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} Hydrographic Map of
/TURKEY LAKE,

XE WAWASEE, KOSCIUSKO CO.,INDIANA.
BY

CHANCEY .JUDAY,

From

overnmenf surveys and Surveys and

gS,made during the summer of 1895, by

_ ’JubaAy,D.C.RipGLEY and THomaAs LarRGce

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| UNIVERSITY BIOLOGIGAL STATION.

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INDIANA UNIVERSITY BIOLOGIGAL STATION,
Hydrographic Map of”
TURKEY LAKE,
OR LAKE WAWASEE, KOSCIUSKO CO.,INDIANA.
BY
CHANCE .JUDAY,

From

The Government surveys and surveys and

teat 18) 7 5 soundings,made during the summer of 1895, by

CHANCEY Jupay, D.C.RinGLeEY and THOMAS LaRGE

Contributions from the Zoblogica/ Laboratory of the Indiana University
under the direction of CARL H EIGENMANN,No /5¢

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ASSOCIATE EDITORS:

J. C. ARTHUR, W. A. NOYES, C. H. EIGENMANN, A. W. DUFF,
V. F. MARSTERS, A. W. BUTLER, W. S. BLATCHLEY.

INDIANAPOLIS, IND.,
FEBRUARY, 1896.

> ie

INDIANAPOLIS:
‘Wo. B. BURFORD, PRINTER,
1806.

SPAS me wp

TAbeeee eONTENTS.

AGHioOtiie bublicatonsOn MeO.) shemales s+ =< +),
Act for the Protection of Birds, Their Nests and Eggs .. « -
Indiana Academy of Science—Its Work and Its Purposes .« .
Officarsiand: Committees 1895-6. 9. ..-<asen o>. we Ue elt
Complete List of Officers of the Indiana Academy of Science

EOUMITUTULOM Re © awe Ses en Oke Rees lh Ss, ssc eo 6) es wee ele)

LCST DES Sa Ue Ge ne en eS Gee a SS. ye nn nr

Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Meeting ........

IBFERIGONtAStFAOGOTOSS oss cco) us ae see ots og CROPS coo aat
EERIE LESEU LEC SM Tee ee ears os. kp she se we taieiten ee fe te

iw, kp eth er ave ve

ie a) ie weed wegen a

AN ACT TO PROVIDE FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE REPORTS AND PAPERS OF
THE INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

[Approved March 11, 1895.]

WHEREAS, The Indiana Academy of Science, a chartered scien-

Preamble. tific association, has embodied in its constitution a provision that it
will, upon the request of the Governor, or of the several depart-
ments of the State government, through the Governor, and through its council as
an advisory body, assist in the direction and execution of any investigation
within its province, without pecuniary gain to the Academy, provided only that
the necessary expenses of such investigation are borne by the State, and,

Wuereas, The reports of the meetings of said Academy, with the several
papers read before it, have very great educational, industrial and economic value,
and should be preserved in permanent form, and,

Wuereas, The Constitution of the State makes it the duty of the General
Assembly to encourage by all suitable means intellectual, scientific and agricul-
tural improvement, therefore,

Section 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of

penton

of the re- ; ; raat Sat sO r

ports ofthe Ldiana, That hereafter the annual reports of the meetings of the
naiana = - ° - = E . 1 ry > va , .
meedciiy Indiana Academy of Science, beginning with the report for the year

of Science. 1394, including all papers of scientific or economic value, presented
at such meetings, after they shall have been edited and prepared for publication
as hereinafter provided, shall be published by and under the direction of the
Commissioners of Public Printing and Binding.

Src. 2. Said reports shall be edited and prepared for publica-

Editing

oaats tion without expense to the State, by a corps of editors to be selected

and appointed by the Indiana Academy of Science, who shall not,
by reason of such services, have any claim against the State for compensation.
The form, style of binding, paper, typography and manner and extent of illus-
tration of such reports, shall be determined by the editors, subject to the approval
: of the Commissioners of Public Printing and Stationery. Not less
aaa than 1,500 nor more than 3,060 copies of each of said reports shall
mean be published, the size of the edition within said limits, to be deter-

mined by the concurrent action of the editors and the Commissioners of Public

Printing and Stationery: Provided, That not to exceed six hundred dollars
($600) shall be expended for such publication in any one year, and ;
not to extend beyond 1896: Provided, That nosums shall be deemed pie
to be appropriated for the year 1894.

Sec. 3. All except three hundred copies of each volume of said
reparts shall be placed in the custody of the State Librarian, who sie pcan
shall furnish one copy thereof to each public library in the State,
one copy to each university, college or normal school in the State, one
copy to each high school in the State having a library, which shall make ap-
plication therefor, and one copy to such other institutions, societies or persons as
may be designated by the Academy through its editors or its council. The re-
maining three hundred copies shall be turned over to the Academy to be disposed
of as it may determine. In order to provide for the preservation of the same it
shall be the duty of the Custodian of the State House to provide and place at the
disposal of the Academy one of the unoccupied rooms of the State House, to be
designated as the office of the Indiana Academy of Science, wherein said copies
of said reports belonging to the Academy, together with the original manuscripts,
drawings, etc., thereof can be safely kept, and he shall also equip the same with
the necessary shelving and furniture.

Sec. 4. An emergency is hereby declared to exist for the imme-
diate taking effect of this act, and it shall therefore take effect and insane tr)

be in force from and after its passage.

An ACT FOR THE PROTECTION OF BIRDS, THEIR NESTS AND EGGS.
[Approved March 5, 1891.]

Section 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of _.
Indiana, That it shall be unlawful for any person to kill any wild mee
bird other than a game bird or purchase, offer for sale any such wild bird after it
has been killed, or to destroy the nests or the eggs of any wild bird.

Src. 2. For the purpose of this act the following shall be con- ,
sidered game birds: the Anatide, commonly called swans, geese, art 2
brant, and river and sea ducks; the Rallide, commonly known as rails, coots,
mudhens, and gallinules; the Limicolz, commonly known as shore birds, plovers.
surf birds, snipe, woodcock and sandpipers, tattlers and curlews; the Gallin,
commonly known as wild turkeys, grouse, prairie chickens, quail, and pheasants,

all of which are not intended to be affected by this act.

6

Src. 3. Any person violating the provisions of Section 1 of this
aes act shall, upon conviction, be fined in a sum not less than ten nor

more than fifty dollars, to which may be added imprisonment for not less than five

days nor more than thirty days.

; Sec. 4. Sections 1 and 2 of this act shall not apply to any per-

ee son holding a permit giving the right to take birds or their nests and

eggs for scientific purposes, as provided in Section 5 of this act.

Penite ko Sec. 5. Permits may be granted by the Executive Board of the

Science. Indiana Academy of Science to any properly accredited person, per-

mitting the holder thereof to collect birds, their nests or eggs for strictly scientific
purposes. In order to obtain such permit the applicant for the same must pre-
sent to said Board written testimonials from two well known scientific men certi-
fying to the good character and fitness of said applicant to be entrusted with such
privilege, and pay to said Board one dollar to defray the necessary expenses
attending the granting of such permit, and must file with said Board
ae a properly executed bond in the sum of two hundred dollars, signed
by at least two responsible citizens of the State as sureties. The bond shall be
Rona oe forfeited to the State and the permit become void upon proof that
feited. the holder of such permit has killed any bird or taken the nests or
eggs of any bird for any other purpose than that named in this section, and shall

further be subject for each offense to the penalties provided in this act.
Sec. 6. The permits authorized by this act shall be in force for

Two years. 3 5s
two years only from the date of their issue, and shall not be trans-

ferable.
Birds of Sec. 7. The English or European house sparrow (passer domes-
prey.

ticus), crows, hawks, and other birds of prey are not included among
the birds protected by this act.
Sec. 8 ace arts . Ss > For ass 7 . 7
Mckee Src. 8. All acts or parts of acts heretofore passed in conflict
pealed: with the provisions of this act are hereby repealed.

Src. 9. An emergency is declared to exist for the immediate
Emergency. aes! ; : ee ; oe
taking effect of this act, therefore the same shall be in force and.

effect from and after its passage.

INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

(A Statement Made to the General Assembly, in 1895, of Its Work and Purposes.)

The Indiana Academy of Science has published during the last three years
three volumes of proceedings. The first volume appeared in ’92. It included
many of the papers in full or in abstract that were presented at the previous
Christmas meeting of the Society, together with titles and authors of all other
papers presented before the Academy since its organization in 1885. Of all the
titles appearing in this volume, many of them upon topics of vital importance,
not over five per cent. were discussed in full in the publication. All the rest of
this valuable literature has been scattered and lost or rendered practicably inac-
cessible.

The volumes appearing in ’93 and ’94 give in full or in abstract most of the
important papers presented in each case at the previous holiday meeting, while
the volume appearing in the summer of ’94 is enriched by the reports of a large
corps of voluntary and unpaid but thoroughly trained workers, who have under-
taken and are energetically pushing a systematic biological survey of the State.
But the expense attending these publications has been too great for private enter-
prise and the treasury of the Academy. Unless the State now takes hold of the
matter they must cease for a time, at least, and a serious break in the proceedings
must occur. This would be a lamentable check upon the progress of science in
the State. At this crisis the State is asked to join hands with the Academy only
in so far as to establish and preserve the work to which the latter is dedicated.
It is our purpose here to set forth in detail, but briefly, some of the reasons why
the State should make this compact. These reasons fall under two general heads:
The Workers and Their Work.

By publishing the proceedings of the Academy the State secures, without fur-
ther compensation, the services of over a hundred trained experts working in fields
specially chosen and agreeable, spending a large portion of their time upon new
problems whose solution is of vital importance to the development of our Com-

monwealth. These workers have been trained in the best schools, home and

8

foreign, and bring to their investigations zeal, enthusiasm, skill, patience and
common sense. For the results of their work they seek no other remuneration
than the honor that comes from the willing and loving recognition of their labors
by their friends, neighbors and fellow-citizens, to whose highest and best interests
their lives are consecrated. These trained experts, who constitute the best au-
thority in the State upon their several subjects, will act without compensation
with the legislative body of Indiana just as the National Academy acts in con-
junction with Congress; will freely advise with the legislators when asked upon
scientific subjects, and give proper direction to scientific investigations undertaken
by the Legislature as a basis for wholesome and logical laws.

To the work already done the publications of the Academy give but an im-
perfect witness. Certain it is that interest in these proceedings, incomplete as
they are, has gone out far beyond the confines of our own States and has been ex-
tensively awakened even in transatlantic countries. The Academy has helped to
train some of the foremost scientists of our day. When it expresses an opinion
upon a scientific subject it is listened to with respect, even by such distinguished
scientists as have been drawn in large numbers to our nation’s capital.

It will be here attempted to set forth the scope and aims of the Indiana
Academy in the barest outlines. The outline itself must be imperfect at best, but
we hope this synopsis will show how closely it is identified in all of its ramifica-
tions with public progress. Without pretending to exhaust the subject, we will
arrange under six heads what we have to say upon the character of the work un-
dertaken by the Academy and the reasons why this work should be fostered by
the State to the extent of proper publication and dissemination of its results.
The six heads are: Educational Services, Development of Natural Resources,
Industrial Assistance, Economical Effects, Contributions to the Reputation of the
State and Recognition Accorded to This Kind of Work in Other States.

We may mention six ways in which the work of the Academy strengthens the
educational forces of the State: 1. Through its meetings and publications the
Academy gives direction and enthusiasm to the study of the sciences throughout
Indiana. Scientific instruction is no longer taken up in a half-hearted, perfunc-
tory way, but is instinct with life and energy. 2. It transforms teachers into
life-long investigators. The best science teachers are those most under its influ-
ence. 3. It fosters and develops workers apart from and outside of the schools.
All have observed the tonic effects on a community of a single bright, active
mind. With every person thus endowed the Academy joins hands and helps him
make a general uplift of his own locality in just such a way as university exten-

sion operates. 4. It brings together for conference teachers who are opening up

9

lines of work in their several localities and enables them to plan and distribute
original work in the wisest manner. 5. It fosters a spirit of home effort which
makes the student of science everywhere practically familiar with home surround-
ings and alive to the possibilities of home fields and forests. 6. It classifies and
arranges in a systematic way the whole plant and animal life of the State, making
accessible at small expense to everybody the most important information other-
wise scattered through an expensive library.

Without going into details, it is only necessary to call attention to the fact
that everywhere the Academy is a powerful auxillary in developing the mineral,
vegetable and animal resources of the State.

We may consider the industrial activity of the Academy under three heads :
Its efforts in behalf of agriculture, of mines and minerals, of manufactures. It
aids agriculture by studying and eradicating injurious weeds; by investigating
insect life and showing what insects are beneficial, which injurious, and devising
means for fostering the former and exterminating the latter; by studying para-
sitic fungi, their habits, effects, control; by the investigation and adaptation of
soils; by studying birds and animals in their relation to agriculture.

It aids mines and mineral industries—by the study of coal, gas, oil, clays,
sands, road materials, gravels, building stones, etc.; by application of physics,
chemistry and mechanics to mine work; by the application of scientific knowledge
of existing conditions, to the end that money should not be wasted in wild-cat-
ting and other useless operations.

It aids manufacturing industries—by investigating the physical and chemical
properties of wood and iron, by perfecting accurate and economical methods of
manufacture and testing; by stimulating and laying the foundations for the devel-
opment of inventions which shall convert a given amount of power into the maxi-
mum amount of useful product; by investigating and devising economical methods
of developing and distributing power; by preventing the expenditure of money
upon unscientific and useless inventions.

We may group the general economical services of the Academy under three
‘heads:

1. It strives to increase the possibilities of existing properties—by improving
the soils; by the study and culture of fish; by developing new soil products, such
as the sugar beet, or by investigating the conditions under which they flourish; by
utilizing neglected food materials, such as mushrooms, ete.; by discovering prac-
tical and beneficial uses for waste products; by studying the uses of woods, clays,

etc. in the arts and manufactures; by studying the medicinal properties of

10

plants; by studying the properties of plants injurious or fatal to man or beast, as
the stagger-weed.

2. It strives to increase the happiness, safety and productive capacity of
society by investigating food adulteration, drainage, water supply, sanitary ques-
tions; by investigating the effects of mineral and vegetable poisons upon man and.
animals; by studying the diseases of animals; by investigating general econom-
ical and social problems.

3. It studies the question of the protection of forms of life beneficial to man,
such as forests, native birds, game and fishes.

In general, we may remark, the reputation of a State is a matter of pecuniary
as well as sentimental importance. While it is true that the work of the Academy
is widely known and its worth acknowledged, while the same is true for other edu-
cational forces in the State, yet when all is said, we must confess that we occupy
too low a position in the estimation of the scientific world, lower we believe, than
our merit as a State deserves. On the other hand, if the State Legislature should
cordially recognize the work being done, should encourage investigation along all
lines by the method here suggested, as it can at so slight an expense, that act alone
of enlightened and far-seeing policy would greatly improve our reputation; it
would tend to give tone and character to the State; it would make the strong
workers within its borders more patriotic; they would not be so ready when oppor-
tunity offers to change their residence to some more appreciative community; it
would do much to attract from without first-class ability to assist in making Indi-

ana in every respect what her fertility and natural resources intended she should

be—a leader among the States of the Union.

New York, Connecticut, Wisconsin, Illinois, Minnesota, Iowa, Kansas and
the National Government, together with the foremost foreign States and nations,
are more or less committed to the policy advocated. Its results in Indiana can
not be different from those achieved elsewhere. Its adoption can only inure to
the great and lasting benefit of Indiana and all her people.

The amount annually needed to publish in a proper manner, illustrate and
distribute the proceedings of the Society will not exceed $2,000. The Academy:
does not ask a direct appropriation of money, but an annual publication of its
proceedings.

As shown by its constitution, the objects of the Academy “‘shall be scientific
research and the diffusion of knowledge concerning the various_departments of

science.”

El

The membership is limited only by the following clause:

‘Any person engaged in any department of scientific work, or in original re-
search in any department of science, shall be eligible to active membership.” The
membership now numbers 146, of whom 25, known as Fellows, are supposed in a
special manner to represent the Academy in its relations to the general public.

In order that the general character of the Academy may be clearly under-
stood, the list of Fellows with their addresses is appended :

Daniel Kirkwood, Riverside, Cal.; J. C. Arthur, Lafayette; P. S. Baker,
Greencastle; W. 8. Blatchley, Indianapolis; J. C. Branner, Palo Alto, Cal.; A.
W. Butler, Brookville; J. L. Campbell, Crawfordsville; John M. Coulter, Lake
Forest, Ill.; Stanley Coulter, Lafayette; H. T. Eddy, Minneapolis, Minn.; C. H.
Eigenmann, Bloomington; W. F. M. Goss, Lafayette; Thomas Gray, Terre Haute;
O. P. Hay, Chicago, Il].; H. A. Huston, Lafayette; J. P. D. John, Greencastle;
D. 8. Jordon, Palo Alto, Cal.; V. F. Marsters, Bloomington; T. C. Mendenhall,
Worcester, Mass.; D. M. Mottier, Bloomington; W. W. Norman, Austin, Texas;
W. A. Noyes, Terre Haute; W. P. Shannon, Greensburg; Alex. Smith, Chicago,
Ill.; W. E. Stone, Lafayette; M. B. Thomas, Crawfordsville; L. M. Underwood,
Greencastle; T. C. Van Nuys, Bloomington; C. A. Waldo, Greencastle.

OFFICERS, 1895-96.

PRESIDENT,
STANLEY COULTER.

VICE-PRESIDENT,
THOMAS GRAY.

SECRETARY,
JOHN S. WRIGHT.

AssISTANT SECRETARY,
A. J. BIGNEY:

TREASURER,
W. P. SHANNON.

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

STANLEY COULTER, Amos W. BUTLER, T. C. MENDENHALL,
THOMAS GRAY, WA; Noyes, JOHN C. BRANNER,

JoHN S. WRIGHT, J. C, ARTHUR, Ji 2: Di vionn

A. J. BIGNEY, J. L. CAMPBELL, JoHn M. CovuntTEr,

W. P. SHANNON, OS SP: Ebay, Davin S. JoRDAN.

CURATORS.

OMVAUN ast s bicge since ic aie Cee Es he ah EEN parte J. C. ARTHUR.
TORREY © OG Nesey se ata near eer ae ee ele C. H. EIGENMANN.
HERPETOLOGY i
MAMMALOGY ..Amos W. BuTuLer.
ORNITHOLOGY . I

BIN ROMO WO GING wr oe, Peak Ee eee eee W. S. BLATCHLEY.

COMMITTEES, 1895-96.

PROGRAM.
C. A. WALDO, A. J. BIGNEY,
MEMBERSHIP.

C..H. E1GENMANN, GEORGE A. TALBERT,

G. W. Brenton.
NOMINATIONS.

W. A, Noyes, W.. E.. Stone,

W. S. BLatTcHLEY.
AUDITING.

W. E. STone.

STATE LIBRARY.

W. A. Noyes, A. W. BurLer,
A. W. DvFr, J. S. WRIGHT.

C. A. WALDO,

LEGISLATION FOR THE RESTRICTION OF WEEDS.
J. C. ARTHUR,

J. M. Courter, J. S. WRIGHT.
PROPAGATION AND PROTECTION OF GAME AND FISH.
C..H. EIGENMANN, A. W. Burier, Pu. KrIrscu.

EDITOR.
C. A. Waxpo.
DIRECTORS OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY.
C. H. EIGENMANN, VY. F. MARstTERS,
RELATIONS OF THE
C. A. WALDo,

J. C. ARTHUR.

ACADEMY TO THE STATE.

A. W. BUTLER,

C. H. EIGENMANN.
GRANTING PERMITS FOR COLLECTING BIRDS.
A. W. BurLer, C. H. EIGENMANN, Wie eR:
DISTRIBUTION OF THE PROCEEDINGS.

A. W. BuTLer, W. A. NOYEs,
C. H. Ercenmann, V. F. MARSTERs,

SHANNON.

C. A. WALDO.
J. S. WRIGHT.

14

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CONSTITUTION.

ARTICLE I.

Section 1. This association shall be called the Indiana Academy of Science.

Src. 2. The objects of this Academy shall be scientific research and the
diffusion of knowledge concerning the various departments of science; to promote
intercourse between men engaged in scientific work, especially in Indiana; to
assist by investigation and discussion in developing and making known the
material, educational and other resources and riches of the State; to arrange and
prepare for publication such reports of investigation and discussions as may fur-
ther the aims and objects of the Academy as set forth in these articles.

Whereas, the State has undertaken the publication of such proceedings, the
Academy will, upon request of the Governor, or of one of the several depart-
ments of the State, through the Governor, act through its council as an advisory
body in the direction and execution of any investigation within its province as
stated. The necessary expenses incurred in the prosecution of such investigation
are to be borne by the State; no pecuniary gain is to come to the Academy for its
advice or direction of such investigation.

The regular proceedings of the Academy as published by the State shall

become a public document.

ARTICLE II.

Section 1. Members of this Academy shall be honorary fellows, fellows,
non-resident members or active members.

Sec. 2. Any person engaged in any department of scientific work, or in
original research in any department of science, shall be eligible to active mem-
bership. Active members may be annual or life members. Annual members
may be elected at any meeting of the Academy; they shall sign the constitution,
pay an admission fee of two dollars, and thereafter an annual fee of one dollar.
Any person who shall at one time contribute fifty dollars to the funds of this
Academy, may be elected a life member of the Academy, free of assessment.

Non-resident members may be elected from those who have been active members

16

but who have removed from the State. In any case, a three-fourths vote of the
members present shall elect to membership. Applications for membership in any
of the foregoing classes shall be referred to a committee on application for mem-
bership, who shali consider such application and report to the Academy before
the election.

Sec. 3. The members who are actively engaged in scientific work, who have
recognized standing asscientific men and who have been members of the Academy
at least one year, may be recommended for nomination for election as fellows by
three fellows or members personally acquainted with their work and character.
Of members so nominated a number not exceeding five in one year may, on
recommendation of the Executive Committee, be elected as fellows. At the meet-
ing at which this is adopted the members of the Executive Committee for 1894
and fifteen others shall be elected fellows, and those now honorary members shall
become honorary fellows. Honorary fellows may be elected on account of special
prominence in science, on the written recommendation of two members of the

Academy. In any case a three-fourths vote of the members present shall elect.

ARTICLE III.

Section 1. The officers of this Academy shall be chosen by ballot at the
annual meeting, and shall hold office one year. They shall consist of a president,
vice-president, secretary, assistant secretary, and treasurer, who shall perform
the duties usually pertaining to their respective offices, and in addition, with the
ex-presidents of the Academy, shall constitute an executive committee. The
president shall, at each annual meeting, appoint two members to be a committee
which shall prepare the programmes and have charge of the arrangements for all
meetings for one year.

Sec. 2. The annual meeting of this Academy shall be held in the city of
Indianapolis within the week following Christmas of each year, unless otherwise
ordered by the executive committee. There shall also be a summer meeting at
such time and place as may be decided upon by the executive committee. Other
meetings may be called at the discretion of the executive committee. The past
presidents, together with the officers and executive committee, shall constitute the
Council of the Academy, and represent it in the transaction of any necessary
business not specially provided for in this constitution, in the interim between
general meetings. -

Sec. 3. This constitution may be altered or amended at any annual meeting
by a three-fourths majority of attending members of at least one year’s standing.

No question of amendment shall be decided on the day of its presentation.

17

BY-LAWS.

1. On motion, any special department of science shall be assigned to a cura-
tor whose duty it shall be, with the assistance of the other members interested in
the same departmient, to endeavor to advance knowledge in that particular de-
partment. Each curator shall report at such time and place as the Academy
shall direct. These reports shall include a brief summary of the progress of the
department during the year preceding the presentation of the report.

2. The president shall deliver a public address on the evening of one of the
days of the meeting at the expiration of his term of office.

3. No special meeting of the Academy shall be held without a notice of the
same having been sent to the address of each member at least fifteen days before
such meeting.

4. No bill against the Academy shall be paid without an order signed by the
president and countersigned by the secretary.

5. Members who shall allow their dues to remain unpaid for two years, hay-
ing been annually notified of their arrearage by the treasurer, shall have their
names stricken from the roll.

6. Ten members shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business.

MEMBERS.

FELLOWS.
Jig Co Amur. 5-00 ss Soe epee AO tee chee eet meee ee Lafayette.
PSS DH aer> 2. Sc anigt ote heels deme e clo Seas ae hele Greencastle.
eho aie LEY sata. top eck, tae ko. ae Smee Indianapolis.
BER EDS ATIMOL ache. cq fees, Pe ey as oe oa aa Se eS Palo Alto, Cal.
Wino welBryanyke tenet rate tee aekie ce eee Bloomington.
INGA Wy (BUG ns heat. cccs a, Bae e oe oO «eee tite ae eiaee Brookville.
Rab. Callies Ss s-ck! jarenGh rer bre remicseueeaer Snr ..Cincinnati, O.
Spit. Carn belli cSt eine one & ett eine shoe Crawtordsville.
John M. Coulter..... eS Pte Orth ema 3, 2 Lake Forest, Ill.
StanleysCowlter-iccck att): cre erie bas or Oke as Lafayette.
DS WreDennis een. oer eee eee cc ae eerie io iter Richmond.
OES Bugeniaamite * . cos eee te ee ns eee ele ee Bloomington.
Katherme BinGoldenersse ate te eee eee ieee: Lafayette.
A Voce ded Ra G10; eck ae a re ae ee st ts his cot Lafayette.
JUICER G ath ee Read ode chic Gaagr asm Aaa oe 4 ons Sarecri.< Terre Haute.
AGE Se EM ait ln Wet VR ae Sole ss cians Tee ae lte) hoteles rere Terre Haute.
0 Yo) 2A & Ey eee cn dP ree A ere tos paar rb Si soles Chicago, Ill.
EAS EMISuOn se tee oe oe eras ote Sere eee neat Lafayette.
ips) Ben) DS EE IG) teers ke lop ety ek eke Beaigso Ae can lead) ESIC Greencastle.
Dyas Shedd Roirae 2) chet che tehet t es aretha die Ak a Deca bee kaha Stanford University, Cal.
Wer oe Miarsterssertet co ste ce tinqss siete a el oie oie tore eter Bloomington.
Oia) Wiig dN) [eC is S acas st lo clene BIS IG RIAE Port Graemed SS So comic Terre Haute.
TSO“ Mendenhall ety tare eee a ein oe eee Hoboken, N. J.
DMMaMotlion. <2 teas Gece cee cee aes oe ee eer Bloomington.
eas oan SO See On ae ne Ian eo ais. acai. <Wiom Set Terre Haute.
DEAT: Seovelh ot. Py eee OA ere a etter saie teeter cee eee
IWiepie:c SIaNTIONN cir ese at ae ieee eee tet Greensburg.

Pex Sripthta na cee eit ere ciate ic actor ean tere et eee era Chicago, Ill.

19

RE MES 2 Ore? Fok 8 25 od x ee hk eth ee cone Lafayette.

2 EES Oe a ee Crawfordsville.
CURT SIRE ROOM EE aA 5 «Gai ers, fs aan n= Fences Sneaks Auburn, Ala.
Pe PrN. Soar dae. <2) <0 his wots ws lee pasa dss Bloomington.
EN GSES BS ee i ee A Lafayette.

LO UES AVG) ESI 9 che, Ss eo ee Wooster, 0.
OL ELS SEE OT a a ee Washington, D. C.
02 Ss ule ge Ce Be ee a ae Indianapolis.

NON-RESIDENT MEMBERS.

LO ELOMEAS TC US | ease ESE Se asi einen Stanford University, Cal.
aR EN IPI cere sitgl 5 a 2)0) xis midis ot 7 Sie Scie aie iv eo cose Washingten, D. C.
RP RE EE TUES oo ince co ainlv! x Ae Cin Bio's ws be os aise os Stanford University, Cal.
PUMPRE ECCI ooo oie Sevres oclo a venie, Saye m Sn se Senin 8 stare’ 5% Stanford University, Cal.
POMPE A EU age Sota So bie e eas eine Salen ees seas ss Syracuse, N. Y.

SO PLES TS AR a fei ara Stockton, Cal.

LE USC Sa i Se eee SS ae Stanford University, Cal.
IRENE sR rashes o> sie Seapine via ed ysis ws dace: Tufts College, Mass.
ERNE ee Sea a8 i RY ate Oicon,s. co's, sa ois ow Cincinnati, O.
ROUEN LEISCR 8 oc co ran ING eyes Sg: nicrei's sn 3 a's Sa ww a Washington, D. C.

2 Devas Geo 20 Bloomington
Ee Crown Point.
MiemPee SMM AT ES Per AA e SRS of RSS oY Foul Saie es wide Terre Haute.
on he TEESE ae ee 2 Oe oR a Fae Indianapolis.
EOC MVD ELTON WA LPNS borne) oayora clais eto oo eel oa Indianapolis.
PN AANL SW ited ae ESTILO ete Re Sei) aihch p05) oran isl/e siwiers/ «sieves MOOKe’S Hall,
SNe EEO EHELOTIS I PEt NESS oo ose ogres ee wis Sed cee we Bloomington,
iit WN PEMIABTAES SSI A SEO Bae not ayifeh e owe nies gj v ohesater ciarat aerate Lafayette.

PS SRANTEL CERES TAC Mere tc, St Maar Tae cial oan cierno hah shale fate charade eh athe Greencastle.
IPAS PE CARN OD MeL Ae AEN Nace BS oct or sth a eee Ae Ft. Wayne.
OLE SCI S tic. oe aro Oe aa Indianapolis.
Be, Braver ”. See: I Ha ANN oD kt Kee SYS oe Irvington.

Seem UPVC ts SS el. oo ee TDs es + se Lafayette,

20

el 38h Sipe Cee cin eae bind o BSS ioe elo. Cloverdale.
iINoble(G: Butler’. Sos ee cr k etek eens pce ett Wier nore Indianapolis.
Jock, Campbell & gol Micke ete Ge orn asctelesemten et ete Rockville.
Bae Ghianslerts ee see 0. (hess terete th ny. castor erorte Bicknell.
Bred. iM. ‘Chamberlainw -..ceee hee ceriee cere teeter Bloomington.
Ji bred. Clearwaterseae. s-ee reece bil iia ler leleter eter Indianola, Il.
Fd. -Clamentsy iy ee ae he oho Genrer bint Washington.
LUPO Clb. Gi APES Heinle Soka IOM MOS OA AR a Acchc atc Mankato, Min.
MP SO ro wells ne ae Ch as ko ee cle ore eens ee Indianapolis.
Gilera, Gin oncoim obo botis cou po mBe + cedap ero no nods sod Hanover.

NOV Gramibacks <8 keer uit a aon ts aes Beer Sak Greensburg.
indaghie Gunminc ham) ee eter eke tos teaser tet Kirkpatrick.
EIS Comming hams. 608 yeas © <a iamlses = aicge Se eelnne dine Indianapolis.
Mpeenee Wee MOMEDIBS ) Jes & Aare eels asc ahe str ate ~ amen ings ws Columbus.
INL OR Re om eke Sieoipe aE eee nee Sut BGA Oa eS kbar At Irvington.

ae JOY MDa ein ee Bette actor Gomes Drrorae as Otic eth niomne clot obec Syracuse.
Mirae UT VET Nir fs AEs ciation a Siete A eee Terre Haute.
ATV SOND Ei Oh oiel Th i in sel pne’ eels as wre, 8 ety Lafayette.
osepkm WastMiAn ys coc ag Sie ss. e Seale ection wo eee eee Indianapolis.
MGaaE berhardite c-ustererns ce coh oe eer ..... Indianapolis.
TW Bg. aN eg) Uta La OR eee n,n In Mier cll bcor! Hartsville.

EY aL SBHMORY ja.cus's: do. seen ne Ses Rie eee eee ets oe
Percy Norton Evans .........: to ie Semper sree: oe So dae Lafayette.
Sammreli Gar BiwanSuerncere ce se neucciciser claceioessie terse Evansville.
BMS Hisherm noe ciees ee eer steers crete mene Lake Forrest, Il.
TRG TON ns Ges aciga pois Seeeae De See BRON s Bod magoe Lafayette.

Ac Pie Roley. :anneseceriiecs scr eg inter s eS ee ee Bloomington.
THis, Ga Enilktinlss se conceee sso eden abeeaded caconat Terre Haute.
Up Ry Leavers sie. cia Gino ieee aids Coma Gmas adc caer Indianapolis.
iNweinae Mil ead od 5 oo dic citooe bau e o8 Ganoloune cadob 4G oc Bloomington.
J. BeGarner.. ee: Wing A Rea ens Sorat Gane aad busc Crawfordsville.
UE 10s (Glia Ses onst oan de coeroaoen Eotueua coms On oat Newbern.
Michael Je iGoldenerence sees cies Lafayette.
Wail (Goldsboraughsiss: hare cue osc ene yerreeier Lafayette.
(Whey GOOG Willies Mie noite ede- eesti ea cee Ek Brookville.
2S. SEG OED. (ce.ctoe see set <b inser eee eee Indianapolis.
Wiscitn: Grol Olsens ace memees eee Poo o sors Sopa a Rochester.

eee

“Deceased.

Reger eA ete Ck y's Sk sales ta esas saws mane Brazil.

Peet SIE RCOBR SE CSE ise sho sy seals 8x Gide sons ves ea valle. Cole:
| SEES oe PEN > ee Chicago.

Vi DER LE 8 [By Grea rs SRC a Irvington.
SeAIBARLIM NORA AY Sarid a5 wana Sa nnd! miciysaneani Indianapolis.
RCL CET SA! Cerra) o 6) ris sm when nope ns Se eased Bloomington.
RIEU ONeT, Smead oh tas 365s Sgn 4 ee aes eens Logansport.

Jo LS 15 TE TOS OR Se eee eee Indianapolis.
NEARS EN pierce LIS ris ia, See, Ci TA osds eissenra a ceases Bloomington.
(Tos) INOIG Co Sieg a2 ee a Irvington.
Pte ANCOR Et anieratd oak oy ss nossa sah Sse se cd ou ae Indianapolis.
FARMER RES LESS UP) oP PRU Ohio e acl Seok Adee Sajetnswanes Carmel.
SUMUVEHEGE MODAN Say Shere oa 6 oy inv =) 2s eden seb eee Irvington.
“TEESE 6 CNN) 2 a Franklin.

(CLR ANEEN ISITE aan has odie ONE Ae Bloomington.
re ATLe: crypt Jays MAL Sen cosine ores kw so amore wives Bloomington.
Dio, \Gac LSHG OTA Swag Oeste) Cae Sener ee Irvington.

12h. TST Cale eats chan +o caret Rage nko OR eae ew Columbia City.
LEC ES, RS Owe See Oe ee Bloomington.
SEESETALES or teats ets 4 oe Aksoy SSA ps ses oes ose Rensselaer.
eine Ie Me -iy MAAR OLS aie pas cand wiles 9 Se oe ad ences Indianapolis.
eee MCW eit os wa das eae ote s aj nnens cane Indianapolis.
Beene SV OUN ocho MV A505 <fi's ews is s!onyb ed a, 24 so e's Bloomington.
MO PRSE UA NY UNAS ENEACU ew, ces eh os pny ad eass dea csoits ocpsie cress Indianapolis.
feaneed, VW enleye M@BMOe s,s dec sk ee eee ene Indianapolis.
A CU OUINY) APSR BEN rs in ake G waresca onele wats Wabash.
BipeEsets NM CUIGU AO ramts, to. 55 25 cs bwin Selsce ees et sa Indianapolis.
PPE MEINE ENC SAN eras PRS Ae oles: a cieiers'o scarey sieia eas Minneapolis, Minn.
Re APNCE ae AP RS Stn cals 5 nea ka gases ee es Indianapolis.
Dev Moma, ome Seth <2 sida sass nk coe ew teu dows Indianapolis.
PL ELSU SS INU o oe 2g Sas na Brookville.

Beare av lyd CHEER RN SNAET 2 Seeie) cep iyi fps ie ic ueye sc Sutin wins sw uepe stn Bloomington.
emer ROUNE Yori ee gia’ ela a wis oe, oa ns, + wepn an aieceavins ae Crawfordsville.
POSE HUE M GOLEr pate ree ies «<lo0t <4 ade ede sisal sso me Richmond.

SME DRG ALOT, Ceuta te eters erafas 6 ates. <<: 2 sii e/<ance, oi0iss agus» Skene Greencastle.
Peeeeer Das INOWMIM SA Pisano % ise <\ 2 does nie ves 3 Indianapolis.
Nemarmetr a IME OR OTe EIR CAr, Ja igs, «acd oon ada e nade an Elizabethtown..

RNY PRO) lity mee a as on on 51S ny iat ein ele weasels Frankfort.

22

iLO lien? nt .syeie eer eee phate: sine ya when kaye hala hesitation: Indianapolis.
DEAS Owes rare fee ce iene eee ele e ir aioe Franklin.
George din eMC jG NACE pinatry pete vee ee Bloomington.
Vee Le IPGIRC Ey: spe eee ein ie ta eyes oe Ce ae TE Indianapolis.
HiWoou LE Leas Manes ab. cher een eey ci Ma eee eRe Dunrieth.

Teepe ED TC as A oe Le 3 Sr nee eM) a, rere ee Chicago, II.
cy lana SEs aib litt, Sexi tee ahs ce pdeyetcneratoiske ia ale Acs Ree Fairmount.

J Bel fe laters ts tcl 24) Maer, ha 8 SCN Eee Oe ern See Bloomington.
BEESIC UG AEN SAE Yn ECE). Uae tre cice Cheer ich eRe coer South Bend.
OCA A (a Ch Cane epee seca cok MON Pere rT cn aS Delphi.

SOIT GIS BAG SECIS OR SER SII fase so) Dei NE shear teteeetee em eaves Bloomington.
Georcet bh MROberts meee er crasie seek Chere ER RR eaGr e Greensburg
Je ite REUTERS Oia Shae os oo a tana ee eas eee ee EB, Terre Haute.
Mdolph GROG eera wast eRe. kiss we enten Rao eece Newcastle.
diolnw Hey Selmatbles rf Wee secs bce ioeuare hemor en mere Lafayette.

KOSS TSA Cl aie radees Went eae oe pose Ca pepe ve ee eaTo IR Huntington.
lead SR Ske be hit haem eee ee rac ween oc knep oer ely ets Bloomington.
AAV So SGA TIRE MaMa ee ts bS. oc etcae = Poxc ide echt avapro Ral Indianapolis.
chiar ds Ati Sraar imeem ated bis pipta-ttor ae ees rae Lafayette.

ET aol die Sin Gite eta ee eccrine nie xterra eee Lafayette.
Roe Were noibin iy SARL a eye KO ae ceea Ose as nea oR ee Indianapolis.
1Cyl GMS) EDS) Psa Abate ok a pa A ee Bt 5 nore Et Logansport.
IMEC IS EGV.COS SR Aah terres tee 1h os thorn Pato aieharott Grose Lafayette.
LIMES COO p Sie aster mice ae EGG BROS REN PERRIS anes J: Brookville.
JOSS PEGS Wali Ae NeR IA. Woe lua eee rcheanele piace Bloomington.
WVU AIMS RG Wir ate etch des Gore cat icy Lickereee one else eae tets Castors Lafayette.
Ceo ALs Rall bent eur araneryccsa lack oeyee rte ev reusd Gl ametetebe Ge Laporte.
Peankt Boy May Vor uee tyes oy esos fe oe Po tare peed ate Fort Wayne.
BPASLUS WEE, ete AS ER Ga td OF os cg Mee crane tanta cg hte eae Lafayette.

1 Raat dl Wels tna o cticer race tes eae ee Et Ses GUAR Min ued Washington,
Wonks Le eRbirashen. 7 SAvelbns 2... pei fe hee eek Cmgeene Irvington.
Aviles dwellpacmet ates obi tee ae chee res ciereree Oxford, Ohio.
AP Dil ney aie seincteeteds © crates lon ken Cte et von tance Ge Bloomington.
A MMe an GORGOR Meth aks hac ceerrhe ls oh kien ere ee Reo Knightstown.
se ees VOLS ae Ait Ae Aloe oth he eee ene Bloomington.
BRM estaW alleen sy! nde: Beye os a ete oe eee ee New Albany.
BAL: Wivallicer 205i Me Gita, Gt the eh paths og Ie eee eee Anderson.

Wises Wiall hers erie) tes eel ee ee a en eee Redford.

1D) (Cx

Orme NL AGE. atae See he eo 5 Noyes Bie ee eel v oe ecedea de Wabash.
PAMPER TULET ever cis on a crs tac\s 5 oo. 8 a sow o'sis ae Awe oe South Bend.
Dio DES ELSE ISS on A ee Richmond.
LT SS eS Ss are Covington.
La GU GCH MCE Sea fae en ae ESE Cea free Duluth, Minn.
SL IS els aes eg OF a Dee a ae Bloomington.
MCE ats 22 SE AI 9 Saas <A owt pe oo st dc PE Bloomington.
EA eres car eRe yay as, re Sa Pian Bs ses Sodio GRE we we Clinton.
TAI See SEC CORTESE ene IE ee 36
WNON-TeSIG ent IUCMIUETS 5.0 05 Pe oe ast sae kee esas 10
COL Veamnena DERSEit sr Racivan Sih ie vse oon eh ora d oh 134

-++. PROGRAM -.--

OF THE

ELEVENTH ANNUAL .MEBTING

OF THE

Indiana Academy of Science,

STATE HOUSE, INDIANAPOLIS,

December 27 and 28, 1895.

OFFICERS AND EX-OFFICIO EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

ACW DUDE MRat entice actos es President | D.S. Jorpan, T. C. MENDENHALL,
STANLEY COULBER...<.0.--55- Vice-President | J. M. Coutrrr, OP HAs,

JOHNGS WRIGHT ces cactocn ciate sree Secretary J.P. D. Joun, J. L. CAMPBELL,

IAW ee BIGNEN anne ehiooes Assistant Secretary | J.C. BRANNER, J.C. ARTHUR,

AW OPE SHIANIN O Niels cisie cieverristecneers Treasurer W. A. Noyrs, Ex-Presidents.

The Sessions of the Academy will be held in the State House, in the rooms of the
State Board of Agriculture.

PROGRAM COMMITTEE.

Pes DAKIGR A tociscurerclsisieciins’eeiiek Greencastle | Gro. W. BENTON ........5...0% Indianapolis

GENERAL PROGRAM.

Thursday, December 26.

Meeting of Executive Committee at Denison House ................0ccceeccseessecues & Dali

Friday, December 27.

MONS TAlE SOSSLOT retake gore Sins wearers eharotes ses wie eraser nee eats eee ci Oe ore 9 a.m.to12m.
SechromalsMiee times ccerietcicrere steer acar eae a hh ater SPRATT Ree tT --2p.m.todp.m.
Address by, President Aj WiibButler 2:5. 26 se ecleen a cere troste ate Oe sisters cieheioie oe eee eee 7 p.m.

Saturday, December 28.

(zeneral Session, followed by Sectional Meetings ..............cccesecesecceeee 9a.m.to12m.
AONE TA] SOSSLOU esis, 0 aie es sssdveisio sehiels i has melons ieee ah sreleeetalte ecole oslo daeetnte voi is teretoutt save earaters 2p.m.to4p.m.

Ets? OP PAPERS -TO* BE ‘READ:

ADDRESS BY THE RETIRING PRESIDENT,
MR. A. W. BUTLER,

At 7 o’clock Friday evening.
Subject— Indiana: A Century of Changes in the Aspects of Nature.’’

AT THE SAME HOUR, BY REQUEST,
MR. W. W. PFRIMMER

Will read a new poem. Subject—* The Naturalist.’’

The address has been placed at this early hour in order that other engagements for the
usual hours of evening entertainment may not keep the members of the Academy and
their friends from being present.

The following papers will be read in the order in which they appear on the program,
except that certain portions of the program will be presented pari passu in sectional meet-
ings. When a paper is called and the reader is not present, it will be dropped to the end of
the list, unless by mutual agreement an exchange can be made with another whose time is
approximately the same. Where no statement of time was sent with the papers, they have
been uniformly assigned ten minutes. Opportunity will be given after the reading of each
paper for a brief discussion.

N. B.—By order of the Academy no paper can be read until an abstract of its contents or the
written paper has been placed in the hands of the Secretary.

GENERAL SUBJECTS.

fe Wnconscious mental cerebration;, 0M... . 2... esses. soe C. E. Newlin
2. Human physiology in its relation to biology, 16 m............. Guido Bell
3. A means of preventing hog cholera,5m..................- D. W. Dennis
4. The Hopkins Seaside Laboratory at Pacific Grove, Cal.,10 m..B. M. Davis
Be TeC MON Dy DLGAO MUO Ips cc sma eieicie tc cne/- wees ie aerae Katherine E. Golden
6. Simple apparatus for photo-micrography, GtN.. c54 phe esate. M. J. Golden
7. Sanitary science in the modern college, 10 m........... Severance Burrage

GEOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

*8. Glacial and Eolian Sands of the Iroquois and Tippecanoe River
valleys, "TO: sie See Ses aeRO 4 Was See Bee bee A. H. Purdue
9. 1The recent earthquakes east of the Rocky Mountains, 10 m..A. H. Purdue

105 2Some minor processes of erosion, 10m. 5... 2 /Ss222 5. See J. T. Scoville
i iettlesholesateVMaxinkuckeewonmine eee ee eer ner J. T. Scoville
*12. Fossils from sewer trenches in the glacial drift, 15 m..... Wm. M. Whitten
Ou echeremap of Aur kansas,el OMmme er rene cma ment ane John F. Newsom

MATHEMATICAL SUBJECTS.
14. Some skew surfaces of the 3d and 4th degree, 15 m...........C. A. Waldo

15. *A problem in gravitational attraction, 5.m..............:.:...A. We aoum

16. Note relative to Peirce’s ‘‘ Linear Associative Algebra”..James Byrnie Shaw

PHYSICAL SUBJECTS.

*17. Some old and new experiments in sound, 10 m............... M. N. Elrod
18. Variation of a standard thermometer, 10m...............Chas. T. Knipp
19. °A method of graphically representing the laws of falling

LACYORCSSED ln 10 teary nr reeie, Peg ines Sor ome aS ina ctin oovaisbinme eae ec F. P. Stauffer
20. Rates of combustion in locomotive furnaces, 10 m............ Rh. A. Smart
21. The influence of heat, the electric current, and magnetism upon

Young’s Modulus, 15) m0........00 tse cc eciecee os © dive siateie opeicns Mena

22. °The temperature coefficient of the surface tension of liquids,

Syd egy See PaaS of eA ae ae te ee Alot omni aaa 0.8 \rthur L. Foley
ode HIULAMMS) IM Steam mac MUNGIyaro sll aie ved eects ete are ete W. F. M. Goss
24, The viscosity of a polarized dielectric) 12 m-. 5522). .4.- «0.202! A. W. Duff
25. 7A modification of the ring method for permeability, 10 m......A. W. Duff

“26. Some peculiarities in the formation and descent of drops, 5m..A. W. Duff
27. °*The effects of changes of temperature and pressure on viscosity,
3) 3 ee eee Crooner Seer tracicn Hirt ath Se eats cite told Biprae OLS cl 3 / \. W. Duff

28. On the alternating-current dynamo, 15m............ W. E. Goldsborough

“Neither paper nor abstract furnished the Academy for publication; no further men-
tion made in the proceedings.
Norr: The titles set off by small numerals are discussed in the body of the proceed-
under corresponding heads given in the foot notes.
The Charleston (Missouri) earthquake.
2. Some minor eroding agencies.
3. Kettle holes near Lake Maxinkuckee.

The gravitational attraction of a homogenous ellipsoid of revolution.

5. Graphic representation of the law of falling bodies.
6. The surface tension of liquids.
7. A method of measuring permeability.
8. Empirical formula for the temperature variation of viscosity.

ing

™m

ay

27

CHEMICAL SUBJECTS.

29. 1The influence of grape sugar upon the composition of certain
fueproducing bacteria,-5 Mio. .6 65 eee as ES ee a Robert E. Lyons

30. A new method for the preparation of phenyl compounds with

sulphur, selenium and tellurium, 5m ..... BIE te ys te Robert E. Lyons
PiPmOCampiOrieeAciay Worms! ire: yells ols ee Pe AY W. A. Noyes
Se meeNOLG OnMILKe inspection, O Mls. oye s2. stone oe eaia «ee es Geo. W. Benton
33. Ratio of alcohol to yeast in fermentation, 10 m....... Katherine E. Golden
pote Noteonerystallazed silicon, Umi...’ 5. . See See ee elo W. B. Johnson

BOTANICAL SUBJECTS.

35. The circulation of protoplasm in the manubrium of Chara fragilis,
MBIT iar afee ac aes ratte BoP Reale 2) oh Dchaps <u Vea 'o Mi aa's oo sae 6 es D. W. Dennis

36. *Some beneficial results from the use of fungicides as a preven-

HUVEKO DEC ONMMSIING temo RIN EPs AR le nes lcci cst 2 i hoes boo octrec eavalatee Wm. Stuart

Bie mew station for eteogormad, 0 M2... k oe ek eda ese Severance Burrage
*38. Certain plants as an index of soil character, 5 m........... Stanley Coulter
39. Forms of Xanthium Canadense and X. strumarium, 15 m....... J. C. Arthur
*40. An interchangeable clinostat of new design, 15 m............. J. C. Arthur
41. Some notes on wood shrinkage, 10m.....................-- M. J. Golden
42. Botanical literature of the State Library, 5m.............John S. Wright

43. Microscope slides of vegetable material for use in determinative
PVA EG Kom om ome tre Cotas tiem sere ohes a's. «) SpA oe at odcist actoner a Avs John 8. Wright
*44. Embryology of Hydrastis Canadensis, 10 m................ Geo. W. Martin
*45. Some determinative factors underlying plant variation, 10 m.
Geo. W. Martin

ZOOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

40,” Hemorlobin.and its derivatives, 10m... .. 0. 260. cas fs ceca A. J. Bigney
47. Effects of heat upon the irritability of muscle, 10 m........../ A. J. Bigney
48. The evolution of sex in Cymatogaster, UT alata detonate thei: C. H. Eigenmann
*49, Wariations in the cleavage of the Fundulus egg, 10 m...... Geo W. Martin

*Neither paper nor abstract furnished the Academy for publication; no further men~
tion made in the proceedings.

1. The effect of grape sugar upon the composition of certain fat-producing bacteria.
2. Fungicides for the prevention of corn smut.

#50.

59.

60.

The geographical variation of Etheostoma nigrum and E. olunstidi,

1 0 ON ee) SP NN Se Br POM COA SHO W. J. Moenkhaus
A revision and synonomy of the Parvus group of Unionide, with
Gqilentes LO rs 2S tial eh ile WG ee MR LCRA eens R. Ellsworth Call

The Fishes of the Missouri River Basin, 15 m.
B. W. Evermann and J. T. Scoville
Recent investigations concerning the Redfish ( Oncorhynchus nerka)
at its spawning grounds in Idaho, 20 m.
B. W. Evermann and J. T. Scoville
A new subterranean crustacean from Indiana, 5m..... sda dseiciane W. P. Hay
A peculiar crawfish from southern Indiana,.5 m...............W. P. Hay
A note on the breeding habits of the cave salamander, Spelerpes
MACUL CORAUS, OWN actin ta/atectns ae Sree thee ota Se icra [keene Seo Wi Peay,

A new habitation, Gastrophilusieo maa. e ees fee lee eee A. W. Bitting

THE STATE BIOLOGICAL SURVEY.

Report of the Biological Survey, Zodlogy, 29 m..........C. H. Eigenmann

Second contribution to a knowledge of Indiana Mollusea,

OM ate e omit Facets oct ae or Lee or iacicas sichh ica oe R. Ellsworth Call
Contributions to the Biological Survey of Wabash County,

Sey ooh Repco ee ODDO NEIT ATES GA ACI DES 2.52! Albert B. Ulrey
Notes on a collection of fishes from Dubois County, Indiana,

ETL S| Se) etch be Suen ee cae ae MR Tce os ue ere ore esac emai ete W. J. Moenkhaus
Additronalimotes onwindiana jinds.sllo ms. % 2a. ceaae ci ee ee \. W. Butler
AGm amin) srewato sland ramiaayosinne iene ni raieeaaee a eee ster ie A. W. Butler
Notes on animal parasites collected in the State, 5 m.........A. W. Bitting

Report upon certain collections presented to State Biological

Survey, 0. mail WE Le, SPEER te eanlesc rue cnernctars Stanley Coulter
Noteworthy Indiana phanerogams, 10m.................. Stanley Coulter
Distribution of Orchidacee in Indiana, 10 m.......... \lida M. Cunningham

Notes on the Fauna of the black shales of. Bartholomew and Jackson

COUNPIESs nO iM te tps err cereal ae ite AS eee Ay Ais V. F. Marsters

“Neither paper nor abstract furnished the Academy for publication; no further men-

tion made in the proceedings.

29

TURKEY LAKE AS A LIMIT OF ENVIRONMENT AND THE VARIA-
TION OF ITS INHABITANTS. BIOLOGICAL SURVEY REPORTS.

69.
70.

[.

XVI.
VEL

XVIII.

First report of Biological Station, 10m. ........C. H. Eigenmann

2Some of the physical features of Turkey Lake, 10 m.. D.C, Ridgley

Hydrographic map of Turkey Lake, 2m......... ...... C. Juday
Temperatures of Turkey Lake, 5m..........0......48 J. P. Dolan
‘Inhabitants of Turkey Lake in general, 3m ....C. H. Eigenmann
Hirudineaiot Turkey: Lake, 1 m:. 004 ..0... 6.000% Bessie C. Ridgley
erjermoilurkey Wake. 5 Missy hir. seeds. 8s D. S. Kellicott
Clodacera of Turkey Lake; opm). 0.2 cos cc. eee atau E. 8. Birge
"Moliacnols Larkey lake, 6M.’ iid se. ccs odek X. Elisworth Call
"Qaenaacot Burkey Lake, Wm io. o2c0 4 26 sien ete oon 08 D. 8. Kellicott

“Fishes and tailed batrachians of Turkey Lake, 5m.C. H. Eigenmann

8Tailless batrachians of Turkey Lake, 1] m............ C. Atkinson
Soakestormlonkeyduake worm. nctesak cieeies lee sick H. G. Reddick
MLOrtles OF LL unkey Lake. O) D1. . scene sche « cediolorn C. H. Eigenmann
Water birds of Turkey Lake, 2m............N. M. Chamberlain
Hloraveh Turkey Waake 10 ma.) . sa cecaualis ces eae O. H. Meyncke
°Methods of determining variations, 5m........ C. H. Eigenmann

Variation of Etheostoma of Turkey and Tippecanoe
Wailkextel Ol qnee epee eatin tae troy clerrst .. Mertte o. ares W. J. Moenkhaus

* Neither paper nor abstract furnished the Academy for publication. No further men-
‘tion made in the proceedings.

1. A report upon certain collections of phanerogams presented to the State Biological
‘Survey.

2. A preliminary report on the physical features of Turkey Lake.

3. The inhabitants of Turkey Lake.

4. Rotifera.

5. Onasmall collection of mollusks from Northern Indiana.

6. The Odonata.

7. Fishes.

8. Batrachia.

9. Testudinata.

0. The study of vari tion.

30

ELEVENTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE INDIANA ACAD-
EMY OF SCIENCE.

The eleventh annual meeting of the Indiana Academy of Science was held in
Indianapolis Friday and Saturday, December 27 and 28, 1894, preceded by a
session of the executive committee of the Academy, 8 p. mM. Thursday, Decem-
ber 26.

At9 A. ™M., December 27, President Amos W. Butler called the Academy to
order in general session, at which committees were appointed, other routine
business transacted. After the disposition of the morning’s business, papers of the

? were read and discussed

printed program, under the title of ‘‘ General Subjects,’
until adjournment at 12 M.

The Academy met at 2 P. M. in two sections—biological and physico-chemical
—for the reading and discussion of papers. President Butler presided over the
biological section and Prof. W. A. Noyes acted as chairman of the physico-
chemical section. After the adjournment of the sectional meetings at 5 Pp. M. the
Academy again met in general session at 7 Pp. M. After the disposition of some
committee reports and other business, by request of the Academy, Mr. W. W.
Pfrimmer read a new poem, subject: ‘‘The Naturalist,” following which was the
address of the retiring President, Mr. A. W. Butler, subject: ‘“‘Indiana; A
Century of Changes in the Aspects of Nature.”

Following this evening session of the Academy was a meeting of the executive
committee.

Saturday, December 28, 9 a. M., the Academy met in general session for the
transaction of business, after which followed the reading and discussion of papers

until adjournment, 12:15 Pp. M.

i. J

31

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

Inprana: A CENTURY OF CHANGES IN THE ASPECTS OF Nature. By A. W.

BUTLER.

Out of the wilderness of the past has come our present civilization. From
the fauna and flora of the wilderness-time proceeded the forms of life about us.
The progress of this century is the marvel of history. Co-extensive with this
progress are the changes in nature wrought by human agency. The story told by
the witnesses of these things is incomprehensible. To the earliest pioneer a day
spent in the present time would paralyze his faculties. To the student of to-day
placed in the wilds of a century past would his wonder be any less? We can not
comprehend what man hath wrought. Within our memories, a few there have
been—here and there one—whose lives included the beginning of the white man’s
activity and who, much out of place in every feeling have seen the progress of the
ages move by. We listen to their tales of the past, but who is there who can
picture in his mind the natural conditions of those early days and the subsequent
changings? Vague and imperfect are our impressions if, indeed, we have any
conception of them

It is probable that the first white man within the boundaries of Indiana was
the explorer LaSalle. His voyage was made about 1669. The earliest settlements
were established within the first quarter of the last century at Cuiatanon and
Vincennes. Authorities do not agree as to which was settled first or the date of
settlement. These were only trading posts. Their effect upon existing conditions
was but small. Nor was it until the Americans began to occupy this region at the
opening of this century that the old began to fade before the new.

Over the greater part of this State were spread dense forests of tall trees —
heavy timber—whose limbs met and branches were so interwoven that but oc-
casionally could the sunlight find entrance. There was little or no undergrowth
in the heaviest woods, and the gloom of those dense shades and its accompanying
silence were terribly oppressive. Mile upon mile, day’s journey upon day’s jour-
ney stretched those gloomy shades amid giant columus and green arches reared
by nature through centuries of time. The only interruptions were the beds of water-
courses; the poorer hillsides covered with underbrush; the smaller growth of the
less productive uplands; the site of an extensive windfall—the record of a tor-
nado’s passage; the small area of second growth timber marking the former

clearing for some Indian camp; the more or less extensive patches of meadow,

32

occupying ground on which the forest had been destroyed by Indian fires. To
the west, in the valley of the Wabash, were wide meadows covered with long grass.
In the northern third of our territory were prairies and sloughs alternating with
wooded sand hills and reedy swamps, imperfectly drained by a network of slug-
gish streams, which in turn gave place to extensive marshes toward Lake Mich-
igan.

The southern portion of the State was more heavily timbered. Perhaps no-
where could America show more magnificent forests of deciduous trees, or more
noble specimens of the characteristic forms than existed in the valleys of the
Wabash and Whitewater. The trees decreased in size to the northward, those
along the great lakes being noticeably inferior. The number of coniferous trees.
was small and was confined to restricted areas. Those found were poor represent-
atives of their species.

The forests were made up of many kinds of trees growing together indis-
criminately. Here and there certain groups and occasionally a species were
found predominating. In various localities the character of the forest was dif-
ferent. Oak, ash, hickory, maple, beech and elm were prevailing trees,
varying much in number and proportion. In some places the Tulip Poplar
(Liriodendron tulipifera L.) was very numerous, often attaining great size—the
largest tree of the primitive forests.

Forty-two kinds of trees in the Wabash valley attained a height above 100
feet.1 The tallest recorded being a Tulip Poplar, 190 feet in height. It was
twenty-five feet in circumference and ninety-one feet to the first limb.2 Many
thousands grew over the State measuring from three feet six inches to ten feet in di-
ameter. Numbers of Sweet Gum (Ligquidamber styracijlua L.) in the more fertile
ground in the southern part of the State, contended with the tulip poplar in
height. and in beauty and symmetry exceeded it. They attained a height of 130
to 150 feet and were three to four feet in diameter at the base, often preserving
almost the same size to the first limb.* In the oak woods there were giants too.
The Red Oak { Quereus rubra L.), Searlet Oak ( Quereus coccinea Wangheim), Burr
Oak (Quercus microcarpa Michaux), and White Oak (Quercus alba L.) reaching a
girth of ten to twenty feet, and often a height of 125 to 150 feet. One instance:

is reported of a Scarlet Oak 181 feet high. *

1. Prof.Stanley Coulter: The Forest Trees of Indiana, Trans. Ind. Hort. Soc., 1891, p. 8.
2, Dr.J.Schneck: Rept. Ind. Geological Survey, 1875, p. 512.

3. R.Ridgway: Proc. U.S. National Museum, Vol. V, 1882, p. 67.

4. R. Ridgway: JTJbid, p. 80.

33

In the southern part of the State, too, the Sweet Buckeye (#seculus glabra
Willdenow) attained great size, often being three feet six inches and four feet in
diameter with trunks as straight as columns, the trees reaching a total height of over
100 feet. One example of this species is unique. It is the tree from which was
made the celebrated buckeye canoe of the Harrison presidential campaign of 1840.
The tree grew in the southeast corner of Rush county and is said to have been,
when standing, twenty-seven feet nine inches in circumference and ninety feet
from the ground to the first limb.’ Here and there, quite thickly scattered,
would: be found groves of the finest Black Walnut (Juglans nigra L.) trees the
world hasever known. Some of these groves were quite extensive, containing
hundreds of trees, individuals of which were four to six feet in diameter and 100
to 150 feet high. ?

In the river valleys, along the streams, the great size of the Sycamore ( Platanus
occidentalis L) was noticeable. This was the largest of the hardwood trees, reach-
ing a maxium height of 140 to 165 feet and often measuring five to ten feet in
diameter.? Keeping those company were the Cottonwoods (Populus monilifera
Aiton), the larger of which measured five and even eight feet through and 130 to
165 feet high. The beauty of all the trees of this region was the White Elm
(Ulmus americana L.). Its diameter sometimes reached five feet, and its height
120 feet or more, the ambitus often spreading over 100 feet.

At the time of its settlement the southeastern third of our territory, including
all the Whitewater Valley, contained no Indian towns and was unoccupied by
them save as occasionally a hunting or a war party passed through it. In the
valley of the Wabash and in the northeastern part of the State were Indian vil-
lages, located because of natural advantages. These have been apparent to the
whites, who in several instances established upon their sites settlements which
have since become prominent as towns or cities. Among these Kekionga (Ft.
Wayne), Chip-kaw-kay (Vincennes) and Ouiatanon .on the west side oi the
Wabash River, four miles below Lafayette*) were selected as trading posts by the
whites, being centers of the finest game regions occupied by man within the limits
of the present State. The peltry from the last-mentioned post, in one year, in

those early times amounted to about eight thousand pounds sterling. ®

W.P.Shannon: Proc. Ind. Acad. Science, 1894, p. 130.

R. Ridgway: Proc. U.S. National Museum, Vol. V, 1882, p. 76.

R. Ridgway: Ibid, p. 73-75.

Prof. Osear J. Craig: Ouiatanon, a Study in Indiana History. Ind. Hist. Soc.,
pubs. Vol. II, No.8, p. 3.

5. Prof. Oscar J. Craig: Jbid., p. 22.

Hm oF DO et

3

34

In different jocalities under different conditions were different forms of life.
We have noted this regarding plants. It was so concerning animals.

American Bisons ( Bison americanus Gmelin), generally known as Buffaloes,
ranged in countless numbers over the meadows and prairies at the time we first
learn of them. The Whitewater and Miami valleys formed routes to the Ohio River
and the Big Bone Lick in Kentucky. The Wabash Valley became another avenue
for their journeys, and the old trail from the prairies to the Kentucky barrens
crossed the Wabash River below Vincennes. Over this wide, well-marked road,
evidences of which still remain, countless thousands of Bisons passed annuallye
From the Ohio River to Big Bone Lick was a wide road which these animals had
beaten ‘‘spacious enough for two waggons to go abreast.”! Evidence of their for-
mer abundance is preserved in the swamps about this lick. In places their bones
are massed to the depth of two feet or more, as close as the stones of a pavement,
and so beaten down by succeeding herds as to make it difficult to lift them from
their beds. At the Blue Licks in Kentucky we are told in 1784: ‘‘The amazing
herds of buffaloes which resort thither, by their size and number, fill the traveler
with amazement and terror, especially when he beholds the prodigious roads they
have made from all quarters, as if leading to some populous city; the vast space
of land around these springs desolated as if by a ravaging enemy, and hills res
duced to plains, for the land near these springs is chiefly hilly.”* In the region
that was densely wooded the Bisons were only seen as transients, but in the
meadows and prairies they abounded. From the summit of the hill at Ouiatanon
we are told, in 1718: ‘‘ Nothing is visible to the eye but prairies full of
buffaloes.’’#

Elk (Cervus canadensis Erxleben) were common, and Deer (Cariacus virgin-
ianus Gray) still more so. Bear and wolves were quite abundant. In one favors
ite locality, it is reported, a good hunter, without much fatigue to himself, could
supply daily one hundred men with meat. Beaver (Castor fiber LL.) were found
in many localities. Especially favorable to them were the more level regions to
the northward. Otter (Lutra canadensis Sabine) were quite common, while the
Wild Cat (Lynx rufus Raf.), Canada Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatus F. Cuvier)

and Panther (Felis concolor L.) were numerous.

1. Journal of Colonel Croghan: Butler’s History of Kentucky, 1834, p. 368.
2. Dr. A.W.Brayton: Rept. of Geological Survey of Ohio, Vol. LV, Pt. I, Mammals,

pp. (9-17.
3. W.T. Hornaday: Rept. U.S. National Museum, 1887, pp. 387, 388.
4. Paris Documents, 1718: Colonial Hist. N. Y., Vol. IX, p. 891.

35

Of snakes ‘especially noticeable for their abundance were Rattlesnakes (Cro-
talus harridus L., and Sistrurus catenatus Rat.) and Copperheads (Agkistrodon
contortriz L.).

The ponds, sloughs and deeper swamps were the homes of many species of
fishes, mollusks and crustaceans. The creeks, shaded by the closely crowding
trees, contained water all the year round and in them smaller fishes reared their
young. The rivers were clogged and dammed with fallen trees and driftwood and
the water, when the streams were swollen by heavy rains, pouring over these ob-
structions, cut deep holes, which became the homes of great numbers of the larger
fishes,

Wild Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo L.) were found in large flocks. Bobwhites
(Colinus virginianus L.) were so numerous that when they collected in the fall as
many as a hundred were taken in aday with a single net. Ruffed Grouse (Bonasa
umbellus L.) were abundant. Ducks and geese, snipe and plover were found in
inestimable numbers where favorable conditions existed. Paroquets (Conurus
carolinensis L.) were more or less numerous over the entire region and in the lower
Wabash and Whitewater valleys were as abundant as blackbirds now are in spring
and fall. Passenger Pigeons ( Ectopistes migratorius L.) bred and roosted in many
localities. During the migrations they appeared in such numbers that they ob-
secured the sun and hid the sky for hours; sometimes for days in succession. The
strange appearance was made more wonderful by the continuous rumble of the
thunders of the oncoming clouds—the noise of the strokes of millions upon mil-
lions of wings.

Besides these, more rarely, Swallow-tailed Kites (Elanoides forficatus L.) and
Ivory-billed Woodpeckers (Campephilus principalis L.) added their characteristic
forms to the wild scenery. The Osprey (Pandion haliaétus carolinensis Gmel.)
and the Bald Eagle ( Haliwetus leucocephalus L.) built their nests beside the streams
and while one fished the other plundered the fisher:

Within the dense shades of the deeper woodland there was but a small
number of birds. There quiet reigned. Twilight by day and densest darkness
by night. How oppressive the awful quiet amid those gloomy solitudes! Every-
where the smaller birds were few compared with their present numbers.

But men of our race came upon the scene. Indians there had been there
before. As it always has been, and so will continue to be, when two races, one
superior, the other inferior, come into competition, the superior will overcome.
The contest was inequal. The barbarism of the Ohio Valley could not hold its
own against the alert and thoroughly equipped pioneer. Soon the native began

to._part with his land. It was not long until many sought other homes. Others

er

9
9)

attempted to become permanent residents and to adopt, in some measure, the
habits of the conquerors. The result is too well known. An ancestor of theirs
gifted with the powers of a seer may have been the subject of these lines:
““ There was once a neolithic man, an enterprising wight,
Who kept his simple instruments unusually bright;

Unusually clean he was, unusually brave, 2
And he sketched delightful mammoths on the borders of his cave.

To his neolithic neighbors, who were startled and surprised,

Said he, ‘‘ My friends, in course or time we shall be civilized !

We are going to live in cities and build churches and make laws;
We are going to eat three times a day without the natural cause ;
We are going to turn life upside down about a thing called gold;
We're going to want the earth and take as much as we ean hold;

We're going to wear a pile of stuff outside our proper skins;

We're going to have diseases! and accomplishments!! and sins!!!’

One can not but be impressed with the significance of the design of ‘“The
Seal of the Territory of the U. S., N. W. of the River Ohio.”” Impressions of it
are preserved in the Department of State, Washington, D. C. In the light of
the development of the past century, of the changes that have been witnessed,. it
would be impossible standing here, at the other end of the century, to conceive a
device more expressive or truer to facts. I quote from a work that has just ap-
peared :

‘A study of this hi-toric seal will show that it is far from being destitute of
appropriate and expressive meaning. The coiled snake in the foreground and
the boats in the middle distance ; the rising sun; the forest tree felled by the ax
and cut into logs, succeeded by, apparently, an apple tree laden with fruit; the
Latin inscription ‘Meliorem lapsa locavit,’ all combine to forcibly express’the idea
that a wild and savage condition is to be superseded by a higher and better
civilization. The wilderness and its dangerous denizens of reptiles, Indians and
wild beasts, are to disappear before the ax and rifle of the ever-advancing western
pioneer, with his fruits, his harvests, his boats, his commerce, and his restless and
aggressive civilization.” ‘‘Meliorem lapsa locavit’” ‘‘He has planted a better
than the fallen! ”?}

The white man made the navigable water ways his routes and settled along
them. At once, under his influence, the aspects of nature began to change. As
in every other land the effects of man’s settlement began to be seen. The need
for food and clothing and the desire for tillable land were the great causes which
impelled him to action. In every land, on every sea, the story has been the
same. Before his aggression disappeared the most noticeable forms of life. The

large or conspicuous species were those most easily affected—the ones which were

1. Willinm Hayden English: Conquest of the Country Northwest of the River Ohio,
Vol. II, 1896, p. 774.

37

first destroyed. The story of the disappearance of the great animals of Europe;
-of the Bison and the Urus; of the extinction of the giant birds of New Zealand;
of Steller’s Sea Cow and the Great Auk, one each upon our eastern and western
coast; the most wonderful destruction of the great herds of the American Bison,
and the threatened extinction of the Fur/Seal in the North Pacific, and of the
Zebra, Camelopard and other large animals in Africa, are notable illustrations of
the greater changes that have been wrought. But there are smaller ones not so
conspicuous but more potent in their influences upon human welfare.

The Bison, the most characteristic of all the animals of America, was
the first to disappear from the region under consideration. Formerly it had
ranged east, at least as far as western New York and Pennsylvania and in
States farther south almost to tide water, but about 1808 it was exterminated east
of the Wabash River. The Elk followed it closely, disappearing from the White-
water Valley about 1810 and from the State in 1830. The Panther followed soon
after. Virginia Deer, Bear, Otter, Beaver, Wolves and other forms. were almost
exterminated. Though of some, if not all, of these latter forms a remnant yet
remains in some favored localities.

Turkeys and Bobwhites; Ivory-billed Woodpeckers and Wood Ibises (Zun-
talus loculator L.); Black Vultures (Catharista atrata Bartram) and Carolina
Paroyuets have been almost, or in a great measure, exterminated. The Paroquets
which ranged to the great lakes and were so common a feature in the landscape
of the pioneer times, have not only disappeared from Indiana, but from almest
all the great range from Texas to New York over which they spread at the begin-
ning of this century, and are, perhaps, now only found in a restricted area in
Florida. The day of their extirpation is near at hand.

The Passenger Pigeon survived the beautiful little parrot until a later day.
But nets and guns, a short-sighted people and inefficient laws have all but swept
out of existence this graceful bird. It is now on the verge of extinction. We
can no more appreciate the accounts given of the innumerable hosts of these birds
of passage than we can of the incalculable multitudes of the Bisons three score
years ago. The words of those who saw them, we are assured, do not in any way
convey an adequate idea of the wonderful sights and sounds during a flight of
Pigeons. Some of their roosts covered many miles of forest. There, as they set-
tled at evening, the gunners from near and far began to collect for the slaughter.
The loaded trees upon the borders of the wood were first fired upon. Then the
shooters passed into the denser forest. Three or four guns fired among the
branches of a tree would bring down as many two-bushel sacks of dead birds,
while numbers of cripples fluttered beyond reach. After a number of shots over

a considerable area—several acres perhaps—the whole roost would rise with a

38

deafening thundering which no one has attempted to describe and soar out of
sight in the dusk of the early evening, while from the rising cloud came a noise
as of a mighty tornado. As the darkness settled the birds descended and alighted
many deep upon the branches of the trees, the weight being sufficient to break off
many of the large limbs. Then the scene changed. The slaughter began in
earnest. The rapid firing of guns; the squawking of the Pigeons; the breaking
of the limbs of giant trees heneath the living weight; the continuous rumble aris-
ing from the whirr of countless wings; all illumined by the lurid lights of numer-
ous torches and many fires produced an etfect of which no words can convey a
conception to one who has not experienced a night at a pigeon roost. Each year
such scenes were re-enacted. Each year the slaughter went on. Less and less the-
numbers grew. Trapping and netting, supplemented by repeating guns, added to.
the power of destruction, and the Pigeons, whose numbers were once so great that
no one could conceive the thought of their extinction, have dwindled until they
are rarely found. One Pigeon in a year! Soon they will be but a memory.

The picneers’ first work was to cut away the trees and build a cabin. As
each cabin was built, it foreshadowed a clearing extending more and more each
year. The line of the Ohio and of the Wabash formed the basis for the advance
of settlement. The ax and fire performed their work. Great deadenings gave.
promise of a lively time log-rolling next season. Giant Tulip Poplars; monster
Black Walnuts; and Oaks, Ash, Wild Cherry (Prunus serotina Ehrhart) and
Sweet Gums, the largest of their fellows, were rolled into heaps and burned. To
this, in time, was added the necessity for fuel, for lumber and for timber to sup-
ply all the demands which human minds could make upon the forest, not only
for our own population, but also for other States and other lands. Thus were
our forests destroyed. Now, except in a few localities, there remains no virgin
forest.

The destruction of the primitive woods cost much besides the trees that were
sacrificed. Each tree was the host or resting place of other forms of life. Of the
blight upon its leaves; of the fungus upon its limbs; of the lichen and moss upon
its bark; of the birds among its branches; the insects on its foliage and about its
blossoms; the borers within its body. And it sheltered other lowly, ground in-
habiting forms beneath its spreading shades. Who can tell what the destruction
of a tree signifies? How far-reaching are its effects! After the axe came fire,
carrying destruction to the more inconspicuous animals and plants. Fire, too,
swept the standing woods and in its blighting effects extended far beyond the im-
mediate necessities of the pioneer. With the cutting away of the larger trees, in
many localities, sprang up thickets and therewith came thicket-inhabiting animals.

As the clearings were extended, meadow lands and pasture lands weFe reserved.

39
To the meadows came such forms as the Bay-winged Sparrow (Poocetes gramineus
Gmelin), Field Sparrow (Spizella pusilla Wilson), Grasshopper Sparrow (Ammo-
dramus savannarum passerinus Wilson), Meadow Lark (Sturnella magna L.),
meadow mice, garter snakes, green snakes, bumble bees and grasshoppers—species
peculiar to such surroundings. Some parts of this land were wet and where the
drainage was poorest, became swamps and sloughs. There, forms which love such
places, came. Among them Marsh Wrens, Swamp Sparrows (Melospiza georgiana
Lath.), and Red-winged Blackbirds (Agelaius pheniceus L.), salamanders, frogs,
water snakes, aquatic insects and marsh plants. As the orchard and garden de-
veloped, birds well known to us and greatly beloved for their cheery social ways,
there made their home and lived upon food brought to the locality by the chang-
ing conditions. The number of settlers increased, causing a steady diminution in
the numbers of all the larger mammals, especially those used for food or valuable
for fur; of geese, ducks and other water loving birds. The early settlers had
brought with them the Black Rat (Mus rattus L.). Later another form, the
Brown Rat (Mus decumanus Pallas), which, like the first, was a native of the old
world, appeared, following the routes of civilization. It drove out the other rat
and has since occupied its place. The shy Gray Fox ( Urocyon cinereo-argentatus
Schreber), disappeared in advance of the incoming pioneer and the Red Fox
( Vulpes vulpes L.) occupied the field left vacant. The hog, a most valuable factor
in the development of the West, proved equally valuable as an ally in the warfare
against snakes. Largely through its efforts were the rattlesnakes and copperheads
destroyed.

Removing the timber and breaking the ground began to show its effect upon
springs and water courses. Many became dry during the warm season. All life,
be it salamanders, fishes, mollusks, insects or plants, that found therein a home,
died. As time went on drainage became a feature introduced into the new coun-
try. With the draining of our sloughs and swamps other changes came. The birds
that lived among their reeds and flags, mingling their voices with those of the
frogs, disappeared, and the land reclaimed tells, in its luxuriant growth of corn,
no story to the casual passer-by of the former population which occupied it.

And so it was. Change succeeded change. Little by little, but still each
cleared field, each drained swamp, each rotation of crops, each one of a thousand
variations in cause had its effect upon the numbers and life histories of our plants
and animals.

When the Indians left, the prairies were no longer annually burned over.
Forest vegetation began to seize upon this open land, and in time much of it
became reforested. Into it was brought life from the surrounding woods, and the

former occupants were driven out.

40

With the thinning of the trees appeared an undergrowth. Where the under-
growth came, and where the second growth appeared in neglected clearings, the
vegetation was olten different from that of the original forest. This, too, was
destined to go the way of passing things.

The Ginseng (Panar quinquefolium L.), Spikenard (Aralia racemosa L.),
Bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis L.), and Yellowroot (Hydrastis canadensis L.),
and many ferns are following the woody plants to extermination.

Milksickness, once so prevalent among the early settlers, with the peculiar
fevers of the new country, are of the past. Staggers has disappeared from many
places, yet the Wild Larkspur (Delphinium tricorne Michaux), which, tradition-
ally, is its cause, has become more abundant in some congenial localities, and in
such neighborhoods the disease is quite serious.

But there are other results of the introduction of civilization which have
made themselves felt. The streams were dammed and the migratory fishes pre-
vented from ascending them. The driftwood disappeared from the streams. In
time the dams, too, were gone. The deep holes, where the fishes loved to hide,
filled up. The streams carried less water through the summer. Dynamiting,
netting, and other illegal means of fishing became prevalent. All these have
combined to wage a war of extermination against the inhabitants of our streams
and lakes which might, if properly protected, prove an exceedingly valuable
factor alike in the enjoyment and in the food supply of our people.

The telegraph wire is very destructive to birds. Birds and insects have found
a new instrument of destruction in the electric light. Railroad tracks have
proved very deadly to many living things besides man. They, in turn, are high-
ways along which the cars introduce new forms of plants and animals. The self-
binder and the mower play havoc with the lives of many inhabitants of the
meadows and grain fields.

Following in the civilizer’s footsteps haye come other changes. Man has not
only made the wilderness to blossom as the rose and gathered fruits and grain
from all lands for the necessity and enjoyment of our people, but with the grain
has been sown tares and with the fruit has been planted blight. Teasles (Dipsacus
sylvestris Hud.), Canada Thistles (Cnicus arvensis Hoffm.), Wiregrass, Platains
and Prickly Lettuce (Lactuca scariola L.) are contending for the soil. Pear
blight, smuts, rusts and Black-knot affect fruits and flowers. Chinchbugs ( Blissus
leucopterus Say), Hessian Flies (Cecidomyia destructor Say), Colorado Potato
Beetles (Doryphora decem-lineata Say), Clover-root Borers (Hylesinus trifolii Mull. ),
Scale Insects and Cabbage Worms dispute with the farmer his right to the crops

he has planted.

< 41

Some of the native forms of life have, in some respects, changed their habits.
This is evidenced by the Rose-breasted Grosbeak (Habia ludoviciana L. ) feeding upon
the Colorado Potato Beetle. The destruction in the rice fields of South Carolina
caused by the Rice birds—our Bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus L.). The loss in-
flicted in the rice swamps of Louisiana by the Red-winged Blackbird. The dam-
age done to the western corn grower by the Bronzed Grackle (Quiscalus quiscula
eneus Ridg.)—our common Blackbird. By man’s agency the European House
Sparrow, or ‘‘ English Sparrow ” ( Passer domesticus L.), was introduced, and, as its
numbers increased, it began to assert itself in the struggle for existence. The
Bluebird (Sialia sialis L.), which had come from the hole in the snag, was driven
from her box. The Martin (Progne subis L.), which, like the Chimney Swift
(Chetura pelagica L.), formerly nested in hollow trees, left its nesting sites about
the house, ang even the Eave Swallow ( Petrochelidon lunifrons Say.), which, in
olden times, fastened its nest to the cliffs, was, in some cases, driven away. The
warfare with this aggressive little foreigner still continues, worse some places than
others. But it has such surprising powers of reproduction and such unheard of
audacity it seems they must soon cover our entire continent. The history of the
German Carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) in this country illustrates the same persistent
and successful struggle for the mastery in our water ways that has been noted of
the House Sparrow on the land.

In time fashion demanded of that which neither man’s appetite nor his need
for protection had impelled him to take. Her altars were erected and upon them
sacrifices of animals—a host innumerable—were offered. Fur bearing animals
and bright plumaged birds were most earnestly desired, but even the shells of
turtles, the skins of snakes, the teeth of alligators and the pearls of fresh water
muscles were acceptable offerings. The extent of the destruction of innocent
bird lives alone is appalling. A few facts may convey some idea of this. Among
the items of one auction sale in London were 6,000 Birds of Paradise; 5,000 Im-
peyan Pheasants ; 360,000 assorted skins from India; 400,000 Humming birds.
One dealer in 1887 sold no less than 2,000,000 bird skins. + It is probable not less
than 5,000,000 birds were required a year to supply the demand in this country
alone when the bird-wearing ‘‘ craze” was at its height. From information ob-
tainable it is certain that hundreds of thousands of birds must have been slain
in the United States for the glory of fashion’s devotees. To this great number of
victims our own State has been, to a greater or less extent, a contributor. Many
counties in Indiana were visited by bird hunters. It is said from Indianapolis

alone 5,000 birds, prepared for millinery purposes, were shipped in one year.?

1. Lueas. Report U.S. National Museum, 1889, p. 611.
2. Science. Vol. VII, 1886, p. 240.

42

Under our present law, which seems to be well enforced, it is a pleasure to say
our birds are apparently free from that danger.

Changes still continue. The future will record them as has the past.
Those to come promise to be more fruitful of results, to be of greater moment to
mankind, to bring more earnest messages for human weal or woe. But no time
in the future will the changes in the aspects of nature here be so noticeable, so
incomprehensible, because of their vastness, as have those of the century just

closing.

Unconscious MENTAL CEREBRATION. By C. E. NEWLIN.

If it be true, as Dr. Kay says, that ‘‘our mental progress is in the direction
of our becoming unconscious, or largely unconscious, of many of our activities,”
and ‘‘the great object of education should be to transfer as much as possible of
our actions from the conscious to the unconscious regions of the mind,” it seems
to me our efforts should be more largely directed to the training of the mind in
its method of acting, and less to the accomplishing of definite tasks. It seems to.
me that much of our failure in accomplishing results is caused by the very effort
to accomplish them. The worry over the effort and the intense desire to succeed
incapacitates the mind for clear action. If we could only be oblivious to the
effort to think out a problem in any phase of life we would more easily reach the
desired end. As in riding on a smoothly moving train, we are unconscious of the
motion until we look out on the passing objects, so we should be entirely uncon-
scious of the vehicle of thought and the ends to be attained, and let the mind
attend to its thinking unhindered.

Dr. Mandsly says: ‘‘The interference of consciousness is often an actual
hindrance to the association of ideas.”

Much of this desired condition is attained through cultivation of the facul-
ties. When an action becomes a habit the reflex action is unconscious. Dr. Kay
says: ‘‘The more we cultivate and train any faculty or power, the more easily
and rapidly does it perform its work; the less consciousness concerned in it the
more work does it accomplish and the less does it fatigue.”

Dr. Morrell says: ‘‘A purely unconscious action is accompanied by no
fatigue at all.” In my investigation I am convinced he is very nearly, if not en-
tirely, correct. For example, the receiving teller of a bank will run up the long
columns of figures in adding with ease, and fatigue only to the extent of his con-
sciousness of his acts.

But I am convinced this is not altogether a matter of practice. It is partly
due to the method of thought. He reads the figures and their combinations much

as one reads words, without thinking consciously of each letter in the words. A

43

bill clerk will extend the totals of goods as quick as he can write them when the
number of articles or yards and the price are given. Some accountants will add
two or three columns at once almost as rapidly as he would read the same length
of printed words.

When in school I was given the problem of running a railroad much in the
shape of a letter S through three given towns. After working four days on it
and late into the night I decided to give it up, and prepared to retire. My in-
struments and figures still lay spread out on the table, and as I passed the table
to hang up my coat unconsciously my eyes fell on the figures, and the solution
came to me instantly, and I solved it and drew the figures in less than a minute.
I do not believe I would ever have solved it if I had not given it up and thus
relieved my mind of the intense consciousness of the effort to solve it.

When my father was a young man teaching school he had given his class a
long problem in partial payments. The class failed to solve it, and when he tried
it he failed also. Being unwilling to let them know he had failed, he worked on
it every spare moment for several days. One night he worked at it until late at
night, failed again, decided to give it up, and retired. In the night his mother
heard him marking on the slate in the dark room and asked him what he was
doing. He told her in his sleep he was trying to solve the problem. She let him
work on for some time, when he again retired. He did not waken until called
to breakfast the next morning, and when questioned in regard to the problem
said he had failed to solve it and had given it up for good. In the meantime his

mother had turned the slate over. His father insisted he should not give it up,
and induced him to try it again. He did so, working on the other side of the
slate, but he again failed. On turning the slate over they found he had solved
the problem correctly, covering the entire side of the slate with his work, in his
sleep and in a dark room, and yet remembered nothing of it and could not solve
it the next morning. This seems such a remarkable case that I thought it worthy
of giving to you as an illustration.

My conclusions are that we are wasting much time in life with simple mental
acts that should be done unconsciously, and our very consciousness often defeats
the effort. It seems to me we should spend more time learning how to think, and
in concentrating our mind on the matter in hand regardless entirely of all accom-
panying subjects or the result of our thought. If this be true the “To learn to

do by doing” does not cover all, nor the most important, of the ground.

44

MEANS OF PREVENTING Hoc CHOLERA. By D. W. DENNIs.

During the spring term of 1894 I gave twelve chapel lectures at Earlham
College on the conquest of disease. In one of these lectures I discussed the
late cholera pestilence in Hamburg and presented a bulletin like those posted up
throughout the city, directing the sterilization by boiling of every article of food
and drink and of all infected utensils and clothing. I called attention to the
fact that science had not only kept the plague from crossing the ocean, but had
limited it by a single street in the city of Hamburg itself.

Mr. Porter Cook, of Wilkinson, Hancock County, was a student with us at
that time. His father, Mr. Lorenzo D. Cook, had lost by hog cholera what he sup-
posed was at least 50 per cent. of his hogs for the ten previous years. The disease had
been among his hogs every year, and he had lost some years as high as five out of
every six. It was the habit of the disease to break out during the summer months
among the hogs destined for the following November market. When Mr. Cook
returned home at the end of the term he found the disease beginning among their
hogs as usual. He at once determined to try the effect of sterilizing all the drink-
ing water given to the hogs by boiling it with a little corn or wheat in it to give
the hogs a relish for it. The two that were then sick of the cholera got well and
there has been no cholera on his place since. He has never permitted his hogs
to drink anything but boiled water since.

During last month a neighbor on the west has lost seven out of eighteen; a
neighbor on the north had a hundred head; the cholera broke ont among them
and he sold all but twenty-five, and of this number he thinks four will recover.
A third neighbor has lost eight out of seventeen. There could not be a more sat-
isfactory single experiment tried.

On a farm that had not for ten years escaped the disease, no case has occurred
since the water has been boiled, 7. e., for two years, and during these two years
every adjoining neighbor has been continuously troubled with the disease.

Mr. Cook says that his hogs have contracted a liking for boiled water and
that they will not drink rain water when it gathers in pools in the fields, but
wait for watering time instead. Two other facts which have come to my notice
strengthen the view that boiling the water will entirely prevent the disease. A
farmer in Wayne County never has had the cholera among his hogs. None of his
neighbors’ hogs have escaped the disease. Their hogs all drink from the neighbor-
hood streams, his from a spring in his field. A farmer near Hillsboro, Ohio,
when the disease was prevalent, divided a drove of 100 into two parts; half
he watered from his well and the others at a stream. Of those watered at the
well none died; of the others more than half. I have within the last week in-

stituted a number of experiments, similar to the one Mr. Cook tried, in different

ae

45

parts of the State where the disease is now prevalent, and I submit that the
splendid results above given demand that a fair and extensive trial be made. In
a large part of Indiana, namely, where there is natural gas, the experiment will
cost but little either in money or trouble, and if it is efficacious as it seemsto have ¢
been in this one case, to arrest the progress of the disease after it breaks out in the *
drove, it will very richly repay the expense and trouble in every part of the
country. The question does not alone concern the farmer whose hogs die; it is
the policy of many raisers to sell fattening hogs as soon as the disease breaks out,
and there can be no question that much diseased meat is every year on the general
market.

Prof. Noyes, of the Hygienic Laboratory of Ann Arbor, writes me, under date
of December 20th, that he does not know of any experimentation on a large scale
along this line. He has, I know, given much attention to the diseases, and would
be likely to know of such experiments if they had been made. Both the general
government and the governments of several of the States are spending large sums
of money at experiment stations for the arrest of this disease. The results so far
reached, interesting from a scientific standpoint, are useless in the field because of
the skill and expense which the application of the remedies requires. The pur-
pose of presenting this paper here is to secure, if possible, the co-operation of a
hundred stock-raisers in different parts of the State, and differently surrounded,
that a demonstrative test of this simple remedy may, in the next twelve months,
be had. The animals experimented upon must be isolated from all sources from
which they can obtain drink, and given only water to drink which has just been
boiled ; it should be served as hot as the hogs will drink it in clean troughs. Can
we secure these experiments tried in this way. Six dips in Jordan and one in
Parphar will be no experiment at all. It would be worth while for us to show, if

we can, that on the White River, also, the simple is the sublime.

Tue ‘‘ Hopxrns SEASIDE LABORATORY” AT Paciric GRovE, Can. By B. M.

Davis.
[ABSTRACT.]

The great variety in fauna and flora, both in inland ane marine forms, make
the Pacific Slope and Coast, particularly that included in California, attractive
to naturalists. As soon as Dr. Oliver P. Jenkins and Dr. Chas. H. Gilbert took
their places in the Stanford faculty they recognized the resources of the coast
from the standpoint of biologists. They immediately began to consider plans for
establishing a biological station on the coast, and, after a careful survey of the

whole coast, decided on Pacific Grove as the best location. The first substantial

46

aid was $300 given by the town of Pacific Grove, and $500 given by the Pacific
Improvement Company. With this a temporary establishment was maintained.

This beginning was put on a firmer basis by the generosity of Mr. Timothy
Hopkins, a resident of San Francisco, and the present laboratory, known as the
‘‘ Hopkins’ Seaside Laboratory,” is the result.

Pacific Grove is on Monterey Bay, two miles from the old California capital
of Monterey, and is reached by a branch of the Southern Pacific Railway and by
the Pacific Steamship Line. The coast is irregular and rocky, yielding great va-
riety of forms. Working material may be gotten from the Chinese and Portugese
fishermen, both of whom have villages there.

There are two buildings; the older one contains three general laboratories,
a supply room and seven rooms for investigators; the other building has a gen-
eral lecture room, library room, a general laboratory, ten rooms for investigators
and a dark room for photographic work. The basement is designed for aquaria.
The library and apparatus of Leland Stanford University is used. Each stud-
ent is provided with a compound microscope, reagents and all accessary apparatus
needful in his work. Salt and fresh water is in both buildings and so distributed
that each student may preserve his collections. The investigators’ rooms are sim-
ilarly provided. The laboratory provides for three classes of students:

First. Investigators who are capable of carrying on independent researches
in morphology or physiology.

Second. Students of Stanford University, who wish to pursue their work
under more favorable circumstances and gain knowledge of practical methods of
research.

Third. Students and teachers interested in biology, who wish to become ac-
quainted with recent biological methods. For these courses of lectures are pro-
vided, supplemented by individual instruction at the work tables.

The spirit of the school is excellent. No hours are definitely appointed,
but students may be found at work from early in the morning until late at night.
Although the laboratory has been open practically only three years the advance-
ment already made and the evidence of increasing interest assure its future pros-

perity and growth.

INFECTION BY BREAD. By KATHERINE E. GOLDEN.

In recent years, since the subject of bacteriology has made such headway,
there have been numerous scares among the people; sometimes it is tuberculosis
in milk and meat, then the development of ptomaines in fish, clams, canned goods,

etc., the list going on indefinitely. Among these the dangers from bread baked

47

in basements, in ‘‘sweat shops,”

and by people who weré not sufficiently clean,
personally, have been dwelt upon in newspapers, and even in the Century Maga-
zine an article appeared a year or so ago from a prominent member of the New
York Board of Health, advocating certain methods of making bread in which
baking powder should be used instead of yeast, so as todo away with the kneading
and the consequent handling of the dough. Some of the cooking school teachers
have advocated the same thing, claiming in addition that in bread not thoroughly
cooked the yeast is not killed, and that on its introduction into the stomach a
fermentation is set up.

To test the validity of these claims I made a number of experiments upon
breads gotten from Lafayette bakers, the breads being obtained from the grocers,
the object for which they were to be used not being stated. Specimens of the
ordinary loaves, and also rolls that require a shorter time in baking, were ob-
tained, an attempt being made also to select those specimens showing the least
baking. In making the tests care was taken that outside germs should not be in-
troduced. I first washed my hands with corrosive sublimate solution, then
singed the outside of the loaf by means of a gas flame; the loaf was then broken
open and a piece of about one gram weight taken from the center with sterilized
forceps and placed in test tubes of sterilized beer wort. The specimens of bread
were allowed to remain in this medium for about ten days, then plate cultures
were made, the gelatine for the plate cultures being inoculated from the wort in
the tubes. Duplicate experiments were made of each specimen of bread used.

Beer wort is one of the best media for the cultivation of yeast, as it contains an
abundance of the food necessary for its growth. It is also valuable as a medium,
as it becomes turbid by the growth and froths readily in the fermentation.

In the experiments in no case was there any apparent growth in the wort; it
remained perfectly clear, and no gas was formed. In the plate cultures no.
growth took place, except in one case in which a mould grew. It is very probable
this was introduced in the manipulation, as the duplicate showed no growth.

Duplicates of these experiments were made with bread obtained from Boston,
with the same results. The Boston bread was bought in some of the large grocery
stores and restaurants, which would, of course, insure the bread having come.
from reputable bakers. I was not successful in obtaining any basement made.
bread or that from so-called ‘‘sweat-shops” where the cleanliness is questionable.

Enough has been done, however, to demonstrate that yeast and the ordinary
bacteria found in dough are killed in the baking, and that any germs introduced
into the stomach by means of the bread have come from the outside of the loaf,
and have been deposited upon it after the baking. If any doubt exists in one’s

mind in regard to the place from which he has obtained bread, it is very easy to

48

render the bread safe from living germs by singeing the surface with aflame. As the
interior of a loaf of bread is raised to nearly 100° C. in the baking, besides steam
being generated, the conditions are such that yeast can not live, and most bacteria
can not resist this prolonged steam heat. The danger in bread is not the intro-
duction of living germs into the system, but the introduction of ptomaines formed
by bacteria during the rising of the dough. As the rising is done inside of six
or seven hours, the danger from this source is very slight, as it would take con-
siderably longer than that time for sufficient ptomaine to be generated to be in-
jurious; moreover, the yeast is there in sufficiently large quantities to check the
growth of any foreign organism, that must of necessity be there in small

quantities.

SimpLE APPARATUS FOR PHoTo-MicoGrapHy. By M. J. GOLDEN.

This device enables one to secure a photograph of a section with little loss of
time, and with little disturbance of the section.

The device consists of a piece of board, about an inch thick, forty inches
long and about twelve inches wide, to which are attached a shelf to hold the
microscope, and a sliding piece with a pair of brackets to carry the box of an or-
dinary hand camera. Under the shelf another piece of board is fastened to the
first, at right angles, and this assists in supporting the shelf, and serves as a leg
to help keep the apparatus in an upright position.

The back, leg, shelf and sliding piece may be constructed from a piece of
smooth pine board; and the bolts and nut used with the sliding piece are ordi-
nary machine ones, that may be gotten ata hardware store. One of the bolts must
have the same pitch as the hole in the camera box, by which it is fastened to the
tripod. One may easily make this stand for himself, or have it made by a car-
penter at little cost. .

The lens of the camera is removed, and a funnel made of heavy, black cloth,
or some corresponding material having flexibility, put in place of it, so that light-
tight connection may be made between the camera box and the eye-piece of the
microscope. If this cloth funnel be terminated in a small cone, made of tin or
paste-board, to fit over the eye-piece, the adjustment to the microscope can be more
rapidly made.

By using a camera box, one can also use the ordinary plate holders for his
negatives, and he can get his focus on the ground glass. Of Course, the plates
may be developed at one’s leisure.

The advantage of the apparatus is that one can, with slight cost, have at
hand in the laboratory, means for making a permanent record of any peculiarity

in a section that he may find, with the expenditure of very little time.

49

It will be found that greater uniformity in the negatives from the sections
can be gotten by using an artificial light rather than natural light; a Wellsbach

incandescent gas lamp gives good results.

SANITARY SCIENCE IN THE MODERN COLLEGE. By SEVERANCE BURRAGE.

The modern college should reflect in its curriculum the best, the most ad-
vanced thought of the time on the physical as well as the mental and moral life
of the people. Many old habits and customs which have been generally adopted ©
into family life have been curtailed, leaving room for more modern ideas and
<dliscoveries.

One of the most profound changes in the latter part of this Nineteenth Cen-
tury has been in our attitude toward the physical welfare of mankind, especially
in regard to the causes and prevention of disease. This is no longer a matter of
importance to the medical profession alone; in fact the physician deals mainly
with the cure of disease, not its prevention; therefore, in order that the coming
generation shall be prepared to meet and grapple with these vital problems, to
apply the new ideas intelligently they must become familiar with the fundamental
principles of sanitary science. This is particularly true in view of the extended
growth of community life. The decline of individual responsibility, and the in-
crease in one form or another of socialism, makes the necessity for public super-
vision doubly important. Public supplies are public dangers, and, therefore the
supervision of them must be expert. The expert must be intelligent, and perhaps
more important still, he must be backed by an intelligent public opinion. Here,
then, are the two great vacancies to be filled—the expert sanitarian and the well
informed citizen. No college should send out its students without some insight
into this new science of the public health. Whether the course be compulsory or
elective may be a matter of opinion, but the important bearing of such a train-
ing must be evident. This training should include a certain knowledge of sani-
tary chemistry, as applied to the analysis of air, water, milk, butter, cheese and
other foods, as well as the principles of bacteriology, showing the importance of
cleanliness in the home, in the public places of the community, and in the general
habits of living. Ii the student is made to see, by actual laboratory experiment,
that the air is full of dust, much of which is living matter in the form of mold
and bacteria spores; if he examines a sample of milk and finds a million or more
bacteria, and if he understands that wherever there is decaying animal or vege-
table matter, there are myriads upon myriads of living microbes, then there is

+

50

one more citizen, who, after he graduates, will insist on a neatly kept house in a.
clean, healthy neighborhood; who will, we hope, find out who his milkman is,
and what kind of milk he and his family are drinking. Then, moreover, he will
understand the importance of having, in the thickly settled communities, efficient
men, free from politics, to look after the public supplies of water, ice, milk and
meat; the removal of garbage and disposal of sewage; the ventilation of public
buildings and the cleaning of the streets, the isolation of contagious diseases, ete.

Aside from the importance of this work as shown aboye, it is a most valuable
training for the young man or woman as a laboratory course. Dr. George M.
Sternberg, Surgeon-General of the United States Army, in his address given in
September before the Georgetown Medical College, gives very much importance
to bacteriological work as a most excellent exercise for teaching the student to
observe. This was meant particularly for the preparation of men for the medical
profession, but accurate observation is desirable for, and often woefully lacking
in our modern citizens, both men and women. ‘The many delicate tests, chemical]
and physical, that are essential in modern bacteriology give exceptional oppor-
tunities for a training of this kind. The careful manipulation necessary in mak-
ing microscopical preparations of bacteria, diseased tissues, etc., gives ample
chance for the training of the hand as well as the eye.

The study of vital statistics, which to a certain extent should enter into a
course of this kind, would necessarily show the need of accurate systems of reg-
istering births, deaths and cases of infectious diseases.

Much has been done in the last ten years toward establishing such courses in
sanitary chemistry and biology, and the recent gift of Miss Culver to Chicago
University, providing especially for departments in sanitary science and hygiene,
shows clearly that the subject is not only in the public eye, but that its import-
ance is even beginning to be realized. Indianapolis is alive to the subject, having
this month passed the ordinance providing for the supervision of the milk supply
and inspection of the dairies.

Wesee, then, thatthe rapid developement of applied biology and hygiene is eall-
ing for and must have intelligent, well-trained men and women to lessen the dan-
gers that arise from public supplies of various kinds; to teach the children as
well as the public, their duty from the sanitary standpoint toward their neigh-
bors, and to assist in the solution of problems that are today perplexing physi-
cians and scientists. Many of these wants can be, and are being supplied by the
colleges and scientific schools, and the periodicals and the public press are earn-

estly pushing on the good cause.

51

It can hardly be less than an educational and scientific duty for us to see to
it that the yonng people who are graduated from our modern colleges shall have
at least a realizing sense of this new scientific development, all of which has

grown up within the last forty years.

Tue CHarLeston (Mo.) EartTHquake. By A. H. Purpvue.

The earthquake of October 31, 1895, is the greatest seismic disturbance that
has occurred in the Mississippi Valley since the noted earthquake of 1811.
Though nowhere intense enough to do great injury to buildings, it was perceptible
over an area of more than 400,000 square miles.

A short time after the occurrence of the earthquake the writer communicated
blanks to the teachers of science in seventy-five cities and towns in the States of
Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Arkansas, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, Kentucky
and Tennessee, requesting information concerning the time, duration and in-
tensity of the shock, together with the apparent course of wave movement, and
subsequent phenomena. The major part of these blanks was sent to science
teachers of Indiana with a view to determining, if possible, whether the great
volume of gas removed in recent years has had any effect on the stability of the
crust within the gas region. It seemed not unreasonable to suppose that the
relief of pressure within the rocks from which gas has been removed has left them
in a strain, in which case the earthquake waves might produce a collapse which
would be indicated by their reinforced intensity.

Of the seventy-five blanks sent out, only thirty-nine were returned, con-
sequently my information is not so complete as I had hoped to secure. Of the
thirty-nine received, however, twenty-seven are from Indiana, so that the facts
concerning that field are tolerably complete.

The reports sent in substantiate what the newspapers had already indicated,
viz., that the epicentrum was in the vicinity of Charleston, Missouri. The per-
son* reporting from that place says that the force was ‘‘suflficient to break
several plate-glass windows, crack brick walls, and throw down brick chimneys.”
He also reports: ‘‘ About four miles southwest of this place the ground was
cracked open in several places, and sand and water were forced from the fissures,
causing what are commonly known in this section as sandblows. For a few

?

minutes afterward water spurted from several pumps.” There were at least two

8 A. R. Boon.

52

slight shocks immediately following the severe one, at intervals of ten or fifteen:
minutes. Subsequently earthquakes occurred on November 1 at 8:15 P. M.;
November 2 at 9:50 4. M., and November 17 at 9:20 p. M.

A good deal of injury to buildings is reported from Cairo, Illinois. At that
place there is reported to have been at least one shock each day during the first
five days of November. During one day there were three shocks.

At Columbus, Kentucky, the shock was sufficient to crack brick walls and
throw off plaster. As at Charleston the first shock was immediately followed by
two others of less intensity. One subsequent earthquake is reported for Noyem-
ber 1 at 8:00 P. mM.

From nowhere else do the reports indicate such intense movement as at these
three places, and from no other place is there an earthquake reported subsequent
to the one of October 31st. As the three places are within a radius of twenty-
five miles, the epicentrum can be considered fairly well located.

Reports from the Indiana gas field and vicinity indicate a movement slightly
more intense than those from other parts of the State, but the increased force
was not sufficient to justify the conclusion that it was due to the removal of gas.
Three shocks in rapid succession are reported from Portland and Marion; two
from Decatur, (Zoshen, Lafayette and Frankfort. From other places only one
is mentioned. The average duration of the shock in six towns and cities within
the gas region was 44.1 seconds. The average duration of the shock in sixteen
towns and cities outside of the gas field was 43.2 seconds. That the apparent
increase of intensity within the gas region and vicinity is not necessarily due to
the removal of gas is shown in the reports from Bowling Green and Frankfort,
Kentucky, each of which announces three shocks. Frankfort and Indianapolis
are about an equal distance from the centre of disturbance. At Batesville,
Arkansas; West Plains, Missouri, and Nashville, Tennessee, the shock is reported
intense. At Wichita, Kansas, it was scarcely felt. At Atlanta, Georgia, it was
slight.

Following the earthquake were increased flows of gas at Portland, Marion,
and Bluffton. There were increased flows of water at Columbus, Shelbyville,
Albion and Wabash. The water in Blue River rose several inches at Columbia
City. The water in Pigeon Creek, Warrick County, rose one and a half feet the
day following the earthquake, but soon subsided. Phenomena of this kind are a
common result of earthquakes. 2

The average time of the shock as reported from Indiana was 5 o’clock, 10
minutes, and 30 seconds, a. M. There was no preceptible difference between the

time the wave was felt in the southern part and in the northern part of the State.

53

This indicates either an extreme velocity of movement or great depth of dis-
turbance, probably both. The large area affected and the comparative mildness
of the shock at the epicentrum indicate that the disturbance was deep. A disturb-
ance at a small depth might be felt over a large area, but if so, the force at the.
epicentrum would be great. According to the conclusions of Capt. Dutton from
his studies of the Charleston (S. C.) earthquake,* the wave movement at that
time had a velocity of about three miles per second. At this rate, it would re-
quire 1.38 minutes for a wave to travel from Charleston, Missouri, to Indianapolis.
Tt will be seen that it would have required close observation to determine the-
difference in time at which the wave was felt at Evansville and at Indianapolis.
The average time of the shock as reported from Charleston, Cairo, and Columbus
was 5 o’clock 8 minutes and 20 seconds, or 2 minutes and 10 seconds earlier than
the average time reported from Indiana.

An interesting feature of this earthquake is the fact that its epicentrum has
approximately the same position as that of the earthquake of 1811 which resulted
in the sinking of large areas about the mouth of the Ohio River for a distance of
several feet.

