This life’s work, judging from the date of his earliest publication
on the subject, may be said to have begun in 1849, even before his
appointment as one of the engineers to the Board of Northern
Lights, and to have been continued, so long as health permitted,
up to within a few years of his death in 1887. Always on the out-
look for improvements, and more especially while under the fresh
stimulus arising out of the erection of some new lighthouse, his
singularly active mind was continually suggesting something new.
In the course of years his inventions, greater and smaller, arising in
this way became so numerous that it is scarcely possible in a brief
Ixvi Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh.
notice such as the present to give any really adequate account of
them, and for the best available information regarding them refer-
ence may be made, once for all, to his Treatise on Lighthouse Con-
struction and Illumination, of which the third edition was published
in 1881. Yet the history of inventions has seldom failed to be
interesting to a numerous class of readers ; and here it seems
desirable at least to point, in chronological order, to Thomas
Stevenson’s principal lighthouse improvements.
Of these the earliest, made in 1849-50, was the invention of his
Catadioptric Holophote. This consisted in the removal of the pos-
terior portion of the parabolic reflector hitherto in use in light-
houses, replacing it by a spherical reflector behind and concentric
with the flame, so as to reflect the light incident on it back through
the flame along with a lens in front, by which means he contrived
that, while by far the greater portion of the original parabolic mir-
ror was retained to fulfil its function of reflecting a beam of parallel
rays, the very large portion of light which hitherto had wastefully
escaped by natural divergence, was now also emitted in the same
beam of parallel rays with that reflected by the parabolic surface.
Thus, for the first time, the whole “ sphere of rays ” diverging from
the flame was utilised by being combined into a single beam of
parallel rays, with the least jDossible number of reflections or refrac-
tions. The merit of this contrivance will best be appreciated by
comparing it Avith previous attempts made to increase the efficiency
of the parabolic lighthouse reflector. It is the first of various
arrangements which Mr Stevenson devised' in order to intercept,
and by the least possible number of optical agents to render parallel,
all the rays proceeding from a focal point, and Avhich accordingly
he termed “ holophotal.”
In designing a lighthouse where a portion only of the horizon
and not the whole all round AVas to be lit up, the catoptric system
of illumination presented no difficulty. It was enough to fit up a
system of reflectors embracing in their range the arc to be illuminated
and no more. But it is otherAvise with the dioptric system. A
portion only, instead of the entire Fresnel’s fixed-light apparatus,
doubtless, can be constructed. But then those rays proceeding
from its great central lamp, amounting it may be to more than one-
half, which this partial apparatus fails to intercept, will be uselessly
Ohituary Notices.
Ixvii
scattered in landward directions — never, indeed, escaping from the
lantern, which in that aspect is always constructed of metal or other
opaque material. It was to save, as far as possible, this intolerable
waste that Alan Stevenson, in Sanda Island Lighthouse, which was
lighted in 1850, introduced a large spherical mirror of silvered glass
of, I believe, 5 feet 10 inches radius, concentric with the flame, so
as to reflect hack through the flame the light which otherwise would
have been wasted. It is obvious that rays thus reflected hack will
proceed forward thereafter /ro??^ the flame, just as if they had been
emitted directly by it, and thus they will fall on the optical appa-
ratus in front in such directions only as will enable it to transmit
them to the seaward horizon. Whether this method of reflecting
light back through the flame was thus for the first time employed
in lighthouse engineering, I am not aware ; but Mr Stevenson has
stated {^Account of the Skerryvore Lighthouse, p. 293) that it had
been originally suggested by him so far back as 183 4.^' We have
already seen that this device was also in 1849-50 adopted by Mr
Thomas Stevenson in the construction of his Catadroptric Holophote,
of wdiich it forms an essential element. He, however, for the pur-
pose of returning back light through the flame did not long rest
contented with ordinary mirror-reflection. Plaving accidentally
noticed the brilliant specular look of light emerging from a glass
prism, where it had undergone two internal total reflections, he
conceived the idea of constructing the spherical mirror in his holo-
photal apparatus of such prisms ; and, accordingly, having consulted
me, I assigned their proper form and mode of combining them, so
as to form a totally reflecting hemisphere {R.S.S.A. Trans., 1850,
vol. iv. p. 20). But it was only at a considerably later period that
the first complete catadroptric mirror was constructed for the Com-
missioners of northern Lights by Mr J. T. Chance, and it was shown
by them at the London International Exhibition of 1862. For
this instrument Mr Chance devised a new arrangement of the pris-
matic zones, which greatly facilitated its construction. Their figures
were now generated round a vertical instead of a horizontal axis as
formerly, and they no longer formed a continuous hemisphere, but
were separated from each other. Having thus devised the means of
* This was in a Report to the Commissioners of Xorthern Lights, 10th
December 1834, p. 28. Edinburgh : Printed by Neill & Co., 183.5.
Ixviii Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh.
reflecting the “ back ” rays of the flame in his holophotal apparatus
arrangements by dioptric agency to the exclusion of metallic reflec-
tion, the next problem which suggested itself to Mr Stevenson was
how to obtain a dioptric arrangement which should be capable of
dealing with the whole of the front rays, hitherto in part subjected
to metallic reflection. A Fresnel polyzonal lens had, indeed, re-
ceived the central pencil of these rays, diverging all round the
horizontal axis of the lens through an angle of about 45°, which,
after refraction, Avere emitted in directions parallel to that axis.
Beyond some such limit of divergence, varying with the kind of
glass of which the lens v/as composed, mere lenticular action Avas
unavailing toAvards emitting a parallel beam of rays. But now it
occurred to Mr Stevenson that the agency of which he Avas in quest
Avas to be found in Fresnel’s catadioptric zones, provided they were
generated by revolution round a horizontal instead of a vertical
axis ; and thus, by means of a Fresnel polyzonal lens surrounded
by a series of totally reflecting rings, generated in the manner noAV
described in front and with a totally reflecting dioptric mirror
behind, Mr Stevenson obtained a holophote, in which, instead of
the optical agents being, as in his earlier invention, partly metallic
reflectors and partly lenticular, all Avere noAV dioptric.
Zones of glass the same in section with those in Fresnel’s fixed
light, but generated by the revolution of their section about a
horizontal instead of a vertical axis, which he had thus devised in
order to complete his dioptric holophote, he not unnaturally termed
“ holophotal.” * The two species of zone, although identically the
same in section yet differing in their mode of generation, conse-
quently differ in their optical effect. Light from the focal point
incident on a Fresnel’s fixed-light zone is emitted in every azimuth,
but all within a horizontal plane. Light similarly incident on the
so-called “ holophotal ” zone is all emitted in one and the same
direction parallel to the axis of revolution of the zone, so that its
action is identical with that of a lens in rendering parallel rays
proceeding from its principal focus, but capable of producing much
greater deviations than lie Avithin the power of any lens. Lenti-
cular action was thus extended from causing deviations from about
45°— the limit of Fresnel’s polyzonal lens — to about 130°.
* Lighthouse Construction and Illumination, 1881, pp. 83-85.
Obituary Notices.
Ixix
But it is proper here to mention that zones of this description are
said to have been constructed for Augustin Fresnel so long ago as
1826. Yet it would seem that no drawing or description of them
was ever published, nor were they ever used in any lighthouse.
If they had existed at that early date, there is evidence to prove
that they had been forgotten ; nor can there be any doubt that they
were independently invented by Mr Stevenson.
And no'w that he had obtained for himself this new and powerful
auxiliary, he forthwith proceeded to apply it to the improvement of
Fresnel’s revolving-light apparatus. This had hitherto consisted
in a system of his great annular lenses surrounding the central
burner, the light which by upward divergence escaped from their
action, and would have been lost, being received on a combination
of smaller inclined lenses, which transmit it to plane mirrors over-
head, and these finally reflect it outwards towards the horizon, to
strengthen the light emitted by the great lenses. Now Mr Steven-
son discarded the complex arrangement of the smaller lenses and
plane mirrors, replacing it simply by a system of his new holophotal
prisms. This capital improvement was first introduced in North
Eonaldshay Lighthouse in Orkney, for which the new prisms were
made in 1851 by M. Letourneau of Paris. Unquestionably it
efiected a great saving of light. Fresnel himself, in his Memoir e of
1822, had estimated that the loss of the light subjected to the suc-
cessive action of his lenses and plane mirrors amounted to one-half ;
while Mr J. T. Chance remarks that in Fresnel’s revolving appa-
ratus, as the focal distance of the accessory lenses is less than one-
half of the shortest focal distance in the system of reflecting zones,
the intensity of the light issuing from the former w^ould be scarcely
more than one-fourth of that transmitted by the latter ; and, in
addition to this cause of inferiority, is the loss arising at the mirrors,
so that, on the whole, the modern plan (holophotal) must give light
fim or six times more intense than that of the former (Fresnel’s)
arrangement.