There are newspaper reports of an earthquake at Cotapaxi, Colorado, No-
vember 18 at 4:10 p.m. ; one at Greeley, Colorado, November 24th at 5A. M.; and
one at Clayton, Delaware, November 20, at 3 a. Mm. There was an earthquake of
some severity reported from Rome and Naples, Italy, November 1. When we
consider the great frequency of earthquakes in volcanic regions and in regions
where there is great crustal disturbance, these closely simultaneous earthquakes
in distant parts appear as probable coincidences hardly worthy of remark. It is
reported? that in Japan there is an average of at least one earthquake a day.
According to the records kept at Lick Observatory{ there was an average of one
earthquake for every 11.4 days in the State of California for the years 1890 and
1891.

* Ninth An. Rep. U.S. Geolog. Survey.
+ Rep. Brit. Association, 1884, p. 242.
t Bull. U.S. Geolog. Survey, No. 79.

54

Some Minor Eropine Acencies. By J. T. ScOVELL.

The major or more effective erosive agents are: Heat and cold, air and water,
plants and animals, wind, flowing water and ice.

The roots of growing vegetation sometimes open fissures in soils and rocks so
as to hasten erosion, but generally growing vegetation is conservative in is action,
serving to hinder the work of erosion. But decaying vegetation, especially trees,
often open the ground to the water, and frequently a gully has its beginning from
rain-water entering the ground along the decomposing roots of some ancient forest
tree.

Burrowing animals, as the ground hog and gopher, the badger and prairie-
dog, rabbits, mice and crayfish, bring loose soil to the surface, where it can be
scattered by the wind or washed away by the rain. Air and water, by means of
these openings, penetrate the ground with their disintegrating powers, and the
cause of erosion receives material aid. Again, the track of a mole breaks the
surface, and is the beginning of a drainage channel whose extent is limited only
by the amount of rainfall and the steepness of the slope. Smaller animals of
lower groups are also important erosive agents.

Darwin mentions earth-worms, and calls attention to the immense amount of
work they do in working over the soil, rendering it more porous and fertile, and
opening it to the action of more active agents, as air and water.

Burrowing spiders do a similar work ; they are not as numerous as the earth-
worms, but their burrows are wider and generally deeper than those of the earth- -
worm, so that, with fewer numbers, they still do a great amount of erosive work.
They are abundant everywhere, in yards and fields, between the bricks of walks
and by the roadside. Frequently they build a little curb of sticks, bits of grass
or other material, so that the burrow somewhat resembles a well.

Grasshoppers aid in erosion when they open the ground for their eggs. They
do not form a very large or a very deep hole, but when their great numbers are
considered, it soon appears that they are erosive agencies of no mean proportions.

The male cricket in some localities does a work that is quite similar to that
of the garden mole, only on a smaller scale. An immense number of the coie-
aptera spend a large portion of their larval stage underground. The entrance to
their burrows and the opening for their escape stirs up the ground to the action
of air and rain. Thus these humble workers contribute their mite toward keep-
ing the land on the run toward the sea. The numerous family of burrowing

beetles and many others as adult insects aid in this work.

j

Dd

The larva of the cycadia of different kinds, during their long period of life un-
der ground, must do much toward pulverizing the soil. The larva of some of the
tipulide, or crane flies, are among the most effective of these minor agencies. I
found them last season working in shale and bowlder clay. These materials were
honey-combed to a depth of about three inches below the level of the water, and
so well was the work done that the mass broke down easily in the fingers. The
materials removed in boring their tubes was quickly dissolved or washed away,
and penetrating the holes the water rapidly dissolved the partitions or so weak-

ened them that even a gentle current carried away the shale and clay in great

* quantities.

Many different kinds of ants burrow in the ground often ranging over large
areas. The amount of soil worked over each year by these little laborers must be
very great. Then there are several kinds of wasps which work more or less ex-
tensively in the soil. Some of the bees also work in the ground, or in banks
much like cliff swallows. They deposit their eggs at the bottom of a hole or bur-
row some two or three inches deep. Often they build out an entrance or porch to
the hole, possibly as a protection against intruders. Their work breaks up large
areas of material each season for the rains of spring and autumn to dissolve and
carry away. Many other insects are engaged in this work, but the ones mentioned
are perhaps the more important. These little fellows are among the minor
agencies of erosion, but the amount of work accomplished each year is immense
and can not be neglected in a careful study of erosion and erosive agents. In
nearly every case the action of these little animals serves to enrich and fertilize

the soil, thus promoting the growth of vegetation while aiding in erosion.

KETTLE HOLES NEAR LAKE MAXINKUCKEE. By J. T. SCOVILLE.

Kettle holes are phenomena incident to the retreat of glacial ice. They are
very numerous in southeastern Massachusetts and are abundant throughout the
glaciated area wherever the ice halted long enough to form morainic deposits.
They vary greatly in size, but are usually somewhat conical in shape. They are
often occupied by water forming ponds or small lakes. There are said to be more
than 300 such bodies of water in Plymouth Township, Massachusetts. In many
cases, however, their walls are of sand or gravel, which do not retain water for
any great length of time, so that they are usually dry. The holes are supposed to
have been formed somewhat as follows: The clay, sand, gravel and other
morainic materials along the margin of the ice were irregularly distributed so

that in some places it was so thick as to protect the ice underneath from the

action of the sun until the ice on all sides had disappeared leaving an island or
detached portion of ice, thickly covered with rocky fragments, and often sur-
rounded by a deep layer of similar material left by the more rapidly melting ice.
The drainage channels abundant along the margin of the ice sheet often aided no
doubt in detaching such blocks of ice.

As these masses melted down, their loads of debris would shoot down the
sides, forming a rim, while the core, as it melted, would leave a hole or cavity,
often reaching much below the general level of the surface.

Kettle holes are so characteristic in form that they may be easily recognized,
and are indications of morainic materials that almost anybody can appreciate and
understand. On the west side of Lake Maxinkuckee, between Marmont and the
Arlington station there are seven or eight kettle holes ranging from 100 to 300 feet
in diameter and from 4 or 5 feet to 25 feet indepth. Some have been partially cut
-away by the lake, others are quite perfect. One near the end of Long Point has
‘been about one-half cut away, and the big ice house of Holt & Co. occupies a
portion of an old kettle hole. The lake itself doubtless occupies a portion of an old
‘drainage channel, the deeper portions being simply old kettle holes. It is interest-
ing tostudy these remains or relics of the glacier, so symmetrical in form, so perfect
in outline that they seem as if made but yesterday, as if fresh from the hand of
the builder, making one feel sure that the ice is just over them a little way, and
that the hills have just barely had time to clothe themselves with verdure since

the ice king yielded up his scepter to the sun.

A Reiger Map or ARKANSAS. By T. F. Newson.

[ABSTRACT.]

In 1893 Dr. J. C. Branner constructed a relief map of Arkansas for the Ar-
kansas exhibit at the World’s Fair. The horizontal scale used was three miles to
the inch; the vertical scale was 2,000 feet to the inch.

Topographic maps of the entire State were first made. These were cut into
sections, and placed on small blocks cut to fit them. Pins were driven through
the sections at prominent points, and were then cut to the proper vertical scale.
These pins were the guiding points in molding the map, which was done in or-
dinary molders’ clay. After being molded the separate blocks were fitted together,
forming the complete model of clay, from which a plaster of Paris negative was

cast. From the negative the positive or final cast of the map was made.

5T

Some SKEW SURFACES OF THE 5D AND 4TH DEGREE. C. A. WALDO.
|Abstract.]

The theory of skew ruled surfaces has been specially studied by Cremona,
Cayley, Rohn and others. Rohn of Dresden has contributed several important
series of models of general and fundamental character.

The object of this paper is to discuss somewhat in detail by Cartesian
coordinates a family of surfaces formed by a straight line generatrix moving
along two non-intersecting straight lines and a plane curve whose plane is parallel
to both right lines.

Let the plane curve be fi(m,n) = Am* + Bmkt-+ Cmk* + .... L=0.
Let the orthogonal projections of the straight lines on the plane of this curve be
axes of X and Y, and their common perpendicular the axis of Z. Let the
distance from the plane of the curve to one right line directrix be pb, to.
the other qb, the directrix parallel to the Y axis being the more remote. In this
position, by similar triangles, it is easily shown that m:x::pb: pb—z, and
n:y:iqb:z—qb. Substituting these values in f(m,n)—0O we have at once a
general expression for the Cartesian equation of an unlimited number of skew
surfaces of this description, viz. :

af Ebele, plPPED Cab, yaa
(pb—z) (pb—z) © l2—qb)

As shown by Salmon in another way the degree of this surface is at once seen

to be twice that of the directing curve or twice the product of the degrees of the
directing lines of the surface.

Plane sections of this surface are in general of the 2Kth degree, but when
made by the plane Z=constant, they degenerate to the Kth degree.

If the directing curve be of the 2d degree the resulting surface will be of
the 4th degree unless degraded by some special position. If we take the circle as
our curvilinear directrix and place it half way between the two rectilinear
directrices the resulting equation will be of the form

2 2 2 y2
es + tepae = (.
li the circle be replaced by the equilateral hyperbola we have
b2x2 b2y2
(b—2)?(b+z)?
If the directing curve be the parabola, x n?=4pm, the surface is
eptes px
(b+z)?-— b—z

2(2),

(3),

a surface of the 3d degree.

58

In (1) if b=a=1, we have x?(1-+2)?--y2(1—z)?—=(1-+2)2(1—z)?2, a surface
whose sections by planes perpendicular to the z axis give us between z=0 and
z=1 ellipses of all possible eccentricities. A similar remark may be made of
equation (2).

Among the deformations of which surface (1) is susceptible, one is worthy of
special attention. If the threads representing the elements be weighted below
the lower straight line directrix, and the upper directrix be then revolved until
it comes into the plane of the lower directrix and the common perpendicular, the
surface will gradually close up until it becomes a plane, but in every position the
form of the Cartesian equation remains the same, while the axes of reference will

be the equi-conjugate diameters of the ellipse cut out by the x y plane.

THE GRAVITATIONAL ATTRACTION OF A HomMOGENEOUS ELLIPSOID OF
REVOLUTION.

[ABSTRACT.]

In this paper the following problem was discussed: Given an ellipsoid of
revolution of given mass, but of variable eccentricity; find how its attraction on
a particle at the end of the axis of revolution varies as the ellipsoid alters con-
tinuously from the infinitely prolate to the infinitely oblate form.

It was pointed out that this was the only case in which the expression for the
attraction of a spheroid did not lead to elliptic integrals. An expression for the
attraction in the above case was found by direct integration without recourse to
the potential function. The integral took two forms according as the ellipsoid
was prolate or oblate. The ordinary process of finding the value of the eccen-
tricity corresponding to a maximum led to an insoluble equation. Hence the
position of the maximum was approximated to by trial and interpolation. The
conclusion was, that starting with the infinitely prolate form and passing through
the spherical stage to the infinitely oblate form the attraction increased continu-
ously, until that oblate stage was reached at which the axis of revolution was
seventy-two hundredths of the equatorial axis, then it decreased until when the
axis of revolution was fifty-one hundreths of the equatorial diameter, the attrac-
tion had fallen again to that at the spherical stage, from whence on it decreased to
zero. ¢

It was pointed out that this invalidates the common argument that the
weight of a body at one of the earth’s poles must be increased by the polar flat-

tening.

i

59

Nore RELATIVE To PErRceE’s “ LryEAR ASSOCIATIVE ALGEBRA.” JAMES BYRNIE
SHaw, D.Sc.

I have no doubt many readers of Benjamin Peirce’s classic work have found
some difficulty in its perusal from the lack of examples of the algebras de-
veloped. That such a completion of the work was intended is shown by { 2, p. 4,
and the last three lines of page 119. The following method of exemplifying the
subject may be of use or help. It is in a succinct form thus: Every unit in an
elgebra of this book is an operator of a matrical kind upon a ground of what we
may call vectors. The whole work is thus a treatise on groups of such operators.
This explains its abstruseness. Now for all cases in which the ground consists of
two or three or four vectors, the units can be represented by the linear vector
operators of quaternions, or linear quaternion operators. The relative forms given
by Mr. C. S. Peirce may be immediately translated into such quaternion forms.
Thus we may write, (a, 3, y, being vectors such that S.a By = 1, and l,, 2, 13, ls,
being quaternions such that S./, A./, /, 14 = 1%).

Algebra a,, it = aS. By().

a b,, oe Geers

« a, t= aS.By()+BS.ya(); j=aS.ya().

a Bay 8 = OS. P¥Cys y—a8S.ya().

« ¢, i=aS.ya()+88.08(); j=aSfy().

e aoe — es eels 9 —t, S..( ) A. OLE.

“ as, i=a8.8y()+8S.ya()+yS8.08();j=eS.ya()+fS.08();

k=aS.cB().

¥ a’,, « = aS. By()+88. ya(); j=—a8.ya(); -—aS.aB()

st a” .,2 = —€6.() A.0,0,1, —1,8.() A.441,; j=—4, 8. COAG
el. &——F, b.()A-2 1.6.

s b,, t= —U4,8.() A.1,4,1,+1,8.()A414,1,—1,8. () AL, ls !s ;
53=6, 5.() A. L0h1, —!1,S8.( yA-L1LI, » A= — 1, 8.()A-GEL-

a ye PA, OS. () A LEG; g=—68.() 4-044;
e=— 6,6, 8. ()4.0,64 +7 8.( yA.GhL.

ss Gee er ALLEL 4+ 8. {) ALG FH 6 8. (ALGAAS:
k=—al, S.() A.1,1,4, — 1,8.()A.441,+48.()AL4b.

. ge —— peep ()s-7—a2S.a Bl); k= cS. yet ).-

e,, t =—1,8.()A.1,1,/,; j=—1, S.( )A-L4 +1, 8. (JA Li lels 5

2 - Ge. A ee a

%

) A. latal, = S: VI,VI,Vi, — Vig-V-VI,Vl,—Vig.V-VU, VIz—Vi,.V.VigVls-
Sip eee — SA, tle Si, Art hls — — SL ASHI

‘60

Algebra gy, i =eS.By(); j=aS.va(); k=BS.By(); 1=SS8.ye().
“ bps,t =1,8.() A.lgl,l, —l,8.() A-diljls; 7=—l, &. () A Lbls;
k=—-1,8.( )A.U,1,1, —1, S.( A. L&I ; Lh 8. )A LAGS
m=—1,8.() A. Ubbl;.-
gf bk,,t=1,8.() A. lolgl4—l, 8.() A. lslal, + 1,8.() A.UL0 59 =—
1, 8. () A. ijl, + 4, 8. (0) AM ULG} k=. 8. aaa
[=—1,8.() A.4,1,1,; m=—1,S.( )A. 454; 2 =—hs:
(iy ASL.
bm,,i=aS.By()jj=aS.ya(); k=a8.aB();1=BS.By()im=
pe: ya ()3-2= 6S. a B( ).
These examples can be used to illustrate the general theorems. For example:
“ Every group of linear vector operators contains at least one idempotent or one
nilpotent expresssion.”
The group b m, contains the idempotents
aS.By(), BS.ye(), ¢S By()+ BS. ye().
The group bp, contains only nilpotents.
“ When an algebra contains an idempotent expression tt may be assumed as the
basis and the remaining expressions are then divisible into four classes.”
In bm, if we assume aS, 8 y ( ) as the idempotent then the units are, with
reference to the basis,

idemfaciend, idemfacient, aS. 8 y();

nilfaciend, idemfacient, BS. By();
idemfaciend, nilfacient, aS.ya(), andaS.afB();
nilfaciend, nilfacient, BS. ya(), and BS.aB().

“ The fourth class are subject to independent investigation.”

“Tf the first class comprises any units except the basis, there is, besides the basis, another
idempotent expression or a nilpotent expression, and we may free the class from this, when
idempotent, by writing for the basis the difference between the two; in this case expressions
may pass from idemfaciend to nilfaciend or from idemfacient to nilfacient, but not the
reverse.” Thus, if we had taken for our basis in bm, aS. By ()+ 88. y a () there
would have been only two classes,

1: aS By()+B88.ya(); BSya(); aSya(); BSAY();
DAE Bie PALA) 6) Oy) VPS res ara) 0 Ot)

The second idempotent basis is easily seen to be @ S. y a( ), and the difference
isa S. 3y(), as before. And making this change of basis, 6S. y a () and 8S.af( )
become fourth class, 3 S. 8 y( ) becomes second class, a8. y a@( ) becomes third class.

“ When there is no idempotent basis, all expressions are nilpotent, and all powers of

each expression that do not vanish are independent. We may take any expression as the

61

‘basis, but it is well to select one which has the most powers that do not vanish.” Tiss in
bp, we take 7, S.() A.d 1, —1,8.() A. Ud,l;, whose square is—J, 8.()A. Lilet.
the cube vanishing. This algebra is then of second order. If A, B are any two
expressions of it,

' APB AB A2BA+ BAB=o0,

These examples are sufiicient to show the use of these forms in interpreting the
subject. It remains only to show how they may be applied in a few cases. There
are of course for every one of them two ficlds of application at once suggested by
this method of writing them, viz. : linear transformations and homogeneous strains.
E. g., the nilpotent algebra d,. The general expression of this algebra is

$=2PS.a8()+e8.(9 Vye+2Vaf) ().
This transforms p—2z, a+ y,8-+ 2,y into
op=22,8 + 4( yy, + 22,)
= yy, a+ 2, (gat 2 fp).

This may represent any point of the plane (a, 8). Since the value of 2, does
not enter @ p, every straight line parallel to @ is made to correspond to a config-
uration of the (a, 3) plane. Those lines parallel to « which cut the ( (3, y) plane
in a line parallel to 3, correspond to a series of configurations of the (a, 3) plane
produced by slipping it along the direction a. The movement of a line which is
parallel to a along a line parallel to the line y, produces a series of expansions of
the (a, 8) plane from a point yy,@ as center. If both y, and z, vary, subject
‘to a law, we have the configuration of the (a, 3) plane

gp=yyiet+ fly) (24+ 7 8).
Again, consider the algebra a,. The general expression here, is
=2(a8.By()+BS.ya()+y78.eB8())+y(e8S.yae()+f8.cB())
+2a8.af(),
=a8S.(2VBy+yVye+2zVef)()+ 88. (2Vya+yVeB) ()
+yS.2VaB()
p becomes $ p = a (xx, + yy, + 221) + B (zyit y2i) + 21 Y-
This strain operator will convert p into any other vector , for if
o=Sa+n7Bp+ Cy
we have at once from
Pp = 6,
GE, + Uy + 22, = 5,
ry + y21 =%,
aii Ge

62

W hence

Fem eee ns) ae 4121.
Bae

The exceptional cases are where z;—0. That is, 9 can be so chosen as to con-
vert any vector into any other except those lying in the plane of (a, 3), which is
converted into itself, the line x,@ being converted into itself. The cubic of @ is
(¢—z)? =0. We may write ¢p=a2p + (yy, + 22,)a4+ yz, B.

Hence the effect of any @ is to move the terminal point of p along its line
in either direction, and then slide this extremity along a plane parallel to (a, ).
Thus the infinite number of strains, which belong to this infinite group of strains,
and that have the same z, represent a group of shears. Space nor time permit a
fuller treatment of this interesting line of application of this algebra. The ap-
plication of the other algebras might similarly be deduced.

I may say in closing that the natural classification of these algebras referred
to by Professor Benjamin Peirce, who regarded his own classification as Linnean,

is pointed to by these representations of the algebras.

ILLINOIS COLLEGE, Dec. 23, 1895.

VARIATION OF A STANDARD THERMOMETER. By CuHas. T. KNIpp.

During the term just past | made a number of observations on a standard
thermometer. The problem that presented itself was to observe the variations‘in
a standard thermometer under given conditions, and the minimum limit of con-
ditions that would produce the same.

Having a delicate cathetometer at hand, that reads directly to +; and
accurately to 7}; of a mm., no hesitancy was felt in making the observations,
feeling assured that the slightest variations in the reading of the thermometer
could be detected.

The thermometer that was in question was one of Queen & Co’s standardized
thermometers of the centigrade scale, graduated in tenths over a range of 100
degrees. The bulb.is cylindrical in form, thus having a maximum, or tending
towards a maximum surface and consequently increased sensitiveness.

The thermometer was tested and standardized by the above named company

on the 10th of October. After standardizing it was put in a brass case lined with

63

arubber tube. The tube is closed at the Jower end and is some shorter than the
thermometer, so that a little pressure is required to push it in far enough to
allow the cap to screw on firmly. This pressure is directly on lower end of bulb,
and is more than a person would at first think. By repeated tests I found it
equivalent to 240 grams, or a little over a half pound. Such a pressure acting
continuously for some length of time would certainly change the shape of the
bulb, and consequently the zero mark.

The length of the bulb is 25 mm. Its volume is approximately .3 cu. cm., as
near as can be ascertained by measurement of its dimensions., The weight of the
thermometer is 45 grams.

On the 16th of November, after a period of five weeks, the pressure was
released, the thermometer placed in an ice and water bath and the exact position
of the mercury column noted. Observations were made twice per week from that
date, the last one being Saturday, December 21. Great care was taken in making
these observations. The bulb was placed in an ice and water bath, while the
stem for five inches above the zero mark was packed with finely broken ice. The
added water was to equalize the pressure on the bulb. An aperture in the side of
the vessel, through which passed a tube, the outer end of which guarded by a
plane glass window made it possible to readily observe the mercury column, and
yet have it completely surrounded with ice. Each observation extended over a
period of three hours. To guard against jarring, the cathetometer and vessel
holding the thermometer were placed on a stone pier.

The apparatus was allowed to stand for one hour before taking a reading,
after which readings were taken every half hour. It was observed that when
great accuracy was expected, all of an hour is required as the glass is very slow
to take up the temperature of the melting ice and adjust itself accordingly,
while the mercury takes up the temperature in a very few minutes. The first
readings, therefore, are always too low. Before taking a reading the stem was
jarred to facilitate the adjustment of the mercury. To prevent radiation the
vessel was covered with a towel. After putting ice in the vessel it was thoroughly
washed with distilled water. This last precaution was at first overlooked and the
result was that the readings were far too low, 7. e., the melting mixture was made
colder by its containing foreign substances.

We would naturally expect that the pressure on the lower end of the bulb
would considerably change its size, and that a pressure of overa half pound could
not continue long without considerably altering the size, volume and accuracy of
the thermometer. In the case under discussion the volume of the bulb would be

increased by pressure on lower end. Also since the length of the bulb is 25 mm,

64 F
and only 4 mm, in diameter it would stand a greater strain before yielding than it
would were it any other shape.

Considering it as above, the first reading would naturally be expected to be
a mimimun, for as the volume of the bulb is a maximum the mercury stands lowest
in the stem, and the readings on subsequent observations wonld increase until a
fairly stationary point is reached, indicating that the bulb has regained its normal
volume.

The first reading taken Saturday, November 16th, showed the thermometer
to be in error 0.1479°. The second reading taken on the following Wednesday
was 0.1528°. The third, taken on the following Saturday, was 0.1540°, and
the fourth, taken on Wednesday, November 24th, was 0.1553°. These read-
ings are each the mean of four and five separate observations. They show a
gradual increase in the length of the mercury column which isin direct accordance
with what was first expected, 7. e., that the pressure on the bottom of the bulb
would increase the size of the same and which in consequence would lower the
mereury column.

The part that seems strange to me, and that I can assign no direct reason for,
is the behavior of the seven subsequent readings that were taken extending over
a period of three and one-half weeks. The fifth reading shows a slight decrease,
and so also does the sixth reading show a decrease compared with the fifth, after
which it oscillated, as it were, about a mean of 0.1493°. The greatest deviation
above this mean being .0036, and the greatest below .0026 of a degree.

It was found that the position in which the thermometer was kept had no

appreciable effect upon its readings.

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE LAW OF FALLING BoDIEs.
By F. P. STAUFFER.

[AusTRACT.]

It was shown that by subdividing a right-angled triangle by lines parallel to-
the hypotenuse and the sides into similar smaller triangles, the following could
be graphically represented—the distance traversed each second, the velocity at

the end of each second, the effect of gravity each second.

65

£

Rates oF CompustTion In Locomotive Furnaces. By R. A. Smarr.

The following brief comparisons of the rates of combustion in locomotive
and stationary furnaces, based upon data of tests made at the Purdue University
Locomotive Testing Plant, will show some of the effects of the heavy duty which
the limitations of space and the requirements of portability impose upon loco-
motive boilers.

In stationary boiler plants, the usual rate of combustion is between the
limits of 8 to 20 pounds of coal per square foot of grate surface per hour. From
. the record of the rate of combustion of over half a hundred boilers tested by Geo.
H. Barrus, a well known expert, an average of 11.5 pounds per foot of grate was
found, which may be taken as representing good practice. Under certain condi-
tions of speed and cut-off, it has been found that the Purdue locomotive,
* Schenectady,” which is a fair representative of its class, consumes 2,670 pounds
of coal per hour, while developing 520 indicated horse power. To consume this
_ quantity of coal economically at the rate given above would require a grate area
of 232 square feet. Taking 8 feet as the extreme allowable width, this would
give a furnace 29 feet long, which is of course much beyond the limits of avail-
able space. As the furnace of the Purdue locomotive has, however, only 17.5
square feet of grate surface, instead of 232, the rate of combustion under the con-
ditions mentioned above reaches the abnormal figure of 153 pounds per square
foot per hour.

It has been stated by Isherwood that the evaporative efficiency of horizontal
return tubular boilers of ordinary design decreases as the rate of combustion
increases, and if this holds in stationary practice it may be taken, in a measure, as
applying to locomotive practice. From this it is apparent that where only 17.5
square feet of grate surface are provided to consume a quantity of coal requiring
over 200 square feet for economical combustion, thereby raising the rate of com-
bustion from 11.5 to 153 pounds per square toot, the evaporative efficiency will
necessarily be low.

’ This extraordinary rapidity of combustion is still more striking when com-
pared with the conditions existing in an open fireplace. For instance, the rate
of combustion in an ordinary parlor grate is about 4 pounds per hour to the
square foot. At this rate it would require a grate equal in area to that of a room
26 feet square to consume the coal burned during the tests mentioned.

Other comparisons may be made as follows: Stationary boilers are usually
allowed about 12 square feet of heating surface per horse power developed, while
the total heating surface of ‘‘Schenectady,” about 1,200 square feet, allows, under

5

66

ordinary conditions, 4 square feet to the horse power, and under extreme con-
ditions, but 2 square feet.

The draft in a stationary plant having a chimney 50 feet high is less than
0.5 of an inch of water. The locomotive frequently runs under a draft as heavy
as six inches, making it necessary for the fireman to keep a very thick fire on the
grates.

With such great differences existing between the conditions apparently re-
quired by economy and those actually found in locomotive practice, it would be
expected that the evaporative efficiency of the latter would be small by compari-
son. It is interesting to note, however, that in spite of the disadvantages under
which the locomotive labors, its evaporation is seldum less than 50% of the best

evaporation given by stationary plants.

Tue INFLUENCE OF HEAT, THE ELEcTRIC CURRENT AND MAGNErisM UPON
Youna’s Mopunus. Mary Cuinton Noyes.

A series of experiments were carried out in the physical laboratory of West-
ern Reserve University to determine the effects of heat, of an electric current and
of magnetism upon the elasticity of piano wire, and of copper and silver wire.
The wires were heated by means of an electric current from a storage battery,
the current sometimes going through a magnetizing helix surrounding the wires,
sometimes through a non-inductive coil, and sometimes through the wires them-
selves. The methods of heating were used in different order with different pieces
of wire, in order to detect, if possible, any temporary or permanent effect which
was not due to the heat, but no such effect could be found.

The thermal co-efficient of elasticity for the piano wire was found to be 4.6%
for 100°. For the silver wire it was about 8% and for the two specimens of cop-
per wire tested 13% and 7%. The permanent change in elasticity produced by
repeatedly heating the wires was from one to two per cent.

With the silver and copper wires the effect of heat upon the elastic limit was
determined. The limit was found to decrease quite rapidly and regularly as the
temperature was raised. The two specimens of copper wire tested were found to
give quite different results for the thermal co-efficient of elasticity, the co-efficient
of expansion and the co-efficient of decrease in the elastic limit with rise of

temperature.

67

THE SuRFACE TENSION oF Liquips. By ArtTHUR L. FoLey.

Although many methods of measuring the surface tension of liquids have
been proposed and used, its absolute value is not known in a single instance.
Various experimenters by various methods have obtained various results; these
results differing from one another in many cases by as much as fifty per cent.
For instance, Quincke, for the surface tension of water at 0°C, has obtained the
following results by the methods named:

1. By measuring the rise of water at a vertical wall he obtained 8.7 mgm.
per mm.

2. By measuring the axis of a bubble of air in the interior of a liquid, 8.2
mgm.

3. By the rise of water in capillary tubes, 7.6 mgm.

4. By measuring the size of falling drops, 6.5 mgm.

These results show an average variation of about ten per cent., and a differ-
ence between the first and last of thirty-four per cent. Many other methods have
been used, but the results obtained are not more consistent than those given above.
The method generally used, and that which probably gives as consistent results
as any yet proposed, is the method of capillary tubes. But even if we restrict
ourselves to this one method, and to the results obtained by asingle experimenter,
we find that they differ considerably. Let us again note the results obtained by
Quincke—than whom there is no better authority upon this subject. In Wiede-
man’s Annalen, April, 1894, Quincke gives values ranging from 7.69 to 8.16 mgm.
per mm. for different sizes of tubes made from the same specimen of Jena glass;
and values from 7.8 to 8.1 for English flint glass. In the October number of the
Annalen, 1894, Volkmann gives as widely different results for various specimens
of glass. The age of the tube is found to influence the height to which the water
rises in it. So it would seem that a better method of measuring the surface ten-
sion of liquids is greatly to be desired.

In the “ Philosophical Magazine” of November, 1893, Mr. T. Proctor Hall
describes some ‘‘New Methods of Measuring the Surface Tension of Liquids.”
Two years ago at the suggestion of Professor Michelson of the Chicago University,
I undertook to repeat and to extend the investigation. In the present article, I
shall confine myself to a brief statement of the results obtained by using Mr.

Hall’s method c, the maximum-weight method.

1 Philosophical Mage zine, November, 1893, p. 402.

a

Ff

Let a (Fig. 1) be an end face of a rectangular parallelopiped suspended from
one arm of a balance, with its lower face horizontal, and therefore parallel to the
liquid surface OX. Call w’ the weight of the frame (block) in this position.
Lower the frame until it touches the liquid, and bring it again to the first position,
asin db. The weight of the frame is now increased by the weight of the liquid
raised above the level surface. As the frame is raised, the weight increases for a
time then suddenly decreases, passing through a distinct maximum. Call w’” the

total maximum weight. The net maximum weight is

ww’ —v” = 27 sin a + pty, (1)
where 7'= the surface tension in grams per centimeter;
a — the angle between the X-axis and the tangent to the liquid surface at
the edge of the frame;
— the thickness of the frame;
p =the density of the liquid ;
y =the height of the frame above the liquid surface ;

| =the length of the frame, one centimeter.
Also,
70
sina pP | yy, (2)

SS")

dx T cos «

da py

dh ; dh
Placing c? = —, and remembering that 5 tania,
P .
dy ¢? sina

’

da y
y? =-- 2c? cosa-+ k.
When y = 0, a= 0, and k = 2 c?,

j 1 -— cosa

. a
—— Sin ——
2 2

oat Cin

4
a 4 ¢? —= Hye
cos—_—.| y 4
: ACs (4)
2 c2 -y? z
oS oe 9)
co wr (

Let us now suppose that the frame has vertical legs (as in Fig. 2) extending

downward into the liquid. Let / be the length between the legs.

Fae

Equation (1) becomes
w= 2T(l—t) sin a + ptly, (6)
= 2 pe?(l—t) sin a+ 2 Itpe sin

: 2 dw :
When w is a maximum, dao Let t be very small compared with /, then
a
2ccosa+ tcos>—o.

2

Eliminating @ by (4) and (5), and inserting the value of ¢,

w& lo7 ie 64 2p
Np 8 Naty

When ¢ is small, a near approximation is

xed alae :
MeN oe (7)

.

Supplying this value of y in (6), and solving for 7,

An w pl?t? = lt
a aa ates 2

aV p7l?t? + 4w l—t)p. (8)

Table II gives the value of T calculated by the above formula for mica frames

varying in thickness from 0.0013 em. to 0.02067 cm.

Mr. Hall in his investigation used glass frames (made of cylindrical glass rods)
of the shape indicated in Fig. 3. He deduced for them equations correspond-

F085

ing to (6), (7) and (8). He admits, however, that these equations are so compli-

cated as to be almost unmanageable, and that the correction is obtained more
easily by determining the constants of a frame by using frames of different length
and of the same diameter, and again of the same length but of different diame-
ters. It is very difficult indeed to make such frames, and to use them after they
are made.

The chief objections to glass frames may be summed up as follows:

The value of y, and hence the correction that must be applied to the
maximum weight in order to obtain the true film weight which measures
the tension, depends in a very complicated way upon the diameters of the
rods of the frame.

This correction forms a considerable part of the total maximum weight
(see Table I.). Frames can not be made sufficiently rigid and less than
0.03 em. in diameter. Hence the correction is at least ten per cent. of the
whole.

The frames are difficult to make and they require delicate handling at
every stage.

With cylindrical end rods the actual length of the film surface is uncer-
tain.

It occurred to me that these troublesome corrections and inaccuracies might
be partially avoided by using a different kind of frame. After experimenting
with frames of various materials, among which I may mention thin sheet glass,
platinum, aluminum and mica, I found that the latter offered decided advantages
over glass. The general shape of the mica frame is given in Fig. 4. The frame

is supported by a forked glass stem, and the method of using is exactly as with a

7a (pol

glass frame.

71

My first frames were made by cutting the mica sheet as it lay under a steel
rule upon a piece of plate glass. I afterwards had made two heavy steel plates of
the exact shape of the frame desired. The inner surface of each plate was ground
plane with emery dust upon plate glass. A sheet of mica was clamped between
them and cut to their dimensions. The advantages of frames made in this way
are:

The steel plates are accurately ground; the frames are correspondingly
regular.

The mica does not split along the cut edge.

The edge is of the same thickness as the plate itself; there is no bur.
Very thin frames are easily made, but it is difficult to work with them
when they are much less than 0.002 cm. thick.

A difficulty experienced with the mica frame, as also with those of platinum
and aluminum, is that the fluid does not readily and equally wet all portions of
the surface. It has a tendency to collect in drops, rendering the after-weighing
uncertain. This difficulty was entirely overcome by roughing the surface (dark-
ened in Fig. 4) of the plate near the edge by rubbing very lightly with the finest
French emery paper. Both weights could then be taken again and again with a
variation of only a few hundredths of a milligram.

The advantages claimed for the mica frame are as follows:

1. They are easily made, and do not require careful handling.

2. They are of even thickness, with straight edges and square corners. Hence
the film length is not so uncertain as with glass frames.

3. They can be made less than one-tenth of the thickness of a glass frame,
reducing the correction correspondingly. Table I gives the relative corrections
for glass and mica frames, obtained by determining the maximum weight for a
soap solution, and then weighing the film itself. The film weight divided by
twice the length of the frame gives the surface-tension. But with many liquids it
is impossible to obtain the film weight, as the film breaks immediately after it is
formed. The maximum weight can be determined in almost every case, and the
film weight by correction. It is evident that a slight error in the value of this
correction will he lessened by reducing the total correction, as is done by using

the mica frame.

TABLE I.

Kind of / t i Film Per cent.
Frame. Weight. Difference.
Glass 2250: 6.346 0.0405 0.39226 0.34100 15
GLE ot eet eee 7.584 0.0510 0.48283 0.40302 19
CE rec fae alee 10.163 0.0620 0.65420 0.53700 21
(GILSES rss Si 7.475 0.0920 0.52480 0.39660 32
MiCav ects. 2: 6.012 0.0030 0.31202 0.30697 1.6
Mica: jets 5.301 0.0051 0.27776 0.27092 2.5
MG GAH! $as 5.140 0.0079 0.27222 0.26260 3.7

4
A fresh solution was used in the last three measurements.
4, The correction varies directly as the thickness of the frame, Fig. 5. Ob-
servations with two frames of varying thickness are sufficient to determine the

actual film weight and hence the tension.

1
1.0202

fe

ae
[ou
a
fie
i
es
a
be
WE
ma

— MAXIMUM WEIGHT IN GRAMS
= THICKNESS OF MICA FRAME IN CENTIMETERS.

es
bo
i
ae
we
ae
3
a

' ’

73

5. In the case of thin frames the tension can be determined at once from the
maximum weight uncorrected, with results that vary less than do those obtained
by the method of capillary tubes. For example, compare Table II with Table
III, the latter giving selected results obtained by Quincke by the capillary tube
method. ?

TABLE II.

T by formula.
Temperature

t w _ we T by equation (8) of Water
21
0.00130 em. 0.98260 g. 0.07396 0.07365 20°.7 C.
0.00190 ~ 0.98420 0.07408 0.07374 20°.7
0.00352 0.98791 0.07437 0.07372 20°.7
0.00516 0.99094 0.07458 0.07365 20°.7
0.00928 0.99991 0.07527 0.07352 20°.8
0.01206 » 1.00592 0.07572 0.07355 20°.8
0.01536 1.01358 0.07630 0.07345 20°.9
0.01828 1.01973 0.07676 0.07339 21°.0
0.02067 1.02468 0.07713 0.07332 21°.0
TABLE IIL.
(TEMPERATURE 18°.)
Kind of glass. ' eo KN of Age of tube. a
ube.
Common Jena glass ............. 0.5832 0 hr. 0.07528
Common Jena glass............. 0.5851 24 hrs. 0.07336
Wanlisn tint glass. eS. 0.6390 2 mos. 0.07490
English flint glass. ............... 0.5740 -Ohr. 0.07411
Fusible (soft) Jena glass......... 0.6440 0 hr. 0.07258
Fusible (soft) Jena glass......... 0.9106 12 hrs. 0.07480

6. As yandf?#are small, a small error in the assumed value of / will not
appreciably affect the calculated value of T, Eq. (6).

y being small, the film is much narrower than with a glass frame. There-
fore there is less temperature change due to evaporation from the film surface

and less absorption of gases and impurities from the air.

1 Weidemann’s Annalen, No. 5, 1894, p. 14.

74

7. The equations for w and y are not so complex that they can not be used.
In Table II are given the values of Z7’deduced by formula (8). It will be noted
that the last frame is about sixteen times as thick as the first, yet the greatest
difference in these values is but a little more than one part in two hundred. Of
the results for the first four frames, the greatest difference is one part in seven
thousand. The thicker frames can not be expected to give such consistent results,
as the water tends to creep in between the thin layers of which the mica sheet is

made up.
THE TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT.

Previous determinations of the temperature coefficient of surface tension
give results not more consistent than the values obtained for the tension itself.
Brunner gives the coefficient as .14 dynes per degree, and Merian as .253 dynes.
The latter result is almost double the former. Other observers give intermediate
values. In view of these differences, I concluded to make a determination of the
temperature coefficient by the mica frame maximum weight method. This
investigation is not yet completed, so I shall not go into detail.

I am using a Troemner balance, No. 5, easily sensitive to one one-hundredth
milligram. The arrangement of the balance and box or closet is very much the
same as in Hall’s experiment. Inside the wooden box I have a double-walled tin
box, open on the side next the glass door. The space between the walls of the
tin vessel (the walls being about two inches apart) may be filled with a bath to
regulate the temperature of the enclosure. This temperature is obtained by read-
ing three thermometers, placed in different positions. A rotary fan is used to
equalize the temperature throughout the enclosure. It is arranged so that the
water whose coefficient is to be determined is siphoned in and out of the vessel
inside, without opening the door or disturbing the balance.

I have tried four methods of regulating the temperature of the enclosure. <A
current of air from a blower giving a very constant pressure was passed through
an iron pipe heated by from one to a dozen Bunsen burners, and then through
the tin box. By varying the air supply and the number of burners, a fairly con-
stant temperature could be maintained. But I was not able to raise it above 50°.
I next tried a water bath, the water being heated in a tube outside, but con-
nected with the box—somewhat upon the principle of an incubator. I could
easily maintain any desired temperature between 0° and 70°. But for higher
temperatures I found that the convective circulation of the water was too slow to
prevent the water in the tube from boiling. I substituted oil for water, but I was

not able to extend my observations above S0°.

, eae

ee
4

75

By far the most satisfactory method is to fill in between the walls of the tin
box with mineral wool, and to use wire coils and an electric current to heat the
enclosure.

In the earlier part of my work I used distilled water from the Chemical
Laboratory. Subsequent tests showed that it contained considerable organic
matter. I am now using water which has been distilled three times in glass; once
with permanganate of potassium to remove organic matter. My observations
range from 0° to 80°, and cover a period of four months.

Briefly, my conclusions are as follows:

Between 0° and 80° the temperature coefficient curve is concave toward the
x axis, when we use tensions as ordinates and temperatures as abscissas. This
coefficient increases with the temperature, its value being about .17 dynes.

The formula usually used to represent the tension (T) at any tempera-
ture (t°) is

Tr°=To—.14 t°.
I find that the tension can not be expressed as a linear equation, and that
.14 dynes is too Jow for the average temperature coefficient.

Much of my work so far has been toward perfecting the method and my
apparatus. JI am now making some observations, using exceedingly thin
mica frames, and standardized thermometers reading to one one-hundredth of a
degree. For temperatures below 0° I shall use the method described by Messrs.
Humphreys and Mohler in the ‘‘ Physical Review,” March-April, 1895. I shall
endeavor to extend my observations above 100° by using the capillary tube
method, the water and tubes being enclosed in an air-tight plate glass box and
under whatever pressure is necessary to maintain the desired temperature without
boiling the water.

PuysicaL LABorAToRY, INDIANA Untversity, December, 1895.

x

STRAINS IN STEAM MacuHinery. By W. F. M. Goss.

Masses of metal when of considerable strength and weight would appear to
be proof against distortion under the influence of any force which may be brought
to bear upon them. We think of the strength of metals, but it is not often that
we consider their elastic property, yet, physically speaking, nothing, probably, is
more elastic than steel. A piano wire, if tightly strung, increases its length, and
if loosened again it contracts. Within certain limits it behaves precisely like a

spring. When force is applied it stretches, and when the force is withdrawn it

76 ;

recovers itself again. If the force is considerable, change in the length of the
wire may be easily observed; with a less force it will not be so apparent but still

measurable, and, finally logic requires us to believe that if the force applied and

withdrawn is infinitely small, there will still be a change in the length of the wire
acted upon.

That which is true of a wire is equally true of all masses sf metal of what-
ever proportion. A cube of steel may resist an enormous load tending to crush
it, and yet the application of a slight force effects a decrease in its height. The
change in form under light loads is certainly small, but actual, nevertheless.
That which is true of steel is, ina general sense, equally true of wrought and
cast irons, and, in fact, metals of every sort.

The machine designer, therefore, can not, as some suppose, make the several
parts of his machine so strong that they will remain fixed in form, but he must
choose rather so to distribute the metal with reference to the stresses to be trans-
mitted, that the change in form which is sure to occur, will not interfere with the
action of the proposed machine. :

Some years ago the writer became interested in tests involving a measure-
ment of the strain, that is the change in form, of various parts of steam engines,
parts supposedly invariable, while the engines were being worked under load.
The apparatus employed consisted of a fine micrometer screw mounted upon a
frame work wholly apart from the engine and having no connection with it, but
so arranged that the screw could be brought in contact with the part to be exam-
ined. In making observations, one terminal wire from a telephone receiver was
attached to the part of the engine which was under examination, and the other
terminal from the telephone to the micrometer; the observer placed the telephone
to his ear, and slowly screwed the micrometer in towards the desired point on
the engine. If the part of the engine in question was in vibration it first touched
the point of the advancing screw for an instant for each oscillation, the contact
being made manifest to the observer by a sharp click in the telephone as the cir-
cuit was made and broken again. This fixed one boundary by which the ampli-
tude of the vibration was to be determined. Next the micrometer was advanced
towards the engine until the screw did not break contact with the machines, a con-
dition which was denoted by a cessation of sound in the telephone, while for all
intermediate points the clicking in the receiver kept time with the revolutions of
the engine. It was assumed that this last position of the micrometer marked the
other boundary of the vibration. The difference of the two readings of the
micrometer gave the amplitude of the vibrations, or the extent of the motion in

the part examined. A large number of readings from several parts of two engines

77
in the Laboratory of Purdue University were taken by Mr. Adam Herzog,
B. M. E., asummary of which is as follows: ,

First, measurements were taken from a 15 x 24 Corliss engine; this machine
has unusually massive parts, the frame being a heavy girder, dnd the whole
being mounted in an excellent manner upon a deep foundation. Observations
were made while the engine was developing only 35 horse-power with an
initial steam pressure of 80 pounds. The head end of the cylinder was found to
move in a horizontal direction with every revolution of the engine, a distance of
0.009 of an inch; the frame over the guides moved in a vertical direction 0.014
of an inch, and the pillow block castings in a horizontal direction 0.030 inches.

Secondly, measurements from a 14x16 engine, having a modification of the
box-bed, mounted upon a substantial foundation, capped by a single stone of
massive size. The details of the engine are heavy and well designed. Its center
line, however, is considerably above the line of resistance ofiered by the bed.
Observations were taken during a time when the engine was running under an
initial pressure of only 40 pounds and while developing only 14 horse-power,
which is less than half its rated power. The head end of the cylinder was found
to move horizontally 0.018’, and the top of the cylinder at the flange on the
crank end to move vertically 0.022’.

These vibrations, while taking place with every stroke of the engines, would
not ordinarily have been detected with the eye, and were not accompanied by any
shock or other manifestation which would indicate their presence. The measure-
ments will serve to show to what extent the heavy fixed parts of well-designed
machines may move under the influence of the forces which they are designed to
resist, and they emphasize the necessity for a distribution of the metal which will

give strength in direct line with the stresses to be transmitted.

Viscosity OF A PoLARIzED DieLectric. By A. Witmer Durr.

[ABSTRACT.]

Very few observations of mechanical actions produced in liquid dielectrics by
electro-static stress have been made. Faraday found that fibres of silk in the
liquid set themselves along the lines of force. Quincke thought he had detected
an alteration of yolume, but his results have been doubted. K®6nig tried to find
a variation of viscosity by finding the rate of flowthrougha capillary tube placed be-
tween charged plates, but failed. A limit was set to the accuracy of his method
by the difficulty of maintaining the tube at a constant temperature.

,

78

The author has sought a variation of viscosity by observing the rate of de-

scent of small drops of mercury through castor oil, which served as the dielectric
n a plate condenser. The condenser consisted of a tall, glass tank, the middle

part of which served as a condenser, tin-foil being glued to the middle half of the
outsides of the glass plates. To eliminate temperature effects the ratio of the time
of descent through the condenser part of the tank to the time of descent through
the non-condenser part, the condenser being uncharged, was compared with the
ratio similarly obtained when the condenser was charged. In this way any change
of temperature affecting the whole tank may be eliminated. To further eliminate
any variation affecting different parts of the tank unequally, a long series of
readings was taken with the condenser alternately charged and uncharged; and
each ratio obtained with the condenser charged was compared with the mean of
the adjacent ratios obtained with the condenser uncharged. The experiment was
performed in a cellar of fairly constant temperature, temperative effects being
thus almost perfectly eliminated; long series of readings made as described showed
invariable increases of viscosity on the application of electro-static stress. The
variation of viscosity seemed to be dependent rather on a non-uniform or varying
electro-static field than on a steady field. Castor oil and glycerine showed an in-
crease of viscosity.

As the above method could only be applied to very viscous liquids, the au-
thor also constructed an analogous apparatus on the capillary tube principle
suitable for mobile liquids. It consisted of a capillary tube placed vertically be-
tween condenser plates, and connected above to a large tube with four constric-
tions in it dividing it off into three compartments. The times of emptying of the
compartments by flow through the capillary tube were observed, the condenser
being first uncharged during the emptying of the middle chamber and then
charged. If the ratio of the time of emptying of the middle chamber to the sum
of the times of emptying of the other two be taken, the condenser being uncharged,
and compared wi h the ratio similarly obtained, the condenser being charged, a
method free from temperature effects is again obtained for detecting a viscosity
variation. In this way it was found that under a varying electro-static field, car-
bon di-sulphide showed an increase of viscosity and paraffine oil a decrease.

The above methods are being applied to other liquids, and a determination of
the law of variation of the effect discovered under varying strengths of electro-

static field will be made later.

(fs)

ON THE ALTERNATING CURRENT Dynamo. By W. E. GoLpsporovuGcu.

Consider the case of a simple alternator having but one armature coil that
rotates in a magnetic field of uniform intensity about an axis at right angles to
the direction of the lines cf force. If successive instants of time during one rey-
olution of the coil are counted from the instant that the coil passes a line drawn
through its axis of rotation and perpendicular to both the axis of rotation and
the direction of the magnetic flux, the value of the induction piercing the coil
at any instant during one cycle is expressed by the equation

N = Nmax cosut, (1)
in which Nmax equals that portion of the flux that passes through the coil at the
instant the plane of the coil is at right angles to the direction of the lines of force
and w represents its angular velocity. The instantaneous value of the E. M. F.

generated in the coil will be, by Faraday’s law

dN
e= — —-=w Nmax sinut,
dt
= E sinut (2)
since its maximum yalue
kw Nmax (3)

If the coil is closed through a circuit of resistance R,, inductance L, and ca-
pacity C,, the resistance and inductance of the coil itself being R and L respec-
tively a current i will begin to circulate and we can write the equation of E. M.
Fs. of the circuit in the form

di y
ete Ry)a (ub) — + 7
dt C,
From this expression we can derive the equation of the current in terms of the

constants of the circuit and the maximum value of the E. M. F. developed in the
coil and obtain a

E
pee

(er er ti et lee

C\w

} = 1 (L + L,)w
vn | tan lomRTRD ae p) +R, 1} (4)

which expresses the instantaneous value of i as soon as a condition of cyclic sta-
bility has been attained.
Equations (1), (2) and (4) are the general equations that cover the working

of alternating current dynamos; they have been subjected to graphical analysis,

80

the results of which are exhibited in the figure opposite page 80, and are dis-
cussed in the following paragraphs:

Suppose a circuit in which the inductance is zero, the capacity infinite and
the resistance variable, to be subjected to the influence of a simple harmonic
E. M. F. that is generated by an alternator having a constant armature inductance
for all values of armature current, a constant field excitation and a constant
speed. Uuder these conditions the virtual value of the E. M. F. at the brushes
of the alternator just before the circuit is closed will be,— :

E = w Nmax + V2; é (5)
which is represented by the vector OA in the figure. The vector ON is laid off
at right angles to OA to represent the value of the M. M. F. producing Nmmax.
It is drawn 90° in advance of the E. M. F. it induces in accordance with the
relation exhibited in equations (1) and (2). At the time of closing the circuit
suppose the external variable non-inductive resistance to have a value R,, and
that the constant armature resistance has a value R and the constant armature
inductance a value L. Then the equation of the current will assume the form :

>
I
“

t ~ Lino

2 sin | wt — tam, =i
nS R + R, (6)
V oR +R) 24 B? we?
and its virtual value —
= = :
ce (7)
V (BR + B,) 2? + Lu?
: , s > . =a Lu i
which we can represent by the vector OB, lagging tan a degrees behind
Biase

OA. This armature current will react upon the magnetizing forces due to the
constant field excitation, and by virtue of the inductance of the armature will
produce an M. M. F. in phase with itself which is represented by the vector NN,,
drawn parallel to the current vector from the positive extremity of ON. This
armature M. M. F. sets up a cyclic magnetization developing a counter E. M. F.
OD, lagging 90° degrees behind the current, and there is a loss of effective
FE. M. F. due to the armature resistance that is shown by the short E. M. F. vee-
tor in phase with OB,, therefore the total loss of EK. M. F. in the armature will
be the resultant of these two vectors or OA,. The effective E. M. F. that over-
comes the resistance of the non-inductive external circuit will be the vector A,A,

since it completes the E. M. F. triangle on OA and is in phase with the current

=3\

+

if el. he w i
Feng d anne Sita!

wt ee

¥
f
f at.
i
=
J] ite
=
ie ; y
1
t \
- ‘-
4 f H
o
4 1

ra an ed
aa <u = eae eee
see bed , ed

81

OB,. The total effective E. M. F (OC,) that overcomes the total ohmic resistance
(R -+-R,) of the circuit, is due to the cyclic magnetization set up by the M. M. F.
vector ON,. ON, is the resultant of ON and NN, and as shown by the geom-
etry of the figure it is 90° in advance of the current, and therefore of AA, as it
should be. The projection of NN, on ON is the component of the armature
M. M. F. that acts against the field magnetization, 7. e., it is @ measure of the
armature reaction. The projection of NN, on OA is likewise a measure of the

cro ss-magnetizing action of the armature.

Having constructed the initial diagram we can now follow out what takes
place when the resistance of the external circuit is varied. Suppose R, is re-
duced to a value R;- The current vector head B, will move out along the semi-
circle OB, Br until equilibrium is again established in the circuit by the current
reaching. its maximum possible value under the new conditions.* The vectors
OA and ON retaining their positions, all the other vectors involved will reach
their final values corresponding to the new current by following the ares of the
circles passing through their positive extremities to the positions designated by
the common subscript letter (r). The correctness of the variations indicated can
be readily verified by an inspection of the geometry of the figure in connection
with equation (7).

In the present case R, has been reduced to zero; in other words the sub-
scripts (r) indicate what takes place when a machine whose armature inductance
is large, as well as constant, is short circuited. A, moves up to A, and the E.
M. F. at the brushes is zero. The current assumes an angle of lag of almost 90°
behind the total internal armature E. M. F. OA, the armature reaction almost
counterbalances the M.M.F. of the fields, and the resultant M. M. F. ON; is just
sufficient to develop the E. M. F. OC, that overcomes the resistance of the
armature.

Returning to the initial conditions, suppose we increase the value of L, from
zero to some value Ly, i. e., suppose we introduce inductance into the external
circuit. The virtual value of the current will then be expressed by the equa-

tion

\ (R + R;)? -- (L +- Ly )?w?
and it will lag behind the internal E. M. F. E or OA, by an angle

*See Bedell and Crehore’s Alternating Currents, page 223.
iG

82

coe (9)

o—— Tania — ie
Referring to the figure, the new positions assumed by the variable vectors, owing
to the introduction of Li, are designated by the subscript letter (1). The cur-
rent will decrease and its vector head move along the circle OB-B,B,O until a
state of equilibrium exists between the forces involved. The E. M. F. that over-
comes the resistance and inductance of the armature will decrease also and move
to the position OA,, its vector head following the circle OA; A,A,O, and the E.
M. F. at the collector rings will first decrease and then increase to a final value
A,A. The introduction of inductance into the external circuit brings the E. M.
F. at the collector rings and the total internal E. M. F. (OA) more nearly into
phase; it, however, causes a lag angle F,OB, to be introduced between the col-
lector E. M. F. and the current. The inductance E. M. F. of the armature de-
creases along the circle OD. D,D,0 to a value OD; and the inductance E. M. F.
of the external circuit increases from zero along the circle YQcOQ: Y to a value
OQ: The resultant M.M. F. will be ON), and it is seen that while the arma-
ture reaction has remained very nearly constant the cross-magnetizing effect has
been reduced about 50 per cent.
From our initial conditions as indicated by the subscript letter (0) we can
also study the effects produced by the introduction of capacity into the external
circuit. If the value of C, is reduced from infinity to some value Ce, the vir-

tual value of the current will change to

a E
t= (10)

1 2
V(B+RB,)?+ (G1)

and the angle between OA and the current will have a value

i Lw
[REE Ow ~R+RI

@ = tan>*

In consequence of this change the current vector wil! assume the position OB, and
the other variable vectors will move to their corresponding positions shown by
the subscript letter (c). The current in its new position is not only in advance of
the E. M. F. (A-O) at the brushes, but is also in advance of the E. M. F. OA,
since it has moved from B, to a maximum value when passing OA, and then de-

creased in value.+

1. See Bedell and Crehore’s Alternating Currents, p. 297.

~~ ae

83

The collector E. M. F., on the other hand, steadily increases as the ‘capacity
decreases till it reaches a value AeA much greater than the open circuit E. M. F.
of the machine. A resonant effect comes into play here after the capacity of the
line neutralizes the inductance of the armature that is very well illustrated by the
figure: the line A-A will be a maximum when it passes from A through the center
of the circle OAcA,A,O, and will represent the greatest difference of potential
that can possibly exist between the brushes so long as R and R, remain un-
changed in value. This rise in potential is due to the current being in advance of
the vector OA, for the position of the armature M. M. F. vector is also advanced,
and NN, increases the total flux in the air-gap instead of diminishing it. The
cross-magnetizing action of the armature, however, remains approximately the
same.

The introduction of capacity into the line causes the inductance E. M. F.
of the armature to move to the position D:, and the reactance E. M. F. of the
external circuit to decrease through zero and then increasing, assume a position
Q-O, considerably in advance of the coilector E. M. F., and 90° in advance of
the current OBe.

The arrows indicate the relative direction of motion of the vectors as the re-
sistance is varied from infinity to zero, or as the reactance is carried from zero
capacity to an infinite inductance.

By following out a similar line of constructions the effects produced by vari-
ations of the armature inductance can be studied, and by successfully varying
the resistance, inductance, capacity and freqnency constants, and constructing
corresponding diagrams, a large variety of problems involving the simultaneous

variation of several terms can be successfully treated.

A MetHop or MEAsuRING PERMEABILITY. By A. Wi~MER DUFF.

[ABSTRACT.]

The most common method of measuring the permeability of iron, or the
ratio in which the presence of iron strengthens the magnetic field, is to make a
ring of the specimen, cover it with two layers of wire, one connected with a source
of current to magnetize the ring, the other with a ballistic galvanometer to measure
the quantity of electricity induced in this secondary coil by making or breaking
the primary current. The galvanometer is calibrated by means of a straight

calibrating coil consisting of a non-magnetic core similarly wound with a primary

84

.

and secondary. Then from the various dimensions of the ring and the ealibrat-

ing coil as regards number of turns of the primary and secondary, cross-section

and length of core, intensity of primary currents and throws of the galvanometer,

the permeability of the specimen can be calculated.

The objections to the above method are the tediousness of observing the con-
stants (about a dozen in all) and making the calculation therefrom, and, further,
the inaccuracies involved in assuming the areas of windings and core to be the
same, in neglecting the difference in closeness of winding between the inside and
outside of the ring, ete.

For the last two years the author has recommended the following method to
his students. An exact non-magnetic copy of the ring specimen is made in the
form of a plaster of Paris cast therefrom. This cast is wound precisely similarly
to the iron ring. The permeability is then simply the ratio of the throws given

by the iron ring and the plaster of Paris ring on making or breaking equal

currents in the primaries. The calculations are thus greatly simplified and the «

inaccuracies involved in the above mentioned assumptions are greatly reduced
and can be completely eliminated by winding the primaries and secondaries in
alternate turns on the core. It is not claimed that by this method the galvano-
meter is more exactly calibrated, but it is calibrated under the exact conditions
under which the actual measurements on the specimen of iron are made. It is
calibrated, in fact, by the actual windings on the ring specimen, the iron core
being replaced by a non-magnetic core.

With a view to testing the sum total of the errors inherent in the ordinary
ring method, simultaneous determinations of the permeability of the same speci-
men were made by the two methods. It was found that the total error involved
in the use of the ordinary calibrating coil was often large, amounting in some

cases to as much as thirty-eight per cent.

EMPIRICAL FORMULA FOR THE TEMPERATURE VARIATION OF Viscosity. By
A. WILMER DUFF.

[ABsTRACT.]

A careful determination was made of the viscosity of glycerine between zero
and thirty degrees. The method employed depended on Stokes’ formula for
the rate of descent of a sphere through a viscous liquid. Several different forms
of formula have been proposed for the representation of this temperature varia-

tion. It was shown that none of these would apply throughout a wide range of

85.

temperature variation. By plotting a curve of the sub-tangent of the viscosity-
temperature curve against the temperature, a subsidiary curve was formed which
should, in all the types of formula proposed, be a straight line, but which turned
out to be a parabola. On determining tHe constants of the parabolic equation
and integrating this to obtain the equation of the viscosity-temperature curve,
a formula was deduced which represented the experimental results to within the
limits of experimental accuracy. This formula was an exponential one, the
exponent being the inverse tangent of a linear function of the temperature.
Reasons were given for believing that this would represent the temperature

variation of the viscosity of any liquid.

THe EFrect oF GRAPE-SUGAR UPoN THE CoMPposITION OF CERTAIN FAtT-
Propucine BacrerrA. By Ropert E. Lyons.

It has been observed by Dr. E. Cramer* and others? in studies upon the com-
position of bacteria, that the same micro-organism grown upon Peptom and
Grape-sugar Agar-Agar produces in each case different quantities of nitrogenous
substances and matter which is soluble in alcohol and ether.

In this same direction Ducleaux{ demonstrated that yeast cells grown upon
a material containing grape-sugar produced fat, while the same yeast grown upon
pure nitrogenous material did not produce fat.

To study how grape-sugar affects the quantities formed of nitrogen, ash, fat
and matter to be extracted by nieans of alcohol and ether, three varieties of cap-
sule bacilli were selected :

Pfeiffers’ Capsule Bacillus.

| Fadenziehender Capsule Bacillus.

| No. 28 Capsule Bacillus.

*Dr. E. Cramer—‘‘ Zusammensetzung der Bacterien in ihrer Abhiingigkeit von dem
Nihrmaterial.’’ Arch. fiir Hygiene—1é6, 151-191.

+ Tayosaka-Nishimura—‘ Zusammensetzung eines Wasserbacillus.’’ Arch. fiir Hygiene
18, 318-333.

tDucleaux—“ Sur la nutrition interacellulaive.’’ Ann. de l’Institute Pasteur—1889 No.
8, p. 413.

| Fadenziehender and No. 28 are forms from the water of the River Lahn, near Mos-
bourg.

86

The culture medium employed was a neutral 1 per cent. meat extract, agar
agar, with the addition of varying quantities of grape-sugar, 1, 5 and 10 per cent.,
respectively.

The agar was prepared in an autoclave after the method of v. Meyer & Buchner
and every care taken in each preparation to obtain as uniform a material as
possible.

To control the uniformity of the various preparations, estimations were made
from time to time of the solids (105° C.) in the nutrient media, for example:

10 ce. 1 % grape-sugar agar = 0.369 grm. Residue.
LOvce: \* te aso oe oh
LO Ces is i ie tC eg ,

To grow the organisms agar agar plates were inoculated with a fresh bouillon
culture, by means of a roll of thin platinum foil and within a moist chamber
placed in the thermostat at 37.°5 C.

At the expiration of 48 hours the purity of the culture was controlled and
the bacteria-mass carefully removed with a scalpel and dried in a yacuum over
sulphuric acid.

Dr. F. Smith (1) maintains that the presence of grape-sugar in the culture
medium causes an increased production of gas and acids.

However, when the drying operation was conducted in the apparatus of Arz-
berger & Zulkowsky, connected with a condenser, the presence of acid in the dis-
tillate could not be demonstrated.

The gas production varied, as the amount of sugar, and the odor of ethylic
alcohol was always present, but the odor of the fatty acids was never encountered.

That volatile acids are formed during the growth of the cultures, under the
conditions given, could not be demonstrated.

The material dried finally at 105° C. was subjected to analysis.

Estimation of ash:

rs ‘* Nitrogen (Kjeldahl N>6.25=nitrogenous substances,

cas ‘¢ Ether extract (Soxhelet’s app., 48 hours. )

me ‘¢ Alcohol extract (Soxhelet’s app., 90 hours.)

(1) Dr. F. Smith—‘ Bedeutung des Zuckers, in Kultur Medien.” Centralblatt fiir Bact.
u. Parait 18, 1-s. 1.

87

1 per cent. 5 per ecnt. 10 per cent.

Grape-sugar Grape-sugar Grape-sugar
Agar Agar. Agar Agar. Agar Agar.

[ X. Sibstess. 22-1: 62.75 58.88 45.88

Ether Extr..... 1.68 3.50 2.67

: Aleohol Extr... 12.17 17.30 29.60

Pfeiffer ........ ; en ey hat 7.16 2.97 3.09
|

OMeTotalean vas 83.76 82.65 81.24

fit. Sabsb.. 22. .: 71.51 59.12 46.25

| Ether Extr..... eae 3.84 2.84

No. 28 , Aleohol Extr... 11.39 15.91 22.78

GT ee | Aone: = So 6.51 3.66 4.18

vee

(Ss Uc 1 re 93.03 82.53 76.05

eli subst 2.0: - 61.05 44.31 33.25

| Ether Extr..... 1.75 2.24 1.87

: ! Aleohol Extr... 18.40 21.80 27.50

Fadenziehender. 1 Meta ai Sas. 8.09 4.50 3.02

As

CG Oba nc. eae 89.29 72.85 65.64

On examination of the table it is seen that a constant decrease in nitrogenous
substances of the bacteria-mass accompanies the increasing percent. of sugar in
the culture medium.

Whether or not the total nitrogen consists in part of albumen-nitrogen, or
in part of extract-nitrogen; and, further, if the extracted nitrogenous sub-
stances contain a lower per cent. of nitrogen than the albumen of the bacteria,
can not as yet be determined owing to the very small amount of material.

The increase in the quantity of extract matter goes hand in hand with the
increasing per cent. of sugar in the agar agar.

For the matter soluble in ether this is true only to five per cent. grape-sugar ;
at ten per cent. sugar the maximum production of fat seems to have been attained.

In this connection it is interesting to observe the relationship between the
ether extract and the ash.

A decrease in the ash and an increase of fat corresponds to five per cent. sugar
and to ten per cent., vice versa.

It might seem that the apparent increase in fat was due wholly or in part to
the relative decrease in the ash.

It is readily seen that this is not the case by calculating the per cent., exclud-
ing the ash; on the contrary, the three forms studied produce more matter soluble
in ether and alcohol when they are grown upon media with a high per cent. sugar

than when they are grown upon such containing a lower per cent. sugar.

88

Briefly stated the results of the investigation are:

1. The quantity of nitrogenous material is inversely proportioned to the
quantity of sugar present.

2. To a certain limit the increase of sugar is accompanied by a decided in-
crease in the quantity of fat.

At ten percent. sugar the most favorable conditions for fat production ap-
pear to be overstepped.

3. Matter soluble in alcohol increases constantly with the increasing per

cent. of sugar.

A New MernHop FoR THE PREPARATION OF PHENYL-CompouNDs WITH SUL-
PHUR, SELENIUM AND TELLURIUM. By Ropert FE. Lyons.

The very great similarity between the compounds of sulphur, selenium and
tellurium was observed by Frederick Woehler and other chemists of his time.

To trace this similarity further I was led to attempt preparing certain bodies
to fill up the gaps between the known compounds of the organic radicals,
methyl, ethyl and phenyl, with sulphur, selenium and tellurium,

C. Chabrie* gives the results of several years’ study of aromatic compounds
of selenium prepared after the Friedel-Crafts’ reaction, but this method in my
hands did not lead to satisfactory results.

On the other hand, the method proposed by Drs. F. Krafft and W. Vorster,t
i. e., the replacement of the SO, group in the sulfone by sulphur or selenium :

C,H;. SO,. C,H; +S=C,H,. 8. C,H; + SO,.
Diphenylsulfone. Diphenylsulfid.
was easily carried out and afforded 60-70 per cent. of the theoretical amount.

As excellent as this method is for the preparation of sulphur and seleninm
compounds, it was nevertheless found, that the sulfohenzid, even after prolonged
heating with powdered tellurium, remained unchanged.

Tellurium dichloride, Te Cl,, was next prepared in the hope that through its
action upon mercury diphenyl, Hg (C,H;)., the diphenyltelluride would be ob-
tained according to the following reaction :

O,H;. Hg. C,H; +Te Cl, =C,H;. Te. C,H; + Hg€l,.

*Ann.de Chemie et de Physique, WI sirie t. XX. p. 202-286 (1890); also, Compt. rend.
109, 182 et 568 (1889).

+ Berichte der Deutschen Chem. Gesell. 26, 2813.

89

However, the reaction did not take place according to the above equation,
but the tellurium and the mercury combined in the final reaction, with the
formation of monochlorbenzene.

; (C, H;). Hg+Te Cl,—2C, H,; Cl+ Hg Te.

From this change I was led to expect the formation of the desired body, Di-
phenyltellurid, by the double decomposition of Diphenyl-mercury, by means of
metallic tellurium alone—and the expectation was happily confirmed by experi-
ment.

(C, H;) Hg+Te,—C, H, Te C, H;+He Te.

If tellurium and mercury-dipheny] in the proportions by weight indicated by
the equation be heated together in a sealed tube filled with CO, gas, 4-5 hours,
at a temperature of 200° Cent., there results a grayish black crystalline mass, sat-
urated with a thick, heavy oil.

This oil, by extraction with ether and purification by rectification, was found
to be Diphenyltellurid, 78 per cent. of the theoretical quantity.

Thus I succeeded in preparing the, till then unknown, diphenyltellurid.

The method is a general one.

Dreher and Otto* studied the action of sulphur upon mercury-diphenyl and
were of the opinion that diphenyl-sulphide was formed only at a red heat.

However, the corresponding sulphides and telsurides may be obtained with
the greatest ease by heating mercury-diphenyl with sulphur or selenium to
200° C. under the conditions given.

CampuHoric Acitp. By W. A. Noyes.

In a paper presented to the Academy last year two acids, which were called
cis-campholytic acid and cis-transcampholytic acid were described. The cis-
campholytic acid has now been reduced and a dihydro acid obtained from which
thea-brom derivative has been prepared. This, on treatment with alcohclic potash
yields the cis-campholytic acid again, thus proving conclusively that the double
union in the latter is in the 3 position.

CH at;
Xylyllic acid, C, H, | CH, 3. has been reduced by means of amyl alcohol
CO, H 4.

and sodium and the a-brom derivative of the hexahydro acid obtained, was pre-

pared. The latter, on treatment with alcoholic potash, does not give either of the

* Berichte der Deutschen Chems., Gesell, 2. 543.

90

campholytie acids. This furnishes quite conclusive proof that the formula for

camphor proposed by Armstrong* is not correct.

CH 15
The preparation of the acid, Cb H, 1 So: H 2. has been undertaken and
CH: 3.7

by a study of its derivatives it is hoped to secure proof of the truth or falsity of

‘Collie’st formula for camphorie acid.

Note on Mix Inspection. By Gro. W. BENTON.

The milk supply of cities is becoming a matter of scientific interest. Formerly
milk sophistication consisted of skimming or watering or both. More recently
various well authenticated rumors of the employment of chemists in the prepara-
tion of adulterants, and the marketing of preparations which enables the creamery
to substitute foreign fats for milk fats have caused increased attention and greater
care in their examination. The inspector, devoid of scientific skill, relies upon
the lactoscope, the lactometer, the hydrometer and the Babcock machine, instru-
ments sufficiently accurate and reliable for the cases of skimming and watering
for which they were made, but entirely unreliable when taken alone in the detec-
tion of the preparations made by chemists for the express purpose of deceiving
those using the instruments.

In my two years’ experience in the work of milk analysis, abundant evidence
ot the untrustworthiness of ordinary inspection came to my notice. Besides the
watered and skimmed milk, samples of pure cream, common herd and Jersey
milk, were passed upon and pronounced suspicious by the ordinary methods in
the hands of the inspector. And, finally, it became necessary, in view of the fab-
rications employed, to do away with such tests, and subject everything to a more
searching examination, as the only sure way to get at the truth.

A cise in point came under my observation in December, 1892, as follows:

An inspector brought in a sample of milk which, by his testing instruments,
gave evidence of being rich, but the appearance, on close examination, was not in
strict conformity with the other indications, and he submitted it for analysis.
Results attained were as follows, the data taken from my notes made at the time:

A careful physical examination showed the milk to be abnormally thick for

milk, but not for cream. <A portion, on standing several hours, failed to show a

* Ber. d. Chem. Ges. (16, 2260.)

¥ Ibid. 25, 1116.

ot

cream separation, although there was evidence of an oil separation, lacking only
the true color of cream. No artificial color had been used.

The further analysis was as follows:

Per cent.
EN aE N Cater Aas, fe tet cclaisin BF ohh gw. 2a cc hs ode Lach ehe's vn we 1.024
UTED Va UHMOEALLON 6g) o5 asi acs < <is eo cleo od Sint ts Wb oe wens 80.30
UIN SD VG WA OLAULOM acer pete mc foe ctacu clay saat erase atwiie choline os 19.70
prada. DO wiienoneLameben (IN. Naess os < sk sacs, onndcs base ole eee 13.50
ae tyy Peseta IUACTOSCOBE ss 5 5... ica vets ss os siddee a nee aes 5.00
LADS; TONE NEVE NYO) 1 bale Reacts Seren ec ISIC icici ear ae 4.95
STOUNG SANTIS. 5 a Go Cihidks STE GEG Oe Mee RO Ren Re 14.75

By some oversight the ash, if taken, was not recorded. Absence of a record
in this instance would indicate that the ash was not abnormal, as it was my in-
variable custom to take it. No effort was made to determine the nature of the
solids not fat, as the purpose of the analysis was not to determine the kind, but
the extent of the sophistication, and, at the time, a press of work prevented my
taking up the matter from scientific interests.

The microscope confirmed the indications already observed. The familiar
milk-fat corpuscles were almost wholly absent, and in their stead was a mass of
irregular fatty bodies, twenty-five to fifty times the size of milk-fat corpuscles,
whose appearance suggested some vegetable oil admixture, possibly cotton-seed.

Consideration of the resuJts shows that the addition of a little coloring matter
would have placed the milk beyond the reach of ordinary inspection methods,
while the determination of solids and the microscope proved conclusively a skill-
ful adulteration. It will be noted that the lactometer failed to detect the abnor-
mal solids, as it depends for its data upon Sp. G., while the lactoscope and ex-
traction processes showed about five per cent. of fat, which the microscope proved
to be almost wholly foreign to milk.

My own experiments, confirmed by many others, show that milk solids are
among the least variable factors in milk analysis, as the average milk containing
3.5 per cent. of milk fat is nearly always found to contain about 12.5 per cent. of
solids, while Jersey milk with 4.5 to 5.0 per cent. of fats never exceeds 14.5 per
cent. of solids. It will be observed, that the milk referred to gave 19.7 per cent.
of solids and nearly 5.0 per cent. of a substituted oil.

As long as milk inspection is confined to the use of instruments in the hands
of unskilled inspectors, the dishonest creamery, backed up by professional chemi-
cal skill, will continue to furnish a cheap, fabricated article, which savors less.
and less of its reputed origin and character.

INDIANAPOLIS, Dec. 2, 1895.

92

Ratio oF ALCOHOL TO YEAST IN FERMENTATION. By KATHERINE FE. GOLDEN.

Fermentation is, essentially, the breaking up of chemical compounds into
simpler and more stable compounds. Some form of fermentation goes on in all
living cells, the nature of the fermentation and the resulting products depending
on the organism and the body fermented. The results may be simple, as, for ex-
ample, where a single organism is used, or complex where a number of organisms
are working together. Where a single organism is used, the predominating re-
sulting product gives the fermentation its name.

In the alcoholic fermentation, besides the alcohol are formed CO,, succinic
acid, glycerine and a number of by-products, the nature and quantity of which
depend on the orgenism, and the conditions under which it is grown. Beers and
wines depend mainly on these by-products for their aroma and special character,
so that experimenters, using the same kind of grape, have obtained many different
wines; the same way for beers, using the same wort, but varying the yeast, dif-
ferent beers are obtained. Even from apple must good wines have been pro-
duced, by the use of certain yeast cultures. Again, mixing certain yeasts in the
brewing, characteristics are obtained which are impossible with a single form.
Large breweries now have competent bacteriologists, who seem to the uninitiated,
to be able to manipulate their yeasts, molds and bacteria much as a juggler does
his implements.

Yeast is the organism most commonly used to induce the alcoholic fermenta-
tion, though it can: be induced also by certain bacteria and molds, The yeast
which is used in brewing is 8. cerevisiv, there being two well marked varieties,
the cerevisix, which produces top fermentation, and that which produces bottom
fermentation. Top yeast works at a comparatively high temperature, the action
is rapid, and the yeast rises to the surface of the liquid; this is used in the
brewing of ale and porter. Bottom yeast works at a low temperature, the action
is slow, and the yeast is at the bottom of the liquid; the bottom yeast is used in
the brewing of lager beer.

Wort, which is the basis of beer, is made in the following manner: First
there is the malting of the grain, which consists of the germination; then the
stoppage of the germination by heat. The first stages are for the purpose of
changing the chemical constitution of the grain; diastase is developed from the
albuminoid matter; the diastase then acts on the starch, changing it to maltose
and dextrine, When this development has reached the proper point, the germ is
killed by drying. The grain is then cleaned and crushed and placed in warm

water to allow the diastase to act still further on the starch, the completion of this

95

process being determined by the iodine test. The solution is then drawn off and
boiled, hops being added. The hops give to the beer a bitter taste, besides aid-
ing in its keeping; they also, by means of their tannic acid, facilitate the coagula-
ion of the protein material, which is going on by means of the boiling. The
wort is then cooled rapidly, after which it is ready for fermentation.

There are different methods used by manufacturers in the fermenting of the
wort, but by whatever method there are always three stages into which the fer-
mentation ean be divided: the main fermentation, which begins in a short time
after the yeast is added, during which time the maltose is decomposed, new yeast
cells are formed and a rise in temperature takes place; the after fermentation is the
next stage; maltose continues to be decomposed, the formation of yeast cells
nearly ceases, the yeast settles and the beer clears; the last stage is the sti// fermen-
tation, maltose is still decomposed, dextrine is changed into maltose, but no new
yeast cells are formed. The main fermentation lasts from four to eight days; the
other stages vary in time, and are controlled by changing the conditions.

In the experiments which I made the study was on the main fermentation,
and was to determine the ratio between the amount of alcohol and the number of
yéast cells formed. Wort, that was ready for fermenting, was obtained from one
of the breweries, filtered, then placed in flasks, and sterilized by the fractional
sterilization method. Two litres were used in a flask. Pure yeast, which had
been separated from a compressed cake by the Hansen orientation method, was
used; a colony, which had been grown from a single cell, was placed in 5ec. of
wort in a test tube, and allowed to remain there twenty-four hours. This quan-
tity was then added to the wort in the flask. This corresponds to the method em-
ployed in breweries, where a quantity of yeast is first grown in a small amount of
wort; this quantity, called ‘‘ pitching yeast,” then added to the main quantity
that is wanted for beer. After the addition of the pitching yeast, the flask was
shaken thoroughly, and 1 ce. taken out with a sterilized pipette, for the purpose
of counting the yeast cells. To the 1 cc. was added 1 ce. dilute H,SO, for pre-
venting further growth of yeast, and also for dilution. The wort was kept in a
constant temperature oven at 25°c., this being a temperature at which the yeast
grows vigorously.

At the end of every twenty-four hours for seven days the flask containing the
wort was shaken vigorously for some time, so as to distribute the yeast cells thor-
oughly, then 1 cc. taken in the manner described, and also 200 ce. for determin-
ing the alcohol. The alcohol was estimated by direct distillation; 100 cc. was
distilled over, then an accurately tared pycnometer of 50 ce. capacity used for

the weighing. When the temperature varied from 15.5°c., Allen’s formula for

94

correcting the density was used. D = D’ + d (.00014 + a D = required
density; D’ = observed density; d -= difference in temperature between 15.5°c.
and observed temperature.

After the specific gravity of the distillate was obtained, Allen’s tables were
used for determining the per cent. of absolute alcohol.

The apparatus for counting the yeast cells was made by taking a thin strip of
brass, cutting an oblong hole through it, then cementing a strip of glass to one
side of it, and using a similar strip for a cover on the other side. This gave a
chamber of known dimensions, so that when the yeast liquid was placed in it the
thickness of the layer was known. To obtain the other two dimensions, a micro-
meter haying small squares engraved on it was placed in the eye-piece of the
microscope, and the value, with a system of lenses then determined. The cell con-
tents of a number of these squares were counted, and the average obtained. To
determine the number of squares to be counted, countings and determinations
were made until the number obtained had no influence on the average. This

number of squares was then used on duplicate samples:

ALCOHOL.
Per cent. abs. ale. Per cent. inc.
No. Hours. Sp. gr. ale. by wt. ale. per day.
1 24 9915 2.41
2. 48 .98498 4.60 2.19
3. 72 984215 4.89 “29
4 96 98337 5.22 30
5. 120 98297 5.405 .185
6. 144 98277 5.500 095
7 168 .9826 5.575 .075
YEAST.
No. Hours. No. cells in .02 c. mm. Increase per day.
1 3 she
2. 24 36.5 34.6
3. 48 55.6 To."
4 72 74.8 19.2
5 96 95.6 20:8
6. 120 107.1 11.5
7 144 112.6 5.5

8. 168 118.2 5.6

95

The table shows clearly that as the yeast cells increased in number the quan-
tity of alcohol also increased in a nearly corresponding degree, so that, taking the
results at the end of twenty-four hours, there is a direct ratio between the two.
During the first twelve hours this does not hold good, as during approximately
that period there is a large growth of yeast, but no apparent fermentation, as is
evidenced by the lack of gas given off. For this reason the time between the
‘‘pitching,” or inoculation of the wort, and the beginning of active fermentation
is called the ‘‘incubation” period.

Thanks are due to Mr. W. H. Test for assistance rendered in the work.

THE CIRCULATION OF PROTOPLASM IN THE MANUBRIUM OF CHARA—CHARA
Fraciuis. By D. W. DENNIs.

About the middle of May last Mr. Omer Davis, a student in the Biological
Laboratory, at Earlham, while studying the fertilization of Chara Fragilis noticed
that the nucleus of the manubrium traveled rapidly around the periphery of the
cell, with the circulating protoplasm. The phenomenon was subsequently noticed
by all the members of a class of eighteen, and the attention of many other persons
was called to it, some of whom were familiar with many of the phenomena of
moving protoplasm in the leaves of Chara, the stamen hairs of Tradescantia and
in other stock illustrations, it astonished all alike. The circuits of the nucleus
were timed by Mr. Davis and myself, and found to range from 15, when the
phenomenon was first noticed, to 26, something like a half hour later in a minute.

The circuit of this particular cell was not measured, but a measurement of a
large number of cells later convinces me that it could not have been less than
five-eighteenths of a mm. This gives a rate of 7.2 millimeters in a minute, or more
than four times as fast as the fastest rate given in Goodale’s Physiological Botany
for protoplasm in a closed cell. I reported these facts to Prof. Barnes, who said
they were, so far as he could learn, entirely new, and he asked me to prepare the
matter for publication in the ‘‘ Botanical Gazette.” Early ni June I began what I
hoped to make an exhaustive study of the phenomenon for this purpose, but
could not find a single case in which the motion was going forward. Disintegra-
tion had taken place in most of the cells, and in all the motion had stopped. The
phenomenon seems, therefore, to be one connected with the growth and matura-
tion of the cell in which it occurs. All I can say is that next May we shall per-

mit nothing to interfere with the most exhaustive study we can give to the

96

phenomenon. The observation requires no skill except what is necessary to find
the male organs of reproduction at the right time, and crush them under the
coverglass and recognize the manubrium. If nothing else comes of it it can not
fail to add one, and that one the most striking and one of the most easily attain-
able of all, to the stock illustrations of the circulation of protoplasm.

FUNGICIDES FOR THE PREVENTION OF CORN Smut. By Wm. STUART.

During the present century the disease of the corn popularly known as “‘corn
smut” ( Ustilago zee-mays, [DC.] Wint.) has engaged the attention of some of its
most eminent botanists. It has only been within the last half of the present
century that the life history of the fungus has been well understood. When we
consider that corn is the principal cereal crop of America, it isnot to be won-
dered at that any fungus disease causing it much apparent injury should arouse a
desire on the part of investigators to devise some means of preventing it.

The successful treatment of the smuts of wheat and oats by disinfection of the
seed, either by hot water or chemical solutions, naturally turned the attention of
Experiment Station workers to employing the same remedies for the smutof corn.
The experiments of Arthur,? of Indiana, Kellerman and Swingle,? of Kansas,
and those of Pammel and Stewart,? of Iowa, are perhaps the most noteworthy.
These experiments included the disinfection of the seed by hot water and chem-
ical solutions; the attempted infection of the seed by rolling in the spores of the
smut; and the spraying of the plants with fungicides, the latter experiment being
conducted by the Kansas Experiment Station? in 1890. The results of all these
experiments were of a negative character, due to the fact that the fungus plant of
the corn smut, unlike that of wheat and oats, can enter any young growing tissue:
of the host, while in the last two mentioned it can only enter the host when it is
very young. This point has been ably demonstrated by Brefeld,® who, by a long
series of carefully conducted experiments, showed conclusively that the germinat-

ing spores, or conidia, are capable of penetrating any portion of the young

Fourth Annual Report Indiana Experiment Station.

?Kansas Experiment Station Bulletins, Nos. 22, 23, 40, 41. £

STowa Experiment Station Bulletins Nos. 16, 20, Proceedings of Iowa Academy of
Sciences, 1894, p. 74.

4Kansas Bulletin No. 23, p. 101.

SJournal of Mycology, Vol. VI, Nos. I, II, and IV. (Translated from Nachrichten aus
dem Klub der Landwirthe zu Berlin, Nos. 220, 222, by Erwin Smith.)

97

growing tissue of the host. It would therefore follow that the growing corn
plants are susceptible to infection during the greater part of their growth, or
until the fertilization of the pistils.

Realizing the importance of ascertaining some method for the prevention of
the smut, the botanical department of the Indiana Experiment Station undertook,
during the past season (1895), to carry out an experiment having as its main
object the spraying of the plants with the best known fungicides. A portion of
one of the Station cornfields was set aside for the experiment. In order to avoid
any possibility of infection through smutted seed, a portion of the seed was
treated with a copper sulphate solution, another with an ammoniacal copper car-
bonate solution, and a third with hot water, while a fourth portion was infected
with germinating smut spores. The experimental plat was divided into five
sections, as follows:

Section I. Seed untreated.

Section II. Seed treated with copper sulphate solution one-half hour.

Section III. Seed treated with ammoniacal copper carbonate solution one
hour.

Section LV. Seed treated with hot water at 60° C. for five minutes.

Section V. Seed dipped in a nutrient solution containing germinating smut
spores.

The plat was planted May 18th, and on June 8th when the plants were about
six inches high, two cross sections containing five rows each were sprayed by
means of a knapsack sprayer, the one with Bordeaux mixture and the other with
ammoniacal copper carbonate. This divided the plat into twenty-five lesser ones,

as will be seen by the following diagram:

Nl
1 6 1l | 16 21 Sec. I
}
|
2 7 12 | 17 DD, Sec. II
3 8 13 18 23 See. IIT
ae ae ae ae if
4 9 14 19 24 Sec. LV
Bob gO 15 20 | 25 | See. V.
E
N | S
|
W

98

The strength of the Bordeaux solution consisted of six pounds of copper sul-
phate, four pounds of lime and fifty gallons of water, while that of the ammoni-
acal copper carbonate consisted of one ounce of copper carbonate dissolved in
ammonia and diluted with nine gallons of water. The latter solution proved too
strong, some of the plants showing considerable injury two days afterwards.
Subsequent sprayings were made with a much weaker solution.

The plats were sprayed quite frequently during June. In July, owing to the
absence of the writer during the early part of the month, and frequent showers
during the middle part of it, the sprayings were somewhat interrupted. The par-
tial failure of the fungicides in completely preventing the smut may be largely
attributed to these facts:

On July 20th some injury to the plants from the Bordeaux was noted, and for
the remaining sprayings the strength of the solution was reduced one-third. The
last spraying was made August 14th, the plants being then supposed to be too
mature for infection.

The dates of spraying were as follows:

| Ammoniacal Copper

Bordeaux. | Carbonate. |
June 8 June 8
June 12

June 13 | June 13

June l7 | June 17

June 19

June 21 June 21
June 27 June 27 |
July 5 | July 5 |

July 20 July 20

July 25 July 25
August 3 August 3 |
August 14 August 14 |

Just previous to harvesting the crop a careful record of the number of smutted

stalks was made and gave the following percentages of smutted stalks:

Winsprayed tplamtsicy wien 5.5 eie., sclera ceelaennaseie aw ane 13.37 per cent.
Those sprayed with Bordeaux .................- 3.83 per cent.

Those sprayed with ammoniacal copper carbonate, 6.72 per cent.
It will be readily seen from the above figures that there is a marked difference

in the amount of smut between the sprayed and unsprayed plats.

99

SUMMARY.

The results of this experiment show conclusively:

That the Bordeaux mixture, properly applied to the plants during their period
of growth, does materially lessen the smut.

That the ammoniacal copper carbonate was not as effective as the Bordeaux
in preventing the smut.

That frequent applications of the fungicides are necessary during the growing

period of the plant in order to be effective.

A New STATION FOR PLEODORINA CALIFORNICA SHAW. By SEVERANCE
BuRRAGE.

During an investigation of the sanitary condition of the Wabash and Erie
Canal as it runs through Lafayette, made in the laboratories at Purdue in Sep-
tember of the present year, Pleodorina was found in considerable abundance in
the canal water. This comparatively new member of the Volrox family was first
described by Walter R. Shaw, of Leland Stanford University, who found the
plant in a ditch in Palo Alto in September, 1893 ( ‘‘ Botanical Gazette,” Vol. 19,
p- 279). Since then D. M. Mottier has reported it in Bloomington, Indiana,
in May, 1894, and Messrs. Clinton and Burrill in Havana, Illinois ( ‘‘ Botanical
Gazette,” Vol. 19, p. 383), in June of the same year. It is now possible to add
another station in Indiana, namely, Lafayette.

The microscopical examinations were made according to the Sedgwick-Rafter
method, which has been used for several years by the Massachusetts State Board
of Health in the enumeration of microscopical organisms, exclusive of bacteria,
in water supplies. The average number of Pleodorina in one cubic centimeter of
the canal water was four. The census of other organisms found in the same sam-
ples included, on the vegetable side, [ydrodietion, Chara, and Spirogyra, too large
and abundant to enumerate; Diatoms, per cubic centimeter, eight; Oscillaria,
fifty-six; Anabaena, three; Scenedesmus, one; Protococeus, eight; Crenothrix, ten;
Pandorina, one; mold hyphae, three; and, on the animal side, principally infus-
oria, as Peridinium, two hundred and ninety-six; Monas, four; Trachelomonas,
three; Dinobryon, three; and a few Roti/era and Acarina. The water was quite
turbid, and had the general appearance of dilute sewage, and in fact the water of
the canal was evidently polluted. This shows the nature of the water in which

Pleodorina seems to flourish in Lafayette, and also many of its companions.

100

But, aside from the interest attached to this new genus of the Volvocinae trom
the botanical point of view, it may be found to have important relations to odors
and tastes in water supplies, when it will become the enemy of engineers and
water commissioners, as other members of this group have done before. For ex-
ample, Volvox ylobator has caused much trouble in Rochester, N. Y., by imparting
a disagreeable fishy odor to the city water supply, and in Massachusetts Pandorina
and Eudorina have caused similar troubles on a smaller scale. Pl odorina, com-
ing as it does between Volvox and Fudorwa in the classification, may be looked
upon with suspicion in this respect, if it ever infects a water supply in a sutlicient
quantity. On account of the filthy condition of the canal water in which it was
found in Lafayette, and the number of other forms growing with it, no idea eould

be formed as to the nature of the odor, if any, of Pleodorina.

Forms oF XANTHIUM CANADENSE AND X. STRUMARIUM. By J. C. Amami

In the absenee of the author the outline of the paper was presented by Mr.
Wn. Stuart and photographs of the two species were shown. The species in their
most typical forms differ widely in the outline of the leaf and character and size
of the burs. X. Canadense has a flowing sub-entire outline to the leaf, and large,
strongly hispid fruit covered thickly with prickles, while X. strvmarium has den-
tate leaves and smaller glabrous fruit with fewer prickles. All gradations exist

between the two types, due possibly to hybridization.

Notes ON Woop SHRINKAGE. By M. J. GOLDEN.

The increase or diminution in size of a piece of wood, due to its possession of
a greater or less amount of moisture, is well known, as is also the fact that this
change in size may be accompanied by the expenditure of a great deal of force.
If an unseasoned piece of wood has two sides fastened rigidly so that it ean not
shrink across the grain, and then be exposed to a current of comparatively dry
air, it will very soon break, the break being in the direction of the length of the
cells of which the wood fibers are composed; or if a piece of dry wood be con-
fined rigidly to prevent any increase in size and then be saturated with moisture,
it will tend to swell and the force will be sufficient to crush the fibers where they

are in contact with whatever confines them.

101

This change in size occurs across the grain of the wood, or across the cells of
which it is composed, and only to a slight degree in the direction of their length.

Some pieces of unseasoned poplar had iron bars ten inches long placed be-
tween the projecting ends to prevent the ends coming any nearer together, and
were then allowed to remain in the conditions of ordinary workshop atmosphere
until they broke, which they did in the average time of four hours after adjust-
ment.

A number of tests made in a testing machine showed that a force of about
370 pounds to the square inch was required to break them.

Trials made with other wood gave corresponding results; in a few hours each
piece broke, the force required to break it depending on the kind of wood. In
some cases the force was over 600 pounds to the square inch.

A microscopic examination of sections made from some of the pieces after
they had been allowed to dry, showed, first, a loss of the contained moisture, and,
as the drying continued, in some cases what seemed a shriveling of the tissues of
the side walls.

An examination, previously made, of the cell walls of some wood that had
been in a dry place during some years showed a disintegration of the tissue, the
cell walls having a rough and fibrous appearance.

In order to record any microscopic change taking place in the cell walls, two
sections, one a transverse and the other a longitudinal radial one, were made from
a freshly cut branch of Pinus sylvestris and mounted dry under cover glasses.
They were photographed at intervals and records made of changes occurring in
them. The moisture first dried out, the cells in transverse section becoming
slightly less in size. After a few days when the moisture had dried from between
the walls, the greater change seemed to take place in the longitudinal section, the
walls of which began to shrivel slightly. This change continued for some weeks

in a constantly lessening degree, however.

102

BoranicaAL LITERATURE IN THE State Lisprary. By JoHn S. WRIGHT.

As a member of the Academy Committee on the State Library, sometime
ago I made a list of the works in that institution which are upon botany and re-
lated subjects. The number of such books is small, the authorities who have in
charge the purchases are inclined to increase the collection in lines of literature,
biography and history rather than science. While it may be true that those who
most use the library have greatest use for works of that nature, yet the State

Library should also be the repository of the standard and best works in the va-

rious departments of science, especially of the larger and more expensive sets”

which are often beyond the purse of the individual worker.

In talking over this matter with the present Librarian and her predecessor
each expressed a desire to make the sections of botany and other sections of sci-
entific works what they should be. They also said that they would be glad of
any suggestions, from those competent, as to additional purchases. In accord-
ance with this wish about two years ago I prepared a circular letter addressed to
the professors of botany in the several colleges of the State. This letter contained
a list of the main botanical works then in the Library, and a request that they would
recommend such others as they thought it should contain, giving the name of the
publisher, place and date of publication and cost of each work so recommended.
Nearly every one to whom a letter was addressed responded, and from these let-
ters a list of books was compiled and recommended to the State Librarian for pur-
chase, each one of which was accompanied by the name of the person or persons
requesting its purchase and the other data mentioned. Since that time, however,
the Library has changed management, has been thoroughly overhauled and re-
arranged, so the purchases asked for have not been made. The present Librarian,
however, is quite favorable to the improvement of the Library in this respect and
I believe that it is only necessary to bring a little influence to bear upon other
library officials in order to secure to the Library a creditable number of botanical
works of reference. While it will be impossible to withdraw books from the State-
house, the establishment of such a collection should, nevertheless, be of interest

to botanists of the State.

LIST OF WORKS IN STATE LIBRARY ON BOTANY AND RELATED SUBJECTS.

An accurate classification could not well be made; many pamphlets on di-
verse subjects are bound together in one volume, and other works are general in

character, not falling wholly under any single division.

103

Agriculture—
1. How Crops Feed, S. W. Johnson, 1882.
2. How Crops Grow, 8. W. Johnson, 1888.
3. Resena sobre el cultive de algunas plantas industriales que se explo tan
sou suscepttibles oc explotarse, J. C. Sequra, 1844.
4. Sugar Cane, the Nature and Property of, Geo. R. Porter, 1848.

Botany, General Works on—
British Wild Flowers in Relation to Insects, Sir John Lubbock, 1882.
Chronological History of Plants, Chas. Pickering, 1878.
Desmids of the United States, Francis Wolle, 1884.
Dictionary of Economic Plants, John Smith, 1882.
Encyclopedia of Plants, J. C. Loudon, 1841.
Ferns of North America, D. C. Eaton.
Ferns of North America, Native and Foreign, D. J. Browne, 1846.
Flora America Septentrionalis, Frederick Pursh, 2 vols., 1861.
Floral Stuctures, Origin of, Geo. Henslow, 1888.
Flowers and Ferns of the United States, Native and Foreign, Thos. Meehan,
188-. j

Flowers, Fruits and leaves, Sir John Lubbock, 1886.
Flowers, How to Know the Wild Flowers, Mrs. Wm. Starr Dana, 1893.
Fungi, Their Nature and Uses, M. C. Cooke, 1830.
Genera of the Plants of the United States, Gray & Sprague, 1849.
Genera Plantarum, 3 vols. of 7 parts, Benthan & Hooker, 1862.
Geological History of Plants, Sir Wm. Dawson, 1888.
Manual of Botany of North America, Amos Eaton, 1836.
Manual of Botany of Northern United States, Asa Gray, 1848.
Manual of Flora of the Rocky Mountains, J. M. Coulter, 1885,
Manual of Flora of Southern United States, Chapman, 1889.
Origin of Cultivated Plants, Alphonse DeCandolle, 1885.
.Pamphlets on Botany (bound in one volume)—

Fern List of United States, Eaton.

Plants of United States, Horace Mann.

Forests and Forestry of Sweden, ©. C. Andrews.

Duty of Preserving Forests, F. A. Hough.

Medicinal Plants of United States, A. C. Clapp.

El Algedoners, Donato, Gutierrez.

Development of Cork Wings, Emily Gregory.

Woody Plants of Ohio, J. A. Warder.

104

Plants of Michigan, Wheeler & Smith.

Physiology of Plants, J. Von Sachs, 1887.

Plants of Boston and Vicinity (Florula Bostoniensis), Jacob Bigelow, 1824.
Plants of North America, The, Frederick Pursh, 1816.

Plants of the United States, Geo. Putnam, 1849.

Sylva, The North American, 3 vols. 2 parts, Michaux, 1865.

Systematic and Physiological Botany, Introduction to, Nuttall, 1830.
Vegetable Mold, The Formation of, Darwin, 1882.

Forestry—

American Grove, Humphrey Marshall, 1785.

Forests and Moisture, J. C. Brown, 1877.

Forests of Northern Russia, J. C. Brown, 1884.

Forestry in Norway, J. C. Brown, 1884.

French Forest Ordinance of 1669, J. C. Brown, 187-.
Hydrology of South Africa, J. C. Brown.

Pine Plantations on Sand Wastes of France, J. C. Brown.
Practical Forestry, A. S. Fuller, 1884.

Schools of Forestry in Germany, J. C. Brown.

Trees of America, J. Brown, 1846.

Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts, By Order of State Legislature, 1846.

Government Reports—

Agricultural Grasses and Forage Plants of the U. S., Geo. Vasey, 1889.

Contributions from U. S. National Herb. Botany of Western Texas, Coulter,
1891-4.

Journal of Mycology, Vols. 1-6, Bound.

Forestry —

Reports on Four Years, 1877, ’78, ’79, ’82, ’84, and ’88.

Horticulture—

Elementary Treatise on American Grape Culture, W. R. Prince, 1830.

An Elementary Treatise on Grape Culture and Wine Making, P. B. Meade,
1867.

Cultivateur de Dahlias, Legrand, 1848.

1844,

Du Fuchsia, son Histoire,et sa Culture, etc.,
Gardening, Encyclopedia of, J. C. Loudon, 1834. f
Grape Culture, Wines and Wine Making, A. Haraszthy, 1862.

Hortus Botanicus Americanus, Sketches toward, W. J. Titford, 1812.

Horticulture Practigue, G. Laroque, 1883.

105

Journal of Visit to Vineyards of Spain and France, Jas. Bushby, 1835.

Observations on Character and Cultivation of European Wine, S. I. Fisher,
1834.

Rural Essays on Horticulture, A. J. Downing, 1858.

The American Grape Growers’ Guide, Wm. Charlton.

The Fruits and Fruit Trees of North America, A. J. Downing, 1886.

Theory of Horticulture, John Lindley, 1841.

Plants, Henderson’s Hand Book of, Peter Henderson, 1881.

Plants and Fruits, Hand Book of, L. D. Chapin, 1848.

Trans. of Mississippi Valley Horticultural Society, 1883.

Vineyard Culture, A. Du Breinl, 1867.

Western Fruit Book, F. R. Ellicott, 1859.

Medical Botany—
Flora Medica, John Lindley, 1838.
Medical Botany, R. E. Griffiths, 1847.

Periodicals—
Botanical Gazette, partially bound, Vols. viii, x, xix, bound, x, xvi, xvii,

Xvili, incomplete and unbound.

Botanical Magazine, Curtis, Vols. 1-10 inclusive, 1793

MicroscorpE SLIDES OF VEGETABLE MaTERIAL FOR USE IN DETERMINATIVE
Work. By JouHn S. WRIGHT.

In the determination of plants it is frequently necessary, or at least desirable,
to make examinations of various organs with the aid of a lens. Seed markings,
glandular structures and many portions of the flower upon which determinations
are partly based may be so minute as to necessitate slight magnification for satis-
factory work. For example we have in the Euphorbias and Lobelias many species
in which the seeds are to the naked eye mere granules, but under a hand lens
their surfaces are seen to be decidedly marked with irregular ridges and pits, or
are handsomely sculptured. Many leaves contain glandular structures, or are
covered with hairs or scales which can be best seen under the lens. In determin-
ing specimens on which such structures exist and are of value in classification, it
is often desirable to compare them with like material from well determined her-
barium specimens. Commonly the material for these comparisons is dug out of

or cut off the herbarium specimen as it is needed from time to time and placed

=

106

loosely under the lens for examination, and after it has served the purpose of the
moment is brushed aside and lost, or at best preserved in packets upon the sheet
with the specimen from which it was taken. This method is mussy and eventually
impairs the mounted specimens of an herbarium, and where there are many
workers it is not economical of time. To avoid this is quite practicable through
the preservation of all such materials dry in cells upon glass slips as opaque
mounts for the microscope. The cells are built by gluing to the glass slips
brass ring-, and the specimens are enclosed by cementing to the top of this ring
the ordinary circular cover glass. The method of building this form of cell was
suggested by Dr. Griffiths some years ago and is quite familiar. A cell of this
form will not accommodate leaves and some other plant structures as well as an-
other form of cell, which is made by gluing a rectangular frame cut from cardboard
to the glass slip. A cell of this construction will contain small leaves entire or
the tip and basal portions of larger leaves, which can be viewed from either side.
A cell of this type must be enclosed by a rectangular cover glass. A supply of
slips, upon which cells of various sizes have been built, may easily be kept on
hand, and whenever it becomes necessary to remove from an herbarium specimen
material for examination, it may be placed in a cell in manner best adapted for
its display, labeled, and you have at once. at very small expense, a slide of veg-
etable material which will be ready for use at any future time; and, if such a
collection of slides is properly classified and arranged, it forms a working ad-
junct to the herbarium of much value, and, besides, provides one constantly with

available material for numbers of demonstrations in botanical work.

H&:MAGLOBIN AND Its DeErRIvATIvEs. By A. J. BIGNEY.

On subjecting a dilute solution of arterial blood to spectroscopic examination,
certain parts of the spectrum of natural or artificial light will be absorbed. The
amount of this depends upon the degree of concentration of the blood; if a one
per cent. or two per cent. solution be used, two narrow dark bands are seen in the
orange-yellow between the Frauenhofer lines D and E, the one next to E being a
wider, but not so deepa band as the one next to D. A little of the red is absorbed
and the violet, indigo, and a part of the blue. This is the spectrum of Oxy.-Ham-
oglobin.

If arterial blood or venous blood which has been shaken with air be treated
with some reducing agent such as ammonium sulphide or alkaline iron sulphate

with tartaric acid, a decided change occurs in the spectrum, instead of the two

a

107
bands only one appears, which is between the two lines of Oxy.-Hemoglobin, and is

much broader than either of the bands mentioned above. This is the spectrum of
reduced Oxy.-Hemoglobin or simply Hemoglobin.

METH EMOGLOBIN.

The spectrum of Methwmoglobin is obtained by first preparing Oxy.- Hemoglobin
crystals by treating dog’s blood with ether and shaking it until it becomes laky,
then allowing it to stand in a cool place for an hour or so, at which time a firm
mass will be formed, due to the crystals. The mother liquor is separated from
the crystals by filtering through muslin or linen, squeezing the mass so as to ob-
tain the crystals in as pure a form as possible. The crystals are dissolved in dis-
tilled water and a dilute solution is examined with the spectroscope. The two
bands of Oxy.-Hemoglobin appear. A few drops of potassium permanganate are
added and the solution gently warmed. If sufficient time has elapsed for the ox-
idation of the Oxy.-Hemoglobin, the two bands will have disappeared and instead a
single band in the red near the line C between C and D. Nearly the entire spec-
trum is absorbed. Sometimes it is a little difficult to get this band, but if the ox-
idation has taken place it will be seen. In the experiment at hand I left the so-

lution until the next day before it would give the above result.

CARBON-MONOXIDE H.£MOGLOBIN.

li coal gas be passed through blood which has been defibrinated, it will as-
sume a cherry-red color, the carbon-monoxide of the gas having driyen off the
oxygen of the Oxy.-Hemoglobin and taken its place. The reducing agents have no
influence upon this new substance, it being more stable than Oxy.-Hemoglobin.

The two absorption bands are nearer to E than in the Ozy.-Hemoglobin spectrum.

H_EMATIN.

The red corpuscles are composed of a proteid stroma and a brownish pigment
which is called hematin. The iron is a part of the hematin. It can be obtained
either as the acid hematin or the alkaline hematin. '

In making the acid hematin, I took 100 ec. of 95 per cent. alcohol and added
2 ec. of sulphuric acid, and then 10 ce. of blood; the mixture was boiled for about
an hour in a flask tube three or four feet long so that the vapor passing off would
‘be condensed in upper part of the tube and flow back into the flask.

During this process a precipitate is formed which is acid hematin. The so-
lution is filtered and the precipitate is dissolved in alcohol and then examined

108

Since the precipitate is soluble in alcohol, that which is obtained by filtering does
not represent all the hematin, for a part would be dissolved while boiling. The
spectrum has one broad band near C. Most of the remaining portion of the
spectrum is also absorbed.

If 95 per cent. alcohol be added to blood and a small quantity of caustic soda,
a still different spectrum is obtained. This is the alkaline hematin spectrum. It

is similar to the acid hematin except the dark band is near and often on D.

Errect oF Heat Upon THE IRRITABILITY OF MuscLte. By A. J. BIGNEY.

In these experiments the gastrocnemious muscle of the frog was used. It was
suspended in a moist chamber and the tendon attached to a lever for recording
movements in contraction on a revolving drum. Surrounding the cylindrical
moist chamber was another similar cylinder filled with water; near the boftom
was a small tube about one-half inch in diameter passing from it at right angles
and forming two sides of a rectangle, returned to the cylinder filled with water.
By this arrangement the water could make a circuit through this tube and the
cylinder. Heat was applied to the tube, and a thermometer was placed in the
moist chamber.

The muscle was stimulated at different temperatures and the result recorded
on the drum, Only making shocks were used in stimulation, this being regulated
by the automatic, maker, or breaker. Between 36° and 38° C, the contractions
were the greatest, showing an increase in irritability. Between 59° and 40° the
contractions ceased, heat rigor having set in. At the time the contractions ceased,
the temperature was lowered and the muscle became irritable again. It would
continue irritable for some time, but would soon become exhausted. After several
hours’ rest it would become quite irritable again.

Heat rigor began to set in at a little more than 36°, sometimes not until
nearly 39°. It is different in different frogs and in different seasons. From 45° to
55° C. the rigor would usually be complete. The most important point to be secured
is that temperature at which contractions cease and still when the temperature is
lowered the muscle will be found to be alive so as to give contractions. When
the heat rigor would once begin, it would continue even if the temperature is
lowered. This holds true only for a few degrees. Long rest would allow it to
pass out of rigor if it had not gone too far. After at least 24 hours had elapsed
good contractions were obtained, and this with muscle that had once been ex-

hausted.

109

A Revision AND SYNONYMY OF THE ParRvus Group oF UNIonIDm. (WITH
Six Puates.) By R. EttswortH Catt.

The type of this group is a small unionine bivalve from the Fox river,
Wisconsin, collected by Mr. H. R. Schoolcraft, while engaged in work on the
Northwest Expedition, of the early part of the present century. The type was
described by Mr. D. H. Barnes, in 1823, in the following words: *

“Shell oblong-ovate, small, convex, sides rounded; beaks slightly elevated,
inside pearly white, iridescent. i Eee

‘‘Diameter, .35—.525; length, .4—.6; breath, .75—1.2.

‘‘Shell rather thin, beaks placed about one-fourth of the length from the
posterior extremity, ligament very narrow, anterior lunule distinct and obsoletely
ribbed; basal margin slightly shortened ; epidermis brownish; an obtuse, slightly
elevated rib from the beaks to the anterior basal margin; lateral tooth rectilinear
rounded at the end, and parallel to the base; nacre very brilliant.”

Mr. Barnes completes his diagnosis of this form with the remark that it is
‘the smallest and most beautiful of all the genus yet discovered in America.”

In geographic distribution this small mollusk ranges from Western New York
and Florida, to Minnesota, Texas and Arkansas. In this wide range there are
numerous diverse environmental conditions, and the species appears, in a definite
sense, to have responded to these, and thus have been produced a number of
variations, which passing through the hands of different naturalists, have been
elevated into specific rank. In some cases, indicated below, the sexes have been
made to serve as the basis of new species; full series collected over the wide area
of distribution confirm the following synonymy, in which the geographic distri-
bution of several of the forms conveys its own argument:

TUnro parves Barnes.

Am. Jour. of Sci and Arts, Ist series. Vol. vi, 1825, p. 274, Fig. 18; Lea
figures the animal in Jour. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., 2d series, Vol. iv, Pl. xxix,
Figs. 102, 102a; Conrad, Monography of Unio, 1836, Pl. ix, Fig. 1; Reeve,
Conchologia Iconica, Vol. xvi, Unio Pl. xxxv, Fig. 186, a very poor figure
from a specimen in the Museum Cuming. (PI. i, Figs. 1-3.)

Unio paulus Lea. Trans. Am. Philos. Soc., Vol. viii, 1840, p. 218, Pl. xv,
Fig. 29. From the Chattahoochee river, Georgia. (PI. ii, Figs. 11-13.)

Unio minor Lea. Trans. Am. Philos. Soe., Vol. ix, 1843, p. 276, Pl. xxxix,

Fig. 3. From Lakes Monroe and George, Florida.

* American Jour. of Sci., lst Ser., Vol. VI, No. 2, p. 274, pl. 13, fig. 18, outline only.

7 The plate references in parentheses are to the several plates accompanying this article .
The sexes are indicated on the plates.

110

Unio marginis Lea. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 2d series, Vol. vi, p. 255,
1868, Pl. xxxi, Fig. 69. From Dougherty county, Georgia. (PI. ii, Figs. 7-9.)

Unio corvinus Lea. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 2d series, Vol. vi, 1868,
p. 310, Pl. xlviii, Fig. 123. From Flint river, Georgia, and Neuse river, North
Carolina. (Pl. i, Figs. 4-6.)

Unio vesicularis Lea. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 2d series, Vol. viii,
1874, p. 37, Pl. xii, Fig. 34. From Lake Ocheechobee, Florida. (Pl. v, Figs.
35-37.)

So few of the animals of the Unionide have been described that it may not
be superfluous to give at this place a description of the animal of Umo parvus
(plate ii, fig. 10), based upon the examination of a fresh specimen from the Des
Moines river in Central Iowa.

AntmaAL or Unio parvus. Color of the mass, whitish ; tentacular portion of
mantle, dark brown, ending in a caruncle; labial palps, large, white, triangular,
united at base and partially so over the posterior margin; external ctenidium,
smaller than the internal, thicker and larger at the posterior extremity, which is
rounded, and on the margin, which is marked by a double row of minute, white
papille ; ctenidia united above throughout their entire length, free below; in-
ternal ctenidium, white, ovate.

The mass of the animal within the cavity of the beak is light brown owing to
the color of the large liver which shows through the thin tissues separating it
from the chamber of the ctenidia.

The chief anatomical peculiarity is the presence of the earuncle in the female.
This is somewhat separated from the main tentacular mass and is supported by a
slender pedicel. Its function is unknown.

To complete the history of this species the following redescription of the
shell of Unio parvus is presented, based upon specimens collected in the Wabash
River, Indiana:

Shell, small, compressed, rather thin, elliptical, rounded anteriorly and
slightly thicker, posteriorly triangulate in the male and occasionally suleate in
the female, thinner; wmbonal slope somewhat depressed ; wmbones rather promi-
nent, with four to five coarse undulations ; epidermis, thin, olive-green over most
of disk, but much lighter on the umbones, striate, especially over the middle disk
thence to the margin; in the young two broadening green bands often extend trom
the umbones over the posterior slope to the posterior margin, otherwise eradiate ;
ligament small, light brown in color, thin, rather long, but very narrow; hinge teeth
small, all double in the left and single in the right valve, the curdinals erect, thin,

lamellar, acuminate, crenulate, separating, the Jaterals long. lamellar, straight,

~.

aT

|

smooth, forming a very obtuse angle with the cardinals; anterior adductor cicatrices
distinct, deep, that of the protractor pedis very small; posterior adductor cicatrix
scarcely evident, confluent; pallial line distinct for the anterior two-thirds ; dorsal
eieatrices irregularly grouped in the rather large cavity of the beaks, minute;

nacre white, iridescent posteriorly.

Length. Height. Width.
No. 1. 42.00 mm. ; 26.00 mm. 23.00 mm. Female.
No. 2. 36.30 mm. 27.57 mm. 19.25 mm. Female.
No. 3. *36.10 mm. 18.00 mm. 14.60 mm. Male.

Unto TEXASENSIS Lea.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila, Vol. ix, p. 84, 1857; Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Phila., Vol. iv, pp. 357, 359, 362, Pl. Lxi, Fig. 184, 1860; Observations on the
Genus Unio, Vol. viii, p. 39, Pl. xi, Fig. 184 (Pl. v, Figs. 38-40). Dewitt
Co., Texas. ,

Unio bairdianus Lea. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Vol. ix, p. 102, 1857;
Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci., Vol. iv, pp. 360, 361, Pl. lxi, Fig. 186, 1860; Observa-
tions on the Genus Unio, Vol. viii, p. 42, Pl. lxi, Fig. 186 (Pl. vi, Figs. 41-43).
Devil’s River, Texas.

Unio bealti Lea. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Vol. v, p. 204, Pl. xxx,
Fig. 273, 1866; Observations on the Genus Unio, Vol. ix, p. 26, Pl. xxx, Fig.
273 (Pl. vi, Figs. 44-46). Leon County and Rutersville, Texas.

The conchologic characters of this form do not widely vary. As may be seen
the species only comes from Texas, and contiguous portions of Louisiana.

The following description may assist in understanding the relation which
this form sustains to the common and widely distributed type of the group.

Shell small, very elliptical, especially in the female, compressed laterally,
rounded before, biangulate posteriorly though this character is less marked in
the female, which is somewhat regularly rounded, striate; valves rather thin
though somewhat thickened anteriorly ; epidermis rather thick, olive-green, in
young specimens with occasional rather broad greenish lines along the angles of
the posterior umbonal slope; lines of growth numerous, fine and closely arranged,
in old specimens often forming raised ridges along the ventral posterior margins ;
ligament long, smooth, light horn colored and shining, very narrow; umbones
scarcely prominent, close together, rather coarsely undulate, the undulations
being concentrically arranged as seen in young specimens; in the young the

*This is a large male specimen from the Wabash River, Indiana. In it the cardinal
teeth are double in both valves; the posterior cardinal in the left valve is curved dorsad and is
very long and thin, its edges are sharply serrate.

112

epidermis over the umbones is very light or straw-yellow in color; the dorsal
aspect of the posterior umbonal slope is characterized by the presence of two
rather indistinct and obtuse angles which extend from the ambones and, reaching
the posterior margin, form the characteristic biangulation seen in the male;
cardinal teeth short, acuminate, single in the right and double in the left valve,
the single tooth being flattened and plate-like, the double tooth somewhat more
trigonal and heavier, all crenulated on the margins; the -posterior teeth are long,
slightly curved, and lamellar; plate between the cardinal and posterior teeth
scarcely evident; the anterior adductor cicatrices are large, and deeply impressed,
entirely distinct from that of the protractor pedis impression which is deep and
often pit-like; the posterior cicatrices are confluent, scarcely evident, that of
the retractor pedis muscle being placed at extreme end of the posterior hinge teeth;
dorsal cicatrices arranged, usually, in a line of five or more in the shallow cavity
of the umbones, though in an occasional specimen they are grouped; the pallial
cicatrix is faintly but regularly impressed throughout its entire length; nacre
white, with tendency to salmon in the cayity of the umbones, beautifully irides-
cent posteriorly.

The four specimens on which this diagnosis is based are trom Lake Caddo,
Louisiana. Their dimensions are the following, the first being that of a female;
comparison with the remaining three will evidence the more compressed character

of the male shell:

No.1. No. 2. No.3. No.4.
“meng thee. 40.00 mm. 36.50 mm. 39.50 mm. 58.50 mim.
Height ..... 24.00 min. 20.00 mm. 22.00 mm. 21.50 mm.
Breadth ....18.51 mm. 14.50 mm. 14.50 mm. 13.00 mm.

The habits of this form are quite similar to those of the type of the group.
It delights in still water with muddy bottoms, and usually occurs in very great
numbers wherever it is found at all.

As may be seen by comparing the figures given in the plates, which are copies
of Lea’s original figures, this form illustrates the erection of a species name upon

characters that are but an expression of sex.

“The anatomy of the animal has been considered, rather than authority, in the termi-
nology adopted. Thus the length is the extreine distance from the anterior to posterior mar-
gin; the height the distance from ligament to the ventral margin: the width the distance
measured by a line drawn through the animal, transversely, from valve to valye. This
appears both natural and satisfactory. Say, Kirtland, Barnes, Sowerby and others with them
confused the anterior and posterior ends; Lea did not make this blunder, but made others
equally reasonless. Thus the distance from valve to valve he calls the heighth, as if the nor-
mal or proper position of the animal was on one of its valves. Some later writers appar-
ently have such reverence for these blunders that they still employ an obsolete terminology.

113

Unto Guans Lea.

Trans. Am. Philos. Soc., Vol. iv, p. 82, Pl. viii, Fig. 12, 1830; Observa-
tions on the Genus Unio, Vol. i, p. 92, Pl. viii, Fig. 12. Ohio River (PI. iii,
Figs. 14-16). /

Unio pullus Conrad. Monography Family Unionide, pp. 100, 101, Pl. ly,
Fig. 2, 1836. Wateree River, South Carolina (Pl. v, Figs. 32-34).

Unio granulatus Lea. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila, Vol. xiii, p. 60, 1861;
Jour, Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Vol. vi, p. 48, Pl. xvi, Fig. 46, 1866; Observa-
tions on the Genus Unio, Vol. xi, p. 52, Pl. xvi, Fig 46. Big Prairie Creek,
Alabama (PI. iv, Figs. 23-25).

Unio germanus Lea. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sei. Phila., Vol. xiii, p. 40, 1861;
Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Vol. vi, p. 49, Pl. xix, Fig. 54, 1866; Observa-
tions on the Genus Unio, Vol. xi, p. 53, Pl. xix, Fig. 54. Coosa River, Ala-
bama (Pl. iv, Figs. 26-28).

Unio cromwellui Lea. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Vol. xvii, p. 89, 1865;
Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Vol. vi, p. 258, Pl. xxxi, Fig. 73, 1868; Obser-
vations on the Genus Umo, Vol. xii, p. 18, Pl. xxxi, Fig. 78. Kiokee Creek,
Albany, Georgia (PI. iv, Figs. 29-31).

Unio cylindrellus Lea. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Vol. vi, p. 308, Pl.
xlviii, Fig. 121, 1868; Observations on the Genus Unio, Vol. xii, p. 68, Pl.

» xiviii, Fig. 121. East Tennessee, North Georgia, North Alabama (PI. iii,
Figs. 17-19).

Unio corvunculus Lea. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Vol. vi, p. 314, Pl. 1,
Fig. 127, 1868; Observations on the Genus Unio, Vol. xii, p. 74, Pl. 1, Fig. 127.
Swamp Creek, Whitfield County, Georgia (PI. iii, Figs. 20-22).

The following conchologic description is based upon material taken in the
White River, Indiana, where the species attains its maximum development, both
in point of size and abundance.

Shell small, elliptical, striate, rather thick and subangulate posteriorly, much
thicker anteriorly and rounded ; wmbones elevated, coarsely undulate, with irreg-
ularly crescent-shaped folds, three or four in number; epidermis rather ‘thick,
dark greenish, obscurely radiate over the anterior portion of the disk, a character
best seen by transmitted light, somewhat polished over the umbonal slope and
generally glos-y, lighter colored on the umbones; posterior margin suleate in tke
female, dorsal portion produced ; ligament small, horn-colored, thin; both cardinal
and posterior hinge teeth double in the left and single in the right valve, the car-

dinals short, thick, heavy, serrate; Jaterals rather long, striate, straight, lamellar ;

112

anterior adductor cicatrices distinct, pit-like and deep ; posterior adductor cicatrices shal-
low, confluent, that of the retractor pedis muscle impressed at tip of the laterals and
below ; pallial cicatrix evident, regularly impressed and linear; dorsal cieatrices sev-
eral, crowded, in the deep cavity of the umbones or on the margin of the plate
joining the hinge teeth; cavity of the umbones rather deep; nacre purple, with

anterior margin usually white, whole posterior region beautifully iridescent.

NUMBER. LENGTH. HEIGHT. BREADTH. SEx.
Tee ET Le oa It ee ae | 34.40 mm. 22.10 mm. 19.51 mm. Female.
sg BORIS ay a ey Os Abe tL V4 eS 28.00 mm. 20.00 mm. 16.12 mm, Female.
SLU Bice cle geen 28.50 mm. 20.20 mm. 17.00 mm. Female.
{Fre 2 ie eel aa ae EN Pee oat A 37.10 mm. 22.32 mm. 17.24 mm. Male.
ES, ee ceo nae ta ree 37.56 mm. | 23.44 mm. 18.50 mm. Male.
Gea ee, Rte Sk 33.00 mm. 21.50 mm. 16.88 mm. Male.
TiCSEA Dt Wr iereee: rr ire 30.28 mm. 20.10 mm. 16.50 mm. Female.
Shade Sach Sec NAIR eA ara ie 34.60 mm. 22.92 mm. 17.10 mm. Male.

Some interesting features connected with the comparative dimensions of the

sexes may be shown from this table of measurements. If the two longest males

37.56 37.10
be selected the ratio of length to height is — 1.60 + and == 1, G66jeia
23.44 22.32
37.56 37.10
these same shells the ratio of length to width is as follows: = 2.00 and
18.50 17.24
== 2,15,
A comparison of the same dimensions for the two longest females develops
34.40 30.28
the following ratios: = 1.55 and — = 1.50. Comparing the lengths
22.10 20.10
34.40 30.28
with the widths the ratio established is — 1.76 + and = 1.8355 ubhe
19.51 16.50

ratios show that the females are much wider than the males, a relation probably
due to*the requirements of the ctenidiz of the female shells when functioning as
gestatory sacs. So marked, even to casual observation, are these relations that it
is an easy matter to select the sexes in any considerable number of shells.

The habits of Unio glans are somewhat different from those ef Unio parvus.
It more commonly affects gravelly beds, in shallow running water. The writer
has taken the corvunculus form in great abundance in the typical locality, whence
it was traced into nearly all the streams of north Georgia and Alabama, in the

Gulf drainage. The cylindrellus form is very abundant in the smaller streams of

ae

115

south Tennessee and in the Black Warrior River of Alabama. The heaviest,
largest and glans like forms from the south occur in the Coosa River, a tributary
to the Alabama, just above Wetumpka. Similar shells were taken in numbers in

the Cahaba River, in Bibb County, also tributary to the Alabama.

Unto amMGDALUM Lea.

Observations on the Genus Unio, Vol. IV, p. 33, pl. XX XIX, fig. 1, 1843,
from Lake George, Florida; Trans. Am. Phil. Soc., 2d Ser., Vol. LX, pl. 39, fig.
1, pp. 275, 276. See also Simpson, ‘‘ Notes on Florida Unionide,” Proc. U. S.
Nat. Mus. Vol. XV, pl. LXVII, fig. 3, p. 426, 1892.

Unio papyraceus Gould. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. I], p. 53, 1845.
Florida. Latin diagnosis; no figure.

The following description of Unio amgdalum is based upon excellent speci-
mens from the original locality.

Shell small, striate, somewhat inflated, nearly oval in outline, rounded be-
fore, subangular posteriorly, viewed dorsally the outline is rounded cuneate pos-
terior to the umbones, female slightly emarginate on the ventral border;
epidermis striate, Jight straw colored over the disk, greenish to greenish-yellow
near the ventral margin, faintly rayed on the posterior dorsal slope in the manner
characteristic of all the parvus group; ligament short, thin, light horn-colored ;
lines of growth distinct, broad, and much darker than the balance of the disk;
anterior or cardinal teeth double in the left and single in the right valve, though
an occasional specimen exhibits a tendency to double teeth in both valves, flat-
tened, plate-like, crenate; posterior teeth double in the left and single in the
right valve, long, lamellar, straight, striate, particularly toward the extremities;
anterior cicatrices distinct, the adductor rather deeper or impressed, that of the
protractor pedis rather large, oval, but slightly impressed ; posterior cicatrices con-
fluent, scarcely impressed, very iridescent; cavity of the beaks rounded and shal-
low, with a row of pit-like and minute cicatrices just under the dorsal plate;
nacre white, pinkish or salmon tinged towards the cavity of the beaks, beautifully
iridescent over the entire posterior half, but the play of iris-like colors is most
marked on the posterior margin beyond the pallial cicatrix, which is very faintly
impressed.

The average dimensions are: Length, 3.1 mm.; width, 1.22 mm.; heighth,
1.82 mm.

Some specimens of this shell approach the form of Unio minor Lea in that the
eardinals are much heavier than usual and the substance of the shell is much

thicker; in these forms also the posterior teeth are incrassate. The tout ensemble

116

ot this shell is in no respect dissimilar from forms of Unio parvus found in gravelly
river bottoms in more northern regions, and it is very doubtful if it can maintain
a place in'the system as a separate or distinct species. The species belongs to the
parvus group without a question, though the specimens under examination are
eroded and do not exhibit the characteristic coarse undulations on the umbones.
In all other particulars my shells are typical.

To complete the history of these small and difficult forms the original diag-
noses of Lea, except one, and Conrad have been tabulated and thrown into synop-

tical form as follows:

WO (ETE

“Your 79°)
“Your oF0

“SLY.
yoo) ollerg Stq

*yue0
-sopia ‘ystjdang

"Hoar Ty “youl GT youre) "HOUT 60 ‘your TT egonte "YOUL G [preter eeeeeeee BUA]
“yout 10 “Your 80 “Your g°0 “your 9° “yout OT “Your sd “OUT Ofte YB LO
“ourpo! Hour 10 “your 1°0 “your #0 "yourg | "your L'0 "YOUL GO) UID
“Bp ‘AUBQTY El VegNte ee) “LOATY OGG a Ne ha “ROOD AVLOYSNOT ON Aesry. Cane N| “LOATL OIG (| CES Ka AU 8

‘yool) o8YOry|] “N foossouudoy, “7

daooyRi} Bay

“Br SLOATY JULY

“yuoosoplat ‘dang, yuososopttt ‘eydang

*IB[NSUB
-qus ‘MOT[BYUg
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‘a[din | “(FUISop lar SOyTY AA

“PLOOSIPTLAL SOPLY AA

*poyel
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JO AJLABD JO 19} U9/)

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JO SJIABS JO 10} Ud!)

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oa 99(]

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JoyyeI ‘JUONPUo;)
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[peng

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m0)

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sereree 9909 [RLOPRTT]

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pur so1u0p SOyR']T -Sloyny pu ‘oy uosT

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“IRyns |

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IIUUIg) ory! ‘“pauayoryy APYSUG ioyoryy ‘uryy roy eY|-oq Aoyoryy ‘urgy so9yyRY|Ioyoryy ‘Yory ePIT V
*poyeyur *posseidur0o “payey “possoid eo a hace eee
woyyed ‘pRoudrT TT Rerearces qRondi[ [Hy -at AYSIS ‘TRoydypA| — -Woo-qns ‘prod TT peyepar onan
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“SOATTIOd "SN TNONDAYND “SINYNNYS

“dNOUuy SHAUVd AHL AO SYUMLOVUVHAD) OLAIONdS HHL HO SISTONAS

119

ADDITIONAL NOTE.

Since the work on this group of Unios was completed I have had the oppor-
tunity to re-examine a carefully prepared paper by Mr. Chas. T. Simpson on the
“‘Unionide of Florida.” I must dissent from some of the conclusions Mr. Simpson
reaches, though in the main he is, beyond question, correct. That author places
Unio lepidus Gould and Unio trossulus Lea in the parvus group. Both these shells
are here out of place. Unio trossulus has the fine concentric undulations on the
umbones which are so characteristic of many Unios typified by Unio fallax, Unio
lienosus et cetera. Both Lea’s figure and his description do not permit that this
form go into the present group. The character of the radiation, as given by Mr.
Simpson in his very poor outline figure of Unio lepidus places it elsewhere, for if
there is any such thing as a characteristic in the parvus group its radiation, when
present, is very remarkable and quite uniform. There is no doubt that Unio
trossulus and Unio lepidus are synonyms. The paper of Mr. Simpson is to be com-
mended as marking a distinct advance in the study of the southern representatives
of this great family. It appeared in volume XV of the Proceedings of the United
States National Museum, 1892, and should be in the hands of every student of
Unio.

The proofs of this article reached me when consultation of my library on one
or two points suggested by careful re-reading was impossible. The synonymy of
Unio parvus should have included the following:

Unio singleyanus Marsh. Ephemerally described in the Joliet Weekly, a
newspaper of Illinois, May, 1891. See also the ‘‘ Nautilus,” Vol. V, p. 29; Simp-
son, ‘‘Notes on Florida Unionide,” Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XV, pp. 426,
497. pl. LX VIII, figs. 4, 5 (1892). Without doubt a synonym for Lea’s Unio

marginis, itself a southeastern representative of Unio parvus.

Plate lL.

SEVELC: del. ex Gonvad e& Lea

CALL, ON PARVUS GROUP OF UNIO.

Plate II.

Sree ial ey. Vien.

CALL, ON PARVUS GROUP OF UNIO.

Plate HL.

OREERG: ae\. ex NSE

CALL, ON PARVUS GROUP OF UNIO.

Plate IV.

foe oe eee

CALL, ON PARVUS GROUP OF UNIO.

Plate V.

Gir
3
Y

REC. deicer Lana et

CALL, ON PARVUS GROUP OF UNIO.

Plate VI.

REC. Le\ oc ex,

CALL, ON PARVUS GROUP OF UNIO.

126

THE FISHES OF THE MissourrI River Basin. By Barron W. EVERMANN AND
J. T. ScoveEtu.

In 1892 and again in 1893 Dr. Evermann made extended investigations in
Iowa, South Dakota, Nebraska and Wyoming for the purpose of selecting a site
for a fish-cultural station somewhere in that region. In 1891 he had made
similar investigations in Montana and Wyoming and primarily for the same
purpose.

While engaged in this work we examined a great many streams and made
large collections of fishes representing a great many localities.

Studying these collections very naturally led to a consideration of the entire
fish-fauna of the Missouri basin, and it is with some of the interesting features
of this fauna that the present paper deals. That we may understand more
clearly the distribution of the fishes a few words concerning the characteristic
features of the basin may not be out of place.

The Missouri River Basin. ‘The Missouri is the longest river in North
America. Its headwaters are among the Rocky Mountains of Montana, Wyoming
and Colorado. At numerous places its sources are but a few miles from those of
the Saskatchewan, the Columbia and the Colorado. In northwestern Montana
are the sources of Milk River which are said to be connected directly with those
of the Saskatchewan, while only a few miles to the westward the drainage is into
Flathead River and thence into the Columbia. In southwestern Montana the
headwaters of the Big Hole, Beaverhead, Red Rock and Madison on one hand
closely approach those of the Bitter Root, Salmon and Snake on the other, In
northwestern Wyoming, just south of the Yellowstone National Park, the head-
waters of the Columbia and Missouri actually unite in Two-Ocean Pass, forming
a continuous waterway from the mouth of the Columbia to that of the Mississippi.*

In Wyoming the Sweetwater, a tributary of the North Platte, and in Col-
orado the South Platte, rise within a few miles of streams which are tributary to
the Colorado of the west.

The headwaters of these various tributary streams are 8,000 to 14,000 feet
above sea level. (allatin, Montana, where the Jefferson, Madison and Gallatin
rivers unite to from the Missouri proper is 4,132 feet altitude, the sources of
Madison River are over 8,300 feet above the sea, while Two-Ocean Pass is about

8,200 feet.

*Fora full description of this phenomenon and its bearing upon the distribution of
fishes see Evermann, in Popular Science Monthly, for June, 1895.

127

The mouth of the Missouri. River is about 400 feet above sea level; the total
.all of this river is over 7,000 feet, or 3,732 feet between Gallatin and the
Mississippi. The length of the Missouri proper is given as 3,000 miles; add to
this the length of Madison River and we have 3,230 miles, which may properly be
regarded as the total length of the Missouri. Among the important tributaries may
be named Milk River; Jefferson Fork, 140 miles; Gallatin Fork, 170 miles; Yellow-
stone River, 1,100 miles; Platte River, 1,250 miles (including the North Platte);
and the Kansas River, 900 miles (including the Smoky Hill Fork). The area
drained by this great river is given as 518,000 square miles. This includes the
entire State of Nebraska, all of South Dakota, except a few square miles in the
northeast corner; nearly all of Montana, North Dakota and Wyoming, about
half of Kansas, more than half of Missouri, and large parts of Iowa and Colorado.

The Missouri basin may very properly be divided into three parts, viz., the
western or mountainous, the middle or plains portion, and the eastern or region
of deciduous trees.

The mountainous belt includes western Montana, northwestern and central
Wyoming, and a small portion of central Colorado. This includes the portion
with an altitude of about 4,000 feet or over, and is the region uf coniferous for-
ests and swift, clear and cold mountain streams.

The middle belt includes most of northern and eastern Montana, a part of
eastern Wyoming and Colorado, and, excepting a narrow strip along their east-
ern edge, all of the Dakotas, Nebraska and Kansas. This is, in its general
features, a broad, level plain, with slight irregularities here and there. It is a
region without forests, and over much of its surface not much vegetation of any
kind is found. The only timber of any importance is the narrow strip of cotton-
woods and willows covering the bottom lands along the streams. The western
and central portions of this belt are very barren, in places even desolate, particu-
larly in the Bad Lands, or Mauvais Terre of South Dakota, and parts of North
Dakota, Wyoming, Montana and Nebraska. These tertiary beds are of great
thickness, usually full of alkali, and very easily eroded.

The Black Hills constitute a mountainous island of evergreen forests and
beautiful, clear, cold streams in this desert plain, but need not concern us in the
consideration of the basin as a whole. The eastern part of this belt receives more
moisture and is a typical prairie region, but its streams are slow, shallow and
shifting, still carrying much solid matter in suspension from the region to the
westward. '

The third or eastern belt embraces a narrow strip along the eastern border of

South Dakota, Nebraska and Kansas, and the portions of Iowa and Missouri lying

128

within the Missouri basin. This is essentially a region covered with forests of
deciduous trees. It is true that some parts of it are prairie, but the soil contains
little or no alkali, and the small streams having their rise in it are fairly clear
and pure.

In the mountains at the headwaters of the various tributary streams there is
an abundance of rainfall in summer and snow in winter; as a rule the mountains
were originally heavily timbered and the moisture was therefore conserved and
fed out slowly during the season of drought. This is still true in general, but the
reckless destruction of the forests in many places is having its effect upon the
streams.

After leaving the mountains the tributaries of the Missouri, with scarcely an
exception, enter the broad treeless plain of the middle belt. Here the alkali soil
erodes easily, the current becomes slower, the bed broadens, the channel shifts
from year to year, and the water becomes warmer and often of the consistency of
thin soup. This is the character of all the larger streams as they pass through
this middle belt, and the character of the water is the same in all the smaller
streams which start in this belt.

The Missouri Basin as a whole, however, is a country whose soils erode with
unusual ease and, after getting out of the mountains and upon the plain, few of
the streams are ever really clear The Missouri River is always carrying vast
amounts of solid matter in suspension and justly deserves the name ‘‘ Big Muddy.”
The channels of the Missouri and all the larger tributaries are constantly chang-

ing and shifting the beds of the streams.

THE FISHES OF THE MISSOURI RIVER BASIN.

All this, of course, has its effects upon the fish fauna of this river system.
Each of the three belts possesses a fish fauna differing very materially in the
aggregate from that of each of the other belts.

The total number of species and subspecies of fishes now recognized from the
entire Missouri basin is 143. These are distributed among 24 families and 68
genera. The families with large numbers of species are:

The Cyprinidae, with 50 species.

The Percidx, with 20 species.

The Catostomidae, with 16 species.

The Centrarchide, with 12 species.

The Siluride, with 10 species.

2

129

Only 10 species are characteristic of the western belt, the most characteristic
ones being the cut-throat trout, Williamson’s whitefish, the blob, the grayling, the
long-nosed sucker, Jordan’s sucker, and the western dace.

Only 45 species are known from North Dakota, Montana, Wyoming and
Colorado. On the other hand, Missouri and the small part of Iowa drained by
the Missouri, furnishes 94 species, or, if we include the narrow timbered and
abundantly watered strip of eastern Kansas, Nebraska and South Dakota, we have
about 100 species occurring in this eastern or lower belt of the Missouri Basin.
The middle belt has such characteristic species as Platy,obio gracilis, .Hybopsis
gelidus, Hybognathus nuchalis evansi, and the like. Few if any of these are confined
to this belt, but they probably all extend more or less into the lower and upper
belts.

In the lower portion of the middle belt is found the limit in the western
extension of spiny-rayed fishes. West of the 96th meridian, which is approxi-
mately the eastern boundary of Nebraska and the Dakotas, not over a dozen
species of spiny-rayed fishes are known to occur. This fact becomes interesting
when we recall that a single small creek in Indiana (Bean Blossom Creek,
Monroe County*!, is known to contain not fewer than thirty-five species of spiny-
rayed fishes, and from the streams of Indiana alone we know at least fifty-one
species of that group—nearly as many as’the total number of species found in the
entire fish-fauna of the Missouri basin west of the 98th meridian.

In the Missouri itself and in its larger tributaries are found such large river
species as Polyodon spathula, Scaphirhynchus platorynchus, Leptops olivaris, Ictalurus
punctatus, species of Ictiobus, and the like; but in the smaller streams Catostomus,
Hybognathus and Notropis are the principal genera represented. Micropterus,
Perca, Lepomis, and Etheostoma are not rare on the eastern edge of this region, but
they become more and more rare as we go westward and very soon disappear
altogether. Perca has not yet been found west of Mitchell, S. D., 98° west;
Micropteus has not been found west of Ravenna, Neb., 98° 30’ W., and it is not
likely that it occurs naturally even that far west.

Of the four darters whose range extends farthest west in this basin, Boleosoma
nigrum reaches only to Mitchell, S. D., Hadropterus aspro to Ewing, Neb., 98° 20/
W.. Etheostoma iowae extends still further west, having been found by us at
Valentine, Neb., 100° 30’ W., while Boleichthys exis, a somewhat doubtful
species, was found even a little farther west in North Dakota.

The Flat-headed Chub is pre-eminently the characteristic fish of the shallow,

alkali streams of the middle Missouri basin, and shows better than any other the

“ Bigenmann and Fordice, Proc Phil. Acad. Sei. 1885.

G

130

peculiar bleaching effect of the alkaline waters of that region. The fishes are all
reduced to a nearly uniform pale or faded appearance. Except those found in
the headwaters above the alkali, they seem to be almost wholly without pigment
cells of any kind. Perhaps the most extreme case of bleaching is that of Platygobio
gracilis, which, of all American fishes, seems to be the one most perfectly adapted
to life in these alkaline streams.

An examination of the literature shows that seventy-four nominal species
have been described as new from Missouri basin localities. These seventy-four
names represent fifty-one species as now understood, but all but twenty-eight
of the seventy-four nominal species had already been described, so only twenty-
eight of them were really new. Indeed, we are inclined to think that a little closer
investigation will show at least eleven of these twenty-eight to have been not
new, so that of the seventy-four fishes which have been described as new from

the Missouri basin only seventeen, or about 23 per cent., were really so.

TABLE GIVING NAMES OF DESCRIBERS OF MISSOURI BASIN FISHES, THE NUMBER

DESCRIBED BY EACH, AND THE NUMBER OF EACH WHICH STILL HOLD.

No. of No.
AUTHORS. Species Which
Described.) Still Hold.

NCES VAN a eRe NG TEN Ae Tees Oey ORAS SNe Hee Ryan clea cl ANC 3 1
AUT OL oy ys tee oa aes ea TC ER RAIS oe ee 4 0)
Cope ised Oe Sabl eee ee CE RE CER Cte Oem aati 21 8
LD OTer 1 ll Dai ee et Sin eR Piet MARAE Siero? 70 be oe arate autre rte, hens 3 0
TO RSSV ETOAC 01 Re AL Soe a aN eats ot eh ek alt) 35S oe ee eRe Fe 1 1
Everman sand © Omers eee ees Soe ees, cae ae ee 2 2
Gilbert 43.0. & ee ie ee Serene ene AP aes 2 1
(GATT rs Sere ore su hckeeRe SRO RAT AEE ee eR Oe eee 2 1
Seat LI ee oY eA SO SS ar ART Pe SR NRE Pld CAO an ree oan 5 1
Garand eon) Aces Peete eget cee Ren eer Sa a ee Oc 20 8
Vaya econeseyis eke sates: ie Maines cll aah ROT Re CCE Us LR as 3 0
Jordans... Save Se ee eee oT ene te eters 4 1
Jordanvand: Wyermanns, i. feo Eee eo eiee cine one ] 1
Mee ee crits oes suerte cesta e roots vcs oh Suey Neen oR ae es OPEN oma ed 2 2
Mialliner 5.2.00 Jaye Pee BA SNE tae One 1 1

Tr Galle ec Wanctn evoke Ga ee ote eae eich tte eee e 74 28

131

REcENT INVESTIGATIONS CONCERNING THE REDFISH, ONCORHYNCHUS NERKA,
AT ITs SPAWNING GROUNDS IN IDAHO. By Barton W. EVERMANN AND
Jie8: SCOVELL.

_, Of the 130 or more families of fishes now recognized as constituting the fish-
fauna of North America, the one of greatest and most general interest is the Sal-
monidae, the family to which belong the whitefish, the salmon, and the trout.

Whether we consider beauty of form and color, activity, gaminess, quality as
food, or abundance and size of individuals, the different members of this family
stand easily with the first among fishes.

Confined to the north temperate and arctic regions, they abound wherever
suitable waters are found. In North America alone no fewer than sixty-two
species are found. Some of these species are confined to the smaller rivers and
running brooks, entering lakes or the sea as occasion serves, but not habitually
doing so. Such are some of the species of trout of the genera Salvelinus and
Salmo. Others again are lake fishes, approaching the shores or entering the trib-
utary streams only at spawning time and then retiring again to deeper waters.
These are the whitefishes and lake herrings.

Then there is another gronp made up of species that are marine and anadro-
mous, living and growing in the sea, but entering fresh waters at spawning time.
Such are the five species of salmon of our west cvast.

From California to northern Alaska and across to Kamchatka are found
five species of true salmon of the genus Oncorhynchus, viz.:

1. The Hump-back salmon, O. gorbuscha,

2. The Dog salmon, O. keta,

3. The Silver salmon, O. kisutch,

4. The Blue-back salmon, O. nerka, and
5. The Chinook salmon, O. tschawytscha.

The most interesting and by far the most important of the five are the Chinook
and the Blue-back; and it is to the last of those two species that this paper is
devoted.

In Kamchatka and Alaska this species is known as the Red salmon and is
commercially worth more than all the other salmon of Alaska combined. It here
ranges in weight from five to eight pounds, and in late summer and early fall
they enter the rivers and lakes of Alaska in myriads at spawning time. In the
Columbia River it is called the Blue-back salmon and, next to the Chinook, is the

most valuable fish of that river.

132

The Blue-backs enter the Columbia along with the Chinooks early in the
spring, the height of the run being in the month of June; and the catch in the
lower Columbia amounts to several hundred thousand fish annually. Such as
escape the labyrinth of nets, traps and wheels which for miles literally fill
the lower Columbia, pass on to their spawning grounds. We do not yet know
just where all their spawning grounds in the Columbia basin are located, but we
do know that there are important ones in the inlets of Wallowa Lake in Oregon,
and Payette Lake and the Redfish Lakes in Idaho.

It was not, however, until 1894 that any naturalist visited these lakes at the
spawning time and made any study of the spawning habits.

In September of that year we made a brief visit to Alturas and Pettit lakes
and Big Payette Lake, where we found this salmon spawning.

Big Payette Lake is situated near the head of Payette River about 120 miles
northeast from Weiser, Idaho. Alturas and Pettit lakes are two of a group
known as the Redfish Lakes, lying among the eastern spurs of the Sawtooth
Mountains, forty-five to seventy-five miles northwest from Ketchum, Idaho, the
nearest railroad station. These Redfish lakes are really the headwaters of Salmon
River, the principal tributary of the Snake, und their distance by water from
the sea is more than a thousand miles.

The investigations of 1894 showed that the vicinity of those lakes afforded
excellent facilities for studying the habits of the salmon which spawn there, and
it was decided to visit them again in 1895.

It should be here stated that the Blue-back salmon which enter the Columbia
River are no longer known by that name when they reach their spawning
grounds, but are known as Redfish. When they enter the river from the sea they
are a clear, bright blue above and silvery on the sides, but when they reach their
spawning grounds they have become more or less red, especially the males, which
are often a bright scarlet red on the back and sides, the head being a light olive-
green. At these Idaho lakes two forms of the Redfish have long been known to
occur, a large form weighing four to eight pounds and corresponding to the
regular Blue-backs taken in the mouth of the Columbia; the other is a small
form weighing almost invariably a half pound each and not corresponding to any
salmon ever taken in the lower Columbia. Structurally it does not appear
to differ from the large form in anything except size, and the two forms are
regarded as being specifically identical.

But a number of questions concerning this fish were veiled in more or less

obscurity, among which may be mentioned the following :

135

1. Do the Redfish which spawn in the inlets of the Idaho lakes really come
up from the sea, and when do they first arrive ?

2. During the spawning season the Redfish are observed to have their fins
more or less worn or frayed-out and to have sores upon the body. Are these
mutilations received on the spawning grounds, or are they injuries incident to
the long and perilous journey from the sea?

3. What are the habits of the Redfish during spawning time ?

4. What becomes of them after done spawning? Do they return to the sea,
to the lakes, or do they all die?

In order to answer as many of these questions as possible, it became at once
evident that an extended series of observations at one of the lakes would be
necessary. A camp was therefore established at Alturas Lake last summer on
July 20, and the observations begun then were carried on continuously until
September 24.

Alturas Lake is situated at an altitude of 7,200 feet, between two immense
glacial moraines extending downward from the eastern spurs of the Sawtooth
Mountains. It is about two miles long, four-fifths of a mile wide, and has a
maximum depth of 158 feet. Its inlet is a small mountain stream about eight
miles long, and thirty feet wide at the mouth. The outlet of Alturas Lake is
somewhat larger, and after flowing through Perkins Lake (a small lake about
a half mile below) enters Salmon River Valley. After a course of about five
miles to the northeast, Alturas outlet joins Salmon River.

Just above the lake on either side of the inlet tower extremely rugged
mountains whose peaks are 9,000 to 11,000 feet above the sea, and the scenery is
as wild as any to be found in America.

In order to study the Redfish effectually, we set gill nets in the outlet and in
the inlet and examined them from day to day. The nets in the outlet would tell
us when the fish arrive from below on their way to the spawning grounds. The
nets in the inlet would tell us when the fish run up out of the lake to their
spawning beds, and also whether they return to the lake after done spawning.

Without going too much into detail, it will suffice to say that daily observa-
tions of the lake, outlet and inlet, were made, and the nets, though not kept
continuously set, were so regulated as to assist in solving as many as possible of
the problems involved.

Not a single Redfish was ever caught in any of the nets in the outlet. If they
come up from the sea, they had reached Alturas Lake before July 20, when our

nets were set.

134

On July 24 four small Redfish were caught on the net in Alturas inlet, and in
a day or two they were abundant in this stream. Evidently, therefore, they had
entered the lake at some date prior to July 20, and had remained in it until the
evening of July 23 when they first entered the inlet.

Beginning with July 23 the fish continued to enter the inlet until early in
September. During this time at least 2,000 Redfish, only about a dozen of which
were of the large form, entered this small creek. Hundreds of these were ex-
amined as they were running up into the inlet from the lake, and not one of them
showed any sores, frayed-out fins, or mutilations of any kind. Toward the close
of the spawning season there was scarcely a fish whose fins were not more or less
worn out (frequently the caudal was entirely gone) and whose back or sides were
not sore. And we were able to see how these mutilations were received. :

During the spawning period there is a rather definite pairing off of the sexes.
The spawning beds are usually in very shallow water on a bottom of fine
gravel and sand. While spawning, this gravel and sand is moved about a good
deal and made up into so-called nests, both sexes taking part in the work. The
gravel is moved about by the fish striking it with the tail, or by pushing against
it with the lower fins, or sometimes even with the dorsal fin and the back. The
gravel is moved by a rapid, quivering movement of the body as the fish swims
over the nest; then she circles around down stream a few feet and approaches the
nest to repeat the act again. The male follows closely behind the female, and
frequently moves the gravel in the same way.

The fish move about to some extent in the inlet, but there is no evidence that
they ever try to return to the lake. Our nets caught a good many from the upper
side, but they were nearly all dead or dying fish which had been carried down
by the current, and were only slightly gilled or simply lodged against the upper
side of the net. We saw no evidence whatever indicating any tendency to return
down stream, and it is not easy to believe that any fish, so seriously mutilated as
these all are at the end of the spawning season, could suryive. On September 5 we
counted about 1,000 fish in Alturas inlet; two weeks later all had died but about
150, and a week later practically all had died.

We consider it, therefore, absolutely proved that the Redfish which spawn in
the inlets of the Idaho lakes spawn only once and then die, and that the mutila-

tions are received on the spawning beds.

135

A New Habitat FoR GASTROPHILUS. By A. W. BittTinc.

The genus Gastrophilus contains two well known species, Gastrophilus equi
and Gastrophilus haemorrhoidalis. These parasites are commonly known as bots
and inhabit the stomach and duodenum of the horse.

The life cycle is as follows: The female deposits her eggs upon the ends of
the hairs upon the fore limbs or some other part of the body that the horse
is likely to touch with his mouth in fighting flies. The eggs hatch and the lid
breaks open to permit their escape in from five to fifteen days. They attach
themselves to the lips or tongue when the host is fighting flies and soon find their
way into the stomach or interior part of the duodenum. Here they pass a period
of development lasting about seven months. Their food consists of the nutri-
ment found in solution in the juices of the stomach. They escape from the body
with the excrement, pass a pupa state in the ground to emerge in a short time as
adult.

The particular observation to be recorded here is the finding of this parasite
in the alveoli of the horse’s teeth.

Last September there were an unusual number of cases of caries of the teeth
at the clinics.

While extracting teeth six larvae were obtained attached to the tissues of
the teeth or alveolar cavity. They were alive and active. They were about three
centimeters from the surface of the gums and there was no visible point for
entrance.

The question remains how did they get to their destination and how did
they accommodate themselves to take nutriment from the blood when it is believed
that they are dependent upon the juices of the stomach?

Are they a factor in producing caries of the teeth?

SEcoND CONTRIBUTION TO A KNOWLEDGE OF INDIANA Motuusca. By R. ELLs-
WORTH CALL.

The sources of information on which the facts stated in this brief paper are
based are various. No single source has availed largely in determining the
locality references that are given, though the collection in the Geological Museum,
in the State Capitol, has furnished the greater number. All the rest have been
contributed by specimens submitted through several gentlemen practically inter-
ested in the work of the biological survey of the State. For this aid thanks are

136

due W. S. Blatchley, State Geologist; Dr. J. T. Scoville, Terre Haute High
School; Dr. C. H. Eigenmann, State University, Bloomington; Mr. Harry
Dodge, Charleston, Indiana, and Mr. Charles Dunn, Chicago.

The specimens which have been seen are mainly the most common forms.
In some few cases they have been found to be widely distributed over the State;
others are, apparently, confined to the Ohio and its principal tributary stream,
the Wabash. North of the divide that separates the Ohio and lake drainages
fewer forms of Unionide occur, but the limnwid fauna appears to represent both an
increased number of individuals and of species. The land shells of the Ohio
drainage are both more abundant and varied. But no really final generalizations
can yet be ventured in the absence of extended collecting and large numbers of
shells—a condition which the present activity of members in this branch of the
State’s biological survey indicates to be very remote. The facts collected for the

year past are the following:

LAND Monuusca.

Mesodon albolabris Say.

Charleston, Terre Haute, Indianapolis, New Albany.
Mesodon clausus Say.

Vigo County, Indianapolis, Peru.
Mesodon: elevatus Say.

Terre Haute, Indianapolis, Corydon.
Mesodon exoletus Binney.

Vigo County, Indianapolis.
Mesodon multilineatus Say. ;

Terre Haute, Indianapolis.
Mesodon profundus Say.

Charleston, Indianapolis, Terre Haute.
Mesodon thynoides Say.

Vigo County, Indianapolis, Charleston.
Patula alternata Say.

Vigo County, Charleston.
Patula solitaria Say.

Vigo County, Charleston.
Patula perspectiva Say.

Vigo County.
Patula striatella Anthony.

Vigo County.

137

Zonites arboreus Say.

Vigo County, Bloomington, Charleston.
Zonites ligerus Say.

Vigo County.

Zonites guiaris Say.

Charleston.

Zonites fuliginosus Griffith.

Gibson County.

Triodopsis fallax Say.

Vigo County, Indianapolis.
Triodopsis inflecta Say.

Charleston, Vigo County.
Triodopsis appressu Say.

Vigo County, Indianapolis.
Triodopsis palliata Say.

Vigo County.

Triodopsis tridentata Say.

Charleston, Vigo County.
Tebenophorus dorsalis Binney.

Vigo County.

Limax campestris Binney.

Vigo County, Turkey Lake.

The ‘‘slugs” or shell-less terrestrial mollusks of Indiana are hardly known.
Very few collections contain any representatives. Inasmuch as they do not ap-
peal to the conchologist and are rather difficult of preservation, requiring alcoholic
methods, they have been neglected. They promise useful facts if particular at-
tention is directed to their systematic collection. They are to be sought under
chips, boards, logs, flat rocks, bark, sidewalks, in cellars and about barns and
other outhouses in damp situations. A track of dried mucus will often lead one
to their hiding place, if carefully traced. They should receive especial attention
from the collectors of the survey.

Stenotrema monodon Rackett.

Vigo County.
Stenotrema hirsutum Say.

Vigo County.
Macroeylis concava Say.

Charleston, Indianapolis, Terre Haute.

138

Suceinea avara Say.

Vigo County.

Suceinea obliqua Say.

Vigo County.

FRESH WATER UNIVALVES.

Bulinus hypnorum Linneus.

Coffee Chute, Gibson County.

Limnea caperata Say.

Vigo County.

Limnophysa humilis Say.

Very abundant on marshy banks of the Ohio, in springs at New Albany ;

found in 1894 in myriads.

Limnophysa reflera Say.

Ponds, Vigo County.

Physa gyrina Say.

Marion County; probably found everywhere in the State; exceedingly abund-

ant in pools on the Falls of the Ohio.

Helisoma trivolvs Say.

Vigo County.

Planorbella campanulata Say.

Ponds, Vigo County; Lake Maxinkuckee.

Pleurocera subulare Lea.

Wabash River, Vigo County.

Plurocera canaliculatum Say.

Very abundant on the Falls of the Ohio; on muddy banks of the Wabash

River, at Terre Haute, occurs in myriads. A large number of specimens
were collected in October, 1895, at the last named locality, which present
a wide range of variation, both in the characteristic grooving of the
body-whorl and in coloration. Many specimens occurred without any
indication of a groove; in others the angle, which is found along the
lower border of the body-whorl, may be sharp, or obtuse, and is fre-
quently thickened at intervals, constituting a character that makes a
number of specimens approximate Pleurocera moniliferum Lea. Any one
of a half dozen species belonging to the pleurocerid group, of which cana-
liculatum is a type, might be separated from the material before me.
Many thousands of this shell have been taken at the Falls of the Ohio

|

139

opposite Louisville. They present a still wider range of variation, per-
haps from the character of their habitat. The very wide range of vari-
ation suggests some interesting synonymic conclusions that it is hoped
will be elaborated during the coming year.

Goniobasis pulchella Anthony. :

Wabash River, Ohio River at the Falls, Turkey Creek.

Widely distributed over the State, and with Goniobasis livescens Menke,
ranges farthest north.

Goniobasis livescens Menke.
Turkey Creek, St. Joseph River.
Goniobasis sp.

A very great quantity of these small shells were collected by me at the Falls
of the Ohio during the past three years, but opportunity to work it up
has not yet been afforded. As in the pleuroceroid section, this material
promises an abundant synonymy.

Lioplax subcarinata Say.
Wabash River, Ohio River.
Vivipara interterta Say.

Wabash River, Gibson County, Lake Maxinkuckee.
Vivipara contectoides Binney.

Lake Maxinkuckee, ponds along Wabash River.
Campeloma decisum Say.

St. Joseph River, Lake Maxinkuckee.

Campeloma ponderosum Say.

Ohio River, Wabash River, ponds in Vigo County.
Campeloma rufum Haldeman.

St. Joseph River.

Campeloma subsolidum Anthony.

Peru, Lake Maxinkuckee, White River.

The very interesting and very difficult group of shells comprised in Campeloma
is probably the least understood and the most abused of any in the North
American fauna. At brief intervals some tyro arises to declare his ‘‘ discovery
that after all there is but one species,” etc., etc., the latest of these being a writer
in the ‘‘ Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of Sciences.” * In this paper the
remarkable suggestion is confidently made that ‘‘Mr. Binney’s disposition of
these forms is still the best.” Now, Mr. Binney wrote on these mollusks thirty

* Proc. lowa Acad. of Sciences, 1893 [1894], p.108. Shimek, “ Additional Notes on Iowa
Mollusea.’’

140

years ago, with poor and scanty materials at his command. He succeeded in
involving the group in almost inextricable confusion for nearly a quarter of a
century, a result hardly to be wondered at with paucity of material and want of
familiarity with fresh water forms. So far from the truth is it that Mr. Binney’s
disposition of these forms was wise that, without detracting a whit from his well
earned reputation as a student of our terrestrial mollusca, it may be fairly stated
that had he left the group severely alone its limitations would sooner and better
be reached. As species go, every form listed from Indiana is distinct and is
easily separable, no matter how mixed the material may be. The embryonic
forms differ; the mature shells differ; their character is obvious to any who will
carefully study extensive series. What the specific value of certain forms
may eventually prove to be does not in the least affect the general proposition
that the group is composed of a number of forms which must be recognized as
species. It would, indeed, be a striking commentary on the acumen of American
conchologists if, after thirty years, no advance had been made in this group. And
this same writer accepts several undoubted synonyms of the cireumpolar Vallonia

pulchella Miiller, as good species!

CoRBICULAD®.

Spherium suleatum Lamarck.

Ponds, Vigo County.
Spherium striatinun Lamarck.

Turkey Creek; Ohio River; Ponds, Vigo County.
Spherium transversum Say.

Abundant in the Ohio at Charleston.

UNIONID.®.

* Anodonta edentula Say.
Ponds, Vigo County ; Bennett’s Creek ; Wabash River; Cedar Creek ; St. Joseph
River.
* Anodonta ferussaciana Lea.
Bennett’s and Coal creeks, Vigo County; Five Mile Pond, Vigo County; St.
Joseph River.
Anodonta footiana Lea. :

Lake Hamilton; Lake Maxinkuckee.

* All names thus marked have Indiana representatives in the State Museum. ut Indian-
apolis.

—-

141

= Anodonta grandis Say.
Fourteen Mile Creek, Charleston; Lake Hamilton; Five Mile Pond, Vigo
County; Raccoon Creek.
Anodonta imbecillis Say.
Bennett’s Creek, Vigo County.
Anodonta pavonia Lea.
Pond, near Terre Haute; Bennett’s and Coal creeks, Vigo County.
Anodonta salmonia Lea.
Yellow River; Cedar Creek; St. Joseph River.
= Anodonta suborbiculata Say.
Wabash River.
* Anodonta subcylindracea Lea.
Wabash River; Cedar Creek.
Anodonta undulata Say.
Lake Maxinkuckee.
Anodonta wardiana Lea.
Fourteen Mile Creek, Charleston.
* Margaritana calceola Lea.
Wabash River, White River, Turkey Lake.
* Margaritana complanata Barnes.
Wabash River, White River, Ohio River, Bruiett’s Creek.
* Margaritana confragosa Say.
Wabash River.
* Margaritana dehiscens Say.
Wabash River, Ohio River.
* Margaritana deltoidea Lea.
Lake Maxinkuckee, St. Joseph River.
This form is a synonym of Margaritana ca:ceoia Lea.
* Margaritana hildrethiana Lea.
Wabash River.
* Margaritana margmata Say.
Wabash River, White River, Ohio River, St. Mary’s River.
* Margaritana monodonta Say. |
Ohio River, Wabash River.
This shell was described, in 1830, from the Falls of the Ohio, by Mr. Say, but
was by him regarded as a Unio. Mr. Lea described it the same year as Unio
soleniformis. Mr. Lea’s shell is given the indefinite locality ‘‘Ohio,” and the shell

probably came from the Ohio River, near Cincinnati. Mr. Say’s name has

142

priority, even though it is now recognized that the species falls in Margaritana
rather than in Unio.

In habit the species resembles Margaritana dehiscens in that it is often deeply
buried in the gravelly banks it affects, in rather swiftly flowing water. Most
commonly, however, it may be found buried deeply under large flat rocks, and
between clefts in rocky bottoms. It is a rather rare shell in collections.

* Margaritana rugosa Barnes.

Wabash River, White River, Blue River, Fourteen Mile Creek.
* Unio wsopus Green.

Wabash River, Ohio River.

* Unio alatus Say.
White River, Ohio River, Wabash River.
* Unio anodontoides Lea.
Wabash River, Ohio River, Bruisett’s Creek, Vigo County.
* Unio asperrimus Lea.
Wabash River, Ohio River, at the Falls; this form is equivalent to Unio
lachrymosus Lea.
* Unio camelus Lea.
Ohio River; this is an old and heavy Unio phaseolus, of which it is a
synomym,
* Unio camptodon Say.
Wabash River, Ohio River.
* Unio capax Green.
Wabash River, Ohio River.
* Unio cicatricosus Say.
Wabash River, Ohio River.
* Unio circulus Lea.

St. Mary’s River, Ohio River, Wabash River, Peru.
* Unio clavus Lamarck.

Wabash River, very abundant; St. Joseph River.
* Unio coceineus Hildreth.

Wabash River, Ohio River.
* Unio cooperianus Lea.

Wabash River, Ohio River.
* Unio cornutus Barnes.

Ohio River, Wabash River.

143

* Unio crassidens Lamarck.

Wabash River, Falls of the Ohio, abundant.
* Unio cylindricus Say.

Ohio River, Wabash River, White River.

These shells, as are indeed most others from the Wabash River, are singularly
beautiful and perfect. Even the largest and oldest examples present perfect um-
bones, with epidermis and apical crenulations entire. It is rare indeed to find
these forms so perfect. Both this species and Unio metanervus, which are charac-
terized by peculiar arrow-shaped green color-markings over the whole disk, pre-
sent this feature in singular beauty. The State Collection, at Indianapolis, con-
tains several well-marked and beautiful specimens.

* Unio donaciformis Lea.

Wabash River, Ohio River at Falls of the Ohio; found, also, in collections
under the name of Unio zigzag Lea. ‘The latter name was given two
years after Unio donaciformis was characterized.

= Unio ebenus Lea.

Wabash River, Ohio River, Falls of the Ohio.
* Unio elegans Lea.

Wabash River. Ohio River, Falls of the Ohio.
* Unio ellipsis Lea.

Wabash River, Ohio River, Falls of the Ohio, common.
* Unio fabalis Lea.

Wabash River.

Unio lapillus Say, is a synonym of this form.
* Unio fragosus, Conrad.

Wabash River, Ohio River, White River.
= Unio gibbosus Barnes.

Wabash River, Sand Creek, Ohio River, Turkey Lake, Lake Tippecanoe,

St. Joseph River, Lake Maxinkuckee, Falls of the Ohio, St. Mary’s
River.
The white and heavy variety of this shell, called by Dr. Lea, Unio aretior,
occurs somewhat commonly in both the Ohio and Wabash rivers.
*= Unio glans Lea.
Wabash River, White River, Lake Maxinkuckee.
* Unio gracilis Barnes.
Wabash River, Ohio River on Falls of the Ohio, Muscatatuck Creek, Jen-

nings County.

144

* Unio graniferus Lea.

Wabash River, Ohio River.
* Unio iris Lea.

Wabash River, Delaware River, Lake Maxinkuckee.
* Unio irrorratus Lea.

Wabash River, Ohio River. Very abundant, perfect and beautiful in the

Wabash.
* Unio lens Lea.
See Unio circulus, of which it is a synonym.
* Unio ligamentinus Lamarck.

Wabash River, Ohio River, Yellow River, Turkey Creek, Delaware River,
St. Joseph River. Widely distributed over the State. The most com-
mon Unio of our waters, with the possible exception of Unio luteolus.

* Unio luteolus Lamarck. i

Whitewater River, White River, Wabash River, Ohio River, St. Mary’s
River, Turkey Creek, Cedar Creek, Fourteen Mile Creek, Charleston ;
Lake Maxinkuckee.

* Unio metanevrus Rafinesque.

Wabash River, Ohio River.

* Unio multiplicatus Lea.

Wabash River, Ohio River; a mud-loving form which reaches gigantic size
in both these streams. Very large and fine specimens are in the State
collection.

* Unio multiradiatus Lea.

Wabash River, White River, St. Joseph River.
* Umno mytiloides Ratinesque.

Wabash River, Ohio River.
* Unio nigerrumus Lea.

Wabash River; a single specimen is in the State collection, labelled correctly
as above—though the locality can not be vouched for. Mr. Lea described
the form from Alexandria, Louisiana. The collection contains many
southern shells and I am inclined to regard this locality reference as an
error and to think the shell should not be reckoned as an Indiana form.

* Unie obliquus Lamarck.
Wabash River, Ohio River; probably the same form Rafinesque called

mytiloides.

145

* Unio occidens Lea.
Decatur County, Ohio River, Wabash River, Falls of the Ohio, Bennett’s
Creek, Vigo County.
* Unio orbiculatus Hildreth.
Wabash River; Mr. Lea later described the female of this species under the
name of Unio higginsii.
* Unio parvus Barnes.
Wabash River, Ohio River, Creek at Greencastle (Underwood), Lake Maxin-
kuckee.
Very large specimens of this usually small shell are obtained in the Wabash.
So marked is their development that they are commonly known as ‘‘ the
big parrus of the Wabash.”
* Unio perplerus Lea.
Wabash River, White River.
Mr. Lea later twice described again this fotm, once as Unio rangianus and

then as Unio sampsonii, both the latter from Indiana waters. It has other
synonynis, by the same writer, in Tennessee waters.

* Unio phaseolus Barnes.
Wabash River, Ohio River, St. Joseph River, Lake Maxinkuckee, Fourteen
Mile Creek, near Charleston.
* Unio plenus Lea.
Wabash River.
* Unio plicatus Le Sueur.
Ohio River, Wabash River.
This shell, widely distributed, has a number of synonyms which I have else-
where indicated.*+ It is also often confounded with Unio undulatus
Barnes, which is, however, a markedly different shell, very much more
compressed.
* Unio pressus Lea.
Sand Creek, Decatur County; Bruiett’s Creek, Vigo County; St. Joseph
River, Lake Maxinkuckee.
* Unio pustuiatus Lea.
Ohio River, Wabash River, White River.
*Unio pustulosus Lea.
Wabash River, Ohio River.

7 See Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci., Vol. VII, No.1, pp. 36, 37; 1895.

10

146

* Unio rectus Lamarck.
Wabash River, Ohio River; White River, St. Joseph River.
* Unio retusus Lamarck.
Wabash River.
* Unio ridibundus Say.
White River, Wabash River.
* Unio rubiginosus Lea.
Ohio River, Wabash River, Lake Maxinkuckee.
* Unio securrs Lea.
Wabash River, Ohio River.
* Unio solidus Lea.
Wabash River.
* Unio subovatus Say.
Wabash River, Ohio River, White River.
* Unio subrostratus Say.
Wabash River, Lake Maxinkuckee, Bruiett’s Creek, Vigo County.
Wrongly labelled Unio nasutus in the State collection.
* Unio sulcatus Lea.
White River, Marion County.
* Unio tenuissimus Lea.
Wabash River, Ohio River.
A specimen in the State collection is labelled Unio vellum Say.
* Unio triangularis Barnes.
Wabash River, White River.
* Unio trigonus Lea.
Wabash River, Ohio River.
* Unio tuberculatus Barnes.
Ohio River, Falls of the Ohio. Wabash River.
*Unio undulatus Barnes.
White River, Ohio River, Wabash River, Bruiett’s Creek, Vigo County.
* Unio varicosus Lea.
Ohio River.
* Unio ventricosus Barnes.
Lake Maxinkuckee, St. Joseph River.
* Unio verrucosus Barnes.
Wabash River, Ohio River, White River.

CINCINNATI, OHIO, December 23, 1895.

147

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIioLoGICAL SURVEY OF WABASH County. By ALBERT
B. ULReEy.

The present paper is intended (1) to indicate the progress made during tke

year in listing the fauna and flora of Wabash County, and (2) to give a sum-

‘marized statement of the work already done, thus placing the material collected

within access of those interested in special lines.

I have included in these lists, with but a few exceptions, only those forms of

which specimens were preserved : .

J. Tae Fauna:

hes

-

oO.

The list of fishes includes forty-two species, seven of which were not noted
in the last published report. I have included in the list the Brook
Lamprey (Ammocetes branchialis). Several specimens were taken in a
creek near North Manchester, about May 15, 1895.
Batrachians, 19.

a. Salamanders and Water Dog ( Urodela and Proteida), 10.

b. Tailless Batrachians (Salentia), 9.
Reptiles, 18.

a. Snakes (Ophidi), 11.

b. Lizards (Lacertilia), 1.

ce. Turtles ( Testudinata), 6.

Birds.

The list of birds includes 186 species. Twospecimens of the Horned
Grebe (Colymbus auritus L.) were taken along the roadside November 27,
1895, after a severe storm. This is the first record of the bird in the
county. Mr. W. O. Wallace has taken another specimen of the rare
Kirtland’s Warbler (Dendroica kirtlandi) at Wabash. It was taken some
time in May, 1895.

The mammals listed include about twenty species.

Il THe Fora:

Among Phanerogams the list comprises about 750 species represent-
ing eighty-nine families. Only a few of the forest trees are included,
116 species of grasses and twenty-three sedges. About 400 species have
been added during the year.

The Cryptogams have not been listed, but some valuable material has
been collected in certain groups, such as the ferns and some forms of

fungi.

148

In the collection of Dr. A. Miller, of North Manchester, Ind., there q
are probably 175 species of parasitic fungi and perhaps twenty-five
species of the Slime Moulds, if I may, for convenience, still place them
among the fungi.

Nearly a complete list of the Phanerogams may be found in the
herbarium of Mr. John N. Jenkins, North Manchester, Ind., who has

done valuable work in collecting these forms.

Brrps oF WABASH County. By ALBERT B. ULREY AND WILLIAM O. WALLACE.

The present list enumerates 188 species of the birds of Wabash County.
Under each species are given notes concerning its abundance and in some in-
stances we have incorporated other observations which pertain to the life-history
of the species.

Most of the work was done at intervals during the years 1890 to 1893. Part
of the observations were made in the extreme northern portion of the county in the
Eel River valley, near North Manchester. About an equal amount of work was
done in the Wabash valley near Wabash, and some observations were made nine
miles north of Lagro by Mr. Orrin Ridgley.

We have included in the list only those species identified by us, and with
only a few exceptions skins of each species have been preserved. We have noted
the breeding habits of those species only which came under our own observation.
We may expect to find two hundred or more birds within the county. The list
is quite complete in warblers, containing 314 species, one of them the very rare
Dendroica kirtland:. Perhaps three more would complete the list to be found in
the county. We shall probably find Protonotaria citrea, H:lmitherus vermivorous and
Geothlypis formosa. The deficiencies in our list are mainly among the water birds.
Our only large stream, the Wabash, flows nearly eastward here and is not rich in
migrating water birds. The region in the northwestern part of the county, con-
taining numerous small lakes, has not contributed many species to our list, be-
cause only a few of the rarer birds taken there by the hunters have been iden-
tified by us.

The Wabash River flows in a northerly direction to Logansport, where it
bends abruptly to the east and continues in this direction. through the county.
Near Wabash one of the tributaries of the Wabash River flows nearly due south-
ward. A heavy growth of timber extends along the stream northward some dis-
tance from the Wabash and ends abruptly at a large tract of land under cultiva-

tion. During the spring migrations the birds collect in the north edge of this

149

woodland in great numbers. It seems that in their northward migrations along
the Wabash River the birds attempt to follow the wooded region of the smaller
stream instead of pursuing the eastward course of the Wabash, and on reaching
the open fields find themselves in a sort of trap. It was at this place that a large
per cent. of the birds inhabiting the woodland were taken.

1. Podylimbus podiceps Linneus. Pied-billed Grebe. Rather common
migrant.

2. Colymbus auritus L. Horned Grebe. Two specimens were taken No-
vember 27, 1895, after a severe storm.

3. Urinator imber Gunner. Loon. Great Northern Diver. Not infre-
quently taken on the lakes. Five or six were taken on the Wabash River near
Wabash.

4. Larus argentatus smithsonianus Coues. American Herring Gull. One
specimen taken as it flew over the house four miles west of Wabash. The speci-
men was taken by Mr. E. Wright and is now in his possession.

5. Larus philadelphie Ord. Bonaparte’s Gull. One specimen taken on
Lake Maxinkuckee. It will probably be taken here.

6. Sterna forsteri Nutt. Forster’s Tern. Several specimens were taken on
Lake Maxinkuckee.

7. Hydrochelidon nigra surinamensis Gmel. Black Tern. Probably taken
here. We have aspecimen from the same place as the last.

8. Phalacrocorax dilophus Sw. and Rich. Double-crested Cormorant. A
male and female were taken on Long Lake, November 15, 1890.

9. Merganser americanus Cassin. American Merganser. Not uncommon
migrant and winter resident.

10. Lophodytes cucullatus Linneus. Hooded Marganser. Rare. Three
specimens taken.

11. Anas boschas Linneus. Mallard. Abundant migrant; sometimes taken
in midwinter, and three were killed July 3, 1892, by Mr. E. Wright. Hunters
report its breeding, but we have not observed it.

lla. Anas obseura Gmelin. Black Duck. One specimen taken at Wabash.

12. Anas discors Linneus. Blue-winged Teal. Only one specimen. It
was taken April 15, 1891.

13. Atr sponsa Linneus. Wood Duck. Abundant summer resident. I
have taken the young when still unable to fly. Wallace.

13a. Spatula clypeata L. Spoon Bill. Only one specimen taken. Wabash.

14. Aythya afinis Eyt. Lesser Scaup Duck. A specimen was taken on
Long Lake, November 15, 1890.

150

15. Charitonetta albeola Linneus. Butter Ball. One specimen from Long
Lake. Occasionally killed on Eel River by hunters.

16. Branta canadensis Linneus. Canada Goose. One specimen taken;
frequently seen migrating. .

17. Olor columbianus Ord. Whistling Swan. One specimen taken No-
vember 15, 1894, on Long Lake.

18. Botaurus lentiginosus Montag. American Bittern. Several specimens
known to have been taken.

19. Botawrus evilis Gmelin. Least Bittern. Two specimens taken, April
19 and May 1, 1894.

20. Ardea herodius Linneus. Great Blue Heron. Common summer
resident.

21. Ardea egretta Linneus. American Egret. A specimen taken just be-
yond the north line of Wabash County, in Kosciusko County. ;

22. Ardea virescens Linneus. Green Heron. Abundant summer resident.
Breeds.

23. Nycticorax nycticorax nevius Bodd. Black-crowned Night Heron. Two
specimens taken. One at North Manchester and one at Wabash.

24, Rallus virginianus Linneus. Virginia Rail... One specimen taken at
Rock Lake, in Fulton County just across the line, September 1, 1894.

25. Porzana carolina Linneus. Carolina Rail. Not infrequently taken
by hunters.

26. Fulica americana Gmel. American Coot. Abundant migrant.

27. Philohela minor Gmel. American Woodcock. Not very common.

28. Gallinago delicata Ord. Wilson’s Snipe. I took a specimen January
1, 1892, and the same winter two were killed between December 25th and January
1 by a friend of mine. I have seen them in midsummer. Wallace.

29. Tringa maculata Vieillot. Jack Snipe. Very common during migra-
tions, especially in September. It may be found at this time in great abundance
along the Wabash River in company with the Solitary Tattler and Killdeer.

30. Tringa minutilla Vieillot. Least Sandpiper. Rare. One specimen
taken from a flock of Solitary Tattlers, August 29, 1893.

31. Tringa bairdii Coues. Baird’s Sandpiper. Rare. Only one specimen
taken. This is apparently the only record of the bird in the State. [Proc. Ind.
Acad. Sci. 1893, p. 118]. r

32. Totanus melanoleucus Gmelin. Greater Yellow-legs. I have never
seen this bird except on September 24 and 25, 1893, when I observed a number

along the river, three of which I shot. Wallace.

151

33. Totanus solitarius Wilson. Solitary Tattler. Very,common summer
resident. Breeds. ;

34. Bartramia longicauda Bechst. Upland Plover. One specimen taken
from a flock of three.

35. Aetitis macularia Linneus. Spotted Sandpiper. Very common
summer resident. Breeds.

36. -digialites vocifera Linneus. Killdeer. Abundant summer resident.
Breeds.

37. Colinus virginianus Linneus. Bob-white. Formerly very abundant,
but much less so since the winter of 1892-3, when they were destroyed in great
numbers by the severe cold and snow.

38. Bonasa umbellus Linneus. Pheasant. Formerly common, now
becoming rare.

39. Tympanuchus americanus Reich. Prairie Hen. Occasionally taken on
the prairie region near Wabash.

40. Meleagris gallopavo Linneus. Wild Turkey. Formerly common, now
probably extinct. The last one known to have been taken was in 1880.

41. LEctopistes migratorius Linneus. Wild Pigeon. Formerly abundant,
but none have been seen recently.

42. Zenaidura macroura Linneus. Turtle Dove. Very common resident.
Breeds.

43. Cathartes aura Linneus. Turkey Buzzard. Abundant summer resi-
dent. Breeds in hollow logs, trees, ete.

44. Cireus hudsonius Linneus. Marsh Hawk. Rather common about
prairie regions. Extremely variable in color. Breeds.

45. Accipiter cooperi Bonaparte. Cooper’s Hawk. Common. Probably
our most common injurious hawk.

46. Buteoborealis Gmelin. Red-tailed Hawk. Abundant resident. Breeds.

47. Buteolineatus Gmelin. Red-shouldered Hawk. One specimen taken.

48. Buteolatissimus Wilson. Broad-winged Hawk. Two specimens taken.

49, Falcosparverius Linneus. American Sparrow Hawk. Quite abundant

resident. Breeds.

50. Strix pratincola Bonaparte. American Barn Owl. A single specimen
taken by Mr. Frank Bell at North Manchester.

51. Asio wilsonianus Less. American Long-eared Owl. A specimen was
taken near the north county line. It is in the collection of Mr. M. L. Galbreath.

52. Asio accipitrinis Pallas. Short-eared Owl. Four specimens taken at
Wabash and one just north of the county line in Whitley County.

152

53. Syrnium nebulosum Forst. Barred Owl. Quite abundant resident.

54. Nyctala acadica Gmelin. Saw-whet Owl. One specimen taken No-
vember 20, 1894.

55. Megascops asio Linneus. Screech Owl. Abundant, both red and gray
phases.

56. Bubo virginianus Gmelin. Great Horned Ow]. Abundant resident.
Breeds.

57. Nyctea nyctea Linnweus. Snowy Owl. A specimen of this owl was
taken near Roann, probably during the winter of 1891-2, another near North
Manchester during the winter of 1893 and one in 1894.

58. Coecyzus americanus Linneus. Yellow-billed Cuckoo. Abundant sum-
mer resident. Breeds.

59. Coceyzus erythrophthalmus Wilson. Black-billed Cuckoo. One or two
specimens taken. Perhaps rather common.

60. Ceryle aleyon Linneus. Belted Kingfisher. Abundant summer resi-
dent. Breeds.

61. Dryobates villosus Linneus. Hairy Woodpecker. Abundant resident.

62. Dryobates pubescens Linneus. Downy Woodpecker. Abundant resi-
dent. Breeds.

63. Sphyrapicus varius Linneus. Yellow-bellied Woodpecker. Common
migrant. a

64, Ceophleus pileatus Linneus. Pileated Woodpecker. Formerly com-
mon, but none have been seen recently.

65. Melanerpes erythrocephalus Linneus. Red-headed Woodpecker. Abun-
dant, some years resident. Breeds.

66. Melanerpes carolinus Linnzeus. Red-bellied Woodpecker. Abundant
resident, more common in winter.

67. Colaptes auratus Linneus. Flicker. Abundant resident. Breeds.

68. Antrostomus vociferus Wilson. Whip-poor-will. Abundant summer
resident.

69. Chordeiles virginianus Gmelin. Night Hawk. Common summer resi-
dent, more common in late summer.

70. Chetura pelagica Linneus. Chimney Swift. Abundant summer resi-
dent. Breeds.

71. Trochilus colubris Linneus. Ruby-throated Humming-bird. Common
summer resident. Breeds. On May 19, 1894, two were found dead after a few

days cold weather.

: 153

72. Tyrannus tyrannus Linneeus. Kingbird. Very common summer resi-
dent. Breeds.

73. Myiarchus crinitus Linneus. Crested Fly-catcher. Common summer

-resident. Breeds.

74. Sayornis phebe Latham. Pheebe. Abundant summer resident.
Breeds.

75. Contopus virens Linneus. Wood Pewee. Very common summer resi-
dent. Breeds. ;

76. Empidonax flaviventris Baird. Yellow-bellied Fly-catcher. Not very
common migrant.

77. Empidonax acadicus Gmelin. Acadian Fly-catcher. A common mi-
grant. ri

78. Empidonax minimus Baird. Least Fly-cateher. Not very common mi-
grant.

79. Otocorys alpestris praticola Hensh. Prairie Horned Lark. Resident.
Breeds. More abundant during severe cold in winter.

80. Cyanocitta cristata Linneus. Blue Jay. Abundant resident. Very
destructive to young birds and eggs.

81. Corvus americanus Aud. American Crow. Abundant resident. Breeds.

82. Dolichonyx oryzivorus Linneus. Bob-o-link. Summer resident. Breeds.
Formerly rare or wanting. Becoming more common every summer.

83. Molothrus ater Bodd. Cow bird. Abundant summer resident.

84. Ag-laius pheniceus Linneus. Red-winged Blackbird. Abundant sum-
mer resident breeding in swamps.

85. Sturnella magna Linneus. Meadow Lark. Common summer resident
and often seen in mid-winter. Breeds.

86. Icterus spurius Linneus. Orchard Oriole. Cormmon summer resident.
Breeds.

87. Icterus galbula Linneus. Baltimore Oriole. Probably more abun-
dant than the last species. Breeds.

88. Scolecophagus carolinus Mill. Rusty Blackbird. Rather common mi-
grant.

89. Quiscalus quiscula wneus Ridgway. Crow Blackbird. Abundant sum-
mer resident, sometimes seen in mid-winter.

90. Coccothraustes vespertina Coop. Evening Grosbeak. Two pair were
taken just beyond the north county line in Whitley County, one pair of which is
in the collection of Mr. M. L. Galbreath, Collamer, Ind.

154 ek

91. Carpodacus purpureus Gmel. Purple Finch. Migrant, not very com-
mon.

92. Loria eurvirostra minor Brehm. American Crossbill. Two specimens
seen September 11, 1894, in the cemetery at Wabash.

93. Acanthus tinaria Linneus. Redpoll Linnet. Several flocks were seen
during the winter of 1889-90. This is the only time they have been noted in the
county except a record of the same date by Mr. D. C. Ridgley, nine miles north
of Lagro.

94. Spinis tristis Linneus. American Goldfinch. Abundant resident.
Breeds.

95. Spinus pinus Wils. Pine Siskin. One shot from a flock of goidfinches
which came to feed on the mulleins in our yard January 10, 1892. ( Wallace.)

96. Calearius lapponicus Linneus. Lapland Longspur. This bird was first
taken by Mr. Orrin Ridgley in the fall of 1891. At Wabash one was taken in
1892, and during the winter of 1893-94 they were common, coming in September
and remaining until March 15. All were in company with Horned Larks.

97. Poocetes gramineus Gmel. Bay-winged Bunting. Very abundant
summer resident.

98. Passer domestica Linneus. European House Sparrow. ‘English

’ Very abundant resident. Not so abundant as in 1892. A great many

Sparrow.’
were destroyed during the winter of 1892-95.

99. Ammodramus sandwichensis savanna Wils. Savanna Sparrow. Mi-
grant, not common.

100. Ammodramus savannarum passerinus Wils. Grasshopper Sparrow. Abun-
dant summer resident. Breeds.

101. Chondestes grammacus Say. Lark Sparrow. Not very common sum-,
mer resident. Breeds. More common during migrations.

102. Zonotrichia leucophrys Forst. White-crowned Sparrow. Abundant mi-
grant, occasionally seen as late as June 10.

103. Zonotrichia albicollis Gmel. White-throated Sparrow. Much more.
abundant than the last species. Its peculiar note, once heard, is not readily for-
gotten.

104. Spizella monticola Gmel. Tree Sparrow. Abundant winter resident.

105. Spizella socialis Wils. Chipping Sparrow. Very common summer resi-
dent. Breeds. :

106. Spizella pusilla Wils. Field Sparrow. Abundant summer resident.
Breeds.

155

107. Juneo hyemalis Linneus. Slate-colored Junco. Snowbird. Common
winter resident, but more abundant in fall and spring.

108. Melospiza fasciata Gmel.. Song Sparrow. Abundant resident. Breeds.

109. Melospiza georgiana Lath. Swamp Sparrow. Migrant, not common.

110. Passerella iliaca Merr. Fox Sparrow. Common early migrant. -

111. Pipilo erythrophthalmus Linneus. Towhee. Chewink. Common sum-
mer resident. Breeds. A few remain over winter.

112. Cardinalis cardinalis Linneus. Cardinal Grosbeak. A common resi-
dent, less so than formerly. Breeds.

113. Habia ludvoiciana Linneus. Rose-breasted Grosbeak. Summer resi-
dent, sometimes abundant and sometimes wanting. Breeds.

114. Passerina eyinea Linneus. Indigo Bunting. Very common summer
resident. Breeds.

115. Spiza americana Gme]. Black-throated Bunting. Very abundant sum-
mer resident. Breeds.

116. Piranga erythromelas Vieill. Scarlet Tanager. Common summer resi-
dent. Breeds.

117. Progne subis Linneus. Purple Martin. Summer resident, abundant
in cities. Breeds.

118. Petrochelidon lunifrons Say. Cliff Swallow. Summer resident, breeds,
but is not so common as formerly. It has been driven out by the English
Sparrow.

119. - Chelidon erythrogaster Bodd. Barn Swallow. Adundant summer resi-
dent. Breeds.

120. Tachycineta bicolor Vieillot. Tree Swallow. Not often seen. They
were observed in some abundance in the fall of ’93.

121. Clivicola riparia Linuenus. Bank Swallow. Common along the Wabash
River. Breeds.

122. Stelgidopteryxr serripennis Aud. Rough-winged Swallow. Only two
specimens taken.

123. Ampelis garrulus Linneus. Bohemian Waxwing. A specimen was
taken near the Wabash County line and is now in the collection of Mr. M. L
Galbreath.

124. Ampelis cedrorum Vieill.. Cedar Bird. Common resident. Breeds
late in summer.

» 125. Lanius borealis Vieill. Northern Shrike. Butcher Bird. Winter
resident, not abundant.

156

126. Lanius ludoncianus excubitorides Swainson. White-rumped Shrike.
Common summer resident. Breeds. The typical species may also be found here.

127. Vireo olivaceous Linneus. Red-eyed Vireo. Abundant summer resi-
dent. Breeds. —

128. Vireo philadelphieus Cassin. Philadelphia Vireo. Rather rare mi-
grant.

129. Vireo gilvus Vieill. Warbling Vireo. Common summer resident.
Breeds.

130. Vireo flavifrons Vieill. Yellow-throated Vireo. Abundant migrant.

131. Vireo solitarius Wils. Blue-headed Vireo. Migrant; not common.

132. Mniotilta varia Linneus. Black and White Warbler. Abundant in
woodland during migrations.

133. Helminthophila pinus Linneus. Blue-winged Warbler. Summer resi-
dent, never very common. Breeds.

134. Helminthophila chrysoptera Linneus. (Golden-winged Warbler. Mi-
grant; not so common as the last.

135. Helminthophila ruficapilla Wils. Nashville Warbler. An abundant
migrant.

136. Helminthophila celeta Say. Orange-crowned Warbler. Rare. One
specimen taken May 15, 1892.

137. Heiminthophila perigrina Wils. Tennessee Warbler. Abundant mi-
grant; most common in fall, when they may be found in great abundance along
the rivers. .

138. Compsothlypis americana Linneus. Parula Warbler. A rare migrant;
two specimens taken.

139. Dendroica tigrina Gmel. Cape May Warbler. Migrant; not common.

140. Dendroica wstiva Gmel. Yellow Warbler. Very common summer
resident. Breeds.

141. Dendroica evrulescens Gmel. Black-throated Blue Warbler. Migrant ;
common. In the fall of 1893 it was probably our commonest warbler. It is fond
of the dense woodland.

142. Dendroica coronata Linneus. Yellow-rumped Warbler. The earliest
of the warblers to arrive and the last to go in the fall. It is probably our most
abundant warbler. ,

143. Dendroica maculosa Gmel. Magnolia Warbler. Not very common,
Its habits of seclusion make it seem Jess common than others of equal abundance,

144. Dendroica cerulea Wils. Cxrulean Warbler. Rather common. So

far it has been found only during the migrating season.

157

145. Dendroica pennsylvanica Linneus. Chestnut-sided Warbler. Common
migrant.

146. Dendroica castanea Wils. Bay-breasted Warbler. Not common; most
most frequently seen in the fall.

147. Dendroica striata Forst. Black-poll Warbler. Rather rare migrant.

148. Dendroica blackburnie Gmel. Blackburnian Warbler. Abundant mi-
grant.

149. Dendroica dominica albilora Baird. Sycamore Warbler. Rather rare
migrant.

150. Dendroica virens. Gmel. Black-throated Green Warbler. Very
abundant migrant.

151. Dendroica vigorsii Aud. Pine-creeping Warbler. Only two specimens
taken in the county.

152. Dendroica kirtlandi Baird. Kirtland’s Warbler. The only specimen
known in the State was taken May 4, 1892. This is the twenty-second specimen
reported from North America. Little is known of its life history. I took it ina
thicket. It was alone, there being no other birds in the near vicinity of it. It
seemed to be an active fly catcher, not having the motions of the other Dendroicr,
being less active. It would dart off after an insect and then return to the same
perch. Another specimen was taken May 7, 1895. Early in the morning I
heard a bird singing in the thicket of plum trees near the house. The song was
strange to me, and consisted of a loud ringing note repeated three times in quick
succession, suggesting that of the Wrens or Maryland Yellow Throat. I did not
go to look for it at once, but as it continued singing for some time I finally got
my gun and went to look for it. It had flown over into the orchard then, but
soon returned to the plum thicket and was constantly uttering that peculiar
note. I finally caught sight of it and watched it for some time, not thinking of
its being the rare kirtandi. It moved with the grace and ease of a vireo or
fly-catcher. Wallace. [Proc. Ind. Academy of Science, 1893, pp. 11, 120].

153. Dendroica discolor Vieill. Prairie Warbler. One specimen was taken
May 2, 1892.

154. Dendroica palmarum Gmel. Red-poll Warbler. Abundant migrant.

155. Seiurus aurocapillis Linneus. Oven-bird. Very common summer
resident,

156. Seiurus noveboracensis Gmel. Short-billed Water Thrush. Rather rare
migrant.

157. Seiurus motacilla Vieill. Large-billed Water Thrush. Summer resi-

dent; more common than the last. Arrives as early as April 3.

158

158. Geothlypis agilis Wils. Connecticut Warbler. Only one specimem
taken.

159. Geothlypis philadelphia Wils. Mourning Warbler. Found in dense
thickets. It was rather common in the spring of 1892, but has not been seen
since.

160. Geothlypis trichas Linneus. Maryland Yellow-throat. Abundant sum-
mer resident.

161. Icteria virens Linn. Yellow-breasted Chat. Summer resident, not
common.

162. Sylvania mitrata Gmel. Hooded Warbler. One specimen was taken
September 13, 1893. .

163. Sylvania pusilla Wils. Black-capped Yellow Warbler. Three speci-
mens were seen during the spring of 1892, but it has not been noted since.

164. Sylvania canidensis Linneus. Canadian Fly-catching Warbler. A
common migrant.

165. Setophiga ruticilla Linneus. American Redstart. Summer resident,
but much more common during migrations.

166. Anthus pennsylvanicus Lath. American Titlark. A migrant of irregu-
lar occurrence, but in some seasons very abundant.

167. Galeoscoptes carolinensis Linneus. Cat-bird. Abundant summer resi-
dent. Breeds.

168. Harporhynchus rufus Linneus. Brown Thrusher, Brown Thrush.
Abundant summer resident.

169. Thryothorus ludovicianus Lath. Carolina Wren. Rather rare resident.
Some seasons none are seen.

170. Thryothurus bewickii Aud. Bewick’s Wren. Rather common summer
resident.

y 171. Troglodytes aedon Vieill. House Wren. Common summer resident.
sreeds.

172. Troglodytes hyemalis Vieill. Winter Wreii. Common migrant. Prob-
ably some remain throughout the winter.

173. Certhia familiaris americana Bonap. Brown Creeper. Common mi-
grant. Occasionally seen in midwinter.

174. Sitta carolinensis Lath. White-breasted Nuthatch. Common resident.

175. Sitta canadensis Linneus. Red-breasted Nuthatch. One specimen
taken Sept. 15th, 1891.

176. Parus bicolor Linneus. Tufted Titmouse. Very common resident.

159

177. Parus atrocapillis Linneus. Black-capped Chickadee. Abundant
winter resident.

178. Regulus satrapa Licht. Golden-crowned Kinglet. Common winter
resident.

179. Regulus calendula Linneus. Ruby-crowned Kinglet. Common mi-
grant.

180. Polioptila cerulea Linneus. Blue-gray Gnateatcher. Common summer
resident.

181. Turdus mustelinus Gmel. Wood Thrush. Common summer resident.

182. Turdus fuscescens Steph. Wilson’s Thrush. Migrant. Not so common
‘as the preceding.

‘183. Turdus ustulatus swainsonii Cab. Olive-backed Thrush. Rather com-
mou migrant.

184. Turdus aonalaschke pallasit Cab. Hermit Thrush. .Common migrant.
‘Our most abundant Thrush.

185. Merula migratoria Linneeus. American Robin. Very abundant sum-
mer resident. Breeds.

186. Sialia sialis Linneus. Blue Bird. Abundant summer resident. Breeds.

Nores oN A COLLECTION oF FisHEes oF DPusors Country, Inprana. W. J.
MoENKHAUS.

The following list of fishes is offered as a slight addition to our knowledge of
the fishes of Indiana. The list is based on a collection made during the second
week in September, 1893, in Patoka River and Short Creek near Huntingburg,
Dubois County, Indiana. It has been withheld from publication thus long be-
cause I have hoped that further work might be done in the same streams, but as
each year makes this more improbable, it is perhaps best to publish the list as it
is. Very little is known of the fishes of the Patoka River, investigations having
been made only near its mouth, at the city of Patoka, by Jordan and Evermann,
some years ago. (Jordan, Bull. U. S. Fish Com. VIII, 1890).

The Patoka River flows from east to west across about one-half the width of
the State. In its course it passes through the southern part of Orange County
and through the middle of Dubois, Pike and Gibson counties, emptying into the
Wabash a few miles south of the mouth of the White River. In the vicinity of
Huntingburg where it was fished, the channel is from 75 to 100 yards in width.

The stream is everywhere obstructed along the banks and ofttimes entirely across

160

by fallen timbers, The water is always more or less muddy, except in the fall,

when very low, it approaches clearness. The river was fished for three-quarters
of a mile where Hunley Creek empties into it. The water was very low and the
fish were mostly collected in the deeper places in the channel. The ripples were
repeatedly seined, but were found to be poor in fish. These places seemed ideal
for darters, but not a single one was taken here. All that were caught were
living together and had collected in the apparently stagnant holes,

Short Creek is a narrow muddy stream about seven miles in length, emptying
into Hunley Creek three miles above its mouth. During dry seasons it dries up
at many places and presents only pools of yellow, muddy, stagnant water. It was
in some of these pools from its mouth to about a mile above that our fishing was
done. :

Patoka River will be indicated by (2) in the descriptions, and Short Creek
by (S).

All of this collection is in the Indiana University Museum.

The common names given are those by which they are known in this locality:

1. Ictalurus punetalus Rafinesque. Channel cat. (P.) Two specimens.
2. Amimrus melas Rafinesque. Black cat. (P.) One specimen.
3. Leptops olivaris Rafinesque. Flat-head. Mud cat. (P.) One specimen.
4, Schilbeodes minrus Jordan. (P.) Sixteen specimens.
5. Morostoma aureolum Le Sueur. Red horse. White sucker. Four
specimens from Short Creek and fourteen from the Patoka River.
6. Hybognathus nuchalis Agassiz. Thirty-seven specimens from Short Creek
and fifty-nine from Patoka River.
7. Pincephales notatus Rafinesque. (P.) Seven specimens.
8. Cliola vigilax Baird & Girard. (P.) Many specimens.
9, Notropis microstomus Rafinesque. (P.) Nineteen specimens.
10. Notropis whipplei Girard, (P.) Sixty specimens.
11. Notropis avaens Cope. (P.) Twenty specimens.
12. Notropis wm bratilis Girard. (S.) Fifty-eight specimens.
13. Notroprs atherinoides Rafinesque. (P.) Thirty-eight specimens.
14. Opsopoeodus emiliae Hay. (S.) Two specimens.
15. Notemigoneus chryscleneus Mitchell. Golden shiner. (S.) Five specimens.
16. Dorosoma cepedianum Le Sueur. Mud shad. Hickory shad. (P.) One
specimen. :
17. Tygonectes notatus Rafinesque. Top minnow. (P. S.) Sixty-one speci-
mens from Patoka River and five from Short Creek.

18. Lucius vermiculatus Le Sueur. Pike. Pickerel. (P.) Four specimens.

19. Labidesthes sieculus Cope. Silver side. (P.)

20. Aphredoterus sayanus Gilliams. (S.) Five speci
21. Pomoris annularis Rafinesque. Calico bass. (
All ages. Six specimens show the following characters

VI-14, VI-15, VI-14; anal fin, VI-19, VI-19, VI-18, VI-17, VI-19, VI-17.

22.
23.

Thirteen specimens.

Chaenobryttus gulosus Cuv. & Val. (S.)
Mieropterus salmoides Lacépéde.
All ages.

24. Lepomis nugalotis Rafinesque.
25. Lepomis pallidus Mitchell.

and fifteen from Patoka River.

(P. S.)

mens.
S.)

Five specimens.

161

Twenty specimens.

: Length, 85, 96, 108,
123, 124, 145; lat. 1, 43, 44, 43, 46, 45, 47; dorsal fin, V-15, VI-15, VI-15,

(S.) One specimen.

Four specimens.

Large-mouthed black bass.

(P:)

Six specimens from Short Creek

26. Etheostoma aspro Cope & Jordan. Blacksided darter. (P.) Forty-nine
specimens. The Table X contains details of counts and measurements of these
specimens:

heer eulicrS = gece Use A Dore 3 |

Soe} | 5 Weal2 jz | 8 |

eo); q = Wso}mq ie =

a2 4 = 26 i fa] 3

elvore |S S J = el ace = Sele BS

2 a = a Sorin ohio. “2p ls

Sn |Shl/=se| 22 a S on |e se| se Pent ge

Ba loga |] as 3 S K me | oe s¢ SRE Sie | s

Bier) Se | Ss en =| ° BO} or om om a .] =

o = a M2 <x | - SS) = = M ah OY ‘=
1 | 53 | 14.5 | 9-63-11 | E-11 | XIV -14 | 26 51 14 | 965-9 | II-10 XIV -14
2 42 | 11 9'61- 9}. I 9 | XIV-13 if 47 | 12 9-619 Li eve i
3 ‘4 oi 3-67— 9h EON IEXDY —13 28 43 | 11 10-60- 9 | II-9 | XIV-14
4 | 35 | 10 8-66- 9] I-11 | YIV-14 29 42} 11 9-62- 9 | II-10 | XIV-13
5 | 1-10 | XIII-13 30 52} 13.5 | 966-9 | II-11 XV =-13
Gave 352) 43.5) 19-63-10) T= 9 EXTV R13} « 3h 58 | 14 10-62-99") TAO) Xx EVisis
7 55 | 185] 967-9] T-ll | XIV-14}) 32 52 | 13 9-63-10 | II-0 | XV -13
8 52 | 13 Bi ONO: +) RUPIKI4 33 47 | 12.75) 862-9) II-10 | XIII-14
9 62 | 15 970-9} I-10 | XIII-13 |} 34 43) 11 8-62- 8 | II-10 | XIV-13
10 SAE ee 9-10-11 |e 1-0 |) XTRAS 35 43) 11 9-65-10 |. TI- 9 | XV -I3
11 40 | 10 CE eS tl | ea peo! 86 44) 115; 962-9) IE-11 | XIII-13
12 58 | 15 963-9] I-11 | XIII-14 7 51 | 13 10-70-10 | II- 9 | XIII-14
13 58 | 15 966-9] I-10 | XV -14]| 38 60 | 15.25 10-43- 9 | IT-10 XIV -13
14 58 | 15 9-69- 9 |- - 9 | XV =14 39 59 | 15 sie Oe lH Ts) XITIT-13
15 44/115 | 966-9] I-10 | XIV-13 40 43) 11 S079 1G XIV -14
16 52 | 135 | 965-9] I-10 | XIII-13 41 op} 135 | 9-60--9) I-10 | XVI-18
17 go] 285] 9-59- 9] F- 9 | XITI-13 42 43) ll 263-9) TI 9) 7 XE 15
18 43 | 11 9-66-10 | I-11 |} XITI-13 43 37 | 10 =63- | I-10 | XTH-13
19 43 | 11 $-63-9))— I-10)" | X Ve 14 44 47 | 12 | 968-10 | II-11 XIV -14
20 41} 105 | 963-9)| I-11 | XIII-14 45 57 | 18 11-64— 9 | IT-10 XITI-14
21 43 | ll 9-61-9} I-10 | XV -14 46 41 | 10.5 | 11-68-10 | IT-10 XIV -13
22 56 | 15 9-65-91! I-10 | XIV-13 7 43 11 | 958-9 II-10 XIV -14
23 43) 11 1063-9 I-10 | XIV-14 48 Ao] Chet oss ON itt Oe —1e
24 43 | 11 She 9b CO CU 12 AOR 4d | 10.9 69-87 STI 9) |) STTRHI5
25 51 | 13 169-105) Ia REV 13 | |

!

27. Etheostoma phoxocephalum Nelson. (P.) Six specimens.

28. Etheostoma nigrum Rafinesque. Johnny Darter. (P.) Forty-one speci-
mens.

162

All the specimens had the cheeks, nape and breast naked and the opercles
sealed. 20 had the belly naked, 12 partly and 4 completely scaled. Beiow is the
table of counts for their scales along lateral line and the dorsal and anal fins.
36-10-46, for instance, stands for 36 scales with tubes, 10 without and 46 for the

total along side:

Are = O of 3

= = = 2 & =|

= ) | =

==! 2 o < | ae = z S

A's = = = || 4s oe Ss a

=e le a = || ge Sm & =
Se 2a = zB Hh ee Oe 3 =
ES 25 5 5 nS 25 = 5

Oo Nn < = S) 77) < a
1 40- 4-44 Ts | VIII-13 [mee 36-10-46 I-8 VITI-12
2 | 39- 9-48 1-9 | VIII-11 23 4]- 2-43 IL-9 VIII-12
3 | 42- 6-48 1-8 xX ~=12 | 24 45- 1-46 I- 9 xX -ll
4 43- 6-49 1-8 TX. 0 25 39- 645 1-9 Ix -2
5 44- 4-48 L9 | IX -8B 26 47- 5-52 I-10 IX -13
6 | 40 8-48 T-9 | IX -12 27 35-13-48 I- 9 IX -13
7 43- 7-50 8) WEIE-12 28 41- 4-45 I-9 IX + -13
8 44- 5-49 T-9 | VIII-12 29 36-12-48 I-9 VIII-13
9 43- 7-50 | I-8 VITII-13 30 42- 7-49 I- 8 VII -13
10 40- 5-45 | L8 IX -12 31 43— 5-48 I-9 VITE-13
11 44- 1-45 1-9 X -12 32 A7- 5-52 I-8 X_ -12
12 45- 0-45 105 | ae 14 33 42- 7-49 I- 8 VIII-12
13 33- 9-42 1-9 IX -12 34 | 43- 6-49 I- 9 VII -12
14 49- 1-50 1-9 —13 }| 35 45- 0-45 I-10 VIII-13
15 45- 1-46 9 IX -13 36 | 45- 4-49 I-9 =
16 42- 8-50 L-9 Ix -1 37 37-10 47 I- 8 VIII-12
17 40-12-52 9 VIII-13 38 39- 5-44 I-9 xX -12
18 33- 9-42 1-8 VITI-12 39 42- 6-48 I-9 VIII-12
19 45- 5-50 1-8 1B: fab: 40 43- 4-47 J- 9 xX -=12
20 45-10-55 1-8 VITI-12 41 44- 6-50 I-9 IX =13
2 44- 519 1-9 2 -12

1

29. ~ Etheostoma camurum (Cope.). (P.) 11 specimens.

ADDITIONAL Notes oN INDIANA Brirps. By A. W. BUTLER.

Each year observations on the birds of Indiana bring to notice interesting
facts. This year has been no exception. The region covered by the reports of
correspondents includes not only this State, but also Michigan and the part of
Illinois and Ohio bordering on Indiana; therefore. I am enabled to add some val-
uable notes from neighboring localities that, while not within our limits, have a
bearing upon the study of our birds.

The winter of 1894-5 was mild until after Christmas. From several locali-
ties in the State came information regarding the wintering of forms not commonly
seen. Meadow Larks, Robins and Bluebirds were reported north of the latitude

of Indianapolis. Yellow-ruamp Warblers and Golden-crowned Kinglets spent the

163

winter about Brookville. After a warm Christmas the weather changed. De-
cember 27 and 28, 1894, it became quite cold in this latitude. It remained warm
generally over the Southern States. On January 24, 1895, the temperature as far
south as South Carolina was near the zero mark. It turned warmer that uight,
and the next day, January 25, the weather was bright and clear. The day fol-
lowing was Friday. It rained, then snowed, the wind came down from the
northwest with great velocity, the temperature fell rapidly, everthing was ice-
bound or snowbound to the Gulf of Mexico, then followed weeks of unusual
severity. The cold weather of April was also especially severe over the territory
noted. The region affected is the winter home of numbers of our birds. There
Robins, Bluebirds, Phcebes, Yellow-rump Warblers and House Wrens spend that
season.

At the end of the severe weather in April, we are told, but few Robins and
Bluebirds were to be found. The destruction of birds must have been enormous.
The Bluebirds seem to have been almost exterminated. An observer living at
Mt. Pleasant, S. C., says that when the April cold spell came millions of Robins
were congregated in that vicinity and they perished by thousands. The severe
weather had lasted so long and food was generally so scarce that they easily suc-
cumbed to the last effort of winter. The Yellow-rump Warbler and Hermit
Thrush are reported also to have suffered severely. Perhaps other kinds of birds
were also caught in that death dealing storm. The following notes on this and
other subjects are brought to your attention:

1. Sialia sialis (Linn.), Bluebird.

Early in the spring of 1895 accounts of the scarcity of the Bluebirds began
to be received. This scarcity was generally observed. Some of the particulars
are here given.

At Redkey, Ind., Roy Hathaway says he saw two Bluebirds February 24;
next seen April 7. He did not find a single pair breeding and only a few were
seen, probably six or seven. He saw four Sunday, August 18; three of them he
took to be young. He did not hear of any nests being found near there last
spring.

At Greensburg, Ind., Prof. W. P. Shannon reports one seen February 24;
next seen March 12. He notes it is becoming less common.

Mr. S. W. Collett, Upland, Ind., says: First seen March 25. Remarkably
scarce. Have not seen more than a dozen.

Prof. Glenn Culbertson. Hanover, Ind. First seen February 25, one; next,
February 28; next, March 1. Decreasing in numbers.

Angus Gaines, Vincennes, Ind., says they are absent this year.

164

A. B. Ghere, Frankfort, Ind., reports them extinct.

Jesse Earll, Greencastle, Ind., notes first one seen February 22; next,
March 2. Decidedly scarce this summer.

Alexander Black, of the same place, says they have not appeared this year.
He has not seen a dozen pairs all told.

Dr. Vernon Gould, Rochester, Ind. One reported March 19. One or two re-
ported later. Have not seen or heard one this summer.

Mrs. Jane L. Hine, Sedan, Ind. First seen were two, March 29; next, April
2. Very rare. The whole country must report a loss of Bluebirds. Once in a
great while one is seen. In a ride of twenty miles you may see none, or at best
only one or two.

T. S. Palmer, Acting Ornithologist U. S. Department of Agriculture, Wash-
ington, D. C., informs me they received many reports of the unusual scarcity of
Bluebirds last spring.

L. A. and C. D. Test, Lafayette, Ind., report one, the first, March 9; the
next March 10. Strangely uncommon. Seemed very rare after the cold spell
during the first half of March.

Clyde L. Hine, Waterloo, Ind. .First seen, one, March 3; next, March 29;
next, April 14. Very rare this spring.

Prof. A. L. Treadwell, Oxford, Ohio. Two seen January 1; next seen Jan-
uary 3, which was last one noted.

Prof. E. L. Moseley, Sandusky, Ohio. One, the first, seen February 22; next
seen March 24. Not common this year.

E. M. Kindle, Franklin, Ind., says: The Bluebird seemed very scarce in
Orange, Martin and Dubois counties, Indiana, this summer (1895).

B. T. Gault, Glen Ellyn, Ill., reported seeing but three at that place.

Ruthven Deane, Chicago, I1]., informs me he saw one at English Lake, Ind.,
but was not near enough to certainly identify it. He says all reports from this
section show its extreme scarcity.

E. J. Chansler, Bicknell, Knox County, Ind., in a letter last spring, writes:
Has been a resident until this spring, but has disappeared. Have not seen one
the entire spring. Saw adead one during the cold spell last winter. The past
autumn he wrote: Have not been seen here since last February until about Octo-
ber 21. I have made numerous inquiries in regard to them, but can not learn of
their breeding here this season.

T. L. Hankison, Agricultural College, Michigan: Heard one March 27. I

have not seen a Bluebird this year, and know of only one other being seen.

165

W. De Clarenze, Brant, Saginaw County, Mich.: Two seen April 4; next
seen April 10. For some reason Bluebirds are very scarce this season.

In the vicinity of Chicago, III., their absence was very noticeable.

Eliot Blackwelder, Morgan Park, Ill., informs me: Bluebirds have been
extremely scarce this year. Have seen two single birds—March 28 and May 10;
two pairs and one family of six. This makes in all twelve birds. Only one is
recorded by the Chicago Academy of Science for Lincoln Park, Chicago. Sep-
tember 11 saw a flock of eleven sitting on a telegraph wire near my home. Last
seen October 28.

L. A. and C. D. Test: Last seen (at Lafayette, Ind.) October 18. Usually
abundant, but this year strangely rare. Have seen Bluebirds but twice, and am
at a loss to account for their absence

At Brookville, Ind., they were as abundant as usual in the fall and almost
every nice day through November and December, 1894. After the severe weather
last winter none were seen. Only a few were noted in the spring and none through
the summer of 1895. Ido not know that any bred here. This fall they have
been more noticeable, but still are very rare. September 20 saw five in my gar-
den with flock of sparrows. September 22 saw three, one adult, two young. No-
vember 2 saw four. November 4, quite a flock. November 23, one, the last.

2. Turdus migratorius (Linn.), American Robin.

Noticeably scarcer this year than usual. In some localities almost as few as
Bluebirds.

Mrs. Jane L. Hine, Sedan, Ind., reports them not more than one-half to two-
thirds as numerous as last year.

L. A. and C. D. Test, the past fall, say: Not as common as usual the past
fall.

S. W. Collett, Upland, Ind., writes: Very scarce. A remarkable year for
scarcity of Robins and Bluebirds. Have not seen more than a dozen of either
kind.

Reported very scarce in and about Chicago, Ill. A daily paper there notes
that but one Robin’s nest was all that vigilant search revealed in Lincoln Park
this year, where formerly there were hundreds of them. A single pair was seen
in Oakwood Cemetery and three or four in Washington Park.

O. B. Warren, Palmer, Mich., says they were much scarcer than in 1894.

As to the general scarcity of certain birds, the following specific information
will give some idea.

Alexander Black, Greencastle, Ind., says we did not have such numbers of
warblers as we usually have. We saw a few Black-throated Green Warblers, a

few Yellow-rump Warblers, and one or two Canada Warblers.

166

Mrs. Jane L. Hine, Sedan, Ind., says Bridge Pewees (Phcebes) were rare, Her-
“mit Thrushes very rare, but Olive-backed and Wood Thrushes were common as
ever.

Charles Clickener says Wrens and Catbirds were rare in Parke County this
year.