It must suffice here simply to mention that, just as in the case of
“Fresnel’s revolving light,” so also in his “fixed light varied
by flashes,” similar improvements were effected by Mr Stevenson
by substituting holophotal prisms in place of the two-fold refracting
and reflecting agents employed in the original apparatus ; and it
Ixx Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinl>im''gh.
must suffice also merely to name his “Improved Dioptric Holophote
of 1864 before passing to the consideration of his “Azimuthal
Condensing System of Lighthouse Illumination.” This, which
may be regarded as his crowning achievement in improving on the
former condition of lighthouse optical engineering, occupied his
attention for a period of fully thirty years (say from 1855 to 1885),
during which time he expended on it quite a wealth of inventive
faculty, and in the end may be said to have brought about a total
revolution in lighthouse construction.
He himself had not exceeded the literal truth when he wrote
that “ previous to 1855 lighthouse apparatus, having the same illu-
minating power in every azimuth, was used not only at places where
the distances from which the light could be seen were everywhere
equal, and where the employment of such apparatus was therefore
quite legitimate, but also for places having a searange much
greater in some directions than others. This indiscriminate appli-
cation of apparatus of equal power to the illumination of our coasts
necessarily involved a violation of economic principle, for the light
was either too weak in one direction or else unnecessarily strong in
another.” “ In other cases, where perhaps only half the horizon
had to be lighted, a single flame in the focus of a fixed apparatus
could also be strengthened by a hemispheric reflector placed on the
side next the land.” “ But no attempt was ever made to allocate
this auxiliary light in proportion to the varying lengths of the
different ranges and the amplitudes of the arcs to be illuminated ;
nor, where a light had to show all round the horizon, to weaken its
intensity in one arc, and with the rays so abstracted to strengthen
some other arc, which, from its range being longer, required to be of
greater power. As none of the agents or combinations which we
have as yet described were sufficient for dealing with this branch of
lighthouse optics, I found it necessary to devise eight new agents,
possessing special optical properties, for distributing the rays not
egually but equitably ” {Lighthouse Construction and Illumination^
1881, pp. 97-8).
Some, at least, of these new agents will now fall to be described,
and of these the first, taken in the order in which Mr Stevensou
has described them, is that which he has termed a “ back prism ” (op.
eit., p. 91).
Obituary Notices.
Ixxi
Fresnel determined the angle subtending the reflecting side of the
lighthouse prism by the condition that the paths of the extreme
rays of the intromitted pencil of light should he respectively parallel
to the sides containing that angle. This construction, although
elegant, is not essential to the action of the prism, and is even
disadvantageous, as causing the loss of excentric rays, so that the
angle of the prism might with advantage he diminished to the
needed amount. But another disadvantage of Fresnel’s construction
is this, that while with prisms so devised by him deviations of
light cannot be obtained exceeding from about 100° to 120° accord-
ing to the kind of glass employed, by freeing ourselves from the
limitation which his construction imposes we can quite advantage-
ously obtain deviations up to 120° or 135°. The utility of this in
the construction of apparatus to deal with what has been termed
“the back light” is obvious ; and, accordingly, Mr Stevenson ^tates
that the late Mr Alan Brebner and himself had designed what they
termed “back prisms,” by which rays may be made to deviate from
their original direction by about 130°; and he adds, “I communi-
cated the description of these prisms to the Boyal Scottish Society
of Arts on 6th December 1867.* Professor Swan of St Andrews
also independently proposed the same form of prism, a description
of which he communicated to the same Society on the 9th Decem-
ber 1867, accompanied by general formulae for its construction.”!
These prisms were first used at Lochindal lighthouse in Islay, and
were made by Messrs Chance in accordance with Professor Swan’s
formulae.
The next of Mr Stevenson’s new agents, devised by him in carry-
ing out his azimuthal condenser system of lighthouse illumination,
which falls to be described is his Differential Lens. The action of
this instrument may best be understood by considering first that of
a Fresnel’s Polyzonal Lens with the source of illumination in its
principal focus. The light diverging from the flame and falling on
the plane surface of the lens will, after refraction, be emitted in a
beam of parallel, and, it may be assumed, horizontal rays. But if
now for the plane face of the lens be substituted a cylindric surface
* Trans. Roy. Scot. Soc. Arts, vol. vii., 1868, pp. 540-546.
t This modification was independently suggested by Mr Chance and by
myself.
Ixxii Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh.
whose axis is vertical, and which therefore is capable of refracting
light in horizontal directions only, it is evident that the rays now
emitted by the lens will still emerge in horizontal directions, hut
now no longer parallel to each other, but diverging each from some
point of a vertical focal line whose length is equal to the diameter
of the lens. The angle of divergence, it is evident, may be adjusted
to any required amount by varying the curvature of the cylindrical
face of the lense, and just as the central disc and sun surrounding
lenticular rings of the Tresnel polyzonal arrangement replaces a
simple plano-convex lens ; so, in place of a single cylindrical surface
for the differential lens, may be substituted a central cylindrical hand
bordered on either side by a series of straight lenticular prisms with
vertical arcs.
Mr Stevenson’s Differential Eefractor is the application of the
same principle which has been described above for the lens to
Fresnel’s Cylindrical Eefractor ; and, for like ends, Mr Stevenson
also devised a Differential Eefractor, of which, in his own words,
“ the vertical section must be parabolic, while in the horizontal it
must he of such hyperbolic, elliptic, or other curve as will most
advantageously give in each case the required horizontal diver-
gence.”
Professor Tait was kind enough to investigate the mathematical
conditions of the differential mirror, and in the Proceedings of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh of 1871, he gives by a quaternion inte-
gration the formulae for its construction. For a description of the
remainder of Mr Stevenson’s new optical condensing agents it must
suffice to refer the reader to the descriptions to he found in his
Treatise on Lighthouse Illumination.
The preceding statement, I believe, will be found to include a
tolerably complete enumeration of Mr Stevenson’s inventions in
lighthouse optics ; but also nothing as yet has been said regarding
the application of these to special cases of lighthouse illumination.
Many such there are of very great interest ; but it is impossible to
include any adequate description of them within the limits of the
present notice. It must suffice, then, simply to point to one,
namely, the Isle Oronsay Light, situated in the narrow and tor-
tuous Sound of Skye. This light, according to the direction from
which it is viewed, is visible at very different distances, varying
Ohituary Notices.
Ixxiii
irom 3 to 15 miles. Accordingly, it became an object of import-
ance to distribute the light supplied by an ordinary Fresnel’s
second-order fixed apparatus, in the various directions in which it
was to be viewed in quantity in some measure proportional to the
distance it would have to travel to reach the observer’s eye, and
this was effected by subjecting portions of the light not otherwise
usefully available to the action of condensing prisms {Lighthouse
Illumination, pp. 112-116). The late Mr James Melville Balfour,
in reporting on the first trial of this light (October 1857), says,
“ The prisms throw a light down Sleat Sound superior to any first-
class light in the Northern Light’s service, and the light up Glenelg
Bay is little, if at all, inferior in power ” (op. dt., p. 116).
Here it falls to be recorded that Mr J. M. Balfour not only had the
charge of the erection of the Isle Oronsay Light, but to him also
was committed the working out of the necessary drawings and cal-
culations required in designing it. In this work he obtained invalu-
able, it might indeed be almost said essential, help from a recent
ingenious invention of his own. This was his “ Optical Protractor,”
the first instrument, I believe, of its kind (described in the Tran-
sactions of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, vol. v.),"^
And here seems a fitting opportunity for remarking how fortunate,
in carrying out the application of his new lighthouse agents to actual
lighthouse construction, Mr Stevenson was in possessing in the
firm’s office two such coadjutors as Mr J. M. Balfour and Mr Alan
Brebner. The latter, who became a partner in the firm of, D. & T.