At Palmer, Mich., O. B. Warren reports that many species were noticeably
less common than in 1894. Among them were Golden-crowned Thrush, Seiurus
aurocapulus (Linn.); Chestnut-sided Warbler, Dendroica pennsylvanica (Linn.) ;
Black and Yellow Warbler, Dendroica maculosa (Gmel.); Yellow-rump Warbler,
Dendroica coronata (Linn.); Black and White Creeper, Mniotilta varia (Linn.);
Indigo Bunting, Passerina cyanea (Linn.); Junco, Junco hyemalis (Linn.); Pine
Finch, Spinus pinus (Wils.); Red Crossbill, Loria curvirostra minor (Brehm) ;
White-winged Crossbill, Loria leucoptera (Gmel.); Spotted Sandpiper, Actitis mae-
ularia (Linn.); Yellow-bellied Woodpecker, Sphyrapicus varius (Linn.); Flicker,
Colaptes auratus (Linn.); Night Hawk, Chordeiles virginianus (Gmel.); Wood
Pewee, Contopus virens (Linn.); Least Flycatcher, Empidonax minimus (Baird);
Rusty Blackbird, Scolecophagus carolinus (Mill.). Especially rare were White-
throated Sparrow, Zonotrichia albicollis (Gmel.); Nashville Warbler, Helminthoph-
aga ruficapvla (Wils.); Winter Wren, Troglodytes hyemalis (Vieill.). Of the
Hermit Thrush, J’urdus aonalaschke pallasii (Cab.), he says there is a marvelous
decrease in numbers, more noticeable than the absence of- Sialio. sialis.

E. J. Chansler, Bicknell, Ind., noted Phcebe, Sayornis phoebe (Lath.), and
Eave Swallow, Petrochel don lunifrons (Say), as scarcer than usual.

8. Catharista atrata (Bartr.). Black Vulture.

November 24, 1894, three seen at Monrovia, Morgan County, Ind.—Alden M.
Hadley.

Large flocks observed at Bicknell, Ind., last fall (1895) feeding on dead hogs.
—E. J. Chansler.

4. Phalacrocoraz dilophus floridanus (Aud.). Florida cormorant.

Prof. Stanley Coulter informs me that there is a specimen in the collection of
Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind., bearing the following legend: ‘‘Shot March,
1880, from amid a flock of wild ducks on bayou of Wild Cat Creek, Tippecanoe
County, Ind., by Daniel Mueller, who donated the same to Purdue University.”

5. Phalaerocorax dilophus (Sw. and Rich.). Double-crested Cormorant.

One shot November 28, 1895, on Big Walnut Creek, Putnam County, Ind.—
Jesse Earll.

6. Aquila chrysaétos (Linn.). Golden Eagle.

167

One measuring seven feet, two inches in extent was caught in a steei trap by
Charles Fry, near Fairfield, Ind., December, 1895. The trap was set for skunks
and was baited with rabbit. J

7. Pelecanus erythrorhynchos (Gmel.).. American White Pelican.

One shot in the Wabash River near Lafayette, Ind., about September 29, 1895.
—L. A. and C. D. Test.

8. Chen hyperborea (Pall.). Lesser Snow Goose.

March 14, 1895, some sportsmen killed eight from a flock of twenty, near
Greensburg, Ind. Those killed were immature, and the others seemed to be also.
—Prof. W. P. Shannon.

9. Anas penelope (Linn.). Widgeon.

Since our last meeting records have been received of two more European
Widgeons from Indiana. One, the second noted from the State, a young male,
was killed in the Kankakee marshes, near English Lake, Ind. It was shot from a
flock of Baldpates by Mr. J. F. Barrell, April 7, 1895. The specimen is now in
the collection of Ruthven Deane, Chicago, Ill. Mr. Deane has also reported a
specimen in the collection of Dr. Nicholas Rowe, of ‘‘The American Field,”
Chicago, Ill. It was killed at English Lake, Ind., in 1881 or 1882. This is the
third record for Indiana, and the fifth for the interior of the United States. (The
Auk, Vol. XII, No. 3, p. 292. See also Proc. Ind. Academy of Science, 1894,
p. 78.)

10. Calearius lapponieus. (Linn.) Lapland Longspur.

A hundred were seen at Morgan Park, IIl., October, 17, 1895, when it
became abundant. Next seen October 26. Most abundant winter resident.
—Eliot Blackwelder.

11. Ammodramus caudacutus nelsoni. (Allen.) Nelson’s Sparrow.

Eliot Blackwelder, Morgan Park, IIl., reports it from that locality Septem-
ber 28, 1895. He says it is not common and breeds there.

12. Ammodramus leconteti. (Aud.). LeConte’s Sparrow.

Mr. Blackwelder saw six at Morgan Park, I[ll., April 21, 1895. He next

noted them April 22. One day—the week of April 25—he shot three, and F. M.

Woodruff, who was with him, shot another.

13. Loria curvirostra minor. (Brehm.) American Crossbill.

There seemed to be a flock of seven on and near Purdue University campus
(Lafayette, Ind.) which were observed on the following dates, 1895: March 30; April
3, 5, 6, 7,10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 21, 28, 24, 25, 26, 29; May 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 17, 18,

20, 21, 22. They may have remained later, but the observers were absent

168

after the last date. This fall these birds were seen November 5 (three), and heard
November 26. (L. A. and C. D. Test.)
14. Dendroica kirtlandi. (Baird.) Kirtland’s Warbler.

_ The second specimen of this rare warbler from Indiana was taken by the
same person in the same vicinity as the first. W. O. Wallace obtained it
near Wabash, Ind., May 7, 1895. Mr. Wallace writes: ‘“‘ Early in the morning I
heard a strange song in the thicket near the house, but I was very busy and did
not go to see the singer for some time. It kindly remained until I completed my
work, when I located it. Had it not been for its loud and peculiar song I should
have pronounced it a Canada Flycatcher. Its song sealed its fate. After watch-
ing it catch insects and listening to its song for some time, I backed off and shot
it. Imagine my surprise when I held in my hand my second Kirtland’s Warbler.
The song bears considerable resemblance to that of the Great Carolina Wren and
also suggests that of the Maryland Yellow-throat. It is loud and rather musical.
I noticed in both specimens movements more like the Flycatchers than the
Warblers.”

Norrs oN PARASITES COLLECTED IN THE STATE IN 1895. By A. W. Birine.

I have only a few parasites te report as additions to the list presented last
year. Some of these are very common and it now seenis strange that they were
not collected before.

Gastrophilus hemorrhoidalis was taken in the mature state during the summer.

Trichodetes parumpilosus Piaget taken last spring. It is the common biting
louse of the horse. ~

Pulex was taken on Scalops aquaticus, Cuv. Only a few specimens of this para-
site have ever been collected.

A species of Ixode was taken from Spermophilustridecum lineatus.

A species of Pulux was taken from the same host.

Strongylus paradoxus was recently obtained from hogs thought to be affected
with cholera. <

Ameba meleagridis was found in the liver of a turkey on December 25.

Trichocephalus ajinis was obtained from the intestines of the sheep.

169

A Report Upon CertTatn COLLECTIONS OF PHANPROGAMS PRESENTED TO THE
STATE BroLogicaAL SuRvEY. By SranLeEy CouLtTer.

During the past year the Suryey has come into possession of three collections,
embracing nearly one thousand species, which serve as a good foundation for the
proposed herbarium. The specimens are unmounted and provision should be
made in the near future for their permanent preservation. The collections,
while representative, contain but a scant series of duplicates, so that at present
the proposed distribution into sets is impossible. Much fuller collections must
come into the hands of the Survey before this work can be undertaken.

The material has been derived chiefly from three sources :

1. A collection of about 500 species, selected from the duplicates of the
herbarium of Purdue University. This represents for the most part forms of
general distribution, although containing such exceptional forms as Leavenworthia
Michauxii, Sullivantia Ohionis and Brachychaeta cordata.

2. <A collection of 163 species from the Rev. E. J. Hill, of Englewood,
Illinois. This collection is of especial value, since it is made up almost entirely
of plants of exceptional or limited distribution. A fuller idea of the value of this
collection may be gathered from an examination of the paper on Noteworthy In-
diana Phanerogams (these Proceedings, p. —), to which reference is made.

3. A collection of some 300 species from Mr. H. J. Clements, of Washington,
Daviess County. The collection of Mr. Clements was confined to the immediate
vicinity of Washington, and the extent of the collection, the accuracy of de-
termination and the completeness of the accompanying data are sufficient proofs
of Mr. Clements’ ability. As the collection stands for a new region, concerning
which it is extremely desirable to have a full knowledge, I have made from the
material furnished by Mr. Clements a provisional list of the flora of the vicinity
of Washington. Some thirty sheets, chiefly Asters, are as yet undetermined. In
the work of studying this collection I have been greatly aided by Miss Alida M.
Cunningham, to whom the Survey is indebted for much critical work in the ex-
amination of Indiana forms.

The sedges and grasses have passed through the hands of Prof. J. Troop, to
whom acknowledgment is thus made.

Until such time as the Directors of the Survey have determined the form in
which the State flora shall appear it has been thought best to follow the nomen-

elature of Gray’s Manual, sixth edition.

170

Provisional List of the Phanerogams in the Vicinity of Washington, Daviess County,
Indiana. Based upon the collections of Mr. H. J. Clements, during the seasons of
1894 and 1895:

RANUNCULACE®.

Clematis Pitcheri Torr and Gray. (104.) ‘* Near Prairie Creek, near B. & O.
R. R. July 4, 1894.”

Anemone Virginiuna L. (99.) Woods south of Oak Grove and B. & O. R. BR.
July 4, 1894.

Anemone Pennsylvanica L. (81.) Abundant on north side of B. & O. R. R.
west of Oak Grove.

Anemonella thalictroides Spach. (17.) Rare. Woods west of Washington.
April 15, 1896.

Thalictrum dioicum L. (54.) Sanford’s Woods. May 4, 1895.

Thalictrum purpurascens L. (79.) South bank of railroad track, south of Oak
Grove. May 18, 1895.

Ranunculus multifidus Pursh, var. terrestris Gray. (87.) First wood south of
B. & O. R. R. and west of Oak Grove. May 18, 1895.

Ranunculus abortivus L. (13.) Common in wet places. B. & O. Railroad west
of shops. April 5, 1894.

Ranunculus recurvatus Poir. (55.) Sanford’s woods. May 14, 1894.

Ranunculus septentrionalis Poir. (27.) Common, hillsides in woods, low
places, ete. April 20, 1894.

Ranunculus repens L. (80.) Hyatt’s, south of B. & O. Railroad. May 18,
1895.

Tsopyrum biternatum Torr and Gray. (12.) Woods south of B. & O. shops.
April 13, 1894. This form was referred by Mr. Clements to Thalictrum clavatum,
DC., which does not occur in Indiana.

Delphiniun tricorne Michx. (39.) Sanford’s woods. April 21, 1894.

Actaea alba Bigel. (40.) Woods south of B. & O. Railroad and Oak Grove.
April 27, 1894.

Hydrastis Canadensis L. (38.) Hyatt’s woods, south of B, & O. shops. April
27, 1894.

MENISPERMACE®.

Menispermum Canadense L. (213.) South of Oak Grove. May 18, 1895.

BERBERIDACE#,

Podophyllum peltatum L, (34.) All woods, April 27, 1894.

171
PAPAVERACE®.

Sanguinaria Canadensis L. (11.) Common. Sanford’s woods. East of Wash-
ington. April 5, 1894.

FUMARIACE®.

Dicentra Cucullaria DC. (20.) Hyatt’s woods, south of B. & O. shops. April
14, 1894.

CRUCIFER#.

Dentaria laciniata Muhl. (14.) Woods south of Oak Grove. April 5, 1894.

Cardamine rhomboidea DC. (24.) Bretz’s pasture, damp places along branch.
Rather common. April 20, 1894.

Cardamine rhomboidea DC., var. purpurea Torr. (5.) Woods south of B. &
O. Railroad at Oak Grove, two miles west of Washington. April 2, 1894.

Cardamine hirsuta L. (7.) Thin woods along Prairie creek. April 4, 1894.
The determination is apparently correct, but the specimen sent the Survey is too
immature for absolute certainty.

Draba Caroliniana Walt. (8.) One specimen found along fence row, about

3 miles north or northwest of Washington. April 4, 1895.

Sisymbrium officinale Scop. (145.) Common everywhere. August 4, 1895.

Brassica nigra Koch. (136.) Escaped about gardens, etc. July 29, 1895.

Lepidium Virginicum L. (124.) Common weed. July 29, 1895.

CAPPARIDACE®,

Polanisia graveolens Raf. (177.) Along B. & O. track in West Washington.
July 4, 1895.

VIOLACE.

“la palmata L. (47.) Sanford’s woods. Common. May 4, 1894.
Viola palmata L., var. cucullata Gray. (19.) Hyatt’s woods, south of shops.
April 13, 1894.
Viola pubescens Ait. (18.) Hyatt’s woods, south of B. & O. shops. April
13, 1895.
CARYOPHYLLACE®.

Saponaria officinalis L. (97.) Common along roadsides, etc. July 4, 1895.

Silene stellata Ait. (102.) South of Oak Grove and B. & O, railroad. July
4, 1895,

Silene Virginica L, (71.) Abundant. Woods south of B. & 0. Railroad, Oak

Grove and west.

172

Silene antirrhina L. (305.) Along railroad track in shop yard. May 11, 1895,

Lychnis Githago Lam. (214.) Grain fields; B. & O. track at Relay Station.
May 18, 1895.

Cerastium arvense L., var. oblongifolium Holl. and Brit. (42.) Edge of Haw-
kin’s creek, southwest of B. & O. shops. April 27, 1894.

PORTULACACE®.

Claytonia Virginica L. (1.) Common with flower parts multiplied. Abun-
dant later in all woods and meadows. March 30, 1894.

HYPERICACE.

Hypericum maculatum Walt. (135.) Roadside, northeast of Washington.

July 10, 1896.
MALVACEX.

Malva rotundifolia L. (288.) About dwellings. September 28, 1894,

Sida spinosa L. (208.) Weed about gardens and yards. September 28, 1894.

Hibiscus lasiocarpus Cav. (161.) Roadsides, one or two miles north of Wash -
ington. August 5, 1895.

Hibiscus militaris Cay. (162.) Bank of Swan pond. August 5, 1895.

TILIACEX.

Tilia Americana L. (82.) Bank of White River, Hyatt’s. Not common.

May 18, 1895. |
GERANIACES.

Geranium maculatum L. (31.) Sandford’s woods. April 27, 1894.

Geranium Carolinianum L. (243.) Waste ground, side of streets, etc. May
4, 1895.

Oxalis violacea L. (57.) Bretz’ pasture. May 4, 1895.

Oxalis corniculata L., var. stricta Say. (52.) Common everywhere. May 4, 1895.

Impatiens fulva Nutt. (126.) John Hyatt’s woods. July 10, 1895.

CELASTRACE.

Euonymus atropurpureus Jacq. (175.) Bank of Prairie Creek on B. & O. Rail-
road. July 4, 1895.
RHAMNACE®.

Ceanothus Americanus L. (103.) Woods south of B. & O. Railroad. and Oak

Grove. Herbaceous above, but drying down to wood base in winter.

173

VITACES,

Vitis cordifolia Michx. (77.) Close to White River, near B. & O. bridge.
May 18, 1895. x
SAPINDACE®.

Negundo aceroides Moench. (83.) Near White River, along or near B. & O.
track. May 18, 1895.

POLYGALACES.

Polygala Senega LL. (89.) Hyatt’s woods, south of B. & O. Railroad. Also
south of Oak Grove. May 18, 1895.

LEGUMINOS2.

Trifolium arvense L. (110.) About old canal, near B. & O. Railroad. July
4, 1895.

Trifolium pratense L. (237.) Waste places, roadsides, ete.

Petalostemon violaceus Michx. (165.) Roadside, Swan pond road. August
5, 1895.

Robinia Pseudacacia. (56.) Bretz’ pasture. May 8, 1895.

Desmodium nudiflorum DC. (142.) Woods south of Oak Grove, and all woods.
A nuisance. July 29, 1895. (223.) Fruiting specimen, August 10, 1895.

Desmodium acuminatum DC. (143.) Woods south of B. & O. Railroad and
Oak Grove. July 29, 1895.

Desmodium paucijflorum DC. (174.) Woods two miles east of Washington.
July 16, 1895.

Cercis Canadensis L. (28.) South of Oak Grove. April 23, 1894.

Cassia Marilandica L. (141.) Woods south of B. & O. Railroad at Oak Grove.
July 29, 1895.

Cassia Chameecrista L. (144.) Woods south of Oak Grove and B. & O. Rail-
road. July 29, 1895. :

Gleditschia triacanthos L. (138.) Near Washington; no special habitat. July
29, 1895.

RosacE®.

Prunus serotvna Ehrh, (43.) Bretz’ pasture. May 4, 1894.

Spircea tomentosa L. (155.) Woods south of Oak Grove and B. & O. Railroad.
July 29, 1895.

Geum album Gmelin. (130.) Very common in moist woods. July 10, 1895.

Fragaria Virginiana Mill., var. Iilinoensis Gray. Railroad track and woods
south of Oak Grove. May 11, 1895.

174

Potentilla Canadensis L. (44.) Bretz’ pasture. May 4, 1894.

Agrimonia Eupatoria L. (149.) Woods south of B. & O. Railroad and Oak
Groye. July 29, 1895.

Rosa humilis Marsh. (180.) South of Oak Grove. July 10, 1895.

SAXIFRAGACE®.

Hydrangea arborescens L. (128). Sanford’s woods. July 10, 1895.

CRASSULACER.

Penthorum sedoides L. (168.) Grassy pond. August 5, 1895.

LYTHRACE®. .

Lythrum alatum Pursh. (101.) Two miles east of Washington on B. & O. .
Railroad. July 4, 1895.

ONAGRACEX. .

(Enothera fruticosa L. (151.) Woods south of Oak Grove. July 29, 1895.
Circea Lutetiana L. (113.) John Hyatt’s woods. July 13, 1895.

CUCURBITACES.

Echinocystis lobata Torr. and Gray. (275.) Along ditch south of B. & O.
shops, September 28, 1894.

UMBELLIFER =

Daucus Carota L. (93.) Along ditches beside B. & O. track. May 18, 1894,
(210.) Along B. & O. track. September 28, 1894.

Ziza aurea Koch. (92.) Along railroad track, edge of woods west of
Washington. May 18, 1895.

Erigenia bulbosa Nutt. (2.) Beech woods, Hyatts, just south of B. & O. shops.
March 30, 1894.

COoRNACEX

Cornus florida L. (35.) Rather common. Hyatt’s woods, south of shops.

Some with pink involucre, April 27, 1894.

CAPRIFOLIACE®.

Triosteum angustifolium L. (254.) Hyatt’s.

RUBIACE®.

Cephalanthus occidentalis L, (111.) Bank of Prairie Creek and B. & O. rail-
road. July 4, 1895. /

Spermacoce glabra Michx. (1i70.) On side of Swan pond road. August 5,
1895.

Galiwm circezans Michx. (188.) South of Oak Grove. May 18, 1895.
. Gahum trifidum L. (120.) Woods south of Oak Grove. Common. July and
August.

Galium concinnum Torr and Gray. (181.) South of B. & O. railroad at Oak
Grove. June 29, 1898.

COMPOSIT.®

Elephaniopus Carolinianus Willd. (226.) Woods south of B. & O. railroad at
Oak Grove. August 10, 1895.

Vernonia fasciculata Michx. (278.) Fields and roads. September 28, 1895.

Eupatorium purpureum L. (225.) Woods south of Oak Grove and B & O.
railroad. Six to eight feet high. August 10, 1895. ;

Eupatorium perfoliatum L. (221.) Woods south of Oak Grove. August 10,
1895.

Eupatorium ageratoides L. (200.) Woods south of Oak Grove. September
28, 1894.

Eupatorium celestinum L. (232.) Near B. & O. shops, and in other places.
August 22, 1895.

Solidago cesia L. (199.) Woods south of Oak Grove. September 28, 1895.

Solidago Canadensis L. (274.) Waste fields, fence rows, etc. September 28,
1894. 4

Aster tevis L. (199 and 283.) Field west of B. & O. shops. September
28, 1894.

Antennaria plantaginifolia Hook. (25.) Abundant in patches. Bretz’s
pasture. April 20, 1894.

Gnaphalium polycephalum Michx. (206.) Field west of Washington. Septem-
ber 28, 1894.

Ambrosia artemistefolia L. (279.) Fields everywhere. September 28, 1894.

Heliopsis levis Pers. (191.) Woods south of Oak Grove. September 28, 1894.

Rudbeckia hirta L. (179 and 190.) Woods south of B. & O. Railroad and at
Oak Grove. July 4, 1895.

Helianthus divaricatus L. (156.) Woods south of B. & O. Railroad and at
Oak Grove. July 29, 1895.

176

Helianthus hirsutus Raf. (271.) Woods south of Oak Grove. July 29, 1895.

Helianthus decapetalus L. (247.) Woods south of Oak Grove. August 15, 1895.

Bidens connata Muhl. (194.) Woods south of Oak Grove. September 28, 1895.

Helenium autumnale L. (204.) Railroad track near Oak Grove. September
28, 1894.

Achillea Millefolium L. (212.) Along railroad near Oak Grove. Common
along roads. August 4, 1895.

Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum L (94.) Railroad bank, west of Oak Grove.
Edge of woods. June 8, 1894.

Tanacetum vulgare L. (159.) Roadside, about one mile north of West Wash-
ington. August 5, 1895.

Senecio aureus L. (88.) Hyatt’s, south of B. & O. Railroad. May 18, 1895.

Cacalia atriplicfolia L. (158.) Woods south of B. & O. Railroad and Oak
Grove. July 29, 1895.

Arctium Lappa L. (236.) Waste places. August 16, 1895.

Cnicus lanceolatus Hoffm. (239.) Vacant lots, etc. August 16, 1895.

Cnicus altissimus Willd. (192 and 272.) Railroad track west of shops. Sep-
tember 28, 1894.

Krigia amplexicaulis Nutt. (66.) Woods south of Oak Grove. May 11, 1895.

Lactuca Canadensis L. (281.) Along fence rows, etc. September 28, 1894.
No. 137 also in all probability belongs here, although the form is too immature
for accurate determination.

LOBELIACE2.

Lobelia cardinalis L. (163.) Edge of Swan pond. August 5, 1895.

Lobelia syphilitica L. (188a.) On same sheet with No. 188 and probably the
same data.

Lobelia.puberula Michx. (188 and 205.) Yard, corner E. 6th and Vantrus
Sts.; near ditch west of shops. September 28, 1894.

Lobelia inflata L. (148.) Woods, south of Oak Grove. July 29, 1895.

CAMPANULACER.
Specularia perfoliata DC. (219.) Side bank of B. & O. track at Hyatt’s. June
15, 1895.
Campanula Americana L. (114.) John Hyatt’s woods. July 17, 1895.

PRIMULACE®..

Steironema ciliatum Raf. (100.) Hyatt’s woods and B & O. tracks. July 4,

1895,

177

APOCYNACES.
Amsonia Tabernemontana Walt. (86.) Abundant along Prairie Creek, south
of B. & O. tracks. May 18, 1895.
Apocynum cannabinum L. (176.) Along railroad in wet places. July 4, 1895.

ASCLEPIADACE.

Asclepias tuberosa L. (109.) Common south of Oak Grove, and B. & O. Rail-
road. July 4, 1895.

Aselepias purpurascens L. (186.) South of Oak Grove and B. & O. Railroad.
June 1, 1895.

Aselepias incarnata L. (266.) John Hyatt’s woods. July 14, 1895.

Asclepias Cornuti Decaisne. (263.) Along B. & O. Railroad, West Washington.

Asclepias variegata L. (185.) South of Oak Grove and B. & O. Railroad.
June 1, 1895.

POLEMONIACE®.

Phlox paniculata L. (115.) John Hyatt’s woods. July 13, 1895.

Phlox glaberrima L. (183.) Open woods, one-half mile west of Oak Grove.
June.

Phlox pilosa L. (60.) South of Oak Grove. May 11, 1895.

Phlox divaricata L. (15.) Common, woods south of B. & O. shops. April
13, 1894.

Polemonium reptans L. (53.) Bretz’ pasture. May 4, 1895,

HyDROPHYLLACEX.

Hydrophyllum appendiculatum Michx. (304). Hyatt’s woods, south of B. &
O. shops. June 1895.

Phacelia bipinnatifida Michx. (32.) Hyatt’s woods, just south of B. & O.
shops. April 27, 1894.

BoRRAGINACE.

Heliotropium Indicum L. (228.) Roadside three miles north of Washington.

August 5, 1895.

Cunoglossum Virginicum L. (63.) Woods south of railroad at Oak Grove.
May 11, 1895.

Echinospermum Virginicum Lehm. (258.) Woods two miles east of Washing-
ton. July 16, 1895.

Lithospermum canescens Lehm. (252.) South of Oak Grove, near railroad
track. May 11, 1895.

12

- , ; > a

1738

CONVOLVULACE#,

Ipomea purpurea Lam, (289.) Gardens, etc. September 28, 1894.

SOLANACE®,

Solanum nigrum L. (140.) Common about yards. July 29, 1895.

Solanum Carolinense L. (276.) Waste places. September 28, 1895.

Physalis Philadelphica Lam. (91.) Along B. & O. Railroad and in woods
south of Oak Grove.

Physalis pubescens L. (139.) About yards. July 29, 1895,

Datura Stramonium 1. (230.) Near Washington. September 28, 1895,

Datura Tatula L. (229.) Near Swan Pond. Not so common as No. 230.
August 5, 1895. As Mr. Clements confused the two species the inference is that

Tatula is the abundant form.
SCROPHULARIACE®.

Verbascum Blattaria L. (134.) Common in waste places. July 10, 1895.

Linaria vulgaris Mill. (244.) Common weed, lots and streets, September
10, 1895.

Scrophularia nodosa L., var. Marilandica Gray. (70.) Oak Grove on railroad
track. May 18, 1895.

Pentstemon pubescens Solander. (189.) Railroad track south of Oak Grove.

Pentstemon levigatus Solander, var. Digitalis Gray. (216.) Hyatt’s. Wet
places. June 6, 1895.

Mimulus alatus Ait. (164.) Prairie Creek bridge, Swan Pond road. August
5, 1895. ;
Veronica Virginica L. (95.) Along B. & O, railroad, two miles west of Wash-
ington. July 4, 1895.

Veronica peregrina L. (22.) Bretz’s pasture. April 14, 1894.

Gerardia quercifolia Pursh. (171.) Woods south of B. & O., and Oak Grove.
Flowers, lemon-color. Plant, six to eight feet high. August 10, 1895.

Gerardia purpurea L. (193). Woods south of Oak Grove. September 28,

1894.
BIGNONIA CE.

Tecoma radicans Juss. (96.) Along B. & O. tracks, west of Washington.
July 4, 1895.

179

ACANTHACE®.

Ruellia strepens L. (303.) Abundant along Prairie Creek at Hyatt’s. May
18, 1899.
VERBENACES.

Verbena urticefolia L. (285.) Common weed in waste places. September 28,
1894.

Verbena angustifolia Michx. (119.) Along railroad track east of Washington.
July 16, 1894.

Verbena hastata L. (270.) Yard of B. & O. shops. August, 1895. (132.)
Wilson’s woods; wet places.

Verbena stricta Vent. (133.) Common plant along railroad and in vacant lots.
July 10, 1895.

Verbena bracteosa Michx. (125.) Growing along sidewalks, ete. July 31,
1895.

Lippia lanceolata Michx. (122.) Common, growing along grassy fences and
in pastures. July and August.

Phryma Leptostachya L. (131.) Sanford’s woods. July 10, 1895.

LABIAT.

Teucrium Canadense L. (106.) South of B. & O, Railroad and Oak Grove.
July 4, 1895.

Mentha piperita L. (150.) Along railroad tracks. July 29, 1895.

Lycopus rubellus Moench. (277 and 291.) Field west of B. & O shops. Sep-
tember 28, 1894.

Pyecnanthemum lanceolatum Pursh. (173.) Abundant in waste lands two
miles east of Washington. July 16, 1895.

Monarda fistulosa L. (105.) Woods south of Oak Grove. July 4, 1895,

Blephilia hirsuta Benth. (129.) Wilson’s woods, along branch east of Wash-
ington. July 10, 1895.

Nepeta Glechoma Benth. (64.) West Eighth Street and B. & O. track. May
11, 1894.

Scutellaria laterifora L. (169) Near Swan Pond. August 5, 1895,

Scutellaria canescens Nutt. (107.) Woods south of Oak Grove. July 4, 1895.

Scutellaria nervosa Pursh. (68.) Woods south of Oak Grove. May 11, 1895.

Brunella vulgaris L. (153.) South of B. & O. at Oak Grove. July 29, 1895.

Marrubiwm vulgare L. (168.) Swan Pond. August 5, 1895.

Lamium amplericaule L. (248.) Side of northeast Sixth Street, near Walnut.
May 11, 1895.

180

ILLECEBRACEX.

Anychia dichotoma Michx. (121.) South of B. & O. railroad at Oak Grove,
in edge of woods.

Anychia capillacea DC. (264.) South of Oak Grove, near railroad.

AMARANTACE®.

Amarantus retroflecus L. (234.) Gardens, yards, etc. July.
Amarantus albus L. (211.) Weed about gardens. September 28, 1894.
‘ Amarantus spinosus L. (209.) Weed in all gardens, ete. September 28, 1894.

CHENOPODIACE®.

Chenopodium album L. (290.) Common weed. September 28, 1894.

PHYTOLACCACER.

Phytolacea decandra L. (147.) Common, roadsides, ete. July 29, 1895.

POLYGONACE®.

Rumex Britannica L. (238.) Waste places. August 16, 1895.

Rumex Acetosella L. (69.) Common everywhere in waste places. May
18, 1894.

Polygonum Pennsylvanicum L, (286.) Yards, etc. September 28, 1894.

Polygonum orientale L. (235.) Escaped from yards. August 16, 1895.

Polygonum Virginianum L. (146.) Woods south of Oak Grove and B. & O.
Railroad. July 29, 1895.

Polygonum dumetorum L., var. scandens Gray. (117.) John Hyatt’s woods
and E. & I. Railroad. July 13, 1894.

ARISTOLOCHIACE.
Asarum Canadense L. (85.) South of B. & O. tracks at Hyatt’s. Not com-
mon. May 18, 1895. ;
SANTALACES.

Comandra umbellata Nutt. (249 and 306. ) Woods south of Oak Grove, where

woods run into a low, grassy place. May 1], 1895.

EUPHORBIACE2.
Euphorbia Preslii Guss. (280.) Weed in waste places. September 28, 1894.
Euphorbia corollata L. (154.) Common along banks of B. & O. Railroad and
woods south of Oak Grove. July 29, 1895.

= =

181

URTICACER.
Laportea Canadensis Gaudichaud. (116.) John Hyatt’s woods. July 13, 1:95.
Behmeria cylindrica Willd. (267.) John Hyatt’s woods. July 18, 1895.
Parietaria Pennsyvlanica Muhl. (267a/) John Hyatt’s woods. July 13, 1895.

IRIDACE®.

Tris versicolor L. (72.) First pond beyond Oak Grove, south of B. & O.
tracks. May 18, 1894.
Belameanda Chinensis Adans. (127.) In pasture on Sanford’s farm. July
10, 1895.
Sisyrinchium angustifolium Mill. (90.) Prairie Creek, west of Washington.
May 18, 1895.
AMARYLLIDACEX.

| Agave Virginica L. (233.) Near B. & O. Railroad, two miles east of Wash-
ington. Six to seven feet high. July 16, 1895.

DIOSCOREACE®.

Dioscorea villosa L. (59.) Woods south of B. & O. Railroad and Oak Grove.

May 11, 1894.
LILIACE.

Smilax herbacea L. (45.) Sanford’s woods. Common in all woods. May
4, 1894.

Smilax Pseudo-China L. (78.) A vine covering a small tree. Bank of
White River, north of B. & O. track. May 18, 1894.

Allium Canadense Kalm. (75.) Prairie Creek, south of B. & O. Railroad.
May 18, 1894.

Camassia Fraseri Torr. (76.) Prairie Creek, south of Oak Grove. May
18, 1894.

Polygonatum biflorum Ell. (61.) Woods south of Oak Grove. May 11, 1894.

Polygonatum giganteum Dietrich. (253.) Beside railroad track near Oak
Grove. May 18, 1895.

Asparagus officinalis L. (160.) About one mile north of West Washington.
August 5, 1895.

Smilacina racemosa Desf. (46.) Sanford’s woods. May 4, 1894.

Uvularia grandiflora J. E. Smith. (23.) Woods south of Oak Grove. April
21, 1894.

Erythronium Americanum Ker. (19a.) Hyatt’s woods, south of B. & O. shops.
April 14, 1895.

182

Erythronium albidum Nutt. (16.) Woods south of B. & ©. shops. April
13, 1894. ’

Trillium sessile L. (74.) Hyatt’s, south of B. & O. Railroad. Not common
in this vicinity. May 18, 1894.

Trulium recurvatum Beck. (21.) Common in most woods. April 20, 1894.

Trillium erectum L. (30.) East of Washington. April 26, 1894.

COMMELINACE2.

ae
Tradescantia Virginica L. (62.) Common. Railroad bank and woods south
of Oak Grove. May 11, 1894. |

ARACES.

Arisema triphyllum 'Yorr. (38.) Hyatt’s woods, south of B. & O. shops.
April 27, 1894.

Arisema Dracontium Schott. (73.) Prairie Creek, south of B. & O. Railroad.
May 18, 1895.

ALISMACEZ.

Sagittaria variabilis Engelm, (245.) Ditch, south of B. & O. shops. Sep-
tember 10, 1895.

CYPERACE.

Cyperus strigosus L. (202.) Along ditch, west of shops. September 28, 1895.

Carex Grayii Carey. (300.) Wet places near B. & O. Railroad at Hyatt’s.
May 18, 1895.

Carer Shortiana Dewey. (301.) Hyatt’s, near B. & O. Railroad. May
18, 1895.

Carex crinita Lam. (217.) Hyatt’s. June 6, 1895.

Carex teretiuscula Gooden. (302.) Wet places near Hyatt’s. May 18, 1895.

GRAMINE.

Panicum mierocarpon Muhl. (308.) Two miles east of Washington. July
4, 1895.
Cenchrus tribuloides L. (201.) Along railroad tracks. September 28, 1895.

183.

NoTEWORTHY INDIANA PHANEROGAMS. By STANLEY COULTER.

The ruling of the directors of the Survey that no form should be admitted to.
the catalogue of the flora of the State unless verified by actual specimens has led
me as far as possible to secure first exceptional forms of limited range, in the hope
that by a publication of the data concerning them the attention of collectors might
be directed to them, and our knowledge of their distribution within the State be-
increased. ‘The most notable collection of these exceptional forms that has come
into the possession of the Survey was that received from Rey. E. J. Hill, of Engle-
wood, Ill., embracing 163 species. All of the specimens were of extreme interest,
and many of them represented the sole record for the State. The following notes.
are based very largely upon this collection, and most of the forms represent a
southern extension of northern forms. It should be remembered, however, that,
until we have a full knowledge of the isotherms of our country, statements as to.
**southern limit” and ‘‘ northern limit” are merely terms of convenience, and do.
not necessarily involve any real extension of range.

A fuller knowledge of natural drainage systems, of prevailing winds at vary-
ing seasons and of numerous other physical conditions is necessary before we can
properly undertake a definite limitation of the range of any plantform. Ina
limited area, in which there is a definite organization of work, it is possible to-
determine many of these conditions and by their record add much to the ease
with which some of the problems of geographical distribution may be solved.

Another feature emphasized by this paper is the extreme importance of long-
continued collections in the same region. The work of Mr. Hill in Lake County
covers a period of twenty years and has resulted not only in the addition of many
new forms to the State flora but in a thorough botanical knowledge of that portion
of the State. The work of Mr. Van Gorder in Noble County, extending through
ten years, has shown similar results. Many problems which present themselves.
ean only be solved by work of this kind. The tendency of collectors in the past
work of the State has been to cover large areas, rather than to study closely some
definite regions. Closer attention should be given by all collectors throughout the
State to mass distribution, as distinguished from the station at which the collec-
tion is made, and also to the collection of fruiting specimens.

A somewhat careful study of our State flora leads me to believe that many
forms may be added if a more careful study is made of our marsh and lake forms
and of those groups which are of difficult discrimination. Special studies should

also be made during the coming season of definitely characterized regions, as, for

184

example, of the flora of lime stone cliffs, of clay soils, of sand hills, ete. The
work needed is not so much a collection of plants as a collection of facts verified
by plants.

In the following notes I have not in all cases referred to Mr. Bradner’s list of
the plants of Steuben County, because I have had no opportunity to examine his
collections. The references, save as indicated in the notes, are to material in the
possession of the Survey. A large number of interesting forms of Cyperacee and
Graminee have been omitted, because our knowledge of the distribution of these
forms in the State is too scant to justify any conclusions concerning them.

Cardamine pratensis L. This rare Northern plant, which was included in the
State catalogue, but of which no specimen had been preserved, is now definitely
reported with verifying specimens from two localities. Wet banks of Calumet
River, Miller’s, Lake Co., June 6, 1893 (E. J. Hill); Section 5, York Tp., Noble
Co., May 28, 1894 (W. B. Van Gorder). Mr. Van Gorder sent me specimens of
this plant last June, at which time I determined it to be C. pratensis L., a deter-
mination which was later confirmed by a careful comparison with the material in
the Gray Herbarium at Harvard University. Under date of November 6, 1895,
Mr. Van Gorder writes as follows:

‘“OCardamine pratensis L. grows plentifully on a tract of wet land, three or four
acres, in section 5, York Tp., Noble Co. This tract is a part of the Elkhart
River flat. I had seen the plant for several years, and at a distance thought it
C. rhomboidea DC. This last spring it was dry enough, and passing the place I
determined to know for sure. It flowers from May 15 to June 10. The specimen
sent you was collected May 28.”

The manual range of the plant is, ‘*Wet places and bogs, Vt. to N. J., Wis.,
and northward; rare.”

The following local references which I was able to collate while at the Gray
Herbarium during the past summer may serve to show the interest which attaches
to this plant as a member of the Indiana flora:

State (Indiana) Catalogue, ete. Lake Co. P. 3.

Flora of Michigan. Wheeler, C. F., and Smith, E. F. “Bogs.” Rare &.,
frequent in C. and common N. P. 14.

Flora of Minnesota. Warren Upham. Lake Superior to sources of Missis-
sippi. North. (Houghton.) P. 24. i

Flora of Nebraska. Samuel Aughey. Includes without note. P. 6.

Flora of Iowa. J.C. Arthur. Does not include. ae

Preliminary Catalogue of Anthophyta and Pteridophyta, etc. Torrey Botanical

Club.—Includes without note.

185

Catalogue of Plants of New Jersey. N. L. Britton.—Cedar swamp at New Dur-
ham. Rare. P. 8.

Catalogue of Native and Naturalized Plants of the City of Buffalo and Its Vicinity.
David F. Day.—Rare. S. E. portion of Buffalo, near West Seneca. P. 18.

Flora of Cook Co., Iil., and Part of Lake Co., Ind. Higley, Wm. K., and Rad-
din, Chas. S.—Calumet River, near Miller’s, Ind.—Rare. April. (Bastin and
Hill.) P.9. This reference is evidently based upon the collection of Mr. Hill
cited supra.

Plants of Illinois. HH. N. Patterson.—Does not include.

Flora Peoriana (Ill.). Frederick Brendel.— Does not include.

Higher Seed Plants of Minnesota Valley.. Conway Macmillan.—Does not in-
clude.

Catalogue of Canadian Plants. John Macoun.—‘‘ Wet, swampy meadows,
Labrador; St. Patrick, Charlotte Co., N. B.; vicinity of Prescott Junction, three
miles south of Ottawa; wet meadows and swamps, Hastings Co., Ont.; Whiskey
Island; Georgian Bay; Hudson’s Bay; throughout Arctic America and Green-
land.”

Manual and Instructions for Arctic Expedition, 1895. Hooker, on arctic plants,
p. 203, says: ‘‘The most arctic plants of general distribution that are found fur
north in all the arctic areas are the following; all inhabit the Parry Islands or
Spitzbergen or both.” A list of fifty-three plants is given, including Cardamine
pratensis L. 2

On page 226, the range of this form is given as ‘‘from Mackenzie’s River to
Baftin’s Bay. Throughout Arctic Greenland.”

In same volume, page 244, the following note concerning this form is given
by James Taylor: ‘‘ Cardamine pratensis L. Flowers June-July. East side Disco
Island. Altitude, 200 feet. North lat., 69° 10’; W. long., 54° 307.”

In the various catalogues of the New England States it is usually included
with the statement, ‘‘chiefly found in the northern part.”

From these citations it will be seen that the Indiana stations mark the south-
ern-central limit of this true arctic form, which in all probability found its way
southward during the glacial period.

Arabis lyrata L. ‘Dry, sandy ground, Miller’s, Ind., June 6, 1893.” (E. J.
Hill.) Reported also from Laporte County, presumably upon authority of Dr.
Barnes, and included in Bradner’s flora of Steuben County. The form in general
is a northern one in its mass distribution, although extending south along the

mountains as far as Kentucky. Its local distribution will probably be found to

186

be limited to the northern portions of the State, and its occurrence there can only
be expected in exceptionally favorable localities.

Hudsonia tomentosa Nutt. ‘‘Sand hills, Miller’s, Ind., June 20, 1893.” (E. J.
Hill.) This striking form has as yet its only station as indicated. It is so unlike
the ordinary phanerogam of Indiana that it could scarcely have escaped notice if
it was of any wide distribution. The range of the plant is ‘‘sandy shores, Maine
to Md., and along the Great Lakes to Minn., rarely on streams inland.” It is
therefore probable that its distribution in Indiana is extremely restricted.

Lechea thymifolia Michx. “Sandy ground, Tolleston, Ind. Flowers collected
Sept. 16, 1882; fruit, Oct. 1, 1881.” This is the only record for the species,
and if the determination holds good, is a rather peculiar extension of range.
The assigned range is ‘“‘dry grounds near the coast, E. Mass. to Fla.” The retfer-
ence is apparently accurate, but on account of the well-known difficulty of dis-
crimination between the species of this genus, I am unable to feel absolutely cer-
tain in the absence of authenticated specimens for comparison. The authority of
Mr. Hill, however, is sufficient to retain the plant in the State list until oppor-
tunity oceurs for comparison with forms from the east.

Arenaria Wichauxii Hook. f. ‘Dry sands, Clark, Ind., June 13, 18938.” (EK.
J. Hill.) There seems to be no special reason why this species should not be
found generally distributed throughout the State, although as yet this is the only
station recorded. The known range of the plant easily includes Indiana, and it
should be looked for throughout the State.

Arenaria lateriflora 1. ‘‘ Dry woods, Miller’s, Ind., June 20, 1893.” (E. J.
Hill.) This species was reported by Dr. A. J. Phinney in his list of plants of
the region covering Jay, Delaware, Randolph and Wayne counties. He, how-
ever, secured no verifying specimen. The Lake County collection, however,
seryes under the rules of the State to give the species a place in the flora of Indi-
ana. It is probable that the plant will be found to occur only in the eastern and
northern counties of the State, its general range being northward.

Hypericum Kalmianum L. “‘ Wettish sands, Tolleston, Ind. Flowers col-
lected June 29, 1880; fruit, September 3, 1880.” (KE. J. Hill.) Also collected at
Laporte by Dr. C. R. Barnes. This species is evidently limited to the northwest-
ern counties of the State and will probabiy not be found much beyond the lake
region. The assigned range is Niagara Falls and northern lakes.

Linum su'catum Riddell. ‘‘Dry, sandy soil, Pine Station, Ind., July 28,

1875.” (E. J. Hill.) So far as I am able to determine, this is the only station

187

in the State for this species. Its general range, ‘‘ E. Mass. to Minn., and south-
westward,” would indicate, perhaps, a more general distribution since it has
made its appearance within our boundaries.

Nemopanthes fascicularis Rat. ‘* Wet ground, Miller’s, Ind. Flowers collected
April 29 and May 11, 1882; leaves and fruit July 4, 1882.” (E. J. Hill); Steu-
ben County (E. Bradner). Although not ineluded in the lists of Mr. Van Gorder,
I have received from him this summer material of this species collected in Noble
County. The manual range of the plant was extended upon the collection of
Mr. Hill, and from the later reports it is fair to infer that its occurrence is limited
to perhaps the northern tier of counties

Lathyrus maritimus Bigel. ‘‘Shores of Lake Michigan, Whiting, Ind., July
15, 1875.” (E. J. Hill.) A species inhabiting the seashore from Oregon and
New Jersey to the Arctic Ocean, and also found on the Great Lakes. The range
in Indiana can evidently be but slightly extended, if at all.

Rosa Englemanni Watson. ‘‘Flowers collected, East Chicago, Ind., June 5,
1890; fruit collected in damp thickets at Pine Station, Ind., Aug. 25,1891. Four
feet to eight feet high.” (E. J. Hill). The specimen furnished the survey seems
clearly referable to this species, though showing a decided increase in size. The
plant is normally from ‘‘three to four feet high, or less.” Its range is given as
‘“Whisky Island, Lake Huron, shores of Lake Superior, and west to the Red
River valley, and in the mountains from N. Montana and N. Idaho to Colorado.”
Its appearance in Indiana is of extreme interest and adds a new station for the
species.

Heuchera hispida Pursh. ‘‘Sandy, open grounds, Tolleston, Ind., June 20,
1893.” (KE. J. Hill.) This is an additional station for this species which was
formerly reported only from Vigo County by W.S. Blatchley. It may be assumed
that the form will be found in favored localities throughout the State. (Saxifra-
gacez in Indiana, Proc. Ind. Acad. of Sci. 1894, p. 105.)

Sambucus racemosa L. ‘‘Open woods, Porter, Ind., May 17, 1890; fruit, Otis,
Ind., May 21, 1881” (E. J. Hill); ‘‘common at least in eastern part of Noble
County” (Van Gorder) ; Steuben County (Bradner); Putnam County (MacDougal) ;
Jefferson County (J. M. Coulter); Clarke County (Baird and Taylor). This species
is northern in its mass distribution and is more rarely found southward. In leaf,
fruit and bark characters, it at times runs perilously close to S. Canadensis L. I
have found the color of the pith to be by far the most satisfactory means of dis-
crimination between the two forms. Although the assigned range includes Indi-

ana, my own experience leads me, in the absence of verifying specimens from

188

other localities, to limit the distribution of the species to the northern portion of
the State.

Linnaea borealis Gronoy. ‘‘Moist, pine woods, Pine Station, Ind., June 7}
1884.” (E. J. Hill.) This is the recorded southern limit for this definitely
northern form. Its occurrence so far south is worthy of note. It must be remem-
bered, however, in this extension of ranges that limits are marked by parallels of
latitude, when the proper method would be a consideration of isothermal lines.

Galium boreale L. ‘‘Sandy prairies, Sheffield, Ind., July 6, 1875” (E. J.
Hill); ‘“‘rather common, Noble County” (W. B. Van Gorder). The distribution of
this species seems fairly well made out for Indiana, being confined to the northern
counties which represent in a general way its southern limits. It is a form that
can not be readily mistaken for any other members of the genus, being definitely
marked by its bright white flowers.

Liatris cylindracea Michx. ‘‘Dry sands. Lake County, Ind., September 4,
1893. (E. J. Hill.) The Indiana stations for this plant, so far as reported, in
addition to that in Lake County, are St. Joseph County (C. R. Barnes); Gibson
and Posey counties (J. Schneck). These widely separated stations indicate at
least the probability of its occurrence throughout the State in favorable localities.
The manual range reads: ‘‘ Dry, open places, Niagara Falls to Minn. and Mo.”
The St. Joseph County record is verified by specimens in the Purdue Herbarium.
The inclusion of the Gibson and Posey County station is upon the authority of
Dr. J. Schneck, of Mt. Carmel, II].

Solidago humilis Pursh. ‘‘Sand hills, near Lake Michigan, Miller’s, Ind.,
September 12, 1893. Sometimes 3 feet high.” (E. J. Hill.) This is a distinctly
northern form, and one which shows in its very considerable increase in size the
effect of its new range. In its normal range, ‘‘Rocky banks, W. Vt., along the
Great Lakes, and northward,” it is a low plant from 6 to 12 inches high. At the
base of the White Mountains a form is reported, by Gray, as occurring, having a
‘“stout stem, 1-2 feet high.” Variety Gillmanni Gray, is larger (2 feet high), but
in addition to differences in inflorescence, is sharply separated from the species
by its ‘‘laciniately toothed leaves.” The species is undoubtedly a member of the
State flora, and the Lake County station is to be added to the other exceptional
stations recorded, ‘“‘islands in the Susquehanna, near Lancaster, and at the Falls
of the Potomac.” 3

Solidago uliginosa Nutt. ‘‘Peat bogs. Pine Station, Ind., Sept. 11, 1890.”
(FE. J. Hill.) This plant, which is northern in its mass distribution, has its
southern limit, so far as reported, in the northern tier of counties of Indiana.

Additional stations are, St. Joseph County (C. R. Barnes) and Noble County (W.

|

189

B. Van Gorder). Specimens have been examined from all three localities. The
recorded range of the plant is ‘‘ Peat bogs, Maine to Penn., Minn., and north-
ward.”

Brachycheta cordata Torr. and Gray., Among the forms that have come into
the Indiana flora from the South the above is one of the most interesting. Its
station is in Jefferson County, especially at Clifty Falls. The station is one of
the remarkable ones in the State, because of the number of rare forms there
found, Sullivantia Ohionis Torr. and Gray, being perhaps the most noteworthy if
we except Brachycheta.

The manual range of the plant is as follows: ‘‘ Wooded hills, S. Ind. and
E. Ky. to N. Ga.” In the Synoptical Flora, p. 161, the range is given as follows:
**Open woods, etc., W. North Car. and E. Ky. to upper part of Ga.” The plant
was apparently first collected by Rafinesque, by whom it was described as Solidago
sphacelata, Raf. Ann. Nat. (1820), p. 14.

In Short’s Supplement to the Catalogue of the Plants of Kentucky it is de-
scribed as Solidago cordata Short.

In DeCandolle’s Prodromus, V. 318, it appears as Brachyris ovatifolia DC.,
with the range ‘“‘in agro Kentuckensi ad ripas fuminum legit, cl. Rafinesque. * *
Species, distinctissima.”’

Additional localities are as follows:

Flora of West Virginia C.F. Millspaugh. P. 382.—‘‘Fayette County, near
Nuttalsburg, plentiful.”

Flora of Southern United States. A. W. Chapman, 2d edition. P. 213, entered
as Solidago cordata Short. ‘‘ Mountains of Georgia and North Carolina and north-
ward.”

Botany of Southern States. John Darby. P.370—‘‘ North Carolina and North-
ern Georgia.”

A Sketch of Botany of South Carolina and Georgia. Stephen Elliott. Vol. I
(1824), which includes Solidago, does not distinguish the form.

Tennessee Flora. August Gattinger (1887). P. 51—Records as occurring over
the whole State.

The specimens in the Gray Herbarium only include four sheets, all being
from the South. They are as follows:

Solidago cordata (n. sp.) Short. Cliffs of Kentucky River. C. W. Short, M.
D., Lexington, Ky. This is the type specimen of Brachychwta cordata Torr. and

Gray.

190

Solidago cordata Short, Wilkes County, North Carolina, M. A. Curtis; Table
Mountain, North Carolina, M. A. Curtis. Both of these have received the label
Brachycheta cordata in the handwriting of Dr. Gray.

Solidago cordata Short. French Broad River, 1843. No collector’s name.

Brachycheta cordata Torr. and Gray. Curtiss, North American Plants, No.
1298; Bluffs of Cumberland River, near Nashville, Tenn. Legit A. Gattinger.

An examination of the above data shows that this form can be reasonably
expected in the southwestern counties of the State. It is easily mistaken for a
Solidago, which genus it resembles closely in head and flower, except in the pap-
pus. It perhaps should be looked for in collections among the Solidagos.

Aster polyphyllus Willd. ‘‘ Grassy borders of low thickets, Whiting, Ind.
September 29, 1892.” (E. J. Hill.) The range of this species being ‘‘ northern
Vermont to Wisconsin, and southward,” it is a little remarkable that this is its
only record for the State. It is possible that it has been mistaken for A. erveoides
L., which it resembles in many particulars. The extreme variability of this lat-
ter form renders such an error a natural one. It is probable that A. polyphyllus is
more widely distributed throughout the State than the single recorded station
would indicate.

Aster umbellatus Mill. ‘‘ Moist grounds, Pine Station, Ind. September 4,
1893.” (E. J. Hill.) This form, ‘‘common, especially northward,” is only
recorded from four counties of the State. Additional stations are as follows:
Jefferson County (C. R. Barnes); Clark County (Baird and Taylor); Jay County
(Dr. Phinney). The Jefferson County reference has its authentication in speci-
mens in the Purdue Herbarium; the Clark and Jay County stations rest upon the
authority of the collectors. The plant may be confidently looked for in the
northern counties of the State, and many new stations should be added as a result
ot the work of the ensuing season.

Aster ptarmicoides Torr. and Gray. ‘‘ Dry sands, Pine Station, Ind.” (E. J.
Hill.) This form, oceurring on ‘‘dry rocks, western New England to Min-
nesota, along the Great Lakes, and northward,” is another species that has entered
the State from the north. The Lake County station is the natural one for the
State. In the fall of 1894, Messrs. Conner and Laben collected this species at
Happy Hollow, Tippecanoe County. I withheld judgment upon the determina-
tion, until I was able to examine the type specimens in the Gray Herbarium.
There is no question that A. ptarmicoides occurs in Tippecanoe. The station in
which it is found is so secluded as to preclude the probability of its recent intro-

duction. The range of the species must therefore be extended somewhat.

191

Echinacea angustifolia DC. ‘‘ By Michigan Southern and Lake Shore Rail-
road, Durham, Ind. Ina prairie. July 4, 1892.” (E. J. Hill.) So far as I am
able to find, this is the only record for this species in the State. The form
has evidently entered our flora from the west, its recorded range being ‘‘ Plains
from Ill. and Wisc. southwestward.” It is easily distinguishable from FE. pur-
purea Moench. and should be looked for carefully in the western counties of the
State.

Artemisia Canadensis Michx. ‘‘Shores of Lake Michigan, Lake Co., Sept. 4,
1893.” (E. J. Hill.) This northern form has its only recorded station for Indiana
in the above reference. Its range is ‘‘ Northern New Eng. to the great lakes,
Minn., and northward.” It is closely allied to A. caudata Michx., which also has
its sole Indiana station in Lake Co. No specimen of this latter form, however,
has as yet been obtained by the Survey. A. caudata having a range ‘‘ Mich. to
Minn., and southward,” should be found, at least, in the northern counties of the
State. Both species are separated from the other Artemisias by their dissected
leaves and should be readily recognized.

Cnicus Pitcheri Torr. ‘‘Sandy shores of Lake Michigan, Pine Station, Ind.,
June 21, 1891.” (E. J. Hill.) This well-marked species has this as its only sta-
tion in the State, so far as the records indicate. Its range, ‘‘ Sandy shores of
Lakes Michigan, Huron and Superior,” would indicate but a slight probability of
any material increase in its distribution. It would probably be found in Laporte
County in the region of Michigan City, if careful search were made. With its
cream-colored flowers and white woolly covering it is an extremely attractive
form and could scarcely be mistaken for any other species of the genus.

Cnicus pumilus Torr. ‘Pine barrens. Lake County, Ind., July 4, 1891.”
(E. J. Hill.) This form is labeled Cnicus Hillii W. M. Canby. Iam unable,
however, to see any reason why the form should not be referred to C. pumilus
Torr., and in the absence of Mr. Canby’s original description I have so referred
the specimen sent to the Survey. Certain variations from the type seem to me
easily referable to geographical causes, and not of sufficient importance to neces-
sitate the establishment of a new species. The range of the plant, ‘‘ Dry fields,
N. Eng., near the coast, to Penn.”, seems to me to furnish the only argument
against the reference. It is possible that more abundant material may lead to a
different conclusion. The reported occurrence of Cnicus pumilus in Dearborn
County (S. H. Collins) is not authenticated by specimens, and is in all probabil-
ity an error in determination. The extension of the range of a coast plant to
the Great Lakes could be easily accounted for, but its extension to Dearborn

County without intervening stations would be difficult of explanation.

192

Prenanthes racemosa Michx. ‘‘Open, grassy land, East Chicago, Ind., Oct.
5, 1892.” (E. J. Hill.) Noble County (W. B. Van Gorder). The range of this
species in Indiana seems to be limited to the northern tier of counties. The form
is found in ‘‘plains, N. Maine to N. J. and northward,” though extending also
into Missouri. It is easily distinguished from the other species of the genus
found in the State by its heads being in crowded clusters, and could scarcely have
escaped the attention of collectors had it been of any general distribution.

Pyrola chlorantha Swartz. ‘‘Sandy woods, Whiting, Ind., May 25, 1878.”
(E. J. Hill.) A northern form, ranging from Labrador to Minnesota, northward
and westward, with the single record from Indiana as indicated. The specimens
in the possession of the Survey are, so far as known, the only ones from the In-
diana station in the herbaria of the State.

Trientalis Americana Pursh. ‘‘Damp woods, Miller’s, Ind., May 11, 1878.”
(E. J. Hill.) ‘‘In tamarack marshes in moss near the roots of trees. Very com-
mon in some places. Noble County.” (W. B. Van Gorder.) The mass distribu-
tion of this species is decidedly northern, its southern limit being the northern
tier of counties in Indiana, save where it extends southward along the mountains.
It will probably be found in all of the northern counties, but need scarcely be ex-
pected farther south.

Menyanthes trifoliata L. ‘‘ Bogs and peat marshes, Pine Station, Ind. May
13, 1876.” (E. J. Hill.) ‘‘ Moist shores of lakes—very common at Pleasant Lake,
Noble Tp., Noble Co.” (W. B. Van Gorder.) Whiie the sixth edition of Gray’s
Manual includes Indiana in the range of this species, its authenticated distribu-
tion is confined to the stations mentioned. It probably occurs throughout the
northern portion of the State in favorable localities.

Convolvulus arvensis L. ‘‘ By railroad, Pine Station, Ind. July 28, 1875.
Rare.” (E. J. Hill.) Also reported from Jay, Delaware, Wayne and Randolph
Counties (Phinney), and Dearborn Co. (Collins). This adventive species, hereto-
fore restricted to North Atlantic States, has evidently made lodgment in Indiana.
I am inclined to think the Dearborn County reference somewhat doubtful, judg-
ing from the general range of the plant and taking into consideration the means
of distribution to which the presence of this intruder is evidently due. I believe
its range in the State will be found limited to the northern and central counties.

Stachys hyssopifolia Michx. ‘‘ Wet, sandy banks, Laporte, Ind. July 22,
1875.” (E. J. Hill.) Also collected at Laporte by C. R. Barnes. The State cata-
logue notes the plant as occurring from ‘‘ Marion Co. and northward.” The Ma-
rion County reference was doubtless based upon the authority of the late Dr. H.

E. Copeland, who was an exceedingly keen observer, but who, unfortunately, left

193

no verifying specimens. It is scarcely possible that this can be the only station
for the plant, since its range fairly covers the State.

Utricularia resupinata B. D. Greene. ‘Sandy margins of ponds, Whiting,
Lake County, Ind., Aug. 16, 1883.” (E. J. Hill.) This collection, upon which
is based the extension of the range of this form in the 6th Edition of Gray’s Man-
ual (p. 725 c¢.), is only one of the many evidences of the critical work done by
Rey. E. J. Hill and proof of the value of a long continued study of a single area.
This same form was sent me last summer by W. B. Van Gorder from north shore
of Bear Lake, Noble County, thus extending its local distribution.

Utricularia purpurea Walt. ‘Shallow ponds, Pine Station, Lake County,
Sept. 13, 1879.” (E. J. Hill.) This is another form shown by Mr. Hill to be a
member of the State flora. This station for the plant is somewhat remarkable be-
cause it is so far inland. While the range is ‘‘ponds, Maine to Florida,” it is
limited by the additional statement, usually near the coast.

Utricularia gibba L. ‘‘Sandy, wet margins of ponds, Pine Station, Lake
County, Sept. 13, 1879.” (E. J. Hill.) While this plant would be naturally ex-
pected within our range, it has been but rarely collected in the State. The speci-
mens furnished by Mr. Hill being the only ones I have seen from Indiana. It is
especially desirable that close observations should be made in favorable localities
in order that the distribution of these forms within the State may be determined.

Corispermum hyssopifolium L. ‘‘Dry, sandy ground, Pine Station, Ind., Sept.
4, 1893” (E. J. Hill.) The only reported station for this species. No great
extension of its range throughout the State need be expected, since in our range
it seems confined to the beaches of the Great Lakes, although farther west and
south it is not so restricted. The form is presumably from the west, judging from
available data.

Salsola Kali L., var. Tragus. This plant has undoubtedly obtained a sufficient
foothold in the State to be included in its flora. It is, however, very doubtful if
its spread will be sufficiently rapid to give it rank among our worst weeds. The
plant is definitely reported from Clarke, Lake County, by E. J. Hill, and from
Avilla, Noble County, by W. B. Van Gorder. Both collections are labelled
“along railroad,” indicating very clearly the method of introduction into our
State flora. An examination of both specimens leads me to question the reference
of the Lake County specimen. It does not agree in many particulars with the
Noble County specimen, which latter is very plainly the typical variety Tragus,
and so far as I am able to judge agrees more nearly with Sa/sola Kali. The exten-
sion of the range—‘‘ sandy seashore, New England to Georgia”—by the addition

of ‘‘and along shores of Great Lakes” is a very natural one, but is apparently

(13)

194

incorrect because of the label, ‘‘ along railroad.” So far as I am able to learn,
the plant has not spread with the rapidity to be expected from the variety Tragus.
In view of the accuracy of Mr. Hill in all of his determinations, the Lake County
station is admitted, with the suggestion that the plant in that particular locality
needs a much closer study.

The Noble County plant is unmistakable, not only in its characters, but in its
habits of growth. From facts ascertained through the work of Supt. Van Gorder,
it is safe to say that if the Russian thistle spreads throughout Indiana it will be
from the Noble County station as a center. The plant has been carefully watched
since its first appearance in 1893, and efforts made to prevent its spread, though

with no very great success, as the following letter indicates :

BRIMFIELD, INnp., Nov. 3, 1895.
Mr. W. B. Van Gorder, Knightstown, Ind.:

DEAR Str—In reply to yours of some time ago, will say that the Russian
thistle came up again this year worse than last year. It was not cut soon enough,
which, of course, scattered the seeds. I have not heard of it any place else
Vietoae ors or J. EK. NiswANDER.

In the last map issued by the United States Department of Agriculture,
showing the distribution of the Russian Thistle, a location is given in south-cen-
tral Indiana. The map is, however, so small that I have not been able to locate
the station, nor have I been able to discover upon what authority it was added.

In my opinion there are not more than two stations for the Russian Thistle
in the State. Of these, that in Noble County alone seems to threaten any great
spread of the pest. While the plant should be carefully watched, its general
character as to periods of flowering and maturation of seed, taken in connection
with the fact that though known to exist in Indiana since 1892, it has yet made
no marked advance, would indicate that the danger from its introduction has
been overestimated.

Polygonum tenue Michx. ‘‘Sand hills, Pine Station, Ind., July 28, 1875.”
(E. J. Hill.) Tippecanoe County, 1893. (Stanley Coulter.) This species has
perhaps a more general distribution throughout the State than the references
would indicate. Its normal range easily includes our territory, yet so far as I
know no other stations are recorded. In a study of the genus Polygonum made re-
cently I examined all of the collections in the State, and it is certainly not found
in them from any other localities. The species is sufficiently characteristic to be
easily separated from the more common forms, and could scarcely be confused
with any other species, if we except P. ramosissimum Michx., from which it is

readily distinguished by the character of the achenes.

—

195

Polygonelia artieulata Meissn. ‘‘Sand hills, Miller’s, Ind, October 1, 1881.
Flowers white or rose-colored.” (E. J. Hill.) This seems to be the only authen-
ticated station for this species. Mr. Van Gorder includes it in his list of plants
of Noble County, published in pamphlet form in 1884, but excludes it from list
published in 1887 in Eighteenth Report of the State Geologist. I infer from this
that its inclusion in the first list was an error. Baird and Taylor also include it
in their ‘‘ Flora of Clark County,” but as they made no collections the record is
necessarily a doubtful one, with the probability against the accuracy of the de-
termination. The assigned range is: ‘‘ Dry,sandy soil; on the coast from Maine
to New Jersey, and along the Great Lakes.” It can be readily seen that its distri-
butiou in Indiana is in all probability limited to the northwestern counties.

Shepherdia Canadensis Nutt. ‘‘Sand ridges, usually near sloughs. Pine
Station, Lake County, May 13 and 27, 1876.” (E. J. Hill.) This attractive shrub
has perhaps its southern station in this record. Its reported range is from ‘‘ Ver-
mont and New York to Michigan, Minnesota and north and westward.” It is
worthy of notice, perhaps, that in Indiana it occurs ‘‘near sloughs,” while in
other regions it is found chiefly on rocky or gravelly banks.

Euphorbia polygonifolia L. ‘‘Sandy shores of Lake Michigan, Lake County,
Indiana, September 4, 1893.” (E. J. Hill.) The range of this species is probably
limited to the shores of Lake Michigan, at least so far as Indiana is concerned.
While in general appearance it might be easily confused with other species, it
is characterized by having seeds larger than those of any other species in section
Anisophylium.

Myrica asplenifolia Endl. ‘‘Sand hills, Miller’s, Indiana. Flowers collected
April 29 and May 30, 1882; fruit, July 4.” (E. J. Hill.) This is the only lo-
cality for the State and it was upon this collection that the range of the species
was extended in the sixth edition of Gray’s Manual to include Indiana.

Betula papyrifera Marshall. ‘‘Sandy soil, Pine Station, Ind. Flowers col-
lected May 13, 1876; fruit, September 3, 1876. Trees ten to thirty feet high.”
(E. J. Hill.) The material furnished the Survey was somewhat scant, but seemed

sufficient to verify the determination. The petioles were shorter, perhaps,
than in the normal form, but this seemed the only deviation from type in the
leaf characters. The reduction in size from a tree fifty to seventy-five feet high
in the normal range, to that indicated above, is the most marked feature in this
extension of range. The form also occurs in northern Illinois, but I have no data
at hand which indicate whether or not a similar reduction in size occurs. The

species, as is well known, is northern in its general range.

196

Pinus Banksiana Lambert. ‘‘Sand barrens, Lake County, Ind., May 13,
1876.” (E.J. Hill.) This is the only record for the gray or northern scrub pine
in the State. The specimens sent the Survey establish the species as a member of
the State flora beyond question. The inclusion is an extension of the reported
range from Southern Michigan to Northern Indiana. It is a fact that in all prob-
ability more new forms will be added to the State flora by a careful study of our
forest trees than from any other group of plants, if we except, perhaps, the
water plants. For various reasons forest forms have received less attention and
are more poorly represented in existing herbaria than any other. It is especially
urged that during the ensuing season specimens of all forest trees be furnished
the Survey by those interested in the work.

Orchidacee. Our knowledge of the occurrence and distribution of the various
orchids of the State has been very greatly increased during the past year, a fact
due largely to the labors of Messrs. Hill and Van Gorder. Both of these gentle-
men have studied definite regions for years and have placed the Survey under
many obligations for their careful and courteous responses to the many requests
for information. I have asked Miss Alida M. Cunningham to collate the facts at
hand, which she has done under the title ‘‘ Distribution of Orchidacee in Indiana,”
and reference is hereby made to that article (These Proc., p. —). I wish also, in
this connection, to express the thanks of the botanical division of the Biological
Survey to Miss Cunningham for the patient and efficient work she has done in the
study and comparison of critical forms, which has done much to expedite the
work of the division and has added greatly to the value of its final report.

Tofieldia glutinosa Willd. ‘‘ Moist sands. Pine Station, Ind., July 28, 1875.
(E. J. Hill.) The State Catalogue refers this species to the ‘northern tier of

counties.”

This, however, is the only station in the state from which I have been
able to secure herbarium specimens. It is included in the Flora of Noble County
by W. B. Van Gorder (18th report of State Geologist, p. 66,) as growing in
‘“moist grounds along the Elkhart river in Orange township, and is represented
in Mr. Van Gorder’s private herbarium. I know of no other stations in which
the species occurs. The recorded range of the plant is ‘‘moist grounds, Maine to
Minnesota, and northward ; also south in the Alleghanies.

Triglochin maritima L. ‘‘ Wet sands, border of slough, East Chicago, June
13, 1893.” (E. J. Hill.) This species has been added to the state flora through
the close work of Mr. Hill, who has recorded the only station for Indiana. The
species is easily distinguished from the other members of the genus by its fruit of
six carpels. The assigned range of the plant is, ‘salt marshes along the coast,

: : : -
Labrador to N. J., and in saline, boggy or wet places across the continent.

197

Potamogeton. Any systematist who has undertaken a study of this genus, will
at once appreciate the fact that the value of specific determinations is largely in-
creased if they have received the sanction of a specialist inthe group. Mr. Hill’s
forms of tliis genus have undergone the scrutiny of the late Dr. Thomas Morong
and may be added with confidence to the state flora. It is therefore with very
great diffidence that I venture to question the determination of one or two of
the sheets sent the Survey. The question is not of the original determination, but
the suggestion is made that in the distribution there has been a confusion of forms.
The most noteworthy species of this genus are the following:

P. puleher Tuckerm. ‘‘Shallow ponds, Pine Station, Lake Co., June 21,
1884.” (E. J. Hill.) From an examination of many specimens, I am led to be-
lieve that this form as received by the Survey should be referred to P. amplifolius
Tuckerm, because of leaf and fruit characters. The range of the two forms is
practically the same and it is possible that they may be found associated, and be-
come mixed in distribution. The size of the fruit is perhaps the most apparent
distinction between the two forms. In addition to P. pulcher Tuckerm, P. ampli-
folius Tuckerm is also without doubt a member of the state flora.

P. prelongus Wulf. Cedar Lake, Lake Co., Ind., Feb. 27, 1882. (KE. J.

Hill.) This well marked form should be more generally found in the northern
counties of the State. The region is fairly within the range of the plant and the
‘conditions for its occurrence are good. It has, however, been reported from no
other locality, so far as I have knowledge.

P. Robbinsii Oakes. ‘‘ Cedar Lake, Lake Co., Ind., June 30, 1886.” (E. J.
Hill.) This is another interesting northern form added to the Indiana flora as a
result of Mr. Hill’s indefatigable work. (Man. 6th edn. 735c.)

In the specimen sent the Survey by Mr. Hill, both fruit and flowers are
absent. From this specimen standing alone, I would refer the form to P. marinus
L., since the leaf and stem characters do not conform to the description of P.
Robbinsti. My very high appreciation, however, of the skill and acuteness of Mr.
Hili lead me to include the form P. Robbinsii Oakes, and also to add the species
P. marinus L.

I am inclined to believe that a more careful study of the plants of our marsh
and lake regions would result in the extension of the range of many forms in this
and allied groups.

Eriocaulon septangulare Withering. ‘‘Sandy borders of ponds, Laporte, Ind.,
July 22, 1875. Scapes 6-8 striate.” (E. J. Hill.) The addition of Indiana to

the assigned range of this plant in the 6th edition of Gray’s Manual was based

198

upon the collection of Mr. Hill. During the last summer Mr. Van Gorder col-
lected it in Noble County, and Mr. Bradner includes in catalogue of the Flora of
Steuben County (17th Report of State Geologist, p. 156), with the statement,
‘“badly named, as the scape frequently has eight striae.” The Hill collection is
of the normal size from 2-6 inches high, while that of Van Gorder shows speci-

mens from 1-2 feet high, having been submersed.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE ORCHIDACE® IN InpIANA. By Alida M. Cunningham.

The family of Orchidacez, as shown by the reports and specimens examined,
is represented in the State by twelve genera and thirty-seven species.

Miecrostylis monophyllos Lindl., according to the 6th edition of Gray’s Manual,
s found growing in cold swamps in northern Indiana. It is also reported from
the ‘‘ Knob” region by Dr. J. M. Coulter. No specimen was examined.

Microstylis ophioglossoides Nutt., has been reported from Monroe by W. S.
Blatchley, whose determination is verified by specimens in the DePauw Herba-
rium. One specimen of this species has been reported from Noble by W. B. Van
Gorder and has been examined.

Liparis liliifolia Richard, occurs in the southern and central portions of the
State. It is reported as rare in Franklin by O. M. Meyncke, but common in rich,
shady woods in Gibson and Posey by Dr. Schneck. No specimens of this form
have been examined.

Liparis Leeselii Richard, grows in extreme northern counties. Specimens from
Lake by E. J. Hill and from Noble by W. B. Van Gorder were studied. Mr.
Van Gorder states that it is very rare in that region and grows in tamarack
marshes.

Aplectrum hiemale Nutt., is reported from the following counties: Clark, Jef-
ferson and Franklin in the southeast; Gibson and Posey in the southwest; Put-
nam in the central; Noble and Steuben in the north. The State catalogue
includes the species, referring it to Tippecanoe, but gives no authority for its in-
clusion. Specimens from Clark and Noble were the only ones studied.

Corallorhiza is represented in the State by three species—innata, odontorhiza
and multiflora.

C. innata R. Brown. No Indiana specimen of this species was examined. It

is reported, however, from the “knob” region by Dr. Clapp.

199

C. odontorhiza Nutt., is reported from Gibson and Posey by Dr. Schneck as
rare, and found growing in shady woods in rich soil; from Franklin, by O. M. ©
Meyncke; from Steuben, by E. Bradner, and from Noble, by W. B. Van Gorder,
whose specimens were examined.

C. multiflora Nutt., is reported from Union by W.S. Blatchley, whose determi-
nation is verified by specimens in the DePauw Herbarium. From Noble, by W.
B. Van Gorder, who states that it is rare in that county and grows in dry woods;
and also from Steuben, by E. Bradner. The State catalogue includes this species,
referring it to Jefferson, but gives no authority for its inclusion. No specimens
were examined.

Spiranthes is said to be represented by four species: latifolia, cernua, preecor and
gracilis.

S. latifolia Torr., is very limited in its range, at least as far as we have knowl-
edge of its distribution. It is reported from Noble by Mr. Van Gorder, who
states that only a few specimens were found. It is reported also from Tippecanoe
by John Hussey, and his determination is verified by a specimen in the Purdue
Herbarium.

S. cernua Richard, occurs chiefly in southern and western counties. It is re-
ported also from Noble, where it grows with cranberry vines on the low shores of
lakes.

S. precox Watson, has been reported from Clark by Messrs. Baird and Taylor,
and from Steuben by E. Bradner. The 6th edition of the Manual does not in-
clude Indiana in the range of this species, which reads: ‘‘ Wet, grassy places,
Mass. to N. J. and Fla.”

S. gracilis Bigelow, is fairly well distributed, being reported from southeast-
ern, northern and central counties, but is not found abundantly. Specimens
from Noble, Lake and Jefferson were examined.

Goodyera repens R. Br., is reported from Steuben by E. Bradner. No speci-
mens were studied, but the habit and range of the plant renders the determina-
tion doubtful.

Goodyera pubescens R. Br., has been collected in Noble by Mr. Van Gorder,
whose specimen was examined. It is also reported from Warren and Vigo Coun-
ties.

Arethusa bulbosa L., is referred, in the State catalogue, to Lake Co. Dr. J. M.
Coulter also reports it in the region of “‘Barrens.” This would make it a true
northern form and indicate that it grew in a cool climate and in both dry, sandy

soil and low ground. No specimens were examined. -

200

Calopogon pulchellus R. Br., is a northern species, being reported from St. Jo-
‘seph by Dr. Barnes, whose specimen is in the Purdue Herbarium; from Steuben

by E. Bradner, and from Noble by Mr. Van Gorder, who states that it is very
abundant in that county and found growing in the same locality with Pogonia
ophioglossoides.

Pogonia is represented by three species: ophioglossoides, pendula and verticillata.

P. ophioglossoides Nutt., is another true northern form. It is reported from
Lake by E. J. Hill, from Noble by W. B. Van Gorder, who reports it to be very
abundant and growing in cranberry marshes and low ground along the Elkhart
River, and from Steuben by E. Bradner.

P. pendula Lindl., is reported from the extreme northern and extreme southern
portions of the State. From Lake, by E. J. Hill, as very rare; Noble, by W. B.
Van Gorder, as rare and growing in rich woods; Steuben, by E. Bradner; Gibson

-and Posey, by Dr. Schneck, as rare, growing in damp, rich woods, and from Jetf-
ferson, by Dr. J. M. Coulter.

P. verticillata Nutt., has been reported from three counties. From Monroe by
W.S. Blatchley, Jefferson by Dr. Barnes, and from Noble by W. B. Van Gorder.
Specimens from Noble and Jefferson were examined.

Orchis spectabile L., is the most widely distributed species in the family, being
represented in twelve counties. It has been reported from the following: Jay,
Delaware, Randolph and Wayne in the east; Jefferson, Clark and Monroe in the
south; Noble and Steuben in the north; Putnam in the central; Franklin and
Dearborn in the southeast. ;

Huabenaria is represented by twelve species.

H. tridentata Hook., is reported from Lake by E. J. Hill whose specimen was
examined.

H. virescens Spreng., is reported from Steuben by E. Bradner. No specimen
of this species was examined, but its range would include it in the State list.

H. bracteata R. Br. Mr. Van Gorder reports three specimens of this species
from Noble. Dr. Stanley Coulter says that it is fairly abundant in Tippecanoe,
being reported by almost every class. Specimens from both counties were studied.

H. hyperborea R. Br., is referred to Lake in the State Catalogue, but no
authority is given for its inclusion. It is probably, however, based upon the col-
lection of E. J. Hill.

H. Hookeri Torr., is a northern form. Mr. Van Gorder reports it from Noble.

A specimen from Lake by E. J. Hill was the only one studied.

Fe

201

H, orlveulata Torr., is also a northern species, being reported only from Noble,
where it is very rare ani grows in rich woods. A specimen from this county was
examined.

H. ciliaris R. Br., is reported from St. Joseph by Dr. Barnes, from Noble by
W. B. Van Gorder and from Steuben by E. Bradner.

H. leucophea Gray, is reported from Noble by W. B. Van Gorder, from Steu-
ben by E. Bradner and from White by J. Hussey.

HI, lacera R. Br., is reported from Noble, where it grows in tamarack marshes,

Hi. psycodes Gray, is limited to the eastern half of the State, being reported
from Jay, Delaware and Randolph by Dr. Phinney; Clark by Baird and Taylor;
Jefferson by Dr. J. M. Coulter; Noble by W. B. Van Gorder and Steuben by E.
Bradner. A

H. jimbriata R. Br., has been reported only from Clark by Messrs. Baird and
Taylor.

H. peramena Gray, is a southern and western species. A specimen from Jef-
ferson was the only one studied.

Cypripedium is represented by five species.

C. candidum Muhl, has been reported from Steuben by E. Bradner, and also
from Gibson and Posey by Dr. Schneck, who states that it was at one time very
common in that locality, but is rapidly disappearing.

C, parviflorum Salisb., is reported from Lake and Noble in the north; Dearborn
in the southeast; Gibson and Posey in the southwest. In Noble it is rare and
grows in birch marshes. It was at one time common in Gibson and Posey, but is
becoming rare.

C. pubescens Willd., grows in northern and central counties. It was, at one
time, common in Franklin, but is becoming rare. Mr. Van Gorder states that it
is very common in dry woods in Noble

C. spectabile Salisb., is another extreme northern species. It is found in
Noble growing in moist, shady places of tamarack swamps and bogs. It is re-
ported also from Steuben by E. Bradner.

C. acaule Ait., has been collected in Noble by W. B. Van Gorder whose speci-
men was examined. It is also reported from Lake.

Out of the thirty-seven species named in this paper twenty-seven have been
verified by herbarium specimens. Most of the others doubtless occur in the State,
as they have been reported by good authorities.

From these facts we find that the following species are found only in the

region north of an imaginary line drawn east and west through Indianapolis:

202

Liparis Leeselii, Spiranthes latifolia, GGoodyera repens, Arethusa bulbosa, Calopo-
gon pulchellus, Pogonia ophioglossoides, Habenaria tridentata, H. virescens,
‘H. bracteata, H. Hookeri, H. orbiculata, H. ciliaris, H. leucophea, H. lacera,
Cypripedium spectabile and C. acaule. Of these the following are confined ex-
clusively to the northern tier of counties: Goodyera repens, Arethusa bulbosa,
Habenaria tridentata, H. virescens and H. hyperborea. .

The following are reported only in the region south of the above named line:
Microstylis ophioglossoides, Liparis liliifolia, Corallorhiza innata, Habenaria fim-
briata and H. peramcena. Habenaria fimbriata is confined exclusively to counties
bordering on the Ohio river.

Habenaria virescens and Goodyera repens are reported only from Steuben
County, and need verifying specimens to support the reference.

Three species, viz., Arethusa bulbosa, Habenaria tridentata and H. hyper-
borea, are reported exclusively from the western portion of the State, yet it isa
noteworthy fact that all three come from Lake County, and are doubtless ex-
clusively northern species. In all probability a careful study of the flora of the
northeastern counties would show no division between the eastern and western

species.

FIRST REPORT OF THE BIOLOGICAL STATION.

ConNTENTsS.—Drrectors’ First REPORT oF BIOLOGICAL STATION.

Part

PART

PART

Introductory.

Acknowledgments.

Equipment.

Plankton net.

Sounding apparatus.

Additional equipment.

Plan of work.

J.—Turkey Lake as A Unit oF ENVIRONMENT.
Introductory.

Orientation.

General features.

Size.

Relation of water to outflow and evaporation.

Constancy of Turkey Lake as a unit of environment.

203

A Preliminary Report on the Physical Features of Turkey Lake—D. C.

Ridgley.
Hydrographic map of Turkey Lake—C. Juday.
Temperature of Turkey Lake—J. P. Dolan.
IJ.—TueE INHABITANTS OF TURKEY JAKE.
Note on Plankton—C. H. Eigenmann.
General Fauna—C. H. Eigenmann.
Leeches—Mrs. B. C. Ridgley.
Rotifera—D. S. Kellicott.
Cladocera—E. A. Birge.
Decapoda—W. P. Hay.
Mollusca —R. E. Call.
Fishes—C. H. Eigenmann.
Batrachia—C. Atkinson.
Snakes—G. Reddick.
Turtles—C. H. Eigenmann.
Water Birds—F. M. Chamberlain.
TI].—VaRIaATION.
The study of Variation—C. H. Eigenmann.
Variation of Etheostoma caprodes—W. J. Moenkhaus.

204

TURKEY LAKE* AS A UNIT OF ENVIRONMENT, AND THE
VARIATION OF ITS INHABITANTS.

Frrst Report oF THE INDIANA University BroLocican Station. By C. H.

EIGENMANN. 1

Inrropuctory.—At the last meeting of the Academy I outlined a plan for
the future work of the zodlogical section of the biological survey of Indiana. It
was, in brief, to study some lake as a unit of environment and the variation of its
inhabitants. This plan has materialized, and I present this as the Biological Sta-
tion’s first report.

To select a suitable site I visited, in February, 1895, lakes Maxinkuckee, Eagle
and Turkey. The lakes were frozen over, and I had a good long walk over Max-
inkuckee and a sleigh ride over Turkey Lake. Turkey Lake seemed well suited
for a starting point for the work in hand. In March I again visited this lake to
look for a suitable laboratory and quarters. A laboratory was found in a large
boat-house belonging to Mr. T. J. Vawter, the owner of Vawter Park. The boat-
house is directly on the water’s edge, in about 86° 18’ east longitude and 41° 23.57
north latitude. In March the lake was still frozen over with but a narrow rim of
free water near the shore. When I again visited the lake, to make the final ar-
rangements, on the 30th of May, and captured snakes, turtles, frogs, and two spe-
cies of spawning fishes, all within a hundred feet of the laboratory door, I was
convinced that no mistake had been made in the selection of a locality. Deep
water near the laboratory, a spring at the laboratory door, the situation of the
laboratory nearly eyuidistant from either end of the lake, high land all about the
laboratory, the nearness of such large bodies of water as Lake Tippecanoe of an-
other river system, and a large number of smaller lakelets within a mile of Turkey
Lake, all contributed to make the location selected as near perfect as could be ex-

pected.

“The only recorded name of this lake seem: to be Turkey. It appears so in the govern-
ment surveys of 1838, and on all the maps published since that time. I am told that it re-
ceived that name from the fancied resemblance of the general outline of the lake to a
Thanksgiving turkey. During the last few years the lake has been known to those person-
ally acquainted with it as Lake Wawasee, and there seems to be a laudable ambition that
this latter name should supplant the homlier, but more significant, name of Turkey. The
lower lake is locally known as Syracuse Lake. :

The following letter was received from the Director of the Bureau of American
Ethnology: In response to your letter of December 6th last, I beg leave to inform you that
the word “‘ wa-wi-see,”’ ‘‘ wa-wi-si”’ or ‘‘ wa-wa-sing,’’ signifies ‘ at the bend of a river.’

Yours with respect, J.W. PowELL.

+Contributions from the Zoilogical Laboratory of the Indiana University, No. 14.

205

A twelve-room cottage was rented, in which fifteen of the members of the Station
besides my family were quartered. While a summer cottage, thus peopled, is
not a good place for consecutive thinking, this experience will also be remem-
bered with pleasure. Most of the students rented a large dining tent and hired a
cook. Others tented and boarded themselves. Their expenses ranged from $1.25
to $3 per week.

The laboratory was open from June 25 to September 1.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.—Mr. T. J. Vawter, besides placing the boat house at
our disposal, gave us camping ground just back of the laboratory, and assisted us
in various ways, both in fitting up the Station and during the entire summer.

I am under many obligations to the officers of the Baltimore & Ohio, the
Vandalia and the Michigan Division of the Big Four for transportation over their
lines leading to Vawter Park, and for other favors.

During our stay at Tippecanoe Mr. W. S. Standish assisted us very materially.
He took the whole party on a tour of general inspection about the lake from end
to end, and placed himself and his steamer at our disposal during our entire stay.

The Pottawatomie Club granted us the use of their reception room, where
some of the lectures were delivered.

Professors Birge, Kellicott and Call have prepared accounts of material col-
lected during the summer.

I must especially thank Dr. J. C. Arthur, Dr. G. Baur and Geologist Willis
Blatehley, who visited the Station to deliver lectures before the members.

Lastly, | am indebted to Mr. J. P. Dolan, superintendent of the Syracuse
schools. He first directly, and through Mr. Eli Lilly, of Indianapolis, called my
attention to Turkey Lake, met me at Warsaw, and guided me to the lake and over
and around it on my first visit. During the summer he furnished the Station
with a splendid row-boat, and by his knowledge of the lake and its surroundings
and personal acquaintance with the natives contributed much to the success of the
undertaking.

EquipMENT.—The equipment of the Station consisted of a room 18x30 feet,
with six windows on a side. In this space the twenty-two members of the Station
were provided with tables. Continuous with this available laboratory space was a
space 18x20, opening by very wide doors to the lake front. This space was util-
ized for storing apparatus. The apparatus, nearly all furnished by the Indiana
University, was as follows: Compound microscopes (Zeiss), 21 ; dissecting micro-
scopes, 3; microtome, 1; dredge, 1; plankton net, 1; Birge net, 1; dipnets; re-
agents, about 200 bottles; working library, about 200 volumes; Wilder’s protected

thermometer, 1; lamps, glassware, etc., the usual equipment of a laboratory

206

table; two boats; one sounding machine. The plankton net and sounding appa-
ratus and the method of using them may be described here.

PLANKTON Net.—An idea of our plankton apparatus and its modus operandi
can be gathered from one of the illustrations. The sounding boat was fitted in
the stern with a swinging derrick. Through the end of this was attached a
pulley, through which the rope supporting the net passed. The derrick was high
enough to allow the net to swing clear of the sides of the boat, so that when a
haul had been made, the net could be swung forward over a tray of tubes, ready
to receive the condensed plankton. The depth through which hauls were made
could be ascertained either by means of the sounding apparatus or by the direct
measurement of the plankton rope. The plankton net was built essentially as
devised by Hensen and Apstein, except that the straining net of No. 20 silk bolt-
ing cloth, Dufour’s, was permanently attached to the truncated cone of canvas.
The bucket which receives the plankton was from necessity greatly simplified, but
as no measurements were made with it, and further improvement, both in effi-
ciency and simplicity, have heen devised, I will describe this instrument as it will
be made for next summer.

The diameter of the bucket will be made one and one-half inches. Its bot-
tom will be of a sheet of brass or copper, hammered so that it will be slightly
concave or cup-shaped. A hole will be punched from the inside and provided
with a nipple soldered on the outside. The sides of the bucket will be made of
one piece of wire net of the same caliber as the No. 20 bolting cloth of Dufour.*
The upper part of the bucket will consist of a flat brass or copper ring soldered to
the wire sides, and provided with openings through which the binding screws,
fastening the whole bucket to the net, may pass. Three legs of narrow strips of cop-
per passing from the upper ring along the sides of the bucket, being also fastened to
the bottom, will give rigidity to the sides and form a support for the bucket when
it is being emptied. To the nipple at the bottom of the bucket will be attached
a short rubber tube. The opening in the bottom will be closed with a tight-fitting
rubber stopper, manipulated from aboye by a glass rod passing through its mid-
dle. The whole cost of the bucket need not exceed $3.50. The estimate received

on one of Hensen’s pattern was $25.

* Only part of the sides were made of the wire netting during the past summer. A
piece of new bolting cloth was found to have 83 per cent. of its surface solid, 17 per cent.
being open for the passage of water. The wire cloth used during the past summer had 77
per cent. of its surface solid, 23 per cent. being open for the passage of water. Repeated
trials of forcing water thick with plankton through the bolting cloth and through the wire
showed that the wire was under such conditions a more effective strainer than the cloth.

207

SounpInG APPARATUS AND METHOD oF UsinG 1T.—A flat-bottomed boat
capable of running into shore at all points was manned by three persons. One
who was an expert and steady oarsman at the oars, one in the stern to take notes
and steer, and one in the bow to make the soundings. The sounding apparatus
consisted of a wheel two inches wide with a circumference at the bottom of a flat
marginal groove of one foot ten inches. (It had been ordered with a circumference
of two feet.) On the drum was wound 175 feet of fine annealed wire. This, when
wound, formed less than two layers over all parts of the drum. The weight con-
sisted of a round pebble as large as a fist and was tied in a piece of cheese cloth.
This was a very simple and efficient piece of apparatus. The weight, if lost, could
easily be replaced by one of several others carried along, and the wire was found
sufficient for the whole summer’s work. The original cost plus the cost incident
to its operation did not exceed $1.50. The wheel was provided with a crank and
being of a definite circumference the depth was measured by the number of turns
it took to raise the weight from the bottom to the surface. This apparatus would
be efficient in any lake of moderate depth. To run a line of soandings the bear-
ing to the objective point on the distant shore were taken from the starting point
with a compass. The oarsman pulled thirty strokes, backed water and held the
boat. A sounding was made in the bow and the depth recorded by the man in
the stern. It was found that with the boat always used for the purpose, manned
as above in calm weather, when all the sounding was done, 30 strokes moved the
boat 300 feet. This method proved entirely satisfactory in short lines a mile and
a half in length. In long lines it proved unsatisfactory.

ADDITIONS TO THE EQuipMENT. A new laboratory 18x55 feet, two stories
high, will be ready for occupation by June 1 of 1896.

A partial description of new apparatus devised for next summer’s work may
be given.

One flat-bottomed boat similar to sounding boat, 12 feet, 2 oars.

One flat-bottomed boat 15 feet, four oars. Plankton apparatus.

Three glass-bottomed galvanized iron boats about 12 inches in diameter to
explore bottom.

One galvanized iron tube 2 inches by 20 feet, glass ends and funnels for fill-
ing or emptying, to determine color of water. \

Automatic recording apparatus to observe seiches.

PLAN oF WorK.—It must be understood that the undertaking was quite
expensive both in time and in money. The Indiana University endorsed the

plans and lent apparatus from the zodlogical laboratory with the provision that

208

the Station be of no expense to the University. At the end of the season the Uni-
versity paid for some of the apparatus specially designed for the Station, which
thus became the permanent property of the University. In order to defray ex-
penses, a series of courses in elementary and advanced instruction were offered
and given. Each one of the advanced students and the instructors took charge of
some particular work of the survey. The preliminary reports of some of these,
form part of this first report. The work was distributed as follows:

C. H. Eigenmann, Director.

W. J. Moenkhaus, Variations in Etheostoma.

F. M. Chamberlain, Variations in Lepomis.

J. H. Voris, Variations in Pimephales.

D. C. Ridgley, Physical Survey and Variations in Micropterus.

Bessie C. Ridgley, Variations in Labidesthes.

Thom. Large, Physical Suryey and Variations in Fundulus.

Chancy Juday, Physical Survey and Planktonist.

Curtis Atkinson, Variations in Batrachians.

H. G. Reddick, Variations in Reptiles.

O. M. Meincke, Botanist.

J. P. Dolan, Meteorologist.

The work of but few has progressed far enough to justify even ‘‘forlaiufige”
notices. We have but just begun our work, and the Station will remain at least
three years longer at the same place. Excursions were made to lakes Tippecanoe,
Webster, and Shoe in the Mississippi basins.

While much of this report is taken up with the physical features of the lake,
and the enumeration of the inhabitants, it must be borne in mind that the phy-
sical studies are merely a means to an end. That however interesting in them-
selves, to us they are only interesting as far as they form part of the environment
of the highest creatures making the lake their permanent home. It may even be
that some of the things considered or to be considered, form in reality no part of
the environment of the vertebrates, 7. e., that they in no way affect them, but
this is a matter that must be determined, and for the present we must”consider as
many things as may influence them. The things probably most directly influenc-
ing the higher forms to be found in a lake are light, temperature and food. The
last item is again conditioned as the highest forms are, so that nothing short of a
complete understanding of the conditions will be sufficient. A lake seemed to me
the ideal place because here the changes due to light, temperature, change of

water or surface are reduced to the minimum to be found in this latitude. A

209

small lake is better than a large lake, because the unknown elements can be re-
duced to a smaller number.

We have attempted to collect specimens of the higher creatures in such
numbers and sizes, that had we collected all the specimens in the lake, our results
would not be different. How far we have succeeded in this remains to be seen.

_ The main object of the Station is the study of the variation of the non-migra-
tory inhabitants. I may be permitted to quote here the plan as stated in the
circular issued by the Station last spring.

The main object of the Station will be the study of variation. For this pur-
pose a small lake will present a limited, well circumscribed locality, within which
the difference of environmental influences will be reducedtoa minimum. Thestudy
will consist in the determination of the extent of variation in the non-migratory ver-
tebrates, the kind of variation, whether continuous or discontinuous, the quantita-
tive variation, and the direction of variation. In this way it is hoped to survey
a base line which can be utilized in studying the variation of the same species
throughout their distribution. This study should be carried on for a series of
years, or at least be repeated at definite intervals to determine the annual or
periodic variation from the mean. A comparison of this variation in the same
animals in other similarly limited and well circumscribed areas, and the correla-
tion of the variation of a number of species in these areas will demonstrate the
influence of the changed environment, and will be a simple, inexpensive substi-
tute for much expensive experimental work.

For this work the situation of Lake Wawasee, surrounded as it is by other
lakes, some of them belonging to other river basins will be admirably adapted.

In connection with this study of the developed forms, the variation in the de-
velopment itself will receive attention. For instance the variation in segmenta-
tion, the frequency of such variation, and the relation of such variation in the
development to the variation in the adult, and the mechanical causes affecting
variation.

This plan will be moditied as our knowledge grows and our experiences dictate.

PART I. THE LAKE AS A UNIT OF ENVIRONMENT.

Intropuctory.—A lake is a depression in the ground filled with water more
or less stagnant.

A glance at a good map of North America will show the following peculiar-
ities in the distribution of lakes:

I. A large number of lakes are found in Florida.

(14)

210

II. A host of them are distributed in northern United States and Canada,
including the greatest collection of fresh waters on the globe.

If. A good number in the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mountains.

The remainder of the country from the southern boundary of Georgia to the
northern boundary of Pennsylvania west to the Rockies is practically free from
lakes, except

IV. along either side of the lower Mississippi and Red Rivers.

These four groups of lakes are due to four different methods of lake forma-
tion. but all four are indicative of the fact that the lake-rich areas have under-
gone recent change.

The first series is due to the comparatively recent elevation of an irregular
ocean floor. The second series is due to the action of ice in the irregular gouging
and irregular dumping of debris. These are all of recent date, probably none of
them being over 10,000 years old. The third series is due to the exigencies of
mountain formations, including in this plication and plication hollows, craters
and lava flows and the settling of small areas. The fourth is due to the change
of channel on the part of the Mississippi and to the debris brought down by the
Red River which it has deposited at the mouths of its tributaries.*

Of course the lakes of one of these regions need not be all of the same origin.
Small lakelets around Lake Tahoe in the Sierra Nevada are certainly due to the
gouging action of glaciers coming from a steep incline onto a comparatively level
plain. Generally speaking, mountain regions, unless, as in the case of the
Appalachian, they have outgrown their lake stage, contain lakes of the greatest
diversity of origin. .

Lakes are of interest to the geologist to determine the particular way in
which a general cause has been modified to produce a particular effect at any
particular lake; to the physicist to account for the various colors, temperatures,
pressures, reflections, refractions, etc.; to the chemist to determine the degree of
concentration of minerals and gases in solution; they are of interest to the
naturalist to determine the organic inhabitants, their quantity and kind and
their life histories; to the cecologist and evolutionist to determine the geological,
physical and chemical characters in their effect on the organic inhabitants and
these on each other.

Lakes may therefore be studied for other than purely economic interests,

such as water supplies and highways for commerce or location of summer resorts.

* The facts for the foregoing have largely been drawn from Russell’s American Lakes.
Ginn & Co., 1895.

211

ORIENTATION.—A hight of land (morain) extends from the northeastern corner
ot Indiana directly southwest to south of Albion in Noble County, and from here
westward between Turkey Lake and Tippecanoe Lake, then northwest through
Nappanee in Elkhart County to near South Bend. In its range from the north-
eastern corner to south of Albion this ridge separates the Lake Michigan from the
Lake Erie basin. West of this it separates Lake Michigan basin from the Ohio
basin, and still farther west from the Mississippi basin proper. In the eastern
half of Indiana this ridge is exceedingly rich in lakes. Most of these lie on the
northern side of the divide, but about the headwaters of the Tippecanoe and Blue
rivers many are also found on the south side of the divide. A glance at the map
leaves the impression that this region is low and swampy, while in reality this
whole region forms one of the highlands of Indiana, a considerable part being
over 1,000 feet high.

Turkey Lake is the most western lake of this series lying north of the divide.

It lies in Turkey Creek Township, in the northeastern corner of Kosciusko

’ County. South of the ridge separating the Mississippi and St. Lawrence basins

at this point lie Webster and Tippecanoe lakes, and south of these the Barber lakes
and Shoe Lake. Between the crest of the ridge aud Turkey Lake the country is
pitted and grooved. Many of the pits are filled with water, forming ponds of
various sizes. One.of these has recently been drained. Many more lakelets are
found about the head of Turkey Lake, but the topography of this region will be
dealt with in one of the following reports. This whole region gives one the im-
pression that it has changed but little since the ice left it.

GENERAL FEATURES.—The lake has a general trend from southeast to north-
west. It is divided by a wide stretch of very shallow water, which is fast being
reclaimed by various water plants. A deeper channel extends through this
swampy region, connecting the upper and lower portions.

The greatest length from the head of Turkey Lake to the end of Syracuse
Lake is tive and one-half miles. The width, measured at right angles to such a
line, rarely exceeds a mile. The greatest width is just east of Ogden Point, where
it measures one and a half miles. The length of Turkey Lake from Mineral
Point to Conkling Hill is about four miles. The total shore line is between twenty
and twenty-one miles.

The excellent map prepared by Messrs. Juday and Ridgley, based as it is on
numerous soundings, shows the lake bottom to be of the same rolling character as
the surrounding region. A lowering of the surface of the lake ten feet would
make the long stretch of territory between Syracuse and Turkey lakes dry land,
and make the lake entirely landlocked.

212

The similarity of the lake bottom to the surrounding country, which seems to
have been little changed by erosion, makes it quite certain that the lake basin is
due to the irregular dumping in a terminal moraine, parts of it containing deeper
kettle holes.

The lake was never much more extensive than now. There are evidences
that the surface was a few feet higher. These will be considered in a later report.
The lake is surrounded by extensive swamps on the east, north, and west; these
would practically all be covered by water should the surface of the lake be raised
five feet. The hydrographic basin is so small that at present but seven inches of
water are removed from the surface by outflow, while thirty are removed by evap~
oration. The lake having a surface of 5.6 square miles, an increase of this sur-
face by =, or about one and a third square miles, would be sufficient to allow
all the water coming into the lake to be lost by evaporation except in wet seasons-
The surface of the lake, therefore, can not have been very much higher than at
present if the present precipitation and evaporation have been constant since the
ice left this region. The lake has been about six or seven feet lower, having been
raised to its present height by the building of a dam across its outlet. The changes
due to this dam and to the encroachment of plants will be considered in another
report.

Size.—The total area now under water is 5.659722 square miles. This area
was obtained by weighing a sheet of paper of uniform thickness and of the shape
of the whole area to be calculated, and comparing this weight with the weight of
a square of the same paper covering a square mile. This method is much more
expeditious than calculating such an irregular body as these lakes in the absence
of a planimeter, and quite as exact. ‘The same method was used in determining

the areas below which there is a certain depth of water, with the following results:

Depth of Area in Amount of Water
Water. Square Miles. in Cubic Miles.
TETAS ee aa singe ane moe ome dae corso sr achO or B20 .00310395

OHO. Eeiiae wicks Seo toe eeroat Dantes apna Hane Pot -59027 .00167690

DAT SSY a ets oe eae yentosean clo cher a icheite eo auto Cac RIOR c .62500 .00314867

CYjEU (nian Sa enn 5 oS edmeo boe.c Gab ome S ocbo ot .45833 .00303817

ZN VR Oi AO Rel eee orn MOI OG Dano oda codd od .39583, .00337165

ILCs By oop elom oo oe pd ms ooms ecmomeo oto aot .22918 .00231162

GO LOGO Ais ait ache cies eke seria chee) era lee Mane 0694 .00082026

5.64576 .0174712
Brror tobe. distributed® . 24). 245-262 2-e- .1396

5.65972

oe

213

Forel (Faune profonde des lacs Suisses, p. 5) proposed to estimate the volume
of a lake by comparing it with a cone whose height is the maximum depth, and
whose base is the surface of the lake. Estimated in this way he found the cone
gave but .67 of the actual volume of Lake Geneva. A similar estimate for Tur-
key Lake will give us .024654 cubic miles, or considerably more than the actual
value. The average depth obtained by dividing the cubic contents by the surface
gives us 16.6 feet. All these measurements were made during the summer of 1895
when the lake was below the average height, so that 17 feet will probably be nearer
the average depth. It will be found that by another method Mr. Ridgley obtained
21 feet as the average depth.

Over half the area contains water less than 10 feet deep. A reduction of
thirty feet below the present level would reduce the lake to a Y-shaped figure ex-
tending nearly from end to end of the present lake. One of the horns of the Y
would extend to Crow’s Bay, the other to Mineral Point. The base of the figure
would lie to the west of Black Stump Point. Between the horns of the Y we
should have a peninsula continuous with Morrison’s Island, which is the last of a
series of islands left in the lake. During the ancient history of the lake the land
about Buttermilk Point was an island, and ridges of land east and west of this
formed the islands. One of these is seen in the illustration. The detailed descrip-
tion of the hydrography of the lake will be given in the map and Mr. R:dgley’s
report.

RELATION OF WATER TO OUTFLOW AND EvAporation.—Without any addi-
tion to the water of the lake the quantity now in the lake would be sufficient to
supply the present outlet for 26 years.*

In other words, every cubic foot of water entering the lake will remain in it
on an average of twenty-six years, unless removed by evaporation. Ridgley esti-
mates that the inflow from springs equals the outflow, yet the lake was observed
to fall on an average of one-quarter inch per day, rising of course during rains.
That the outflow will not account for the fall of the lake is sufficiently shown by
the fact that the calculated fall due to the outflow is but .0016 inches per day.
(See Ridgley’s report). The remainder of the fall must be due to evaporation
and seepage, very largely to the former. Attempts were made to estimate the
amount of evaporation from the surface, but they proved failures. It is self-evi-
dent that simply exposing water in an open dish will not answer the purpose of
estimating the amount of evaporation in the lake for the reason that water in a

shallow dish is heated to very different degrees from the water of the lake. An

“Based on Ridgley’s and Juday’s estimate of the outflow, and my estimate of the lake’s
contents.

214

apparatus which promised to measure the evaporation accurately and at the same
time do several other things was devised, but it proved a failure because it could
not be well protected in rough weather and still maintain natural conditions.
The apparatus which we hope we shall be able to perfect is as follows:

A glass jar 9 inches in diameter and 12 inches high with a small hole near the
bottom and open at the top is sunk into the lake to within two inches of its top.
When the water in the jar has reached the level of the lake water a tight rubber
stopper is inserted in the small opening from without. The column of water in
such a jar would be as near as possible under the same conditions as the surround- -
ing water, and the fall of the water in the jar, plus the amount of rainfall for the
period, would very closely approximate the amount of evaporation. This appa-
ratus would also enable one to get at the amount of water received from springs
and other sources aside from rain falling directly into the lake. The amount of
reduction due to outflow from the lake can readily be calculated by observing the
outlet. Mr. Ridgley has estimated it at .0017 inches per day. If at the end of
thirty days there was a difference between the water in the jar and the water in
the lake, less the calculated reduction of the lake due to outflow, the difference
would represent the inflow from springs and other tributaries during thirty days.

The lake is frozen over about four months in a year. During the remaining
eight months evaporation is going on at a maximum rate of one-fourth inch per
day and a minimun of 0. Taking one-eighth inch per day as the average, we
obtain about thirty inches as the amount of the annual evaporation. At this rate
the lake, if without income, would become dry in twenty-eight years. Four
years would reduce the lake to half its present size.

Outflow and evaporation operating together would reduce the level at the fol-

lowing rate:

BONN ear rae Reduction by Reduction by :
Time in Years. Guilaw: Evaporation. Total Reduction.
3 Tees eShaite dotte loins 9 ft. Some

3 4 7 6 ia! 6
2 2 2 5 8 2
2 4 8 5 9 8
2 6 8 5 11 8
1 5 2 2 6 Uta 6
1 about 17 a 2 6 10 1

14 33 2 35 68

215

These figures do not claim any great degree of accuracy; they simply help
to form an estimate of the length of time it would take both the outflow and
evaporation together to empty the lake. But while it would take both the out-
flow and the evaporation fourteen years to empty the lake, one-fourteenth does
not express the per cent. of the water of the lake changed annually under present
conditions. Since the vertical reduction is the same whether the surface is large
or small, it is evident that a much larger amount would be evaporated while the
surface is large. In reality, if a bulk were to be taken from the lake equal to the
outflow, plus the evaporation over the present area, about six years would be suf-
ficient to empty the lake, or, to put it in other words, during average years every
cubic foot of water entering the lake remains on an average six years. During
very wet seasons the amount of loss may reach a much larger proportion of the
whole contents.

Constancy oF TurRKEY LAKE as A Unit OF ENVIRONMENT.—From the
preceding chapter it must be evident that the conditions in the lake, from month
to month and from year to year are but little changed, that the conditions, as far
as the water is concerned, are remarkably constant, especially if we compare these
conditions to those obtaining in the lower courses of such rivers as the Wabash or
the Lllinois.

In the early part of this century a dam was built across the mouth of the
outlet forming an effective barrier to the ingress of fishes from below. The lakes
being at the headwaters, nothing has entered it from above. A few forms were
planted in recent years by Col. Lilly of Indianapolis.

The level of the lake was changed by the building of the dam, and as late as
1840 trees were standing in water six to seven feet deep. Many of the stumps
still remain. Their location and the effect of the dam upon the lake will be dis-

cussed elsewhere.