Stevenson, C.E., and died in 1890, was the inventor of a new
optical protractor differing from Mr Balfour’s. During a period of
many years he, along with other assistants in the office, executed
the designs for the lighthouses constructed by the firm. Of the
value of their co-operation in the work it is impossible to speak too
highly.
There still remain unmentioned many of Mr Stevenson’s light-
house inventions, which, being not gmrely optical, have not been
included in the preceding enumeration, but space can only now be
* I have elsewhere (in my paper “ On New Forms of Lighthouse Apparatus,”
Trans. Roy. Scot. Soc. Arts) expressed my extreme obligation to Mr Balfour
for the invaluable aid I had obtained from the use of his ingenious instrument,
without whose help I should scarcely have undertaken to protract the designs
contained in my paper.
Ixxiv Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh.
found to mention but one or two of these. The first I will name is
that which he has termed “ The Apparent Light.” This was first
designed by him for Stornoway harbour, and erected in 1851. This
harbour has a very narrow entrance, whose available width is still
further reduced by the presence of a submerged reef. To build a.
lighthouse on this reef would have been a very costly undertaking,,
but Mr Stevenson contrived to light up the hidden danger in
another way, by availing himself of the already existing lighthouse
on Arnish Point. In a window near the bottom of its tower
he placed a lens capable of transmitting a horizontal beam of
parallel rays to a lantern carried on the top of an iron beacon
25 feet high, which he built on the submerged reef. There the
rays are received on a system of vertical prisms, which disperse
them seaward over an angle of 62°. It is scarcely necessary to*
add that the light thus dispersed will appear to the mariner as
if it proceeded from an actual lighthouse built on the submerged
rock, and not from a lamp placed on the distant shore.
To this enumeration of Mr Stevenson’s very varied achievements
in lighthouse illumination, I will add the success which crowned his
experiments on illuminating beacon or buoys by means of electricity
conveyed from land through submarine cables, as fully realised
in the lighting of Gedney’s Channel, leading to New York Harbour.
Mr Stevenson was a Member of Council of the Scottish Meteoro-
logical Society from the time the Society was established in 1855,
and its Honorary Secretary from 1871 to his death in 1887.
During this long period he not only took an active and earnest
part in the management of the Society’s affairs, but also made
original and permanent contributions to the science of Meteorology.
Of these contributions the most important are these : —
1. The Stevenson Screen for the protection of Thermometers,
designed by him in 1864. The object sought to be obtained was
UNIFORMITY among temperature observations, and in this he suc-
ceeded so largely that the Stevenson Screen quickly came into use,
and continues to be used extensively in all parts of the world.
2. The introduction into meteorological investigations of the
term “Barometric Gradient” in 1867, which he first applied, and
with great success, in a discussion of the facts of our great Edin-
burgh hurricane of January 1868.
Ohituary Notices.
Ixxv
3. An elaborate inquiry, with numerous anemometers placed on
poles at various heights, into the important question of the rate
of diminution of the wind’s velocity with height.
4. The proposal, in 1875, to obtain from High Level Stations
and Observatories the data for determining “Vertical Gradients”
for atmospheric pressure, temperature, and humidity, from their
important bearing on meteorological questions generally, but more
particularly on weather changes. Ben Nevis Observatory and
High Level Observatories of other countries have now been for
some time carrying on this great work in a degree and to an
extent scarcely in contemplation when the proposal was made
in 1875.
The Council of the Society recorded in the Minutes of their
meeting of July 11, 1887, their grateful testimony to the vigour
and prudence with which Mr Stevenson discharged his duties as
Honorary Secretary, and to his unfailing courtesy and readiness
to aid and oblige oh all occasions.
{SuiDNementary, by D. A. Stevenson, Esq.).
In addition to what has- already been stated, should be men-
tioned his design of a Bivalve apparatus in 1859; also the design
and introduction, in 1886, of “Lightning Light” apparatus at the
Isle of May electric light, both of which have been strongly
advocated since by the engineers of the Erench Lighthouse Board.
But, perhaps, the most notable improvement of recent times is his
firm’s design of the Hyper-radiant apparatus. This apparatus was
designed to take advantage of burners of increased diameter and
initial power, and, when tried at the South Foreland in 1885, it was
found to be greatly superior to the other lenses tried against it,
and is now largely used at home and abroad.
Along with his brother David he made experiments in 1870
on the use of paraffin as a lighthouse illuminant, and after trial
at Girdleness Lighthouse, they reported to the Commissioners of
Northern Lighthouses that paraffin should be introduced into all
the Scottish lighthouses, as its use would increase the intensity of
the lights, while their maintenance would be greatly reduced.
Ixxvi Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Paraffin is now almost universally used in lighthouses. At present
prices, and at the present rate of consumption, the use of paraffin
in British lighthouses alone results in a yearly saving of between
^35,000 to £40,000.
His firm’s practice as lighthouse engineers was not confined to
the Scottish Board, as their advice was taken by the Governments
of India, China, Newfoundland, New Zealand, Japan, and other
foreign governments, and schemes for the lighting of the whole
coasts of the two last named countries were devised and are now
being carried out. In his book on Lighthouse Construction and:
Illumination, the results of the practice of his firm in lighthouse
construction and optics are given. For some of his inventions laid
before the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, Mr Stevenson was
awarded gold medals ; but it is perhaps proper to say that for none
of his inventions has he, or any member of the Stevenson family,
taken out patents, all lighthouse authorities having had free use of
their designs and improvements in dioptric apparatus and lighthouso
economy generally.
Perhaps I may be allowed to quote the testimony of Captain
Sulivan, the professional adviser of the Board of Trade, when in
1861, giving evidence before the Royal Commission on Lighthouses,,
he stated: — “ It is to Mr Stevenson we owe the present state of our
lighthouse illumination — for the improvements on the Fresnel light
which he has made have really given us the superior class of lights
that we have now in England. All that has been done, that I
can see, to improve on the system, and to give us a better class of
dioptric light, has been done by Messrs Stevenson, and I believe
that that is quite the feeling of every one at the Board of Trade.”
The practice of the firm, of which Mr Thomas Stevenson was a
member, was not confined to lighthouse engineering, as they v/ere
mainly engaged in the construction of harbours, docks, and river
and estuary improvements. With most rivers and harbours in
Scotland he and his partners were in some way professionally con-
nected, while they were also called upon to design works for the
improvement of harbours, and of many rivers and estuaries in
England and Ireland. To the subject of harbour construction Mr
Stevenson directed his attention, bestowing special care in ascer-
taining the forces which have to be met and overcome in the
OhiUiary Notices.
Ixxvii
erection of works exposed to heavy seas in deep water. He
devoted special care to ascertain the force, height, and laws of the
propagation of sea waves, and their action on artificial structures.
The measurement of the force of the waves was carried out with
some degree of completeness by means of instruments which he
devised, such as the Marine Dynamometer. The result of his
wave observations, and the laws he deduced from them, were
given in papers communicated to this Society, to the Edinburgh
Philosophical Journal, and also in his book on Harbours. In
1852, after a series of experiments, he enunciated the law of
the increase of the height of waves in relation to “fetch” ; other
experiments led to formulae involving the relations between the
heights of waves and the various influences which modify them,
and also to formulae by which the reductive powers of harbours
and breakwaters — or their power of reducing the height of waves
after passing within the entrance — could he calculated, all of
which are of great value to the marine engineer. He always held,
however, that much remained to be done, especially in ascertain-
ing facts, and he considered his own work in this direction as only
approximations. More than thirty years ago he was invited to
write the article “Harbours” for the Encyelopcedia Britannica,
which was subsequently published as a separate treatise on The
Design and Construction of Harbours, and it is now in its third
edition.