-

WORKS CONSULTED.

Agassiz, A. Hydrographic Sketch of Lake Titicaca. Proc. Am. Acad. Art
and Sci, XI, 11, 283-292; 1876.

Agassiz, L. Lake Superior.

Belloc, M. BE. Les lacs de Caillaouas et ceux de la region des Gourgs-Blanes
et de Cladabide. Assoc. Francaise 9 Aout, 1893.

Belloc, M. E. Nouvelles recherches lacustres feites au Port de Venasque dans
le haut Aragon et dans la haute Catalogne. Assoc. Francaise 9 Aout, 1893.

Comstoc, C. B. Professional papers corps of engineers U. S. A., No. 24,
Primary triangulations U. S. lake survey. Washington, 1882.

216

Davis, W. M. The classification of lakes.. Supplement in Russell, 1895.

Evermann, B. W. The investigation of Rivers and Lakes with Reference to
the Fish Environment. Bull. U. S. Fish. Comm., 69-73, 1893.

Forbes, S. A. Biennial Report Illinois State Laboratory, 1893-94.

Forel, F. A. Algemeine Biologie eines Siisswassersees, in Zacharias die Thier
und Pflanzenwelt des Siisswassers. Leipzig, 1891.

Forel, F. A. Le Leman, Tome premier, 1892; Tome second, 1895. Lau-
sanne.

Le Conte, John. Physical studies of Lake Tahoe. Overland Monthly, 1883,
1884.

Levette, G. M. Observations on the depth and temperature of some of the
lakes of Northern Indiana. Geological Survey of Indiana, 1875.

Reighard, J. E. A biological examination of Lake St. Claire. Bull. Mich.
Fish Comm.

Russel, I. C. Lakes of North America. Ginn & Co., Boston, 1895.

Seligo, A. Hydrobiologische Untersuchungen I. Schrifte der naturf., Ges.

Danzig, N. F. Bd. VII, 1143-89, 1890.

Tarr. Ralph S. Lake Cayuga a rock basin. Geol. Soc. Am.,.Bull., Vol. 5,
1894, pp. 339-356.

Whipple, G. C. Some observations of the temperature of surface waters,
and the effect of temperature on the growth of micro-organisms. J. New Engl.
Water Works Assoc. LX, No. 4.

é
A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE PHysicAL FEATURES OF TURKEY LAKE. By
DC eRinGEny.—

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

Most of the data on which this preliminary report is based were collected
during the summer of 1895 at the Indiana University Biological Station at Vawter
Park, Kosciusko County, Indiana, under the direction of Dr. Carl H. Eigenmann.
I wish to acknowledge the aid of his valuable suggestions, both in the collection

of the data and the preparation of the report. I wish to acknowledge also the

* Contributions from the Zodlogical Laboratory of the Indiana University, No. l5a.

PEATE I: ,

Inp1ana UNIVERSITY BioLoGic4sL STATION.

No. 2.

INTERIOR OF THE LABORATORY.

PLATE Il.

No. 3.

No 4.

Buack Stump Point FROM THE LABORATURY. PLANKTON Boar.

PLATE lil.

No. 5.

Looxinc TowarpD OGDEN PornT FROM THE LasoraTORY. PLANKTONIBOaT IN. FOREWATER.

No. 6.

OcGpEN Pornt rrom NEAR THE PoTTawaToMIEe CLus-HovwsE.

PLATE IV.

StupDENTS’ Camp IN VAWTER PARK.

PLATE V.

“IL ‘AMV S,1TAZLUVH ‘1 ‘ONVT 8. 1TAZLUVH
“Il ‘av S ULAZLUVH “aGNVISI G10 “H4VT S UHdOOH
“AMVT AMMAN “UNV SXVO

8.

No.

“HNV'T AUMUAT, 1O GVAF{ LY ANIVUOP, HOUT MALA TVUANAY

PLATE VI.

No. 9.

West Beacu oF Morrison’s ISLAnpD.

No. 10.

Crow’s Bay SHowine Ice BEACHES.

PLATE VII.

No. 11.

CEDAR Porn.

No. 12.

Beacu West oF CEDAR POINT.

PLATE VIII.

No. 13.

In THE CHANNEL BETWEEN TURKEY AND Syracuse LaAkEs.

No, 14.

Av THE HEAD oF Syracusk Lakr.

217

assistance of Mr. Chauncey Juday, Mr. Thomas Large and others in taking the
soundings of the lake; of Mr. Juday, in making a survey of the shore and for
copies of the accompanying map with which he has furnished me and from which
the report on the topography of the bottom is largely drawn; of Mr. J. P. Dolan
for records of daily observations of lake phenomena and for the history of the
‘lake in years past; of the officials of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad who fur-
‘nished data with reference to elevations and whose generosity has made it possible

for me to make frequent visits to the lake during the winter.

GENERAL FEATURES OF THE LAKE.

Turkey Lake is made up of two parts, connected by a channel. The channel
is three-quarters of a mile in length and from one hundred feet to a half mile in
width. Its depth varies from one to five feet. The part of the Lake north of the
channel is known as Syracuse Lake. It includes an area,of three-quarters of a
square mile, which is approximately one-eighth of the area of the entire Lake.
The larger part of the Lake, to the south and east of the channel, may be known
as the main lake.

The general direction of the lake is from southeast to northwest. Its greatest
length is five and a half miles, and its greatest width at a right angle to its length
is one and a half miles. The entire shore line is between twenty and twenty-one
miles in length, and the area of the lake is a little more than five and a half
square miles. No very prominent irregularities occur around Syracuse Lake,
while in the main lake a number of evident indentations are to be found. The
east end of the main-lake is made up of three bays. Johnson’s Bay, extending to
the north, is one mile long and three-eighths of a mile wide. Ogden Point lies to
the west of the entrance of this bay and Cedar Point to the east. The east end of
the main lake is Crow’s Bay, with Cedar Point on its north and Morrison’s Island
on its south. Jarrett’s Bay extends to the southeast, with Morrison’s Island to
the east of its entrance and Clark’s Point to the west. In the west end of the
main lake is Conkling Bay, circular in form and with the surrounding marsh a
half mile in diameter. It lies south of Conkling Hill. These are the most prom-
inent indentations. Between the channel and Ogden Point, which are two and a
quarter miles apart, the shore line curves gently northward three-quarters of a
mile, forming Sunset Bay. Between Clark’s Point and Black Stump Point, one
and three-quarters miles to the northwest, the shore line bends southward one-

third of a mile.

218 a

The following places are located for convenience in referring to different
parts of the shore line and lake: The town of Syracuse lies on the west side of
Syracuse Lake near Turkey Creek, the outlet of the lake. Pickwick Park is on
the north shore of the main lake a half mile east of the channel. Eppert’s is
1,000 feet east of Pickwick Park, and nearly a half mile further east is Jones’
Landing. Three-fourths of a mile east of Jones’ Landing is Wawasee. Jarrett’s —
Landing is at the middle of the southern extremity of Jarrett’s Bay. Vawter®
Park is a half mile west of Clark’s Point and directly south of Wawasee. The
laboratory of the Indiana University Biological Station is located on the shore of

the lake near the west end of Vawter Park.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE BOTTOM.

The data from which the topography of the bottom has been determined con-
sist of numerous soundings taken throughout the lake between June 29 and Au- -
gust 21, 1895. The water was very low during this period. For our purpose we
may consider all soundings taken when the lake had the level of July 6, 1895.
This level has been marked and is used for a bench line from which to read the
fluctuations in level On August 21 the lake had receded 5 inches from this level.
Soundings were taken along 28 lines in the main lake and 4 lines in Syracuse
Lake. These soundings were taken about 300 feet apart along all lines. Where
water deeper than 60 feet was found, numerous soundings were made to determine
the extent of such areas. Below is given the number and location of each line
along which soundings were taken, except No. 3 and No. 9 in the main lake,
neither of which was used in drawing contour lines or in computing average
depth.

No. of
Line.

DWrID Ore De

He wre

IN MAIN LAKE.

LocaTION.

7

From Biological Station to Ogden Point, North 37° East.

From Ogden Point to east end of Crow’s Bay, South 53° East.

From Biological Station to Wawasee, North. _

From Wawasee to Black Stump Point, South 52° West.

From Biological Station to Cedar Point, North 64° East.

From Cedar Point to Morrison’s Island, South.

From Morrison’s Island to northeast corner of Crow’s Bay, North 8° East.

From south end of Jarrett’s Bay to mouth of Bay, North 7° West.

From east margin of Ogden Point to north end of Johnson’s Bay, North
1° West.

From north end of Johnson’s Bay to mouth of Bay, South 10° East.

From east side of Ogden Point across Johnson’s Bay, North 60° East.

From middle of east side of Johnson’s Bay, across the Bay, North 79°
West.

From Clark’s Point to Morrison’s Island, East.

From mouth of Turkey Creek across Jarrett’s Bay, West.

From a point 3 of a mile west of Biological Station across the lake, North.

From Clark’s Point to east side of Ogden Point, North 53° East.

From point a half mile east of Biological Station, North.

From Ogden Point to Black Stump Point, North 83° West.

Fiom west side of Jarrett’s Bay to Mineral Point, East.

From Clark’s Point to east side of Johnson’s Bay, North 30° East.

From north end of No. 22 to Ogden Point, South 85° West,

From point one-half mile west of Wawasee across lake, South.

From Black Stump Point, North.

From Eppert’s South.

One-quarter of a mile west of No. 26 and parallel with it.

One-quarter of a mile west of No. 27 and parallel with it.

IN SYRACUSE LAKE.

LocaTION.

From middle of east end of Syracuse Lake, South 80° West.

From point 700 feet southeast of west extremity of Lake, North 70° East.

From a point on north shore one-half mile east of west extremity of lake,
South 10° West. me

From west extremity of lake, South 80° East.

In the accompanying map, constructed by Mr. Juday, the hypothetical con-

tour lines of the bottom of the lake were drawn from the soundings along the

above mentioned lines, and numerous other soundings taken to determine the ex-

tent of certain depths of water. The contour lines indicate intervals of ten feet

220

in depth. From the same data were constructed ten vertical sections of the
bottom. In constructing the vertical sections a base line was drawn from Pick-
wick Park to Mineral Point, and seven of the vertical sections, from ‘‘A” to
‘“G” inclusive, were made at right angles to this line at intervals varying from
one-quarter of a mile to two-thirds of a mile. Vertical section ‘“‘H” is a short
distance east of No. 18, ‘‘I” is along No. 4, and “‘J” along No. 25 of the lines
of soundings in the main lake. The remarks on the topography of the bottom
are drawn largely from a study of these contour lines and vertical sections.

The average depth of the lake, found by taking the average for the soundings
at regular intervals of 300 feet along the lines of soundings is 21 feet 6 inches in
the main lake, 13 feet 6 inches in Syracuse Lake, and 20 feet 5 inches for the
entire lake. By a different method, as explained in his report, Dr. Eigenmann
has computed the average depth at a little more than 17 feet. The maximum
depth found in the main lake is 68 feet 7 inches, one-quarter of a mile from the
southern extremity of Jarrett’s Bay; 1,000 feet northeast of the Biological Station
a depth of 66 feet 5 inches was found; three-quarters of a mile north and one-
quarter of a mile west of the Station the water is 60 feet deep; and a half mile
northwest of Black Stump Point it is 63 feet 3 inches deep. The deepest water
found by us in Syracuse Lake is 28 feet 10 inches. A depth of 35 feet is recorded
for this lake in the State Geologist’s Report for 1875.

An examination of the contour lines of the map shows that if we consider
water having a depth of 30 feet or more as deep water, we have in the main lake
four areas of deep water varying greatly in size, and connected with each other
by channels.

In Crow’s Bay the greatest depth found was 49 feet 9 inches. These waters
enter the main body of the lake through a channel deeper than 30 feet, and 200
feet wide at its narrowest point. This channel flows across the mouth of John-
son’s Bay, meeting a short arm deeper than 30 feet from that bay, and comes
within 600 feet of the southeast extremity of Ogden Point. ‘This channel con-
tinues less than 400 feet wide to a point two-thirds of a mile west of Ogden Point
where it joins the channel deeper than 30 feet from Jarrett’s Bay. The deepest
water in Jarrett’s Bay is 68 feet 7 inches, and the area deeper than 30 feet is one-
fourth of a mile wide, extending north beyond the mouth of the bay and to
within 700 feet of its southern shore. This 30-foot depth joins the main body of
the lake a half mile north of Clark’s Point where the channel 30 feet deep is only
100 feet wide. Turning to the west, 1,000 feet northeast of the Biological Station
this channel deepens to 66 feet 5 inches, and widens to a half mile directly north

of the Station. Here it meets the narrow channel 30 feet deep from Crow’s Bay.

221

‘The two channels merge into one and form an area of water from 30 feet to 66
feet in depth, one mile in length and with a maximum width of three-quarters of
amile. This area of deep water lies nearer the south shore, its center being one-
third the distance from the south shore to the north shore. Near Black Stump
Point the deep water narrows abruptly from the north, and 500 feet out from
Black Stump Point its width is but 200 feet. West of Black Stump Point the
deep water widens abruptly to the north to a width of one-quarter of a mile and
deepens to 63 feet 3 inches. West of this the area of deep water narrows again
and the water having a depth of 30 feet ends one-quarter of a mile southeast of
the entrance to the channel between the main lake and Syracuse Lake.

Between the deep channels from Crow’s Bay and Jarrett’s Bay the area having
a depth less than 30 feet is one and one-quarter miles long, 1,300 feet wide, and
contains an area one mile long and 500 feet wide over which the water is less
than 10 feet deep.

If the level of the lake were lowered 30 feet there would remain four bodies
of water connected by channels from 100 feet to 200 feet wide and less than 10 feet
deep. These four bodies of water would be: (1) a small area in Crow’s Bay with
a maximum depth of 19 feet; (2) about one-half of Jarrett’s Bay with a maxi-
mum depth of 38 feet: (3) the main body of the lake, its width decreased almost
one-half, and its maximum depth being 36 feet; (4) a small area northwest of
Black Stump Point with a maximum depth of 33 feet. Lower the level of the
lake 10 feet more, that is, 40 feet below its present level and these four bodies of
water would remain as separate lakes, the connecting channels now being dry.

Great changes in the shore line will take place if the level of the lake be
lowered to a much less extent. By observing the map it will be seen that a low-
ering of the level of the lake to the amount of 10 feet would move the shore line
to the first contour line. This would leave one-half the bottom of Johnson’s Bay
dry land; it would move the shore line along Crow’s and Jarrett’s Bays from 400
feet to 1,000 feet into the lake. Clark’s Point would extend 2,000 feet further
north, and the distance between Clark’s Point and Ogden Point would be reduced
from 4,000 feet to 1,800 feet. The south shore line from Clark’s to Conkling Bay
would be moved northward distances varying from 250 feet at Iron Spring Point
to 1,000 feet along the shore west of Black Stump Point. The north shore line
from Ogden Point to the Channel would be moved southward from 900 feet to
2,000 feet, and at one place—between Jones’ Landing and Black Stump Point—
4,000 feet, reducing the width of the lake at this place from 1 mile to 500 feet.
The Channel between the main lake and Syracuse Lake would be drained, and
the greater part of Syracuse Lake would become dry land.

222

Judging from the contour of the land, the level of the lake has probably
never been more than 5 feet below its present level.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE SHORE.

The shore of 20 miles is about equally divided between dry shores and marshy
shores. The shores of Syracuse Lake and of the west end of the main lake were.
not carefully surveyed, but accurate measurements and notes were taken of the
shore line of the east end of the main lake from a point on the north shore three-
eighths of a mile to the northwest of Wawasee, around the east end of the lake to
a point directly south of the starting-point. These data were used in mapping a
ten-foot elevation line around this part of the lake. For this reason the shores of
the east end of the lake are treated more in detail than the others.

The dry shores are composed of sand and gravel. Some are less than 5 feet
high, but more often they are abrupt bluffs from 10 to 30 feet high, or hills which
ascend rapidly to a height of 40 feet. The west, north and northeast shores of
Syracuse Lake are bluffs or hills. The east shore is marshy. The shore south of
Turkey Creek, the outlet, is also marshy, and these marshes extend along both
sides of the Channel between Syracuse Lake and the main lake. Pickwick Park
is located on a gravelly shore less than 10 feet above the level of the lake. Be-
tween Pickwick Park and Eppert’s is the Gordoniere Marsh extending north-
west to the Channel. Pickwick Park and the land to the west of it is sur-
rounded by the main lake, the Channel and the Gordoniere Marsh and is known
as British Island. The shore between Eppert’s and Jones’ is mainly marsh. From
Jones’ one-quarter of a mile east the shore is a bluff from 10 feet to 15 feet high.
From this point almost to Wawasee the land near the shore is at present a dry
marsh. The blutf at Wawasee is 15 feet high and extends along the shore 1,700
feet. This bluff extends back from shore 500 feet where it joins the marsh which
stretches along the shore to Ogden Island, and also to the east to Johnson’s Bay.
Ogden Island, which is surrounded by the lake only on the southwest side and on
all other sides by marshes, extends a half mile to the noithwest of Ogden Point
and is from 300 feet to 1,000 feet wide. Its greater part is from 3 feet to 6 feet
above the level of the lake. About one-half of that part of the island which
touches the lake is a bluff from 10 feet to 18 feet high. The area higher than 10
feet is 1,100 feet long and from 175 feet to 400 feet wide. The marsh around
Johnson’s Bay is known asthe Johnson Marsh. It skirts the southeast and east

sides of Ogden Island, surrounds a piece of timbered land 700 feet in diameter

223

north of Ogden Island known as Oak Island, borders the bay on the north, send-
ing off a broad marsh across the country to the northeast, and continuing along
the east side of the bay with a width of a half mile, joins a narrow marsh ex-
tending to the southeast. On the east side of Johnson’s Bay are two bluffs, one
reaching a height of 23 feet and extending from Cedar Point northwest one-
quarter of a mile along the shore and having 500 feet for its greatest width; the
other is 1,000 feet further to the northwest, and is between 10 feet and 15 feet
high, 700 feet long and 150 feet wide. Lying to the northeast of these bluffs and
extending between them is an arm of the Johnson Marsh from 50 feet to 800 feet in
width, which joins Crow’s Bay just east of Cedar Point. From the northeast cor-
ner of Crow’s Bay the bluffs extend south along the east end of the lake for a
half mile. They are from 10 feet to 27 feet in height. The 10-foot elevation line
then leaves the shore and extends almost south to Turkey Creek, leaving an area
of well timbered dry land along the lake with an elevation of from 3 feet to 10
feet and attaining a width of 1,000 feet.

The land on both sides of Turkey Creek, the inlet of the lake, is marshy.
Lying to the north of the mouth of the creek this marsh is 400 feet wide and ex-
tends one-quarter of a mile north along the lake. This marsh is separated from
the marsh along the east margin of Morrison’s Island by a shallow channel of
water. The west side of Morrison’s Island is a bluff reaching a height of 21 feet.
From Turkey Creek to Buttermilk Point the shore is skirted with marsh from 200
feet to 400 feet wide. Mineral Point is 200 feet from the lake and ascends abruptly
from the marsh to a height of 25 feet. A half mile south of Turkey Creek the
lake is entered by Jarrett’s Creek which is the outlet of a chain of small lakes
lying southeast of Jarrett’s Bay. This stream flows through a marsh 400 feet wide,
and all the small lakes are bordered by marsh land. The marsh along the lake
ends at Buttermilk Point, and for a quarter of a mile the shore is dry and
sandy. The land along this shore is not a perpendicular bluff, but rises rapidly
from the lake to the south and reaches a height of 40 feet at a distance of 400 feet
from the shore. The west side of Jarrett’s Bay is skirted by a marsh from 140 feet
to 1,000 feet wide. West of the marsh is a bluff from 10 feet to 15 feet high cqn-
tinuous with the land south of the bluffs of Vawter Park. West from Clark’s the
south shore of the lake is a perpendicular bluff reaching a height of 29 feet in
Vawter Park and extending west beyond the point where our survey of the sum-
merended. This bluff is cut by a ravine 50 feet wide at the Biological Labora-
tory and by a small stream entering the lake a quarter of a mile west of Vawter
Park. The shore extending west to and around Black Stump Point is from 5 feet
to 15 feet above the level of the lake. The high bluffs from Clark’s Point to Black

224

Stump Point is by far the longest stretch of highland along the shore, being nearly
two miles in length. Conkling Bay during the summer months contained an area
of water about 300 feet in diameter and 20 feet deep, bordered by wide stretches
of marsh containing a few small pools of very shallow water. To the north of
Conkling Bay, Conkling Hill ascends rapidly to a height of 40 feet or more. This
hill is conical in shape and slopes to the water on the south and east, and to marsh
and lowland on the north and west.

It will be noticed that the perpendicular bluffs of the main lake face to the
south at Jones’ Landing; to the southwest at Wawasee, Ogden Island and Cedar
Point; to the west along Crow’s Bay and Morrison’s Island; and to the north
along Vawter Park. The high hills at Jarrett’s and Conkling’s are without pre-
cipitous shores. Al] of these bluffs are bordered by wide areas of shallow water,
and it wiil be noticed that the 10-foot contour line of the bottom does not approach
the shore much nearer than 400 feet, and is usually much further from shore. As
a rule, the bluffs facing to the south and southwest have a much wider margin of
shallow water than those facing to the west or north.

Wherever there is a long stretch of shore, bordered by marsh, there is no
beach formed, but the muddy bottom of the lake merges into the mud of the
marsh along the shore line. Along all the dry shores, and along the marshes of
small extent lying between bluffs, the beach is composed of gravel aud sand.
This gives a gravelly or sandy beach around Syracuse Lake} except on the east
and southwest; along the north shore of the main lake, from the Channel to
Ogden Point; along the east shore of Johnson’s Bay, from Cedar Point northwest
to the extremity of the dry shores; from the northeast corner of Crow’s Bay to a
point east of the north end of Morrison’s Island; along the south end of Jarrett’s
Bay; from Clark’s Point along the south shore for a short distance beyond Black
Stump Point. These beaches along the bluffs are formed by erosion and deposit
along the base of the bluffs. The sandy and gravelly beaches along marshes are
found where the adjoining bottom of the lake is composed of sand and gravel.
These beaches have most probably been formed by the action of ice.

Around the main lake a number of beach formations of this kind are found.
From Wawasee a half mile west the beach is composed of sand and gravel. It
is about three feet above the water’s level, and is higher than the land back of it.
From the east end of the bluffs of Wawasee to the dry land of Ogden Island is a
distance of a half mile, and the marsh along the shore is very little, if any,
higher than the level of the lake. Between the marsh and lake is a beach com-
posed of sand and gravel. This beach is two feet or more above the level of the

water, and 30 feet wide. The beach along the bluff of Ogden Island is of the

a

225

usual formation, but this beach continues along the shore for one-fourth of a mile
beyond the bluff as a very sandy beach a foot or more above the water’s level and
50 feet wide; then the beach grows narrower and is on the Jevel of the water, the
sand becomes less plentiful, and the beach is composed of a small amount of
coarse gravel and then merges into the marsh, where the shore line of Ogden
Point turns north. The same formation is found running a short distance north
of the bluffs on the east side of Johnson’s Bay.

Between the two bluffs on the east side of Johnson’s Bay is a beach 1,000 feet
in length, with the lake on one side and a marsh containing pond lilies on the
other. This beach is from 20 feet to 80 feet wide, 3 feet above the water’s level,
and composed of sand and coarse gravel. The margin of the beach further
from the lake is the higher, and is covered with a growth of willows, cedar and
other small trees. Along the lowlands of Crow’s Bay is a broad beach composed
of coarse gravel about three feet high and on a level with the land back of it.
Along the south end of the west side of Morrison’s Island, which is lowland, the
beach is from 15 feet to 25 feet wide, three feet high, and composed of coarse
gravel. The beaches along marshes and lowland are broader and higher, and
contain much more material than those along bluffs.

The action of the ice is an important factor in the formation of these beaches.
For the explanation of the action of ice on beaches as well as the formation of
ice cracks, I am indebted to I. C. Rursell’s excellent book, ‘‘Lakes of North
America.” The lake freezes over and by expansion the ice is pushed up along
the shore carrying sand, gravel and stones with it. Numerous ice cracks form
during the winter and fill with water. This water freezes and pushes the ice still
further up the shore carrying the beach forming material still higher. These ice
cracks are very numerous and may be as much as three inches wide. The amount
of lateral pressure brought to bear on the shores by this means is very great, and
beach ridges are begun and added to each year. The action of the ice in forming
beaches along marshes is very great, while along bluffs it is smal]. In the first
case no great resistance is met with in expansion, and the material for building
the beach will be carried up to the full extent of the expansion of the ice, while
along the bluffs the ice crowds against the shore and is itself broken at every ex-
pansion. A recent ice formation is evident at the northwest end of the Gordo-
niere Marsh, between the marsh and the Channel. In 1891 this marsh was under
water, but since that time the water of the lake has receded and left the marsh
dry. Separating the marsh from the Channel is a ridge of earth more than one
foot high running parallel with the water’s edge. This ridge can be accounted

(15)

226

for by the action of the ice subsequent to the time when the marsh was left with-
out water. Some of the most striking examples of ice action in the formation of
beaches are found along the east side of Johnson’s Bay; along Crow’s Bay; at
Morrison’s Island, where two ice beaches, separated by a few feet, are now coy-
ered by trees; at Clark’s Point, where an old beach extending as much as 200
feet from shore is found, and at Black Stump Point.

CHARACTER OF BOTTOM.

In the shallower parts of the lake the bottom is composed of sand, gravel,
and small boulders, except along the low marshy shores, where it is composed of
mud. At several places, both in Syracuse Lake and in the main lake, dredgings
were taken at depths from 25 feet to 60 feet. Here the bottom was covered with
a deposit of marl in which were found many diatoms and shells.

Further investigations will be carried on to determine more fully the charac-
ter of bottom at different depths.

ICE.

For information concerning the freezing of the lake I am indebted to Mr. J.
P. Dolan, who has given me the history of ice formations as he has observed them
during years past, and he has furnished me with records of careful observations
made since the first formation of ice in October, 1895. These observations, unless
otherwise indicated, are for Syracuse Lake. Ice forms on the main lake at the
same time, but it does not freeze entirely over so soon as Syracuse Lake.

The lake begins to freeze along the edge, except where strong springs enter
near the margin. Information has been obtained concerning the influence of
springs only at Crow’s Bay and Vawter Park. Springs are numerous along
Crow’s Bay for a half mile and the water along the edge is kept open after the
lake is frozen over, but I have not yet learned to what extent these springs in-
fluence the freezing of the edge of the lake in this locality. From Mr. Smith
Vawter, who has observed the springs at Vawter Park for a number of years, I
learned that the spring, which is near the margin of the lake and 2(0 feet east of
the Biological Laboratory, keeps the edge of the lake open throughout the winter.
If the weather is not severe, ice does not form for 25 feet along the shore, and
from 12 feet to 15 feet from shore. In the severest weather the lake is kept open
for 2 or 3 feet from the margin.

The ice spreads rapidly from the shore towards the center. The lake freezes

over quite rapidly when the general temperature remains below 32° Fahrenheit

:
7
7
|

227

and there is no accompanying wind. All parts of the lake freeze, except where it
is kept open by springs, but the last place to freeze is a narrow strip from 20 feet
to 30 feet wide, extending from the north end of the Channel to Turkey Creek,
the outlet of the lake. Ice sometimes forms to a thickness of 6 or 8 inches along
the margins of this channel before it freezes over. This is due to a current along
this narrow channel towards the outlet. The ice is always thinner here than
elsewhere.

Accurate information could not be obtained concerning the exact date of
freezing in 1894, but from Mr. Dolan’s observations we can give an accurate
account of ice-formation during the fall and winter of 1895.

The first ice of the season was observed on October 20. The temperature of
the air at 7 A. M. was 28°. A thin layer of ice 4 or 4 feet wide had formed along
the edge of the lake. It melted during the day. At 7 A.M. October 30, the
temperature of the air was 26°, and about one-fourth of Syracuse, Lake was
frozen over. Not quite all the ice melted, but it all disappeared on the fol-
lowing day. At 7 a. m. November 2, the temperature of the air was 22°. The
mill race was covered with ice three-eighths of an inch thick. Only the edge
of the lake was frozen, as the wind blew during the night. On November 21,
the temperature of the air at 7 A. M. was 13°, and ice had formed from shore
to shore on Syracuse Lake; at 12 M. the ice was nearly all melted, and at 5
p. M. the lake was free of ice. This was the first date on which the ice ex-
tended entirely across the lake. On November 23, at 7 A. M., the temperature
of the air was 30°. Ice had formed on the mill race, but no ice formed on
the lake, owing to a slight wind. On November 27, the temperature of the air
at 7 A. M. was 16°, and a wide belt of ice had formed around the lake, but it
disappeared on the following day. On December 2, the night was clear and
calm. There was no ice at 4 P. M., but at 7:30 P. M. a thin sheet of ice had
formed and extended apparently from shore to shore. On December 3, Syracuse
Lake was completely covered with ice. The temperature of the air during the
day was 6° at 7 A. M., 16° at 12 mM. and 12° at5 p. m. On December 5, the ice was
2 inches thick nearshore. On December 7, the ice near shore was 3 inches thick,
and 500 feet out from shore 1} inches thick. I visited the main lake on Decem-
ber 7, and the ice appeared to extend over the entire lake. Warren Colwell had
skated over the lake during the forenoon as far east as Ogden Point. The only
place where he found the lake open was a space about 20 feet square, half way
between Ogden Point and Black Stump Point. Three dozen ducks and mud-hens
had congregated in this open space.

228

The increase and decrease in the thickness of the ice from December 9, to De- ~
cember 20, are shown in the following table. The measurements were taken 50
feet or more from shore.

Tak THICKNEss | TEMPERATURE
ratte oF Ick oF AIR AT ConDITION OF WEATHER.
* | in INCHES. 5 P. M.
9 4 18° North wind; cloudy.
10 43 26° Wind, southwest to south.
- a 36° Snow and rain.
2 54 20° Clear.
13 D3 24° East wind; clear.
- bt 36° Wind, south to southwest.
61 26° Clear.
16 53 39° East wind.
17 5 46° Southwest wind; rain.
18 4} 52° South wind; rain.
iG) 24 54° South wind; rain.
20 0 52° South wind.

On December 13, ice cutting for commercial purposes was begun, with the ice
53 inches thick. Last winter no ice was cut until January 1, 1895, when the ice
had reached a thickness of 6 inches. On December 15, the ice had reached a
thickness of 6} inches, after which it grew thinner, owing to the rise in temperature
and the heavy rains. By December 20, the ice had melted so that only slush ice
remained. On the morning of December 21, this ice had drifted to the north and
northeast parts of the lake and at 5 p. M. of the same day the ice had all melted.

Mr. Dolan has given me accurate information concerning the ice on the lake
from January 1, 1895, to March 25, when the ice left the lake. OnJanuary 1 the
ice was 6 inches thick and kept increasing in thickness for more than a month.
The maximum thickness, observed by persons engaged in fishing through the ice,
was noted in the early part of February and found to be from 24 inches to 28 inches.
The greatest thickness is found where the ice has been kept clear of snow by the
wind. In January and February the snow lay about nine inches on the level,
but it was drifted in many places on the lake while other areas were without
snow.

In the spring the ice sometimes wears into holes out in the open lake, and
breaks up in the center of the lake first, the last ice to break being along the shores.
This is the case when the ice goes off in cloudy weather and with heavy rains.
Usually the ice begins to melt along the shore, with some holes further out. A

heavy wind then breaks the ice and carries it ashore. For the past ten years the

229

ice has gone off with a west or southwest wind and has been piled up on the east
or northeast shores.

In the spring of 1895, the ice went off the lake in an unusually short time.
The lake had remained completely frozen over until March 24. During this day
the ice began to melt along the shores. On the morning of March 235, the ice had
melted to a distance of 20 feet from shore. At noon the ice had receded 400 feet
from shore. A heavy west wind was blowing all day, and the cracking of the ice
could be heard. At 3p. m. the noise caused by the crushing of the ice became
very loud and could be heard for a quarter of a mile. The ice was broken into
huge cakes. The wind now began to lift the ice and drive it eastward. At4p. M.
all the ice was piled along the east shore. The height to which the ice is piled
depends on the character of the shore and the strength of the wind. The piles
are not so high along a low marshy shore as along an inclined or abrupt shore.
Occasionally a great sheet of ice is pushed up a smooth inclined surface 6 or 7
feet without breaking the ice to any great extent. An instance of this kind was
observed by Mr. Dolan on the northeast shore of Syracuse Lake last March. No
ice formed on the lake after March 25.

Ice cracks are very numerous from the time the ice forms entirely across the
laké and has attained sufficient stability. They form before the ice has reached
the thickness of one inch. When the first cracks formed in December the ice was
so thin that it sagged slightly along the crack. The water came through the
crack and spread over the surface of the ice sufficiently to melt the small amount
of snow covering the ice, to a distance of 5 or 6 feet on each side of the crack.

The explanation of ice cracks as quoted from Gilbert by Russell in his
“Lakes of North America” is so applicable to the case in hand that I reproduce
the quotation here:

‘““The ice on the surface of a lake expands while forming, so as to crowd its
edge against the shore. A further lowering of the temperature produces contrac-
tion, and this ordinarily results in the opening of vertical fissures. These admit
the water from below, and, by the freezing of that water, are filled, so that when
expansion follows a subsequent rise of temperature the ice can not assume its
original position. It consequently increases its total area, and exerts a second
thrust upon the shore. When the shore is abrupt, the ice itself yields, either by
crushing at the margin or by the formation of anticlinals (upward folds) else-
where; but if the shore is gently shelving, the margin of the ice is forced up the
acclivity and carries with it any boulders or other loose material about which it
may have frozen. A second lowering of temperature does not withdraw the pro-

truded ice margin, but initiates other cracks and leads to a repetition of the

230

shoreward thrust. The process is repeated from time to time during the winter,
but ceases with the melting of the ice in the spring.”

The formation of these cracks is accompanied with noise, and, when the ice
has reached the thickness of four or five inches, the noise resembles the distant
booming of cannon. These cracks may be mere seams in the ice, or they may be
several inches wide. On December 7, I measured a crack three-eighths of an inch
wide in ice one and three-fourths inches thick. On December 9, Mr. Dolan meas-
ured one two and three-fourths inches wide in ice four inches thick. On the same
day he counted eleven loud reports caused by the formation of ice cracks in five
minutes. They form during all parts of the day and night. They cross the lake
in every direction, and, while the cracks are slightly zig-zag, their general courses
- are in straight lines.

The ice is very clear and pure, especially out from the shore, where there is
no vegetation near the surface. Is is used very largely for commercial purposes,
the ice being cut from about one-fourth of the surface of Syracuse Lake each

year.
INLET.

The only stream flowing into the lake and containing water throughout the
year is Upper Turkey Creek, which enters the lake on the east side of Jarrett’s
Bay. During the summer months it was filled with an abundant growth of water
vegetation, and was without any perceptible current. When the water is high
the chain of small lakes lying to the southeast is drained into the large lake
through Jarrett’s Creek, entering Jarrett’s Bay a half mile south of Turkey
Creek. During the past summer no water entered the lake from this source. A
small stream one-fourth of a mile west of Vawter Park, and another from the
east side of Johnson’s Bay, contribute water to the lake when the water is high,
but not during the dry summer months. There are no springs around Syracuse
Lake, but springs are found along the margin of the main lake wherever the
shore rises fifteen feet or more and extends across the country as elevated territory.
These springs usually enter the lake near high water mark. This gives springs
along Crow’s Bay, Mineral Point, the south and west sides of Jarrett’s Bay, and
along the south shore from Vawter Park one mile west. No springs are found
along the bluffs at Jones’, Wawasee, Cedar Point, Morrison’s Island, or Conkling
Hill, but in each case these highlands are narrow and surrounded by marsh or
lowland. For a half mile along Crow’s Bay the bluff is more than twenty feet
high. All along the foo of the bluff the water percolates from the gravel, and

at places it flows from quite strong springs. At Mineral Point there are a number

a.

>

231

of strong springs. At Buttermilk Point and along the base of the bluffs west of
Jarrett’s Bay are a number of springs. The margin of the lake from Vawter
Park one mile west is very springy, but the flow of water is not so strong as along
Crow’s Bay. The waters from all these springs show traces of iron more or less

strongly.
OUTLET.

The waters of the lake flow into Lower Turkey Creek through which they
enter the Elkhart River near Goshen, Indiana; then through the Elkhart and
St. Joseph rivers they reach Lake Michigan.

Near the outlet of the lake the creek, during the summer, was about 20 feet
wide and had an average depth of less than 6 inches. The volume of water dis-
charged through the outlet was computed from measurements taken in the creek
and the overflow of the mill race July 18, 1895. The outflow through the creek
was 103 cubic feet, or 7723 gallons, per minute; through the mill race, 41 cubic
feet, or 3073 gallons, per minute, making a total of 144 cubic feet, or 1,080 gal-
lons, per minute. At the same time the volume of the creek a half mile below
was computed at 1374 cubic feet, or 1,031 galions, per minute.

By taking the outflow of the lake at 144 cubic feet per minute, finding the
amount discharged in twenty-four hours, and computing the amount the level of
the lake, with an area of 53 square miles, would be lowered by such an outflow
with no inflow, we find it to be .016 of aninch. At this rate it would require
623 days to lower the lake one inch. In one year of 365 days, at the same rate,
the level would be lowered 5.84 inches. The inflow, during the summer months,
is almost entirely due to springs, and probably equals the outflow. The lowering
of the level of the lake, during the summer months, seems to be due almost en-

tirely to evaporation.
ELEVATION.

The elevation of the lake above the sea and above Lake Michigan is shown
in the following list of stations and their respective elevations. The list of sta-
tions with their respective elevations above mean tide at Sandy Hook, New York,
was furnished by the General Superintendent of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.
The elevation of each station above Lake Michigan was found by subtracting 582
feet, the elevation of the surface of Lake Michigan above the sea, from the ele-

vation of the station above the sea:

232

ELEVATIONS OF STATIONS ON BALTIMORE & OHIO RAILROAD FROM SOUTH CHICAGO.
ILL., TO PATTON SIDING, IND., THE MOST EASTERN STATION IN INDIANA.

Ss.4 oes powens
E25 |828.2 [833
Te. Sees |soe
NAME OF STATION. 20g |e] 4 lee
S23 5/8 iopslae -
SES S52 593/5'¢ S
Zr Mos i DM I as ao
STATIONS IN ILLINOIS.
Somth Chicago ¢ cic. outs teers: a Mew ie Se teh hetigniaes sis 19 593.0 11.0
Rock Island Jinction tos ke ree ee ee caine 593.5 11.5
STATIONS IN INDIANA.
NUN Energi 95) 22S ee sg cree ents, Se ee eee ee 598.5 16.5
Bd semoGOt es cbr oe ceo sede, cole riieke G ieee ee ical oe 596.5 14.5
WitlSomse.4). Saati ect lediae SR etal nets, Seite WNP ACTS once 604.5 22.5
Mrs: a acer es sac ee akc Carbon, a see Sees 37 617.0 35.0
Woe kasd pci. s xtc stn wet his 86 ec nae sees ais ical ieee eis oe 621.5 39.5
Wallow-Creek: ... 2: ¢ SIO SS 255 Boe eee ee eee ee 640.3 58.3
Mie Coo les earn %, srss ct a Sa eee yee oe ee ie | (eae ee 640.5 58.5
Bab COGKaRy cy cere e rie ie oe oe ose ee ee eee ect eee 652.0 70.0
Woodville spe et 255. Be OPES, co trae es bre teenl were tere 687.8 105.8
Syma So 7s, Sia sR ae Oe Bahk aN eee ae 748.6 - 166.6
WODURE on. oe Sina a0 oie citi oa os oahe linen Wumios Matin ae Goer s een aeiens 786.0 204.0
PO arer ET eae IE BE TA Se a Te et eta ee 57 788.8 206.8
Wiellsborot h:.95 3 ae eee vot 2 See eer nee 64 760.0 178.0
Winton" Oentre so. hace enero ea aaoa ronnie kc ree eee 71 718.5 136.5
Wialikertontee en Sao cee Sek ae ae tie oie. Soe Oates 79 716.0 134.0
MEG eARGEN’ ccs Merks ores S. P coe ashe ete Gee teas 85 800.7 218.7
1k yl ESA etal et gegen lad aie ARN wr SOE inl ag ale See 859.0 277.0
earPaz.unetion 2. 0.2 ieeee Oo ae ba ee See 88 856.0 re
IBremeng seed 2 cain eo ee Ore oa ee 96 819.0 237.0
IBerlintons ssc. © aces cibe le eee ee ce te LE Ee 853.0 271.0
INANE eR oso oe SAO ne ee ee nee nee eee 104 880.0 298.0
Milford Junctioniy «ies see sos TPE AS ARES. 112 840.2 258.2
Sy PACUSES ret tis ian ceio ct atte el eeree eciee das aoe 116 869.2 287.2
WikwWasee tect. Mine teen aro, 6 Sehs, oe Clee onnete es opal 120 882.2 3! 0.2
Groniwelly cs Cows Gore Ree ee Be eee EE 125 935.2 303.2
Gre yey) I RED Sees ieee a le ea Oe Re bebe pe br noel Pain Sten de 923.2 341.2
BYCUST Kester ances ee ee Se Ion i RL sae ei ol ocelot 901.6 319.6
PAN ION eis eh cee ae oC Re Sine senate 135 926.2 344.2
Riley: 2: SA 6 Sot Bere ce ce Ee ee ee Fe eee 970.2 388.2
Avilla Fe i eI RO Cn on ote ons Sale ae 145 961.2 379.2
ES (21) a, Se Meth oe nies Co Os a OT SES 150 890.0 308.0
Auburn JaNnetion Ve. eae cee ee eee ee 153 871.7 289.7
VENTER. Joys s,s s ideas Cas RRS Sh one Eee | teehee 864.2 282.2
StGOh = sc ect. Rina = RR RIS See Ree ee eee 163 812.2 230.2
LEP rays hel Kt (0 6y aoe Anions ARR e ao ss olicoe a easol snes ee - 849.7 267.7

—oSeqs=sanmnaeanananansnqnsnmnmmSmSESESSsSsSsSsSsSmSmSmSsSS 5 Oe

-
:

233

Syracuse is the station having most nearly the elevation of the surface of
Turkey Lake. The mean level of the lake is about 5 feet below the station at
Syracuse. This gives the lake an elevation of 864 feet above the sea, and 282 feet
above the surface of Lake Michigan.

CHANGES IN LEVEL.

Changes in the level of the lake have been due to three causes: erosion, the
dam which is built across Turkey Creek just below the outlet of the lake, and
climatic conditions.

Old beach formations give evidence that the level of the lake was formerly 5
or 6 feet higher than at present. By erosion the channel at the outlet was cut 10
feet below this ancient level, and the dam has raised the level of the lake 5 feet
to its present level.

The history of the dam as given by an old settler is as follows:

A small dam was built in 1828, to which additions were made in 1831. This
dam washed out in 1833, and the present dam and mill race were begun in the
same year. This raised the level of the lake so that timber stood in water 5 feet
deep. Much of this timber remained uncut in 1840, and some was still standing
as late as 1865.

The vertical distance between the level of the water in the creek below the
dam and the top of the waste gate, December 7, 1895, was five feet. This would
be the amount the dam, when in working order, would raise the level of the lake.
The dam is not in use at present and a small portion has been removed, which
allows the water to pass into the creek at a level 16 inches below the top of the
waste gate. This present condition of the dam holds the water of the lake ‘3 feet
8 inches above the level of the water in the creek below.

The submerged stumps in many parts of the margin of the lake is the best
evidence that the dam had the effect of increasing the area of the lake. These
stumps stand at present in water from a few inches to two feet or three feet deep.
Along the margin of Syracuse Lake the stumps are most abundant at the point of
the lake extending furthest west, and on the east shore along the edge of the
marsh. Turkey Creek, from the lake to the dam, is sixty feet wide, and only
twenty feet along the middle is clear of stumps. This was the channel of the
creek before the dam was built, and the stumps now standing in water are the
remains of the timber which grew along the banks of the creek. On the north
and south sides of Buck Island, at the south end of Syracuse Lake, areas of sub-

merged stumps indicate that this island was formerly one hundred feet wider in

234

each direction. On the east side of the entrance of the main lake to the channel
are many submerged stumps. Along Johnson’s Bay much timber stood in water,
especially on the east side of Ogden Point and on the east side of the bay just
north of the bluffs. In these localities the stumps are very numerous, and among
the largest in the lake. There are afew stumps along the marsh just east of Cedar
Point. Others are found in the vicinity of Morrison’s Island and go to indicate
that this island, before the building of the dam, was a part of the mainland. It
is so represented in the government survey of 1838. On the west side of Jarrett’s
Bay submerged stumps are numerous, especially along the southeast corner, where
much small timber is still lying in the marsh at the margin of the lake, and at
Clark’s Point where many large stumps are found in the water. Submerged
stumps are also found west of Black Stump Point. The elevation of the lake by
the dam, not only increased its area but must have rendered much of the low
level land in the vicinity of the lake marshy, which would have been tillable. It
is claimed by persons living in the vicinity of the lake that the dam rendered
four thousand acres of land untillable.

The fluctuations in the level of the lake are caused by climatic conditions,
and vary with the inflow and outflow, rainfall and evaporation. In Mr. J. P.
Dolan’s report will be found the record of changes of level as observed during the
past few months. Annual fluctuations are estimated to be about two and one-half
feet. The level of the lake is usually highest about May 1, after the heavy
spring rains, and lowest in August, although this year it kept lowering until
November 2, owing to the very light rains up to that time. It was then ten and
one-half inches lower than on July 6. The lake was lower on November 2, than
at any time since 1871, when the marshes around the lake were drier than in 1895.
Since November 2, the lake has been rising until, on December 25, it was fifteen
and three-quarters inches higher than on November 2.

In May, 1891, the lake was higher than at any time during the past twenty
years. The difference between well-remembered high water marks of that time
and the level of November 2, 1895, is four and one-half feet, which is the maxi-
mum fluctuation during recent years. Each spring since 1891, has found the
level of the lake lower than during the preceding spring. This gradual lowering
of the level of the lake has decreased its area and has shown marked schanges in
the marsh land along the margin of the lake. Four years ago the water in Conk-
ling Bay covered an area a half-mile in diameter, now it is reduced to three hun-
dred feet in diameter; a small shallow lake just west of Conkling Bay contained.
water throughout the year, now it is dry and growing good crops; fields lying

west of the channel were almost marsh land, the crops being greatly damaged by

235

water, but during the past two years no difficulty has been experienced in tilling
them; two or three feet of water flowed over the Gordoniere Marsh, which is now
dry with beach lines forming along its margin; and boats were rowed over all
parts of the Johnson Marsh, while at present hardly any of its surface is snh-

merged.
ConsuLt HyprocrapHic Map Next To Front Cover.

TEMPERATURE OF TURKEY LAKE. By J. P. Douan.*

In making these observations a Charles Wilder standard, protected, thermom-
eter was employed. They were begun the 13th of July, during which month four
soundings were taken in the deepest parts of the lake from the surface to the
bottom at every five feet. Then on October 5 two records were made at about the
same points, and again on November 2.

September 17 a rain guage was set up and from that day to the present a
regular record of temperature, precipitation, direction of wind and rise and fall
of lake has been kept, but the observations have been confined to the northwest
part of the lake; properly, Syracuse Lake.

I. TEMPERATURES OF TURKEY LAKE, 1595.

| Suny. Ocr.5. | Noy.2.|Dxc.14.|Dre.24.
i es 3 I.U.. | Jan- | L.U. | Baacx
Ispraxa Unrvensity Broroc- | 0. | gert’s| Bro. | Stump
~ pe Stat’n.| Bay. |Srat’n.| Port.
Tr
| 16th, | 17th, | 234 :
| 1sth, | (th. | L7th, | 23d, 1:45 | 11:10
(10 A.M. ee. bien bce WAM.) po ye | alu, | 104M]
| |
Deg. / Deg. | Deg. | Deg Deg Deg Deg. | Deg
814 | 8334] 78%] 72 ie a eee 50 a eee
74 75 75 76%. 60% 61% 43 34% |-

PW iscccausas saaces sweets | vesand— cease oteeny cee s|eseees creas | sees ne oteess 60 60% sc aspanewexe 5 AN See
73 7+ ia al 60 | 59 45 | 24% sinkeawawealen
72%} TA 74k 70 59 : Cie | nec EE Orel [ec Sema ASP
ma | 7 Te) erg | pate) sang [age
68 65 68% 61% eb, Ee. ASEZS |< Siw on eaten

> Q | weeeee sense 0072 DOJQ | -nccccseesee| coeees cecene| eeneeccueces
60 | 62 Jones wre 58% | 58i¢ | 588 -| 35%
bebalada: &8% 58 bsfacdsees eo Pek sense
Se ae ae Ee 58 58341 58 ee. <| eee
Fe pl ae 58 7A ae name | eas a Epa ties terre ads
28 cane Tart el al s| | 38 oe
l. 5 58% | Fy eA Re Re |e eee ee
58 58 58 3a? Seapwae eee ee =

*Contributions from the Zodlogical Laboratory of the Indiana University, No. 15.

236

VI.

SUMMARY OF SOUNDINGS OF TURKEY LAKE.

grees Kirst 20 ft.

i
2
a
=
=
°
7
=
o
o
=
=
Lo |

Bio. Station..| 3

i WE

Deg| Deg Bee Deg} Deg
3 3 2 | 2
Eng. ‘|e: Sh (ee

. . - | . .
=| a ge C=:
tel S Ss 1D
&2|/s8/)/8|\|S]
So =) S ° °
— pe ~ | + —
i=) 3 =) i=)
N oD oD =

45 to 50 ft.

50 to 55 ft.

55 to 60 ft.

60 to 65 ft.

Aol
2 | 2 eee
0 ee ee
= eS = ° >
e|=a|2|s|4
Deg} Deg| Deg} Deg| Deg
16 | 74 | 58 | 66 (719
9a ee ee
183 | 763 | 58 | 673 |65.06
23 | 603 | 58 | 592 |58.84
vi imercemt

Il, TURKEY LAKE TEMPERATURES, 1895.

6° 7 ;
Precipitation be UTE eee 1.40 08] 09) |'eamee Totialin ches 1.53
|
| |
October ........- a Be | 3 | 4 5 6 7 8 | 9.) 10 jem | a2 | 18) 14 aes
| u J |
WAM Se9 ok Rese ccees: 561 58] 68| 68| 6} 62| 64] 45] 38] 45] 49| 45 | 40] 54] 48] 46
Surface ......... Ft ees 63 | 603 Bale atid beocenae BGI 5a Wide: [ssee- Ae SH B-8 | oeneee 53] 52
Bottom ......... 55) | eocec= 58" 5601) 582) DOli|i---c- 563] 56: || 534) ---.: 522 | eee |eeeeee 53 | 52%
Near shore -..| ---.-- sasepall casoesa| evases| weesece |iemesscs EA cena lleceres| heeeeor AB PAT, I) eee ee 50
Precipitation] ..---.| -..e0.| ---12-| seeeee| cose =| eeeee| seeee See (copa cel ecb ere leceecap bsecol lessee | acccs. paneee
October -..------ 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 a1 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30] 31 |
| | ! | | |
ATi fc a) ae all Le | | : !
AG coos tes noe] 945 1A | 596] OR Besa alt ee: 60 | 60| 48] 40] 38| 34] 34
Gunkace sees leolaleore eae BG LAGU eral cm oie aa 5 4A || (43 A cee ees 39
Bottom ...--...| 51} ee Asi eairal ere: heaseecs esl |e | 463' 46 | 44 Janey 39
Near shore -..| ----- | .-----| .---. EUs | 92 Es) | See ee Pee eases Reece 2. Ci Rese aoe! [boon ccel bee eee
Precipitation] -.... | .-....| ---.-- : | Beni | iat ed ce eee | chet | eae Tenge cso ueal needa | Scecoe | ace
| | |
November..... ik | 2 3 4 D6 7 8 Oe M02) ae 2a 13a) aa 15 | 16
L |
Air.. «| 30°) 22 | 54 | 60] 62 | 60] 60.| 45° )) 32) )) See) 285) 26°) ~ | as) cee oe
Surface, 25, ft | 38 | 43| 43 AVL AZ |) 43") 43a AS 42 eee AOE) seesec| acensol eee eee
Bottom, 2 9 ft| 43| 48 | 43 | 42) 41] 45 | 43] 43) 44) 43] -..... 7: BI Wecered| | Reese | choc ose
Surface near
RINGTG a cccerss || «code UE A icwraselirateee BP kone eres UW Reker } BB | wceccc] cesses, |] scuces |! Seekers | eeeesn ees ee
Precipitation |: scsc:|lse--2<| cere |i ceece- || ences. 02) 78 [1.10 | wees] wns | ereeee] seen O2/ ates iyi esse

| Er
43 | 42
Surface near
REOPEN cocececes|i vcsene AE Nae. Weed Wicwancel mccaas|| eauee
PEHEIPIEALION) 2525 ||\p<55-2| ‘ceszasl) seocen| Acas<=]) <ossce
1
|
December... 1 | 3 | 4 | 6 | 7 | 8
|

Air {7:30 4. Gi Stk 1 12] 36| 28

(5:00 Pom UO) eeeeeee 26} 33 | 24
SUTTg eer ee ee ed (eee ees 34 | 33) 33
TESS GEOTILP xasceeee |! seeseu |). «sce0 |! Saacnc 36 | 35
Near shore ...| ... 34 cee. 2 8
Precipitation é-7 eaes
December _ 19 | 20 7 F 23 ; |

SitcoO NA rel 52) 152) [40 |) ccs. |
Air {faye a) ot | 28 39 | |
Surface ........: 333| 303] 37 | .-- |
Bottom ........ 35 TP RS
Near shore . BS ass 38
Precipitation 1 37 96 | .12

| 96 | .

* Broken thermometer.

+ Under ice.

SUMMARY OF TEMPERATURES.

t Common thermometer.

SEPTEMBER | OcTOBER. NOVEMBER. DECEMBER.

Date. | Deg. | Date. / Deg. | Date. ‘Date. | Deg. Deg. Date. Deg.
z |
ae he eee | 22 | | 3 bee 5 | él 19 | 4
= Buttaes, 25 ft} 22 7 3 83 18 43% 21 37
% | Bottom......... 22 69 8 56% 26 | 5 20 371%
P|
=
BA AR cpa anit | 24 | 7 | 19 | 26 27 | 16 |} i" 12
> | Surface, 25 ft} 30 56 31 39 30 34 7, 8, 9, 10 33
S | Bottom, 2 ft} 30 | 57 al ae 26 | 36 | 6,8, 9,15, 17,18,19| 35

|

= .
| eso ke roel Peers |
_ Strid ls Gel peered eee
Sp as eee eae
>
=<

N.B.—Water general average for three months higher than air.

238

| AIR. | Sunract. Bottom.

Grand average for four months mnt 42.94 | 48.37 | 48.87

From December 3 to noon of the 20th the lake was covered with ice. During
this period the surface temperature varied from 33° to 343° and the bottom from
35° to 36°.

At 5:00 p. M. of the 20th, ten hours after the ice started to move in a body
from the lake, the surface showed 354°, a gain of 25°; the bottom 373°, another
gain of 23°, and in the shallow water, fifty feet from south shore, where it had
been 32°, 33°. 33° on the 7, 8 and 9th respectively, it was now 43°, a gain of 10°.

The next day surface and bottom both registered 37° degrees at the twenty-
five-foot station.

The results of these observations are embodied in the accompanying profile

chart, in which it has been attempted to show the absolute and relative move-

ments of the air, surface, and bottom of lake at a depth of twenty-five feet.

od a) wor al i el

4
x

a Tala

Temperatures from September 23 to December 23. Broken line, temperature of air;
dotted line, temperature of water 25 feet below surface on the bottom; continuous line, tem-
perature of water at the surface at the same place.

239

(a) A few well-known facts are emphasized, the variableness of the atmos-
phere and the persistence of the water; that water is a poor (b) radiator and an
indifferent conductor of heat, and responds slowly to atmospheric changes.

(d) It shows also that the great volume of Syracuse lake at no time has been
stagnant, but that a condition of activity has obtained throughout theentire period
of observation.

(c) For the four months in which a large number of observations were made
the general average of the water, both surface and bottom, is higher than that of
the air. .

A difference of 10° between the water one foot deep near the shore and the
surface mid-lake during a rain the day the ice left the lake, shows that the surface
drainage is no small factor in winter and spring in raising the temperature of
the whole body.

PART IJ. THE INHABITANTS OF TURKEY LAKE.*

PLANETON.

By plankton, Hensen, the author of the word, means everything floating in
the sea and passively driven about by the waves and currents. Haeckel in-
cludes under plankton all organisms swimming in the sea. Haeckel says:
“The totality of the swimming and floating population of the fresh water
may be called limnoplankton.” Limnoplanktonic studies have been made when-
ever a collector scooped for protozoa, diatoms or other minute organisms.
Planktonic studies of this sort have been carried on for a long time. Recently
plankton has been studied in a new way, first in the ocean and more recently in
fresh water. This more recent study has been the quantitative and qualitative
estimation of the plankton in a given volume of water. There seem to have
developed in a remarkably short time two schools of planktonists, the one headed
by Hensen asserting that planktonic organisms are uniformly distributed, the
other, headed by Haeckel, being equally sure that planktonic creatures are to be
found in clouds or schools. We are interested in plankton only in so far as it is
part of the environment of the vertebrates inhabiting the lake. That it is not an
unimportant element of the environment is due to the fact that it forms the
primitive food of most of the fishes and that at the most plastic period in the life

of the individual. The amount of plankton, as well as its composition from year

*Contributions from the Zodlogical Laboratory of the Indiana University, No. 16.

240

to year, is therefore of prime importance in the search for the causes of the
differences in the same fish in two contiguous lakes or in two successive years in
the same lake.

Our plankton apparatus was completed too late to enable us to make any
systematic measurements, especially as our planktonist was actively engaged in
the physical survey of the lake. But plankton was collected and some of its
different constituents will be reported upon.

A good historical account of planktonic studies, as well as exact definitions,
are to be found in the Planktonic Studies of Haeckel, translated by G. W. Field,
and published in Commissioners’ Report, 1889-91, U. S. Com. Fish and Fisheries,
pp. 565-641.

In the following sketch several groups of animals are not at all considereds
and others but briefly. The only groups found in the lake of which we approxi-
mate a complete list are the fishes, batrachians and reptiles. Deficiencies will be
removed in subsequent reports when a classification of the material into littoral,

bathybial and pelagic will also be attempted.

PROTOZOA.

The Protozoa were not represented by a large array of species during the summer.
No detailed work has been done on them as yet, but I want to mention two
characteristic forms.

The most striking Protozoan is Ophridium. It is found in clumps varying from
microscopic minuteness to the size of walnuts, and in different parts of the lake
the pebbles and exposed parts of clam shells are covered with these colonies to
such an extent as to suggest young lettuce beds.

Ceratium hirudinella is as striking and abundant in the pelagic regions as
Ophridium is in the littoral.

In this connection two plants may also be noticed.

Rivularia is very abundant during the whole summer. It is conspicuous in
calm weather, when it rises to the surface. Toward the end of August and in
early September it collects in such numbers as to form large patches and streaks,
forming a true Wasserbliithe.

‘Various forms of Palmella are abundant during the whole summer, and in
October, when Rivularia has disappeared, it torms large patches on the surface

forming the Wasserbliithe of the late fall.

241

PORIFERA.

Sponges are not abundant in the lake. They are found in small: patches on
boards, sticks and other things near the margins of the lake. They grow much
more Juxuriantly in the outlet of the lake where they sometimes form patches
several square feet in extent.

CNIDARIA.
Hydra viridis L. Specimens of hydra were exceedingly rare. On one occasion

a few were taken on a submerged stick near Black Stump Point.

PLATHELMINTHES.

Flat worms were not systematically collected and none of these collections
have been identified. Of Turbellarians there were several species. Aiia calva is

infested by a tape worm and by a Distomum.

NEMATHELMIA.

No attempt was made to collect thread worms. Gordius is exceedingly
abundant on the margins during the latter part of summer. I counted as many

as twelve in the area of one foot square.

ANNELIDA. BY BESSIE C. RIDGLY.

No Chaetopoda were collected.

No systematic attempt was made to get large numbers of leeches, but speci-
mens were preserved whenever found. In the classification I have followed
Verrill.

Nephelis quadristriata Grube. Thirteen specimens from Turkey Lake.

Nephelis fervida Verrill. Fourteen specimens.

Clepsine parasitica Diesing. Three specimens.

Clepsine ornata stellata Verrill. This species was not found in Turkey Lake.
Two specimens were taken iu Tippecanoe Lake.

Clepsine ornata rugosa Verrill. Four specimens.

Clepsine ornata variety d Verrill. Ten large specimens corresponding with
the second specimen described by Verrill were found, most of them on turtles.

Clepsine papillifera Verrill. One specimen.

Clepsine papillifera carinata Verrill. Three specimens. One of these, one-
half inch long, was found under a stone in front of the laboratory. A number of
young were attached to it.

Clepsine pallida Verrill. One specimen.

Clepsine pallida variety b Verrill. One specimen.

Clepsine elegans Verrill. Five specimens.

(16)

242
Rotrrera. D. S. KEetuicorr.

I received in September three vials of plankton, from Mr. Chancey Juday
with the request to report upon the Rotifera found therein. The vials were
marked and described as follows: ‘‘I. Contains plankton caught at the surface
of the water of Wawasee Lake, Indiana, by using a plankton net; taken August
28, 1895; killed in picro-sulphuric acid; washed in 35 per cent. and 50 per cent.
alcohol and preserved in 85 per cent. alcohol.” ‘II. Depth of haul, 60 feet
(Wawasee) ; depth of water, 65 feet; taken July 20, 1895; killed in Flemming’s
Fluid; washed in 35 per cent. and 50 per cent. alcohol, and preserved in 85 per
cent. alcohol.” ‘III. From Tippecanoe Lake; depth of haul, 110 feet; depth
of water, 117 feet; taken August 7, 1895; killed in Flemmings’s Fluid; washed
in 35 per cent. and 50 per cent. alcohol, and preserved in 85 per cent. alcohol.”

I find that the Rotifera were much better preserved in II and III than in the

first. The illoricate species in I were scarcely recognizable ; in fact three species

found in this vial I have not been able to place more nearly than the probable ©

genus. Those in II and III have all been satisfactorily identified. While the
whole number recognized in these collections is not large some interesting facts
are brought to light. Three species not hitherto reported from this country are
among the number, and others rarely. It is certain that the rotiferal fauna of
these lakes is rich and will yield many unique forms as a reward to any student
who may be able to work in the region, to take and study them in the fresh state,
and in all their varied relations and situations of residence.

I shall enumerate, with remarks, the species found in each haul separately,
although it will cause some repetition, and in the order of Hudson and Gosse’s
Rotifera, without citing the bibliography farther than a description where the par-

tial bibliography, however, will usually be found.

iF

1. Floseularia mutabilis Bolton. Not infrequent. It is quite unexpected
that a floscule should occur among pelagic species, and yet there are four known
species of these Rhizota that cut loose and become sailors. Mr. H. 8. Jennings
has found three of them in St. Clair and lakes of Michigan. Of this one he says:
‘‘ Very common in towings from Lake St. Clair, either at the surface or near the
bottom. Hudson and Gosse, I, 56. ,

2. (cistes brachiatus Hudson. A large number were found, but it was im-
possible to identify them surely. The tube conforms to the figures and descrip-

tions of that of Brachiatus ; it is cylindrical, smooth, compact, perfectly hyaline,

—

243

often containing a slight amount of adhering matter, often containing several
eggs, which, however, are not so elongate as the figures represent those of
Brachiatus; the long narrow foot and the long non-retractile antenne agree well
with the type. I am pretty confident that it is Brachiatus, yet 1 am surprised to
find so many of them, or any of them, in a surface tow, as it is evidently norm-
ally anchored ; perhaps they were attached to floating alge which apparently are
not uncommon in the lake. H. and G.,, I, 83.

3. Philodina megalotrocha Ehrenberg. Numerous. I have often taken it
at a distance from land, particularly in shallow lakes or among floating alge.
ea, eG. ,, J, 101.

More than one species of Rotifer which could not by any means be identified
were present.

4. Sacculus viridis Gosse. Rare. H. and G., I, 124.

5. Polyarthra platyptera Ehrenberg. ‘Many seen. The serrations on the
edges of the broad plates are coarse and more distant than in the type. H. and
t., U1). 3.

6. Dinocharis pociilum Ehrenberg. One individual. It is a bottom feeding
species and rarely occurs in a surface tow. H. andG., II, 71.

7. Dinocharis collinsii Gosse. One. Bottom feeding species. It has not
been observed in this country before. No species exceeds it in beauty. I could
not make out the pair of spines on the foot and the edge of the lorica appears to
be set with a row of small spines, rather than being serrate as described and
figured. H. and G., II, 72.

8. <Anurea cochlearis Gosse. Exceedingly abundant. Our form differs
slightly from Gosse’s figure since the mesal ridge of the lorica does not extend
straight from end to end, but has a decided angle at each pair of facets, the an-
terior median one is not divided. H. and G., II, 124.

9. Notholea longispina Kellicott. Not rare. This rotiferon was first known
in the water supplies of cities along the Great Lakes. Soon after it was described
in 1879, it was found in Olton Reservoir, Eng., and then by Imhof in the Swiss
Lakes. More recently it has been found in lakes of America. Mr. Levic reports
finding the eye spot double, or so far separated as to be regarded as two eyes. I

have seen several in these collections with the same peculiarity.

244

1 &

1. Polyarthra platyptera Ehrenberg. Few.

2. Triarthra longiseta Ehrenberg. Comparatively few in this vial. H. and
G.; UE .6:

3. Ploesoma lenticulare Herrick. Very many. It occurs in the lakes of
Europe. In this country it has been reported only from Lake St. Clair, both in
bottom and surface tows (Jennings). Zodl. Anz., Bd. 10, 577.

4. Brachionus militaris Ehrenberg. Rare. I have found this an abundant
species in ponds of western New York; it is a good sailor, preferring small seas,
however. Authors have recorded the fact that the posterior spines are not in the
same horizontal plane. This seems to be in relation to the habit of always turn-
ing on its long axis as it swims; they appear to bore their way through the water.
H. and G., Sup. 82.

5. Anurwa cochlearis Gosse. Many, but far less numerous than in I.

6. Notholea longispina Kellicott. More abundant than in I.

GDI

1. Asplanchna priodonta Gosse. Quite numerous. Jennings reports this fine
species as abundant in Lake St. Clair, both at the surface and in deep water. H.
and G., I, 123.

2. Polyarthra platyptera Ehrenberg. Several found.

3. Triarthra longiseta Ehrenberg. Numerous.

4. Diaschisa valga Gosse. Only one seen. It appears to agree well with the
figure and description. H. and G., I, 77.

5. <Anurca cochlearis Gosse. Not common.

6. Nothoica longispcia Kellicott.

CLADOCERA. <A. BIRGE.

The following letter on the Cladocera of Turkey Lake has been received :

I enclose list of Cladocera in your bottles.

1. Holopedium gibberum Zad., few; Daphnia hyalina and retrocurva Forbes.
Much algal material, chiefly Clathrocystis.

2. Holopedium gibberum D. retrocurva Sida. crystallina O. F. M., Diaphanosoma
brachyurum Liev.

3. D. retrocurva, extreme form of hemlet, like that of Lake Mendota, Diaph.

brachyurum. Material looks as if it had been dried.

245

4. D. retrocurva Diaph. brachyurum Ceriodaphnia lacustris Birge. Leptodora
hyalina Lillj., Holopedium gibberum, one specimen.

5. Diaph. brachyurum, Sida crystallina, Cer. lacustris.

6. Holo. gibberum, Diaph. brachyurum, D. retrocurva, Algae like No. 1.

7. Diaph. brachyurum, D. retrocurva, Cer. lacustris, Leptodora hyalina.

Great number of Epischura lacustris, far more than I ever saw before.

8. D. retrocurva, Sida erystallina, Diaph., brachyurum.

9. Diaph. brachyurum, D. retrocurva, not an extreme form, Daphnia longiremis
Sars, Sida crystallina, very few.

Most of these species are predictable, that is, they would be found in al-
most any pelagic collection from this general region. I do not think that H.
gibberium has been found so far south as this collection shows it. Cer. lacustris has
not been found outside of Wisconsin before. The specimens are much more thin-
shelled than those which I have seen before. It is remarkable that D. retrocurva
is far more numerous than is D. hyalina. The reverse has been true in all lakes
which I have studied, except Pine Lake, Wisconsin. In most of the bottles ex-
amined it was difficult to find D. hyalina, while the other species was quite plenty.
It is to be noted that this species of Forbes is really a variety of D. kahlbergien-
sis Sch, but as the form is well marked and the full name intolerably iong, I
have quoted it by the varietal name only.

D. longiremis has been found before only in Lake Geneva, Wisconsin. In
size, form and shape of head it exactly agrees with my figures and description in
Trans. Wis. Acad.; Vol. LX, p. 299, pl. XI, figs. 4-10.

In all bottles there were many Cyclops and Diaptomus, and in one, as already
noted, large numbers of Epischura.

I should gladly write more, but have been too busy for a longer report. Will
send bottles to Marsh for Copepods and try to get up a full account later.

Very truly,
E. A. BrrGe.

Data of the lots of specimens numbered in the above letter:

I. Taken Aug. 28, 1895, between 1 and 2 p. m., from surface of water. Killed in
picro-sulphuric acid. Preserved in 70 per cent. alcohol.
II. Taken June 27, 1895, at8 a.m. Skimmed from surface of water, using No.2 Bolt-
ing Cloth. Killed in picro-sulphurie acid. Preserved in 70 per cent. alcohol.
Ill. Taken Aug. 14, 1895,at5p.s. Depth of haul, 60 ft. Killed in picro-sulphuric
acid. Preserved in 70 per cent. alcohol.
IV. Taken July 27,1895. Skimmed from surface of water, using No.2 Bolting Cloth.
Killed and preserved in J0 per cent. formalin.
V. Taken June 27, 1895, at 8a. m.- Skimmed from the surface with a No. 2 Bolting
Cloth net. Killed and preserved in 10 per cent. formalin.

246

VI. Taken July 29, 1895. Depth of haul, 25 ft. Killed and preserved in formalin.
VII. Taken July 12, at night. Surface skimming, using a No. 2 Bolting Cloth net.
Killed and preserved in 10 per cent. formalin.
VIII. Taken Aug. 1,1895,at94.mM. Depth of haul, 10 ft. Killed in Flemming’s fluid.
Preserved in 70 per cent. alcohol. ,
IX. Taken Aug. 7, 1895, at 4p.m. Depthof haul, 110 ft. Killed in Flemming’s fluid.
Preserved in 70 per cent. alcohol. :
I, II, III, [V, V, VI, VII, VIII are from Turkey Lake or Lake Wawasee; IX is from
Tippecanoe Lake.

DECAPODA.

The following crayfishes from Turkey Lake were identified by Mr. W. P.
Hay, of Washington, D. C.:

Cambarus blandingti acutus Girard.

Cambarus propinguus Girard.

Cambarus virilis Hagen.

On A SMALL CoLLECTION OF MoLLusKS FROM NORTHERN INDIANA. By R. ELts-
worRTH Cau, M. D., Pu. D.

The mollusks herewith reported on were collected by the members of the In-
diana University Biological Station during the past summer. The region is
sufficiently well characterized in the report of Dr. Eigenmann, the Director of the
Station, and it is necessary here only to allude to its salient features.

The locality.is on the divide separating the drainage areas of the Great Lakes
and the Wabash River. In certain places the two drainages are practically
identical and thus afford opportunity for the intermingling of the two faunas.
The lakes and streams are all well within the limit of glaciation in former ages
and their beds and shores are boulder-covered or lined. The bottoms of shallower
portions of the lakes are gravelly or muddy, while the deeper portions are either
muddy or sandy. Corresponding with these physical factors are certain features
of mollusean distribution and modification, which it is the object of these notes to

adduce and emphasize.

UNIONID®,

Anodonta decora Lea. Two specimens of this form were found, both of which
were obtained in Syracuse Lake. The specimens were very much more fragile
and far thinner than is usual for this species, even when secured from lakes and
ponds. The epidermis is quite pale, the lines of growth crowded, and the nacre-
ous deposit very white. Forms from sluggishly flowing streams in southern In-

diana and elsewhere in the Ohio basin are very highly colored, both interiorly

247

and without. As in other members of this family from these lakes the optimum
habitat does not appear to be here. Many of the shells are coated with heavy
deposits of calcareous matter, indicating a chemic condition of the water that is
unfavorable to the normal development,of the several species.

Anodonta ferussaciana Lea, One specimen from Turkey Creek; three speci-
mens from Syracuse Lake.

The resemblance of these shells to the Anodonta subcylindracea is very marked
indeed. The lake form is lighter both in texture and color than the one speci-
men from the creek.

Anodonta footiana Lea. Three specimens from Syracuse Lake; one specimen
from Turkey Creek.

The shells submitted are very characteristic of this form, which may not,
ultimately, be separated from Anodonta lacustris Lea. Like its congeners from
the same locality the lake form is very pale in color and unusually thin and
fragile. A very interesting fact is illustrated in the littoral distribution of this
species and Spherium from the same lake. Those which occur in comparatively
deep water are very much thinner and lighter in color than the shore forms.
Also, those which are found on the northern shores are thinner and more fragile
than those on the southern beach. The reason possibly may lie in the prevail-
ing winds, which are from the northeast. The southern beach is also more
gravelly than the northern. The conditions of environment then, in this case,
favor thicker development of the shell in the forms living on the southern beach;
they need greater powers of resistance, are subjected to rougher conditions of
habitat and this finds expression in heavier secretion of nacreous material. The
shells which live at the lake’s bottom are also beyond the disturbing influence of
waves and being deeply imbedded in mud develop to greater size, but with
thinner shells.

Margaritana caleeola Lea. A single dead specimen, from Turkey Creek.

This specimen is a very characteristic one, the deposit of calcareous matter on
the inner surfaces of the valves being marked; this is a pathologic feature, well
marked in the type specimens which Dr. Lea studied. This form and Margar-
itana deltoidea Lea are synonyms.

Margaritana rugosa Barnes. Represented by eight specimens from Turkey
Creek, all of which are characteristic.

Unio coceineus Lea. One specimen, dead, from Turkey Creek.

The nacre of this shell is quite white, a fact true of the majority of shells
which fall under this form, though the type-form was beautifully pink. It is
often found in collections labelled Unio rubiginosus Lea, but is easily separated

248 :

by the characters of the cardinal teeth and the rounded, nonangulate character
of the posterior slope. In Unio rubiginosus there isa well marked ridge extend-
ing quite to the posterior margin. The flat and white nacred form also may
occasionally be seen in collections as Unio gouldianus Lea, now a well recognized
synonym.

Unio fabalis Lea. Twelve specimens from Tippecanoe Lake.

This is one of the smallest of our Unios. The shells submitted do not pre-
sent any variant features other than the very light coloration so characteristic of
all the lake shells which we have seen. Unio /apillus Say is a synonym.

Unio gibbosus Barnes. This form is represented by three specimens from
Turkey Creek. These are all much thinner and lighter than the same species
from the Ohio and Wabash rivers, in both of which it is a common shell. It
seems to be very abundant in certain of the lakes of northern Indiana, notably
Lake Maxinkuckee. The nacre of these three individuals is very dark purple.
Similar shells to these probably have led to the reference of Unio complanatus
Solander to the western fauna.

Unio iris Lea. Two characteristic specimens from Turkey Creek. Like its
near relative—which is probably also a synonym— Unio novieboraci Lea, this shell
occurs most commonly and abundantly in creeks and other small streams. It
most affects soft muddy bottoms in rather still waters.

Unio luteolus Lamarck. Ten specimens from Syracuse Lake; seven specimens
from Turkey Creek.

This species is the most widely distributed shell of the family. It occurs
in every stream, lake and pond in Indiana in which shell! life of any sort occurs
at all. It is also the most abundant Unio, and, correlated with abundance and
wide distribution, is a range of variations that are of the greatest import in evo-
lutionary processes. All the shells submitted, particularly those from Syracuse
Lake, are well covered, posteriorly, with carbonate of lime in heavy masses.
The lake specimens also have beautifully marked green rays widely separated
over a polished disk, thus constituting them the form to which Anthony gave the
name of Unio distans. The epidermis usually has the peculiar coloration of
forms which live in muddy bottoms, though in the lake specimens the epidermis
is, for some hidden chemical reason, quite red posteriorly. This peculiar color-
ation has often been noticed in shells submitted to us from the lake region of
Northern Indiana. ,

Unio occidens Lea. Nine characteristic specimens from Turkey Creek. None
present features different from shells found elsewhere in the State.

Unio pressus Lea. One specimen from Turkey Creek.

249:

A great many shells of this species have been seen from time to time from
various places in Indiana. Very many of them, as this one well does, pre-
sent a peculiar diseased or pathologic condition of the cardinal teeth not alto-
gether unlike the condition exhibited by the interior surface of Margaritana cal-.
ceola. In this instance the cardinal teeth are nearly destroyed and are represented
by distorted and imperfect vestiges. It would be interesting indeed if the Station,
during the next season, could investigate this phenomenon as a study in the.
physiology of Unio, a field yet uncultiva‘ed.

Unio rubiginosus Lea. Two specimens from Turkey Creek, one of which is
pathologic

These shells are intermediate between Unio trigonus Lea and typical Unio
rubiginosus Lea. They are somewhat more trigonal than the latter shelJs are com-
monly found, and, on the other hand, are less heavy and trigonal than the ponder-
ousriverform. The whole group is sadly confused and needs painstaking revision.

CORBICULAD#®.

Spherium rhomboideum Prime. A single specimen only was taken, from Turkey
Lake, in muddy bottom and in comparatively deep water. The specimen is very
much thinner than usual.

Spherium solidulum Prime. Ten specimens from Turkey Lake. These are
all smaller than common and quite heavy; they came from the beach at Vawter
Park.

FRESH-WATER UNIVALVES.

Amnicola porata Say. Eight specimens of this small univalve were obtained
in Tippecanoe Lake. Neither it nor others of the univalves found present any
characters different from shells found in streams throughout the State.

Campeloma decisum Say. Five dead specimens from Turkey Lake.

Campeloma integrum Dekay. One dead specimen from Turkey Creek.

Campeloma rufum Haldeman. About twenty specimens from Tippecanoe
Lake; thirteen, one of which was reversed or sinistral, from Turkey Creek.

There is no difficulty in recognizing these several forms, though tyros an-
nually make the discovery that there are no valid species but one. Campeloma
rufum differs from both the others constantly by the outlines of the whorls, the
shape and color of the aperture, the pink character of the apical whorls, a feature
which is best illustrated in the very young and which is a constant character, and
in the polished epidermis, which presents a character seen inno other member of

the genus. Reversed forms are not uncommon, but yet may be justly considered

250

rare. ‘The type of the genus is a reversed specimen of Campeloma ponderosum from
the Ohio River, taken by Rafinesque near Louisville, Ky.

Planorbella campanulata Say. Very abundant in all parts of Tippecanoe Lake.

Helisoma trivolvis Say. Two specimens from Turkey Lake; three specimens
from Turkey Creek. The form submitted from Turkey Creek is a very large one,
and is rather heavy in texture. The species must be very abundant in favorable
localities.

Limnophysa humilis Say. Five specimens of this small limnzid were obtained
along the shores of Turkey Lake.

Limnophysa caperata Miller. A single specimen of this common form only
was secured. It came from Turkey Lake.

Physa ancillaria Say. Four specimens taken alive, entirely white, from
Turkey Lake. This shell is usually honey yellow in coloration, but these speci-
mens were a snow white.

Physa gyrina Say. Only two specimens of the ‘‘tadpole” physa appear in
the collections, and these came from Tippecanoe Lake. It is one of the most
widely distributed and most abundant of the Limneide.

Goniobasis pulchella Anthony. Nine specimens from Turkey Lake; very
abundant in Tippecanoe Lake, from which many dead specimens were submitted.
This form is widely distributed throughout Indiana. Sometimes associated with it
is Goniobasis livescens Menke, a form decidedly characteristic of the lake drainage.

Pleurocera subulare Lea. Very abundant in Lake Tippecanoe, from which
many dead examples were seen.

Valvata tricarinata Say. A single specimen from Tippecanoe Lake.

LAND MOLLUSCA.

Limax campestris Binney. Four specimens of this widely distributed form
were obtained from Vawter Park.

Succinea obliqua Say. This species is represented by ten alcoholic specimens.
All taken at Vawter Park.

Zonites arboreus Say. Three alcoholic specimens from Vawter Park.

None of the univalves present features worthy of special mention. The
whole collection is rather the result of incidental work than of careful collecting,
and is to be taken as somewhat indicative of the wealth of moHuscan life in
favored localities in Indiana. It is submitted as a local contribution, in the form
of a special report, that may help to a general knowledge of Indiana mollusks.

‘Cincinnati, Ohio, November 3, 1895.

=

251

THE Oponata. By D. S. KeEwuticorr.

I received for identification last fall two small collections of Dragonflies from
Professor Eigenmann. They have been’studied and compared with a determined.
collection; the following species were included:

1. Caloperyx maculata Beauy. It occurs throughout the Eastern United
States and is usually abundant wherever it is found, preferring shady streams or
rivulets of spring water.

2. Heterina americana Fabr. Several examples of both sexes. This species
extends over a wide eastern range and is represented in the Gulf States by a well
marked form known in the lists as H. basalis, and on the Pacific Slope by another,
H. California. Flies late, often until the middle of October, in Ohio. The
scarlet patches at the base of the wings of the male make it a beautiful and con-
spicuous insect.

3. Enallagma hageni Walsh. This appears to be a rare species, but has
now appeared in Illinois, Indiana and Ohio.

4, Enallagma signatum Hagen. Extends from the Gulf to Maine.

5. dischna clepsydra Say. Two males and one female (?) were sent. All the
ceschnas tly late in the season. The three species constricta, clepsydra and verticallis
resemble one another so closely that they are often regarded as one species; the.
females can not be separated by any one as yet.

6. Anax junius Drury.~

7. Tramea lacerata Hagen.

8. Libellula basalis Say.

9. Libellula pulchelia Drury.

10. Plathemis trimaculata DeGeer.

11. Celithemis eponina Drury.

12. Diplax vicina Hagen. This is doubtless the last odonat on the wing in
our latitude. In central Ohio it has been taken pairing and ovipositing as late as
November 8.

13. Mesothemis simplicollis Say.

14. Pachydiplax longipennis Burm.

I am surprised at the absence of all Gomphines and that so few Agrionines
are present. Collecting in the early summer would doubtless disclose several

species of both groups.

252

FisHes. By C. H. EIGENMANN.

Fishes were collected in much larger numbers than any of the other verte-
brates. They will form the subject of our most extented study of variation. I
present here simply a few dates on the spawning time and the distribution of the
various species in the localities examined. Half of these localities are on the St.
Lawrence side of the divide; the other half on the Mississippi side. To show the
relation of the fauna to that of the State I present a complete list of Indiana
fishes.

SPAWNING SEASONS.

Most of the fishes spawn in the spring before the Station opened. This was
true of all the larger species except a few stragglers of Lepomis pallidus.

Noturus flavus. This species is common under boards and logs in Turkey
Creek, at Syracuse. Eggs were found in all stages of development the latter half
of June. They are laid in little depressions in the gravel under boards, and are
apparently watched by the adult. The eggs adhere to each other in masses large
enough to fill the hollow of the hand. The eggs are very flabby, the membrane
being not tense, as usual in fish eggs. After hatching the young remain together
in the nest, and if they are uncovered by raising the board they quickly scatter to
hide under another object or under the board again if this has been turned over.
The blastoderm forms a narrow nodule well separated from the yolk by a deep
constriction.

Pimephales notatus. The eggs of this species are laid on the under surface of
various objects submerged in the margin of the lake to a depth of one or two feet.
The fish is usually found with the nest, and the immediate neighborhood of the
nest is kept clean of weeds and mud. The eggs were found during the whole of
June and the greater part of July. The young swim near the surface and are
very abundant the latter half of June.

Fundulus diaphanus menona. On June 24 eggs of this species were dragged
up by the seine from the grass of the bottom. They are bound together by fila-
ments.

Zygonectes notatus. Many taken on June 27 in Turkey Creek were with ripe
eggs.

Etheostoma caprodes. This species was spawning on May 30, a single ripe

female was taken about June 25.

St. LAWRENCE

Catostomus commersoni Lacépede. Common Sucker,
4) OUTS SS RO ite Ry So ES a eS

Basin.

g

Ls A

E Z

oO

s|o|S| lala

2/2\'s| jAl2

3 O/A\ 4) e/o

wl S| s| 4/3/28

eValal areal

SESS |e) fell eat | et

MH |RlO 2H

Ammocetes branchialis L. Brook Lamprey .....}..}..]..|..]..] TF

Ichthyomyzon concolor Kirkland.................{.. Sells al cnelticrodcers

Polyodon spathula Walbaum. Spoon-bill Cat ...|.. Ha GAs eel ee
Scaphirhynchus platyrhynchus Rat. Shovel-nosed

SUR ARES 07S) i i a St ie ee ee alate pe eR bs set ey
Acipenser rubicundus Le Sueur. Lake Sturgeon.|..!..]..|..|..!.
Lepisosteus osseus L. Common Gar Pike ....... wahacdttiberet hs ts
Lepisosteus platystomus Rafinesque. Short-nosed

REAM Mn foRthe [ys. Sens >> 8s wade ta aien8 ays 2.2 deity alteeAfs a bake
Lepisosteus tristechus Bloch and Schneider. Al-

More O My Cralen occce Petes ce fecal > <valeytaat Ricewresse ae © x i tevoth sell tall ceed tars
Amia calva L. Bow-fin, Mud-fish, Dog-fish ....]..) Tt} T!T|T]..
Ietalurus furcatus Le Sueur. Chuckle-headed

(ORI Hee abs ae ig SO eter ere Sal ecesllss oll Gactheel| es
Ictalurus punctatus Rafinesque. Channel Cat ...|..|..]..]..].-|..
Ameiurus lacustris Walbaum. Great Cat-fish . Bre eh fed ale it,
Ameiurus natalis Le Sueur. Yellow Cat ....... i ae ba 8) Ss PP
Ameiurus nebulosus Le Sueur. Common Bull-

edd ORME ME ROU be cr ysuricatsiskiclayciewic srs ec oss 3 Males lati eles lees
Ameturus melas Rafinesque .................005 Bellet eateclters
Leptops olwaris Rafinesque. Mud Cat....... FS Noe eli at 1
Woturius jlavus Watimerqne.............20c.+se0 +s fA decleeeleralet:
Menuucones exis NOON = ow. sede ka ss ws eee snes Fe ith SR aes SA
Sehibeodes miurus Jordan . 22... ee ees wee wees ar leallheaell ea lero aie
Schilbeodes eleutherus Jordan ............. 00000: athe eraltss at wile 4
Schildeodes gyrinus Mitchill ...............004. Lasite dt tesal oth
Schilbeodes nocturnus Jordan and (silbert ........ Bye oval tere wil ceealiey
Tetiobus cyprinella Cuy. and Val. Common

Pariah an eMER EE Meco SA rind sc heri's Santer Se 3) 21s 1a Selects: s
Ictiobus urus Agassiz. Razor-backed Buffalo..|..|..}..}..}..|..
Ietiobus bubalus Rafinesque. Sucker-mouthed

ORAS oo cc gay ab ere tetas dts <5 6/8 2s 5 Sale eiecel rat acme
Carpiodes carpio Rafinesque...................- Ae (ir et i ee
Rampiodes dijorimis COPC. 6 occ cc te siniice vs veces a sans ee tec cs
Carpiodes velifer Rafinesque. Quill-back .......|.. PBs ess (| 2S)
Cycleptus elongatus Le Sueur. Black Horse.....|.. ABP a ae
Catostomus catostomus Foster. Northern Sucker ..|..|..|..]..|..]..

Webster Lake.

253

MISSISSIPPI
BASIN.

Tippecanoe River (Above Dam).

Webster Lake (Below Dam).
Tippecanoe River (Below Dain).

‘lippecanoe Lake.

Shoe Lake.

254

Catostomus nigricans Le Sueur. Hog Sucker....}..]..]..|..
Evimyzon sucetta oblongus Mitchill. Ch ........ se t
Minytrema melanops Rafinesque. Striped Sucker .|..!..]..!..|..
Moxostoma anisurum Rafinesque. White-nose

SECON stag onthe of ak Genin Maatoias iets chat ome ell ec cole dee
Morostoma aureolwm Le Sueur’. 7... 2... 25 ve<-dsclecla- 5) Go Be
Morasiomea bremceps Copes di. ssi ieh es ea) sis eee salle Falloaiice
Placopharyna duquesnii Le Sueur ...............]..]..].- Etaoin

Lagochila lacera Jordan and Brayton. Hare-lip

St. LAWRENCE

(Below Dam). |
Tippecanoe Lake.

Tippecanoe River (Below Dam).|

Tippecanoe River (Above Dam).
Shoe Lake,

Turkey Creek (Below Dam).

Turkey Creek (Upper).
Webster Lake.

String Lake Creek.
Syracuse Lake.

Turkey Lake.
Channel.
Webster Lake

—
=i:

b+
3 eke
—-

BOT hos dcr te)a. aieeota ge aud otnet a emesis 37 eine. ro erat eel aa
Compostoma anomalum Rafinesque. Stone Roller .|..}..]..|..]..

Chrosomus erythrogaster Rafinesque. Red-bellied

GMB GWee oS nhac pe aig she ose Ries ass calle afedft inh empes
Hybognathus nuchalis Agassiz........... 0... 00s feefee S2)\(sclltaael hen
Pimephales promelas Rafinesque ......-.........]..].- Gale llc Se
Pimephales notatus Rafinesque ..............--. gale.

Cliola vigilax Baird and Girard. — Bull-head

Mim niowen oy. ise nas cic be cdtods Strole eee oe an era| rele
sNotropisanogents WOrbes ....2. else es eyes ae eee Seleeiblble
Notropis bifrenatus Copessj.cc.. so. < 0s seas times Seal Pale
Notropis heteradom Cope. ci. i285" Sat E scyeaes 2 one el ee
Notropis microstomus Rafinesque..............-. ee ae ey aa Re) 2) ee
Worropis cayuga Meek. o.o2 orci ecs cee e clea s Fl ekal ee leeeleclles
Wetraps boops Gilbert: acho .25-/s asus ose Peewee Sis lle lie Silos
Notropis hudsonius Clinton. Spawn-eater ....... sie [aml Real cds aioe
Notropis whipplei Girard. Silver-Fin........ sional Levi evel ene dhe yl eeeificrs
Notropis megalops Rafinesque. Common Shiner .}.. rae
sNotropiey cytes HOT DES ps echt ie eels aedne) es a (ere 2 Weroles
iNotropis anuommus Cope oe 2.5 si 22 scce ee i = aoe eo|eles Solera
WNotrapis ardens ‘Cope. > Wed=fin, oc. * 52.42 osu aiiom|r alec Bo ee as
Notropis atherinoides Rafitesque «6... 6.2 seco <| «<n fo mil avalon
BNOERGDIS UGE: CODE ge rite Sesto ory ie ieee reel ell eee Be lore lee

Moines dilectus Girard! 02. cle cg sine om faiels els roll eae tesi aes
IN RG ON TLE RESO) Waa op A Beak ob osouScelOallsolloo|les|loolor
Brienmba buecata Cope. tn ai iele sss cielo ce eee de allel ie eis bale = [ee
ehinichihys atronasus Mautchwlyy 57 seca. «ete eal eal tl ete
iEbepss dissimilis Kirtland! 5,25) oe one cee kell ol he | eae as

Hybopsis amblops Rafinesque

Hy bopsis.siorersamus Kirtland. ..0.% > vai. ntece = whee eee eee: kee

255
St. LAWRENCE MISSISSIPPI
ASIN. / ASIN.
| | la 2
Bi 12) foie
| All jal {sis
[> 1} j.2{i|@o
2 El |8| |3e
= S O] ol] | &
= 3 8) : cS a =
|Sio| 'Mls|l 2] siaiaia
215 /3\_. "S18 | 5/5] 2/2] 813
(33/2 2l Bi S21 81g) 2
SlZ/2/2 slZ|/4/2] 2) el2ie
- a Sl sl]C}].0' &| ala Ss
alela|6 2a\|F|F a elala
Hybopsis watauga Jordan and Evermann.. : |. BS AS |. . al ip 4B |.
Hybopsis kentuckiensis Rafinesque. Horny Head, |
Oe as Se ee Peo ig ey ae | ie el ee GB es
Hybopsis hyostom SLES SE a er pee en ae BER Nh A ie! va ene
Semotilus atromaculatus Mitchill. Horned Dace,|
Lore 2? RR ee ee eee ae TREE dacPe chek EBS CE ok. steele
Phozinus elongaius Kirtland.................-.- ak io) ay PS) ch SS | HY mt ay Ft Ds by
Gpsopeedus emilie Hay... .. 2.2.2.2 ..0-2. 000005 a is) A lac om, weg i a
Notemigonus chrysoleucus Mitchill .............. mF es a ied SPN Meet A ey hs oh es te hen
Hiodon alosoides Rafinesque.................... Mee Pas ew OP pee a | Hr bey He A fe
Hiodon tergisus Le Sueur. Moon-eye........... nef slec Packets eo
Clupea chrysochloris Rafinesque. Skip-jack...... A BA vo Wi) sex] ie | ipa
3 Dorosoma cepedianum Le Sueur. Gizzard Shad ..|..]..}..|..)..]..][..'.-]../..f. 2/2.
Coregonus quadrilateralis Richardson............ eietaks ahr haabe lt cate » feaedee een iene
Coregonus elupeiformis Mitchill ................ Ad Gel eS We PM ded | "Sie Fes (ay! es |
Coregonus labradoricus Richardson .............. me, BM oe Ts | Bh
LE OL | A a ee o<fahs af ofasiit
Coregonus artedi Le Sueur ..................... Pa (al a i ee i) amas
Coregonus artedi sisco Jordan. oF PEER AN es SN a ORR, MR atone
Salvelinus namaycush Walbaum. Trout ........ esa litet eat sae fee
Percopsis guttatus Agassiz. Trout Perch........ S| ee Pag A Pa es | eel os! 7
Amblyopsis speleus De Kay. Blind Fish ........ Ba) A Mc ree] AP lets
Typhlichthys subterraneus Girard ................ Be BOM re (Eg are pal AE a
Fundulus diaphanus menona Jordan and Cope- 1 |
RMR resi | Sock Pere Beth ws wens win « « Ps GS ee AES et, pare) pa vos EN Ys
Zygonectes notatus Rafinesque. Top Minnow ....|..| T}../..|..|T|]/.. ..]../.-] 7 ]..
Wygonectes dispar Agassiz......-.....--..2-e.0ss xd aetna [a nee tae
Gambusia patruelis Baird and Girard. Top Min-) |
es ESE RR Re Pee et renee sp i ib es a, ing | eR Pe eis hie
Umbra limi Kirtland. Mud-minnow, Dog-fish ..| 7 ]..|..)..|..)..)) 7 T)../T].
Lmeius vermiculatus Le Sueur. Little Pickerel ..) TF) FT) TT) TIT) FIT TIT T IT | T
Tueius lueius L. Pike, Northern Pickerel ...... Sle Semele.
Lucius masquinongy Mitchill. Muskallunge ....|..|..|..)..{..]..
Anguilla anguilla rostrata Le Sueur. Eel........)..|..].. Sel eel | eae
Pygosteus pungitius L. Nine-spined Stickle- |
oe Lae ae ee Spa R lade bef cH te
Eucalia inconstans Kirtland. Brook Stickleback..!..|..)..|..)..|..|). a
Labidesthes sicculus Cope. Brook Silverside..... ; Rt , TIT TIT ij | ts
Aphredoderus sayanus Gilliams. Pirate Perch ...|7!. a tnegh | | ore a

256

ASIN.

Turkey Creek (Below Dam)

MISSISSIPPI
BASIN.

Webster Lake (Below Dam).
Tippecanoe River (Above Dam).

Sr. LAWRENCE
B
3
a -
= .|! >
j4]o| |Sl|1s|o a
2|$\* =| ES © «
sic | = | =| ° oO
3 ks eed bet 5 3 2
wo! S| S| a] 3 2\2|3 4
Ss ae] sl aile 2] a 2
S| S18) 3/5) s|eleus Ss
Qe aoa |e) FE S| D
Centrarchus macropterus Lacépéde ..............).. a shes lienct i sie ; a |. elie
Pomoris sparoides Lacépéde. Calico Bass fat era (Oey Pe Paes) ey sie) oe
Pomozxis annularis Rafinesque. Crappie .. nite e fio-ejlloce |=!) =e ffeen aera
Ambloplites rupestris Ratinesque. Rock | Bass, |
ed Biya. , rae Ga 2 ee ae eae tan cee oe nee oeieles TIT (Ta ieee
Chenobryttus gulosus Cuy. and Val. WarMouth . Te Thc cdc |t tetsse lint (ee ate
Lepomis cyanellus Ratinesque. Green Sunfish . SGM APPR eR IMBL gihe ce oi.
Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque................].-]..|-- B lec (eo! | esol feet level eal ec || 5 <
Lepomis humilis Girard” 6.500. eee hss genes se e}e els eoferle sts ofl» tee) tal tei
Lepomis pallidus Mitchill. Blue Sunfish .......]..].. oe ee Vee Ree | Ven das lise FEC) AP |) a7
Lepomis megatotia Rafinesque ... . 2/2. kaw. +2 he Har ale pss Py | es eas ed esc
repos GarMOne WORDS. coos sos 5 «sacle bake ste Miles be slachan bee cheats en
Peps CUrTyorus MEK AY 2r1s. Week base tcoes ce eel thes By FA (Oe) |B kee feos es |bS | foc
Lepomis heros B. and G. McKay .............../..|..[.- Bs aes |e iss est)
Lepomis’ notaius Agass. McKay (i 2.222%... 0052 -he-\e- shale col wei [ise fss0 | eel eae ee
Lepomis gibbosus L. Common Sunfish-.........|..].. T| TI. ara a WL We a
Micropterus dolomieuw Lacépéde. Small-mouthed
Be ksBiaes Lge va see cask coe ae Sareea fee Pe a a TI.) 1 eee
Micropterus salmoides Lacépéde. Large-mouthed
13) EVE aie) No angle Os PR, SA ECS RR Re Eee oof THT |. sh. o) Tee et tn
Etheostoma pellucidum Baird. Sand Darter...... a efors| safe cfm alte. | len |<) sta
Etheostoma asprellus Jordan ...........-. 0.005 ed Fs) a ee | el
Etheostoma nigrum Rafinesque. ‘‘Johnny”..... mae i of Tee CPR tee
Etheostoma chlorosoma Hay ................-5%- 2 aille Alla aillle-s flocs lle'er|lles | eee ee el eee
Etheostoma blennioides Rafinesque. Green-sided |
Darter cyaq-ccc nyo site oa ee ei ee ere ere ere eee o> |\s fies ierS] | eee =i{ievel ere eee
Etheostoma coplandi Jordan .... SS oaibhn'e na) Cale-[edleele le eee ea
Etheostoma histrio Jordan and Gilbert...........|..|.. at a ad ~ fe he eae
Etheostoma shumard: Girard ................«..<|.-|-- 619 alle +. : = |/<=1) oe eee
Etheostoma uranidea Jordan and Gilbert ........}..|.. | era bene (oe Br red fo foc
Etheostoma caprodes Rafinesque. Log Perch
IGESHEH Won ee ates atc ee ein ei eles 1 eee (ae | Gal Fes J
Etheostoma macrocephalum Cope.........+++++.+-/..[.- BG | BSlibelse B8D | alloc
Etheostoma ouachite Jordan and Gilbert ........|..].. Ab eel my ee
Etheostoma aspro Cope and Jordan .............)..].. ay ae) ary Ua a ete fae od
Etheostoma phoxocephalum Nelson . ees ed ees ae ea | |e |. eee
SB REOSLOME: SCLENUMOWALD E-\eieeieakie are acai so eaten) | re PP Caeser
Etheostoma evides Jordan and Copeland ......... ; 4 atlas hele : al. ‘f alle | Bi ieee
Etheostoma variatum Kirtland ......:..........0!.. pa Wi Ma a ee Be

Tippecanoe River (Below Dam).

se

> = ow

257
Sr. LAWRENCE MIssIssiPPI
Basin. Basin.
| a a ae
ell lel jala
E al) jal |ele
z z] \8| (3/8
é| | |_ [sl (slgizl
mallee Pl allolol sisi
s/2l4| |s/3 all elsle| «
4) 5| a Alalalayolre|c] e@
SO JAjas| of/Ol el .| 2] e/a
=|] 3/2) 2) 3|18/3|2/ 2/28
E)2|2|8| 2/2) 4/2/28) e121 8
Z\e|6 6 Za |E|E|R aa a
|
Pikeostomma conde COPe .. 2... .c ees eae nese eefee See he PE eas
Eitheostoma camurum Cope ..... 2... 2.2.0 e ede pal eves | 8 ice hae
Etheostoma maculatum Kirtland...............+.).. RrApea taerel = cise ctealt=
Etheostoma flabellare Rafinesque ............----)-- Fe) a Woe as Ce | ee
Etheostoma squamiceps Jordan................+-|-- oe oe
Etheostoma tippecanoe Jordan and Evermann ....|.. Bd oy We | nee es I a 7
Etheostoma iowe Jordan and Meek..............|.. WELT | ghee PHONG tae ea Tole tae
Etheostoma ceeruleum Storer. Rainbow Darter...|.. Sy OO Pe gael rw Ne) (YO Os
Etheostoma ceruleum spectabile Agassiz...........|.. alee Peaches shail ss
Etheostoma jessie Jordan and Brayton ...... ...|.. so as, Plc 2
Etheostoma fusiforme Girard ..............0+206|.. a) TE fA bd oy
Etheostoma eos Jordan and Copeland ...........|.. Zales rede’ Se ae
Etheostoma microperca Jordan and Gilbert. ..... |..)..]T]..J.-].-|[--{--{--{T]T]-:
Perea flavescens Mitchill. Yellow Perch .......|.. sh Cane in| ae A As a
Stizostedion vitreum Mitchill. Wall-eye ........].. ae eal A a.
Stizostedion canadense C. H. Smith. Sauger,
PE ies PGI Mr igdt Ai GEE CES le. Loe a) ee ore aes
Roccus lineatus Bloch. Striped Bass ...........]..]..].- Poi | ee «Atel
Roccus chrysops Rafinesque. White Bass es 1S ny eM I V bbs :
Morone interrupta Gill. Yellow Bass ..........|..]..]-- By (cd ae
Aplodinotus grunniens Rafinesque. Fresh Water
_ UIA S Se SEES ei ee ceecr aoen it es ar ek oe
SneITErCRINCNNEE fee ete. Ge w= cswhags she nna} ee ae] Bs Bs pi
Cottus bairdi Girard. Miller’s Thumb .........]..]..]..J.-[.-].- 4 PS
ms pollecares Drang: G vec Sos ee he de ee ode = Moda e
Ey a OS TC ine ean See end Pt a Ree Pad ek (EA hr
Lota lota maculosa Le Sueur. Burbot ..........]..]..]..|.-|--|--

(17)

258

Batracuia. By Curtis ATKINSON.

Siren lacertina Linnaeus. A single specimen of this specics was taken in the
seine in the channel. Mr. Dolan secured another late in September, and after-
wards, through his students, secured a nest of eleven, which were uncovered while
cleaning a lot near Syracuse. These had evidently gone into winter quarters.
Five of them are still alive. Turkey Lake is the most northern locality so far
recorded for the siren.

Necturus maculatus Rafinesque. Three specimens of this species were secured.
It is said to be abundant, but no other specimens were noted. On June 28, a
number of eggs were found fastened to the lower surface of a board, which was
well imbedded in the mud of the bank of Turkey Creek. The young were al-
ready quite active in the loose, flabby bags forming their covering.

Amblystoma jeffersonianum Green? A single specimen under a log near the
lake.

Bufo lentiginosus Shaw. The ubiquitous toad was present, but not in great
numbers at Syracuse, Turkey and Tippecanoe lakes.

Aeris gryllus crepitans Baird. Abundant along the shallow margins of the
lake among rushes and lillypads. Detailed localities where it was taken are
outlet of String Lakes, Turkey Lake, Syracuse Lake, Turkey Creek, Webster and
Tippecanoe Lakes and Tippecanoe River.

Rana virescens Kalm. Very abundant and variable. I am not at all certain
that the varieties described by Cope and Hay are to be found among our material,
but it seems quite certain that there is no correlation in the variations of different
parts of the body. If varieties are to be distinguished it must be by separating
them on single characters.

I have made measurements of a number of characters to determine whether
the 120 specimens collected could be grouped according to any of these.

The relation of the tibia in the length of the body gave the length of the
tibia .55 that of the body as the most common relation between the parts.

From this there is a gradual reduction to a length of .49 on the one hand and
an increase to .70 on the other. But .20 of the specimens had the tibia with the
most common length. This character is then perfectly useless in separating
varieties in my specimens.

The same may be said of the length of the head in the length of the body,
.33 is the relation occurring oftenest and from this there is a variation to .20 on
one hand and .27 on the other; .20 of all the specimens have the length of the head
.33 of the length of the body.

259

The relation of the fifth toe to the length of the third toe gave a very jagged
curve with the length of the fifth toe .95 of the length of the third as the condi-
tion occurring in .20 of the specimens. From this a very irregular curve extends
to .89 on one side and to 1.00 on the other.

The relation of the diameter of the tympanum to the diameter of the eye
gave the most irregular curve. Thirty-five per cent. of all the specimens had a
tympanum with a diameter equal to .60 of that of the eye. From this we have
a saw-toothed curve to .48 on one side and .70 on the other. A comparatively
large per cent.—15 per cent.—have a relation of .50. Attempts to get system
out of this curve by breaking it up into age curves did not succeed entirely. But
these separate curves for the different ages show that in the young the tympanum
is comparatively small, and that the peak noted at the .50 mark is due to the
young included in the general curve.

The whole study emphasized the fact that there is little or no codrdination in
the variation in this frog. No two characters, in fact, seem to vary together and
all the specimens may be referred to but one variety.

I have in the following grouping, in the shape of the conventional key, sep-
arated the specimens according to their color patterns. All but one or two of
the combination of patterns contains individuals which have the vomerine patches
of teeth forming a straight line, and others with these patches inclined to each
other at a more or less distinct angle. They clearly show that there is no codérdi-
nation in the different parts of the color pattern. Each region varies apparently

independently of the others.

KEY TO THE COLOR PATTERNS.

a. <A spot on the nose.
b. ‘Two complete series of spots on the back.
c. Two cross bars on the femur.
d. Tibia with a mixture of spots and bars. 5 specimens.
bb. Two complete series of spots on the back, with a third broken series
between.
e. Two cross bars on the femur.
f. Tibia, with a mixture of spots and bars. 16 specimens.
ff. . Tibia, with a row of spots on the anterior and another on the
posterior edge, upper surface unspotted. 1 specimen.
ee. Three cross bars on the femur.
g- Tibia, with a mixture of spots and bars.
h. Spots on back, many and small. 21 specimens.

hh. Spots on back, few and large. 13 specimens.