He came of a well-known family of engineers, all of whom have
been highly distinguished in their profession; and his nephew,
David Alan Stevenson, was conjoined with him in the engineership
of the Scottish lighthouses on his father’s resignation, and is now
the Engineer of the Board, being the fifth in succession in that office.
He was elected a Fellow of this Society in 1848, acted as a
member of Council, as one of its Vice-Presidents, and in 1885
was elected its President. He frequently contributed to our Pro-
ceedings. He was elected a Member of the Institution of Civil
Engineers in 1864 ; and one of his last literary works was a lecture
on “Tides and Coast Works,” which he prepared at the request of
the Council of that Institution, hut which, owing to ill health, he
was unable to read. He was a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries
of Scotland, the Geological, and other Societies.
Ixxviii Proceedings of Royal Soeiety of Edinlurgh,
Mr Stevenson was a devoted member of the Church of Scotland.
Under the pseudonym of a “ Layman,” he wrote several pamphlets
on religious questions, one of which w^as reprinted by the late
Professor Crawford for the use of his students. He did much in
unostentatious charity, many institutions finding in him a warm and
generous supporter.
Mr Stevenson was incapacitated for business for a short time
previous to his death. He spent the winter of 1886-87 with, his
late son, Mr P. L. Stevenson, at Bournemouth, returning to
Edinburgh only a fortnight before his death, which happened
on the 8th May 1887.
INDEX
Address, Opening, Session 1892-93,
by Sir Douglas Maclagan, Presi-
dent, 2.
Adjugate Determinant, Difference
between any Two Terms of, by
Dr Thomas Muir, 323.
Aitken (John), on some Observations
made without a Dust Counter
on the Hazing Effect of Atmospheric
Dust, 76.
Breath Figures, 94.
Alloys in a Steady Magnetic Field, by
J. 0. Beattie, 481. (a) The Trans-
verse Effect, 481. (&) The Varia-
tion of Resistance, 483. (c) Re-
lation between Transverse Effect
and Resistance, 484. {d) Num-
erical Results, 485.
Anderson (W. S.), on the Determina-
tion of Sea-Water Densities by
Hydrometers and Sprengel Tubes
{Title only), 512.
Anglin (Professor A. H.), on the
Properties of the Parabola, 35.
Anthropology, the Rise and Progress
of, by Dr Robert Munro, 215.
Antidotal Properties of the Blood-
Serum of Venomous Serpents. See
Eraser (Prof. Thomas).
Antimony. Variation of Resistance of
Antimony in a Steady Magnetic
Field, by J. C. Beattie, 493.
Antivenene and the Production of
Immunity against Serpents’
Venom, by Prof. Thomas Fraser,
465.
Apes and Man, the Transitional
Forms between. See Turner (Sir
William).
Bacterial Colonies, a New Apparatus
for Counting, by J. Buchanan
Young, M.B., B.Sc., 28.
Beattie (J. C. ), on the Behaviour of
Alloys in a Steady Mag-
netic Field, 481.
VOL. XX.
Beattie (J. C. ), on the Variation of
Resistance in a Steady Magnetic
Field, observed in Nickel, Anti-
mony, and Tellurium Plates, 493.
Beith (Donald), W. S. Obituary N otice
of, by Patrick Murray, Esq., W.S.,
xxxvi.
Ben Nevis Observatory, Hj^grometric
State of the Atmosphere at, by
Andrew J. Herbertson, 177.
Benzoin, two Stereo-Isomeric Hydra-
zones of, by Alexander Smith,
B.Sc., Ph.D., 201.
Berry (George A.), M.B. Note on
the Focus of Concavo-Convex
Lenses, the Surfaces of which are of
Equal Curvature, 192.
Berry (Richard). Anatomy of Vermi-
form Process and Caecum {Title
only), 517.
Blackie (Emeritus Prof.). Alexander
Rangabes, Poet, Statesman, and
Archaeologist ( Title only), 502.
Bottle for Collecting Samples of Sea-
Water. See Water-Bottle.
Breath Figures, by John Aitken, 94.
Brown (Prof. Crum), contributes
Obituary Notice of Prof. William
Dittmar, vi.
On Normal Nystagmus, 352.
and Robert Fairbairn, on the
Action of Sodium Mercaptide on
Dibromo-Malonic Ether, 383.
Preliminary Note on the Use
of Phosgene in preparing Compound
Ethers {Title only), 514.
Brown (Rev. Thomas), D. D. Obituary
Notice of, by Professor Duns, D.D.,
xxix.
Bruce (Alexander), M.D., on a Human
Cyclops, 412.
Brunlees (Sir James). Notice of, in
President’s Address, 7.
Buchan (Alex.), LL.D. , on the Hourly
Variation of the Rainfall at Ben
Nevis Observatory {Title only), 504.
2 R
Ixxx
Index.
Buchan (Alex.), LL.D. The Diurnal
Fluctuations of the Barometer on
Ben Nevis during Clear and Foggy
Weather respectively {Title only),
505.
Awarded Gunning Victoria
Jubilee Prize for 1890-93, 510.
Contributes Obituary Notice of
Dr James Sanderson, xlix.
Burgess (Dr James). Nine-place
Tables of ^ /” e'* d^toi5 = l-18
V’ry o
(Title only), 523.
Cancer pagurus. See Crab (edible).
Carbo-hydrates, Absorption of, by the
Intestinal Epithelium, by Dr Noel
Paton and Dr G. Lovell Gulland,347.
Cayley (Professor). Coordinates -yersMS
Quaternions, 271.
Note on Dr T. Muir’s Paper,
“A Problem of Sylvester’s in
Elimination,” 306.
Note on Professor Cayley’s
Proof that a Triangle and its
Reciprocal are in Perspective, by
Thomas Muir, LL.D., 298.
“Challenger” Expedition. Hum-
boldt Medal presented to Dr John
Murray as Representative of “ Chal-
lenger ” Expedition, 503.
Chasseaud (Dr). An Experimental
Study of Intra-ocular Therapeutics
(Title only), 504.
Clerk-Maxwell (Professor), on Colour-
Blindness, 129.
Clerk-Maxw'ell’s Electrodynamical
Wave-Equations, by Professor Tait,
213.
Coal Measures and the Fossil Plants
which they contain, by H. B.
Stocks, 69.
Cole (F. J.) and Professor J. C.
Ewart, on the Dorsal Branches of
the Cranial and Spinal Nerves of
Elasmobranchs, 475.
Colour-Blindness, Data on the Pheno-
mena of. See Pole, Dr Wm.
Colour-Blind Vision, 115, 129.
Colour-Vision, 120.
Colours, Specific Luminosity of, 128.
Compressibility of Fluids. See Tait
(Professor).
of Liquids. See Tait (Pro-
fessor).
Concavo-Convex Lenses, the Surfaces
of which are of equal Curvature,
Focus of, by George A. Berry, M.B.,
192.
Coordinates versus Quaternions, by
Professor Cayley, 271.
Copeland (Prof. Ralph), on the Path
of the Meteor of May 18th, 1894
(Title only), 513.
Council of the Society, 1892-93, 1 ;
1893-94, 505 ; 1894-95, 515.
Crab (edible). Cancer pagurus, Re-
production of, by Gregg Wilson,
B.Sc., 309.
Crannogs. See Lake-dwellings.
in Ireland, 386-388, 401-403 ;
in Switzerland, 388-393 ; in Italy,
393-398 ; in the Austrian Domin-
ions, 399 : in Northern Germany,
400 ; in Holland, 400 ; in Scotland,
403 ; in England and Wales, 406-
408 ; in Bosnia, 408-410.
Cyclops, a Human, by Alexander
Bruce, M.D., 412.
Dentine, Madder-Staining of, by W.
G. Aitchison - Robertson, M.D.,
F.R.C.P.E., 14.
Determinant. See '‘Adjugate Deter-
minant.
Dibromo-Malonic Ether, 383.
Dichromic Vision, 104.
Dickson (H. N.), on a new Water-
Bottle for Collecting Samples of
Sea-Water from Moderate Depths,
252.
— on the Circulation of Water
in the Faero-Shetland Channel and
the North Sea (Title only), 514.
Dittmar (Prof. Wrn.). Notice of
in President’s Address, 8.
Obituary Notice of, by Pro-
fessor Crum Brown, vi.
Dolabella, the Pallial Complex of, by
Dr J. D. F. Gilchrist, M.A., B.Sc.,
264.
Donald (C. W.), M.B., on the Pen-
guins observed in the Neighbour-
hood of Erebus and Terror Gulf,
170.
Donations to the Library during
1892-94, 524-545.
Douglas (J. J. ), M. B. An Experiment
on the Infiuence of Thyroid" Feeding
on the Proteid Metabolism of Man,
330.
Drops, by J. Ballantyne Hannay,
437.
Dubois’ Description of Remains re-
cently found in Java, named by
him Pithecanthropus erectus. See
Turner (Sir William).
Duns (Professor), on the Early History
of some Scottish Mammals and
Birds, 50.
contributes Obituary Notice of
the Rev. Thomas Brown, D.D., xxix.
Index.
Ixxxi
Dust, Atmospheric, Hazing Effects of,
by John Aitken, 76.
Eidficird Glacier-Lake. See Munro
(Dr Robert).
Elasmobranchs, Dorsal Branches of
the Cranial and Spinal Nerves of, by
Prof. J. C. Ewart and J. Cole, 475.
Electro-dynamical Wave Equations.
See Tait (Prof. ).
Ewart (Professor J. C.). The Second
and Fourth Digits in the Horse :
their Development and Subsequent
Degeneration, 185.
and Cole (F. J.), on the Dorsal
Branches of the Cranial and Spinal
Nerves of Elasmobranchs, 475.
Fairbairn (Robert), B.Sc., and Prof.
Crum Brown, on the Action of
Sodium Mercaptide on Dibromo-
Malonic Ether, 383.
Fellows, Election of Ordinary, dur-
ing Sessions 1892-93, 1893-94,
1894-95, 499-523.
Election of Honorary, 520.
Firth (A. H.). /S'ee Pedclie (William).
Fluids, Compressibility of, by Prof.
Tait, 245.
Fraser (Professor Thomas). Further
Observations on Antivenene, and
on the Production of Immunity
against Serpents’ Venom ; with an
Account of the Antidotal Properties
of the Blood-Serum of Venomous
Serpents, 465,
(Prof T. R.l, awarded Keith
Prize for 1891-93, 511.
Geikie (Prof James). The Climatic
Conditions of the Glacial Period
{Title only), 509.
Gibson (Prof. John), on the Chemical
Composition of Sea-Water, 315.
Gilchrist (J. D. F.), M.A., B.Sc.,
Ph.D. The Pallial Complex of
Dolabella, 264.
On the Torsion of the Mollus-
can Body, 357.
Gill (Dr D.), H.M. Astronomer at the
Cape of Good Hope. Preliminary
Note on Observations of the Minor
Planet Victoria in 1889, 47.
Glacier-Lake formed by a Branch of
the Hardanger-Jokul, near Eidfiord,
Norway, by Dr Robert Munro, 53.
Griffiths (A.B.), Ph.D., on the Repro-
ductive Organs of Noetua •pronuba,
98.
Gulland (G. Lovell), on the Granu-
lar Leucocytes {Title only), 522.
Gulland (G. Lovell), M.D., and Dr
D. Noel Paton, on the Absorption
of Carbo-hydrates by the Intestinal
Epithelium, 347.
Gunning Victoria Jubilee Prize for
Period 1890-93. See Prizes.
Guppy (H. B. ). Notes on Germina-
tion in Ponds and Rivers {Title
only), 516.
Hannay (J. Ballantyne), on Drops,
437.
Hay (George). A New Method for
Correcting Courses, by an Instru-
ment for the Purpose {Title only),
516.
Herbertson (Andrew J.). Note on
the Hygrometric State of the Atmos-
phere at Ben Nevis Observatory,
177.
Hewitt (Professor William Morse
Grailly). Obituary Notice of, by
Professor A. R. Simpson, xxvii.
Hill (J. R.), exhibited Specimens and
Preparations of New Opium Alka-
loid, Xanthaline, 502.
Horne (John), awarded Neill Prize for
1889-92, 512.
Horse, the Second and Fourth Digits
of, in their Development and subse-
quent Degeneration, by Prof. J. C.
Ewart, 185.
Humboldt Medal presented to Dr
Murray as Representative of
“Challenger” Expedition, 503.
Hydrolysis in some Aqueous Salt
Solutions, by Dr James Walker,
255.
Hygrometric State of the Atmosphere
at Ben Nevis Observatory, by
Andrew J. Herbertson, 177.
Induction through Air and Water at
Great Distances without the Use of
Parallel Wires, by Charles A.
Stevenson, B.Sc., M.Inst. C.E., 25.
Iron Occluding Gases, Electrical Pro-
perties of, by S. Kimura, 203.
Irvine (Robert). See Murray (John).
Keith Prize for Period 1891-93. See
Prizes.
Kimura (S.), on certain Electrical
Properties of Iron Occluding Gases,
203.
On the Geometrical Type of
the Surfaces of Univalve Shells
{Title only), 523.
Knott (Professor C. G.) and Mr A.
Shand. Note on Magnetic Induc-
tion in Nickel Tubes, 290.
Ixxxii
Index.
Knott (Professor C. G.) and Mr A.
Shand. Note on the Volume
Changes which accompany Magnet-
isation in Nickel Tubes, 295, 334.
- — and Mr A. Shand. Magnetic
Induction in Iron and Steel Tubes
{Title only\ 505.
contributes Obituary Notice
of Mr William Durham, xxxix.
Lsemargus, Spinal Nerves of, 480.
Lake-dwelling Research, by Robert
Munro, M.A., M.D., 385.
Library, Donations to the, during
1892-94, 524-545.
Liquids, Compressibility of, in Con-
nection with their Molecular
Pressure, by Professor Tait, 63, 141.
Compression of, in Connection
with Van der Waals’ Equation, 285.
M ‘Kendrick (Prof. J. G.). Observa-
tions with the Phonograph {Title
only), 516.
Mackinnon (Prof.), contributes Obit-
uary Notice of Dr AVilliam Forbes
Skene, viii.
Maclagan (Sir Douglas). Opening
Address, Session 1892-93, 2.
M‘Laren (Hon. Lord). Elimination of
Powers of Sines and Cosines between
Two Equations, 145.
On the General Eliminant of
Three Equations of Ditiereut
Degrees {Title only), 503.
On the Solution of Systems
of Equations by Means of Deter-
minants {Title only), 514.
Madder-Staining of Dentine, by W.
G. Aitchison - Robertson, M.D.,
F.R.C.P.E., 14.
Magnetic Induction in Nickel Tubes,
by Professor C. G. Knott and Mr A.
Shand, 290, 295.
Makdougall-Brisbane Prize for Period
1890-92, 1892-94. See Prizes.
Mammals and Birds (Scottish), by
Prof. Duns, 50.
Mann (Gustav), M.B., on Histo-
logical Changes produced in Nerve
Cells by their Functional Activity
{Title only), 514.
Meetings of the Society during Sessions
1892-93, 1893-94, 1894-95, 499-
523.
Mercaptide. See Sodium Mercaptide.
Mill (Dr Hugh R.), awarded Mak-
dougall-Brisbane Prize for 1890-92,
511.
Molecular Pressure in Connection with
Aqueous Solutions, 63, 141.
Mollnscan Body, Torsion of, by Dr
J. D. F. Gilchrist, 357.
Muir (Thomas), LL.D. Note on
Professor Cayley’s Proof that a
Triangle and its Reciprocal are in
Perspective, 298.
A Problem of Sylvester’s in
Elimination, 300.
Note on Dr T. Muir’s Paper,
“A Problem of Sylvester’s in
Elimination,” by Prof. Cayley, 306.
Further Note on a Problem of
Sylvester’s in Elimination, 371.
On a Theorem regarding the
Difference between any Two Terms
of the Adjugate Determijiant, 323.
Munro (Dr Robert), on a Remark-
able Glacier-Lake, formed by a
Branch of the Hardanger-Jokul,
near Eidfiord, Norway, 53.
The Rise and Progress of
Anthropology, 215.