260

gg. Tibia, with a row of spots on the anterior and another on the
posterior edge, upper surface unspotted. 9 specimens.
eee. Four or five cross bars on femur.
i. Tibia, with a mixture of spots and bars. 16 specimens.
ii. Tibia, with a row of spots on the anterior and another on the
posterior edge, upper surface unspotted. 2 specimens.
aa, No spot on the nose.
j. Two series of spots on the back.
k. Two cross bars on femur. Tibia, with a mixture of
spots and bars. 4 specimens.
kk. Three cross bars on the femur. Tibia, with a mixture
of spots and bars. 4 specimens.
kkk. Irregular number of cross bars on femur, always more
than three.
!. Tibia, with a mixture of spots and ‘bars. 2 specimens.
ll. Tibia, with a row of spots on the anterior and pos-
terior edge, upper surface unspotted. 2 speci-
mens.
jj. Two complete series of spots on the back, with a third
broken series between them.
m. Two cross bars on the femur. Tibia, with a mix-
ture of spots and bars. 4 specimens.
mm. Three cross bars on the femur.
n. Tibia, with a mixture of spots and bars. 11
specimens.
nn. Tibia, with a row of spots on the anterior and
anotlier on the posterior edge, upper surface
unspotted. 4 specimens.
mmm. Four or five cross bars on the femur.

o. Tibia, with a mixture of spots and bars. 1
specimen.

oo. Tibia, with a row of spots on the anterior and
another on the posterior edge, upper sur-
face unspotted. 4 specimens.

String Lakes, Upper and Lower Turkey Creeks, Turkey, Webster and Tippe-
canoe Lakes.

Rana palustris LeConte. One at the String Lakes, one at Turkey Lake, five
at Tippecanoe Lake.

. baleen

261

Rana sylvatica LeConte. A single specimen at Turkey Lake.

Rana clamata Daudin. Abundant at Upper and Lower Turkey Creek, Turkey
and Tippecanoe Lakes.

Rana catesbiana Shaw. Abundant among lily pads, especially in parts of the

lake not frequently visited. Turkey and Tippecanoe Lakes.

SNAKES OF TURKEY LAKE. By G. ReEppicxk.,

The number of specimens of snakes taken amount to about 225. They belong
to five genera and eight species.

Baseanion constrictor Linn. is common around Turkey Lake and is the largest
of the snakes found here. This snake is of course no part of the lakefauna. This
snake was also taken at Lake Tippecanoe.

Eutainia sirtalis Linn. is very abundant along the margin of the lake, feed-
ing on frogs and fish. One specimen was secured with a cat-fish spine sticking
through the body wall of the snake.

Young taken from this snake July 17 averaged a slight fraction over seven
inches in length and were almost grown, only a very small amount of the yolk
being left. These young as soon as they were liberated would try to crawl away,
and upon provocation and some without provocation would open their little mouths
and flatten their heads and strike as viciously as old snakes.

As high as seventy-two young were taken from one snake, and often from
thirty to forty. The average appearing to be between thirty and forty. This
snake was also secured from Tippecanoe Lake.

Eutainia saurita Linn. is not nearly so abundant nor is it nearly so prolific.
Eggs were taken from only three or four specimens, six being the highest number
taken from any one. Specimens of this snake were also taken from the margins
of Lake Tippecanoe.

Eutainia butlerivi Cope. Only one specimen of this wastaken. It was four-
teen and one-half inches long. This snake is short and chubby and its movement
is very characteristic of it. It does not have the gliding movement of F. saurita
nor the swift but yet very active movement of N. sipedon, but seems rather to
exert a large amount of force to do little crawling. The movement is so charac-
teristic that I believe any one, having once seen the peculiar way in which it tries
to hurry itself away, would ever after be able to recognize it at a distance. No

specimen was taken from Lake Tippecanoe.

262

Natriz leberis Linn. is rare in Turkey Lake, but common in Lake Tippeca-
noe. Twelve is the highest number of embryos taken from any one specimen.

Embryos taken August 5 contained a considerable amount of yolk; probably
enough to nourish the embryo for a month or more.

Natrix sipedon Linn. is the most abundant of snakes found in this region,
but not the most prolific, E. sirtalis standing ahead of it. Thirty-four was the
highest number of eggs taken from any one specimen. One snake which was
kept in confinement gave birth to fourteen young the third week of September.

Among the bullrushes is a favorite abode for this snake, and also under any-
thing whatever that happens to be lying along the margin of the lake, especially
if it happens to be lying partly in the water.

Sistrurus catinatus Rat. This snake is very common around Turkey Lake
and also around Lake Tippecanoe. Several specimens were secured and others
killed. It lives chiefly in the swamps.

A specimen taken August 6 contained five eggs and the embryos were seven
inches long.

Storeria dekayi Holb. Only one specimen of this was secured. It was
taken along a highway running by the side of a swamp.

TESTUDINATA. By C. H. EIGENMANN.

Turtles are at all times and everywhere abundant. They frequent especially
the shallower portions of the lake. Many specimens of all ages were preserved.
The number of variations in the shields is large. I present here simply a list with
notes on their abundance and breeding habits.

Chelydra serpentina Linneus. This species is abundant in Turkey Lake, and
reaches a larger size than any of the others. It is caught for the markets. It is
much shyer than the other species of turtles and is not frequently seen. It inhabits
the shallower muddy parts of the lake, being abundant in the kettle and about
Morrison’s Island. No eggs were found.

Trionyx spiniferus LeSueur. The soft-shelled turtle is very abundant. It is
the second in size and is caught for the markets. Its round eggs “are laid in the
sand and gravel near the water’s edge during June and July. On June 26 one
was seen digging a nest in the gravel banks at Syracuse, and on the 27th we
obtained eggs from five nests about Ogden Point and other places about the kettle.

Other fresh nests were found July 9. The time of hatching was not determined.

]
“

263

Several empty nests were found in July, but some eggs, examined as late as Sep-

tember 1, contained young which would have been ready to hatch about a month

later. The number of eggs found in several nests was as follows: 9; 12; 17; 18;

Aromochelys odorata Bosc. This species is abundant, but not conspicuous.
Individuals were oftenest seen the latter part of June and first part of July while
laying their eggs. The eggs are laid in the rotten wood in the tops of stumps
standing in the margin of the lake. ‘The turtles were frequently found in the
tops of these stumps, and some of their eggs wedged as far into the rotten wood
as a finger could bore. Rotten logs removed some distance from the water are
also favorable places for egg laying, and in a mucky place of small area at the
edge of the lake 362 eggs were taken at one time. The number of eggs laid by
one individual varies from 4 to 7, this number being usually ina cluster. At this
rate about sixty turtles must have contributed to the nest of 362. While passing
along a wheat field some turtles were seen coming from it, and on inspection it
was found that they had deposited their eggs in the ground in depressions made
by a cow while walking over the ground when it was soft. Still other eggs were
found in bundles of rushes drifted together. An interesting change of habit
seems to have taken place among these turtles during the last fifty years. Before
that time the number of stumps standing in the margin of the lake must have
been exceedingly small. The present large number is due to the rising of the
lake after the building of the dam and the subsequent cutting down of the trees
whose boles had become submerged. The habit of laying eggs in stumps can not
be of much more than fifty years’ duration.

The time of laying must be scattered over considerable time, for ‘many eggs
were found hatched in August, while some obtained about then hatched at
various times from September 15 to November 1. These were, however, kept in
a box in a room and therefore removed from normal conditions. The age of this,
as of all other hard-shelled turtles, can be estimated by the lines of growth on
the horny cuticle. The originally exposed part of the plate occupies the medio-
cephalic corner of the plate and additions occur as smooth strips along the outer
and posterior margins. The strips are quite distinct in early years, but become
more or less obscure with age.

Chrysemys marginata Agassiz. This appears to be the most abundant turtle of
the lake. How far its apparent abundance may be due to its habits I am unable to
say. It is found floating or quietly paddling along, its head out of the water, but
on nearer approach it always turns tail and seeks refuge in the abundant chara

fields or in other hiding places. ‘The chara fields are traversed by narrow paths

264

and tunnels made by this turtle. The eggs are laid later in the summer and
farther from the water than those of the other species. Many were leaving the
water in late August; the eggs were found but once.

Malaclemimys geographica LeSueur. Next to Chrysemys the most abundant of
the turtles. It goes by the appropriate name of Housetop.

Emys blandingii Holbrook. Found in moderate numbers in the lake and
along the banks of Turkey Creek.

Clemmys guttata Schneider. But two specimens were seen.

Cistudo carolina Linneus. One specimen of this species wastaken. It, how-

ever, in no sense forms a part of the fauna of the lake.

WATER Birps oF TuRKEY LAKE. By F. M. CHAMBERLAIN.

The following birds were taken between July 1 and September 1, on or near
Turkey Lake. Only those of more or less aquatic habits are listed:
1. Hydrochelidon nigra L.
2. Botaurus lentiginosus Montaga.
3. Botaurus evilis Gmelin.
4, Ardea virescens L.
5. Rallus elegans Audubon.
6. Rallus virginianus L.
Gallinula galeata Lichtenstein.
8. Fulica americana Gmelin.
9. Actitis macularia L.
10. Aegilites vocifera L.
11. Ceryle alcyon L.
12. Agelaius phoenicus L.
13. Clivicola riparia L.
14. Cistothorus palustris Wilson.

: 265

PART ITI—VARIATION.

Tue Stupy oF VARIATION.* By C. H. EIGENMANN.

VARIATION AND Its ImporTANCE. No two individuals are exactly alike. The
differences of whatever sort, whether in structure or habit, between the individ-
uals of a species, whether these individuals are related to each other as parent
and child, or belong to the same brood, are termed variation.

The whole basis of the Darwinian idea of evolution is this individual vari-
ation. At present we have two estimates of the importance of individual vari-
ation.

I. The individual variations are of the utmost importance, and all species
are the result of natural selection working on the varying individuals of any
species.

II. Individual ‘‘ variation offers us little hope of learning the real facts of
evolution,” ‘‘species are not the result of the selection of a few favorable vari-
ations out of a large number of haphazard changes,” but to ‘‘the orderly ad-
vance (of the mean specific form) towards the final goal, deviating very little
from the direct line.” ?

We subscribe to neither of these views, wishing to view the facts as they are
presented by the conditions of the environment at Turkey Lake and the lakes in
the neighborhood, in a perfectly impartial way.

The causes of variation are still unknown, though several explanations have
been attempted. This is not surprising since the variations in no species are
sufficiently known to formulate any satisfactory explanation, in fact little has
been attempted but to determine the extent of variation in comparatively few
eases where the variation is great, resulting in the naming of new varieties and in
the recording of abnormalities. The statistical method of studying variation is of

the most recent date, but much promises to be done with this method.

DISTRIBUTION OF VARIATIONS. Variations are to be found at all times and
at all places where organisms exist. They are found under conditions where the
environment is in a state of stability. The conditions under which the greatest
variability is found (in fishes) are:

1. Wide distribution. A large territory is, usually, though not necessarily,

inhabited by more or less stable varieties.

*Contributions from the Zodlogical Laboratory of the Indiana University, No. 17.

+This wording is from Scott, but since the paragraphs are selected from isolated parts
of his paper, I do not wish to convey the idea that they state his views as he would like to
have them stated. The paragraphs state an extreme view.

266

2. Great physical and climatic differences, even in comparatively narrow
limits. No more striking illustration can be imagined than is offered by the
streams of the Pacific slope of North America, which are inhabited by extraord-
inary variable species, without stable varieties

3. Amphimyxis has been suggested by Ayres as a condition favoring the
display of great variation.

These are simply statements under which variation seems to find its optimum

condition and do not approach any explanation of its causes.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF VARIATIONS.—Students of variation have found it ad-
vantageous to analyze the phenomena, and the result of this analysis has given us
the following classifications :

Continuous variation, including all gradual modifications and transitions.

Discontinuous variation ; any sudden and wide modifications or saltations.

Using other features as the basis of classification, we have:

Meristic variations dealing with the change in the number of successive parts.

Substantative dealing with the chemical modifications of parts.

Another classification gives us:

Indeterminate, or fortuitous and aimless variation. This is largely individual
and pertains to series of variations either geographically or geologically.

Determinate and adaptive, leading to definite end.

The most essential and at the same time the most difficult to define is the
distinction between—

Ontogenetic variation including all those deviations appearing at any time,
from any cause, during the life cycle of an individual;

Phylogenetic variations change from the specific characters appearing at some
time in the life cycle of an individual, or better still, a large number of indi-
viduals, reappearing in the next generation, finally becoming hereditarily fixed.

I have in the following directions omitted the use of the terms ontogenetic
and phylogenetic. Recently (Osborn, 1894', the distinction between ontogenetic
and phylogenetic variation in the study of evolution has been strenuously insisted
upon as the only possible way of determining the value of any given variation in
the process of evolution. However, it is certainly impossible in many cases to
determine whether a given variation is ontogenetic or phylogenetic as defined by
Osborn. To give a concrete case. The ancon sheep of evolutionary classics was
born with short legs. Were they ontogenetic or phylogenetic? Subsequent events
proved that they were phylogenetic, but certainly the short legs in themselves

enabled no one to make the distinction; the hereditary transmission decided the

: 267 -

matter. Sports, therefore, of which the ancon sheep was certainly one, may be
phylogenetic. Scott, however, has recently shown, Am. J. Science, 369, 1894, that
many if not most saltatory variations are of an entirely different nature from the
variations that in the past have given rise to phylogenetic series. In a deviation
much less marked, such for instance as the presence of one more than the normal
number of spines in a fin, this ultimate criterion of transmission might fail us
even were it practicable to put it to the test. A surer way of determining
phylogenetic variation is to measure variation in the bulk by means of curves.
If, say one thousand individuals of a definite time and place, show in the aggre-
gate a character different from that normal to the species, it is phylogenetic. Such
variations may occur in successive years or at isolated places. The phylogenetic
character is in such a case really made up of a large number of ontogenetic vari-
ations which must also be capable of reappearing; that is, they must also be
phylogenetic. A better way of stating the problem would seem to me to be that:

All yariations are ontogenetic, some are at the same time immediately phylo-
genetic and many if not all may become so—a phyletic series. This leaves open
the question of the conditions under which ontogenetic variation becomes phylo-
genetic and ignores the unchanged germplasm theory which from purely embryo-
logical grounds is untenable.

The paragraphs pertaining to this subject in the following direction are: 7.
8, 13, 15, 16.

Nearly synonymous terms with ontogenetic and phylogenetic are the terms
variation and mutation as used by Newmayr, Waagen, and Scott. Variation is
here applied to locally different forms, while mutation is applied to the chronolog-
ical changes or ‘‘steady advance (of the mean) along certain definite lines.” The
latter term may for our purpose be still further restricted by applying it not only
to the changes of the mean in successive geologic periods, but to the changes in the
mean which may occur in two successive years or broods.

To quote Newmayr, pp. 60-61 (from Scott, p. 372), ‘‘ Weil ein Theil der Merk-
male gleichmissig nach einer Richtung im Laufe der Zeit mutirt, zeigen andere
Charactere regellose Abinderungen und jede Mutation entwickelt denselben
Varietitenkreis.” Scott illustrates this process by comparing the mutation to the

progress of a cyclone centér and the continual circlet of variations to the circu-
lating winds,

268

DETAILED DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND STUDYING SPECIMENS.

The following directions and explanations have been prepared for the students
at the Biological Station for the study of the variation of the inhabitants of lakes
Turkey and Tippecanoe and the small lakelets in the neighborhood.

1. Collect at random all available specimens, to the number of several hun-
dred, the last week in June, in both Turkey and Tippecanoe lakes, keeping the
exact location where each lot of specimens was collected.

It is necessary to collect at random or the personal element of the collector
may become a disturbing factor in determining the variation. The date, which
is not necessarily fixed for any particular week, has been selected because at this
time many very young specimens, but a few weeks old, can be secured. It is
necessary to collect in both lakes at approximately the same date in order to se-
cure corresponding ages.

2. Collect in the same manner and an equal number of specimens in each
lake near the end of August.

From this second collection the rate of growth and any elimination taking
.place early in life may be determined.

3. Arrange the material of each date according to the size, to determine
whether the broods of successive years can be separated.

Ii specimens have been collected at random and include all sizes this can
usually be done for the preceding few years. Among the older individuals the
gradation in size is usually too perfect to permit any grouping according to age.

4. Determine the variation in two or more prominent characters in each
brood of specimens, keeping the record and labeling the specimens in such a way
that the specimen for any record can at any time be re-examined. Determine at
the same time the sex.

This is by far the mst laborious and time killing operation, but absolutely
essential to determine anything further. The characters measured in fishes can
always be the number of rays in the dorsal and anal fins, and the number of scales
in the lateral line. Other characters will vary with the species, as one species has
one, another a different character that lends itself especially to the study of varia-
tion. In reptiles deviations in the number and characters of plates are available
characters for the study of variation. Of course any character can be taken, but
one in which the variation can be numerically expressed and the number be deter-
mined by a simple count instead of a measurement, is vastly superior, since
nothing can be left to the judgment, and the personal element is therefore much

less important.

269

5. Are there external sexual differences, and is the amount and extent of
variation different in the sexes?

This determination can usually be left till later; it is introduced here so as
not to mar the sequence of the following points.

6. Is there a successive modification in going from younger to older speci-
mens indicating a structural modification with age ?

It may be possible with some species, for instance, that the number of rays
increases directly with the age. Should such a case exist it might give rise to
entirely erroneous notions as to the influence or effect of selective destruction.

7. Is the variation of each year grouped about a mean common to all the
specimens, or is each year’s variation grouped about a center of its own?

While the idea of the annual variation or the reaction of each brood to a
slightly varying environment was supposed to be a possible element, and suggested
as such in my first announcement of the station,.I was entirely unprepared for the
startling annual variation in such a prominent character as the number of dorsal
spines which has been discovered by Mr. Moenkhaus and reported upon in another
paper.

The neglect of the consideration of the environment during the early period
of development in modifying successive broods in different ways may lead to en-
tirely erroneous ideas of the structural modifications of growth on the one hand,
or the entirely erroneous ideas of the action of selective destruction on the other.
To determine the latter it is absolutely neeessary to take individuals of the same
year’s broods at successive periods or successive years. Whether as great an annual
fluctuation is present in crabs as has been observed in Etheostoma I can not pre-
sume tosay. But the entire neglect of this element vitiates the results of Prof.
Weldon, of the committee of the royal society for ‘‘Conducting statistical in-
quiries into the measurable characteristics of plants and animals,” which Mr.
Thistelton-Dyer (Nature, Mch., 1895) considers to be ‘‘among the most remarkable
achievements in connection with the theory of evolution.”

I quote from Prof. Weldon to show his methods and results. (Nature, Mch.
7, 1895, p. 449.) ‘‘In order to estimate the effect of small variations upon the
chance of survival, in a given species, it is necessary to measure, jirst, the percent-
age of young animals exhibiting this variation; secondly, the percentage of adults
in which it is present. If the percentage of adults exhibiting the variation is
less than the percentage of young, then a certain percentage of young animals has
either lost the character during growth, or has been destroyed. The law of growth
having been ascertained, the rate of destruction may be measured, and in this

way an estimate of the advantage or disadvantage of a variation may he obtained.

270

In order to estimate the effect of deviations of one organ upon the rest of the body,
it is necessary to measure the average character of the rest of the body in indi-
viduals with varying magnitude of the given organ.”

Conclusions reached by an application of these principles to a study of the
shore crab gave as a result that—a. There is a period of growth during which
the frequency of deviations increases. 6. That in one case the preliminary in-
crease is followed by a decrease in the frequency of given magnitude, in the other
case it was not. ¢. Assuming a particular law of growth the observations show
a selective destruction in the one case and not in the other.

8. What is the relation of the annual fluctuation (mutation) in variation to
the annual fluctuation in the different elements of the environments ?

9. What is the difference in the variation of the youngest brood early in the
season and late in the season, and what is the difference in the variation in suc-
ceeding years of the same brood? Is this difference, if any exists, due to modi-
fications with age or to selective destruction, 7. e., has a larger percentage of
individuals with one characteristic been eliminated than of individuals with
this characteristic slightly different? In what part of the curve of variation
have the greatest changes been produced ?

10. If certain individuals with definite characters seem to survive, can it
be determined in what way this variation brings about the survival?

11. At what age or stage of growth are variations greatest ?

12. Can variations arising with age be referred to habits or environment?

13. What is the relation of sports or saltatory variations to the continuous
variation numerically?

By saltatory variations are meant all those variations not connected with the
mean by intermediate steps.

14. Are saltatory characters always bilateral? If not, to what degree are
they bilateral?

The fact that a saltatory variation is confined to one side or is found on both
sides, may enable us to determine whether the deviation began in the germ before
the appearance of bilaterality or is of later origin.

15. In how far is the repetition of a character due to the repetition of the
environment as shown in the correlation of annual fluctuations in environment
with annual variations? See under 8.

Whitman Biological Lectures, 1894, p. 4: ‘“‘An epidemic of metaphysical
physics seems to be in progress—a sort of neo-epigenesis. In place of the vis
essentialis of the old epigenesis, the new epigenesis sets up as its fetich the vis

umpressa. The new god is preferred because it works from the outside instead of

271

the inside. It represents the sum of external conditions and influences at the
present moment, and is proclaimed all-sufficient for building up organisms out
of isotropic corpuscles. Previous conditions are not, indeed, quite ignored, for
they have resulted in special molecular constitutions called germs, and these dis-
play molecular activities known as metabolism, growth and division. The long.
past can bring forth only a molecular basis; a few hours of the present can sup-
ply all, or nearly all, the determinations of the most complex organism. Im-
potent past; prepotent present. We have no longer any use for the ‘Ahnengal-
lerie’ of phylogeny. Heredity does not explain itself or anything else, and it
detracts from the omnipotence and universality of molecular epigenetics. We
are no better off for knowing that we have eyes because our ancestors had eyes.
If our eyes resemble theirs it is not on account of geneological connection, but
because the molecular germinal basis is developed under similar conditions.
The reason this basis becomes an eye rather than an ear or some other organ is
wholly due to its position and surroundings, not to any inherent predetermina-
tions. If the material for the eye and the ear could be interchanged in the
molecular germ, that which in one place would become eye would in the other
place become ear, and vice versa.”

16. In what characters does the same species in the neighboring lakes differ,
and in what respects does the variation differ in the different lakes?

17. Are variations in one part of the body correlated with variations in
another part of the body?

In many cases this can only be determined by converting the variations in
part into the terms of the variation of another part. The method for doing this
has been suggested by Galton, whose method is discussed at the end of this paper.

18. What correlation is there in the variation of different species under the
same environment?

As far as I am aware, no systematic studies of this description have been
made. With us this study resolves itself into the determination of whether the
fishes in Turkey Lake all differ from those in Tippecanoe along definite, deter-
mined ways, so that given the characters of a species for Turkey Lake the charac-
ters for the same species in Tippecanoe could be predicted.

Similar but exotic instances are the absence of ventral fins in some of the
fishes inhabiting even widely separated mountain lakes, and the presence of en-
Jarged scales along the base of the anal in the Cyprinide inhabiting mountain
streams of India; or, to come nearer home, the peculiar color patterns of the

fishes in some regions of upper Georgia.

272

METHOD OF PRESENTING Resuuts. Results of statistical inquiries into vari-
ation can best be presented by frequency of error curves, and these will be used
wherever possible. The abscissa will in all cases be made to represent the size of
the organ, the ordinate the percentum of individuals having the particular size.

To convert variations in one organ into the terms of another organ the scheme
of distribution will be used with the formula given by Galton for comparing one

such curve with another. The process of comparing any curve ‘‘a” with any
Q ot bg 9)
Q of UG) ee
The Q of any scheme of distribution is one-half the difference between any two

curve ‘“‘b,” multiply each of ‘‘a’s” height by

grades. The same grades in the two curves to be compared being used to determine
their Q for this purpose, 25 per cent. and 75 per cent. are suggested as most con-
venient by Galton.

Ideally the variations occurring in a single organ expressed by a frequency
of error curve, when a large number of individuals have been examined, will
form a symmetrical curve which is called a ‘‘normal.” Such acurve may always
be expected when the material under consideration is of a single origin and has
developed under the same environment. Unfortunately for non-mathematical
evolutionists, the converse does not seem to be the case, for a symmetric curve
may be made up of two symmetric curves with axes not far apart, a fact that can
only be determined mathematically. Says Pearson, ‘‘There will always be the
problem: Is the material homogeneous and a true evolution going on, or is the
material a mixture? To throw the solution on the eye in examining the graph-
ical results is, I feel certain, quite futile.”

It is not hoped that the data can be treated with the mathematical refine-
ment suggested by Pearson, nor is it probable that such treatment of our material
will become absolutely necessary, since there can be but little question of the
unity of origin of the material in any given small lake.

While usually, as stated above, the curve resulting from the study of a large
number of specimens will be symmetric, it will frequently be asymmetric. Sam-
ples of the different sort of curves actually observed are given.

Asymmetric curves may be the result,

1. Of the selective influence working on one side of a symmetric curve and
be then found in more or less mature specimens.

2, Of the reaction to a change in the environment and indicative of a muta-
tion or change in the mean specific form. P

8. Of the double origin of the material under consideration, and may then
have a great variety of forms, from slightly asymmetric curve to one with a broad

top or with many peaks.

273

RECENT LITERATURE ON HEREDITY AND VARIATION.

For the older literature, see Davenport, 795, Keeler, ’93, Osborn, ’94, and
Thomson, of the foliowing list :

ALLEN, J. A., 94. On the seasonal change of color in the varying hare,
(Lepus americanus. ) Bull. Am. Mus. VI, pp. 107-128.

94a. Cranial variations in Neotoma micropus due to growth and _ individ-
ual differentiation. Bull. Am. Mus., VI, pp. 233-246. 1 pl.

AnpreEws, E. A., 794. Some abnormal Annelids. Quart. J. Micros. Sci.,
XXXVII, pp. 4385-460. 3 pls.

Barney, L. H., ’94. Neo-Lamarckism and Neo-Darwinism. Am Nat.,
XXVIII.

96. Variation after birth, Am. Nat. XXX, 17.

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(18)

274

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276

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277

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278

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VARIATION OF NORTH AMERICAN FISHES. II.

THe VARIATION OF ETHEOSTOMA CAPRODES RAFINESQUE IN TURKEY LAKE
AND TIPPECANOE LAKE.* By W. J. MoENKHAUS.

Inrropuction.—In a former paper on the ‘‘ Variation of Etheostoma caprodes
Rafinesque” (Am. Nat., Aug., 1894), I determined the geographical distribution
of this fish and the geographical variation of its color-pattern and fins.

It was found that this species inhabits practically all the fresh waters of the
Atlantic slope east of the 100th meridian and west of the Alleghany Mountains.
Its northern and eastern limits are the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain; its
southwestern, the Rio Grande in the extreme southern part of Texas.

The following conclusions were reached among others:

1. Each river system from which specimens were examined possesses a pe-
culiar variety. This peculiarity is most striking in the color-pattern.

2. <All the variations are continuous.

*Contributions from the Zodlogical Laboratory of the Indiana University under the
direction of C. H. Eigenmann, No. 18.

279

3. The variation in the anal rays and dorsal spines are determinate with the
latitude, the southern specimens having a slightly larger number of rays and
spines.

4. The color-pattern variations are determinate, varying through definite
stages from a simple to more complex pattern.

In Table A and B are given the data on the anal rays and dorsal spines.
The localities are arranged in the order of their latitude from north to south.
From these we see that there is both an increase in the average number of rays
and spines and in the number that prevails in each case from north to south. In
the anal fin 10 is the prevailing number north, and 11 and 12 south, of the Ohio
River. Fourteen and fifteen are the prevailing number of dorsal spines in the
north and 15, 16 and 17 in the south.

TABLE A.
ae} 2a lS 8 9
s|2ejsc [aq |gs
B) se le, joe joe
ave | Pape ede eas S5
LOCALITY. _ Som are ll eran cee)
2 | Pa lo8 Sleageis se
a om |Pas|eeelgss
5S eo l/s S&Sl|5s ehi5 8 —G
A < {A 4 A
Meehaiuake, Wiel i: fi! 5 ob.0 0. ed Soe ele oles ie 103 6 il Reese
Pietarapias.: LOW. 268 ~ .i22 ceenpes ae ee isin 1 AER E'S Cas et 1
White River, at Indianapolis ............... 1 10 | a ME EE seat
JETTA ELIE IES SPE ok gesagt gee a 5 10 ae RRS eae
Bean PELOSSOM A Eke 7. 0:2 skis ¢ te elas eis crdhai sea 17 10%| 8 Di aah ae
1 SACTSTinp cll Keg G06 LO A age re See ae pee 1 10 1 hee SS te Pe oa
Reid Cte eR CHE oo ssw s broad one 1 1 ee oe pe nce ee
TETGe Gretel auld Bato lal ee ensene Seinen ere ae ee 2 ay Weed Neary Deere
TIA O Se Nar <tesacisist die e's a bre. spore ccrant Feld to Soutien avs she 1 10 Ley Wi hterc lees oases
isanke- Take, TU yc, cc tale cet liens S ares 2 103 1 Oe ese
Meamonpamela FIVER (oo ist. oes ee sree hae vee 1 10 fad 1 Ce Ry ina
RAEN REL) BO) ox aninss elas Khaeie «Se oles dates 4 10} 3 Lis shied
Green River, Greensburg, Ky............... 3 103 1 We Ar
Little Barren River, Osceola, Ky............ - BUD bl fae eed eee
Little South Fork Cumberland River, Wayne
CCUNCUALY IY poy lar cates thats eae oh Ce, « Mie e'e. 1 1B CW loeeietes: 1 beara
Eagle Creek, Olympus, Tenn................ 2 1 Isa bees peal | ae
Obeys River, Elizabethtown, Tenn .......... 13 11,5} 1 5 7
Watauga River, Elizabethtown, Tenn........ 2 103 1 dye | eee
North Fork Holston River, Saltville, Va..... il DIAS Vachon tere) |ferecerea: « 1
Bureka Springs): Ark13. icccowd.5 er nde cece. Haas | sf teer vets oes fore evare ® | eaters
Chocola @reek.-Oxtords Ala 25.2... .\/.°.0+- 4 HA Sl eeoease 3 1
Sane Marcosispringay lex. esc. scenes Se 2 TT he seg Zot el. eer

280

TABLE B.
; | s{cat. wile ee
| te m g Rn n
8) Sa PSR SRS harem rors
8\ 28 |22|2=|29/8e/ a=
LOCALITY. | 3) S°e (227M q|2 .|N -|M .
vf a| a on (kes oe ee
See lata ee
5 | $2 22 8 2|S |e alae
S| = 2 g@%°.gU\/qg 0/g Vig ea
BE) SA-|8 joes sea
A < A A A |A |e
orchakesMGGhhs.e nae nies se etecis eee 7 | 148 Sele Age
Cedar Rapids, Iowa . Mat eee ts Ae | cll 14 1 - ee
White River, at Indianapolis FORE SS OTRO OF 1 14 1 Bah
Gosport, Ind. SO rr ee hae ned 5 14+ 1 4
Bean blassou bndecat tes: a etels ccteg mate be Gi es a a fee 1 7
Rushvalle nds. ok. Sorc ee oe. aa eres 1 14 Tyce ele
Wild Cat Creek, 1:10 ena guma seo aca DLO clic eeal eee iby
PikeiCreeks lind sarees Meee eines Dil igre Arralhicesr es meal 1
IN OTSS: Seat, saat ss ASS, winner ene 1 A SYS cornea Neste 1
Nigimsik baie, UGS 7 ee ce et. cicero w et Dif. ARS cee lea ele
Monongahela, River? 12 sed: =e: aera et «ace 1 fates KS ooee| beaegeas erro sed el te. 3.
Rathore, SKCy > see eae wae oat nae hone eer ae ae ec: eae Ks er a ee ey eres 1
Green River, Greensburg, Ky ........... Beeclf; tee | sell yk ert AS ee
Little Barren River, Osceola, Ky...........| 4 1 5 Pin rare desl Me a 2 1
Little South Fork Cumberland River, Wayne
Oormntys Keys Ce cence oa Rakes Maicantrcie Deda ae Jal eee Toe
Eagle Creek, Olympus, Tenn .............. Dict) JelG a liesaye ere ae! | ee lal
Obeys River, Elizabethtown, Tenn.......... Peat SED (een oe eae PA STOP cis:
Watauga River, Elizabethtown, Tenn ...... oe I ea eaten il 1
North Fork Holsten River, Saltville, Va....| 1 16 SS ean eee il
mekacdsprings. vAwk oa tee ee eile oe Dit 1G al ersce| © chet tomer 1
@hocola Greek wOxtord, Adaceer .> 4) see oa: 4 LSS eee Vag 7
San Marcos Springs, dex s250.. 6.0200. see yaa oy a hd a i fos oc | fn =~

The color-pattern varies from a probably primitive, simple pattern consisting
of alternate whole and half cross-bars distributed along the entire length of the
body through the pattern consisting of whole, half and quarter bars, having an
incomplete longitudinal series of lateral spots to a pattern haying a very promi-
nent longitudinal series of dark lateral blotches with fine reticulations on the back.
Between these different patterns all stages exist, so that they can be connected by
regular steps. Those specimens inhabiting the lakes were found to possess a pecu-
liar color-pattern. This was derived from the primitive, simple pattern by sup-
posing the lower part of the whole bars to have become much broader than the

upper part, and then to have shifted backwards slightly.

ra

281

This lake variety (manitou, Jordan) is one of the most abundant of the fishes
in Turkey and Tippecanoe Lakes, and upon it the results given in the following
pages are based.

Six hundred specimens, all that were collected irom Turkey Lake, and three
hundred of those collected from Tippecanoe Lake, have been examined with a
view, first, of making a comparison of this species in the two lakes, and second,
of determining the range and character of its variation within Turkey Lake itself.
The number of species collected from Tippecanoe Lake is much greater than 300,
but this number was thought sufficient to give fairly good results. The effect of
natural selection will be taken up at a later time.

Etheostoma caprodes has two dorsal fins, the first, a spinous one, well separated
from the second, which is composed of soft rays. The anal fin is composed of two
rather strong spines followed by a number of soft rays. The scales are very reg-
ularly arranged, so that they can be definitely counted along the complete lateral
lines. The number of spines and rays in these fins, and the number of scales in
the lateral line of both sides of the body have been determined. Besides these
characters the presence or absence of scales on the nape has been determined.
These structures have been taken because, with the exception of the last, they
present definite, countable elements, so that in the results the personal factor is
entirely eliminated.

Curves have been constructed to represent the variation in these structures.
In all the curves the horizontal distances represent the countable elements, and

the vertical distances the per cent. of specimens possessing these varying elements.

COMPARISON OF TURKEY LAKE AND TIPPECANUE SPECIMENS.

CoLorAtion.—The coloration of these fishes in the two lakes will be taken up
in detail later. The color-pattern of Turkey Lake specimens is, on the whole, of
a more blotched character than that of Tippecanoe Lake specimens, and shows a
slighter affinity to the simple, primitive coloration characteristic of the Wabash
River forms. The connection of Tippecanoe Lake with the Wabash River may
account for this greater affinity.

SQquUAMATION OF NapE.—In Turkey Lake the nape is as a rule naked, while in
Tippecanoe Lake it is usually scaled. Table I will bring out the difference.

282

TABLE I.
v
=
: |! sees
o 2) sae
D
se | 328
Sea | aaa
Per cent. of specimens having no scales on nape ............. 88.00 | 19.32
Per cent. of specimens having few scales on nape............. 8.00 23.87
Per cent. of specimens having several scales on nape ......... 4.00 28.32
Per cent. of specimens having nape thinly scaled............. 0.20 16.67
Per cent. of specimens having nape closely scaled ............ 0.00 11.74

LATERAL Lrne.—The specimens of Turkey Lake have on an average two more
scales in the lateral line. The average number for Turkey Lake is 89.46 for the
left side, 89.74 for the right side; for Tippecanoe Lake, 87.69 for the left side,
87.45 for the right side. Fig. 1 represents the curves for the scales of the right
side. The continuous line represents the conditions in Turkey Lake, and the
broken line those of Tippecanoe Lake. It should be noticed that the entire curve
for Turkey Lake is two units to the right of that of Tippecanoe Lake, showing
that practically all the Turkey Lake specimens have a greater number of scales.

Table II contains the summary of the counts for the scales in the lateral line.

20
BR EREREEE ERE PBR E ERE eee
aH SSSR Sees beeeeseeae fen eto

5}

BE CRMeE Bre SReaeE
EEC ENE
ai (Eee oe
=SSanse Sst ied apaeta we

HERD Sr
HEE DiBE SERS aes
soeeees ator ti pestansatae
S BeAWEREERELO

SOA EEA
Oe EE RRERGteEGee
f= 4b Cee eee Te OSeS or

80 85 90 35 100
Fie. 1.

7
TABLE I.

TuRKEY LAKE. |/Trpp’CANOE LAKE

Leit Right Left Right
Side. Side. Side. Side.

Per cent. of specimens having 78 scales.... LETS oes Hersecte = Sih wos eee eee
Pemecns..al specimens havisit, 79 SCRIEN. oo lone ocafe sos ceo [fivaes eas] aces wens
Per cent. of specimens having 80 scales.... 0.17 NS. Ah Spee | emerges 37
Per cent. of specimens having 81 scales....|........ 0.34 as Se ae ae ae
Per cent. of specimens having 82 scales.... 0.17 0.34 1.00 2.00:
Per cent. of specimens having 83 scales.... 1.37 1.55 | 2.50 3.50
Per cent. of specimens having 84 scuales.... 3.44 1.89 | 7.00 4.50
Per cent. of specimens having 85 scales.... 3.78 5.17 | 8.50 11.50
Per cent. of specimens having 86 scales.... 6.88 9.3) 11.50 13.00
Per cent. of specimens having 87 scales....| 11.02 | 10.68 || 15.00 16,50
Per cent. of specimens having 88 seales....| 12.56 | 11.55 15.00 13.50
Per cent. of specimens having 89scales....}| 17.72 14.82 16.00 16.00:
Per cent. of specimens having 90scales....| 12.39 12.93 |}, 11.50 10.50
Per cent. of specimens having 91 scales.... 8.08 11.03 | 7.50 4.00
Per cent. of specimens having 92 scales.... 6.53 | 5.67 | 1.50 | 1.50
Per cent. of specimens having 93 scales.... 5.16 | 3.62 || 1.00 2.50
Per cent. of specimens having 94 scales.... 3.61 | 3.78 0.50 0.50
Per cent. of specimens having 95 scales.... 2.08¢|- 2%] An UN eae ets
Per cent. of specimens haying 96 scales.... 1.37 2.41 0.50 0.50:
Per cent. of specimens having 97 scales.... 1.03 Abo AU xen, wedi nts 2 are
Per cent. of specimens having 98 scales: .*:.|- 0.17 |........|).... -..-[eceeeeee
Per cent. of specimens having 99 scales.... | 0.34 1 | aie ee (eee
Per cent. of specimens having 100 scales....|........ Ceo opt ol | Reape aed hens perso
Per cent. of specimens haying 101 scales... | QE LOREF Meese esta pecal erste oaeeeot
Per cent. of specimens having 102 scales.... 0 ge OE RS | Ce OY 5 Pee
Per cent. of specimens having 103 scales... ’ 0.17 | OE | SO aa 9 ee

ANAL Fin.—The number of spines in the anal fin varies from the normal in
only nine specimens from Turkey Lake and in six from Tippecanoe Lake. This
variation is always toward. a lower number, and extends only through one spine.

Turkey Lake specimens have on an average fewer rays in the anal than
Tippecanoe Lake specimens. The averages are 10.87 for the former, 11.15 for the
latter. Fig. 2 represents the curves for the anal rays. Here again, and also in
the succeeding curves for the comparison of the two lakes, the continuous line
represents Turkey Lake and the broken line Tippecanoe Lake. Table III gives

the summary of the anal rays for both lakes.

284

The prevailing number of rays in both lakes is 11; 53 per cent. from Turkey

lake, and 56 per cent. from Tippecanoe Lake having that number. The number :

of rays in the next highest per cent. is 10 for Turkey Lake and 12 for Tippe-

canoe Lake, about 27 per cent. in each case. .
The range of variation is two greater in Turkey Lake. This may be due t

the greater number of specimens from this lake. |

=
4
saea

diate

SURAT EHH

Hea
| SEE
SS5Snar H
Fic. 2
TABLE III.
| e)
Ss
b 5
40 | gueae
Se | 5 Si
a5 3 | Sone
BaeHe BaH4
Per cent. of specimens having 7 anal rays................-- 0.16; |code
Per cent. of specimens having 8 anal rays ..... ...........- 0:16) |\seeeeee
Per cent. of specimens having 9 anal rays .................- 1.48 0.77
Per cent. of specimens having 10 anal rays .................- 26.80 15.50
Per cent. of specimens having 11 anal rays .................- 53.43 56.21
Per cent. of specimens having 12 anal rays .................- 14.13 27.13
Per cent. of specimens having 13 anal rays .................- 0.49 0.35

Dorsat Sprnes.—Turkey Lake has on an average more dorsal spines, the
average being 14.52 for Turkey Lake and 14.23 for Tippecanoe Lakes. Fig. 3
represents the curves for this structure. The range of variation is the same, from

12to 17. Although the average number of spines differs but slightly in the two

. 285

lakes, the preferences shown for a given number of spines are quite different.
In the Tippecanoe Lake specimens the preference is decidedly for 14. In the
‘Turkey Lake specimens the preference is for 15, although not so decided. From
Table IV and the curves, it will be seen that the number of individuals in Tur-
key Lake having 14 spines and 15 spines are about the same, 41 per cent. having
14 and 44 per cent., 15, while in Tippecanoe Lake this is not the case, 60 per
cent. having 14, and only 25 per cent. having 15.

2 ish IEC 1F.

Fig. 3.
TABLE IV.
| »
Sg
©
suo | gic
gf | 228
Bae | Bae
Per cent. of specimens having 12 dorsal spines............... 0.32 0.38
Per cent. of specimens having 13 dorsal spines............... 5.09 11.24
Per cent. of specimens having 14 dorsal spines............... 41.26 60.85
Per cent. of specimens having 15 dorsal spines..............- 44,22 25.96
Per cent. of specimens having 16 dorsal spines............... 6.90 1.16
Per cent. of specimens having 17 dorsal spines............... 0.65 0.38

Dorsat Rays.—The average number of dorsal rays for Turkey Lake is 14.87,
for Tippecanoe Lake, 16.40, the latter having on an average almost two more.
The curves are given in Fig. 4. From this and Table V it will be seen that Tur-
key Lake specimens show a decided preference for 15 rays, while the Tippecanoe
Lake specimens show just as decided a preference for 16 rays, 52 per cent. of the

286

specimens having these numbers in both lakes. The range of variation is two
greater in Turkey Lake, from 12 to 18 as compared from 14 to 18 in Tippecanoe

Lake. This again may be due to the greater number of specimens.

ae BEEBE RBS x
rt Soe
fiat ECC

ss a
12 1S 165. t7- 18
Fie. 4.
TABLE V.
' o ‘
Sa |e
- S| Hag
= aes
=I Hos
me = a4
= | &
Per cent. of specimens having 12 dorsal rays................. O32. |||) eee
Per cent. of specimens having US dorsalirayse.. os st ces uae eee LA8) | oe
Per cent. of specimens having WAC CorsallraySiac. petite ietenes 28.77 3.48
Per cent. of specimens having 16 dorsal rays................- 52.26 31.78
Per cent. of specimens having IG dorsal ways cs ee. se5 = eee 12.16 52.32
Per cent. of specimens having U@sdorsalerays: sae rise 1.64 15.11
Per cent. of specimens having 18 dorsal rays................. 0.16 Ori

Table VI presents all the combinations of dorsal spines and dorsal rays from
both lakes. The spines are represented by Roman numbers and the rays by
Arabic numbers. The commonest combination in Turkey Lake is XIV—-15 and
XV-15; XIV, XV, occurring most frequently in the spinous dorsal, and 15 most
frequently in the soft dorsal. The per cent. of specimens having these combina-
tions is 22.46 and 24.49 respectively. In Tippecanoe Lake, XI V—16 is the com-
monest combination, XIV being the prevailing number in the spinous dorsal and

16 in the soft dorsal. 32.11 per cent. of the specimens have this combination.

4

TABLE VI.
7 |
4 ay) | 4.
Sc gud bse ke
my alae Sete
: =a aac
oats ee
ce &
Per cent. of specimens having the combination XII-14..... O26 eases
Per cent. of specimens having the combination XII-15..... O.1G5 > es
Per cent. of specimens having the combination XII~16.....|........ 0.37
Per cent. of specimens having the combination MXIII-14..... 0.84 0.37
Per cent. of specimens having the combination XIII-15..... 3.71 2.22
Per cent. of specimens having the combination XIII-16..... 0.67 5.92
Per cent. of specimens haying the combination MXIII-I7.....|........ 2.59
Per cent. of specimens having the combination XIV-12..... Ged Go ha genoer
Per cent. of specimens having the combination XIV-13..... A ee ee
Per cent. of specimens haying the combination XIV-l4.....) 11.99 1.48
Per cent. of specimens having the combination XIV-15..... 22.46 20.37
Per cent. of specimens having the combination XIV-16..... 5.74 | 32.11
Per cent. of specimens haying the combination XIV-I7..... 0.33 6.66
Per cent. of specimens having the combination XIV-I8..... ae Lat
Per cent. of specimens having the combination a ee OT ls am eee
Per cent. of specimens having the combination VAISS 3 43 13.51 1.85
Per cent. of specimens having the combination XV-15.....| 24.49 8.14
Per cent. of specimens having the combination XV-16..... 5.40 14.44
Per cent. of specimens having the combination D0" Ey Carnes 0.84 1.48
Per cent. of specimens having the combination XV-18..... UG six cae eres
Per cent. of specimens having the combination XVI-12..... CG ee
Per cent. of specimens having the combination XVI-13.....| O1G? Revo
Per cent. of specimens having the combination XVI-14..... POO in a atcha ote
Per cent. of specimens having the combination XVI-15..... 3.04 cab
Per cent. of specimens having the combination XVI-16..... 0.84 0.37
Per cent. of specimens having the combination XVI-17..... UES el | anes
Per cent. of specimens having the combination XVII-14..... DSO! ess are
Per cent. of specimens having the combination XVII-15.....)........ 0.37
Per cent. of specimens having the combination XVII-16..... QONGr Pe. 35 ee ee
Per cent. of specimens having the combination XVIII-14..... U.1Gares STs
In Table VIL is given the variation in the two dorsal fins taken together. The

average number for the two fins is 29.21 for Turkey Lake and 30 for Tippecanoe
Lake. In Turkey Lake 36.82 per cent. have the average number; in Tippecanoe
Lake, 41.8 per cent.
spinous dorsal and five for the soft dorsal in Tippecanve Lake, and seven in each
dorsal fin in Turkey Lake.

Lake the range of variation is, in each case, one greater for the two fins taken

The range oi variation in the fins separately is six for the
With an exception in the spinous dorsal in Tippecanoe

together, than for the fins separately. Although the extent of variation is only
one greater for the two fins together, the per cent. of specimens having the aver-

age number is much smaller than the per cent. of specimens having the average

288

number in the fins separately. In Turkey Lake nearly 37 per cent. have the
average number of the fins taken together, while 44 per cent. and 52 per cent.
have the average number in the spinous and soft dorsal respectively. In Tippe-
canoe Lake 41 per cent. have the average number for both fins, while 52 per

cent. and 61 per cent. have the average number in the spinous and soft dorsals

Per cent. of specimens having 29 rays in the dorsals ..........
Per cent. of specimens having 30 rays in the dorsals..........

respectively.
TABLE VII.
i bs:
Ba |e & s
a =)
ef | $83
= =
Per cent. of specimens having 26 rays in the dorsals .......... 0:33: pauee eee
Per cent. of specimens having 27 rays in the dorsals .......... 2.02 0.37
Per cent. of specimens having 28 rays in the dorsals.......... 16.38 4.07
Per cent. of specimens having 31 rays in the dorsals .......... 9.28 22.22
Per cent. of specimens having 32 rays in the dorsals .......... 1.85 3.33
Per cent. of specimens having 33 rays in the dorsals.......... 0.67 |...

SUMMARY.

1. This species is equally abundant in the two lakes.

2. The color pattern of Tippecanoe Lake specimens shows a greater affinity
for the primitive, simple Wabash River pattern than does that of Turkey Lake
specimens.

3. In Turkey Lake the nape is usually naked; in Tippecanoe Lake the
nape is usually scaled.

4, Tippecanoe Lake specimens have a smaller number of seales in the lat-

eral line.

5. Thejanal spines vary but little, and show the same variation in the two.
lakes.

6. The anal fin is somewhat larger in the Tippecanoe Lake specimens.

7. Turkey Lake specimens have one more dorsal spine.

8. Tippecanoe Lake specimens have one more dorsal ray, 16 rays is the
mean in Tippecanoe Lake and 15 in Turkey Lake.

9, The combinations of the dorsa] spines and rays are determined by the.

numbers that prevail in the fins separately.

289

a

10. The range of variation in the total number of dorsal spines and rays
combined is one greater than the variation in the fins separately.

11. The number occurring most frequently is 29 in Turkey Lake and 30 in
Tippecanoe Lake.

12. The preference shown for a given number is less decided for the two
dorsal fins taken together than for the dorsal fins taken separately.

13. The variation is in all cases continuous.

THE VARIATION IN TURKEY LAKE.

Many of the facts on the extent and character of the variation of the 600
specimens from Turkey Lake, taken as a whole, have been given in the pre-
ceeding.

The lengths of the 660 specimens from Turkey Lake were measured and upon
comparison were found to fall into three quite distinct groups. Fig. 5 represents
the curve for al]. Each of the smaller horizontal distances represents one mm,
and each of the larger verticle distances one per cent. The sizes ranged from 27
mm. tol02mm. The first group ranges from 27 mm. to 60 mm.; the second from
60 mm. to 80 mm., and the third from 79 mm. to 103 mm. The three curves of
Fig. 5 represent these three groups. I have watched the growth during the first
summer, and know the first curve to represent the first summer’s fish. The second
curve in all probability represents the second year’s fish, and the third curve, those
three years old and over. The growth, thus, is most rapid during the first sum-
mer, the rate of growth decreasing each year after. The fish reaches practically
its full size the third year, though the more gradual slope to the right of the last

curve shows that it does not cease growing entirely.

am \ cH
0 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 90 $5 90 $5 (00

RIG wos
(19)

290

Having grouped them into three definite ages, a summary of the characters
for each was made, and curves constructed. Figs. 6, 7, 8 and 9 represent the
curves for these characters. In all the curves constructed for these ages, the contin-
uous line is for the third year specimens, the broken line for the second year
specimens and the dotted line for the first year specimens.

LATERAL Lixe.— Below is the table of the average number of scales in the
lateral line of the three ages.

1st year. 2d year. 8d year.
Wiehtwside mci mnie. sae save eee Seater re etree ree 87.84 90.80 88.39
Weise BA. & kat iais: neler CORE ER ARE, Stee Soa aoe 88.00 89.80 88.78

From this it is seen that the first and third year specimens are most nearly
alike. The second year specimens have about two scales more. By reference to
the curves, Fig. 6, and Table VIII below, it will be seen that the great bulk
of the specimens of all three ages have from 85 to 92 scales. The increased
average in the second year is due to a larger per cent. having 93, 94, 95 and 96

scales than in the first and second years.

ae

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suampedg Jo “yuep log 5 : *
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suetmtaedg jo -yuap log : : =
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sueultvedg jo “quay 13d = a
“SO[TBIS 96 SULARH Rg = =
suemitdedg Jo-yue) Jog | 4 =i 7
“SOTBIG CG SUIABA = S <2
susuliadg jo yueD 139g = oS Bal
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suamiidedsg jo jyusg Jeg = <i a
‘seybog gp SULT | S 5 c=:
sueuledg jo qua) 13ag = 12 xu
"S®TBOS Gh SULACH S B 5
suemiisedg Jo"yueg deg | = al e3
‘se[wog [asuuary | S x %
susmiiedg jo “yua/) 19g 1D : a x
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suomiisedy jo"yuep dog | 32 Ee =
"SOTBIG G8 SULABH 8 = 5
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susmdedg jo-"yuep deg | = = =
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91

292

ANAL Fin.—Five out of 116 first year specimens have one anal spine; 6 out
of 236 of the second year, and 3 out of 246 of the oldest specimens.

The average number of anal rays are 10.56 for the first year, 10.74 for the
second year and 11.00 for the third year specimens.

The curves in Fig. 7 and Table IX, below, show that the anal fins of the first
and second year specimens more nearly resemble each other. All three ages show
a preference for 11.00 rays. The per cent. of specimens having this number are
51.69, 52.55 and 61.60 for the first, second and third year specimens respectively.
The per cent. of specimens having 10 rays is reduced from 36.43 in the first year to
20.57 in the third year, and the per cent. of those having 12 rays is increased
from 5.09 in the first year to 20.16 in the third year. There is a very evident in-
crease in the number of spines with the age.

The extent of variation of the second and third year specimens is the same.
The first year specimens, although only half as many, exceed the other ages two

rays in the extent of variation.

pa agsstessessveut aston ecdicatanttestostit

TABLE IX.

First | Second | Third

Year. | Year. | Wear.
Per cent. of specimens having 7 anal rays.......... 0.84 |). cient eee
Per cent. of specimens having 8 anal rays..........]........ *~ (0, 42/4 Benepe
Per cent. of specimens having 9 anal rays.......... 5.09 1.69 | 0.82
Per cent. of specimens haying 10 anal rays.......... 36.43 32.19 20.57
Per cent. of specimens having 11] anal rays.......... 51.69 52.53 61.60
Per cent. of specimens having 12 anal says.......... 5.09 13.12 | 20.16
Per cent. of specimens having 13 anal rays.......... OnS4 canes | 0.82

295

Several important facts brought out by the preceding comparison are worth
consideration.

1. No two of the ages here compared are alike in all the characters.

2. In the anal fin and soft dorsal there is a definite increase in the number
of rays with the age.

3. Variation of this nature is not present in the other structures.

4. The extent of variation in the different ages is about the same.

Dorsat Rays.—The average number of dorsal rays are 14.57, 14.76 and 14.98
for the first, second and third year specimens, respectively. There is a-slight in-
crease with age. The summaries for this structure are given below in Table XI,
and the curves in Fig. 8. The prevailing number of rays is 15 for all three ages,
the per cents. being 53.39, 52.53 and 55.69 for the first, second and third year
specimens, respectively. The percent. of specimens having 14 rays decreases from
40.72 in the first year to 22.35 in the third year specimens, while the per cent. of
specimens haying 16 rays increases from 3.38 in the first vear specimens to 16.73 in
the third year specimens. The extent of variation is from 12 to 16 in the first
year, from 12 to 17 in the second year and from 13 to 18 in the third year speci-
mens. As in the anal fin there is a tendency toward a greater number of rays as

the fish grows older.

Sy

ta
Fees

294

TABLE XI.

First | Second | Third

Year. | Year. | Year.
Per cent. of specimens having 12 dorsal rays ........ 0.84 0:42)||e eee
Per cent. of specimens having 13 dorsal rays ........ 1.69 2.96 1.21
Per cent. of specimens having 14 dorsal rays ........ 40.72 30.50 22.35
Per cent. of specimens having 15 dorsal rays ........ 53.39 52.53 55.69
Per cent. of specimens having 16 dorsal rays ........ 3.38 11.48 16.73
Per cent. of specimens having 17 dorsal rays ........|........ 0.84 3.25
Per cent. of specimens having 18 dorsal rays ........|........]........ 0.40

DorsaL Springs. —The averages for this structure are 14.69 for the first year,
14.39 for the second and 14.65 for the third year, the first and third years being
almost identical, and the second year having a fewer number. Fig. 9 represents
the curves for this structure. The curves of the first and third years are almost
identical, both showing a preference for 15, with about 35 per cent. for 14. The
second year shows as decided a preference for 14, about 35 per cent. for 15. This
structure varies from 13 to 16 in the first year specimens, from 12 to 17 in the
second year specimens-and from 13 to 17 in the third year specimens. Table X

contains the summaries for this structure.

295

TABLE X.

| First | Second | Third

| Year | Year. Year
Per cent. of specimens having 12 dorsal spines....|......... 0:84) aerscras ete
Per cent. of specimens having 13 dorsal spines. ... 1.69 8.47 3.65
Per cent. of specimens having 14 dorsal spines....| 38.98 49.14 36.17
Per cent. of specimens having 15 dorsal spines....| 50.00 35.16 51.62
Per cent. of specimens having 16 dorsal spines.... 7.62 5.50 8.13
Per cent. of specimens having 17 dorsal spines....|......... 0.42 0.40

The first and third year specimens resemble each other very closely in regard
to the scales in the lateral line and the dorsal spines. In these characters the
second year specimens show a decided difference. These have on an average two
more scales in the lateral line, and have 14 as the prevailing number of dorsal
spines instead of 15, the number in the first and third year specimens.

Several explanations might be suggested to account for a part or all of these
differences.

The explanation suggesting itself most readily is that an additional spine and
ray are added during the life of the individual. I have gone over all the specimens
carefully with this point in view, but find no evidence either of the splitting of a
ray or spine, or of the new growth of these, except at the anterior of the dorsal fins.
Here may be found numerous instances of shorter spines and rays from two-
thirds to one-fourth the normal length. But among so many specimens it is en-
tirely probable that these spines and rays would be found in every possible stage
of growth. But this is not the case. The spines and rays, although sometimes
only one-fourth the full length, are always strong and suggest aborted rather than
immature structures. Besides, if this were the case, we would expect to find the
tendency toward a lower number of spines, and rays very decided in the first
year specimens. While this condition is true in the dorsal and anal rays, it is
decidedly not true in the dorsal spines, where the characters in the first years are
almost identical with those of the third year. ;

NaTuRAL SELEcTION.—The principle of natural selection, the influence of
which upon this species I hoped in the onset of this work to find, can not be
applied in explanation of the difference in the number of scales and dorsal spines
without serious objections. If natural selection were the determining factor in
producing these differences, we should expect all the variations graduated with

the age. We would expect to have a narrower range of variation as the specimens

296

grow older. Neither of these conditions obtain. There are neither 18 dorsal rays
nor 13 anal rays represented in the second year specimens; and in the first year
specimens 17 dorsal rays are not represented. In the dorsal spines where the
difference is most pronounced we have in the first year specimens the exact
duplicate of that of the third year specimens, while the second year specimens
are quite different. The scales in the lateral line present the same difficulty.

ANNUAL VARIATION.—The explanation that seems to meet all the conditions
nost satisfactory is that the species varies with the varying conditions of successive
years.

The difference in the dorsal spines of the different ages accounts thus for the
abnormality of the curve for the dorsal spines of all the Turkey Lake specimens,
Fig. 4. The 600 specimens for which the curye is constructed is a composite lot
of three age varieties.

This conclusion, however, should be held with some reservation. It will be—
noticed that nearly all the curves of Figs. 7, 8 and 9 are abnormal curves, which
may possibly be due to the presence of local races in the lake. While this may
possibly be the case, it is not at all probable, because, in the first place, the
curve constructed for the dorsal spines of 100 specimens of three year olds,
taken within a distance of 100 yards along the shores where the conditions were
undoubtedly uniform, gave a curve identical with that for all the three year
olds. In the second place, the second and third year specimens are found in
about equal abundance together, and since these were promiscuously preserved it
is altogether probable that from any given locality, an equal number of each age
was taken.

The sex has been determined in all, and a summary shows that the sexes do

not differ in the characters entering into the above considerations.

INDEX.

ACT FOR THE PROTECTION OF BIRDS, 5.

Act to provide for publication, 4.
Alternating current dynamos, 79.
Arkansas, relief map of, 56.
Arthur, J.C., 100.

Atkinson, Curtis, 258.

BACTERIA AND GRAPE SUGAR, 8.
Batrachia of Turkey Lake, 258.

Benton, Geo. W., 9).

Bigney, A. J., 106, 108.

Biological Station, first report of, 203.
Birds of Indiana, 162.

Birds of Wabash County, 148.

Birge, A., 244.

Ritting, A. W., 135, 168.

Botanical literature in State Library, 102.
Burrage, Severance, 49, 99.

Butler, A. W., 31, 162.

CALL, R. ELLSWORTH, 109, 135, 246.

Camphoric acid, 89.

Chamberlain, F. M., 264.

Chara fragilis, 95.

Cladocera of Turkey Lake, 244.

Committees of Indiana Academy of
Science, 13.

Corn smut, fungicides for, 96.

Coulter, Stanley, 169, 183.

Cunningham, Alida M.., 198.

DAVIS, B. M., 45.

Dennis, D. W., 44, 95.

Dolan, J. P., 235.

Dubois County, fishes of, 159.
Duff, A. Wilmer, 58, 77, 83, 84.

EARTHQUAKE, the Charleston, Mo., 51.
Eigenmann, C. H., 204. 252, 262, 265.
Environment, Turkey Lake a unit of, 209.
Eroding agencies, some minor, 54.
Evermann, Barton W., 126, 151.

(20)

FERMENTATION,
yeast, 92.

First report of Biological Station, 203.

Fishes of Dubois County, 159.

Fishes of Missouri basin, 126.

Fishes of Turkey Lake. 252,

Foley, Arthur L., 67.

Fungicides for corn smut, 96.

ratio of alcohol to

GOLDEN, KATHERINE E., 46, 92.
Golden, M. J., 48, 100.

Goldsborough, W. E., 79.

Goss, W. F. M., 75.

Grape sugar, effect on bacteria, 85.
Gravitational attraction, A. W. Duff, 58.

HEMAGLOBIN, 106.

Heat, effect of on muscle, 108.

Hopkins seaside laboratory, 45.

INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, ac-
tive members of, 19.

Indiana Academy of Science, by-laws of, 17.

Indiana Academy of Science, committee
of, 13.

Indiana Academy of Science, complete list
of officers, 14.

Indiana Academy of Science, constitution
of, 15.

Indiana Academy of Science, fellows of, 18.

Indiana Academy of Science, non-resident
members of, 19.

Indiana Academy of Science, present offi-
cers of, 12.

Indiana Academy of Science, work and
purposes of, 7.

Indiana, a century of changes, President's
address, 31.

Indiana birds, 162.

Indiana mollusea, 135.

Indiana orchidacex, 198.

Indiana parasites, 168.

298

Indiana phanerogams, 169, 183.
Indiana University Biological Station, 204.
Infection by bread, 46.

KELLICOTT, D. S., 242, 251.
Kettle holes, 55.
Knipp, Chas. T., 62.

LINEAR ASSOCIATIVE ALGEBRA,
Peirce’s, 59.

Liquids, surface tension of, 67.

Locomotive furnaces, 65.

Lyons, Robert E., 85, 88.

MEMBERS OF THE INDIANA ACAD-
emy of Science, 18.

Microscope slides, 105.

Milk inspection, 90.

Missouri basin, fishes of, 126.

Moenkhaus, W.,., 159, 278.

Mollusks from Northern Indiana, 246.

NEWLIN, C. E., 42.
Newson, T. F., 51.
Noyes, Mary Chilton, 66.
Noyes, W. A., 89.

ODONATA OF TURKEY LAKE, 251.

Officers of Indiana Academy of Science,
12, 14.

Oncorbyneus nerka (red fish), 131.

Orchidacez in Indiana, 198.

PARASITES IN INDIANA, 168.
Parvus group of Unionidae, 108.
Peirce’s linear associative algebra, 39.
Permeability, measurement of, 83.
Phanerogams of Indiana, 169, 183.
Phenyl-compounds, 88.
Photo-micrography, 48.

Physical features of Turkey Lake, 216.
Pleodorina californica, 99.

President’s address, 31.

Proceedings of the 11th annual meeting, 30.
Program of 1895, Christmas meeting, 24.
Protoplasm, circulation of, 95.

Purdue, A. H., 51.

REDDICK, G., 261.

Redfish in Idaho, 131.

Report (first) of Biological Station, 203.
Ridgley, D. C., 216.

Rotifera of Turkey Lake, 242.

SANITARY SCIENCE, 49.

Scovell, J. T., 54, 55, 126, 131.

Shaw, James Byrnie, 59.

Skew Surfaces, 3d and 4th degree, 57.
Snakes of Turkey Lake, 261.

State Library, botanical literature in, 102.
Stauffer, E. P., 64.

Strains in steam machinery, 75.

Stuart, Wm., 96.

Surface tension of liquids, 67.

TESTUDINATA of Turkey Lake, 262.
Turkey Lake, as a unit of environment, 209.
Turkey Lake, il ustrations of, 216, 217.
Turkey Lake, inhabitants of, 239.

Turkey Lake, variation in, 265.

ULREY, ALBERT B., 147, 148.
Unconscious mental cerebration, 42.
Unionide, parvus group of, 108.

VARIATION of astandard thermometer, 63.
Variation of Ethiostoma caprodes, 278.
Variation, the study of, 265.

Viscosity, em: irical formula for, 84.
Viscosity of a polarized dielectric, 77.

WABASH COUNTY, birds of, 148.

Waldo, C. A., 57.

Wallace, William O., 148.

Water birds of Turkey Lake, 264.

Wood shrinkage, 100.

Work and purposes of Indiana Academy of
Science, 7.

Wright, John S., 102, 105.

XANTHIUM, 100.

YOUNG’S modulus, 66.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Indiana Academy of Science.

1896

=,

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Indiana Academy of Science

1596.

EDITOR; - - C. A. WALDO.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS:
J. C. ARTHUR, W. A. NOYES, C.H. EIGENMANN, = A. W. DUFF,
V. F. MARSTERS, A. W. BUTLER, W. S. BLATCHLEY.

INDIANAPOLIS, IND.
1897.

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TABLE “OF CONTENTS.

AGE.

An act to provide for the publication of the reports and papers of the ae
Indian agAcad eniy OL SCLONCE feria ns aja ache since nies fase terns toins ae 4

An act for the protection of birds, their nests and eggs................--. 5
DEE At FO OS BNC: ine ao om oa epee Cnet otis eet ee ee eMac aS a
WOMMMATECCR PLO GO—T ate sister wiep-aire Saks sie = srepeerance sc si pets Oe alte emmerveeeercl.s yee % 8
Pemeipak OlICers SINCE OFPATIZALLON:. <. . sc. eps isa sajciene we saaies 4 qn e,8 on 9
OHISHULITLOT gas bernie, orev era) eects Hie cata epi tte ee Gre ewes preter Sl caskci oie) 10
MMCMDEES COWS. Acie nibs w C8 5 dsp oes ny borden 5, ater Heies ehe ee Ie oe miele es 13
Mb rtiinrs “ianistenideninn foc oat ee oleic = dune Beira cea hea eng. cs ee SSN 14
MEIER S CROLL UG oe oe rans YN os ate sia aie re a alee na See 8 = lle nee rece 14
Haine tie PORCID COFFERNOROCIUN ¢ cs. ss kets | calsyr sen: vic Rep ak a> a aetenrs Sey 19
Propramo. Let hrannia li meetin shite oeeretes <icyaetn ace oh aperheast~ 6 BI eragg 3 25
Eroencdivian GOL spin annual MECLNE. yo 2° ions ine a onic <es\em aoe woe aay bln One 31
Mitel) dees Ole LEO Gs. tere nt oa toh denial sinte corn Sila mactece slSie <aveetaten = ste 32
IBTESTM EN SA CONESS a ereroesct cis fate’ <totarerey sneer ache ede bafsieyshors, erates & 33
Papers of the 12th annual meeting ......... ROHS RO SOC Aa omens Mae 46

MR the ee a Oia ore eg CRIES NN a euro ke this ae ia taal tafe mane Nee a cr aarals phil

AN ACT TO PROVIDE FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE REPORTS AND PAPERS OF

THE INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.
{|Approved March 11, 1895.]

Wuerpnas, The Indiana Academy of Science, a chartered scien-
Preamble. tific association, has embodied in its constitution a provision that it
will, upon the request of the Governor, or of the several depart-
ments of the State government, through the Governor, and through its council as
an advisory body, assist in the direction and execution of any investigation
within its province, without pecuniary gain te the Academy, provided only that
the necessary expenses of such investigation are borne by the State, and,
Wuereas, The reports of the meetings of said Academy, with the several
papers read before it, have very great educational, industrial and econoniic value,
and should be preserved in permanent form, and,
WHEREAS, The Constitution of the State makes it the duty of the General
Assembly to encourage by all suitable means intellectual, scientific and agricul-
tural improvement, therefore,

Publication Section 1. Be it enacted by the Generai Assembly of the State of

of the re-
ports of the
Indiana
Academy
of Science.

Indiana, That hereafter the annual reports of the meetings of the
Indiana Academy of Science, beginning with the report for the year
1894, including all papers of scientific or economic value, presented
at such meetings, after they shall have been edited and prepared for publication
as hereinafter provided, shall be published by and under the direction of the
Commissioners of Public Printing and Binding.

Src. 2. Said reports shall be edited and prepared for publica-

Editing

ae tion without expense to the State, by a corps of editors to be selected

and appointed by the Indiana Academy of Science, who shall not,
by reason of such services, have any claim against the State for compensation.
The form, style of binding, paper, typography and manner and extent of illus-
tration of such reports, shall be determined by the editors, subject to the approval
i of the Commissioners of Public Printing and Stationery. Not less
aa than 1,500 nor more than 3,000 copies of each of said reports shall
sors: be published, the size of the edition within said limits, to be deter-

mined by the concurrent action of the editors and the Commissioners of Public

5

Printing and Stationery: Provided. That not to exceed six hundred dollars
($600) shall be expended for such publication in any one year, and eae
not to extend beyond 1896: Provided, That no sums shall be deemed

to be appropriated for the year 1894.

Src. 3. All except three hundred copies of each volume of said

Disposition

reports shall be placed in the custody of the State Librarian, who “of yenorts.

shall furnish one copy thereof to each public library in the State,
one copy to each university, college or normal school in the State, one copy
to each high school in the State having a library, which shall make application
therefor, and one copy to such other institutions, societies or persons as may be
designated by the Academy through its editors or its council. The remaining
three hundred copies shall be turned over to the Academy to be disposed of as it
may determine. In order to provide for the preservation of the same it shall be
the duty of the Custodian of the State House to provide and place at the disposal
of the Academy one of the unoccupied rooms of the State House, to be desig-
nated as the office of the Indiana Academy of Science, wherein said copies of
said reports belonging to the Academy, together with the original manuscripts,
drawings, etc., thereof can be safely kept, and he shall aiso equip the same with
the necessary shelving and furniture.
Sec. 4. An emergency is hereby declared to exist for the imme-

diate taking effect of this act, and it shall therefore take effect and Riri oregon’

be in force from and after its passage.

An AcT FOR THE PROTECTION OF BIRDS, THEIR NESTS AND EGGS.
[Approved March 5, 1891.]

Section 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of
Indiana, That it shall be unlawful for any person to kill any wild eae
bird other than a game bird, or purchase, offer for sale any such wild bird after
it has been killed, or to destroy the nests or the eggs of any wild bird.

Sec. 2. For the purpose of this act the following shall be con-
sidered game birds: the Anatidwe, commonly called swans, geese, Ses BiB
brant, and river and sea ducks; the Rallide, commonly known as rails, coots,
mudhens, and gallinules; the Limicol«, commonly known as shore birds, plovers,
surf birds, snipe, woodcock and sandpipers, tattlers and curlews; the Galline,
commonly known as wild turkeys, grouse, prairie chickens, quail, and pheasants,
all of which are not intended to be affected by this act.

5)

=

Sec. 3. Any person violating the provisions of Section 1 of this
Eenalty. act shall, upon conviction, be fined in a sum not less than ten nor
more than fifty dollars, to which may be added imprisonment for not less than five
days nor more than thirty days.
Sec. 4. Sections 1 and 2 of this act shall not apply to any per-
NUE son holding a permit giving the right to take birds or their nests and
eggs for scientific purposes, as provided in Section 5 of this act.
eect Src. 5. Permits may be granted by the Executive Board of the
Science. Indiana Academy of Science to any properly accredited person, per-
mitting the holder thereof to collect birds, their nests or eggs for strictly scientific
purposes. In order to obtain such permit the applicant for the same must pre-
sent to said Board written testimonials from two well known scientific men certi-
fying to the good character and fitness of said applicant to be entrusted with such
privilege, and pay to said Board one dollar to defray the necessary expenses
ee attending the granting of such permit, and must file with said Board
a properly executed bond in the sum of two hundred dollars, signed
by at least two responsible citizens of the State as sureties. The bond shall be
Bond for. forfeited to the State and the permit become void upon proof that
ECs the holder of such permit has killed any bird or taken the nests or
eggs of any bird for any other purpose than that named in this section, and shall
further be subject for each offense to the penalties provided in this act.

Src. 6. The permits authorized by this act shall be in force for

Two years. ; Ge.
two years only from the date of their issue, and shall not be trans-
ferable.
Birds of Sec. 7. The English or European house sparrow (passer domes-
rey.

ticus), crows, hawks, and other birds of prey are not included among
the birds protected by this act.

Src. 8. All acts or parts of acts heretofore passed in conflict

Acts re-
pealed. With the provisions of this act are hereby repealed.
Src. 9. An emergency is declared to exist for the immediate
Emergency.

taking effect of this act, therefore the same shall be in force and

effect from and after its passage.

THomaAs GRAY,

OFFICERS, 1896-97.

PRESIDENT.
THOMAS GRAY.

VicE- PRESIDENT,

C. A.. WALDO,

SECRETARY,

JOHN S. WRIGHT.

ASSISTANT SECRETARY,

A. J. BIGNEY,

TREASURER,
W. P. SHANNON

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

STANLEY CoULTER,

T. C. MENDENHALL,

C. A. WaLpo, Amos W. BuTLER, JoHN C. BRANNER,
Joun S. WRIGHT W. A. Noyes, J. P. D. Joun,
A. J. BIGNEY, J. C. ARTHUR, JoHN M. CouLtTEr,
W. P. SHANNON, J. L. CAMPBELL, Davip S. JorDAN,
OPP ELAY.
CURATORS.
IO RAINING Atom street Sn ee bade oa aes J. C. ARTHUR.
PRE ELY. OL OG YG =f 59 os SEE Dec eiek ake det al C. H. E1gENMANN.
HERPETOLOGY )
MPMMIMAHOGN SO Mh lees soos cess ocd Amos W. BUTLER.
ORNITHOLOGY |
BIINGR VEO EO Gi Vater res aay oii oke teeny cupietes Wye e8 W. S. BLATCHLEY.

A.

A.

COMMITTEES, 1895-96.

PROGRAM.
W. P. SHANNON, R. E. Lyons.
MEMBERSHIP.
. ELLSworRTH CALL, JosEPH Moore, C. R. Dryer.
NOMINATIONS.
. W. Butter, W. F. M. Goss, G. W. Benton.
AUDITING.
J. L. CAMPBELL, R. ELuswortH CAL.

STATE LIBRARY.

. A. WALDO, W. A. Noyes, A. W. Burier.

A. W. Dorr, J. S. WricuHrt.

LEGISLATION FOR THE RESTRICTION OF WEEDS.

. C. ARTHUR, STANLEY COULTER. J. S. WRriGuHt.

PROPAGATION AND PROTECTION OF GAME AND FISH.
H. EIGENMANN, A. W. Buruer, Pu. KirscH.

EDITOR.
C. A. WALDo.

DIRECTORS OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY.

. H. EIGENMANN, VY. F. MARSTERs, J. C. ARTHUR.

RELATIONS OF THE ACADEMY TO THE STATE.

. A. WALDO, A. W. Butter, C. H. EIGENMANN.

GRANTING PERMITS FOR COLLECTING BIRDS.
W. Bouter, C. H. EIGENMANN, W. P. SHANNON.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE PROCEEDINGS.
W. BUTLER, W. A. Noyes, C,. A. WaArmo,;
C. H. EIGENMANN, V. F. Marsters,
J. S. WRIGHT.

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CONSTITUTION.

ARTICLE I.

Section 1. This association shall be called the Indiana Academy of Science.

Src. 2. The objects of this Academy shall be scientific research and the
diffusion of knowledge concerning the various departments of science; to promote
intercourse between men engaged in scientific work, especially in Indiana; to
assist by investigation and discussion in developing and making known the mate-
rial, educational and other resources and riches of the State; to arrange and pre-
pare for publication such reports of investigation and discussions as may further
the aims and objects of the Academy as set forth in these articles.

Whereas, the State has undertaken the publication of such proceedings, the
Academy will, upon request of the Governor, or of one of the several departments
of the State, through the Governor, act through its council as an advisory body
in the direction and execution of any investigation within its province as stated.
The necessary expenses incurred in the prosecution of such investigation are to
be borne by the State; no pecuniary gain is to come to the Academy for its advice
or direction of such investigation.

The regular proceedings of the Academy as published by the State shall be-

come a public document.

ARTICLE II.

Section 1. Members of this Academy shal! be honorary fellows, fellows,
non-resident members or active members.

Sec. 2. Any person engaged in any department of scientific work, or in
original research in any department of science, shall be eligible to active mem-
bership. Active members may be annual or Jife members. Annual members
may be elected at any meeting of the Academy; they shall sign the constitution,
pay an admission fee of two dollars, and thereafter an annual fee of one dollar.
Any person who shall at one time contribute fifty dollars to the funds of this
Academy, may be elected a life member of the Academy, free of assessment.

Non-resident members may be elected from those who have been active members

11

but who have removed from the State. In any case, a three-fourths vote of the
members present shall elect to membership. Applications for membership in any
of the foregoing classes shall be referred to a committee on application for mem-
bership, who shall consider such application and report to the Academy before
the election.

Sec. 3. The members who are actively engaged in scientific work, who have
recognized standing as scientific men and who have been members of the Academy
at least one year, may be recommended for nomination for election as fellows by
three fellows or members personally acquainted with their work and character.
Of members so nominated a number not exceeding five in one year may, on
recommendation of the Executive Committee, be elected as fellows. At the meet-
ing at which this is adopted, the members of the Executive Committee for 1894
and fifteen others shall be elected fellows, and those now honorary members shall
become honorary fellows. Honorary fellows may be elected on account of special
prominence in science, on the written recommendation of two members of the

Academy. In any case a three-fourths vote of the members present shall elect.

ARTICLE III.

Section 1. The officers of this Academy shall be chosen by ballot at the
annual meeting, and shall hold office one year. They shall consist of a president,
vice-president, secretary, assistant secretary, and treasurer, who shall perform
the duties usually pertaining to their respective offices and in addition, with the
ex-presidents of the Academy, shall constitute an executive committee. The
president shall, at each annual meeting appoint two members to be a committee
which shall prepare the programmes and have charge of the arrangements for all
meetings for one year.

Src. 2. The annual meeting of this Academy shall be held in the city of
Indianapolis within the week following Christmas of each year, unless otherwise
ordered by the executive committee. There shall also be a summer meeting at
such time and place as may be decided upon by the executive committee. Other
meetings may be called at the discretion of the executive committee. The past
presidents, together with the officers and executive committee, shall constitute the
Council of the Academy, and represent it in the transaction of any necessary
business not specially provided for in this constitution, in the interim between
general meetings.

Sec. 3. This constitution may be altered or amended at any annual meeting
by a three-fourths majority of attending members of at least one year’s standing.

No question of amendment shall be decided on the day of its presentation.

12

BY-LAWS.

1. On motiou, any special department of science shall be assigned to a
curator, whose duty it shall be, with the assistance of the other members inter-
ested in the same department, to endeavor to advance knowledge in that particu-
lar department. Each curator shall report at such time and place as the Academy
shall direct. These reports shall include a brief summary of the progress of the
department during the year preceding the presentation of the report.

2. The president shall deliver a public address on the evening of one of the
days of the meeting at the expiration of his term of office.

3. No special meeting of the Academy shall be held without a notice of the
same having been sent to the address of each member at least fifteen days before
such meeting.

4. No bill against the Academy shall be paid without an order signed by
the president and countersigned by the secretary.

5. Members who shall allow their dues to remain unpaid for two years,
having been annually notified of their arrearage by the treasurer, shall have their
names stricken from the roll.

6. Ten members shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business.

MEMBERS.

FELLOWS.

BUMP ANU GEREUE SA oors yas caer spay claaic. <<. oie ae yl Co a ee ae Lafayette.

PER Sap pe CE Taare, storcyatarel ciel aie Siatemiaravies ae SOS Sarria ces crete Greencastle.

AG eeree: We Denton «.:5.-.. 2 5. jars 5 6 DSO u ors ais od One e s Indianapolis.

\ ays aol Sc rh 2 ge ne LO OS aoa ioe «ea Indianapolis.

Ue oe ICR chai o ro ta, 0 sito tar ote, sierrshatss USOS, Geena poe ey-vae Palo Alto, Cal.
VTL SE 0), Coal?) 321 er 10S 153 See ee era Bloomington.

PAE PEVV aaEXEIU NGI! 225d, 5 Shh ora)ais,-nhaie/aj ches mea'en INC oe Sess kt ome Brookville.

SDs aA ete ae heicley 2 since PA vip. 0,» oe 1SOA see toe Lawrenceburg.
elerlsy, Campbell i Jo 50s os dace ooes IC Ry EMe Reape oer Crawfordsville.
okie MAC oulten ety) soa. f2 2 .cr<rete ate 1803 22s). .)<0 3c Chicago, EI
Bianleyo Coulter. 66.4 JAI eer eeiaie BOS asl alsnet eso Lafayette.

BRN ss Deena tyr aie sers wjatereass EB Cos aR Soci: Richmond.

OW Urner: Dil irae oo srajenn' sy tots SOG aS Ait Lafayette.

CoH. Bigehmianm 7.05. sco5 250s 1D} Eine are) Bloomington.
Katherine Bi Golden 2)4:.......-- LO QOE Ho servers bree Lafayette.

Via 02 (CaCO: Sta tiog Mada ee Baio: SOS) Racers isa soe aay Eble

Moss Gray 52 PARMA LON as i Sanciwe IBY oben Beech dar Terre Haute.

AT Ss Atha Wa yer US PPE A Sood seins ASOD esas 5.2 aso Terre Haute.

NOUR SN AVE taco letras a tonayst steve iond eicxey elalore TS OO ilevs fon ceacuoge ees Washington, D. C.
PAR eAr MMREOMS | S625 v ns dian wide es, Ae hie ioe eaten Ree nrs Lafayette.

J cod Se MD ers [1] ee eee PEGA. Saver h tore tor Greencastle.
1 URLS sige cs EI ene co Pa Rel BAIS Aree wre Stanford University, Cal.
eobert. He Ty Ons... .<52 s2m.5 von 220s SOG Sirs coeteeroe eee Bloomington.

jo LRU Ey ee or Ue Bi weieierertne Bi ore, Bloomington.
ME CON) soa pala) a TS ees coiiere.ece sd avsia:« LOA. scare dickaieee Slahets Terre Haute.

aD sombender ball, a ossicles ao ose. « ibs ier eee Worcester, Mass.

*Date of election:

14

Jusepe MOOLE shes a. cee ease antes = SOG) seiee tyne ere Richmond.

De Myr Mottion! jst kiecs scare sion eciere 189Bi eas oul Bloomington.
WinwA “NOYES: mac ats sites soe aineternn a> LOGOmiituem ase ae Terre Haute.
Mirae. HOLES ERS 5 oe oul sais akinesia eee PSIG ee ee culate Terre Haute.

Je Re Scovelllesihicis saat ectteies ee 1AOde aes hot sie: Terre Haute.
WB; Shannon Voi. o-28 ts tent REDS Mees. tier Greensburg.
Mex OMIUM Sitch coteoletw cc sto LGGoN meme ote. Chicago, Ill.
\iel DS RiGiGhs eames Onn siod hegb baa. BOSE eee Sos oe ae Lafayette.
MeCBaithonias;-ccmerie sete sero Ito BSS ON ne ee Ae cA Crawfordsville.
Tie Ni i uderwoodis. ws%.cn.8 dese: LOS PoE eee New York City.
TAO WVianU Ny Bits epee een ele ier oi LSOS Sasser set Bloomington.
CPAry Wiall dO. agstier atin casts selaeener 1895) eevee Lafayette.
eM sWebsterees sccberacciocs sts oe SOAS ee crate etic Wooster, O.

ELON s: DWilleyicietocis s Biracty Bice ae 1S0DE See ie etna Washington, D. C.
A Icy ets emf oh «1 ee Oey AB Od es eatane a oe Indianapolis.

NON-RESIDENT MEMBERS.

Ds Canip elles s0 of alchore- So. net snie, ke a area tote ae ake Stanford University, Cal.
ey MERIVELMMA TIM aoa’ fc nice ee eee ree eyee Washington, D. C.
Charlesse Gilbert, ss satincls «visto: a-cirsa eae en ee Stanford University, Cal.
Ga WietGreen Sari egNa fae ¢ osc ecewie eee ee eeerag Stanford University, Cal.
CE iY lS ei deat nes Sp bc eee Oe didabedna sors .oc cabddaoade Syracuse, N. Y.

Rid ward Selig heap gets sitet -\6 o's: seumyaraie Re a teleyeyes eto ee Stockton, Cal.

Og (ea oalihiepeans boos too moose odentS oo accec Canar Stanford University, Cal.
Jers kun esley <.c aero G a ee aga es ee mies Tuits College, Mass.
Alired Sprinvets ie | bra setacel iit eis ele inte wine = Cincinnati, O.

Robert lbs) WV angele erie yen cierto ariel Washington, D. C.

Hredenick aw. And rewsters aeiciterstieriorieeacictensey teeter: Bloomington.
ete dle) PNG fetoeitacincio ao AO NAS Gio on iahieniOe S oOES Bloomington.
Creare Jal, Morb esoo o gacesuee Ahead erates Indianapolis.
Mamotiyel. Ball ct. 5 oe alee aie cel occ eisai ene erate Crown Point.
HIGGER Ballard asec ca oneneeiare aie sess cuales screenees a eters Terre Haute.

*Date of election.

MEM MNES od ss Meri ia ayais elds 2's 4 Gs ode e Se Indianapolis.

LTP nah ne | Pa CES Ae BRP ee ke Ser a Sa ae Moore’s Hill.

a ie: Bergstrom Ie oe a ee Bloomington.
PERCU 2 een ate Rte e Vitae cote d eer asin selene 28 Lafayette.

PRP UNGEE gS ad dels waste raase sas cab ss ces Sans Greencastle.

il feaiet WOMEN hee ly RE ey Lafayette.
Mepsildsane Bogants 2. con". . nd pats eee o caw e sa see Crawfordsville.
VIM Aey ESE AH OF ene 2 Sopris 2. MI wy RCN oleae 2/6 cicis bar MM Ayes
Charles, C> Brown’... 3-.<.:-- eRe) ER es es Indianapolis.
Tem eRE SUM OR aan ye hoes tose) acct tie Sere a raosic ia Slee Irvington.
PEVCLAN CCD LU REAN CS Dae clang twas 5 siaeteoini<| sin iat sears 2 Lafayette.
Pere RECN Sey oi ei Riniciere «i Wak addi eons ways Cloverdale.
Noble/C. Butler... 3... 2.0.2 Oey a ee OIE Indianapolis.
PRED AAIS ELLIE R Soe nn iia in ee ass ih Be sy et fares Sere South Bend.
per ae ARIE e 5 So on ees sion Se < haw saree dbs ale tates Rockville.

1D. 1d et OLAS Ss Ee ne Ar Se eg ein ra Bicknell.
io We RMAC TIRE «nee o.uic soe ens wid sa weer eas Bloomington.
PRCT O HERINATE wer. treed | aise oni wate nee asia Warsaw.

ep Bred Glearw aters ro. e aye 2 ade sole sie eaves pciee Seis Indianola, Ill.
eee OC EIMOTIH GIS ats ie os nis wis </> clea Ges oes ene ee Crawfordsville.
Mr PUTO os ed 19g oiled a ames s fo aha Poke eee See Washington.
MMe e MEKEN EES ers yelee <font Se caus cis ase as ame elo Tangier.

VJ. Qe (Ge SI sec Dea Sac, US ea ar ae pes en en ete Mankato, Minn.
a LEE OE nS Cee ce te ne Sco eA SIS grey Indianapolis.
PME BEEING obo Ss oho siliavat esas eas ces Hanover.

AH APONTE ern io the od oni ww x dvs at Ts as ES Ne eT Greensburg.
Peed ON COMA ESIU ANTE oi ae o's sucess So wel Sekn Owe we Kirkpatrick.
btegtrs MOMENI AMG 32) sae eAe )'2 2 wiclele tiaiaa Ge ee th vac 2 Indianapolis.
ereae re BOOMERANG. ori Ck cece bdo eid wg ple sc esi CSS Columbus.
SmI Mea VAS Arcee eae Sage tate isrenec yale wiciete ete 's shee, saute Irvington.

LA LTTd del DEA Ne iy Nese EG RISE PSO, Os ee ae ee Westfield.

J) LEAD SER Sige, sete cere Re pean eee Syracuse.
PE DROVOE 2 ene Ne ee) ke ns Sk ais ae eldis 224 ates Terre Haute.
NRG MENEAME ke Se oo ATs clelecs «\s a.0i0 afm Sia'sa aan Indianapolis.
bee SS Oe aie Indianapolis.
Gs LTR Hartsville.
ae ns Es ee achat) vs ae 2 ooo wale «ms Se Morgantown, W. Va.

Cori REE NERATRS loi whole ss aa aiars aida 0 4s 4 das wie Sma ea Lafayette.

16

Samual Gis Vows so. arcn's cates ioe e eet e bao oe eee e Evansville.

IBD MESSRS er 2 2 cron .etacw oes cveie cisic ccs sol SMeer elepeierere, aleiotayinie ae Lake Forest, Ill.
Seren YW AGEN = tcc option ocioe oe ie eeieistoeiie sie eee Lafayette.

ey Sis Boley. tase cts on dauie bc ee Bee a ects ae eee Bloomington.
Jeojoriay (Ge (Cutline series wodansas © oon deo ote auomees Terre Haute.
eae ain anC1s «ec. ieee eects e Sear epee eerie alee Ore Indianapolis.
PASTISUU IN UIINIC occ crereteie eemnerereh clan siiore aie ortateers ee eva retebeiey cveaie Bloomington.
POG ALHEE at ce teen tis yaaa felts Baw Mie etal pote re Crawfordsville.
OLA DAY GW Arc ‘aia aes Maes hei ee ees ae Sao I pe Newbern.
Machael J.-Golden.': ..2..c2ccicw « sictyteamiaceia® < -xtemadiee Lafayette.
WeebnG oldsboronphts.cc caterer tere a) larsie sists sare sree Lafayette.
BGS SAC ISMIDT erosion teem nls Oe eS i ches ern nye hele vi eae 2 Ee Franklin.
WierGM GOUh sy picete enc ao ielnecafitatein tejo! nt cyorm cic eee Rochester.
See O ae races, 5 ts pacne tek ake\ » choteretaa ie mtarovaratae ee sates Brazil.

Bee Heaenek 6. 2a 56 eae dan Seibel elie eae open A Topeka, Kas.
his oan Selves 28 7 aa oo vaysieeet see ware stereo rial eer Chicago.
Wan Perry sEl ays note tt cis ee Sk elem elses eerste Washington, D. C.
erates NV 6 EL vy ot ternares eiwias oa we cits hain Siac Indianapolis.
ES Ora MeV erry cter raretemssdaistn «| shoisle Sieseieinisisiore «pester ale dslatetstoe Bloomington.
Ro perigl ess lerter, sees <terret recat jSerietele ich lie aei Logansport.
Beep Pe AG WER oc an oe Sx Delneia «ae eee ewieicnaiaaia miele =pe' ate Indianapolis.
eget A AN ooo coe ete aseuenshe eal sinieaiele clad a etcininie © ai Bloomington.
Mucins sh ubbard: cece ryiee se eeriseyeis aie se South Bend.
Ma omAR MY TOC ees ate 6 dard ters, the Farms tain trearonie ome wie one's Irvington.
Ade SNTCNOTSc ec). Peters s sie sve siete Gis ahs & 5 Oe eS oie) ee Indianapolis.
RAS, SCAN a oo pate oe, te Ream a as ioc ets Se ates cos ele Carmel.

hc Ces herdn 0) 7/20 Tite Be op eal aie, Sis eae eager ene nice Irvington.

Wis “Be dohnsons. cscs. cree eee See a eiatarsie toed iste Franklin.
@hancey duday.s cx ssc ace eee ones eee ne wines a amee Bloomington.
On LL WelsOivs. once ee ee tee orien Ane ae elein es cena ees Terre Haute.
Nrthur Kengrick. scc-yiis.ceus = errors telasclere aia eueeiae Terre Haute.
IME Kin LL Oa oars tac et tcpes be vera etat Acharc tote lobe eet hars Pahgeete Bloomington.
SG Karios bury s 25% 2 faster whale =< tiaiet i iolesr els enaaie Irvington.
"EAN BLS eg ts Coal hs no Sh Cag amet ColumbiaCity.
Gharles ROK ni pp’... 6/2 eu oe = ches ae Saew owes ees oe) DIO ORIN EDORE
PPHOMIAS MART ec. tocore\ aiotercwole es isiahovoRel ee role tm eres key Nek-Loe Rensselaer.
Dantel Haymnen. tas pemee Leek Se te a Ee OE Indianapolis.

Vi. i. Lotkwoodt...s<.o1 eee sete rere Bae nee wine Indianapolis,

PE MOEU MEY cRG ERM 29 a5 uic.o'sus ceed inale sb 50! We Fae oop) d nies Indianapolis.
BeeteET VECRICY GINO ie oa a eae ews ltw eis s oases sep ene ee Indianapolis.
TSS Wel Cay 72 Sy eA ee Wabash.

J) LEI Pe ne Indianapolis.
en LOM MILs Piece in sc kg vag, Seis sw sns Oa a SS ees Minneapolis, Minn.
ENN AESECes gale ard oe shige se Oe Ssineig sE.b sees one He Indianapolis.
Rees MIMERIR GSAS Pion os suressee shh a <ssde ees es s/eess Indianapolis.
PMU T TY fos. EBLE Et arn} osetia Ok os Balak CED es cide seid Brookville.

Vee SPI OCMC NAUA Re ARIE cries eo ttesuaer s chfeseis eo cielee cred Bloomington.
Gap GOLE cra ttaceiett estou ais oie nietieleea t's ees Skee see Crawfordsville.
eM RUNGLYLOLa sts ev tereie hare Cocca wietave Stee F tisis Sais lee be gre Greencastle.
RUBLE as NO MAITL Jor Valo so e'e'oe hess ees seins ais owes Irvington.
Pomme! A Newsom abril es Sap dices F hog NAR GODn Gear Elizabethtown.
PUR LING gle OM ree eho cad Bais DiI His nla ee ee ecole’ se we Frankfort.
DELS Oliver: 2/3. 5 5-< ia Sa ete ese ade ad ane Gs vi idee sd ik aks 2 Indianapolis.
MRA RUNNERS. 1y Ry cteis soe s'nictaisin wieleie aie s sates ve ities os Franklin.
MRE OL DCH eIT Cueshe tie otek Mtals sfe ce tildeinie'p bie eels sie Bloomington.
ACA EVES? 2 Ng 8 oe a Indianapolis.
ERP ECBR cin crlene cit Biebe xiais npn clos Soop eels od gatwln ew a mre Dunreith.

JaNeogl & Lol AFI (ates By See ol een Ee IC RSO icra orate Chicago, III.
CEG gd 2 iT ees) Ae ee a Fairmount.
Beetles MPMI S <7 chek hd Boo os aw ae atin ohn gs Eee Eye Osib's Bloomington.
IBESBIGLC FUG CLG Ypie tee eK = oroicos cee Sn nies Reon be aaele ale South Bend.
NOM CeO ole ypca anc Gimicre sc cet nek tate g sees ese s oie leieiets Del phi.
Peres. CITING fate 8 So ek oie ps sion oer ie ie ae OOS Bloomington.
Scere tsi MADAN eat Riis’? secocn la oa wviwas's vse eerie a oiee Greensburg.
FYCOUP Hi SLOO SERS MSP cIee oe oes niles) osiel nies ois Sis w eleiers clinic New Castle.
Side SCM Grettssid Oe os ofc crew 68 wri as a0 Rn soles Lafayette.
Pn ENGNG Taceetice fE GO oi Viste xe ace wim erisicie 25 rv aie whe pe: Huntington.
Bre Ne OG UGE ZC tm Meee ene tetretsieis seta) spelen ieie.etsae orton e-ous alls siete Noblesville.
ROMO PRCDCMUNG bn, fprtunt amtsttca wu air a's = ede ced ss ee ogee Bloomington.
CRY RES TCC REe oni .e., iiccetd cisterns alanis a's 0 see ele ¥ states Indianapolis.
RIP ES SILOM AREL Aoycteis cpaistere rs cisici choise ice aitis ere ee velefa's.c/o eat ets Bloomington.
DRONE SIAL ECR So cacsracsc st ccaes Kove eae ead Lafayette.
EAPCEE Ce Esra SCM ULM vepeyctota.<, Gs a ervis Sie is vs s)a:3"e eels o/s we ols; eels Worcester, Mass.
COME eM DULLES coarse wie wee thas os ae cease ood Melsere ee Indianapolis.
MUM MEVINGEDS ree Vins o.acac cries o's a. ob 0 aie slay. tare are West Lafayette.

[evo ri) SE Hoo idles Siete pe ea ete rer Os - Logansport.

18

MiGs Stevensity att eal fnc. . mht reavadasiend ae seve sarees Lafayette.
EE ME. sStoops tats 2 eines Sei. sap saseades © oe seein Brookville.
VOREPHISWAIN (34 See oe mates Had spc ee satis Bhi Geet Bloomington.
Walliam (Stewarts joe) sae te2sz ses, 18 smo me ete oat osnere oe Lafayette.
Georgeval Malbertiese et dare sein cc sn cyohery ep pelsj erase cca te Laporte.
Brank. By Taylorise ee oe ee a cclals ocive Cottaebalerars avaiable Fort Wayne.
DSSrIN, Ma ay LGR steer ters craves oh ot ointatar etal Aatotal vont s Ait West Lafayette.
Brastusest.< ta tanc sess ache He ones aeess series Lafayette.
RC, Westin; Site sat Moons cok duincasd Soon: coe oe Washington, D. C.
Aral Bsa Nevo) el 9}s10) nits BA SREee Beit Gun ace De Om maa a eros Richmond.
Walliam MM. Thrashersss 2 t's 3,2 ins Sele cn eietscjoeye es aware Irvington.
Api Iye Rreadwellactegsncts als Sais tel udiorstalt sic sit spot oneness Oxford, Ohio.
Wea seRurner weer okie the foie cuss uaasand hier hoi West Lafayette.
ACI WUIPGY. ota stove eect ects eas oud ob. & cfovion nie shes e eens tateuet cnc ote its North Manchester.
Wiss Vian Gordersy sas caieias och ote) toicsciet vers a) steusmiets Knightstown.
AA Se Voorhees. Put Meo hs sth hk cited debe seat cia atts g Brookville.
ELA OLAS CreNs Ceres stra saeey eis: asian op sity esol tes auch eeiers (eet serene Bloomington.
HrnestsWialker Mey eee a sais c.cccios eps ety eisie ovata toisiohslsveet is New Albany.
SPAT OW alernee stip iio sneciae seis oelcleyo stein asistcinisioicne Anderson.
Web Wallheiserstwie. ass ac citt ons cdesks saw srte ane Bedford.
Wid aWVellacee teen sth es molec t.2.a)s ere actin sascha ee Wabash.
Bred Cin bitcombls Hye acres scecs sisip cccaveees ew hake Delphi.
Walllizama Mis Wihitttempr es 2 siorersreimtoserstovsroras erro eke South Bend.
Jee VME Y Sekine ote tia pants ee ee ee Sn ome Richmond.
Wis clas BWiGOdiene Ohi ins a ais Saintes aemuavele Ges hoes Covington.
Willian’ Waisan Wioollem ss; cocs sca os Sie sueser.s apne Indianapolis.
PAIS AK OO) LITER ON ra gos gaaloran Roy ARC er TORE Ore ASHE Oe Duluth, Minn.
BivAGe-VOUER bamian ee ortetin bee Des ee cece ees mabe meres Bloomington.
AR OSV OME ae tee Bee wee eaten Mes sidistays ine Siols iets wlonas Bloomington.
ONBB ie Zell sc crantevs tates sists reicues & heisie pee hee eels teasers eee Clinton.
Ble lL owesisiten: Srais one is ole e ieee eae cio oto a eo 41
Non=resident membersitijes ssc me eee oe aes 10
ActivesmemMbers eile ceieomeroncteeiieeeciiiec ence 149

19

LISI OF FOREIGN CORRESPONDENTS.

AFRICA.

Dr. J. Medley Wood, Natal Botanical Gardens, Berea Durban, South Africa.
South African Philosophical Society, Cape Town, South Africa.

ASIA.

China ‘Branch Royal Asiatic Society, Shanghai, China.
Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta, India.

Geological Survey of India, Calcutta, India.

Indian Museum of India, Calcutta, India.

India Survey Department of India, Calcutta, India.

Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Natur und Volkerkunde Ostasiens, Tokio, Japan.
Imperial University, Tokio, Japan.

Koninklijke Naturkundige Vereeniging in Nederlandsch-Indie, Batavia, Java.

Hon. D. D. Baldwin, Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands.

EUROPE.

V. R. Tschusizu Schmidhoffen, Villa Tannenhof, Halle in Salzburg, Austria.

Herman von Vilas, Innsbruck, Austria.

Ethnologische Mittheilungen aus Ungarn, Budapest, Austro-Hungary.

Mathematische und Naturwissenschaftliche Berichte aus Ungarn, Budapest, Aus-
tro-Hungary.

K. K. Geologischen Reichssanstalt, Vienna (Wien), Austro-Hungary.

K. U. Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft, Budapest, Austro-Hungary.

Naturwissenschaftlich-Medizinischer Verein in Innsbruck (Tyrol), Aust o-Hun-

gary.

20

Editors ‘‘Termeszetrajzi Fuzetk,” Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Aus-
tro-Hungary.

Dr. Eugen Dadai, Adj. am Nat. Mus., Budapest, Austro-Hungary.

Dr. Julius yon Madarasz, Budapest, Austro-Hungary.

K. K. Naturhistorisches Hofmuseum, Vienna (Wien), Austro-Hungary.

Ornithological Society of Vienna (Wien), Austro-Hungary.

Zodlogische-Botanische Gesellschaft in Wien, Wien, Austro-Hungary.

Dr. J. von Csato, Nagy Enyed, Austro-Hungary.

Malacological Society of Belgium, Brussells, Belgium.

Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts, Brussells, Belgium.

Royal Linnean Society, Brussells, Belgium. ‘
Societé Belge de Geologie, de Palaeontologie et Hydrologie, Brussells, Belgium.
Societé Royale de Botanique, Brussells, Belgium.

Societé Geologique de Belgique, Liége, Belgium.

Prot. Christian Frederick Lutken, Copenhagen, Denmark.

Bristol Naturalists’ Society, Bristol, England.

Geological Society of London, London, England.

Linnean Society of London, London, England.

Liverpool Geological Society, Liverpool, England.

Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, Manchester, England.
‘*Nature,” London, England.

Royal Botanical Society, London, England.

Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, Penzance, England.

Royal Microscopical Society, London, England.

Zodlogical Society, London, England.

Lieut.-Col. John Biddulph, 48 Charing Cross, London, England.

Dr. G. A. Boulenger, British Mus. (Nat. Hist.), London, England.

F. DuCane Godman, 10 Chandos St., Cavendish Sq., London, England.
Hon. E. L. Layard, Budleigh Salterton, Devonshire, England.

Mr. Osbert Salvin, Hawksfold, Fernshurst, Haslemere, England. -

Mr. Howard Saunders, 7 Radnor Place, Hyde Park, London W., England,
- Phillip L. Selater, 3 Hanover Sq., London W., England.

Dr. Richard Bowlder Sharpe, British Mus. (Nat. Hist.), London, England.
Prof. Alfred Russell Wallace, Corfe View, Parkstone, Dorset, England.

21

Botanical Society of France, Paris, France.

Ministéré de l’Agriculture, Paris, France.

Societé Entomologique de France, Paris, France.

LInstitut Grand Ducal de Luxembourg, Luxembourg, Lux, France.
Soc. de Horticulture et de Botan. de Marseille, Marseille, France.
Societé Linneenne de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France.

La Soc. Linneenne de Normandie, Caen, France.

Soc. des Naturelles, ete., Nantes, France.

Zodlogical Society of France, Paris, France.

Baron Louis d’Hamonville, Meurthe et Moselle, France.

Prof. Alphonse Milne-Edwards, Rue Cuvier, 57, Paris, France.

Botanischer Verein der Provinz Brandenburg, Berlin, Germany.

Deutche Geologische Gesellschaft, Berlin, Germany.

Entomologischer Verein in Berlin, Berlin, Germany.

Journal fiir Ornithologie, Berlin, Germany.

Prof. Dr. Jean Cabanis, Alte Jacob Strasse, 103 A., Berlin, Germany.

Augsburger Naturhistorischer Verein, Augsburg, Germany.

Count Hans von Berlspsen, Miinden, Germany.

Braunschweiger Verein fiir Naturwissenschaft, Braunschweig, Germany.

Bremer Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Bremen, Germany.

Kaiserliche Leopoldische-Carolinische Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher,
Halle, Saxony, Germany.

Kéniglich-Sachsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Mathematische-Physische
Classe, Leipzig, Saxony, Germany.

Naturhistorische Gesellschaft za Hanover, Hanover, Prussia, Germany.

Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein in Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany.

Verein fir Erdkunde, Leipzig, Germany.

Verein fiir Naturkunde, Weisbaden, Prussia.

Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, Belfast, Ireland.
Royal Dublin Society, Dublin.

22

Societa Entomologica Italiana, Florence, Italy.

Prof. H. H. Giglioli, Museum Vertebrate Zodlogy, Florence, Italy.
Dr. Alberto Perngia, Museo Civico di Storia Naturale, Genoa, Italy.
Societa Italiana de Scienze Naturali, Milan, Italy.

Societa Africana d’ Italia, Naples, Italy.

Dell ’Academia Pontitico de Nuovi Lincei, Rome, Italy.

Minister of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, Rome, Italy.

R. Comitato Geologico d’ Italia, Rome, Italy.

Rassegna della Scienze Geologiche in Italia, Rome, Italy.

Prof. Count. Tomasso Salvadori, Zodlog. Museum, Turin, Italy.

Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences. Throndhjem, Norway.
Dr. Robert Collett, Kongl. Frederiks Uniy., Christiana, Norway.

Academia Real des Sciencias de Lisboa, Lisboa (Lisbon), Portugal.

Comité Geologique de Russie, St. Petersburg, Russia.
Imperial Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia.

Imperial Society of Naturalists, Moscow, Russia.

The Botanical Society of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland.

John J. Dalgleish, Brankston Grange, Bogside Sta., Sterling, Scotland.
Edinburgh Geological Society, Edinburgh, Scotland.

Geological Society of Glasgow, Scotland.

John A. Harvie-Brown, Duniplace House, Larbert, Stirlingshire, Scotland.
Natural History Society, Glasgow, Scotland.

Philosophical Society of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland.

Royal Society of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland.

Royal Physical Society, Edinburgh, Scotland.

Barcelona Academia de Ciencias y Artes, Barcelona, Spain.

Royal Academy of Sciences, Madrid, Spain.

Institut Royal Geologique de Suéde, Stockholm, Sweden.
Societé Entomologique a Stockholm, Stockholm, Sweden.

Royal Swedish Academy of Science, Stockholm, Sweden.

Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Basel, Switzerland.

Naturforschende Gesellschaft in Berne, Berne, Switzerland.

La Societé Botanique Suisse, Geneva, Switzerland.

Societé Helvetique de Sciences Naturelles, Geneva, Switzerland.

Societé de Physique et d’ Historie Naturelle de Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.
Concilium Bibliographicum, Ziirich-Oberstrasse, Switzerland.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Ziirich, Switzerland.

Schweizerische Botanische Gesellschait, Ziirich, Switzerland.

Prof. Herbert H. Field, Ziirich, Switzerland.

AUSTRALIA.

Linnean Society of New South Wales, Sidney, New South Wales.

Royal Society of New South Wales, Sidney, New South Wales.

Prof. Liveridge, F. R. S., Sidney, New South Wales.

Hon. Minister of Mines, Sidney, New South Wales.