A Sketch of Lake-dAvelling
Research, in Ireland, 386, 401 ; in
Switzerland, 388 ; in Italy, 393 ;
in Austria, 399 ; in North Germany,
400 ; in Holland, 400 ; in Scotland,
403 ; in England, 406 ; in Bosnia,
408.
Murray (Dr John), receives Hum-
boldt Medal as Representative of
“Challenger ” Expedition, 503.
The Floor of the Ocean at
Great Depths {Title only), 507.
On the Constitution of the
Earth’s Crust on the Continents
and beneath the Ocean {Title only),.
512.
A Comparison of the Extra-
Tropical Marine Fauna of the
Northern and Southern Hemi-
spheres {Title only), 513.
The Estimated Total Amounts
of the Principal Substances in
Solution in the Ocean, and the
Source of the Substances {Title
only), 514.
and Irvine (Robert), on the
Secretion of Carbonate of Lime by
Marine Organisms at different Tem-
peratures {Title only), 522.
Murray (Patrick), W.S., contributes
Obituary Notice of Mr Donald
Beith, xxxvi.
Neill Prize for Period 1889-92. See
Prizes.
Nicholson (Prof. G. Shield). The
Indian Currency Experiment, with
Special Reference to the Foreign
Trade of India {Title only), 507.
Index.
Ixxxiii
Nickel Tubes, Magnetisation of, 290,
295.
Nickel. Variation of Resistance of
Nickel in a Steady Magnetic Field,
by J. C. Beattie, 493.
Noctua pronuha, Reproductive Organs
of, by A. B. Griffitlis, Ph.D., 98.
Nystagmus (Normal), by Prof. Crum
Brown, 352.
Office-Bearers, 1892-93, 1.
1893-94, 505.
1894-95, 515.
Orthogonals of Plane Curves. See
Tait (Prof. P. G.).
Padua (University of). Address to,
on the Tercentenary of the Appoint-
ment of Galileo to the Professorship
of Mathematics in that University,
12, 13.
Papers, Titles of, read during Sessions
1892-93,1893-94,1894-95, 499-523.
Parabola, the Properties of, by Prof.
A. H. Anglin, 35.
Paton (D. Noel), M.D., and Gulland
(G. Lovell), M.D., on the Absorp-
tion of Carbo-hydrates by the
Intestinal Epithelium, 347.
Pavy’s Theory of the Action of the
Epithelium on Carbo-hydrates, 347.
Peddie (Dr Wm. ), on Torsional Oscil-
lations of Wires {Title only), 506,
521.
and Firth (A. H.). Prelim-
inary Note on the Thermo-electric
Properties of Hot and Cold, chemi-
cally similar. Metals {Title only),
522.
Penguins observed in the Neighbour-
hood of Erebus and Terror Gulf, by
C. W. Donald, M.B., 170.
Petrie (Prof. W. M. Flinders), on a
New Race in Egypt (Ti^Ze only), 519.
Pithecanthropus erectus of Dubois.
See Turner (Sir William).
Plane Curves, Systems of. See Tait
(Prof. P. G.).
Pole (Dr William). Data on the
Phenomena of Colour-Blindness,
chiefly derived from Foreign
Sources, 103.
Preston (S. Tolver). The Ether : an
Idea of Sir John Herschel modern-
ised {Title only), 506).
Prizes. Gunning Victoria Jubilee
Prize (1890-93) awarded to Alex.
Buchan, Esq., LL.D., 510.
Keith Prize (1891-93) awarded
to Prof. T. R. Fraser, 511.
Makdougall - Brisbane Prize
(1890-1892) awarded to Dr H. R.
Mill, 511 ; (1892-94) awarded to
Prof., James Walker, 522.
Prizes. Neill Prize (1889-92) awarded
to John Horne, Esq., F.G.S., 512.
Quaternions. Coordinates versus
Quaternions, by Professor Cayley.
271.
On the Intrinsic Nature of the
Quaternion Method, by Professor
Tait, 276.
Raia, Spinal Nerves of, 479.
Rangabes (Alex.), Poet, Statesman,
and Archaeologist, by Emeritus
Prof. Blackie {Title only), 502.
Reaction Time for Sight, Hearing, and
Touch, by Prof. Rutherford, 328.
Robertson (W. G. Aitchison), M.D.,
D.Sc., F.R.C.P.E. Madder-Stain-
ing of Dentine, 14.
On the Digestion of Sugars
(Abstract), 30.
On the Rate of Fermentation of
Sugars (Abstract), 164.
Rodger (Alexander). Preliminary
Account of Natural History Collec-
tions made on a Voyage to the Gulf
of St Lawrence and Davis Straits,
154.
Romanes (G. ). Graphic Process for
the Attraction of a Solid of Rev-
olution on a Particle in its Axis
{Title only), 504.
Attraction by Graphic Pro-
cesses {Title only), 505.
Suggestion as to the Possible
Nature of Electrification {Title
only), 508.
Attraction by Graphic Pro-
cesses — Deductions {Title only),
516.
Rutherford (Prof.), on the Measure-
ment of Simple Reaction Time for
Sight, Hearing, and Touch, 328.
Salt Solutions. See Walker (James),
D.Sc.
Sanderson (Dr James). Obituary
Notice of, by Dr Alex. Buchan, xlix.
Scottish Mammals and Birds, by
Professor Duns, 50.
Sea- Water. Water-Bottle for Collect-
ing Samples of, 252.
Chemical Composition of, by
Dr John Gibson, 315.
Selenite. Dr James E. Talmage ex-
hibited and described Specimens of,
and presented them to the Society,
504.
Ixxxiv
Index.
Serpents (Venomous). Antidotal
Properties of their Blood -Serum,
465.
Shand (Mr A.) and Prof. C. G. Knott.
Note on Magnetic Induction in
Nickel Tubes, 290.
and Prof. 0. G. Knott. Note
on the Volume Changes which
accompany Magnetisation in Nickel
Tubes, 295, 334.
and Prof. C. G. Knott.
Magnetic Induction in Iron and
Steel Tubes {Title only), 505.
Simpson (Prof. A. R.), contributes
Obituary Notice of Prof. William
Morse Grailly Hewitt, xxvii.
Sines and Cosines, Elimination of,
between two Equations, by Lord
Maclaren, 145.
Skene (Wm. Forbes), LL.D., D.C.L.,
Historiographer - Royal for Scot-
land, &c. Notice of, in President’s
Address, 9.
Obituary Notice of, by Pro-
fessor Mackinnon, viii.
Smith (Alexander), B.Sc., Ph.D,, on
two Stereo-Isomeric Hydrazones of
Benzoin, 201.
Smith (.John), M.D. Notes on a
Peculiarity in the Form of the
Mammalian Tooth, 336.
Sodium Mercaptide, Action of, on
Dibromo-Malonic Ether, by Prof.
Crum Brown and Robert Fairbairn,
383.
Spleen, Comparative Histology and
Physiology of, by Arthur J. Whit-
ing, M.D. , 21.
Stevenson (Charles A. ), B.Sc. , M.Inst.
C.E. Induction through Air and
Water at Great Distances without
the Use of Parallel Wires, 25.
Telegraphic Communication
by Induction by Means of Coils,
196.
Stevenson (Thomas), C.E. Obituary
Notice of, by Professor Swan, Ixi.
Stew'art (Chas. Hunter), M.B., B.Sc.
On an Observed Relation between
the Carbonic Acid and the Added
Moisture in the Air of Inhabited
Rooms {Title only), 504.
Stocks (H. B.), on certain Concre-
tions from the Lower Coal Measures,
and the Fossil Plants which they
contain, 69.
Sugars, Digestion of, by W. G.
Aitchison-Robertson, M.D., D.Sc.,
F.R.C.P.E., 30.
Fermentation of, by W. G.
Aitchison-Robertson : (1) Lsevulose,
(2) Lactose, (3) Dextrose, (4) Invert
Sugar, (5) Cane Sugar, (6) Maltose,
164.
Swan (Prof.), contributes Obituary
Notice of Thomas Stevenson, C.E.,
Ixi.
Sylvester (Professor). A Problem of
Sylvester’s in Elimination, by
Thomas Muir, LL.D., 300, 371.
Note on Dr T. Muir’s Paper,
‘‘A Problem of Sylvester’s in
Elimination,” by Prof. Cayley, 306.
Symington (Johnson). Observations
on the Development of the Human
Brain {Title only), 505.
Systems of Plane Curves whose
Orthogonals form a similar System,
by Professor Tait, 497.
Tait (Prof. P. G.), on the Compressi-
bility of Liquids in connection with
their Molecular Pressure, 63.
Preliminary Note on the Com-
pressibility of Aqueous Solutions in
Connection with Molecular Pressure,
141.
Note on the Antecedents of
Clerk - Maxwell’s Electrodynamical
Wave-Equations, 213.
On the Compressibility of
Fluids, 245.
— On the Intrinsic Nature of the
Quaternion Method, 276.
On the Application of Van der
Waals’ Equation to the Compression
of Ordinary Liquids, 285.
Systems of Plane Curves
whose Orthogonals form a similar
System, 497.
Further Illustrations of the
Range of Application of Van der
Waals’ Equations {Title only), 513.
On the Elastic Equations of
the Ether in Aeolotropic Dielectrics
{Title only), 513.
Note on the Compressibility of
the Water of the Great Salt Lake,
Utah {Title only), 514.
Note on the Constitution of
• Volatile Liquids {Title only), 516.
The Isothermals of Ethylene
{Title only), 516.
— On the Ultimate State of a
System of Colliding Particles and
the Rate of Approach to it {Title
only), 517.
On a Curious Property of
Determinants {Title only), 517.
Note on the Electro-Magnetic
Wave Surface {Title only), 519.
On the Conditions for a Kink
Index.
Ixxxv
in the Path of a Projectile {Title
only), 520.
Tait (Prof. P. G.). Determination of
the Co-efficient of Resistance of Air
to a Moving Sphere ( Title only), 523.
Presentation of Prof. Tait’s
Portrait to the Society, 499.
Talmage (Dr James E. ), exhibited
and described some Specimens of
Selenite, and presented them to the
Society, 504.
Telegraphic Communication by In-
duction by Means of Coils, by
Charles A. Stevenson, 196.
Tellurium. Variation of Resistance
of Tellurium in a Steady Magnetic
Field, by J. C. Beattie, 493.
Thompson (Prof. D’Arcy), on some
Problems of Evolution {Title only),
512.
On the Shapes of Leaves {Title
only), 521.
Thyroid Feeding, Influence of, on
the Proteid Metabolism of Man,
by J. J. Douglas, M.B., 330.
Tooth (Mammalian), Peculiarity in
the Form of, by Dr John Smith,
336.
Traquair (Dr Ramsay H.), on the
Geivi^ Heloclus, Agassiz {Title only),
503.
On the Fossil Fishes of Forfar-
shire {Title only), 514.
On Phosphorescent Sandstones
{Title only), 519.
Turner (Sir William), on M. Dubois’
Description of Remains recently
found in Java, named by him
Pithecanthi'opus erectus : with
Remarks on the so-called Transi-
tional Forms between Apes and
Man, 422 ; the Skull-Cap, 428 ;
Upper Molar Tooth, 433 ; Left
Femur, 434.
Van der Waals on the Application
of his Equation to the Compression
of Ordinary Liquids, by Professor
Tait, 285.
Venomous Serpents, Blood Serum of,
465.
Victoria, the Minor Planet, Obser-
vations of, by Dr D. Gill, H.M.
Astronomer at the Cape of Good
Hope, 47.
Volume Changes which accompany
Magnetisation in Iron and Nickel
Tubes, 295, 334.
Walker (Prof. James), D.Sc. Hydro-
lysis in some Aqueous Salt Solu-
tions, 255.
Water-Bottle for Collecting Samples
of Sea - Water from Moderate
Depths, 252.
Awarded Makdougall-Brisbane
Prize for Period, 1892-94, 522.
Watson (John K. ). Notice of, in
President’s Address, 11.
Whiting (Arthur J.), M.D., on the
Comparative Histology and Physi-
ology of the Spleen, 21.
Wilson (Sir Daniel). Notice of, in
President’s Address, 11.
Wilson (Gregg), B.Sc. The Repro-
duction of the Edible Crab (Cancer
pagurus), 309.
The Development of the Mul-
lerian Duct of Amphibians {Title
only), 516.
Wright (R. Patrick), on the Results
of some Experiments with Potash
Manures {Title only), 520.
Xanthaline, New Opium Alkaloid,
Exhibition of Specimens and Pre-
parations of, by J. R. Hill, 502.
Young (J. Buchanan), M.B., B.Sc.,
on a New Apparatus for Counting
Bacterial Colonies in Roll Cultures,
28.
INDEX TO OBITUARY NOTICES,
OBITUAEY NOTICES OF FELLOWS DECEASED.
Adams (John Couch). By Professor Copeland, . . Page i
Beith (Donald). By Patrick Murray, Esq. , W.S., . . . xxxvi
Brown (Bev. Thomas), D.D. By Professor Duns, D.D., . . xxix
Candolle (Alphonse Louis Pierre Pyramus de). By Professor Frederick
0. Bower, F.R.S., . . . . . . xxi
Cleghorn (Dr Hugh Francis Clarke). By Professor MTntosh, St
Andrews, . . . . . . . li
Dittmar (Professor William). By Professor Crum Brown, . . vi
Durham (William). By Professor C. G. Knott, D.Sc., . . xxxix
Hewitt (Professor William Morse Grailly). By Professor A. R.
Simpson, ........ xxvii
Leslie (Alexander), F.R.S.E. By James Brand, Esq., . . xlii
Maclagan (General Robert), R.E. By Major-General Sir Robert
Murdoch Smith, K.C.M.G., R.E. , . . . . xlvi
Sanderson (Dr). By Dr Buehan, ..... xlix
Skene (William Forbes), LL.D., D.C.L. By Professor Mackinnon, . viii
Stevenson (Thomas), C.E. By Professor Swan, . . . Ixi
PROCEEDOGS
OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.
VOL. XX.
SESSIONS 1 8 9 3-9 5.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Election of Office-Bearers, ...... 1
Opening Address. By Sir Douglas Maclagan, President, . . 2
On the Madder-Staining of Dentine. By W. G. Aitchison Robert-
son, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.C.P.E., Physiological Laboratory, University
of Edinburgh. (YVith a Plate), . . . .14
On the Comparative Histology and Physiology of the Spleen. By
Arthur J. Whiting, M.D. (Abstract), . , . .21
Induction through Air and Water at Great Distances without the Use
of Parallel Wires. By Charles A. Stevenson, B.Sc., F.R.S.E.,
M.Inst. C.E. (With a Plate), ..... 25
On a New Apparatus for Counting Bacterial Colonies in Roll-Cultures.
By J. Buchanan Young, M.B., B.Sc., Public Health Laboratory,
University of Edinburgh. Communicated hy Sir Douglas Mac-
lagan. (With a Plate), 28
Abstract of Paper on the “ Digestion of Sugars.” By W. G. Aitchison
Robertson, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.C.P.E., . . . .30
On Properties of the Parabola. By Professor Anglin, . . .35
Preliminary Note on Observations of the Minor Planet Victoria in
1889. By Dr D, Gill, H.M. Astronomer at the Cape of Good
Hope, ......... 47
On the Early History of some Scottish Mammals and Birds. By
Professor Duns, D.D., . . . . . .50
On a Remarkable Glacier-Lake, formed by a Branch of the Hardanger-
Jokul, near Eidfiord, Norway. By Robert Munro, M.D., M.A.
(With a Plate), ....... 53
On the Compressibility of Licjuids in connection with their Molecular
Pressure. By Professor Tait, . . . . .63
11
PAGE
On certain Concretions from the Lower Coal Measures and the Fossil
Plants which they contain. By H. B. Stocks, F.C.S. ■ Commu-
nicated hy John Murray, LL.D., ..... 69
On some Observations made without a Dust Counter on the Hazing
Effect of Atmospheric Dust. By John Aitken, Esq., E.K.S.