Mr. E. P. Ramsey, Sidney, New South Wales.

Royal Society of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland.

Royal Society of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia.

Victoria Pub. Library, Museum and Nat. Gallery, Melbourne, Victoria.
Prof. W. L. Buller, Wellington, New Zealand. /

NORTH AMERICA.

Natural Hist. Society of British Columbia, Victoria, British Columbia.
Canadian Record of Science, Montreal, Canada.

McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

Natural Society, Montreal, Canada.

Natural History Society, St. John, New Brunswick.

Nova Scotian Institute of Science, Halifax, N. S.

Manitoba Historical and Scientific Society, Winnipeg, Manitoba.
Dr. T. Mecllwraith, Cairnbrae, Hamilton, Ontario.

The Royal Society of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario.

Natural History Society, Toronto,Canada.

Hamilton Association Library, Hamilton, Ontario.

Minister of Militia and Defense, Ottawa, Ontario.

Canadian Entomologist, Ottawa, Ontario.

Department of Marine and Fisheries, Ottawa, Ontario.

23

24

Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, Ont.

Canadian Institute, Toronto.

Ottawa Field Naturalists’ Club, Ottawa, Ont.
University of Toronto, Toronto.

Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, Ont.

La Naturaliste Canadian, Chicontini, Quebec.

La Naturale Za, City of Mexico.

Mexican Society of Natural History, City of Mexico.
Museo Nacionale, City of Mexico.

Sociedad Cientifica Antonio Alzate, City of Mexico.
Sociedad Mexicana de Geographia y Estadistica de la Republica Mexicana, City

of Mexico.

WEST INDIES.

Victoria Institute, Trinidad, British West Indies.

Museo Nacional, San Jose, Costa Rica, Central America.

Dr. Anastasia Alfaro, Secy. National Museum, San Jose, Costa Rica.
Rafael Arango, Havana, Cuba.

Jamaica Institute, Kingston, Jamaica, West Indies.

SOUTH AMERICA.

Argentina Historia Natural Florentine Amegline, Buenos Ayres, Argentine Re-
public.

Musée de la Plata, Argentine Republic.

Nacional Academia des Ciencias, Cordoba, Argentine Republic.

sociedad Cientifiea Argentina, Buenos Ayres.

Museo Nacional, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

Sociedad de Geographia, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

Dr. Herman von Jhering, Dir. Zodl. Sec. Con. Geog. e Geol. de Sao Paulo, Rio
Grande do Sul, Brazil.

Deutscher Wissenschaftlicher Verein in Santiago, Santiago, Chili.
Societé Scientifique du Chili, Santiago, Chili.

Sociedad Guatemalteca de Ciencias, Guatemala, Guatemala.

te! Sh SOLER Des es

OF THE

TWELETH ANNUAL MEETING

OF THE

Indiana Academy of Science,

STATE HOUSE, INDIANAPOLIS,

December 80 and 81, 1896.

OFFICERS AND EX-OFFICIO EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

NMMN TRY COULTER 2. css.6 ssc oe eee President | Amos W. BuTcLer, T. C. MENDFNHALL,
MH OMAS GRAY Saccht daiccct e's Vice-President W.A.NoyYEs, JOHN C. BRANNER,
PRGHING SS « WIRTOMD as cracls codices peticce Secretary J.C. ARTHUR, J.P.D.Joun,

Ae SIGN IW oohccacacncise ts Assistant Secretary J.L. CAMPBELL, JoHN M. CouLtEr,
Wat S HANNON Goce acta. Sic sse acts Treasurer CO Bae 8 Waa Davin 8. JorDAN.

The sessions of the Academy will be held in the State House in the rooms of the State
Board of Agriculture.

Headquarters will be at the Denison Hotel. A rate of $2.50 per day will be made to all
persons who make it known at the time of registering that they are members of the
Academy.

Reduced railroad rates for the members can not be obtained under the present rulings
of the Traffic Association. Many of the colleges can secure special rates on the various
roads. Those who ean not do this could join the State Teachers’ Association and thus
secure the one and one-third round-trip fare accorded to them.

C. A. WaLpo,
A.J. BIGNEY,

Committee.
GENERAL PROGRAM.
Tuesday, December 29.
Meeting of the Executive Committee at the Denison Hotel......... 2... 0... 0002.22 000. 8p.m
Wednesday, December 30.
GOUEPHIASERRLO MN ae cee seer ce cotre Ce en tile c Beceeeole cs aad OREN: oO SERPs 9a.m.to12m.
OC HTOR AM OTT asta s gear tyne sue aera, ciate atelelavciels 6 rie dias sainscapis sh iete lal Germ ietedamio qian 2p.m.to5p.m.
AGOLCH VEE COsIGeNUStAN ley COUNMEE ss qc Succ ase. niistacetacicuninetye Meares elt slulGjes'ae.o)eieisis (tpn
Thursday, December 31.
General Session, followed by Sectional Meetings............. 0... .... ese eee ee Qa.m.to12m.

AT ONUTAL NS GSR LON sonra ne en ete ear tia pan Gin aida se ocie.stals dle ecm 6 cele wee 2p.m.to4 p.m.

26

Lisi? OF PAPERStTO).BE READ:

ADDRESS BY THE RETIRING PRESIDENT,
PROFESSOR STANLEY COULTER,
At 7 o’clock Wednesday evening.

Subject: ‘‘ Science and the State.’’

The address has been placed at this early hour in order that other engagements for the
usual hours of evening entertainment may not keep the members of the Academy and their
friends from being present.

The following papers will be read in the order in which they appear on the program, ex-
cept that certain papers will be presented “‘pari passu’’ in sectional meetings. In order
that the labor of presentation may be relieved, papers presented by the same authors have
been separated unless such separation would impair the value of the papers. Whena paper
is called and the reader is not present, it will be dropped to the end of the list, unless by
mutual agreement an exchange can be made with another whose time is approximately the
same. Where no time was sent with the papers, they have been uniformly assigned ten
minutes. Opportunity will be given after the reading of each paper for a brief discussion.

N. B—By order of the Academy, no paper can be read until an abstract of its contents or the
written paper has been placed in the hands of the Secretary.

GENERAL SUBJECTS.

1. Evolution of map of Mammoth Caye, Ky. (Exhibition of all

MAPS AEVEL AAS.) OM a: Sa es toi’ =). secu eis apr ae R. Ellsworth Call.
2. Fauna of Mammoth Cave with exhibition of specimens,

PADD TR Seca ena G ro 7 PO SRaIG ene Sane Des cma Urata tic R. Ellsworth Call.
3. Notes on Indiana caves and their fauna, 20 m...... ...-.. W. S. Blatehley:

4. A possible relation of the Academy of Science to the Teachers of

Biology in-our High Sehools) 12 mi. 7... .. ican vee eae L. J. Rettger.
5. The occurrence of Uroglena in the LaFayette City water,

1 Tee ee arr hk. SH8 ct eWay Orkn Sensi ay ota Severance Burrage.

6. Relation of the engineering research laboratory to the public,

PA Ree oe AIS. o acto 6 SRE O Ea DIMES O US Ee W. F. M. Goss.
7. Louisville filtration experiments, 10m.................. Geo. W. Benton.
8. A ‘‘Tornado” in Rush County, Indiana, August 1, 1896, :

TOW oe See aR RR, Be eee Cee easier tine chee W. P. Shannon.

+12.

20.

21.

28.

30.

27

GEOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

Crushing strength of Bedford Odlitic limestone in cubes and

RIAU PORTE entices Pacts A etal: win tgien ete oS ass ayare Scie W. K. Hatt.
Some mounds of Vanderburg County, Indiana, 10 m........ A. H. Purdue.
The Lake Michigan and Mississippi Valley water shed, 5 m....T. H. Ball.
ORTH REMMI COMETR. UE, Wich ots teicuid. ce .emicyaispmiese ibys mimo e213 = Chas. R. Dreyer.

Some facts concerning sand ridges and beds, water courses, wells
aADGSprines ine lake: County, WO um acidic sas steed) a ache aisatine ‘Ee Ball:

Report of a moraine of Niagara limestone, near Ricmond, 10 m. Jos. Moore.

MATHEMATICAL SUBJECTS.

A new formula for determining the friction of shafting......J. J. Flather.
NO FLHOOGHARRULIBGER: Ul AB ce oe cis os Yas cd ies oS edine s cod A. S. Hathaway.
he. GalendaniGroup elOemay sso 5k ab Tole esas Socios Se Sk C. A. Waldo.
Study of euthymorphic function of the first order, 10 m...... E. M. Blake.
New meekanical computer. 20 mest. cs sense ensct eee oa 9: Fred Morley.

PHYSICAL SUBJECTS.

A new apparatus for photographic surveying, 20 m.......... Fred Morley.
Experiments on the surface tension of water above 100° C., 8 m.

Chas. T. Knipp.
Crushing strength of wrought iron cylinders, 10 m.

W. K. Hatt and L. Fletemeyer.

Restor, 100,000: lbvearaxlesbimss n..set ai a<seeete esles Se oar W. F. M. Goss.
Subdivision of power) 40,80 wch.,. 0%. 2s kcasi tis J dnaws ic. 2d). i Daphe BP ather:
Nee CRAVEN ATE on oc Sarnia cl Sahara Bryne ASS Ste Bde ale W. E. Goldsborough.
An efficiency surface for Pelton motor, 5 m.................. W. K. Hatt.
OO) mselG hes el Magee 2% crs <Prikanc seo cis ees os Seo Ae visita A We Dutt:

Some experiments on the phenomenon of the elevation of the
ASG eA SOO WR ss 2 tins pinta Sn it ncete oid wie «stem SER ede W. K. Hatt.

Empirical formula for viscosity as a function of temperature,
POM at Ele atc gx se Sims ei cine aie te apsre 9 9.6 + 0:5, «yn ateiade bu, Sie EE A. W. Duff.

Cadmium cells as compared with the standard Ciark cells, 10 m,
S. N. Taylor.

*Author absent; paper not presented.

46.

CHEMICAL SUBJECTS.

0) SISNeT EL! Fl AUT be ira leis Ales ai Speci i Mir H. A. Huston and J. M. Barrett.
The occurrence of Raffinose in American beet sugar, 10 m.

W. E. Stone and W. H. Baird.
Basicislagel Opmits cr cess set ie wetecreereeic H. A. Huston and W. J. Jones.
The action of enzymes upon starches of different origin, 10 m..W. E. Stone.

The character of the volatile matter lost by bituminous coal at

HOO RC slays. Hig). cha eetece seme octets te cruslaneret liao er reeers W. E. Burk.
Notes on the relation of Sodium Silicate to alcoholic fermentation,

ET Seer aon Oro 1G su ODS eT Aie Saab a NOOR OUe ao TELS e Geo. W. Benton.
Notes on Diphenylselenon and Selenthren, 2 m.............. Robert Lyon.
Notes/on - and B=apanin 10 mn! 6. Soe es secs Geran se Sherman Davis.

The physiological action of compounds containing bivalent car- :

bony. 20 mais. sesh ayy eae ine Meee atom ciscrecsyate 2 6 Pac mnegateiz nies oro ie Pac ae

Calculation of heating effect of coals by proximate analysis..W. E. Noyes.

BOTANICAL SUBJECTS.

Notes on the flora of Lakes Cicott and Maxinkuckee, 5 m.. Robert Hessler.
Notes on some Phanerogams, new or rare to the State, 10 m..W.S. Blatehley.
Periodicity -of root pressure, 15m ...........0.0eeeeee eee M. B. Thomas.
Notes on the flora of the lake region of northeastern Indiana,

20imie sen I ci 5, Fn ppd el. ae A PR W. W. Chipman.
Contribution to the flora of Indiana IV, 15 m............. Stanley Coulter.
Additions to the published lists of Indiana cryptogams..L. M. Underwood.

Changes in the pith cell preliminary to the development of cavities

Ime the stems OL ssOMe! OTAsSeS, wlOl My -icre.s) o\tere oie) ial ape eete renter G. J. Peirce.
Bacteria found in the air of stables, 15 m................../ A. W. Bitting.
Have the common yeasts pathogenic properties? An experimental

Study, Lomi fs = Ane er ee iboats « Mea stahe oe cetera Katherine E. Golden.
Exceptional growth of a wild rose, 5 m..........+.++-0+5 Stanley Coulter.

A revision of the species of the genus Plantago occurring in the
Wnited (States: el umes cts cesar lorcet Alida M. Cunningham.

* Author absent; paper not presented.
+ Paper not presented.

or
bo

mf) ate iol)

PON

29

A microscopic examination of certain drinking waters, 15 m.
G. J. Peirce, F. M. Andrews and A. C. Life.

The effect of drought upon certain plants—an experimental study,

MOMPAILE ooh! = ouch {RS we A pM SM S Saya SEIS = Zid es wie wits Clara A. Cunningham.
Additions to the Cryptogamic flora of Indiana, 10 m......... J. C. Arthur.
The Uredinez of Tippecanoe County, Indiana, 10 m....... Lillian Snyder.
Traumatropic curvatures of tendrils, 5 m................ D. T. McDougal.
Mechanism of curvatures of roots, 5m.................. D. T. McDougal

The occurrence of the Russian Thistle (Salsola Kali Tragus) in~
en: COME, ce TRI os mcs Ug wv allies sa ox vital meget A. B. Ulrey.

ZOOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

Some additions to our knowledge of the anatomy and embryology

ee tiesiioteomida 1O:mis 5! 02 oc Seo ee oe yee Fa 2 Rettger.
Abnormal incisor growths in rodents, 5 m.................. C. E. Newlin.
The Bobolink ( Dolichony and oryzivorous) in Indiana, 15 m..A. W. Butler.
(Mie birds oursiriends, (havi iss seek 2) oF ie oe 2 8 Bas ee E. J. Chandler.
Some additions to the Indiana bird list, with other notes, 15 m..A. W. Butler.

Homernterestins hanes) Me) Ae ste aris wna ote Sada swe M. B. Thomas.
The hydrographic basins of Indiana and their Molluscan fauna,

NOTH Fo Hee Aa ees a aap Se one detaaa eisisitaltnat es R. Ellsworth Call.
The American Indian—his religion, 15 m................ Geo. L. Curtiss.
Notes on the origin of the epiphysis cerebri of Amia, 5 m..... B. M. Davis.
Summary of the literature on the epiphysis cerebri, 5 m...... B. M. Davis.
BR HOFATIGW DERG ebeTEI ihc veh: TTD, 52'S: 5 reyes afc @iess Sia’ meee «Beso W. P. Shannon.
On the occurrence of several families of aquatic animalcule in

EW SEAL LIED ATP: ti ope pa teral ls, 2562 its Agee eats eeegiens E. Pleas.
Notes on the biological survey of Milan Pond, 10 m..........4 A. J. Bigney.
involuntary suicide ofa Grow;:3. MJ...) 22s eke ence Stanley Coulter.
A brief history of the Randolph Mastodon, 10 m............... Jos. Moore.

The increasing abundance of the opossum (Didelphus virginiana

SEnwaNeMOLNerne Liana Mi... c--- zo. ciscara ae ese peed A. B. Uirey.

30

ys Te
76 ile
Tile 8
Ulteds ec ANY:
79 Vv.
S05 | WL
8l. VIL
82. VIII.
Son alex
84. Xe
Sos, pS

TURKEY LAKE AS A UNIT OF ENVIRONMENT AND THE

VARIATION OF ITS INHABITANTS.

Second report of the Biological Station, 10 m...... C. H. Eigenmann.
The temperature of Turkey Lake and the fluctuation of its
levelidurine the pasteyeansolO) meee. serene eee ee J. P. Dolan.
The Plankton of Turkey Lake, 10m................. Chancey Juday.
Physical survey of Lakes Tippecanoe, Eagle, Webster and
Cedar, LOM sco 0g na ssient sbhesne ears t om cabsahh aera Thomas Large.
Destruction of a school of Blue Gills in Webster Lake,

SYA esses ove cots est vaatel sie y eN's ove, Dione teks hate vei Sates ey arene tns eee we Thomas Large.
iIRhetwariationsotellepomiswelo mms: errant ena G. J. Peirce.
The variation of Etheostoma, 20m............:... W. J. Moenkhaus.
Blind fishes, a preliminary report, 15 m............ C. H. Eigenmann.
The fovea 20 ci 2.7.5 1s syesaaelares eorevo at reve etevere eae lonehelrs ie seheueTo) ope EUR 00 Ee cet
The variation of Micropterus;, 20) miss... 2 cereals oiepe D. C. Ridgley.
The variation of Pimephales, 10m. 4... 22.5.5: 04-4: -0eW omeue oie

51

TWELFTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE INDIANA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE.

The twelfth annual meeting of the Indiana Academy of Science was held in
Indianapolis Wednesday and Thursday, December 30 and 31, 1896, preceded by
a session of the executive committee of the Academy, 8 Pp. M., Tuesday, Decem-
ber 29th.

At 9 A. M., December 30th, President Stanley Coulter called the Academy to
order in general session, at which committees were appointed and much other
routine and miscellaneous business transacted. After the disposition of these
affairs the reading and discussion of papers of the printed program, under the
title of ‘‘General Subjects,” occupied the time until adjournment at 12 M.

The Academy met at 2 P. M., in two sections—biological and physico-chemi-
cal—tor the reading and discussion of papers. President Stanley Coulter presided
over the biological section, and Vice-President Thomas Gray acted as chairman
of the physico-chemical section. After the adjournment of the section meetings
at 5 p. M. the Academy again met in general session at 7 p. M. Following the
disposition of committee reports and the transaction of other business was the
address of the retiring President, Dr. Stanley Coulter, subject: ‘‘Science and the
State.”

The evening session of the Academy was followed by a meeting of the exec-
utive committee.

Thursday, December 31st, 9:15 a. M., the Academy met in general session for
the transaction of business, after which it divided into sections for the considera-
tion of papers. President Coulter presided over the biological section, while
Prof. W. B. Johnson acted as chairman of the physico-chemical section.

Adjournment of each section about 12 m.

32

THE FIELD MEETING OF 1896.

The Field Meeting of 1896 was held Thursday and Reider, June 4th and 5th,
at Oxford, Ohio. This, the first session of the Indiana Academy held out of the
State, was in connection with the field meeting of the Ohio Academy of Science.

Thursday, June 4th, was largely spent in the field. At8 p. M. the two acad-
emies met at the Western Female Seminary, where President Stanley Coulter, of
the Indiana Academy, delivered an address, subject: ‘‘The Influence of Biology
upon the World.”

The executive committee of the Indiana Academy met in business session at
7:30 A. M., Friday, June 5th, President Stanley Coulter in the chair. Both acad-
emies occupied much of the day with various excursions, after which they visited
Oxford College. In the evening, at Miami University, Dr. R. Ellsworth Call
delivered an illustrated lecture on Mammoth Cave. Adjournment.

The joint meeting of the Indiana and Ohio Academies of Science was an
occasion of more than usual interest. The academies were laid under heavy
obligations to Oxford citizens, who individually and through the various educa-

tional institutions spared no efforts to make the event enjoyable and profitable.

33

ScIENCE AND THE STATE. By STANLEY COULTER.
Presidential Address, Indiana Academy of Science, December 30, 1896.

I recognize the fact that innovation is dangerous, especially when it involves
an attempt to give definite form to thoughts, which in varying degrees of distinct-
ness are common property. Yet, despite this danger, [ feel constrained to depart
somewhat from the usual line of presidential addresses, and, instead of presenting
a paper based upon research work or upon achievement in any one department of
science, to treat in somewhat broad lines the relation of science to the State.

I trust that I may be able to show that the relation is one which involves
duty—personal and associate—offers opportunities and opens splendid possibili-
ties. I am led to this course, partially, at least, in the hope that the existing
relation between the Academy and the State may be shown to be not only a natural
one, but one of extreme mutual advantage.

Science, as every other branch of knowledge, may be considered from two
points of view, and the view-point has much to do with the aspect she wears. To
the student filled with the scientific spirit the truths she offers are not only inspira-
tion, but sufficient reward. In no other guise can she wear so fair a form.

To the mass of humanity science is beautiful only as she is useful, worthy as
she is helpful.

I am one who stands for the exceeding strength and beauty of pure science,
who believes it not only strong and beautiful, but fundamental, the sine qua non
of the useful, and yet as one who is forced to feel that perhaps the world has
gained more from ‘‘ Dobbin” than from ‘‘ Pegasus.” It is possible, too, that you
and I may have wrong conceptions of just what is meant by the term pure science.

The old monastic idea of the scholar and of scholarship still persists. It finds,
perhaps, its highest utterance in Prof. Woodrow Wilson’s address at the Princeton
Sesquicentennial celebration, where he says that for him the university is—

‘*A place removed—calm science seated there, recluse, ascetic, like a nun,
not knowing that the world passes, not caring if the truth but come in answer to
her prayer; and literature, walking within open doors in quiet chambers with
men of olden time, storied walls about her and calm voices infinitely sweet; here
‘magic casements opening on the foam of perilous seas in fairy lands forlorn,’ to
which you may withdraw and use your youth for pleasure.”

It finds its every-day utterance in the sneer of the party organ at the scholar
who raises his voice in affairs political, and in the expressed belief of the masses

that scholars are impractical and theoretical. Il care not from what source it may

34

come or with what authority it may be voiced, such a conception of the scholar
and of scholarship is utterly at variance with existing facts. I believe this to be
true in all realms of thought. I know it to be true in the realm of science. The
development of this wonderfully brilliant and complex composite, which we
call modern. civilization, has keen due to the interplay of many factors, and
not the least of these in these latter days has been science. During the last
decade, indeed, science seems to have been the dominating factor in human
affairs. It is not necessary in this presence to recount the manifold applications of
the truths of science to the affairs of every-day life. Science has stretched out
her hand and touched transportation and manufactures and agriculture, and with
the touch has given a fuller and more abundant life. She has gone into the home
and municipality, and by her presence has minimized the dangers of disease.
She has entered the office of the physician and surgeon and given a power that
even in this day of wonders seems maryelous. Her influence is felt in school, in
philosophy, in church and is surely, though perhaps somewhat slowly, bringing
these great forces into a closer touch, a more complete harmony with the life that
is. Each day in the clear light of the truth, given as the rewards of her devotees,
clouds of superstition and ignorance lose form and vanish into nothingness.

“*reciuse,” nO

To one in touch with science and her achievements she seems no
“ascetic,” very little ‘‘like a nun, not knowing that the world passes,” but rather as a
virile force pervading the world in all of its affairs, a force as potent as pervading.

And yet in spite of this broad view there exists in our own cases even a
somewhat natural tendency to withdraw from the affairs of common weal into the
shell of specialty. We justify this withdrawal by some plea of ‘‘truth for truth’s
sake” or talk learnedly about ‘‘pure science” as if it were a thing apart from
human affairs. The fact plainly stated is, that science has not done as much for
the State as it should. I do not refer especially to Indiana and the scientist of
Indiana, but to science and the State in the broadest possible application of the
terms.

The monastic idea has prevailed too largely among scientists, and science has
not done its full duty by the State. Do not imagine for a moment that I am
tacitly admitting the converse of the statement that the State is doing for science
more than it merits. The failure in duty is mutual. Science has largely failed
to seize her opportunities, the State has almost utterly failed to utilize one of her
most potent forces. Many things have conspired to bring about this state of af-

‘* practical poli-

fairs, one no doubt, that somewhat vague something known as
b b
tics.” Another, equally vague ideas on the part of scientists as to what science

can do for the State.

ad ieied

30

I may premise by saying that the State as a rule can not deal in intellectual
futures. It can not or should not make appropriations for investigations to run
through long series of years, the ultimate outcome of which is merely the solution
of some scientific problem. To the scientist such problems are of the profound-
est interest, their solution seems to him/of almost paramount importance, and yet
a moment’s reflection will serve to show that the State can not properly provide
for such work. The State has to deal, not with the general problems of science,
save as they are applicable to immediate needs, but with the welfare of her citi-
zens. Welfare being a term under present conditions, which seems to be largely
material in its interpretation, incidentally intellectual, remotely moral.

If I am right in this view, it follows that the first duty of science to the State
is the development and protection of her material resources. This may appear, at first,
a lowering of the high ideals many of us hold, and yet as we increase the resources
of our commonwealth, we manifestly increase the possibility of the attainment of
our high ideals. ‘‘ Untoward circumstances” has blighted many a scientific as-
piration. An increase in material prosperity is the shortest cut to an increase in
the intellectual activity and development of the State. As intellectual activity is
increased, the constituency appreciating the value of scientific work increases,
opportunities broaden and achievement is possible. I am inclined to think that
the duty to increase and conserve the material resources of the State may be found
to be the all inclusive duty of science, since if thoroughly done, all other desired
conditions will naturally follow. To become concrete. Fora long series of years
the State has maintained a geological survey. I believe that in spite of the num-
erous criticisms that can justly be made upon the published reports, no wiser or
more productive expenditure of public moneys has been made. Ii all conditions
are considered, limitations of opportunity, uncertain and meagre appropriations,
illogical selection of the official chief by popular vote, control over the extent and
character of the reports by committees and the sundry other stumbling blocks in
the way of the highest efficiency, the results are surprisingly good. As individ-
uals and as an association, I believe we have failed in our duty to the State as
regards these publications. It goes without saying that the work of the State
Geologist would have been made infinitely simpler, that his reports would have
had a higher value if he had received during the past ten years the hearty indi-
vidual and associate co-operation of this Academy. We have, in a degree, lost
an opportunity to make science and the scientist a factor in the material advance
of the State.

36

In my opinion the first duty of the members of this Academy is a complete
study of the material resources of the county in which they reside. Not, for ex-
ample, a list of flowers, unless it is indicative of soils, of drainage, of forest
wealth, of forage resources, of the numerous facts of which the list stands as in-
dex. Nota mere list of birds, or fish, or insects, interesting though such lists be,
but the conditions of which they stand as the visible sign. Not catalogues of
fossils, nor sections of wells, save as they speak of mineral resources, of what may
be called the unutilized wealth of the State. This material should be furnished
to the State Geologist for proper correlation and use. The Academy has enough
work of other character, of equal value to turn all of this material over to the
State Geologist.

These facts in the hands of individuals are practical'y valueless, usually
travelling into a swift and secure oblivion through the columns of a county paper
or the introduction to a county atlas. In the hands of the State Geologist these
same facts would often prove of supreme importance, saving weary hours of study
and laborious trips of investigation. Within the year such a wealth of facts con-
cerning the resources of the State could be collected without especial effort on the
part of any one person, that many conclusions could be drawn with almost abso-
lute precision. Conclusions that would serve to develop new industries on the
one hand, or prevent the useless expenditure of thousands of dollars on the other.
I say it is a duty you and I owe the State—we have always owed it, but the duty
is now an imperative one since the State has given official recognition to this
organization.

Another duty is in the conservation of the wealth of the State. A collation
of facts that will tend to the conservation of forests, to the destruction of weeds,
the protection of birds and fish, the warding off of plant and animal diseases,
improved sanitation in homes and municipalities, the increase of crop production.
All of these are within the domain of science, and it is only through the labors
of scientists that success will be achieved. No one has a higher and more pro-
found respect for pure science than I. No one feels more deeply the truth that
pure science—the theoretical, if you please—must precede the practical; is, in-
deed, the foundation of the practical. But if science expects to justify herself to
the State, and hopes for continued recognition by the State, she must from time
to time, at least, descend from the heights of pure science and mingle in the
affairs of daily life. She must not always claim; she must occasionally do.

This duty of developing and conserving the material resources of the State I
believe to be an imperative one, and one which, unfulfilled, leaves us culpably

derelict. .

37

But the duty of science to the State does not cease with the discovery of
truth. It extends to its dissemination in a fairly intelligible language, with suf-
ficient suggestions as to its relations to make it practically useful. In this matter,
too, I claim that science has neglected manifest duty to her own injury. Either we
have been held back by modesty, not usually considered an attribute of scientists,
and refrained from publication, or we have sought publication in some journal of
high rank in our own lineof work, but of extremely limited circulation. When forced
by occasion to use other media for relieving intellectual congestion, the articles so
bristle with technicalities and multiplied allusions to German and French and
Russian and Italian authorities that the hopeful neophyte turns pale and the man
of affairs, eager to see what science has in store for him, turns away in disgust.
As a rule, when called upon for a popular presentation, a primer style is adopted,
from which an intelligent public turns with equal disgust. That the statements
of science in certain presentations must have technical precision no one ques-
tions, and these presentations have their place in technical journals; but surely,
after the technical language has been stripped off, and the curves of this and that
and the other have been eliminated; when the foot-notes have all been dropped
and the ready familiarity of the author with all languages lost sight of, there
should be some small residuum of truth capable of interpretation into every-day
language. It is this residuum of truth, clearly put, with relations definitely
stated, that science should disseminate. It is this that will give standing and
credit among the people, and until such credit is gained scientists will find them-
selves hampered at every turn by the wearisome iteration, impractical—theoret-
ical. It is this dissemination of a true science in a popular, not puerile form,
that is needed above all things. It is needed that our citizens may have a
knowledge of all that class of facts which intimately concern their daily life,
that they may know the limitations nature has placed about their efforts—may
know the possibilities she opens before them; that they may have awakened in
them the knowledge that through their efforts and observations new truths may
be discovered which will become the heritage of their children. I am eonvinced
that scientists have much to answer for because of this failure in duty. I am
equally convinced that they have been repaid doubly for all of their sins of
omission, in the almost universal lack of appreciation of the character and im-
portance of their work. This accurate popularization of scientific truth is abso-
lutely necessary if our work as scientists and as an Academy is taken at its full
value. Did you ever think of it? Appropriations for proceedings of societies of
horticulture, of agriculture, of swine-breeders, of chicken raisers, of bee-keepers,

of tile-makers, without question, but grave doubts as to the publication of the
t

38

-proceedings of the Academy of Science because of lack of practicality! If there
is one practical thing in these days of ours it is science; if there is one torm of
-truth which more than all others underlies and pervades all our industries, it is
scientific truth; if there is one form of knowledge which more than any other seems
tu condition public prosperity—even to condition duration of life—it is scientific
knowledge. It isa startling commentary onthe neglect of duty of men of science that
in these last years of this century of scientific achievements, achievements which year
by year become more marvelous, more wide-reaching in their effects; when achieve-
ment seems only limited by man’s daring, to hear solemn discussion as to the
‘practical value of scientific publication. The truths of science that are funda-
mental, the practical application of these truths, should be the common property
of every man and woman, of every school child, in the State. The scientist
-should be nature’s interpreter to the people. Too often he has merely striven to
interpret himself to others of his kind. I repeat that this Academy as a body,
and through its members, owes the duty to the State of disseminating scientific
truth in a straightforward, clear-cut way, that the people may have put into their
hands all of the truths of science which have immediate practical bearing. If a
man who accumulates money hoards it he is a mean man, amiser. The man
who accumulates useful knowledge and hoards it is infinitely meaner than the
miser.

Among the best intentioned educational movements in secondary schools
during the last few years has been that which has introduced nature study into
the grades. Following the letter of the recommendation of the committee of ten,
the spirit of the recommendation has often been utterly overlooked. Nature
study has been so associated with language and number and form studies that
nature has flown out of the window, while number and language and form
remained. Where the intention is most honest, the work is imperfectly co-ordi-
nated, without sequence, practically without purpose. The real aim of scientific
study seems often utterly misconceived, for science work consists not in the mere
collection and pigeon-holing of facts, but in the development and strengthening of
certain specific intellectual powers. It is evident that this state of affairs exists
because scientists have not sufficiently concerned themselves in the movement to
bring it success. A movement which promises so much for the symmetrical
intellectual development of the youth of the State, which promises so much for
science itself, is surely of sufficient importance to merit some attention from every
true scientist and systematized and wisely directed efforts for its success by this
Academy as a body. My position is, that this Academy should stand for the

combined wisdom of its members in all matters scientific which pertain to the

39

common weal, and that its views in all such matters should be so voiced as to

carry the influence such combined wisdom and experience merits. I believe, then,

that as individuals, and as an associate body, we owe a definite duty to the State

in the wise fostering of all efforts to increase the amount and improve the quality”
of the science work in our secondary schools. It may be urged that all of this is:
beyond the province of this body. As I conceive the province of science, how-

ever, such duties as I have indicated seem the most natural and forceful: way of |
showing, even to the veriest gradgrind, the very close and eminently practical

relationship existing between science and the State.

All I have said implies that the scientist recognizes himself as a loyal citizer>
of the State in which he works, and that he is as jealous of her honor, as careful
for her prosperity, as watchful over her interests as the man who edits a news-
paper, who practices law or runs for office. But where the monastic idea prevails,
where the laboratory so absorbs that he loses sight of his citizenship, he is derelict
in duty and discredits science.

On the other hand, the State, through her legislators, may be said to owe cer--
tain duties to science. One of the most patent of these’ is official recognition of
the value of scientific work to the State. From the days of the New Harmony
Settlement, when Indiana was the Mecca of all the Scientists of the land, when:
the Owens and Say and Lesquereux and others were not only revealing the:
natural wealth of the virgin State, but were adding lustre to her intellectual!
record, down to the present time has science and the scientist done much for the
State. The exploitation of our coals, of our stone quarries, of our clays, of our
forest resources, with the development of the industries dependent upon them,
has been based directly upon the work of the scientist. As the result of the study
of farm products, of plant and animal diseases and their remedies, of soils and
fertilizers, thousands of dollars annually have either been saved to the State or
added directly to its wealth. In manifold ways, without withholding, has science
given largely and liberally to the State. It would seem but a natural thing in
view of such a record for the State to assume that science still had something in
store for her; to assume that when she spoke her utterances would have value.
It would seem but a just thing when the scientists of the State are associated to-
gether and have organized definitely for an increase of knowledge of the resources-
of the State to at least provide for the publication of this knowledge. It would
seem to be the high-water mark of practicality as well as economy to secure some-
thing for nothing. The worker has the satisfaction of work well done, the State
all the results oi his labor.

40

Points of view vary, however, and what may seem just and generous to the
scientist, may not have such a fair seeming to the legislator. But I believe that
an honest and intelligent study of the contributions of science to the material
wealth and intellectual development of the State will furnish a sufficient warrant
for the views advanced.

The obvious way in which this official recognition could be given objective form
is in a permanent appropriation for the publication of the proceedings of this Acad-
emy—an appropriation sufficiently liberal to insure the proper presentation of
its work. The expense would be most trivial compared with the results such
action would secure. Results which would extend beyond the material and would
powerfully upbuild and support the educational system of the State. It seems to
me that a failure to utilize such an agency is inexcusable. I believe that if there
were no material interests involved, the proper encouragement of scientific inves-
tigation, regarded from a purely intellectual standpoint and because of its reflex
influence upon the character of the instruction in the secondary schools, is within
the province of the State and may fairly be classed as one of its duties. The
history of such action and its results in other States serves to emphasize this view.
I am not, however, so much interested in the duty of the State to science as in the
converse, and feel in nowise moyed to instruct legislators in their duties.

If, however, there is a full recognition of the mutual obligations existing
between science and the State, then the organization of this Academy opens wide
the gate of opportunity.

Before suggesting these opportunities, allow me to say that I believe that,
perfect as is our organization, it can be made far more productive of results by a
proper co-ordination and distribution of work. There are certain investigations
which can not be made by individual workers which can easily be carried on in
the laboratories of the colleges. There are other investigations which can only:
be carried to a successful conclusion by the co-operation of many persons or in
some cases of several colleges. It is one of the most difficult things in the world
to recognize the limitations our environment imposes upon us, but a failure to
recognize such limitations leads often to a sad waste of energy. To properly
utilize the energy of the Academy there should be a co-ordination of the scientific
work of the State of such a character as would at least prevent overlapping and
valueless repetition, as would give the individual worker his proper field, thus
freeing the larger laboratories for the broader problems demanding for their so-
lution large equipments and libraries. Apparently, the only thing that stands in
the way of such co-operation and such a practical distribution of work is the de-

sire most of us have to pose as past masters of science. Is it too much to say a

41

feeling of jealously, a fear lest some other worker will gain more of reputation or
popular favor? I much fear me that were we fully truthful with ourselves some
slight leaven of professional jealousy might be found working in our actions. It
seems clear to me—very clear indeed—that before we can properly seize the op-
portunities offered, there must be some practical, though not necessarily formal
co-ordination of work.

Take the opportunities for concerted, co-ordinated work in a single science
and notice how great their practical as well as theoretical value. There are cer-
tain natural resources of the State which may be materially developed in some
instances, or have their utility greatly increased in others, by full and complete
chemical studies. Perhaps that of the greatest importance from a commercial
standpoint is the thorough and complete investigation of the clay deposits
of the State. I will be pardoned for saying that I think that the last vol-
ume of the Geological Reports fully justifies all the grants ever made to the
survey by the preliminary investigation of the clay deposits of the coal bear-
ing counties. The certain outcome of the work is the rapid development of new
industries, based upon this formerly unutilized resource, which will annually
produce thousands of dollars in excess of all appropriations ever made for the
survey. But this investigation has but begun, and a full knowledge of the clay
deposits will only be possible after many years, unless there be in the various
laboratories of the State full and complete studies made of the possibilities of
these clays in various directions. Some are fitted specially for tile, some for
paving brick, some for building brick, some for pottery, special uses which can
only be determined by studies in the chemical laboratory or by the costly experi-
ments of actual manufacture. From work of this character would naturally fol-
low monographic work upon the chemical problems involved in the successive
steps in the manufacture of each of these various products. Such work would
give almost immediate return and would appeal to a much larger constituency
than the scientist can usually hope to reach.

In the line of increasing the utility of resources already developed, it is evi-
dent that chemical investigations would reveal many ways in which our coal and
gas and oil might be made to yield even richer returns than at present.

That an intimate relationship exists between public prosperity and public
health is no longer questioned. It is a matter of popular knowledge, which is
taking form in the various voluntary and legalized organizations for the improve-
ment of sanitary conditions in homes and municipalities. This movement sug-
gests another opportunity for concerted chemical work bearing upon these grave
problems. No more valuable work for the State could be carried out than that of

42

a chlorine survey of the natural waters of the streams and springs of the State.
A knowledge of the local normal chlorine in the natural waters of the State is
almost a necessity, if outbreaks of disease are to be anticipated. Any sudden in-
crease in the amount of chlorine in a given locality, would give warning of possible
danger and serve to give direction to the efforts of health officers in averting
disease from their districts. A chlorine map of the State is a necessity for its
proper sanitary control and this work can only be done satisfactorily and rapidly by
the concerted work of an organization, such as this Academy. After the establish-
ment of this chlorine base line there would still be necessary the regular examina-
tion of water supplies for purposes of comparison, which could be done in almost
every case by the local health officer. Without this base line chemical analyses of
water lose much of their meaning.

Correlated naturally with this would be the general examination of water in
epidemic districts, the immediate benefits of which are self-evident.

The mineral waters of the State open another field of chemical research work,
attractive and of evident value. It is manifest that in the working out of prob-
lems, such as these, covering the whole area of the State, there should be the
most careful co-ordination, the most perfect division of labor. It does not seem
to me that such work is beyond the province of the Academy, indeed it seems to.
be its supreme province so far as its relation to the State is concerned.

Since I am speaking of chemical research, allow me to suggest that much yet
remains to be known of the chemistry of the soils and rocks of the State, much
that must be known if in the near future we reach the apotheosis of usefulness,
which some one says consists of making two blades of grass grow where one had
grown before.

The plant world also offers to chemistry opportunities for investigation in
lines not merely of theoretical interest, but of high practical value. The exami-
nation of vegetable products—for example, of plants producing sugar, tannin,
medicinal properties, ete. How much of unutilized wealth is at our feet, bound
up in plants, only waiting the word of science for its release. It is said that one
of our smart weeds (Polygonum amphibirem), a common plant in marsh regions,
contains 18 percent., by weight, of tannin’, an amount sufficient, if the statement
is true, to justify at least an attempt to utilize it for commercial purposes. This
is but an illustration of scores of cases which might be cited to show the possibili-
ties of this form of work.

It is strange when we consider the length of time scientists have been at work

in the state, that there is so little of actual knowledge concerning its topographical

1 Bot. Gaz., vol. i, p. 20.

43

features, and, stranger still, of its drainage systems. In a general way we recog-
nize the lowlands of the State are located in the southwestern counties, while the
highland regions, if they can be dignified, are in the eastern-central counties; we
know there are chains of hills in the south and prairies in the north, but beyond
these facts we know very little.

We are familiar with the two great drainage systems of the State, but of the
minor details essential in the working out of local problems we have absolutety
no data—at least none that are at all available. In an attempt last year, in the
sanitary laboratories at Purdue, to make a contour map of the State, the paucity
of data was strikingly apparent. Had it not been for the railroad levels, not
eyen an approximation could have been reached. It is not necessary to say more
than that amoment’s reflection will suggest the far-reaching application and value
of this work. It is also manifest that the accomplishment of such work is only
possible through the intelligent co-operation of the members of a body such
as this.

I have purposely omitted thus far any mention of the opportunities that open
to biologists. From my point of view they are so numerous and of such impor-
tance that they are almost self-evident. Fields that have already been entered show
themselves broadening as the work advances. And the work already done sug-
gests yet further worlds for conquest. The biologist still has much to do in the
line of plant and animal diseases, infinitely more in the line of sanitation. The
accomplishment of yesterday in these lines serves merely as the incentive for the
work of to-day. There is little danger that work of this character will be neg-
lected. There are, however, other problems, the solution of which depends upon
a patient gathering of facts almost innumerable, and an equally patient study of
these facts in their true relations—problems which by their mere statement carry
little idea of their real importance. Systematic botany has, I presume, in the
opinion of most people, about as little to do in the realm of practical affairs as
any branch of knowledge. Such an opinion is doubtless true if systematic botany
consists, as is the popular conception, in the mere cataloguing and naming of
plants. The systematic botany of to-day is, however, far more than this; it
involves studies of plants in their relations to soil and rainfall, to heat and light,
to air and mechanique, to each other, to animal life. More and more clearly out
of the great masses of facts being collected in ecological studies is the truth be-
coming apparent that plants stand as the sure sign of the natural agricultural
capacity of the soil upon which they grow.

Allow me to quote from Mr. Corille’s ‘“‘ Botany of the Death Valley Expedition,”

a report, which is a model in every way. After showing that trees and shrubs

+4

are most reliable as zonal guides, he says: ‘‘Shrubs and trees, being com-
monly larger than herbaceous plants, reach higher into the air and penetrate
more deeply into the soil, thereby subjecting themselves to a wider range of con-
ditions than do these smaller plants. They also, by continuing throughout the
year exposed to successive, varying seasonal conditions, complete the full round
of their possibilities in environment. They therefore stand as the most complete
summation that can be attained of the natural light, heat, moisture, food, air and
mechanique of any area; in other words, a sure index of the natural agricultural
capacity of the soil upon which they grow. From a utilitarian point of view, too-
much stress can scarcely be laid upon this fact. It has been the practice of agri-
culturists to gauge the capacity of soils, in regions new to the plow, by observa-
tions on rainfall, temperature, cloudiness, chemical composition of the soil,
drainage, and many other phenomena, or by the even more laborious process of
experimenting on every farm with each kind of cultivated product; ignoring the
fact that this determination can be greatly hastened, cheapened, and authenticated
by correlating the natural vegetation, especially that made up of the trees and
shrubs, with that of other regions, whose agricultural capacities are known.”!

A careful gathering of facts of the character indicated regarding our native
flora would not only give results of the highest practical value, but would also-
serve in a great measure to relieve chemists and agriculturists of irksome work,
the results of which at best could be of but local value. In this broader view
even systematic botany has opened before it a splendid opportunity, for I know
to my sorrow how few facts of this kind are available. Here, also, it is evident
that data sufficiently extended can only be secured through intelligent co-opera-
tion of botanists throughout the State. No more attractive field offers; none in
which the prospect of valuable returns is more promising.

A recent article in Nature, by M. T. Masters, abstracted in the Popular
Science Monthly for October, 1896, on ‘‘ Plant Breeding,” is also suggestive of
work of great practical value along botanical lines. Quoting briefly: ‘‘The
natural capacity for variation of the plant furnishes the basis on which the breeder
has to work, and this capacity varies greatly in degree in different plants, so that
some are more amenable and pliant than others. The trial grounds of our great
seedsmen furnish object lessons of this kind on a vast scale. The two processes
(selection and cross-breeding) are antagonistic. On the one hand, every care is
taken to preserve the breed and to neutralize variation as far as possible, so that

)

the seed may ‘‘come true,” on the other hand, when the variation does occur the

observation of the grower marks the change, and he either rejects the plant,

1 Botany of the Death Valley Expedition. 18

45

manifesting it as a ‘“‘rogue” if the change is undesirable, or takes care of it for
further trial if the variation holds out promise of novelty or improvement. Where
the flowers lend themselves readily to cross-fertilization by means of insects, it is
essential, in order to maintain the purity of the offspring, to grow, the several
varieties at a very wide distance apart. Some apparently slight variations, which,
even to the trained botanist, are hardly noticeable, may be of great value commer-
cially —as, for instance, of two apparently almost identical varieties of wheat, one
may be much better able to resist mildew and diseases generally than another ;
some again prove to be better adapted to certain soils, or for some climates,
than others; some are less liable to injury from predatory birds, and so on.
So far we have been alluding to variations in the plant as grown from the seed,
but similar changes are observable in the ordinary buds, and gardeners.are not
slow to take advantage of these variations. The field is one of great scientific as
well as commercial interest, and a thoroughly equipped biologist would probably
‘soon distance the ordinary gardener who works by rule of hand in producing and
perpetuating valuable variations.”

This audience will carry the thought of opportunity into other lines of scien-
tific work without additional detail. The zodlogists are hard at work, under care-
ful organization, and will at this meeting show something of the scope of their
work, with the results already reached. The engineers, with all their energies,
have as yet been unable to fully occupy their territories, so manifold are their
fields for investigation.

All that I have suggested involves no neglect of pure science. Neither does
it necessarily involve the abandoning of work which, with our present knowl-
edge, seems purely theoretical. It dves not suggest the introduction of the
mercenary or utilitarian idea into scientific work. It is only an intimation of
how, by a judicious and well-ordered treatment of what may be called the by-
products of our activity much good may be accomplished for science, much for
the State. As the manufacturer often finds that the careful utilization of the
by-products conditions success, so the scientist may find that his success depends
upon his contributions to the general good. Every truth will, of course, at some
time take its appointed place and be assigned its true value; but many truths of
science as yet stand isolated—unrelated, marvelous products, often, of skill and
patience, but, until they find their true place, of little general interest. Through
facts such as these scientist may appeal to scientist, but it is through simpler facts
of readier application that science appeals to the State.

2 Pop. Sci. Monthly, Oct., 1896, pp. 859-860.

46

I have thus in the broadest lines indicated what seemed to me some of the
evident duties of the Academy to the State, and what seemed to be opportunities
for increasing its value to the State. All are dependent upon the combined work
of many individuals. Few, if any, can be accomplished save through an organ-
ization such as this.

I look over the secondary schools of the State and find that the teachers of
science, with few exceptions, are poorly paid; that science courses are, almost
without exception, arranged with reference to recitation schedules rather than to
logieal sequence of subjects or intellectual capacity of pupils. That science is
assigned a value in the curriculum far less than language, or number, or form.
I find in our colleges, again, with few exceptions, that while it is not expected
that one man can teach both Latin and Greek, it is expected often that one man
can teach Botany, and Zodlogy, and Physiology, and Chemistry, and Physics,
with other incidental subjects to fill his schedule. I find a prevailing belief that
the scientific specialist is a narrow man, when, by the very nature of things, he
must be, if a true specialist, one of the broadest of men; a belief, in general,
that science is impractical, theoretical, visionary. All this in spite of the fact
that far more than any other force has science directed—yes, dominated—the
progress of the past decades. I believe the cause of all this to be that science
has not been fairly dealt with by her devotees. That the scientist, absorbed in
the work of the laboratory, has too often forgotten his citizenship and neglected
to transfer to the State the truth which science had placed in his hands. Prima-
rily the objects of the Academy are inspirational, but secondarily, at least, and
certainly in its relations to the State, its objects should be eminently practical.

If we fully grasp the idea of this relationship, which I have but imperfectly
outlined, the possibilities of science in Indiana are almost limitless. Its influence
will be increased, its constituency broadened, its achievements more splendid, and
the prophecy of a high place in science, born in the New Harmony days, will

have its realization in the effective and beneficent work of this Academy.

THE Evonurion or THE Map oF MAammotH Cave, Kentucky. By R. E.ts-
WORTH CALL.

There probably does not exist elsewhere on earth so famous a natural feature
concerning which so little is definitely known as the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky.
Its scientific exploration has been so hampered and guarded by a jealous fear of

rival interests that no one has been permitted to survey the great cavern and to

47

project it on the surface in order to determine its relations to the topography of
the region in which it is located. There have been but few attempts to so de-
lineate its hundreds of ramifications that the visitor may know his whereabouts
by reference to surface features. These are commonly conjectural; the guides
profess to have, and for the most part are honest, but little knowledge of the rela-
tions of the outdoor topography to that of the avenues and chambers of the cave.
The liberal management of the present Superintendent, Mr. Henry C. Ganter,
extended to the writer in a hundred different ways the most complete opportuni-
ties to examine and study the cave in the usually inaccessible localities as well as
those commonly visited. Measurements and compass work was permitted within
the cave but the line was drawn when surface work was planned or attempted.
Courtesy freely extended must be regarded, and while the results attained are not
of the most exact kind, nearly four years of exploration have given a better idea
of its surface relations and internal ramifications than could otherwise have been
possible.

The interests of the present owners are as jealously guarded as ever, and in
this communication, therefore, I shall not violate any confidence which has been
vouched to me. Nevertheless, I can not refrain from placing on record, in this
manner, my firm belief that a survey which has been made ought to be projected
in map form and given to the world of science. Only good could result to all the
interests involved should an accurate knowledge of the cavern’s relations to the
surface be made public. Such information would be invaluable to one who
wishes to know the great cavern as a geological entity. Perhaps, as the years
roll by, wiser counsels will prevail and the world will eventually know Mammoth
Cave in all its ramifications and will see them represented on a map which will
also show their relations to the surface. For the present it is my purpose to give
a history of the several published maps, and the manner in which they have been
prepared, to show how difficult has been the process of evolving the map and to
emphasize the present need of a cartograph which shall exhibit the cave as it is,

Mammoth Cave was discovered through an accident of the chase in the year
1809 by one Hutchins, a hunter who, tradition says, traced a wounded bear to the
entrance, then quite hidden in a dense growth of underbrush and fallen trees. It
would be difficult to imagine a more rough and wild region than is the country in
which this greatest of caverns is situated. Facing north, on the side of the Green
River Canyon, far away from the traveled routes of the olden time, accident only
could have brought it to view. If Hutchins ever really lived there now remains
no trace of him beyond the tradition of discovery; none of his kith or kin have

been discovered in the region. Perhaps with this single act to make him forever

48

known he was content to pass from human view. In those good old Kentucky
days, when firearms were as much in vogue as they are in these later days, and

with worthier ends be it remarked in passing, gunpowder was a scarce article and

pom

was husbanded beyond comparison. A roving Philadelphia chemist, Dr. Samuel :

Brown by name, first taught the earlier settlers the methods of manufacture of
gunpowder, with probably as great acceptability as Latinus first taught the Latins.
agriculture. But the nitre-bearing sheltered cliffs and caves of the Blue Grass
region could not alone furnish all the needed nitrate, originally obtained in the
form of calcium nitrate, from which the needed saltpetre, or potassium nitrate,
was procured through the medium of wood ashes in the clumsy chemistry of
nearly a century ago. Recourse was therefore had to other caverns, which were
assiduously sought after and many found. From these the needed nitrate was
obtained in abundance and a great industry was built up in Kentucky. Rumors
of the great cave in Warren County, for we may be sure that coupled with the
growth and size of that famous bear each time the story was recounted, Hutchins
did not fail to tell of the cave he had found, reached the ears of the middle Ken-
tucky folk and business enterprise soon made Mammoth Cave a fact of history.
Mammoth Cave appears to have attracted great attention from the very first,
though its chief value seems to have been connected with the manufacture of
saltpetre. When the war of 1812 came and the resources of the United States:
were taxed to the utmost in securing materials for the making of powder because
the foreign supply was rendered uncertain through the exigencies of war, the
caverns of Kentucky furnished nearly all the saltpetre used in that memorable
conflict. With central Kentucky, and notably with Lexington, the great eastern
city of Philadelphia had intimate commercial relations. It resulted that the
caverns of this portion of the State soon were exhausted of their precious nitrate
and the new, stupendous Green River cave came prominently into view. A Phil-
adelphian of Hebrew descent, and a patriot, by name Hyman Gratz, associated
with one Charles Wilkins, of Lexington, leased Mammoth Cave from its earliest
owner and carried on in extensive scale the manufacture of saltpetre. Many
tons of ‘‘petre-dirt,” as the miners called it, were brought from far within the
cave, the places where they last dug and the vats in which they leached the earth
still attesting the magnitude of their operations. With the development of this
industry came visitors, and with the visitors went wonderful stories of the great
cave. It thus happened that in August of 1814 a gentleman unknown to later
days wrote an extended account to ‘‘a respectable gentleman of New York,”
which was published in the Medical Repository, then under the editorial control of

the eminent Dr. Samuel Latham Mitchill, accompanied by a map. The account

49

and map appeared in the seventeenth volume of that journal. It is presented
herewith, not because it has value as being an accurate map of the cave, but
because it possesses a certain archaic value as being the first map to have appeared
in print. A previous map, essentially the same, is known to have been made,
but there is no record of its having found a way into literature. The author of
our map is unknown, so far as any fact connected with its publication goes, but
in a later number of the same journal another map is mentioned as accompany-
ing a description of a mummy from a cave near by and on deposit for exhibition
purposes in the Mammoth Cave, and is said to be the same, substantially, ‘‘ as:
that which we had received before from Mr. Bogert;” from which fact it appears:
that such was the name of the man who presented the original map. But noth-
ing more is known of him. This map is not drawn to scale, nor was the compass
employed in determining the relations and directions of the several halls. With
the exception of a very few localities near the entrance, which are fairly correctly
located, it is impossible to identify any of these avenues with those now known.
But the map is important as being the beginning of the published cartography of
the cave.

The second map of Mammoth Cave was the one prepared by Dr. Nahunt
Ward, a photographic copy of which is presented herewith, its original, the only
copy now known to be extant, being in my own library. This map first appeared
in the Worcester Spy, a newspaper of Massachusetts, in June or July, 1816. My
copy is a facsimile, printed on one-half of a newspaper sheet, with blank reverse.
As presented herewith it is reduced one-half.

As in the case of Bogert’s map, so in this one, it is impossible to identify very
many ot the localities mentioned. The descriptions of Doctor Ward are quite full
but are by no means exact. He appears to have been thoroughly impressed by
the great magnitude of the cavern, and the terms selected to convey his ideas of
the cave comport well with its greatness. But the map is drawn to no scale and,
as may be noted from the map itself, its horizontal distances are grossly inaccurate.
In addition this writer makes the cavern to pass under the Green River in three
separate places. As a matter of fact it is impossible for such an extensiom to’
happen; the area of the cave is limited by the configuration of the country around
it; while its depth is determined by the level of Green River, into whieh, by
several separate channels, breaking out as large or small springs, the waters of
the cavern eventually find their way. The drainage levels of the subterranean
streams are all determined by that of the Green. While Ward employed the
compass at places and determined thus the directions of the longest diameters of
the great halls, he did not employ it constantly or systematically and nowhere did

50

he run long lines or have points for ‘‘tying” those he did run. His published
account is the first extensive one in literature, though it, like all the earlier ones,
abounds in exaggerations.*
The next map, in order of publication, bears the date of 1835, the year of its
copyright, and was prepared by Edmund F. Lee, a civil engineer of Cincinnati,
Ohio. It is based upon the first instrumental survey ever made of the cave, and is
*both complete and accurate for that portion which may be called the cisriparian
eave. The rivers and all that vast area of the cavern which lies beyond, were
then unknown and undreamed of. :
The rivers were discovered by Stephen Bishop, the guide, in the year 1840,
-for the way to them, over what is now the Bottomless Pit, had not been known;
»the Pit itself was not crossed until 1840, the crossing being almost immediately
followed by the discovery of River Hall and all its wonders. Consequently none
of this portion of the cavern appears in Lee’s map, a copy of which is herewith
given, from a faded copy in my library, which, like the others mentioned, is the
only copy now known to be in existence. Lee’s map is further characterized by
sections of the several known avenues and chambers, and is the result of many
month’s of underground work. As laid down in his map the relations of the
-avenues and chambers are absolutely accurate; the nomenclature has since very
.greatly changed, as the fancy of visitors or the caprice of the several managers
chave dictated. It will be at once recognized that this map has extraordinary
value when it is stated that it forms the basis of several other maps which have
appeared from time to time; further, it is the first map to have been profession-
ally made. Complete surveys of most of the newer or transriparian avenues
have never been made. Some of these avenues and passages, like that which
leads te Mystic River, leaving El Ghor just below Martha’s Vineyard, have been
entirely closed up by the management and never will be surveyed. A complete

.map of the cave will, therefore, always be impossible, and some avenues will only

* Since this article was completed, chance has thrown in my way an old volume pub-
jished by Lee & Shepard, Boston, in 1873, ‘‘ The Wonders of the World,’ which reproduces
Ward’s account of Mammoth Cave, together with his original map; the map appears as
page 327 and has a cut of the ‘‘ mummy, now in the American Museum, New York.’’ It is
interesting to note that this old map is useless in suchabook. It is further interest-
ing to note that the mummy was not then in the American Museum, nor ever had been, be-
yond a few days for exhibition purposes, but was deposited in the museum of the American
Antiquarian Society, at Worcester, Massachusetts. A short time since, following the
World’s Fair, where it was on exhibition, it was removed to the National Museum, at Wash-
ington, where it may now be seen. A most excellent photograph of this famous mummy
was recently made for me and forwarded by the courtesy of the late Dr. G@. Brown Goode.
The account of the cave, which this volume gives, in 1873, is a verbatim reproduction of
Nahum Ward's original description, made in 1816. In this way do great publishing houses
sive us new and iresh knowledge of the world’s wonders,

51

have historic names. They will never be visited by future explorers. But Lee
alone has surveyed the intricate and devious windings which make up the Laby-
rinth, together with its associated chambers. Use was made of his work by the
maps which followed.

The parts of the cavern which are beyond the pass known as El Ghor, includ
ing a considerable portion of explored but unmapped cave, have had several
names bestowed on them by the earlier visitors. Of the parts which it will now
be impossible to visit, owing to the artificial occlusion of the small passage under
Martha’s Vineyard, are the following; Byrd’s Avenue, Miriam’s Avenue, Har--
lan’s Avenue and Hebe’s Spring. The Mystic River itself rivals the famous Echo:
River, but is less in size. It has probably some connection with Roaring River;
a great stream at times, reached from Stephenson’s Avenue at the Cascades, but
as yet unexplored fully. Several attempts made by the writer to reach its end
were defeated by lack of boats, the only means by which the deeper and unfa-
miliar places can be passed.

Lee’s map was followed by one prepared from accounts and free-hand sketches:
of Stephen Bishop, in 1845, and is found in a little volume called ‘‘Mammoth
Cave, by a Visitor,” and published by Morton & Griswold, of Louisville, Ken-
tucky. This map appears to have Lee’s map as its basis for the older portion of
the cave; the newer portion, which had not then been surveyed, is laid down by
Bishop and from his notes. In common with all the published maps of later date’
than Lee’s, the distances are grossly exaggerated, and the relations of some of the
avenues are certainly hypothetical. But this map stands to-day as the best that
has been published, and while inaccurate for any scientific purpose is certainly~
exact enough for the visitor. It names and shows the points of departure of the
side avenues from the larger and better known or more traveled portions and”
gives a sketch of their turnings and ramifications. It is to be constantly remem-
bered that none of the maps, except Lee’s, have been based upon compass-bear-
ings, even, to say nothing of determining their relations by exact methods:.

No other map appeared until 1875, when Forwood’s ‘‘ The Mammotli Gave of ©
Kentucky,” Fourth Edition, appeared from the Lippincott press, of Philadelphia.
His map gives only the two traveled routes, called the ‘‘ long” and the ‘‘short” ’
routes, and is grossly inaccurate even for these. No dependence can be placed‘
upon any of the details of this map. It is noticed here simply because it is one
of the few which have ever been published.

Hovey’s map, which appeared in his ‘‘Celebrated American Caverns,” im
1882, is the next in order of time. It is probably the best known map of the cave
having been reproduced in a number of other publications and been sent abroad.

52

in numerous copies of his guide book, itself a separately bound excerpt from the
larger volume, with slight changes in the later editions. This map is chiefly that
of Bishop; all the main features of Bishop’s map appear and few additional facts.
For the older portion of the cave, like Bishop’s map, this one follows very closely
the original work of Lee. No mention is made of these sources, and Doctor Hovey
did not himself map any part of this great cave except Ganter’s Avenue. Some
measurements of separate localities were made by him, but beyond this his map has
~very little original matter or matter not already known. It is, however, a useful one,
for more names to localities appear on this map than on any other, many of which
have been happily bestowed by Hovey who, in these matters, has appreciated the

“eternal fitness of things.”

In his names record is often made of the pioneers of
discovery in the cave; in other cases he has happily made allusions to mythologie
‘characters to which is added the uncanny suggestiveness of the gloom of the un-
derground world.

The latest map of the cave is still unpublished, but will appear within a few
months. In it the attempt will be made to correct the errors of the older maps
and to add to them as wholes the newly discovered portions or those portions of
which little has hitherto been known. But when this map shall have appeared
it will demonstrate the need of accurate surveys, which are never likely to be made,
rather than add very greatly to our knowledge of the cave. Still, errors of others
‘being corrected, the golden goal of exact knowledge will be brought a very little
nearer.

Jt is well known that the main avenues of the cave have been ‘

‘run” by com-
‘petent engineers, and they have been platted on the surface, in part at least. This
was done in the attempt to learn whether any of the more valuable parts of the cave
extended beyond the limits of the present ‘‘cave estate.”” No one has been al-
lowed to see these plats except those who are directly interested. The closeness
with which this information is kept argues for the fact that without doubt the
cavern extends beyond the estate. Numerous attempts have been made to find
other entrances than the one on the estate; that they exist is proven by the free
circulation of the air and the presence, in places miles from the well-known
mouth, of seeds and leaves, sticks and bark, from the surface, and oftentimes in a
fairly fresh condition. But these entrances are small and not likely to ever prove
valuable to others if found. It is this fear of attempts to enter the property of
the present estate that operates to make impossible, at present, a cartograph which

exhibits Mammoth Cave in its true relations to the region in which it is situated.

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MAP

OF THE

MAMMOTH CAVE,

ACCOMPANIED WITH NOTES,
BY
EDMUND F. LEE, CIVIL ENGINEER,
os
CINCINNATI.

54

Fauna oF MammotH Cave, Kentucky. By R. E. Catt.
Published in the American Naturalist, May 1, 1897.

Notes oN INDIANA CAVES AND THEIR Fauna. By W. S. BLATCHLEY.

Published in the State Geological Report for 1896.

A PosstBLE RELATION OF THE ACADEMY OF ScIENCE TO THE TEACHERS OF

BroLoay In Our SEconDARY ScHoots. By L. J. RETTGER.

[Abstract.]

The purpose of the Academy of Science, as I understand it, is in the main

two-fold. It aims to encourage original research work among its members, and
so enhances the amount of scientific knowledge by valuable contributions. It
also encourages younger observers to attempt more critical work and so prepare
to continue the regular research work. By its organization and its meetings it is
able to accomplish this to a very satisfactory degree.

The second purpose is probably the dissemination of scientific knowledge
among the people. It is this second purpose that makes the first one peculiarly
valuable to the State, and in the fullest way repays the favors which the State

officially grants the Academy. But the dissemination need not be limited to the

actual research work of the Academy. It may legitimately include that basal
scientific information which any advanced work presupposes.

It will in this way create a more general and a more intelligent appreciation
of true scientific work and may result in bringing out scientific talent that would

otherwise have been missed.

The avenue along which the Academy may most efficiently exert its influence:

in this way is in the secondary schools of the State. By persistent efforts biologi-
cal studies in some form or other are included in almost every high school curric-
ulum and so the way is open as far as the subject matter is concerned. In many
instances, too, there are teachers who have had a high grade laboratory training
and who teach the subject in the high school in a most commendable way. But
the fact remains that possibly in the majority of instances biological work in our
high schools is still deeply mired in text book work. The utter worthlessness of
biological work which does not bring the student into a direct contact with at least a
reasonable number of actual things need not be restated. It is a maxim that such

work is laboratory work or it is nothing.

——

55

In many instances this kind of work done is due to the lack of training of the
teacher himself and for such a place there is no hope until by some good fortune
the teacher gives way to a better. But there is a second class where biological
work is handicapped in spite of a well trained teacher, and it is this class for which
a possible remedy is here suggested. In few high schools indeed does the work in
biology fall to a single teacher and occupy all his time. In practically al! our
secondary schools the teacher of biology has in addition to his zéology or botany
classes, three or four other classes that may range from Greek through English
Literature to mathematics. Usually his entire school day is occupied in ‘‘ hear-
ing” recitations. Timespent in laboratory work is usually ‘“‘offtime.” Thereseems
often but one thing left and that is to devote the recitation period in botany or zéology
to an exposition of some text, and the actual study of things is very infrequent.
Ii it be asked why the recitation period itself is not devoted to actual laboratory
work, one needs but to be reminded that laboratory work requires material, good
material, and a fairly large amount of it. And to continue this day after day

-with new forms means an amount of time spent in preparing this materiah which
is not available to the high school teacher with his multiplicity of other duties.
The teacher is further often quite unacquainted with the resources of his neighbor-
hood, and is frequently not assigned to his place of duty until after the opportunities
for collecting are gone. The writer has had the opportunity of visiting numbers
of High Schools, and in almost all instances the apology for doing a low grade of
work in botany or zodlogy was the one that specimens were, in spite of best
efforts, not accessible. Sometimes the neighborhood would yield in abundance
two or three different forms for study, and these would be studied as the material
warranted, and yield all those desirable results which flow from the study of
actual things. But these forms are soon exhausted, and the interest of the class
is lost in attempts to put in the remaining time in this line of work which the
program calls for. y

For this difficulty it seems to me the Academy could offera remedy. It could
establish a central station of supplies from which all secondary schools could draw
their material. Being controlled by the Academy, the following things wouid be
assured in this matter: (1) Material well adapted for school work would be se-
lected. This material could so be hardened, dried or otherwise preserved as to be
in available form during any time of the school year. (2) Exchanges could be
made subject to the approval of the station, and so a variety of forms secured for
a collection of one or two forms which the teacher’s own neighborhood easily af-

forded. A possibility to get a good assortment of forms without the direct outlay

56

of money is thus opened. As nearly every neighborhood has semething in abund-
ance which is more or less rare in others, this plan can not be wholly impracti-
cable. (3) Along with this high grade material the station could send carefully
prepared directions for study in order to insure the proper use of the material.
(4) This central station, being under the immediate control of the Academy,
would preclude the suspicion that there was a mercenary element back of the af-
fair, and would come to the teachers or school authorities with the force and in-
fluence of the Academy itself. (5) It would furnish all material to schools at
actual cost, which would make the expense to equip a botany or zodlogy class
through the winter a very slight one. (6) It would be a central station to which
regular collectors could send the surplus of their collections for free distribution,
and so materially widen the value of their work.

[Upon motion, the Chair appointed a committee to investigate the desirability
of such a plan; the committee consisting of L. J. Rettger, Dr. C. H. Eigenmann
and W. P. Shannon. |

Tur OCCURRENCE OF UROGLENA IN THE LAFaAyYErre (INp.) Crry WaTER. By
SEVERANCE BURRAGE.

It not infrequently happens, even with the best public water supplies, that the
attention of the consumer is attracted by some peculiar taste or oder in the water.
This is particularly apt to be the case when the supply is derived from a lake or
pond, or if it has to be stored for any length of time in a reservoir. In such
instances the superintendent or water commissioners receive complaints to the
effect that the water has a very disagreeable taste and smell, and that there must
be dead fish or eels in the pipes. Just such complaints were heard in Lafayette
in the early part of October, and vigorous attempts were immediately made to get
rid of the trouble by flushing the pipes at different points in the city. But there
was not much improvement.

The city water supply is derived from driven wells in the vicinity of the
Wabash River, and is a remarkably pure water, both from the chemical and bio-
logical standpoints. This water is pumped directly into the pipes. There is a
reservoir situated on a hill some two miles from the pumping station, and it has
been generally understood that the water stored there was only used in case of an
emergency, such as a large fire. But upon inquiry it was learned that the pumps
were not kept working all night. Thus, as the supply from the pumps was

stopped, the reservoir water must work back gradually into the pipes, replacing

57

that used in the town after the pumping had ceased. Now if the trouble was in
the reservoir water, we would expect to have the complaints made in the early
morning, which would be the only time, as we have seen, that this water had
access to the service pipes. And such was the case. AJ] the complaints were
made in the morning, and when the superintendent would go to investigate at
this or that place late in the forenoon he could detect nothing wrong in the water.
The pumps had started and forced the reservoir water back to a certain extent,
fresh water from the wells taking its place.

All of this evidence, together with our knowledge of the natural history or
biology of bodies of water exposed to the sunlight would point to the reservoir as
the source of the trouble. A microscopical examination of this water was made,
and it showed the presence, among other things, of the colony-building infusorial
organism Uroglena in small numbers.

This Uroglena is well known in Massachusetts and Connecticut as having
caused strong fishy tastes and disagreeable oily smells in many large water sup-
plies, and in some cases in the very best ones. So that knowing the history of
this organism, and finding it in the water of the reservoir, it was unnecessary to
search further for the trouble.

This organism itself has been described by Ehrenberg!, Biitschli?, Stein’,
Kent*, and Calkins’. It was first recognized in this country by Conn’, who
found it in the reservoir of the Middletown (Connecticut) waterworks. Since
then it has been known to cause trouble in a large number of prominent Eastern
water supplies. ;

The colonies in the LaFayette water were just visible to the naked eye, being
considerably less than ;}5 (one one-hundredth) of an inch in diameter, and
spheroidal in shape. Each colony is made up of a delicate gelatinous matrix, in
the periphery of which are imbedded two hundred or more individual monads,
these monads having two flagella each, chromatphores, and, quite important to
us in connection with water supplies, many oil: globules variously distributed
throughout the cell. It is supposed, and with good reason, that these are the
direct source of the oily taste and smell in the water. When the colony is intact,
in its normal condition in the water, very little if any odor can be detected; but

let that water be disturbed in such a way as to rupture or disintegrate the colonies

1Die Infusionsthiere als vollkomna Organismen. Leipzig, 1838.

*Zeitschrift fiir Wissenschaftliche Zodlogie. 1878. Bd. XXX, p. 265.
°Organismus der Infusionsthere, III. 1878.

4Manual of the Infusoria, I. London, 1881. (W. Saville Kent.)

On Uroglena. G.N. Calkins, in Annual Report Mass. State Board Health, 1891.
®Report of Water Commissioners for 1889, Middletown, Ct.

58

and the odor becomes quite strong. This, of course, is what occurs when the
water runs into the service pipes. The change of conditions causes the disrup-
tion of the colonies, and so we get the smell and taste in the hydrant water, but
almost none in the water examined fresh from the reservoir.

This matter of the cause of such odors and tastes in drinking waters has been
the subject of much study by the Massachusetts State Board of Health’, and I
had the privilege of doing some work in that line in 1894, while connected with
that Board. Most of the experiments were conducted on this Uroglena because
it had such a strong and characteristic odor. Large quantities of water contain-
ing an abundance of Uroglena were filtered through cotton, and this cotton was
immersed in ether and several other solvents of oil, particularly the volatile ones.
Then the ether was allowed to evaporate, leaving an oily residue on the watch
glasses which in some cases gave the characteristic odor, somewhat intensified.
But in nearly all of the experiments trouble was caused by the ether itself leay-
ing a noticeable residuary odor after evaporation, which was in some instances
quite misleading. The Uroglena oil, however, was collected, and did to a certain
extent have the sought for odor. Among the other solvents tried were carbon
bisulphide and chloroform, with the same difficulty of the residuary odor.

The ordinary method of microscopical analysis (Sedgwick-Rafter) is practi-
eally useless in determining the numbers of Uroglena colonies in a given quantity
of water, because of the readiness with which the organisms break up. The esti-
mates consequently in such cases would be far too low. In the analysis of the
water supply of Lafayette made last October the water was examined without
making any attempt to concentrate the organisms. Cubic centimeter after cubic
centimeter was examined directly with a small hand lens, and in no case were
there more than twenty colonies per 100 cubic centimeters. The average was six
per 100 c. c., but this was sufficient to give the offensive odor to the water when
drawn from the faucet. As was found in other cities, and as we might expect to
find in Lafayette, the water drawn from the housetops in the morning, while giving
the odor, showed absolutely no Uroglena colonies.

The question naturally suggests itself, how did the reservoir get planted with
this troublesome organism? Of course we can make no definite statement in re-
gard to this, but an examination of the reservoir overflow, which forms a more or
less stagnant pond just below the reservoir itself, showed a larger number of these

Uroglena colonies per 100 cubic centimeters than the reservoir water, and it

10dors in Drinking Waters. G. N. Calkins. Mass. State Board of Health, Ann. Re-
port, 1892, p. 355.

59

would not be very difficult to imagine that birds flying directly from the overflow
to the reservoir might carry the organisms there. —

To get rid of the trouble in this case was comparatively easy, because the
reservoir was small and it was not a difficult matter to entirely change the water
in the reservoir by keeping the pumps going full force day and night for a few
days. In three weeks from the time my attention was first called to the matter, I
was unable to find any Uroglena in the reservoir water, and I have heard no com-
plaints since.

Ii is not known that the Uroglena, even in very great abundance inthe water,
causes any disturbance or inconvenience to our bodies. It is most important, how-
ever, that the city engineers and waterworks superintendents should know this, in
order to so inform the people when they make their complaints. The suffering
public under such circumstances are apt to imagine that all sorts of ills are
caused directly by this to them unseen pest, and they are too prone to find fault
with the water supply. While we can not prophecy when Uroglena may appear
in or disappear from a water supply, we can state with much certainty that it is
perfectly harmless, and that it does not necessarily indicate a bad condition of the
water. The Lafayette water, for the past two years at any rate, has been abso-
lutely free from all dangerous contamination, and the recent appearance there of
Uroglena does not mean that the water supply is at all degenerating.

THE ENGINEERING RESEARCH LABORATORY IN Its RELATION TO THE PUBLIC.
By W. F. M. Goss.

In the present era of the world’s progress we hear much of our ‘‘ material
prosperity ” and of the ‘‘development of our resources.” Feeling sure that the
earth was made for man, man is anxious to make his possession yield him its
best. Nor is he contented with what his own immediate neighborhood can
furnish. If there is anything in the ends of the earth, or in the air, or in the
sea which is capable of making for his advancement, he rests not until he has
secured it. The business of the world, therefore, increases with every hour, and
its problems multiply.

In the midst of its hum and hurry, the engineer is a prominent figure. It is
his province to study the properties of matter and to make them useful to man in
structures and machines. He deals with the mining and reduction of ores, the
chemical and physical properties of metals, and all the great variety of processes

by which iron and steel are shaped for purposes of construction; with earth-work

60

dams, with systems of municipal piping, with steam engines and pumping ma-
chinery, with locomotives and other railway equipment, with bridges and build-
ings, with ships and harbor improvements—in fact, with structures and machines
of every conceivable type. :

The engineer is the servant of the people. His ingenuity and skill are the
starting point which leads to the employment of all the artisans who fill our
shops and factories; his work makes possible the peace and comfort of household
life, the success of social affairs and the perfection of business methods, and it
often serves to furnish inspiration for modern thought and to give direction to its
tendencies.

The basis of the whole science of engineering, extensive as it is, is to be
found in facts which have either been deduced from practical experience or
derived from especially conducted experiments. The early engineer could
neither lean upon accepted theories nor look to precedent for guidance. It was
not what Brindley, and Telford, and Watt, and the two Stephensons knew, but
what they did, that helped to inaugurate our present era of engineering. Since
their day, every important structure has served a double purpose: first, that for
which it was especially designed, and, secondly, that which regards it as a sub-
ject for observation and study. Where such structures have been a complete
success, information concerning them has become a matter of record, and the
essential facts have been given a place in the annals of good engineering practice;
and where structures have failed, the causes have been carefully studied, that the
fault might be understood and consequently avoided in future work. Successes,
therefore, have inspired imitators, and failures have warned all followers.

But while it is in this manner that a large part of our present fund of engi-
neering data has been brought into existence, and while the process still goes on,
it is admitted to have its limitations. The attempt to build a house and at the
same time determine the subsequent behavior of certain details entering into its
construction, is illogical and expensive. For example, it is poor economy to
ascertain the strength of an iron column by finally seeing it fall under the load
of a wall. A crack in an arch or a fragment from an exploded boiler may testify
to faults in construction,.and may even serve as a basis for theories leading to
better practice, but the information obtained is dearly paid for in the damage
suffered by the collapse of the arch or the explosion of the boiler.

Again, great as are the losses occasioned by failures, they do not equal those
which occur through fear of failure. The fear that workmanship may be bad or
materials defective leads to lavishness which could not be justified if our informa-

tion were more definite. It is indeed true that ‘‘factors of safety are factors of

61

ignorance.” When it is doubtful just how great a resistance can be withstood by
a given bulk of material, we make success certain by building many times
stronger than is really necessary. If we could know at the outset the exact value
of the stresses involved and the actual strength of the materials to be employed,
it would become obvious that such a practice as this could give no additional
security, and its result would be wastefulness.

In the domain of machine construction the same general principle applies.
The demand is everywhere made for machines that will act with a higher degree
of efficiency; that is, do their work with less wear and tear and at a lower run-
ning expense. There is no lasting market for inferior gocds, and success in
competition is to be obtained as the result of merit. Thus it is that designing
engineers who give their thought and skill to planning great bridges, buildings
and machines are successful in proportion to their ability to simplify and cheapen
and at the same time perfect, while all unite upon the general principle that a
bridge must not only stand, but it must also involve 4 minimum of material, and
a machine must not only run, but must do its work with the highest degree of
efficiency.

It is clear, therefore, that what is needed in engineering work is a more
perfect knowledge of the materials and forces involved. This is not a reflection
upon the knowledge of the past, but a suggestion that its fund is insufficient for
the future. The engineering of the last quarter century has done much to make
definite matters which were before but little understood. Facts have been gath-
ered and compared, and from them theories have been deduced. Failures are
fewer and the efliciency of structural work, and of machines of every sort, has
been increased. But the end is not yet. To-day, more than ever before, the
attention of the whole engineering world is directed to methods of improving and
saving. Its efforts are put forth in response to the demands of a more exacting
clientage, and this clientage is the public. It is evident that everything which
contributes to the perfection of engineering methods must benefit the people and
must arouse their interest, for it is the people who finally reap the advantages, as
well as pay the price. Hence public interest in the work of the engineer is keen
and critical, and will always sustain any serious movement which promises té
advance true practice. Such a movement presents itself in the establishment of
laboratories devoted to engineering research.

When all forms of mechanical construction were crude it was possible to im-
prove by the mere application of experience, but as construction became more
refined it was necessary to examine with greater accuracy and to proceed with

greater care. The crude stage in engineering is now a thing of the past, and

62

every day increases the degree of refinement which characterizes the work. The
research laboratory stands as a response to these conditions. It is its function to
investigate, in a scientific manner, problems which arise in practice or which may
be suggested by practical experience. The tields of science and the field of
engineering combined make up its proper domain. Its equipment, therefore, em-
braces the delicate apparatus of the scientist and the ponderous machinery of
the engineer, and its lines of investigation may be chemical, metallurgical,
structural, pneumatic, hydraulic, or thermodynamic. Its methods eliminate the
complicating conditions of service and allow effects to be traced singly to their
causes. For example, efforts to determine the power and efficiency of locomotives
while in service upon the road extend back through more than three decades,
with no general result that is satisfactory. But the difficulties and inaccuracies
which appear in the process of road testing entirely disappear when tests are
made in the laboratory, for here it is possible to maintain for an indefinite period
an unvarying condition of speed and load, and to employ sensitive apparatus in
observing the performance of the machine.

There have been many instances where locomotives on the road have left bent
rails in the track behind them, but it required the laboratory to demonstrate that
under conditions not uncommon in practice, the drive-wheels of a locomotive
leave the track at every revolution. This being proved, the matter of the bent
rails was easily explained.

Again, it has been assumed for years that the draft produced by the exhaust
steam in a locomotive was the result of an action similar to that of a pump; that
each puff from the cylinders supplied a ball of steam which filled the stack as a
pump piston fills its barrel, and pushed before it a certain volume of the smoke-
box gases until it passed out at the top of the stack. Believing this view to be
the true one, designers have shaped the details of locomotive draft appliances
accordingly, and the value of proposed improvements has been measured by the
completeness with which they have satisfied the conditions of the accepted theory.
But the processes of the laboratory have disproved this whole assumption. They
have shown that the steam does not fill the stack except at its very top, and that
the action of the jet is clearly one of induction. In accordance with these
results a new theory has been formulated, and although it is but a few months
old, the laboratory facts which sustain it are so conclusive that it has already
been generally accepted. These illustrations, drawn from a single field of inves-
tigation, will serve to show something of the character of the work done by the
research laboratory. They might, with equal justice, have been selected from

any one of the many different departments into which engineering research may

63

be divided. But they have served their purpose if they have emphasized the fact
that the laboratory process gives results which can not be obtained in any other
way, and that these results may be relied upon to guide and direct practice in
engineering affairs.

English technical papers admit that the painstaking processes of German
laboratories have so well guided German manufacturers that Germany not only
competes with England in many lines of manufactured goods, but in some has
driven her from her markets. We have a new country, in which large engineer-
ing enterprises, both public and private, are always being pushed and are calling for
economy in expenditures; and there is a strong national desire for an outlet of
manufactured goods through exportation, which can only be secured on merit, in
competition with the world. With these facts in mind the conclusion is obvious
that there is room and need in this country for research laboratories. All such
laboratories are but means to ends. They are not only contributors to the public
fund of information, but they infuse into every branch of construction and of

operation a spirit of accuracy and a desire for excellence.

LovuIsvILLE FILTRATION EXPERIMENTS. By Gro. W. BEntToN.

The lst of August, 1896, completed the routine work of one of the most
unique series of experiments the scientific world has had the privilege of wit-
nessing.

The question under investigation was the chemical and bacterial con-
dition of the Ohio River water, as furnished the City of Louisville, Ky., and the
relative merits of the several systems of filtration seeking establisament there,
and proposing to do away with the mud and its accompanying bacterial impuri-
ties, so familiar to the citizens of and visitors in the great cities adjacent to the
Ohio, the Missouri and the Mississippi rivers.

The peculiar yellow clay suspended in the Ohio water will not subside even
on standing, and ordinary schemes of filtration utterly fail in its treatment, even
in times of low water.

In view of the conditions, Mr. Charles Hermany, Chief Engineer, and Mr.
Charles R. Long, President, of the Louisville Water Company, decided that the
only sure way to treat the question was by means of an experimental plant
erected on the ground and operated for a term of months, which should give

them definite knowledge of the water in every stage. In accordance with this

64

plan, Mr. Long issued an invitation to all the large concerns engaged in the
filtration of water on an extensive scale to establish experimental plants at the
pumping station. The terms of the arrangement were as follows:

Each company entering the competition to establish its own plant and operate
it with its own representatives in charge; the Water Company to provide tem-
porary buildings for the housing of these plants, the necessary steam power, and
the unfiltered water to be used in the experiments. The entire operation of the
plants to be under the supervision and control of a competent staff of engineers
and scientific experts in the employ of the Water Company, who were to have
access at all times to the several plants, keep accurate records of metre readings,
both of filtered and unfiltered water, to take samples at any time and at any
stage, to examine the chemicals used as to quality and quantity, and to note the
expense of the power required for operating the machinery.

Four companies entered the competitive test, namely: (1) The O. H. Jewell
Filter Co., of Chicago, presenting the Jewell Filter; (2) The Cumberland Manu-
facturing Co., of Boston, presenting the Warren Filter; (3) The Western Filter
Co., of St. Louis, presenting two filters, the Western Gravity and the Western
Pressure; (4) The John T. Harris Magneto-Electric Purifying Co., of New
York, presenting a process based on electrolysis.

These filters are doubtless well known to those interested in water examina-
tion, as they are extensively advertised, and time will not be taken to consider the
details of their operation.

Work began October 1, 1895, with a laboratory force of three, including Mr.
George W. Fuller, Chief Chemist and Bacteriologist, in charge; Mr. R. S. Wes-
ton, Chemist, and Mr. C. L. Parmelee, Engineer. This force was gradually
increased until, at the close of the period of work, there had been added to those
already mentioned Mr. J. W. Ellms, Chemist; Mr. G. A. Johnson, Clerk; Mr.
H. C. Stevens and Mr. R. E. Bakenhus, Engineers; Mr. Hibbert Hill, Bacteriol-
ogist, and myself. I can not refrain from expressing at this time my high appre-
ciation of the enthusiasm and untiring energy, the skill and scientific value, of
the experts named. The volume of work was enormous, and during the month
of July, when I had the privilege of ranking as one of the force in the bacterial
laboratory, our chemical thermometers frequently ranged (expressed in Fahren-
heit degrees) 98 to 100. The excessive heat had no effect upon the work. Every
man seemed infested by the work bacillus, and spread contagion throughout the
whole plant. During July, not counting specie work, which constantly went on,
over fifteen hundred bacterial samples were plated and counted; in many cases,

recounted the second time. The chemists were equally busy.

65

Ethical as well as business reasons prevent the announcement of even
approximate results, the complete elaboration of which will appear over Mr.
Fuller’s name early in 1897, whether in public form or as a private report to the
Louisville Water Company I am not informed. In any case, the matter which it
will contain concerns not Louisville aloe: but the world as well. It is to be
hoped that water experts will have access to it. I believe that I am entitled to
say, however, that Ohio River water has been successfully filtered in quantity,
under the most extreme conditions, during the course of these experiwents. It
has come from the filters clear and sparkling, on days when the chemists found in
the neighborhood of 3,500 parts of solids per million, and when the river showed
12,000 to 25,000 bacteria to the cubic centimeter, I have counted six to ten indi-
vidual colonies in the filtered water.

The equipment of both chemical and bacterial laboratories was complete and
thoroughly up to date. The methods for bacterial work, preparation of media,
classification, etc., were mostly taken from unpublished manuscripts. The steam
sterilizer was largely replaced by the autoclave, at a pressure of 20 pounds and a
registered temperature of 126 degrees Celsius. Color tests were a feature of the
chemical work. the method being that of the Massachusetts State Board of
Health.

Chemists and bacteriologists can not praise too highly those members of the
Louisville Water Company, who, in the face of much criticism, and at such great
expense, have not only made possible the solution of the question of their own
water supply, but that of the great cities of the Mississippi basin, and at the same
time placed in Mr. Fuller’s hands the means of enriching our experience in the
handling of refractory sources of potable waters for cities.

Indianapolis, December 30, 1896. Gro. W. BEnTON.

A ‘“TorNADO” In RusH County, Inprana, Avucust 1, 1896. By W. P.
SHANNON.

On the first day of last August there was a destructive storm along the south-
ern line of Rush County. Approximately, we may say, it began near Milroy in
Rush County, and ended near Metamora in Franklin County, running from west
to east on a line bearing but little to the south. It was not continuous. The
most destructive part of its course was shortly after the beginning, on my old
home farm. I visited the place two days after the storm. My brother, H. F.

66

Shannon, who was in the storm, described it as a cannonading from the clouds,
and, as the evidence shows, this figure is a good one.

What seemed to be an ordinary rain cloud rose from the north. In a short

time the cloud showed that it was bordered behind with a straight line, and the

blue sky appeared beneath. It seemed that in a few minutes the cloud would be

over and all would be bright again, when suddenly from the rear edge of the cloud

in the northwest vapor began to puff downward; in a moment a broad bind of

buff-colored cloud reached from the main cloud to the ground, not straight down

but obliquely to the south, and curving more southward near the ground. This.

band was a half or a mile wide, the width of the storm as it was approaching;
then parallel bands began to float southward from the main band. Then the real
nature of the band began to show itself—it seemed that shots were being fired fast
and thick in front of the main band from the upper cloud to the ground. Imagine
the smoke from a cannon to continue to boil from the ball as it progresses, and
you have a picture of one of these shots as it went from the cloud to the ground.
The buff color, or the dust-like appearance, may have been due to electricity.
The storm ran from west to east along the well defined rear edge of the main
cloud. c

While the storm was passing, my brother was in a barn near the south doors,

which were open. (The roof of the barn slopes to the east and west). While the-

storm was approaching it gave a rumbling sound, while it was passing it made a

hissing sound, and the air was so full of vapor that the house, a few steps from

the barn, couldn’t be seen. Suddenly there was a dead thud on the west side of

the barn, then a deluge of water poured from the hay above, and all who had

taken shelter in the barn had to gape for breath. Then he saw passing obliquely

before the open door what he took to be the head end of one of the shots. It was
like frost particles moving among one another, as bees while swarming. The thud
west of the barn was another one of those shots. Those who were in the house had
retreated to the cellar, when they were deluged with water. They noted the hiss-

ing sound and a glare of lightning over the ground, and had the same difficulty to

get their breath. A woodhouse and the porch connecting it with the house were-

knocked into pieces, and large trees about the house and barn were broken off or
uprooted; but no one heard any crashing of timber or buildings, the only noise

was the hissing sound.

A hundred acres of corn west and northwest of the barn was laid flat. In a.

piece of timber, beyond the corn, three-fourths of the trees were knocked down.
In another piece of timber, southwest of the barn, nearly all of the trees were

down. About forty rods east of the barn is another tract of timber. In a hundred

67

acres of this more than half the trees were down. A map of the 2,000 acres of
land covering the most destructive part of the storm’s course, with lines showing
the directions in which trees were thrown, should have the lines arranged fan-
shaped, running from north to south on the western border of the map, and from
west to east on the northern border. These lines may be evidence that the storm
was not a tornado.

My brother took me over the ground and showed me the records of the work.
They were not so striking as immediately after the storm, but they were still plain.
In a piece of bottom land, covered with horse weeds, a large sycamore tree had
been turned out of root, and in a circle of fifty feet or more in diameter about the
root of this tree the horse weeds were flat, almost beaten into the ground. It
looked as if a great ball of water, or something, had struck the ground there and
turned the tree out of root. It was no trouble in the patch of horse weeds, or in
the corn field, or in the grassy woodland, to pick out where every shot had struck
the ground. In every case where a shot struck the ground in front of or at the
base of a tree, the tree, if green, was turned out of root, if dead, was broken off
even with the ground.

In most cases where the shot struck a tree above the base, the tree was broken
off. In one case, while standing at the base of an upturned tree in the center of
the spot of fattened grass, we could tell by looking upward and westward, the
course of the shot by another tree that had been topped in its path. In another
ase we were standing in the center of a spot of flattened horse weeds, wondering
why the shot didn’t hit one or the other of two ash trees on the west side of the
spot; soon we observed by limbs broken away that the shot had passed between
the two trees. In nearly every case where a tree had been topped, we could find
the spot of flattened grass a little distance east or southeast of the base of the tree,
the direction depending upon our position in the deyastated area. In this way
we could, in nearly every case, make out the path of the shot through the air.
Near the central part of the devastated area the shots moved from the northwest
downward at an angle of 45°. In the eastern part of this area they moved nearly
eastward at an angle of 30° with the horizon. In some cases a dead tree was un-
harmed, while a green tree near by was turned out of root, or had its top cut off.
‘There was evidence that, on the south margin of the devastated area, trees were
blown down by the wind; but in the central part they must have been knocked
down by globe lightning, or something’ else, shot from the cloud.

The evidence is that each shot was accompanied by electricity, rarified air,
and a deluge of water. The appearance resembling particles of frost flying among
one another, as swarming bees, suggests electrified snow. Such a suggestion may

dJead to experiment. What kind of a storm was this?

68

CoMPARATIVE CRUSHING STRENGTH OF CUBES AND PRISMS OF BEDFORD LIME-.

stone. By W. K. Harr.

[ABSTRACT.]

An examination of the curve representing Baushinger’s experiments on the

crushing strength of stone cubes as compared with the strength of stone prisms,
will show that the law of variation of strength is such that the strength of a prism
whose height is 1}, the length of its base will be only 92 per cent. the strength of
a cube of equal section. It is a matter of doubt whether such a difference will
occur between tests of any given specimens of the variation in height mentioned
under the ordinary condition of testing.

Tests of 31 specimens of Bedford Limestone (of rather soft variety) made at
Purdue University, show that 17 cubical specimens (4x4x4) were slightly weaker
than 14 prisms (4x4x6) of the same material, subjected to the same conditions
throughout. Specimens were bedded in plaster of paris. The average angle of

failure in shearing was 64.5 degrees.

Some Mounps oF VANDERBURGH County, InpIANA. By A. H. PURDUE.

Exactly in the southeast corner of Vanderburgh County, Indiana, is a collec-
tion of mounds and earthworks, which, so far as I am aware, have never been
fully described,* and which are doubtless among the most interesting of the State.
They are locally known as the Angel Mounds, taking their name from the owner
of the land on which they occur.

As the ground upon which they are situated is nearly all under cultivation
and the mounds are rapidly disappearing, it is desirable that a description of them
be placed in permanent form.

The remains are situated upon the alluvial soil of the Ohio River, north of

Three Mile Island, and lie between two bayous, one on the south separating Three

Mile Island from the main land, and an older one on the north.

When in a perfect state there was probably an inclosure, formed by the bank
of the bayou on the south and an irregularly curved wall, presumably a rampart,
either end of which was terminated by the embankment. At present there are
about 1,400 yards of this wall remaining. As it now stands it is from 5 to 10 feet

wide at the base, and from 1 to 2 feet high. At intervals, usually of from 37 to

*An imperfect description of these mounds will be found in the Smithsonian Report,
1881, p. 591.

69

40 yards, there are semicircular mounds with radii of from 5-to 8 feet, joined to
the outer side of the wall. On the supposition that the wall was a rampart, these
semicircular projections from it were probably lookouts from which the guards
could easily flank the outer face of the wall. It will be seen by reference to the
map that there is within the outer wall a similar inner one, which terminates in
Mound No. 2. There is evidence, though very slight, that this wall formerly ex-
tended from Mound No. 2 southward. It is possible that it marks the border of
the original inclosure which was afterward extended to the outer wall.

The area included between the outer wall and the embankment north of the
present bayou is a little more than 5 acres.

The most striking object among the collection is the large mound within the
inclusure. Its longest diameter is 500 feet. Its width varies from 175 feet to 225
feet. With reference to altitude it is divided into three parts. The southern
part, which is 160 feét long and which has been under cultivation for years,
varies in height from 6 to 9 feet. The east border of this part is somewhat ob-
secured, from cultivation and erosion, but the south and west borders are distinct.
The second part of the mound rises about 17 feet above the first part, and is 26
feet above the base. The top is flat and is 240 feet long by 112 feet wide, and has
been utilized until recently for an apple orchard. The third part is a dome 13
feet high and stands on the southeast corner of the second part. The base of this
dome is about 48 feet in diameter, and the highest point is 39 feet above the
ground on which the mound rests. If the trees along the Ohio River were re-
moved, the top of this dome would afford a commanding view for several miles up
and down the river.

I shall not even venture a conjecture as to the purpose of this remarkable
mound.

Besides this, there are six other mounds within the inclosure, denoted by
Arabic numerals. These mounds are all circular at the base and have rounded
tops, except No. 3, which is a truncated cone. It has a diameter of 160 feet and
is 10 feet high. Trees of walnut, oak and maple are growing upon it. The
largest tree is an oak, which is 23 feet in diameter. This mound has for a long
time been used by the people of the vicinity as a burying place. Mound No. 1 is
115 feet in diameter and 12 feet high; No. 2, 90 feet in diameter and 6 feet high;
No. 4, 100 feet in diameter and 5 feet high; No. 5, 60 feet in diameter and 4 feet
high; No. 6 is a small indistinct mound.

All of the small mounds, except No. 3, are being cultivated.

In Mound No. 5, Mr. Charles F. Artes, of Evansville, reports having found
13 human skulls, 12 of which formed the circumference of a circle, the thirteenth

6

a
«“

70

being in the center. All were well protected by slabs of shale. No human re-
mains are reported from any of the other mounds.

In the southeast part of the inclosure the plow frequently brings to the sur-
face bones of birds, small and large mammals, and human beings. This is for
that reason designated on the map “ Burying Ground.”

Pieces of pottery, such as is now made by the western Indians, are common
within the inclosure.

On the north side of the old bayou, beyond the area shown in the map, is an
old excavation, from which a portion of the earth in the mounds was doubtless
obtained. In this excavation are stumps of oak trees, two feet or more in
diameter.

A striking feature of these mounds is their perfect state of preservation.
True, the rampart, if it were such, has been greatly reduced in height; but this is
probably due to the fact that most of it overflows during the Ohio floods. The
east end of the natural embankment north of the bayou and south of the Burying
Ground was improved, and, with the exception of a few small washes, now stands
as it was left by the aboriginal men who did the work. The large central mound,
except where cultivated, is apparently in a perfect state of preservation. The ap-
parent recency of the work certainly indicates that it is none other than that of
the American Indians.

Why these mounds were located here on this alluvial soil, most of which over-
flows, and which is productive of malaria, while the highlands are only a mile
north, and three miles to the northeast, at the town of Newburgh, is one of the
most commanding views along the entire course of the Ohio River, is a question.

About a mile northeast of the large mound is a single conical mound, 150 feet
in diameter and 25 feet high. There are several small mounds along the alluvial

deposits of the Ohio in Warrick County.

Angel Mound (1894) _

pie

1 Agha tal
=

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Burying- Ground

THATS WENA WINE yy

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ait

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ALR TT 1)
CTU GT DH ME ryt

BY
A.H. PURDUE

1894.
11417) Ot Ahn

Vanderburg County, Ind,

ANGEL MOUNDS

Wt PHO cyt

~]
bo

THE LAKE MICHIGAN AND MISSISSIPPI VALLEY WATER SHED. By T. H. BALL.

Commencing near the headwaters of the Des Plaines River in Wisconsin, but
a few miles from the shore of Lake Michigan, then passing southward, winding
slightly, passing within eight miles of Lake Michigan, and then, just west of the
city of Chicago, passing the south arm of the peculiar Chicago River, still going
southward, this line passes west of Blue Island, eight miles west of the Indiana
State line. It then passes southwest around the headwaters of Rock Creek, and
then, southeastward, around Thorn Creek, which is its most southern point in
Illinois, and is near Eagle Lake, two miles west of the Indiana line and directly
west of the Lake County village of Brunswick and twenty three miles south of
the State line monument on the shore of Lake Michigan. This line then passes
northward and enters Indiana and Lake County in section 36, township 35, range
10 west of the second principal meridian. It then bears southeastwardly around
the headwaters of West Creek, to a high, wooded ridge about a quarter of a mile
north of Red Cedar Lake, and then passes along a low, curving ridge on which
was once a wagon road, the most beautiful and best marked portion of the line
in Lake County. It passes eastward three miles over a timbered table-land, and
running south of the center of Crown Point about two miles, it passes across sec-
tion 17, on which was laid an ‘‘Indian float,” and the south part ‘of section 16,
township 34, range 8 west, and then south on the east side of the old Stoney
Creek, and east across sections 35 and 36, in township 34, range 8, and into sec-
tion 31, range 7 west, where is now the village of Le Roy, and where it turns
northward, having reached its extreme southern limit in Indiana. Here it winds
around the head of the south branch of Deep River, passing between that and
Eagle Creek, and bearing eastward, south of Deer Creek, it leaves Lake County
almost due east of the center of Crown Point, distant from that town seven miles
and a mile and a half, nearly, south of its point of entrance into the county. It
then passes north of a little lake, and then east, and then ina northeasterly direc-
tion across Porter County, running barely south of Valparaiso and north into
Liberty Township in township 36, range 6, then east across Jackson Township
into Laporte County. Passing the city of Laporte and running eastward near
the line of the Lake Shore Railroad, distant a few miles oniy from the north line
of Indiana, it turns again southward till it comes into Portage Township in St.
Joseph County, a little west of South Bend. And here on this noted portage be-
tween the St. Joseph and Kankakee Rivers, this notice of this watershed line

will close.

73

It may prove a matter of interest to some, in another generation, to have this
line traced with even this much definiteness, although, of course, it has not been
given with the entire accuracy of a surveyor’s field notes; for the drying up of
water courses and the drainage by means of large ditches have already almost
consigned to oblivion the names and the winding beds of some of the small

streams that were well known to the Illinois and Indiana pioneers.

Some Norice oF STREAMS, SPRINGS, WELLS AND SAND RIDGES IN LAKE
County, Inpriana. By T. H. Batt.

Some of the natural features of Lake County, Indiana, are rather peculiar,
and are quite surely of interest to students of physical geography.

Bounded on the north by Lake Michigan, on the west by Illinois, on the south
by the Kankakee River, if the waters of Lake Michigan ever passed southward
into the Mississippi and the Mexican Gulf, as some suppose, the outflow was
quite surely over a part of what is now Lake County.

Of the two most southern points of the Lake Michigan basin, as stated in a
former paper, one is in Lake County, eighteen miles south of Lake Michigan, and
the other is distant about fifteen miles, almost exactly west, not far from the IIli-
nois line.

North of the water shed the beds of the streams have an easterly and westerly
direction mainly, or northwesterly and northeasterly, while south of this line the
streams flow mainly southward. The Calumet, the largest northern stream, is
quite peculiar in this respect, that it flows across the county nearly twice, one
stream known as the Little, the other as the Grand Calumet. The windings of the
bed of Deep River, the second in size, are quite remarkable, and this stream, for
some two miles of its course, flows due north.

While not a region of brooks, there are, nevertheless, in this county, some in-
teresting and remarkable springs, about twenty in number, that are quite well
known. Three of these are near Crown Point, and in the Deep River Valley.
One has excellent, healthful, mineral properties, and one will furnish water suf-
ficient, so its owner believed, to supply the wants of a thousand head of cattle
each day. A fourth of these springs is near Creston, in the Cedar Creek Valley,
affording a large amount of water, and covering several square yards of surface.
A fifth one, furnishing quite a flow of water, is on the west side of Red Cedar
Lake, north of Paisley, at the base of the low bluff. The sixth is on the east side

74

of the lake, south of the Sigler hotel, some rods out from the bluff, and once coy-
ered with the lake water, and the seventh is still covered by the lake water, in the
northeast part of the lake, its existence ascertained by bathers, or divers, on ac-
count of the change in temperature of the water. Others like it doubtless feed
the lake. The eighth to be mentioned here is in the east part of the town of
Lowell, in the Cedar Creek Valley, the feeder of a beautiful little fish pond. The
ninth, and last, to be specially mentioned, and surely not the least, was known in
the early settlement of the county as the Mound Spring, or Springs. These
springs, forming quite a stream called Spring Run, are in the prairie, two miles
east of the Lowell mill pond, and a mile east of Pleasant Grove. From these
springs water was hauled in barrels for three or four years to supply many fami-
lies of early settlers.

Other fine springs are in Cedar Creek and Eagle Creek townships and along
the West Creek Valley, nearly all being lowland springs.and furnishing excellent
water.

At LeRoy, near the water-shed, there is a well called artesian, sixty-two feet
in depth, which is an artificial spring. The water is excellent. There is another
like it a mile east of Crown Point in the Deep River Valley, near the river bed,
eighty-five feet in depth.

At Hammond, in the Grand Calumet lowland, are three true artesian wells
eighteen hundred feet in depth. An effort was made to obtain one on the public
square at Crown Point, but after going through 16 feet of earth and clay, 100 of
quicksand, 25 of blue clay, 112 of slate and shale, 667 of blue limestone streaked
with pure white sand rock, brown sand rock and fine gravel of different colors,
and into so-called Trenton rock, in all 3,100 feet, the effort was abandoned. No
rising water found.

The sand layers and ridges of the county form an interesting study. The
shore of Lake Michigan is all sand, and this sand, generally in ridges, some mas-
sive, some low, running about parallel with the shore line, with marshes and
swales intervening and some swamps extend to the Little Calumet, with an average
width of seven miles. Some of this sand is quite white, some yellowish. South
of the Calumet a ridge of sand extends across the county passing out into Illinois
for several miles at Lansing, and leaving the county on the east near Hobart. This
ridge varies in width, being twenty rods and then less and then more.

The crest is in some places thirty or more feet high. Its direction is nearly
east and west. South of it, on the west side of the county, is yet another ridge

with a base about as broad and a crest as high, commencing at Dyer on the State

7d

- line fifteen miles south of the Illinois and Indiana corner-stone, and passing east-
ward five miles and three-quarters, then turning northward, taking in the town
of Griffith and becoming much broader, it bears northeast and connects with the
ether ridge near Ross, half way across ‘the county. This ridge seems to have been
once washed by Lake Michigan’s ‘‘ proud waves.” South of these main ridges
and large sand barriers are four special sand banks or small ridges that are worth
inspection. One is three miles west of the north end of Red Cedar Lake, a large
bank on the West Creek Bluff out of which a few years ago a number of human
skeletons were taken. The second is on the northeast shore of that lake, where,
also, human skeletons, some twenty in number, were taken out in 1880, and where
is now a known, undisturbed Indian burial ground. The third is one mile and a
half west of Crown Point, near one of the head branches of Deep River. It is
known as the Beaver Dam and isnear.a large marsh. The fourth is three miles and
a half east of Crown Point, near one branch of Deep River. In the north part of
Crown Point sand comes within a few feet of the surface, but some prairie soil
now lies over it.

The immense bed of sand over the Kankakee marsh region, some five miles
in width, is covered by several feet of muck. Unlike the deep white and yellow-
ish sand of Lake Michigan, this marsh sand makes excellent roadbeds, five, north
and south, marsh roads having been made with it.

No time now remains for noticing what these few facts indicate in regard to

the physical conditions here somewhere back in the mighty past.

Account OF A MoRAINAL STONE QUARRY OF UPPER SILURIAN LIMESTONE
NEAR RICHMOND.

That bowlders, or rock fragments in some form are to be found in the track
of a glacier, is one of the most familiar of phenomena. From Maine to Minnesota,
and beyond, these fragments are in a direction southerly, with greater or less
deviation, from the rock masses to which they previously belonged. Lines of
boulders, pebbles, sand and rock-paste are strung along or spread in the course of
the ice sheet; granite from granite quarries, gneiss from gneiss beds, quartz from
quartz veins, conglomerate from conglomerates, copper from copper deposits, and
so on from wherever they were formed in place.

But that an acre, more or less, of stratified rock should be grasped, en masse in

the great ice palm and dragged or shoved for miles is not so common.

Professor Orton, in the Geological Report of Ohio, Vol. III, page 385, men- -
tions a mass of Clinton Limestone sixteen feet thick and covering three-quarters
of an acre, quite below its geological horizon and resting on glacial clays and
gravels which separate it from the blue limestone of the Cincinnati rock beneath.

The subject of this paper is a mass of upper silurian rock, Niagara limestone,
or more likely, Niagara and Clinton. It is clearly a drift deposit and was originally
the greater part of an acre in extent. It is difficult to say just what is its area as
it extends back from the hill-slope, where it is exposed, under a heavy deposit of
later, modified drift. The Evansville & Richmond Railroad, which was never
finished further than the road bed, cut through it a few years since to its full
depth, or very nearly. Portions of the border of this rock moraine had been ex-
posed for time unknown by erosion. A mixture of clay, sand and a variety of
small boulders separates this deposit from the Hudson River rock of the Lower
Silurian.

Fig. 1 gives a view for near 70 yards east and west. It has been five years
since the rocks were cut through, and as a consequence the superposed loose ina-
terial has drifted over the ledges and into the crevices, partially obscuring the
promiscuous jumble of the separate masses. Still it can be seen that the coarse
chunks of various sizes and forms are jammed together at all angles.