(With a Plate), . . . . . . .76
Breath Figures. By John Aitken, Esq., F.R.S., . . .94
On the Reproductive Organs of Noctua pronuba. By A. B. Griffiths,
Ph.D., F.R.S. (Edin.), &c. (With a Plate), . . . . 98
Data on the Phenomena of Colour-Blindness, chiefly derived from
Foreign Sources. Compiled and arranged hy Dr William Pole,
F. R.S., F.R.S.E., 103
Preliminary Note on the Compressibility of Aqueous Solutions, in
connection with Molecular Pressure. By Professor Tait, . . 141
Elimination of Powers of Sines and Cosines between Two Equations.
By the Hon. Lord M‘Laren, ..... 145
.^Preliminary Account of Natural History Collections made on a Voyage
to the Gulf of St Lawrence and Davis Straits. By Mr Alexander
Rodger, University College, Dundee. Communicated hy Professor
D’Arcy W. Thompson, . . . . . .154
Abstract of Paper on the “ Rate of Fermentation of Sugars.” By W.
G. Aitchison Robertson, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.C.P.E. {From the
Physiological Laboratory^ University of Edinburgh), . . .164
On the Penguins observed during the Sealing Voyage of the s.s.
“ Active ” in the neighbourhood of Erebus and Terror Gulf. By
C. W. Donald, M.B. Communicated hy Professor D’Arcy W.
Thompson, ........ 170
Preliminary Note on the Hygrometric State of the Atmosphere at Ben
Nevis Observatory. By Andrew J. Herbertson. Communicated
hy Dr A. Buchan, . . ' . . . . . 177
The Second and Fourth Digits in the Horse : their Development and
Subsequent Degeneration. By J. C. Ewart, M.D., F.R.S., Regius
Professor of Natural History, University of Edinburgh, . . 185
Note on the Focus of Concavo-Convex Lenses the Surfaces of which are
of Equal Curvature. By George A. Berry, M.B., F.R.C.S. Ed., . 192
Telegraphic Communication by Induction by Means of Coils. By
Charles A. Stevenson, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., M.Inst. C.E. (With
Two Plates), . 196
On Two Stereo-Isomeric Hydrazones of Benzoin. By Alexander
Smith, B.Sc., Ph.D., 201
On Certain Electrical Properties of Iron Occluding Gases. By S.
Kimura, Rigakushi. (With Two Plates), .... 203
Note on the Antecedents of Clerk-Maxwell’s Electrodynamical-Wave-
Equations. By Professor Tait, . . . . .213
{Continued on p. hi of Cover.)
Ill
The Rise and Progress of Anthropology. By Robert Munro, M.A.,
M.D. (With a Plate),
On the Compressibility of Fluids. By Prof. Tait,
On a New Water-Bottle for Collecting Samples of Sea-Water from
Moderate Depths. By H. N. Dickson, F.R.G.S., .
Hydrolysis in some Aqueous Salt Solutions. By James Walker,
D.Sc., Ph.D., ‘ .
The Pallia! Complex of Dolabella. By J. D. F. Gilchrist, M.A.,
B.Sc., Ph.D. Communicated hy Professor Ewart, F.R.S. {From
the Natural History Laboratory of the University of Edinburgh.)
(With a Plate), .......
Coordinates versus Quaternions. By Professor Cayley,
On the Intrinsic Nature of the Quaternion Method. By Prof. Tait,
On the AjDjDlication of Van der Waals’ Equation to the Compression of
Ordinary Liquids. By Prof. Tait, .....
Note on Magnetic Induction in Nickel Tubes. By Professor C. G.
Knott, D.Sc., and A. Shand, Esq., .....
Note on the Volume Changes which accompany Magnetisation in Nickel
Tubes. By Professor C. G. Knott, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., and A. Shand,
Esq., .........
Note on Professor Cayley’s Proof that a Triangle and its Reciprocal are
in Perspective. By Thomas Muir, LL.D., ....
A Problem of Sylvester’s in Elimination. By Thomas Muir, LL.D., .
Note on Dr Muir’s Paper, “A Problem of Sylvester’s in Elimination.”
By Professor Cayley, ......
The Reproduction of the Edible Crab {Cancer pagurus). By Gregg
Wilson, M.A., B.Sc., Natural History Laboratory, University of
Edinburgh. Communicated by Prof. J. C. Ewart, M.D., F.R.S., .
On the Chemical Composition of Sea-Water. By John Gibson,
Ph.D.,
On a Theorem regarding the Difference between any Two Terms of the
Adjugate Determinant. By Thomas Muir, LL.D.,
On the Measurement of Simple Reaction Time for Sight, Hearing,
and Touch. By Professor Rutherfurd, M.D., F.R.SS. Lond. and
Edin., ........
An Experiment on the Influence of Thyroid Feeding on the Proteid
Metabolism in Man. By J. J. Douglas, M.B., C.M., F.R.C.P.
Edin. {From the Research Laboratory of the Royal College of Physi-
cians of Edinburgh), .......
Further Note on the Volume Changes which accompany Magnetisation
in Iron and Nickel Tubes. By Professor C. G. Knott, D.Sc.,
F.R.S.E., and A. Shand, Esq., .....
Notes on a Peculiarity in the Form of the Mammalian Tooth. By
J. Smith, M.D. (Illustrated), .....
PAGE
215
245
252
255
264 -
271
276
285
290
295
298
300
306
309
315
323
328
330
334
336
IV
PAG^
On the Absorption of Carbohydrates by the Intestinal Epithelium : An U
Experimental Inquiry into Pavy’s Theory of the Action of the 9
Epithelium on Carbohydrates. ’ By D. Noel Paton, M.D., 9
F.K.C.P.E., and G. Lovell Gulland, M.D., F.R.C.P.E. {From the I
Research Laboratory of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh), 3471
Note on Normal Nystagmus. By Prof. Crum Brown, . . . 352J
"^On the Torsion of the Molluscan Body. By J. D. F. Gilchrist, M.A., I
B.Sc., Ph.D. Communicated by Prof^or Ewart, F.R.S., . . 3571
Further Note on a Problem of Sylvester’s in Elimination. By 1
Thomas 'Muir, LL.D., . . ? . . . . 37l|
Note on the Action of Sodium Mercaptide on Dibromo-Malonic Ether. )
By Prof. Crum Brown and Robert Fairbairn, B.Sc., . . 383 ;
A Sketch of Lake-Dwelling Research. *By Robert Munro, M.A.,
M.D., . . . .385:
On a Human Cyclops. By Alexander Bruce, M.D., F.R.C.P.E. ^
(With Three Plates), . . . . 412
— On M. Dubois’ Description of Remains recently found in Java, named
by him Pithecanthropus erectus. , With Remarks on so-called
Transitional Forms between Apes and Man. By Professor Sir
William Turner, F.R.S., ...... 422
On Drops. By J. B. Hannay, ...... 437
On the Rendering of Animals Immune against the Venom of the Cobra
and other Serpents ; and on the Antidotal Properties of the Blood-
Serum of the Immunized Animals. By Professor Thomas R.
Fraser, M.D., F.R.S. (With a Diagram), .... 448
Further Observations on Antivenene, and on the Production of Im-
munity against Serpents’ Venom ; with an Account of the Anti-
dotal Properties of the Blood-Serum of Venomous Serpents. By
Professor Fraser, M.D., F.R.S., ..... 465
^'On the Dorsal Branches of the Cranial and Spinal Nerves of Elasmo-
branchs. By J. C. Ewart, M.D., F.R.S., Regius Professor of
Natural History, and F. J. Cole, Zoological Department, University,
Edinburgh, . . . . . . . . 475
On the Behaviour of Various Alloys in a Steady Magnetic Field. By
J. C. Beattie. (With Two Plates), . . . . . 48b
On the Variation of Resistance in a Steady Magnetic Field observed in
Nickel, Antimony, and Tellurium Plates. By J. C. Beattie.
(With a Plate), ....... 493
Systems of Plane Curves whose Orthogonals form a Similar System.
By Prof. Tait, . . . . . . .497
Meetings of the Royal Society — Sessions 1892-93, 1893-94, and
1894-95, 499-52B:
Donations to the Library, .
Obituary Notices,
Index,
524-545
i-lxxvii
Ixxix-lxxx d