Fig. 2 represents an instance of a large block glaciated on the under side.
The use of a glass will aid in discerning the well-marked strie. One or more
observers who have examined the deposit are of the opinion that the rock was
glaciated from above while in place, and subsequently inverted, but the repeated
occurrence of such under-polishing and the finding of it nowhere but at the
bottom, would seem to indicate that it was caused by sliding over the surface
below. Furthermore, some of the blocks, while being shoved along, appear to
have tilted upward in front, and as a result were rounded off at the heel. Much
of the rock is thick-bedded and very compact. Other portions are softer, disin-
tegrate very easily, are stained brown by iron oxide, and are composed mainly of
crinoid fragments. The harder rock contains various species of corals and
brachiopods, and occasionally the trilobites Calymene niagarensis and Illenus day-
tonensis.

Large bowlders of this limestone are found for a mile and more south and
southwest from the main moraine. All must have been removed from a point
eight, ten or twelve miles north. The fine exposure of striated bed-rock at
Thistlethwaite’s pond, two miles to the north, has the striew pointing south 26°

west, which is very nearly in line with this morainal deposit.

Bia Merrago- Thick es Ain

Fig.1. North Side of Cut—East and West. Extent near 70 yards. Shows how the rock masses
tip atallangles. G. The ledge that is polished on under side, as in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Nearer view of a mass, marked M in Fig. 1, showing glaciated surface on under
side—W. W to BH,six feet.

Sy
H gee 3 S.
1 Ps
2 ae
;
; s
B
, es

as shown by erosion in creek bank below point W in Fig. 1.
M, M, M, masses buried in talus. P, pit from which rock has been quarried.

West end of moraine

79

ForMULAS FOR SHAFT Friction. By J. J. FLATHER.

Among the various methods employed for the long distance transmission of
power shafting has been used to a limited extent.

In many of the earlier applications the motion was one of translation. Thus
in the transmission of power from the large overshot wheel at Laxey, on the Isle
of Man, trussed rods are used to transmit about 150 h. p. several hundred feet ;
the rods are continuously connected and are supported on wheel carriers running
on iron ways.

This method was adopted, on a very large scale, in the mines of Devonshire
for the transmission of power from large overshot water wheels to pumps fixed in
the shaft of the mine at a considerable distance higher up the valley.

In one case the water wheel was 52 feet diameter, 12 feet breast, and its or-
dinary working speed was 5 revolutions per minute. The length of stroke given
by the crank to the horizontal or ‘‘ flat” rods was 8 feet; the rods were 33-inch
round iron, and were carried on cast-iron pulleys.

At Devon Great Consols, near Tavistock, there are altogether very nearly
three miles of 3-inch wrought-iron rods, carried on bobs, pulleys and stands,
whereby power for pumping and winding is conveyed along the surface to differ-
ent parts of these extensive mines from 11 large water wheels ranging up to 50
feet in diameter.

In the transmission of power by rotating shafting supported in bearings
throughout its length, the friction of the journals is a very important considera-
tion, and effectually debars its use for long-distance transmission.

This can be seen in the following formule, which show the relation between
the horse-power required to overcome the friction of the shaft due to its weight
and velocity, and the horse-power transmitted by the shaft for a given diameter
and length corresponding to an angular distortion of ;'; degree per foot of length.

If the contact between shaft and its bearing be a line contact only, the initial
load which produces friction will be P; on the other hand, if the shaft exactly

fits the bearing the friction load will be = P; midway between these lies a

-

value, PXI.28, or ka P, which will be here assumed as closely approaching con-

ditions of actual practice when the journal is well worn to its bearing.
Under these conditions the friction horse-power will be:
Pao a : Way
33000 _ = 33000 (1)

13 OM peor —

80
In which F = load due to friction ;
vy = velocity of surface of shaft;
o = coefficient of friction for factory shafting ;

W = weight of shaft.
While @ varies from 0.03 to 0.08 under different conditions, we have assumed
it to equal 0.06 for ordinary factory shafting, with more or less imperfect lubrica-
tion and alignment.

If there are no pulleys on the shaft, W will equal
T ‘
= d? L & 3.36 pounds, where

L = length of shaft in feet, and

d = diameter of shaft in inches.

The horse-power exerted to overcome friction will then be:

Fy PS opis Die Gio 83 1 ae tay 5 ees F
1B El 33000 ~~? * 4 33000, — = 0:000006 d? Lv. (2)

The horse-power transmitted by the shaft will be:

~~ da°?ix<2aN
H. P. = 7§ 72 x 33000 * (3)

If we assume the angle of torsion not to exceed ;; degree per foot length
of shaft, there is obtained
__ 360 X12) 360 ta

= é = -
Fane Gt ie ie Ci ae as (4)
hence:
ee OnLO Mei S<aiGad f
Ea) S60 SL LE
when G — 11,000,000; that is, when the modulus of torsion = ? modulus of
elasticity.
: ek: : zcaN
Substituting this value of f in (3), and noting that vy = aa we have:
H.-P, —.0.0095 0" vs (5)

From equations ( 2) and (5) there is obtained

H.P,. 0.000006 d2 Ly.
1312, OA Ge ya
Lae Opa se
+ Ghee

a Sc 600 YerY closely.

(6)
that is, H. P,. = 0.000063 H. P

We see from this that the horse-power required to overcome the friction of a
one-inch shaft 1600 feet long is equal to the total allowable transmitting capacity
of the shaft under ordinary working conditions.

81

The following table, caleulated from this formula, gives the limits in which
the power transmitted by a shaft would be absorbed by the friction of the bear-

ings under the above conditions:

Length in Feet When Length When Length When

ee Shaft in| “Total Power is Ab- ;

big sorbed. 7900 per cent. 7=79 per cent,
: j

1 1600 800 400

2 3200 1600 800

3 4800 2400 1200

+ 6400 3200 1600

a) 8000 4000 2000

In the ordinary transmission of power by shafting we find the shaft loaded
with pulleys and the power taken off by varying amounts throughout its entire
length. It is unusual, except in short lengths, to receive the power at one end
and transmit it at the other. Moreover, in long shafting the head, or receiving
shaft, is usually situated midway between the ends, and the power distributed
more or less uniformly from this headshaft to either end; therefore, in estimating
the power absorbed by friction in ordinary mill or factory shafting loaded with
pulleys, the previous formule do not apply, as these relate only to those cases
where power is taken off at the end of the shaft.

The conditions of practice, as we find them in actual transmissions are so
various, that it is difficult to lay down any general rule by which the power ab-
sorbed by friction may be determined. The number and weight of pulleys and
couplings, the intensity and direction of belt-pull, the condition of bearings and
their lubrication ; these all affect the amount of work lost in friction.

For the ordinary factory shafting, from which power is taken fairly uniformly
throughout its length and distributed horizontally to counter or auxiliary shafts
situated on one or beth sides of the main shaft, there will be three general cases
to be considered, and each of these will be modified, depending upon the direction
of the belt to and from the main shaft.

The friction will evidently be proportional to the weight of the shaft and the
unbalanced belt-pull acting on the shaft.

The weight of pulleys, belts, clutches and couplings carried by the line shaft
will vary from about one and one-half to three times the weight of shaft, so that
the total weight on the bearings will vary from two and one-half to four times the
weight of shaft; for head and jack shafts the total weight will probably vary from
three to five times the weight of shaft.

82

In addition to this weight there is the unbalanced belt-pull which increases
the load on the bearings. Although the tension on the tight side of the belt may
not ordinarily exceed about twice the tension in the slack side necessary for ad-
hesion, yet it is probable that belts are frequently run with a ratio of tension
equal to one to three, and occasionally one to four. On the other hand, it is a
very common thing for belts, especially short ones, to be laced so taut that the
initial tension is greatly in excess of that required for adhesion, in which case the
sum of the tensions approaches twice that in the tight side of the belt.

With ordinary shop-worn belting it will be safe to assume that the tension

'T, on the slack side of the belts is one-half the tension T, on the tight or driving

a
side, that is T, — —.", hence, since T, — T, = P, the driving force, we have
; fire aN (7)
BOE pe sa000"
Under the conditions which obtain in machine shops the diameter of a shaft
to safely transmit a given horse-power without undue deflection may be obtained
from the formula

a P
— “y ae < 100. ( )
Combining (7) and (8) we have
gy De (een aae (9)
as 33000 a
660 d*? N
ane me
Therefore the sum of the tensions on the entire length of shaft
. Soe ee) A660 (10)
Seen r= hs z) — oy go vo
1000
orb — ay d? N very nearly.

d?N fiat
Hence the belt- pull per foot of length of shaft = 1000 —- Tv" The force of fric-

tion, F, acting at the circumference of shaft, is — 9 W, as before, but in this

‘ease W equals the weight of shaft, W, and its furniture, as well as the unbalanced
\belt-pull.

The belt tension may act in any direction perpendicular to the axis of the
shaft, and the intensity of pull in any given direction will vary from 0 to the
maximum to total tension. Besides these tensions there will be an additional pull

due to the tensions in the belt from fly-wheel to main line shaft.

83

Let B,=belt-pull due to total tensions acting at an angle, $, with the horiz-
ontal ;
B'=belt-pull due to tensions in main belt acting at an angle, x, with
the horizontal ;
Vi=linear velocity of main belt from fly-wheel ;

V=average linear velocity of cross belts ;

vi Mae : teh
r= ~-=ratio of velocity of main belt to average velocity of cross belts,
then the horizontal pull=B' cos« +B, eos 3 (ve)
and the vertical pull—B? sin « +B, sin 3 (12)
But Bt = Bi— 1000 @N (13)
r Vr
therefore, the horizontal pull=B, —" + cos 3 )=x;

and the vertical pull=B' ‘ee sucha B er:
gett

If x =O and B=O,
theny =B, ( +1 )
<u
and y=O.
The most usual case, when the power is not taken off equally on either side,

will be that in which main belt makes an angle with the horizontal, and the cross

belts are themselves horizontal, that is:

When the horizontal cross-belts are distributed equally on either side of the shaft
the only load we need consider will be that due to the main belt, in which ease

x== B).cos x,
and

= B, sin=. *
Tr
Ii the machines be driven from below, the pull of the belts, instead of adding
to the load on the bearings, will cause this load to be decreased; but as this

method is not usual we shall not consider it here.

84

Combining the load on the shaft due to the belt pull with that due to its

weight, the resultant load will be

V x?+(W.+y)?; (14)

hence the friction load will be

= =9Vx?+(y+ Wa),

Ey ae (exe SEBS IL, ) we have

Poy) x? tly 3 d* 2.36 LiF (15)

t
Taking a specific case in which the cross belts are assumed to drive horizon-

tally on each side of the line shaft, and the main belt to make an angle of 30°

with the horizontal, we have

= B, cosa), ;} 7 B, sina v 2
1 = ae Ne | 4. [=—"* ae ae L) |?

The velocity of intermediate belting is so variable that any assumption of
speed must be regarded as applying to a particular case or representative of a cer-
tain type of factory, and can not be taken as general. In many machine shops
the average speed of intermediate belts is not more than 500 feet per minute; in
others the average speed is more than twice as great, and in wood-working shops
it is still greater.

For our present purpose we shall assume an average speed of 660 feet per
minute for belts running from the main shaft to a secondary or countershaft, and
four times this speed for the velocity of belt from engine.to main shaft, that is
Si
y=

Substituting these values in (13) we have
1 WOOO SEN at

p=

EL ae eecOme me
therefore F = Foy ‘Ti (44# Neos ] 2171(3d3Nsin«)+79d2L]2
— / [0.025d°N]?2+[0.014d*N+0.6d?L]? (16 )
From the formula for the power absorbed by friction we have
Py H py = ee SPs 2p 0 saNn ear

33000 >< 12’
hence the ratio of power absorbed by friction to the horse-power which the shaft
is capable of safely transmitting will be j

HPS. | (0:0% Sa ar aonie ee

= =— per cent.

HP.) OUOLds Ne d2

ie
_— —

85

From this expression the following table has been computed for a 3-inch

shaft running at 100 and 250 revolutions per minute:

| .

) Percentage of loss when length in feet.
|

/

Diameter of shaft Revolutions per / wets f
in inches. minute. - £
100 200 400 800 =~ 1600
3 100 51 | 99 19.6 38.7 7
3 250 58 10.6 20 39° 2 aig

It is worthy of remark that in long lines of shafting the influence of belt
pull on the bearings is very slight compared to the weight of shaft and pulleys,
so that the loss in friction is but little more than that due to weight alone. _

With better alignment and better lubrication the loss will be less than that
here given; in long continuous lines of shafting the bearings are always more
or less out of line, and for this reason the loss will be less if short lengths be

employed.

ORTHOGONAL SURFACES. By A. S. HATHAWAY.

It is well known that a given system of surfaces f (x, y, 2) = c has in general no
pair of orthogonal conjugate systems, i. e., such that the surfaces of the three sys-
tems through any point are mutually orthogonal at that point. It has been shown
by Cayley [Salmon’s Three Dimensions, p. 447] that f(z, y, 2) must satisfy a dii-
ferential equation of third order if it possess a pair of orthogonal conjugates. In
the course of some recent investigations on fluid motion I was led to observe that a
given system of surfaces might have two pairs of orthogonal conjugates, in which
ease it would have an infinite number of such pairs. In order that such may be
the case f(z, y, z) must satisfy a differential equation of second order which is a
particular integral of Cayley’s equation of third order. This differential equation
is, in Cayley’s notation, .

[(a, 6, c.f, g, h) (L, M, N)?—(a+b+e) (127+ M?+ N*))}?
=4(77+ M?*+ N?) (A, B, GF, G, A) (L, M, NYP
where L, M, N, a, b, c, f, 9, h, ave the first and second differential coefficients of
f(z, y, 2), and A, B, C, etc., are the minors of a, 6, ¢, efe., in the matrix

“J

86

A very general solution of this equation comes from a=h=e, f=yg=h
=o, which are the differential equations of the series of spheres that pass through
a given fixed circle, including, as particular cases, concentric spheres, planes inter-
secting in a fixed line, and parallel planes.

It may be shown that the above equation factors into four factors of the form

Vb—e Ds Ve—d MW) = Va'—b! NM where a’, b', c, are the roots of the cubic

found by replacing a, b, ¢ in the above matrix by a—xz, b—a, c—x. The differential
equation may also, by the usual reciprocal transformation X— L, Y= M, Z=N,
U+u=—La+M y+ Nz, be reduced to a simpler form.

The preceding differential equation and the resulting theory of orthogonal
surfaces were obtained by quaternion analysis. Briefly, if 7,76, are two perpen-
diculars to the surface normal 6, that are also surface normals, then we have,

(1) 8S Aa=—as (2) SAV Ao; (3) SAcyvAc=o.

We may replace (3) by

(3!) SAoy,Ao,=0, or SA¢ Vor=o, where 6A=}3 (y,SA0,+ 0, SAy;).
Thus @ is the self conjugate linear vector function, whose matrix is given above.
From (1) and (3!) we find

VA Voce Voy=o

This determines 4 as one (and 4c as the other) of the two latent directions of the
plane self-conjugate vector function Voo Vo7. There is therefore in general but
one pair of normals that may satisfy the conditions of which (2) becomes a condition
upon o, or the differential equation satisfied by f(x, y, z) in order that it may possess
a pair of orthogonal conjugates. If, however, the above plane vector function have
equal latent roots, then its latent directions become indeterminate. This means
that (1) becomes a factor of (3!) so that the only equations to be satisfied are (1),
(2). These may be satisfied without other condition upon ¢ than the above equality
of latent roots which is the differential equation that we have given at the be-
ginning of the paper.

NoTEe.—Since presenting the above I have noticed that the latent roots of the plane strain
mentioned are proportionals to the principal radii of curvature of normal sections of the
surface f (x, y, 2) =e. The above differential equation of second order therefore expresses
that every point of each of these surfaces isan umbilic. Hence the general solution consists
of a system of spheres (or planes) with one variable parameter, (w= Ax, y, z). The above
quaternion method gives also the conditions that a system of lines may be the intersection
of one pair of orthogonal systems of surfaces, or of an infinite number of such pairs.

THE CALENDAR Group. By C. A. WALDO.

87

Linear EvuruHymorpHic FuNcCTIONS OF THE First ORDER.
) By E. M. Buaxer. (ABSTRACT.)

Euthymorphie functions are those monogenic functions which satisfy an equa-
tion of the form

¢ (2) + pi(z) ¢(fil2)) +. ~ . + :pn(2)-¢(fn(2)) +p(z)=0
Wwitererf;, <9 5 fy fas Pi < -) («Pay p ane given functions of which p,; :~ i>,
Pn, p are algebraic. The order of 9 (2) is n and it is linear if alloff,,. . .,
az+

fn are of the form

2. é f
The paper gives a systematic compilation of the investigations of Babbage,

Rausenberger, Koenigs and others upon functions defined by an equation of the

_faz2z+B
6(2) =pi2)- o( art, (1)
yz+ 6

(where p(z) is algebraic) in so far as relates to their existence and analytical ex-

form

pression. The theorems of Koenigs relate to more general functions but they are
only defined within a limited circle of convergence. _The application of these
theorems to euthymorphic functions and their continuation over the entire z-plane
are believed to be new.
A tabulation of the results contained in the paper is as follows: ;
Every equation (1) can be reduced by a linear transformation to one of the
three forms: 9 (2) =p (z)¢(z+1) I.
shea) jb
¢ (z) =p(z)¢(az),| «|< |. III.

Sub-forms and their solutions, (/ is any function),

9% (z) =p (2) ole

Ia. ¢(z) = ¢ (2+ 1); f(e?™**)
Ib. ¢ (2) =b¢(e1+1; b=. f(e?**)

ie Lees 22 (2 Ge)
rhe) B= Een

_V(e—6,).... Te—ba)

(Tea)... Le ey
Id. ¢(z) =p(z)¢(z2+1); p(z) irrational is unsolved.
Ila. ¢(z)=¢ (e292); f (2)

f (e2™*2)

IIb. 9 (2) = bo (ez); z—". F (222)

IIc. ¢ (2) =p(z)¢(—2); (p(2). p(—2) =1); (1+ p(2)). f(2F)

88

For p(z) not a constant IIc. is the only solved form.

emt

Ula. (2) =9 (22); fle 54)

log b 2mt
IIIb. $ (z) =b¢(az); é el 2 Tog ;)
ew SG" ts n 2mt
Ile. $(2)=29 (a2); fmj(L+e™2). [nf U+S)- f (ia)
Illd. ¢(z)=p(z)¢ (ez); (p(o)=1); 7 (z).f tae

The 7(z) has the same number of branches as p(z). It may be algebraic,
When transcendental » is its only essential singular point.

The solution of any equation of form III. consists of a product of solutions
of the four types given.

New MEcHANICAL CompuTeR. By FRED MORLEY.

A New APPARATUS FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC SURVEYING. By FRED MORLEY.

CRUSHING STRENGTH OF WrRoUGHT IRON CyLINDERS. By W. K. Harr anp
L. FLETEMEYER.

TrESTs oF A WrRouGHT IRON CaR AxLE. By W. F. M. Goss.

While much has been written concerning the variety and intensity of the
stresses which service conditions impose upon car axles, there have been presented
but few descriptions of the behavior of such axles when under stresses that are
simple and definite in character. Interesting material of the latter class is sup-
plied by a recent test of a 60,000-pound axle made in the Engineering Laboratory
ot Purdue University.

The axle tested was supplied by the Bass Foundry and Machine Works, of Fort
Wayne. It is said to have been made of No. 1 wrought railroad scrap, and to have
been selected at random from a lot of 100 which were being shipped to a railroad
company, and with it there was delivered to the laboratory a small test specimen
which had been drawn down from the crop end of the axle. As prepared for the
tests the axle carried two 33-inch cast wheels, and it was tested under transverse
stresses, while the small specimen was subjected to tensional tests. The work was
executed by Mr. J. H. Klepinger, who perfected details in the general plan and

was painstaking in the manipulation of the apparatus.

89

The tests were made on a 300,000-pound Riehle testing machine, a general
view of which, with the axle in place for testing, is shown by Fig. 1. Fig. 2
gives the dimensions of the axle and the details of the arrangements for applying
loads. The axle was supported by cast iron blocks, AA, four inches in breadth,
shaped to the form of a bearing, and extending from the center to the outer end
of the journal. The actual points of support were located in the center of these
blocks. Load was applied to the wheel treads through steel rollers, BB, which,
at the beginning of the test, were located 4 feet 10 inches apart; that is, at a point
corresponding to a position three-fourths of an inch outside of the inner or
‘‘gauge face” of the rail upon which it may be supposed the wheels were set to
run. In this manner stresses were imposed upon the axle which were in every
way similar to those which might have been imposed by a car, if the axle had
been in service, but to give greater facility in testing, the usual order was re-
versed, the rails being assumed to be above the axle and the car below.

Fig. 2 shows also the means employed in determining the deflections corre-
sponding to different loads. At each end of the axle there was attached a light
arm (bb), extending at right angles both to the axle and to the plane of the stresses
to which it was subjected. Over these was stretched a fine wire parallel to the
axis of the axle. The wire passed through the web of the wheels, in holes which
were drilled for the purpose, and made sufficiently large to give ample clearance.
The whole length of wire between the arms (bb) was at all times perfectly free,
and the arrangement was such that although the axle might be bent by loads
applied to it, the wire would remain straight. Three micrometers attached to
blocks clamped about the axle served to locate the latter with reference to the
wire, and thus to determine the deflection. A fourth micrometer was used to
measure distances between the wheeis’ flanges in a line parallel with the axle and
163 inches distant from its center.

Loads were applied at C in 5,000 pound increments, and all micrometers
were read before each change of load. In this way a maximum load of 85,000
pounds was applied, under which the axle showed unmistakable signs of failure,
the elastic limit having been reached with a load of 55,000 pounds. The results
are presented graphically by Fig. 3, in which the curve marked “center” repre-
sents the deflections of the center of the axle as determined by the middle microm-
eter, Fig. 2; the curves marked ‘‘right” and ‘‘left” represent corresponding
deflections for points 18 inches either side of the center. Deflections of the axle
involved changes in the gauge of the wheels as measured above or below the axle,
the extent of which is indicated by Fig. 4.

90

The actual readings of all micrometers are given in the tabulated statement
below:

| Micrometer Rerapines at Dirrerent Loaps. ToraL DEFLECTION.
LOAD. m Pad 3 . o
Ba core ane : ava © Sey SH Pa °
© og i on = Ot 7) es © é 3 7)
= o| : a | 8 SI] <= BS a ql
a PROPS a Sl ae) Bo)
Oo /}A A 1A — |A me |A o 4 s FY

The dimensions of the axle were such (Fig. 2) that when loaded to its elastic
limit, the maximum fiber stress at its center was 29,730; at 18 inches from the
center 22,100 pounds, and at the neck of the journal 20,600 pounds.

The axle tested was designed for use under a freight car of 60,000 pounds
capacity, the car itself weighing about 20,000 pounds. Each of the four axles
under such a loaded car, therefore, must withstand a static load of 20,000 pounds,
which load would develop a maximum fiber stress in the center of the axle tested
of 10,810 pounds. In comparing these values with those obtained in the tests as
given in the preceding paragraph, it is important to remember that the stresses
to which car axles are subjected when in service arise from complicated condi-

tions, and that their value can not be determined from static conditions alone.

The test specimen which was forged down from the crop end of the axle was
turned down in the center for a distance of 8.5 inches and tested under tension.

The results are as follows:

Didmeter iniin chess a tystthed. oehse Stacie rae eee cee beeierete ot 1.875
Axvea sol: cross Section j4/, sn ua msresgeees x oe eRe ee ee ae 3 2.755
Motalitoad;, pounds escola seh Seca eiene PRR Oe eieae fs acneiens 140,700.
Ultimate strength, pounds, per square inch..................... 51,070.
Mas tre wma oo. fc a iecd ts ce ead Chace ore ee eenTitede Aare ete a en ete 30,000.

Modulustofvelasticityn ean ne toe oe meee ers re 29,671,000.

91

Area at point of fracture— :

Peecre OC bariginal aves... 002. seus oe ca ee ee ete 61.6

©

Ee AGLON BG SPER UGS,. POP CONG. ci ec ies sd sas oa aioisare ins a een si 27.3

Finally one end of the test specimen was exposed to the action of acids, and
the etching thus produced used in printing Fig. 5. This figure, therefore, shows
the disposition and relative density of the various layers of iron composing the
specimen. Thesymmetrical arrangement of curved lines, which is so noticeable,
is due evidently to the hammering of the round section of the axle to a square
section in the process of forging the end of the axle down to the size of the test
specimen.

While the tests show the iron of the axle to have been of excellent quality,
the most significant fact developed is that concerning the amount of distortion
which such an axle will withstand without taking a permanent set.

It would at first sight appear impossible that by loads applied at the journals
a common car axle could be deflected at its center as much as a third of an inch
without exceeding its elastic limit, but an analysis of the data given will fully
justify such a conclusion. The results show also that a deflection of the axle
well within the elastic limit of the material may be sufficient to produce a tem-
porary change of gauge in the wheels mounted upon it of quite three-tenths (0.3)

of an inch.

Fig. 1. Tests of a Wrought Iron Car Axle.

\ MM’ Aw
Taaie. ‘GF “TESTING ?

Fig. 2.

Fig.2. Tests of a Wrought Iron Car Axle.

eee
P48 «ceene
PAP ie

90000

80000

70000

ce)

40000

LOAD IN POUND Sar

30000

WT

aa FLECTION IN|INCHES. ae
Lae as ee ie GL de tC nec.

1.0

20000

10000

Fig. 3. Tests of a Wrought Iron Car Axle.
(92)

93

Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. Tests of a Wrought Iron Car Axle.

Fig. 5. Car Axle.

SUBDIVISION OF PoweER. By J. J. #LATHER.

While economy in the use of power should be secondary to increased output,
yet careful attention to details will often greatly reduce the useless waste of power.

Tt is well known among engineers that there is a very great percentage of loss
- due to shaft friction, which, in shops where the buildings are more or less scat-
tered, is probably not far from 75 per cent. of the total power used. In two cases
known to the writer these losses are 80 and 93 per cent. respectively.

No matter how well a long line of shafting may have been erected, it soon
loses its alignment, and the power necessary to rotate it is increased.

In machine shops with a line of main shafting running down the center of a
room, connected by short belts with innumerable countershafts on either side,
often by more than one belt, and, as frequently happens, also connected to one
or more auxiliary shafts which drive other countershaits, we can see why the

power required to drive this shafting should be so large.

o4

There is no doubt, however, that a large percentage of the power now spent
in overcoming the friction of shafting in ordinary practice could be made avail-
able for useful work if much of the present cumbrous lines of shafting were
removed.

Manufacturers are realizing the enormous loss of power which ensues from
the present system of transmission, and we find a general tendency to introduce
different methods by which a part of this loss will be obviated. Among these are
the introduction of hollow and lighter shafting; higher speeds and lighter pulleys;
roller bearings in shaft hangers; and the total or partial elimination of the
shafting.

Independent motors are often employed to drive sections of shafting and
isolated machines, and among these we find steam engines, electric motors, gas
engines and compressed air motors, although the latter have not been used for
this purpose to any extent in this country.

For the average machine shop, short lengths of light shafting may be em-
ployed to good advantage, and the various machines, arranged in groups, may be
driven from one motor. By this method fewer motors are required and each may
be so proportioned to the average load that it may be run most of the time at its
maximum efficiency. When short lengths of shatting are employed the alignment
of any section is very little affected by local settling of beams or columns, and
since a relatively small amount of power is transmitted by each section, the shaft
may be reduced in size, thus decreasing the friction loss. Moreover, with this
arrangement, as also with the independent motor, the machinery may often be
placed to better advantage, in order to suit a given process of manufacture;
shaits may be placed at any angle without the usual complicated and often un-
satisfactory devices; setting-up room may be provided in any suitable location as
required without carrying long lines of shafting through space. This is an im-
portant consideration, for not only is the running expense reduced thereby but
the clear head room thus obtained free from all shafting, belts, ropes, pulleys and
other transmitting devices, can be more easily utilized for hoists and cranes, which
have so largely come to be recognized as essential to economical manufacture.

There is also less liability of interruption to manufacture on account of the
subdivision of power, and, in case of overtime, it is not necessary to operate the
whole works with its usual heavy load of transmitting machinery. _

Another advantage is the adaptability of the system to changes and exten-
sion; new motors may always be added without affecting any already in opera-
tion, and the ease with which this system lends itself to varying the speed of

different unit groups is a very potent factor in its favor.

95

In the choice of motors for this work the steam engine has heretofore been
used, especially where the units are relatively large. An interesting example of
this is noted in the sugar refinery of Claus Spreckles, in Philadelphia, in which
there are some seventy-five Westinghouse engines about the works, many of them
being of 75 and 100 horse-power.

A similar subdivided plant involving forty-two engines was erected several
years ago at the print works of the Dunnell Company, Pawtucket, R. I. More
recently, however, the electric motor has superseded the steam engine for this
work, as its economy and convenience over the latter is now thoroughly recognized.

For isolated machines and for heavy machines that may be in occasional use
the electric motor is particularly well adapted as a source of power, for such a
means of transmission consumes power only when the machine is in operation.

This is true also of compressed air, and we find numerous instances where it
has entirely replaced steam even in large work. Thus, at the steel works at
Terni, Italy, a 100-ton hammer is worked by compressed air, and also two large
cranes, one having a capacity of 100-tons and the other 150 tons. Compressed air
in some cases is also superseding steam for operating pumping machinery.

In Paris, according to Prof. Unwin, compressed air motors are even used to
drive dynamos for electric lighting. At some of the newspaper offices there are
motors of 50 and 100 horse-power driving presses, and in shops and factories
these motors are used to run lathes, saws and various other machines.

In the transmission of air, within reasonable limits, the loss in transmission
need not be considered, for although there is a slight loss in pressure due to the
frictional resistances of the pipes, yet there is a corresponding increase in vol-
ume due to fall in temperature, so that the loss is practically inappreciable.

In the compression of air, with steam actuated compressors, there are various
sources of loss, which, in the aggregate, will vary from 25 to 45 per cent. of the
total power of the machine.

The greatest loss of efficiency is that inthe air motor. It is usually imprac-
ticable to reheat the air with any degree of economy when employed intermit-
tently, and we find very generally that the air is used at normal temperature for
the various purposes to which it is applied. Insmall motors (1 to 2 horse-power)
the loss may be as much as 65 per cent. when the air is used without expansion.
With larger motors (75 horse-power), using a reheater and hot air jackets, the
motor loss has been kept within 20 per cent. at full load.

These results and others would indicate that compressed air as now used is
not at all efficient as a source of motive power, since the combined efficiency of

compressor and motor, even under favorable conditions, is not more than 50 per

96

cent. of the available energy put into the compressor. In other cases the effici-
ency is as low as 20 per cent.

There should be no comparison between the cost of the transmission of power
by compressed air and its so-called rival, electricity, since each has its own field
of usefulness, yet it may be interesting to note for our present purposes the effici-
ency of electric transmission.

A modern generator, belted from an engine, will have an efficiency of about
90 per cent. when working under favorable conditions, but as the average load is
ordinarily not more than two-thirds full load, and often much less, the efficiency
will not usually be more than 85 per cent. Since the engine friction was added
to the losses in compression, so also it should be considered here, in which case
the efficiency of generation will lie between 75 and 80 per cent. With a pressure
of 220 volts, which is very suitable for ordinary shop transmissions when both
light and power are to be taken off the same line, the loss in transmission need
not be more than 5 per cent. so that the efficiency at the motor terminals will not
be far from 75 per cent. With motors running under a nearly constant full load
the efficiency of motor may be 90 per cent., but with fluctuating loads this may
fall to 60 per cent. at quarter load. In numerous tests made by the writer the
average load on several motors in machine shops was only about one-third of the
rated capacity of the motor.

It is interesting to note that in recent tests made at the Baldwin Locomotive
Works it was found that with a total motor capacity aggregating 200 horse-power,
a generator of only 100 horse-power was sufficient to furnish the current, and
ordinarily only 80 horse-power was required.

Under these conditions when the driven machines are not greatly over-
motored we may assume a motor efficiency of 80 per cent., which may be less or
greater in individual cases. The combined efficiency, then, of generator and
motor working intermittently with fluctuating loads will be about 75 x 80=60 per
cent. of the power delivered to the engine.

For greater distances than those which obtain in plants of this character the
loss in transmission will be greater, and higher voltage must be employed in
order to keep down the line loss; while it is possible to put in conductors suffi-
ciently large to carry the current with any assumed loss, yet the cost of the line
soon becomes prohibitive with low voltage. In work of this kind it is well to
remember that while the efficiency may be very high the economy may be very
poor, and good engineering is primarily a question of good economy, all things
considered. It is not the most efficient plant which produces the greatest

economy. While it is interesting to know that a certain amount of power may

, 97

be transmitted a given distance with a high efficiency, it is more important to
know that the same amount of power could be obtained at the objective point for
one-fourth the cost of the former.

Lafayette, Ind., Dec. 30, 1896.

EconoMyY IN THE DESIGN OF ELEcTRO-MaGneEts. By W. E. GoLpsBorouGH.

Published in the Electrical World, Vol. XXIX, p. 196, Feb. 6, 1897.

An EFFICIENCY SURFACE FOR THE PELTON Motor. By W. K. Harr.

Published in the Journal of the Franklin Institute, June, 1897.

On SeEicues. By A. W. DurFr.

Some EXPERIMENTS ON THE PHENOMENA OF THE ELEVATION OF THE ELASTIC
Limit. By W. K. Hart.

Viscosity AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE. By A. W. DUFF.
[Abstract.]

The author shows the insufficiency of the formule proposed by Poisenille,

Slotte, Koch, Griitz and others, and finds generalized formule.

tta\n
pO Sa \
— Ca “8 ra(3+t) J

which are in agreement with all data hitherto obtained, the former applying to

water and most substances of slow variation of viscosity, and the latter to glycer-

ine, mercury and most substances of rapid variation of viscosity.

98

COMPARISON OF CLARK AND Weston CELis. By S. N. Tayuor.

A great deal of work of very excellent character has been done upon the
Latimer Clark Standard Cell by Prof. Glazebrook, Prof. Carhart, Prof. Kahle,
Lord Rayleigh and others, and by them the merit of the cell has been well estab-
lished.

It has been shown by them that the cell can be made so that, under favorable
conditions, it will vary in E. M. F. less than one part in a thousand, even when
made by different persons and of materials obtained from various sources. It has
also been shown that with proper care the cell maintains its potential indefinitely,
and forms a very excellent standard of electro-motive force, which is both moder-
ately portable and cheap.

It is well known, however, that this standard of potential has at least one
very serious drawback, namely, it has a very large temperature coefficient, and
the E. M. F. of the cell varies considerably for slight changes in temperature.
Moreover the coefficient may not be the same for different cells, or may be differ-
ent at different temperatures eyen in the same cell, if the temperatures considered
are not near together. Therefore the coefficient for any cell can be exactly de-
termined only by experiment on that particular cell, and must be ascertained for
all ranges of temperature to which the cell is likely to be exposed. It is also true
that changes in temperature in the cell can not be detected easily and accurately,
and hence arises some doubt as to the actual E. M. F. of a Clark cell at any
particular instant.

Methods have been proposed for obviating this difficulty, but for want of
space we must omit them here. It goes withont saying, however, that if we could
find another cell having the same excellencies as the Clark in all respects, and
not having this defect in temperature coefficient, it would be a decided advantage.

The Cadmium cell, recently invented by Mr. Edward Weston, has attracted
considerable attention, and so far as our observations go, it possesses these very
qualifications. For the past three years we have spent considerable time in test-
ing the merits of this cell as compared with the Clark Standard Cell.

To do this we made a number of Clark cells according to the latest instruc-
tions given by the English Board of Trade, as found in the Philosophical Trans-
actions for 1892. We also made a number of Weston cells similar to the Clark,
except that in the Cadmium or Weston cells Cadmium and Cadmium-Sulphate

took the place of the Zine and Zinc-Sulphate of the Clark.

99

Groups of cells were made at various times, and tests made upon them. We
mention the group set up during March, 1895, as typical of all the Cadmium cells.

They were of the H form (see Fig. 1) and constructed as follows:

ae ORs eee Pit ach Baer Teper eee
Ho ATOM

At A there is a quantity of Cadmium Amalgam about one centimeter deep,
and covering the platinum wire, the negative terminal. Above this, at B, there
is a concentrated solution of Cadmium Sulphate (CdSO,) containing crystals of
Cadmium Sulphate. At E there is pure mercury covering the platinum wire
which serves as a positive terminal. Above the mercury, at D, there is a thick
paste of Mercurous Sulphate (Hg,SO,), reaching as high as the cross tube. The
remainder of the space, CC up to the corks FF, is filled with a solution of Cad-
mium Sulphate. The tubes are then sealed above the corks in the usual manner
by marine glue or some other form of cement. I can not describe here the manner
in which these materials were prepared, but can only refer those interested in the
subject to a dissertation which I am about to publish concerning my investigations
at Clark University. Suffice it to say that the mercury used was some which I

had purified a short time before by means of chemicals and distillation in vacuo;

100

and the other materials were bought of Eimer & Amend as being chemically pure.
The cells are easily made, and can be set up by anyone without much trouble.
The method adopted for comparing these cells one with another was a modi-

fication of the potentiometer method used by Professor Kahle, and was as follows:

Fig. 2.

The current from a single storage cell 4 { Fig. 2) passes through an ordinary
resistance box B! and through a wire resistance R made of German silver, with
sliding contact capable of continuous variation for fine adjustment. At the mer-
cury commutator J the circuit is divided. The first branch passes through B,
then through the wire ¢ back through d and M to the storage cell A. The second
branch of the circuit passes successively from M through the transfer switch S,
the variable resistance R!, the sensitive galvanometer G, back again to S, and
thence through Wto M. The resistance box B was made especially for this pur-
pose and consists of seven coils of wire, having the resistances of 10, 15, 50, 100,
300 and 500 ohms approximately. These dip into a dish of kerosene, so that
their temperature can be measured more readily. C is a German silver wire 1,122

mms. long, stretched tightly over a boxwood meter bar. The resistances of both

101

B and ¢ have been very accurately measured in international ohms and their tem-
perature coefficients determined. JW is a standard cell, either a Clark or a
Weston, and is connected in opposition to the storage cell A. As the current then
passes from A, if the resistance in B is properly adjusted, the E. M. F. of W will
just counterbalance the potential around the B-branch and there will be no de-
flection of the galvanometer G when the key K is closed. But increasing the re-
sistance in B, if A is constant, has the same effect upon the potential around the
B-branch as decreasing the resistance in R would have. Hence we may choose
any resistance in the B branch that we may wish, and yet regulate the potential
about that branch by properly adjusting the resistance in R. This being true, let
B denote the total resistance of the B-branch, including c and d; let ¢ denote the
resistance of the wire a 6b; let Ey denote the E. M. F. of the standard cell W and
E. the potential about the wire a, orc. Then, when the resistance in B' and R
are so adjusted that we get no deflection of the galvanometer G when K is closed,
we have the proportion:
B:C:: Ew: Ee

Knowing the resistance ¢ of ab and that of the total B-branch, of course we know
the potential about c. ‘Again, since the potential between any two points p gq be-
tween a 6 increases directly as the resistance included between them, and since
the resistance increases directly as the distance between the points, we can find
any portion of the potential E. by measuring off on the meter bar the appropriate
length along the wire ad.

Another portion of the potentiometer consists of a third branch circuit
including two standard cells W, and W, which are to be compared. For short
we shall call this branch the N-branch. It starts from a movable contact p on
the wire ab and leads to the reversing commutator N, thence through W, and W,
to S through the galvanometer G back again through N to q, another movable
contact onab. p and q are knife-edged contacts and can be placed at any position
along the wire a b and the distance between them measured by means of the
meter rod.

The two cells W, and W,, which are to be compared, are now placed in this
branch in opposition to each other. If, then, the E. M. F. of W, is exactly equal
to that of W,, that is if E, — E., and if p and ¢ are placed close together upon
C, then there will be no deflection of the galvanometer G when K is closed. If,
however, E, is greater than E, we can find two points upon C such that the
difference in potential between p and q shall exactly equal the difference between
E, and E, and in opposite directions. The potentials in the N-branch will then

be at equilibrium, and there will be no deflection of the galvanometer. In other

8

102

words, we thus measure the difference between E, and E, in terms of the stand-
ard cell W. This is expressed by the formula

8, —nP© at
Where Ey = E. M. F. of the cell W; E, = E. M. F. of the cell W,;
E, = the E. M. F. of the cell W,
n= number of millimeters between p and q
] = total length of the wire ad in millimeters
c = resistance of the wire ab
B = total resistance of the B-branch

Bet

= IB or the constant of the wire ab.

The resistance of 2! consists of a few coils of wire varying in resistance from

zero to fifty thousand ohms, but their actual resistance need not be known.
Neither is it necessary to know the resistance at B' and R, nor that of the galva-
nometer G, since the method of no deflection is used. Care was always taken,
however, never to close the circuit through the galvanometer without including a
high resistance at R', unless it was first known that the system was almost ex-
actly at equilibrium. For it is important that as little current as possible shall be
allowed to pass through the cells. But when the system has been carefully ad-
justed, the resistance of R' can be gradually cut out, so as to utilize the full sensi-
tiveness of the galvanometer. Measurements made by means of this apparatus
were limited in accuracy only by the galvanometer’s sensitiveness. For by taking
the resistance in B large enough we can make & as small as we please. Thus we
found that we were able to detect differences in E. M. F. as small as three one-
millionths (,59é500) of a volt with a considerable degree of certainty.

One difficulty which we had to overcome was the change in position of the
galvanometer’s zero, caused by the passing of electric street cars some four hun-
dred feet distant. It was found necessary to make the final measurements be-
tween 12:30 and 5:30 a. M., when the cars were not running.

Measurements made at various times upon a number of Clark and Weston
cells are given in the following table:

108

g°¢ + 8M jie + 3M PST + PM Pees ROM <a cee fools xe ea eens gai Magma ane ere | es aa ROA
OF + eM | TST + SM | 208 Ske. # oe thes Ree | oe aes hes Oe tad ee ee Tyee dies ehetace aise emits CET
ie tin Ay i mr ee ri Bre taage eine tg | Neeee oaee toraull he eee Sak A Ree een ce ae S| ae ce of Ig AVP ope sypep
or), | SMA £°2 | 5M 12 { aM MSS ESD SP eh Mian NGS | a 6'ce 8 oh Be esoe co ieifon||| aan ler 9: <r Bia mS apgl Ma) ele iera a afoterarabes | Harecwhal Chae! aialane'| acacasa: petal e cathe ITAN ‘
Cr + MM 08 —2M [oh —&§ a 16 —2§h 104 — 8M les —"M | ser—eM (oe —@m lon 4 *M TM
GT At jag OM OSs + SM 10'S —oM 108 —*M loz — mM lore —8m log + 2m | oz, + OM eT
Pr aM | PIE + OM | OOE + EM | O'OT + SM | OSL + MM | GL + YA | SOR + SM 10 FL + YM | SPO + OAK oT AA
2 FM 17S —®M 1ST +S oP + 8M 198 + 8M lee + PM | 2 "M |SPL+ 2M 178 —FAN rTM G68T Youre AY OPV s]]9,)
OT tM 108 —*M [oh + SM | oe; — SM | ozs — "mM | gee — mM | see — "MM loses — PM | oF — 5M ov
OT TM [8s iM Sh + EM 8h — FM oh — 8M PS HM Ter + SM | oes + OM | Te + OM “MM
OE TOM SL FFM SEL + PMT T6 +°M | EOL+ FM | 88 + 8M | LIZ— eM | Sor — eM G6 —"M “MM
ee ae geb—"0 | o—*0 | ge —89 | opT—to | GIE—89 [eerie fete etter feeeeee eee, 65
per <d a rer Kar "5 49) et aa gor 739 avis (dia) ave totp rio. 8 aha || evil Gis uxeiie 1 weal tl snalatia se erele) ohm say “i es Cer ie eRe FOSl

oe a r+) | vap+%) | fog +8 | eae ola | Mu leas oes a. caen eae er a ; [
state) a Sat )el mata '> GHEE A) NGO Gale eae eel lnnatterslniasvenll csc vicniareeaiell sletiars + atiesaeell| dates sat peter a "9 TOGO), OpRUL sTToD
A, Fea eae seu Saueen e DL Aa Slaw ePepel Beh LON | Gat ak Alene ener eed shit es ces Pecado a

*00°0Z "90°61 eGo 00°02 Zo’ 0% "00°61 "000% "8.6L "080'8I “dN,

“9681 “C681 “C6SI “H68I “68I “G68I “C68I “C681 “C6gI aieva

: = -AYNSVa

“6B ABW | “CZ"900 | ‘zDeUNe | ‘gttady | “Tudy | ‘opady | ‘eg -aeyy ‘SE IRW | ‘OL AVW || ao ea

“SLTOA °29°0% NT SITHO NOLSUM ANV WUYVTO 10° "WA AO SNOILVIAVA

‘TON ATA Vi

104

From this table it will be noticed that-when the Cadmium cells are first set
up they differ somewhat in KE. M. F. But after about a month they come to have
a normal value which is common to all. Moreover, this value is not affected by
any moderate change in temperature, and so far as our experience goes, these cells
are more easily made, and there is less variation in E. M. F. between them than
there is between the Clark cells.

It will be noticed that the values given in Table No. | are simply relative,
but we have made absolute determination of their E. M. F., and find for the Wes-
ton cell the value 1 0185! volts when the resistance is measured in Legal ohms; or
1.015633 volts when the resistance is measured in International ohms.

The result of our investigations lead to the following conclusions :

First. That the Cadmium cell is more easily constructed than the Clark cell.

Second. That it has practically no temperature coefficient.

Third. That the E. M. F. of the Cadmium cell is even less variable than that
of the Latimer Clark. |

Sor SoLvENTS FoR AVAILABLE PoTASH AND PHospHoRIC AciIpD. By H. A.

Huston AND J. M. BArReErr.

It seems to be accepted that in the case of worn soils solution in strong min-
eral acid gives little insight into the availability of their potash and phosphoric
acid. More recently the use of dilute organic acids, such as the one per cent. cit-
ric acid used br Dr. Bernard Dyer! and the acid ammonium oxalate used by Dr.
A. M. Peter’, has been tried with more promising results. The theory of the use
of dilute organic acid solutions seems to rest on the idea that plant roots give
off fluids containing organic acids which act on the soil in a degree comparable
with the effect of the dilute acids employed in the laboratory experiments.

While I do not question that plant roots in contact with polished marble, or
even granite, may make appreciable markings on the carbonate of lime and on
the feldspar of the granite, the conditions of the experiment, as usually conducted,
differ radically from those found in the field, for in the experiment the plants are
not supplied with normal soil water. So far as I have obseryed, normal soil
waters give an alkaline reaction. No inconsiderable part of the food of the plants
comes to it dissolved in the soil waters. The work of Dr. H. J. Wheeler* shows
what marked difficulty is encountered in growing plants on a well-drained soil

haying an acid reaction.

105

Soil waters rising from a subsoil are charged with more or less of mineral
salts; and if the upper layers of the soil have a different composition from the
lower layers in which the soil waters have been charged, we may expect chemical
changes to take place according to the well established facts of soil absorption.

In view of these considerations some work was undertaken with alkaline
solvents. The first solution used contained the same amount of ammonium oxa-
late as the solution used by Dr. Peter; but instead of the acid an amount of
ammonia equivalent to the acid was added. All work is based on the same rela-
tive quantities of soil and solution as used by Dr. Peter—200 grams soil and 1,000
ce solution. In working with Dyer’s solution the digestions continued at room
temperature for seven days, with shaking at frequent intervals. All the other
digestions were continued for five hours, with constant shaking in the apparatus
described in Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 55, and Wiley’s
Principles and Practice of Agricultural Analysis, Volume II, page 142. The
flasks were inverted every thirty seconds. The utmost care was used to secure

clean precipitates of potassium platinic chlorid.

THE SOILS USED.

The Kentucky soils are those used for work by the Association of Official
Agricultural Chemists for the past two years, and are described on page 31 of
Bulletin 47, Chemical Division United States Department of Agriculture. Briefly
stated, the soil requires the addition of potash to produce satisfactory crops of
corn, potatoes and tobacco, but seems to contain enough available potash for a
good wheat crop. The field tests indicate abundance of available phosphoric
acid. Soil No. 1 has received phosphoric acid and nitrogen, and Soil No. 2 has
received potash and nitrogen. Of the Indiana soils the one marked ‘‘ Turley” is
from Orange County. It is a medium clay resting on a red clay, which in turn
rests on the limestone rock of the region.

The land has been under cultivation for some seventy years, and at one time
was so badly worn as to be considered of very little value. The sample was
drawn after plowing for corn in the spring of 1896. In 1895 wheat had been so
poor on this land that hogs were turned in to eat the standing crop. In the spring
of 1896 the clover was so uneven that the land was put in corn, of which it pro-
duced in this very favorable year for corn, thirty-seven bushels per acre on the
unfertilized plats. The owner does not believe that it can produce a profitable
crop of wheat without the use of some commercial fertilizer or manure. The
usual application has been one hundred pounds ground bone per acre. The field

tests this year showed marked gain in corn from the use of acid phosphate and

106

potash, but increasing the amount of potash from thirty to sixty pounds per acre
gave no increased yield. Original timber, oak.

The soil marked ‘‘Campbell” is from Monroe County, and represents a cold,
badly drained clay, resembling the so-called ‘‘crawfish” clay. Commercial fertil-
izers are considered necessary for wheat. Field tests this year showed marked
gains on corn from the use of acid phosphate and potash, but increasing the
amount of potash from thirty to sixty pounds per acre gave no increased yield.
Original timber, poplar and mixed hard woods.

The station land is a second-bottom soil, resting on gravel. It is a dark, pro-
ductive loam. In favorable seasons the land will produce fifty bushels of corn
and thirty bushels of wheat per acre without the use of fertilizers or manure.
While commercial fertilizers have some effect in increasing the crops, the use of
them on this land has not been profitable. Original timber: Black walnut, oak,
maple, wild cherry and some hickory. The plats from which the samples were
drawn have been in wheat since 1888. Plats 3 E. 1 and 3 E. 4 have received no
fertilizers; plat 3 E. 2 has ‘received ‘‘complete”’ chemical fertilization, and plat
3 E. 5 has received applications of barnyard manure. In five years (1890 to 1894),
3 E. 1 lost to crop 8.1 pounds phosporic acid, 11.3 pounds potash, and 17.8 pounds
nitrogen; plat 3 E. 4 lost 7.2 pounds phosphoric acid, 10.1 pounds potash, and
15.9 pounds nitrogen; plat 3 E. 2 lost net 0.8 pounds phosphoric acid, 3.2 pounds
potash, and 7.9 pounds nitrogen; plat 3 E. 5 gained 4.2 pounds phosporic acid,
6.9 pounds potash, and 0.3 pounds nitrogen. The plats contain one-tenth acre
each. Plat 3 E. 4, a blank plat, contains humus (by Huston’s method) *5.3 per
cent., and nitrogen in this humus 4.52 per cent. Plat 3 E. 5, which has received
barnyard manure, contains humus 5.6 per cent., and nitrogen in this humus 5.71
per cent.

The mechanical analyses of the Indiana soils are shown in Table I.

TABLE I.
Z| | 2 a
SOURCE. Babee | Og | ix 3
Sl S jee Sauls 1 Sai
Go. te PSG a ae % | % %
Air eyiie tet a He) oa Se een he ciate 0.25 | 0.16 7.05 | 39.82 | 47.64 | 5.31 160.23
Campbell --ee.: --- oe 1.57 | 67 | 12.23 | 45.02 | 35.21 | 5.68 | 99.78
Station 3 E.4......................-] 156 | 256 | 13.95 | 35.42 | 36.54 9.94 99.97

107

Since Peter’s solution and the alkaline ammonium oxalate contain a salt of
ammonia, it was thought that the phenomena of soil absorption might come into
play. To test this, a solution of the same alkalinity, but containing the samé
amount of ammonia as chloride as was contained in the other solutions in the
form of oxalate, was used. To test the question of soil absorption pure and
simple, a neutral solution of ammonium chlorid, 17.2 grams to the liter, the same
amount of ammonium chlorid as in the previous solution was used.

The soils were also digested with ammonium hydrate, sp. gr. 0.96, containing
17.2 grams ammonium chlorid per liter, and with ammonium hydrate, sp. gr. 0.96
alone. Ammonium hydrate was tried, because, as I have previously shown’,
phosphates of iron and alumina are dissolved by ammonium hydrate. At first
we hoped to utilize the ammonia and ammonium chlorid mixture, but in the
presence of the ammonium chlorid not a trace of phosphoric acid was dissolved.

On the Kentucky soils a number of solvents were tried at a higher tempera-
ture. This modification seemed no improvement—rather the reverse ; and it was
decided to use room temperature.

Table II contains the results of the work. The total potash in each soil, and
the amount of potash and phosphoric acid removed by hydrochloric acid, sp. gr.

1,115, are also added for the purpose of comparison :

108

ILF | Se0°%} 0080 | 0 F600" | PELO”
7A UY lhe eel Laat) ¢gs0" | 8S80" | 0
LtF | SS6T| 9810" | 0 OOLO’ | GLLO"
WAG 0 GPEO" | 6EE0" | 0
OLF | 918°T) 6S20° | 0 F600" | POLO
ee celle 0 P9EO | SZFO" | O
OS | 896'T| 9410" | 0 GROO | SBTO"
1G ecoinaig 0 8rd" | 0640" | 0
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109

It will be seen that Dyer’s solution and Peter’s solution resemble each other
in a general way in their action on the phosphates of the Kentucky soil (rich in
phosphates) and on the Turley soil (poor in phosphates); while on the Campbell
land (poor in phosphates), and on the station land (fairly good in phosphates)
they differ radically.

In their action on potash the two solutions differ widely in the case of the
Kentucky soils containing too little available potash for corn, while they resemble
each other in their action on the other soils, which seem from field tests with corn
to contain considerably higher available potash than the Kentucky soils.

Dyer’s solution extracts more phosphoric acid from the Kentucky soil that had
received phosphoric acid than from the one receiving none. From the station soil
it extracts the highest phosphoric acid from the soil that had received superphos-
phate; but it failed to extract as much phosphoric acid from the soil receiving
its phosphoric acid in the form of manure as it extracted from either of the plats
that had received no fertilizers. On the average, Dyer’s solution extracts no
more phosphoric acid from the station soils known to contain a fair supply of
available phosphoric acid than from the clay soils known to be very deficient in
phosphoric acid.

Dyer’s solution dissolves more potash from the Kentucky soil that had re-
ceived potash than from the one not receiving any.

From the clay soils, which seem from field tests with corn to be somewhat
deficient in available potash, it dissolves relatively high amounts of potash.
From the station soils it dissolved no more potash from the soil that had received
full applications of muriate of potash than from the soils that had received no
potash.

Peter’s solution would indicate that there was a good supply of available
phosphoric acid in the Campbell soil, where it is known to be deficient. It would
also indicate that the Turley land was higher in available potash than the station
soil, although the field tests indicate to the contrary.

The acid solutions of Dyer and Peter seem to fail when applied to soils of
different types, although their indications are in the right direction when applied
to soils of exactly the same type, such as the Kentucky soils.

The alkaline ammonium oxalate dissolves practically as much potash from
the Kentucky soil as from the station soil, although the available potash is much
higher in the latter, as shown by field tests.

tO =

it dissolves about the same amount of phosphoric acid from the Kentucky
soil as from the station soil, both of which have a fair amount of available phos-
phoric acid, although the former has a much higher total phosphoric acid con-
tent. It distinguishes these soils very sharply from the clay soils known to be
deficient in phosphoric acid.

The alkaline ammonium chlorid distinguishes the fertilized from the unfertil-
ized plats very sharply on the station soil and to a fair extent on the Kentucky
soil. Its action on the clay lands is in accord with what knowledge we have in
regard to the potash in these soils.

The ammonium chlorid dissolved in ammonia, sp. gr. 0.96, gives results on
potash in the same general direction as the mildly alkaline ammonium chlorid,
but the differences are less sharply defined. As this solution is rather troublesome
to work with, I would prefer to use the mildly alkaline one.

The neutral ammonium chlorid distinguishes very well the Kentucky soil
from the station soil, gives fair indications on the clay soils, but fails to show the
effect of the potash salts applied to the station soil.

Ammonium hydrate, sp. gr. 0.96, gives results on potash that are quite at
variance with what is known about these soils, but on phosphoric acid it gives
promising results. The character of the individual results indicates that the
digestion was not continued long enough to complete the reaction. Yet the results
clearly distinguished the lands poor in phosphoric acid from those known to be
‘well supplied with available phosphoric acid. The only case where it seems at
fault is on plat 1 of the station soil. But every other solvent acts in the same
way, indicating that the sample from this plat is really higher in phosphoric acid
than the sample from the other blank plat, No. 4. Crop tests covering five years

show that plat 1 has a crop-producing capacity about 15 per cent. greater than
plat 4.

Ammonium chlorid in neutral and alkaline solution removes notable quan-

tities of lime from soils. The quantities were determined and are given in

Table III.

111

TABLE III.

PER CENT. OF CALCIUM OXID REMOVED BY VARIOUS SOLVENTS.

Z aS oe eee
‘) | (>) | was
fee (eee) oe
ot ee ee
Cs mo | ice wi “OSs
SOURCE OF SAMPLE. A Be | Sg ees
Safa) sg28a| Ovs
aHod | Pod | Me
=——“_—~_ =—~_—-~ S= ~
| a | a |
| |
| 6
ESS CSS a Oe ee her 0: b445 ib. © ONS / 0.51
| 6
BRB AN Or Bditin 7 fk vuniote baat eens Gah Ses 5 122 196 ol
BRE Le Vt iaraiays Dtiags IONS Ae etal oa the Se enchal oie eee .066 By A eae yer
PENCNE, ect ero ha we Foes weaken ak day .114 a Lo ae Berea te
PbAOTN SRT: Les ce Sproat Miels kre. aca = «ee aE .096 oSLGT4 | Sasetacee
SOI IESS a a ieee eee Par ie | .089 | a aoe ees ort
SURRMNEM SENT Era Forage eas banal mame d Po ge eae 113 | .226 447
CIS AS SS Dole name ee eee ey ae | 105 227 A472

It will be seen that the alkaline ammonium chlorid removes about one-fourth
and neutral ammonium chlorid about one-half as much lime as the hydrochloric
acid used in the customary method of soil analysis. The station soils are prac-
tically free from carbonates, containing an average of only 0.015 per cent. of
carbon dioxid.

Of the solvents used we consider alkaline ammonium chlorid and neutral
ammonium chlorid promising for available potash, and ammonium hydrate prom-
ising for available phosphoric acid. Alkaline ammonium oxalate seems to do
very well for available phosphoric acid in some cases, but the material is rather
troublesome to work with on account of the large amount of organic matter that
goes into solution. Where ammonium chlorid is present the solutions are nearly
free from organic matter, filter very rapidly, and the ignition is readily made,
leaving only a small amount of bases to be removed before determining the potash.
Tatlock’s method was tried for potash, but proved unsatisfactory.

We have tried chlorids of calcium, magnesium, and sodium, but prefer to use
the ammonium salt, since it introduces no involatile base which would interfere
with the potash determination.

We are now at work with ammonium hydrate, continuing the digestion for a
longer time and changing the strength of the solution. We are also testing am-
monium chlorid dissolved in 1 per cent. hydrochloric acid. We shall also test

112

the question of the relative quantities of the soil and solvents used as the present
amcunts—200 grams soil to 1 liter of solvent—seems to involve too small a vol-
ume of solvent. While we feel encouraged by the outcome of the work reported
above, it must be borne in mind that before any method of soil testing can be con-
sidered satisfactory, it must give reliable indications on soils of different types
that have been subjected to investigation by field tests; and these tests must not
be confined to one crop, but must relate to all the crops likely to be produced on
the land under investigation. From data now at hand it seems probable that
certain soils may have ample potash in an available form to produce good crops
of cereals, while not having enough to produce profitable crops of corn, potatoes,
or tobacco. This phase of the matter must be kept in mind in deciding upon any
definite amount of soluble ingredients which shall be used as a minimum in judg-
ing of the fertilizer needs of a soil.
Purdue Agricultural Experiment Station, November, 1896.
(1) Jour. Chem. Soc., London, March, 1894. This paper contains a resume of
suggestions by various authors and special investigations by Dr. Dyer.
(2) Chem. Div. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bull. 47, p. 32.
(3) Rhode Island Agr. Exp. Sta., 7th Ann. Rpt., p. 152.
(4) Chem. Div. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bull. 38, p. 84; Wiley’s Agr. Analysis, vol. 1,
p- 326.
(5) Chem. Div. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bull. 31, p. 99.
(6) Determined by Harry Snyder. See Bull. 47, U. S. Dept. Agr., Chem. Div.,
p- 49.

ACTION OF AMMONIUM CITRATE AND Citric Acrip on Basic Sitac. By H.
A. Huston anp W. J. JONES, JR.

[ ABSTRACT. |

This is a continuation of the work carried on for several years by the authors
under the general head of the availability of commercial phosphates. This paper
deals with the two most prominent materials proposed for determining the ayail-
ability of the phosphoric acid in the slag. The factors controlling the action of
the reagents are discussed under the following heads:

I. Influence of time of digestion.
II. Influence of temperature.
IlJ. Influence of acid (citric) ard alkali (ammonia).

IV. Influence of quantity of slag used.

113

V. Action of citric acid on slag.

Amount of acid neutralized in times ranging from one-half to five
hours, at 25° C and at 65° C. Amount of phosphoric acid remain-
ing in solution at the end of these periods. The phosphoric acid
in solution decreases with a rise in temperature and with an increase
in time.

VI. Comparison of the U. S. official method with the method proposed by
Dr. Paul Wagner, including special molybdate and magnesia solu-
tions.

The paper will be found in complete form in Bul. 49, Chem. Div. U.S. Dept.

Agr., p. 68-72.

Laboratory State Chemist of Indiana, Purdue Univ., Nov., 1896.

THE CHARACTER OF THE VOLATILE Matrer Lost spy Birumrnous Coals AT
100° C. By W. E. Burk.

The conditions accompanying the common method of determining moisture
in coal suggested a study of the nature and amount of volatile matter given off at
the temperature of determination.

The work was done on two classes of Indiana coals, one high in moisture, the
other considerably lower, the operation consisting in passing the volatile products
from the coal heated approximately to 100° C, together with a current of dry air
over copper oxide in a combustion furnace, absorbing the moisture coming over
with calcium chloride, and carbon dioxide arising from combustion of any vola~
tile hydrocarbons in a caustic potash solution.

A hard glass combustion tube was used, which extended some 20 c. m. froni
the forward end of the furnace. This portion of the tube was jacketed with a
glass sleeve with rubber plugs, and arranged with entrance and exit openings
through which a continuous current of steam was passed. By this means a tem-
perature approximating 100° C was maintained through the forward-part of the
tube in which a weighed quantity of powdered coal was placed in an aluminum
boat. A slow current of dry air was passed, and the heating of coal and com-
bustion of volatile products maintained for one hour. The boat was then removed
and the absorption bulbs weighed, after which they were attached again and the
tube heated for a further twenty to thirty minutes. The boat containing coal was

weighed in a glass enclosing tube, and after the operation was allowed to cool in

114

same tube and under similar conditions, thereby preventing any reabsorption
of moisture while cooling.
Determinations were made on from one to three grams of coal, giving reste

of which the following are fair examples:

‘ - Wei revere . | Carbon Found

ee tageR. of Coal at 100°C. | ofEachTabe, | Moisture, | From 0H
|

1.4217 gr. | 1994 | 2014 14.00% 048%

1.1195 “ 1596 1625 14.25% 058%

3.1079 2111 | 2113 6.78% 022%

3.2356 “ 2152 2142 6.65% 025%

2.9408 * 1967 1967 6.65% 037%

The gain in weight of the calcium chloride tube corresponds with a slight
difference to the loss in weight of the coal, giving per cent. of moisture, which
agreed very well with separate determination of moisture in the same coals
by the ordinary method of heating for one hour in a toluene bath, results being
slightly higher, due perhaps to current of air passing over coal, removing moisture
more completely.

The gain in weight of the caleium chloride tube exceeded the loss in weight
of the coal more than what would arise from the combustion 6f any volatile
hydrocarbons present, as indicated by carbon found and calculated as methane.
This excess of water found may indicate presence of free hydrogen, but a correct
explanation of its presence, as well as of the source of carbon found, can not be
made without an accompanying analysis of the gases given off from the coal at
100° C, as the small percentage of carbonic oxide, carbon dioxide and hydro-
carbon volatilized at 100° varies widely with different coals. The per cent. of
volatile hydrocarbons given off in these experiments —.0299% to .077%—calculat-
ing as methane, is probably higher than occurs in the regular determination of
moisture because of the air current, while on the other hand the somewhat lower
temperature of these experiments would tend to modify the difference. As in no
case, however, does the loss of volatile matter other than water nearly reach one-
tenth of one per cent., the error in calculating the same as moisture is of no prac-

tical importance.

Notres ON DIPHENYLSELENON AND SELENTHREN. By Ropert Lyon.

Notes on L— anp B— Lupanin. By SHERMAN .DAVIS.

THE PuHysioLoGicAL ACTION OF CoMPOUNDS CONTAINING BIVALENT CARBON,
By Jie Ua NER:

THE CALCULATION OF THE HEATING EFFECT OF COALS FROM THE PROXIMATE
ANALYsis. By W. A. Noyes.

So far as I am aware, no satisfactory formula has ever been given for the cal-
culation of the heating effect of coals from the amounts of fixed carbon, volatile
combustible matter and sulphur present. It has been generally assumed that the
amount of oxygen in coals varies so greatly that no rational basis for such a cal-
culation could exist. During the spring of 1895, Mr. J. R. McTaggart and Mr.
H. W. Caver made careful analyses and determined the heating effect with Hem-
pel’s calorimetre, for six Indiana coals. Recently I have had the opportunity of
examining similar analyses and calorimetric tests of fifteen Pittsburgh coals, made
under the direction of Prof. N. W. Ford, of the University of Ohio,

In the analyses as given, the amount of oxygen in these coals appears to vary
between quite wide limits. On subtracting from the total oxygen the oxygen
present in the form of water, however, it was found that the average amount of
oxygen of combustiWe matter was 7.72 per cent. for the Indiana coals and 8.05* for
the Pittsburgh coals, or a general average of 7.96 per cent. and a maximum devi-
ation from that average of 1.23 per cent. In only one coal is the difference from
the mean more than one per cent.

Since the per cent. of hydrogen in these coals is subject to only a slight
variation, it follows that the combustible matters present in all of these coals so
far as they consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, have a nearly constant com-
position. There should, therefore, be a nearly constant factor for this total com-
bustible matter. In order to calculate this factor for the coals in question it hag
been assumed that one-half of the sulphur is found in the volatile combustible
matter as calculated from the difference between total volatile matter and water,
and that the fixed carbon is given with sufficient accuracy by subtracting the ash
from the coke. In other words, the combustible matter was formed for the pur-

poses of this calculation by subtracting from 100 the per cents. of water and ash

*In calculating this result Professor Ford’s figures for oxygen were corrected by adding
three-eighths of the weight of sulphurs, on the supposition that iron pyrites in the coal ig
burned to ferric oxide in the ash. See Jour. Am. Ch. Soc. XVII.

116

and one-half of the per cent. of sulphur. When the heating effect, as found in
the calorimetre (calculated on the basis of the fuel burned and vapors of water at
100° C.) was divided by this per cent. of combustible matter it was found that one
gram of combustible matter gives, on the average, for the Indiana coals 8073
calories and for the Pittsburgh coals 8078 calories.

We may, therefore, give the following empirical rule for the calculation of
the heating effect of coals: Find the combustible matter by subtracting from 100 the
per cents. of water and ash and one-half of the per cent. of sulphur, and multiply this re-
mainder by 80.7. The result will give the heating effect of the fuel burned to liquid water.

For the twenty-one coals referred to, the heating effect calculated by this rule
shows a maximum deviation from the calorimetre test of two and one-fourth per
cent., while the agreement is in most cases, much closer than that.

It would not be safe to apply this rule to coals known to be of very different
origin or character, until a similar comparison of calorimetre results with the

analysis has heen made for such coals.

NOTES ON THE Fiora oF LAKE Cicott AND LAKE MAXINKucKEE. By
Rospert HEsSLER.

‘The following notes on the flora of the region surrounding Lakes Cicott and
“Maxinkuckee are offered as a contribution toward a complete flora of Indiana;
they are based on personal observations made during the period beginning with
August, 1894, and ending with December, 1896.

Longcliff, just west of Logansport, has been the basis of operation, so to speak,
and this locality has been examined most fully. 1 thought it best, therefore, to
make mention of the noteworthy plants found here, although the flora does not
differ materially from that common to the central part of the State. It is the
usual glacial drift flora, with beech as the most common forest tree.

The region about the lakes is in marked contrast. The upland soil is made
up of a fine sand which contains only the merest trace of lime, and with oak as
the prevailing tree. The lowlands in places are wet or swampy. Tamarack
swamps and peat bogs occur here and there, but are nowhere of great extent. It
is, perhaps, unnecessary to state that the wet northern portion of Indiana is being
drained more and more every year, and the land, exceedingly fertile, brought
under cultivation. The completion of the Kankakee drainage system will, in

time. be followed by numerous minor systems, and in the course of a few years the

117

‘Marsh Flora,” if we may so call it, will have disappeared from Indiana. A\l-
ready many of the plants, once common, are rare and restricted to isolated areas ;
the natural habitat being destroyed, the extermination of plants naturally follows.
In my own numerous excursions [ have, in many instances, been unable to find
more than one or two specimens of certain species after three seasons of close
search. The reports of other observers in different parts of the State show a sim-
ilar result. Even now the swamps and bogs mentioned in this paper are being
ditched and drained, and in a very short time the last vestiges of a once common
flora will have disappeared.

The flora of the uplands, with, perhaps, a few exceptions, is in no immediate
danger of extinction. It will be many years before the comparatively barren oak
flats and oak ridges will be brought under cultivation, and even then species will
continue to lead a more or less precarious existence in waste places and along
fence rows. Species with showy flowers, or those that are useful, are among the
first to disappear; this being especially true of the flora of lakes visited by sum-
mer tourists.

A few remarks on the location and general surroundings of the chief localities
embraced in this paper will render unnecessary in the notes extended references to
localities, which would otherwise be frequent. For instance, ‘‘Swamp east of
Lake Cicott” refers to one definite locality, as described below.

Lake Crcorr is located near the western border of Cass County, about eight
miles west of Logansport. At present it is an oval body of water less than half a
mile in length, east to west. Formerly it was much larger, with an irregular
shore line. The north and south banks are high, even bluffy; those on the east
and west low and flat. There is no outlet, but in the event of high water the ex-
cess would drain into Crooked Creek, a mile to the east. The recession of the
water has been in the west, and this portion is now dry and covered by a dense
growth of weeds, chiefly ragweed and smartweeds. The water is very clear and
contains few aquatics. The soil of the neighborhood is sandy, a fine-grained
eolian sand with little lime, and with a vegetation characteristic to such soils,
chiefly oak, with an entire absence cf beech. The country is gently rolling, be-
coming level to the west and north. The railroad station at the lake is Cicott,
also spelled Ciecott.

Swamp East oF Lake Crcort is situated about one mile due east of the
lake, and marks approximately the boundary between the sandy lands on the west
and the glacial drift soils on the east. At present it is reduced to a few acres, and
is being rapidly encroached upon by drainage, and will soon cease to be. The

number of rare species found in it is remarkable; some were seen nowhere else.
9

118

LAKE MAXINKUCKEE. This well-known lake, several miles in length, is
located in the southwest corner of Marshall County, about thirty-five miles north
of Logansport. The soil in the vicinity is sandy, especially in the uplands. The
most interesting butanical localities are along the low marshy southern extremity,
and, unless otherwise indicated, my references are to this part.

TAMARACK Swamp, SoutH OF DELONG, is located in the extreme northwest
corner of Fulton County, within half a mile of the station on the Michigan Divi-
sion of the Vandalia Railroad, and a few miles south of Lake Maxinkuckee. It
has an irregular outline, is narrow in places and contains several hundred acres.
In the center is the remains of an old lake, now almost covered over by a mass of
ericads and peat moss. The whole region has recently been ditched, the ditch in
places passing through peat four feet in thickness. This drainage is an example
of what is going on all over northern Indiana.

TAMARACK Swamp, East oF MONTERAY, is several miles west of the last
named swamp, and just east of the little town of Monteray, in Pulaski County,
It covers less than fifty acres, but is very dense, and also contains the remains of
a lake.

Sanpy Lanp, West oF LOGANSPORT, is interesting, botanically. It begins
abruptly at Kenneth, three miles west of Logansport, in the form of a triangle,
widening from a narrow point to a mile or more, and gradually fading or disap-
pearing at Logansport. Geologically it is a limestone ridge covered with wind-
blown sand in a glacial region. At the western extremity it rises abruptly, as
already indicated, and is more or less bluffy on the sides, especially on the south,
fronting the Wabash River. From a height of about forty feet at the angle, it
gradually declines to the east and finally merges into the ordinary ‘second bottom’
soil of the valley. The sandy covering, that is, the soil, is deep on the north and
very thin on the south, the underlying rock being bare in places. The Western
portion is covered with a thin oak wood; the remainder is in cultivation. Cer-
tain species occurring here plentifully are either absent in the other localities or
oceur sparingly.

THE WasaAsH River at Logansport, and for many miles below, has its bed
eroded in the limestone; the bluffs in places are perpendicular and often twenty-
five feet high . the bottom is of solid rock, sandbars being few and small. The
periodical high water washes out everything before it, and, therefore, plants
usually found on the sandy banks of rivers are notably absent.

Localities other than the above are referred to b¥ name or descriptively under

the proper species. Where no locality is given the species is general.

119

In regard to species included and excluded, the list is limited as follows:

(a.) To phanerograms or flowering plants.

(b.) Plants new to Indiana, /. e., plants not given in Coulter’s Catalogue of
the Plants of Indiana.

‘e.) Plants rare in Indiana, or locally distributed, according to the above
catalogue.

(d.) Plants noteworthy for some particular reason.

(e.) Excluded species are those common throughout the State and which
may be seen at any time. At the suggestion of Prof. Stanley Coulter, however,
some species have been mentioned on account of their rarity or absence, an ab-
sence well marked to one accustomed to note the plants about him.

The nomenclature is that of the sixth edition of Gray’s Manual, as at present
used by the State Biological Survey. For the benefit of the reader not familiar
with the botanical names the common English names have been added.

Specimens of species mentioned, unless common in other parts of the State,
are in my herbarium. A set comprising those new to the State, and a number of
the rarer ones, has been presented to the Biological Survey. In case of doubt as
to the identity of a species, critical comparisons were made with the specimens in
the herbarium of Purdue University. My thanks are due to Prof. Stanley Coulter
for his kind assistance in making comparisons and in determining several species
which were in leaf only.

Anemone Pennsylvanica L. General but nowhere abundant.

Anemonella thalictroides Spach. Rue Anemone. Common in sandy soils west
and north, rare in drift soils.

Thalictrum polygamum Muhl. Tall Meadow Rue. Seen occasionally in wet
soils about the lakes.

Ranunculus multyidus, var. terrestris, G. Two plants only found in a dried-up

pool on the western border of Lake Maxinkuckee. None of the leaves were fili-

form.
Ranunculus sceleratus L. Cursed Crowfoot. Frequent in the brooks about
Logansport; not seen at the lakes.

Isopyrum biternatum T. and G, Plentiful in- beech woods, rare in sandy soil

woods.

Caltha palustris L. Marsh Marigold. Frequent in wet places.

Coptis trifolia Salisb. Goldthread. Common in one small locality, tamarack
swamp at DeLong; does not occur at Lake Cicott. No other notes.

Caulophyllum thalictroides Michx. Blue Cohosh. Rare in drift.

120

Jeffersonia diphylla Pers. Twin-leaf. Not seen; absent.

Brasenia peltata Pursh. Water-shield. Common in Lake Cicott; no notes
on other localities.

Nelumbo lutea Pers. Water Chinguapin. Absent.

Nymphea reniformis 1D). C. White Water Lily. Lakes, ponds and slow

streams; common.
Nuphar advena Ait. Yellow Pond Lily. With the last, plentiful.

Sarracenia purpurea L. Pitcher Plant. Common in tamarack swamps around
Lake Maxinkuckee. Not seen at Lake Cicott.

Corydalis flavula D.C. Plentiful about Logansport in all soils.

Arabis hirsuta Scop. Frequent along the banks of the Wabash. Plants
smoothish; stems clustered. Not given in Coulter’s catalogue. |

Arabis dentata T. & G. Frequent on dry limestone cliffs and in hilly drift.

Erysimum asperum D, C. Western Wall Flower. Common on a few lime-
stone cliffs west of Logansport.

Sisymbrium eanescens Nutt. Tansy Mustard. Very common in the sandy
lands west of Logansport, not seen in other localities.

Polanisva graveolens Raf. Noticeably absent irom the banks of the Wabash
River, and not seen anywhere.

Helianthemum Conadense Michx. Frost-weed. Frequent in dry, sandy soils
about the lakes.

Lechea major Michx. Pinweed. Seen in two localities only, and here plenti-
ful; one at Lake Cicott, in moist, sandy ground; the other east of Monterey.

Lechea minor L. A few plants seen near Lake Cicott; one locality.

Viola pedata L. , Bird-foot Violet. Plentiful on sand ridges at Lake Cicott.

Solea concolor Ging. Green Violet. Rare, on limestone, west of Logansport.

Cerastium arvense Var. oblongifolium H. & B. Common in the Wabash Valley.

Hypericum prolificum L. Shrubby St. John’s Wort. Rarely seen; east of Lake
Cicott only.

Hypericum cistifolium Lam. In several places; wet limestone ledges on the
Wabash; plentiful where it does occur.

Geranium Carolinianum L. A weed along the railroads.

Xanthoxylum Americanum Mill. Prickly Ash. Frequent in drift.

Tlex verticillata G. Winter Berry. Frequent about the lakes.

Nemopanthes fascicularis Raf. Frequent in tamarack swamps at DeLong; not
seen anywhere else.

Rhamnus lanceolata Pursh. A few bushes on the limestone outcrops west of

Logansport.

121

Ceanothus Americanus L. New Jersey Tea. Common everywhere in dry, up-
land, sandy soils; not seen in drift.

Vitis Labrusea L. Fox Grape. Rare; about the lakes.

Negundo aceroidesM. Box Elder. In drift soils, rare.

Rhus venenata D. C. Poison Tree. Poisin Dog-wood. Excessively common
about DeLong in tamarack swamps and peat bogs. Not seen at Lake Cicott. Its
presence in a swamp acts as an effectual barrier to the entrance of many persons,
especially those readily susceptible to its noxious influence. Many persons proof
against the common Poison Ivy readily succumb to this species.

Rhus Canadensis Marsh. Fragrant Sumach. Very common and forming
thickets in the thin, sandy soils west of Logansport and in the limestone ledges.
Rarely seen in other localities.

Polygala Senega L. Seneca Snakeroot. Common in sandy soils east of Lake
Cicott; more or less general in sand soils, but nowhere common.

Polygala sanguinea L. Rarely seen, in moist alluvial soils at lakes.

Polygala cruciata L. A few plants in one locality only, a moist place south-
east of Lake Cicott.

Lupinus perennis L. Wild Lupine. Common about the lakes.

Psoralea onobrychis Nutt. Rare, in sandy soils.

Amorpha canescens Nutt. Lead Plant. Seen occasionally at Lake Cicott.
No notes on its occurrence in other localities.

Petalostemon violaceus M. Rare; in sandy soils.

Petalostemon candidus M. With the last and rare.

Tephrosia Virginiana Pers. Goat’s Rue. Lake regions; rare.

Astragalus Canadensis L. Along the west shore of Lake Maxinkuckee; not
rare.

Desmodium canescens D. C. In sandy soils.

Lespedeza violacea Pers. Common in sandy soils west of Logansport; also oc-
casional in other places.

Lespedeza reticulata Pers. Sandy woods of lake regions; frequent.

Lespedeza capitata M. With the last and common.

Lespedeza angustifolia Ell. A single large, bushy plant was found along the
railroad east of Lake Cicott; perhaps a migrant.

Vicia Caroliniana Walt. Sandy soils about the lakes; frequent. Several
other species, belonging apparently to the Viciew group, were found in leaf only,
and on account of their uncertain identity are here excluded.

Apios tuberosa M. Absent.

122

Gymnocladus Canadensis Lam. Coffeenut Tree. Seen occasionally in drift
soils at Logansport: trees often large.

Prunus Americava Mar. Wild Plum. Rare.

Prunus Virginiana L. Choke Cherry. Limestone bluffs; rare.

Spiraea salicifolia L. Common Meadow Sweet. Common in wet situations
about the lakes.

Spireae tomentosa L. Hardhack. Steeple-bush. With the last, but rare.

Spiraea lobata Jacq. Queen of the Prairie. With the preceding.

Physocarpus opulifolius Maxim. Nine-bark. Rare; along Crooked Creek.

Potentilla Norvegica L. A weed in cultivated ground; common in drift.

Potentilla fruticosa L. Shrubby Cinquefoil. In a few places near the lakes,
and here common.

Pyrus arbutifolia Var. melanocarpa Hook. Choke-berry. Frequent in low
lands at the lakes.

Amelanchier Canadensis T. & G. Service-berry. Generally distributed, but
rare.

Amelanchier Canadensis Var. oblongifolia T. & G. Dwarf June-berry. On
limestone cliffs of the Wabash; not rare.

Sazifraga Pennsylvanica L. Meadow Saxifrage. Frequent in wet places.

Parnassia Caroliniana Michx. Abundant in many wet places.

Ribes floridum L’Her. Wild Black Currant. Seen occasionally in wet woods
near Logansport.

Drosera species. Although a very close search was made for species of Dros-
era, not a single plant was found.

Hamamelis Virginiana L. Witch-hazel. None seen.

Liquidamber Styraciflua L. Sweet Gum. Seems to be absent.

Myriophylium. No notes.

Lythrum alatum Pursh. Loosestrife. Common near the water’s edge Lake
Cicott; less common at Lake Maxinkuckee; moist places along the Wabash.

Decodon verticillatus Ell. Swamp Loosestrife. I have no specimens and no
notes on its occurrence, but at this writing (December, 1896) believe it occurs in
at least one wet place near Lake Cicott. I may add, parenthetically, that it oc-
curs plentifully at Turkey Lake, in the northeast portion of Kosciusko County.

Epilobium angustifolium L. Great Willow Herb. A single large specimen of
this handsome plant was found on the edge of the Tamarack Swamp at DeLong.
Not in Coulter’s Catalogue.

Heracleum lanatum Michx. Cow-Parsnip. Moist places about Lake Cicott ;

not rare.

123

Eryngium yuecaefolium Michx. Rattlesnake Master. Frequent about the
lakes, especially Lake Cicott.

Aralia racemosa L. Spikenard. In drift soils; rare.

Viburnum acerifolium L. Dockmackie. Common in sandy soils.

Triosteum perfoliatum L. Horse Gentian. Rare.

Triosteum angustifolium L. Common in sandy soils. (Besides these well-marked
forms there occur, especially in the sandy soils west of Logansport, specimens that
partake of the characters of both. Ina large collection all stages of transition of
one to the other may be seen. Are possibly hybrids. ) ;

Houstonia caerulea L. Bluets. Only two plants were found, one of which was
in bloom, on the grassy edge of a thin sandy woods, about one mile south of Lake
Cicott. The leaves are very hairy. i

Houstonia purpurea L. A narrow-leaved form is common in the sandy lands
west of Logansport; also seen about the lakes.

Galium boreale L. Northern Bedstraw. - Noticed in three localities. Common
in the swamp east of Lake Cicott and also common on the southern edge of Lake
Maxinkuckee; rare on the wet limestone ledges just west of Logansport, on the
Wabash. The occurrence in Cass County greatly extends its southern range in
Indiana, according to Prof. S. Coulter.

Valeriana edulis Nutt. Common in a wet meadow on the southeast edge of
Lake Maxinkuckee and inthe swamp east of Lake Cicott, seen nowhere else.
This species is not reported in Coulter’s Catalogue.

Valerianeila radiata Dufr. According to my notes, occurs along the railroad
east of Cicott, but I can not vouch for its identity ; no specimens preserved.

Eupatorium sesilifolium L. Upland Boneset. Occasional in sandy lands west
of Logansport.

Liatris scariosa Willd. Frequent in dry sandy soil.

Liatris spicata Willd. Common in wet situations.

Grindelia squarrosa Dunal. Appearing along the railroads.

Solidago latifolia L. Broad-leaved Goldenrod. Rare.

Solidago uliginosa Nutt. Wet places.

Solidago speciosa Nutt. Rare; in sandy lands west of Logansport and in the
neighborhood of Lake Cicott; not seen elsewhere. This showy species is not re-
ported in Coulter’s Catalogue of the Plants of Indiana.

Solidago patula Muh!. Common in wet places.

Solidago rugosa Mill. Collected at Lake Maxinkuckee in the fall of 1894,
No notes.

124

Solidago ulmifolia Muh]. Common in thin woods, sandy lands west of Logans-
port.

Solidago arguta Ait. With the last, rare.

Solidago serotina Ait. Collected at Lake Maxinkuckee. No notes.

Solidago nemoralis Ait. Frequent in dry places at Lake Cicott.

Solidago radula Nutt. Collected at Lake Maxinkuckee.

Sohdago rigida L. Some large plants at Cicott; frequent.

Solidago Ridellii Fr. Common in wet places.

Solidago lanceolata L. Common.

Solidago tenuifolia Pursh. At Lake Cicott; rare.

(Besides the above several Solidagos of doubtful identity were collected in
different localities. Where no locality is given in the list the species occurs gen-
erally. These remarks also apply to the Asters. Asters are not represented as
well as the Solidagos. )

Aster Nove-Anglie L. Common in wet places.

Aster azureus Lindl. Wet meadow east of Cicott.

Aster cordifolius L. Frequent.

Aster laevis L. Frequent.

Aster umbellatus Mill. Very tall and common in a wet place east of the Ken-
neth Stone Quarries, west of Logansport; rare at Lake Maxinkuckee.

Aster linariifolius L. Occurs sparingly on the southern high, dry, sandy
bank of Lake Cicott; not found elsewhere.

Silphium terebinthinaceum L. Frequent; open, sandy soils.

Silphium laciniatum L. The Rosin-weed was not seen by me, but a friend
brought me some leaves from the extreme northwest corner of Cass County; is re-
ported common on the prairies to the northwest.

Silphium int-grifolium Michx. Frequent about Lake Cicott.

Parthenium integrifolium L. Very rare; a few plants south of Cicott.

Ambrosia psilostachya D.C. Seen in leaf only; along the Vandalia Railroad
at Marmont; evidently a migrant. Not in Coulter’s Catalogue.

Echinacea purpurea Moench. Purple Cone-Flower. Generally distributed,
but not common.

Rudbeckia subtomentosa Pursh. About Lake Cicott; rare.

Lepachys pinnata T. & G. General, but rare.

Helianthus occidentalis Rid. In dry places, Lake Cicott ; rare.

Helianthus divaricatus L. Sandy woods west of Logansport; rare.

Coreopsis palmata Nutt. High south bank, Lake Cicott; rare.

Coreopsis tripteris L. Sandy woods; common.

125

Dysodia chrysanthemoides Lag. Along the railroad at Cicott; evidently a
migrant. Not seen elsewhere.

Artemisia caudata Michx. High, sandy bank, Lake Cicott; rare; a few plants
only. Not seen elsewhere.

Cacalia atriplicifolia L. Dry, sandy soil, along the railroad, east of Lake
Cicott ; possibly a migrant.

Cacalia tuberosa Nutt. Tuberous Indian Plantain. Swamp east of Lake Cicott
only, and here common.

Cnicus arvensis Hoffm. Canada Thistle. Noticed a small patch at Logans-
port by the side of the railroads; is a migrant.

Prenanthes racemosa Michx. East of Cicott; rare. Not in Coulter’s Cata-
logue, but reported since then.

Lactuea scariola L. Prickly Lettuce. This rank weed is excessively common
along the railroads, and is rapidly spreading.

Lobelia cardinalis L. Not seen; if present at all, is certainly rare. (Common
at Turkey Lake, in Kosciusko County.)

Lobelia spicata Lam. Frequent in dry, sandy soils.

Lobelia Kalmvi L. Not rare in wet places.

Campanula rotundifolia L. Var. Arctica. Harebell. Common in crevices in
limestone bluffs on the Wabash; frequent on high banks of Lake Maxinkuckee.
Not seen at Lake Cicott.

Gaylussacia resinosa T. & G. Black Huckleberry. Common in open, sandy
woods about the lakes.

Vaccinium Pennsylvanicum Lam. Dwarf Blueberry. Seen in one locality, a
thin, sandy woods south of Lake Cicott. Doubtless occurs in other localities.

Vaceinium corymbosum L. Common or Swamp Blueberry. Common in
swamps in sandy regions; not found in drift soil.

Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait. Cranberry. Common in open places in the
tamarack swamps and peat bogs south of Lake Maxinkuckee. Not at Lake
Cicott. According to the accounts of old settlers, very large cranberry bogs ex-
isted when the country was first occupied. The bogs or marshes now existing are
small and are rapidly disappearing.

Epigaea repens L. Arbutus. Not seen.

Gaultheria procumbens L. Wintergreen. Frequent in low, damp woods about
the lakes.

Andromeda polifolia LL. With the Cranberry and Pitcher-Plant, in peat bogs
chiefly; common where it does occur. Not in Coulter’s catalogue.

Cassandra calyculata. Don. Leather-Leaf. With the last; common.

126

Monotropa uniflora L. Indian Pipe. Rare; east of Lake Cicott.

Monotropa Hypopitys L. Pine-sap. Rare; with the last.

(No other members of the Heath family were seen. )

Dodecatheon Meadia L. Shooting-Star. A few plants in a wet meadow east
of Cicott. Not seen in other localities.

Trientalis Americana Pursh. Star-Flower. In tamarack swamps; common
where it does occur.

Steironema ciliatum Rat. General, but nowhere abundant.

Steironema longifolium G. In swamps; common.

Lysimachia stricta Ait. Plentiful in a small swamp south of Lake Cicott; no
notes on its occurrence elsewhere. ;

Apocynum androsaemifolium L. Spreading Dogbane. General in sandy soils,
and common along the railroads.

Apocynum cannabinum L. Indian Hemp. Not as frequent as the last.

Asclepias verticillata L. About the lakes; rare.

Acerates longifolia Ell. On the high, sandy, south bank Lake Cicott.

Sabbatia angularis Pursh. This handsome plant is common on the moist, sandy
shores of Lake Cicott, and was not seen in any other locality.

Gentiana crinita Froel. Fringed Gentian. General in wet places, but not
common.

Gentiana quinqueflora Lam. Not seen.

Gentiana Andrewsti Grisb. Closed Gentian. Rare; in moist woods.

Gentiana alba Muhl. A single plant in seed found in the summer of 1895
east of Lake Cicott.

Frasera Carolinensis Walt. American Columbo. A score or so of plants oc-
cur in the dry, sandy woods west of Logansport; not seen elsewhere.

Menyanthes trifoliata L. Buckbean. In bogs with the Pitcher-plant and Cran-
berry; common here.

Phacelia bipinnatijida Michx. In the Wabash Valley about Logansport, on
rocky and hilly places; common; very fetid.

Phacelia Purshii Buckley. Common in cultivated grounds at Logansport as a
weed; this year it bloomed freely in the fields at Longcliff up to November 27,
not having been injured by a previous temperature of 22 degrees.

Mertensia Virginica D. C. Virginia Cowslip, Bluebells. In two localities in
the valley west of Logansport; rare.

Lithospermum arvense L. Wheat-thief, Corn Gromwell. A weed common
along the railroads, and has taken possession of some fields.

Lithospermum hirtum Lehm. Common in sandy soils.

127

Echium vulgare. The Viper’s Bugloss, or Blue-weed. Occurs along the B. &
O. Railroad east of Turkey Lake, in Kosciusko County; it will quite likely soon
appear in this region.

Chelone glabra L. Turtle-head. Frequent in wet places.

Pentstemon pubescens Sol. Common in sandy soils.

Pentstemon leevigatus Sol. Rare; in drift soils about Logansport.

Veronica Anagallis L. Water Speedwell. Rare.

Castilleia coccinea Spreng. Painted Cup. About the lakes; rare.

Pedicularis lanceolata Michx. Occasionally seen in wet places.

Utricularia species. None found in flower and I have no notes on its pres-
ence in the waters of this region, although it must certainly be found. I have
seen it in Carroll county on the south and in Kosciusko County to the northeast.

Tecoma radicans Juss. Trumpet Creeper. Along the railroads.

Ruellia ciliosa Pursh. In sandy soils, frequent.

Verbena angustifolia Michx. Common in the thin wind-blown, sandy soils,
often barely covering the underlying limestone, west of Logansport; also occurs
sparingly near the river. Not seen at the lakes.

Pycnanthemum lanceolatum Pursh. Mountain Mint. About the lakes, fre-
quent. The bruised leaves exhale a strong odor resembling peppermint.

Pyenanthemum linifolium Pursh. Common in dry, sandy soils about the lakes.
Searcely odorous.

Calamintha Nuttallii Gray. On wet limestone ledges along the Wabash River
below Logansport; here plentiful. Not seen elsewhere. Not reported in Coul-
ter’s Catalogue oi the Plants of Indiana.

Scutellaria galericulata L. Sculleap. Frequent near water.

Physostegia Virginiana Benth. False Dragon Head. Frequent.

Plantago Patagonia. The only species of Plantago observed besides P. major
and P. lanceolata was the above, or a variety of it. It grew near a railroad in
Logansport.

Polygonum sagittatum L. Arrow-leaved Tear-thumb. Occasional in wet
places.

Direa palustris L. Leather-Wood. Common in low, moist, drift soil, woods
near Logansport. I do not remember seeing it in the sandy soils at the lakes.

Comandra umbellata Nutt. Bastard Toad-flax. General in dry, sandy soils;
common east of Lake Cicott.

Euphorbia dentata Michx. Abundant in one locality, at the base of a lime-
stone bluff, west of Logansport. Not seen elswhere.

128

Ulmus fulva Michx. Slippery Elm, Red Elm. Is a common forest tree in
drift soils, often very large.

Betula lenta L. Cherry Birch, Sweet Birch. Occurs sparingly in the tama-
rack swamps at Delong, south of Lake Maxinkuckee.

Betula pumila L. Low Birch. Not rare about the lakes.

No notes on Carya, Quercus or Salix.

Coniferw. The only species seen were of Larix and Juniperus; the latter is
general, but nowhere abundant. Larix Americana Michx. occurs plentifully in
the so-called tamarack swamps, and these are being limited more and more in
size and number.

Orcuips. A careful search was made for orchids, and the following list
gives all the species found :

Liparis loeselii Richard. Tway-blade. A few plants on a moist hillside
south of Lake Cicott. The plants were past bloom when found, and a dried
specimen was compared with those in the herbarium of Purdue University.

Spiranthes cernua Richard. Rare; in low, moist woods south of Cicott.

Godyera pubescens R. Br. Rattlesnake Plantain. Rare; in woods southeast
of Cicott; plants were in leaf only.

Calopogon pulchellus R. Br. Common in swamps about the lakes.

Pogonia ophioglossoides Nutt. In a peat bog at DeLong; here common.

Habenaria bracteata R. Br. Rein-Orchis. A group of three plants found in
the thin sandy woods west of Logansport.

Habenaria lacera R. Br. Ragged Fringed Orchis. Two plants found in peat
bog with Pogonia.

Cypripedium pubescens Willd. Large Yellow Lady’s-Slipper. Rare in the
woods southeast of Cicott; not seen elsewhere.

Cypripedium spectabile Salisb. Showy Lady’s-Slipper. In the low grounds on
the southern extremity of Lake Maxinkuckee; rare.

Cypripedium acaule Ait. Stemless Lady’s-Slipper. Common in one locality,
a small, dense tamarack swamp east of Monterey.

Aletris farinosa L. Star Grass. Very rare; in low ground on the edge of a
woods south of Cicott.

Allium cernuum Roth. Wild Onion. Very common in many places and in
all kinds of situations. Tall and showy in the wet meadows and swamps east of
Lake Cicott; less showy on moist limestone ledges on the Wabash; small and
stunted in crevices of dry limestone west of Logansport.

Allium Canadense Kalm. Wild Garlic. Lake Cicott; rare.

129

Camassia Fraseri Torr. Wild Hyacinth. In drift soils in the valley; very rare
and almost extinct.

Maianthemum Canadense Desf. About Lake Maxinkuckee, plentiful in a few
comparatively dry tamarack swamps.

Lilium Philadelphicum L. Wild Orange-red Lily, Wood Lily. At the lakes;
seldom seen.

Lilium Canadense L. Wild Yellow Lily. With the last and rare.

Medeola Virginiana L. Not seen.

Trillium nivole Rid. Not seen.

Yofieldia glutinosa Willd. Swamp east of Lake Cicott; rare.

Melanthium Virginicum L. Bunch Flower. Withthe last; rare. Theswamp
about one mile east of Lake Cicott, although containing only a few acres, is re-
markable for the number of rare species occurring in it. Melanthium and
Tofieldia were not seen elsewhere; the former is a tall plant, not readily over-
looked, while the latter is quite small.

Tradescantia. The form with smooth leaves, few in number, is very common
in sandy soils, especially east of Lake Cicott, and bloomsearly in the spring. The
form with hairy leaves and blooming later is rare and was seen in drift soils only.

Peltandra undulata Raf. A few plants on edge of tamarack swamp, east of
Monteray. ;

Scheuchzeria palustris L. In one locality only, a peat bog south of DeLong;
here plentiful. Not in Coulter’s Catalogue.

Potamogetons. No notes. PP. natans is common in the Wabash River, with a
narrow-leaved form resembling P. pauciforus.

Naias. I do not remember seing any within the region embraced in this
paper. (Have seen plants in Turkey Lake, in Kosciusko County.)

Cyperacee. Not being familiar with this large order, I have not given it
attention; my few notes are not worth reproducing.

Panicum clandestinim L. (?) Some large plants, up to four feet in height,
with stinging hair, occur in a wet meadow on the edge of a thicket near the old
canal, three miles west of Logansport. The specimens taken were not in bloom,
and hence the doubt about their identity.

Zizania, Water, or Wild Rice. No notes on its occurrence; absent ?

Alopecuris geniculatus L. Var. aristatulus, Torr. A few plants found on the
dirt, chiefly peat, thrown out in making a ditch through the tamarack swamp
south of DeLong.

Phragmites communis Trin. A small patch occurs near the southern end of
Lake Maxikuckee. Stalks 8 to 12 feet high.

130

NorEes ON SOME PHANEROGAMS NEW OR RARE TO THE STATE. By W. S.
BLATCHLEY.

At the winter meeting of this Academy in 1889, I presented a paper entitled
‘“Some Plants New to the State List,” in which seven species were mentioned
from Monroe County, and fourteen from Vigo County, as not having been previ-
ously recorded in any published list of Indiana plants. The paper was severely
criticised at the time by one or two members of the Society, the species being said
to be wrongly determined or to have been previously mentioned. My ardor for
writing botanical papers was somewhat quenched by this criticism, but time has
since proved that all identifications, with but a single exception, were correct,
and no previous Indiana record for any one of the remaining twenty species has
been or can be pointed out.

The paper in question was never published, and but four of the plants therein
mentioned have been recorded from other portions of the State. This fact, to-
gether with the additional one that I have in my note books numerous records of
plants taken within the past five years at various localities in the State, which, if
published, would greatly extend the known range of such species, has led to the
preparation of the present paper.

In it the stations and habitat of ninety-three species of Indiana plants are re-
corded, and brief notes are in many instances given regarding their abundance,
variations, etc. Of these, thirty-three species, including thirteen of those men-
tioned in my 1889 paper, have not heretofore been recorded in print as
occurring in the State; while thirty-seven have been recorded from but one
other station in the State, and that in almost every instance distant from the one
in which it has been collected by myself. The remaining twenty-three species
have not been recorded from more than two stations in the State and they in
localities widely different, as ‘‘Jetferson and Lake counties,” or ‘‘Gibson and
Noble counties.”

Specimens of all the plants mentioned are in my private herbarium or in that
of DePauw University, which, in 1893, came into possession of about 600 species
of plants collected by me. Those species represented in the DePauw herbarium
are marked with an asterisk in the list which follows. The date given is that
upon which the species was collected, or, where collected more than once, the
earliest at which it has been noticed in bloom. The nomenclature and arrange-
ment are those of the new ‘‘ Catalogue of the Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta of
Northeastern North America,” published in 1894 as a memoir of the Torrey

Botanical Club. Where the name in the catalogue mentioned differs from that

131

in Gray’s Manual, 6th Ed., the name used in the latter work is given in parenthe-

sis as a synonym.

if

*2

=I

Botrychium ternatum obliquum Milde. Grape Fern.

Found in a few localities in Vigo county. Distinguished from the
other forms of the species by its height, 10 to 14 inches, its more compound
fruiting portion, and the oblong divisions of the sterile segment, which are
very oblique at the base.

Recorded in the State Catalogue from Jefferson county.

Equisetum fluviatile L. Swamp Horse-tail.
(FE. limosum L.)

Found abundantly in the shallow water around the margins of the
Goose Pond in Vigo county. Not given in the State Catalogue, nor in any
of the published lists, but recorded in Botanical Gazette from Lake County.

May 3.
Potamogeton diversifolius Raf. Pond-weed.
(P. hybridus Michx. )
Frequent in a pond south of Fair Ground, Vigo county. Oct. 3, 1889.
The first Indiana record.
Potamogeton spirillus Tuckerm.
Occurs sparingly in the Five-Mile Pond, Vigo county. July 19.
The first record.
Zannichellia palustris L. Horned Pond-weed.

This species grew in abundance in the pond south of the blast furnace
at Terre Haute in the years 1889-93. The surface of this pond seldom froze
in winter on account of the warm stream of water from the furnace flowing
into it. Since the furnace shut down the pond has dried up and the plant
has disappeared.

The first record for the State.

Echinodorus cordifolius (L.) Griseb. Upright Bur-head.
(E. rostratus Engelm. )

Several acres of this plant grew in 1890 on the site of Conover’s Pond,
Vigo county, which had been drained the previous year.

The first record, its range being given in Gray’s Manual, sixth edition,
as ‘‘Tllinois to Florida, Missouri and Texas.”

Panicum autumnale Bose. Diffuse Panicum.

Frequent in Vigo county, on sandy hillsides and banks along railways.

Recorded before by Higley and Raddin from the ‘‘ sand ridges south of
Whiting, Ind.”

132

10.

"11,

The flowers of this grass are, when in their prime, a grayish-purple in
color, and, when wet with dew, reflect the morning sunlight in a peculiar
and pleasing manner.

Panicum minus Muhl. Wood Panicum.

A spetimen, so named by Mr. Nash, of Columbia University, N. Y.,
was taken from a dry hillside in Hipple’s coal mine woods, Vigo county,
where it is frequent.

The first record.

Panicum pubescens Lam. Hairy Panicum.

Another species named for me by Mr. Nash. It is frequent along the
T. H. & L. Railway in Vigo county.

The first record.

Homalocenchrus lenticularis (Michx.) Seribn. Catch-fly Grass.
( Leersia lenticularis Michx. )

Taken but once, October 6, 1893, from the margin of Five-Mile Pond,
Vigo county.

The first record.

Sporobolus asper (Michx.) Kunth. Drop-seed grass.

Occurs sparingly along sandy banks and hillsides in Vigo county.
August 30.

The first record.

Cyperus spectosus Vahl.

Recorded before only from Jefferson county. Taken in low, sandy
soil in Vigo county, where it is scarce.

Varies much in size. A specimen taken at Heckland, October 14, 1896,
had six umbels, the stalk of each apparently springing from the surface of
the ground, and the whole plant but 23 inches in height.

Eleocharis capitata (L.) R. Br. Spike Rush.

Grows along the mucky margins of the Five-Mile Pond, Vigo county.
Identification verified by N. L. Britton. Recorded before in ‘ Botanical
Gazette,” VII, 3, 1882, by E. J, Hill, from a slough south of Whiting,
Ind., and described by him as new under the name of LE. dispar. Itisa
plant of southern range, and, up to the time of Hill’s record, it had not
been found north of Florida and Texas, except west of the Rocky Mount-
ains. It probably occurs in suitable localities throughout the western half

of Indiana.

14.

15.

*16,

ine

18.

19:

133

Stenophyllus capillaris (L.) Britton.
(Fimbristylis eapillaris Gray.)

Occurs sparingly in Vigo county, along sandy banks and borders of
fields. Recorded before from Lake county.

Grows in dense, circular tufts; the hair-like stems rarely a foot in
hight.

Wolfiia columbiana Karst.

Found in abundance in the Goose Pond, Vigo county, in 1890.

‘*Stagnant waters in the northern counties.” —State Catalogue.
Medeola virginiana L. Indian Cucumber Root.

Occurs on high, dry, wooded hills in Monroe county, in company with
Microstylis ophioglossoides Nutt. and Lycopodium complanatum L.; scarce.

Recorded in B. & C. Flora from Jefferson and Lake counties.
Habenaria flava (L.) A. Gray. Greenish Orchis.

(H. virescens Spreng. )

Taken in some dense, damp woods near Heckland, Vigo county, June
10, 1891.

Recorded before from Noble county.

Achroanthes unifolia (Michx.) Raf. Adder’s Tongue Orchis.
(Microstylis ophioglossoides Nutt. )

A single specimen was taken at Coal Creek, Vigo county, Sept. 28,
1893. In Monroe county a number of specimens were secured from high
hills, where they were found in company with Medeola virginiana L., Pogo-
nia verticillata Nutt., and in the midst of clumps of the moss Polytrichum
commune L. Specimens taken by the writer in Arkansas were also found
on high hills, though the habitat given in Gray’s Manual is ‘‘low, mois
ground.”

Leptorchis lihifolia (L.) Kuntze. Twayblade.
(Liparis hiiifolia Richard. )

Rare in rich woods in both Monroe and Vigo counties. June 11.

Leptorchis loeselii (L.) MacM. Twayblade.
(Liparis loeselii L. )

A number of specimens were taken in a tamarack swamp in Fulton

county, July 14, 1894.
Heralectris aphyllus (Nutt.) A. Gray.
Taken by the writer on a high wooded hill two miles south of Wyan-

dotte Cave, Crawford county, July 25, 1896.

10

134

*99

23.

#24,

#26.

27.

The first Indiana record, the range in both the Manual and I}lustrated
Flora being given as ‘‘ Kentucky and Missouri to Florida and Mexico.”
Polygonum arifolium L. Halberd-leaved Tear-thumb.

Scarce in Vigo county; in ravines and along borders of small streams.
Mentioned in my paper ‘‘On Plants New to the State List,” read before the
Academy in 1889, Since recorded from Steuben and Noble counties.
Polygonum emersum (Michx.) Britton.

CE: muhlenbergii Watson. )

Frequent in Vigo county along sandy margins of ponds. Noted be-
fore in Steuben and Lake counties.
Polygonum ramosissimum Michx.

Found in low, sandy ground near a marsh south of the Fair Ground,
Vigo county ; scarce.

The first record.

Chenopodium boscianum Mogq.

Taken in Vigo county, October 17, 1896, in open, sandy woods, two
miles east of Terre Haute.

The first Indiana record.

The flowers much smaller than in allied species; on slender recurved
branches; the black seeds easily separated from the enclosing pericarp.
Arenaria serpyllifolia L. Thyme-leaved Sandwort.

Occurs sparingly in Vigo county in low, sandy soil about the margins
of several of the larger ponds. Noted in the list of Higley & Raddin as
being found in Lake county and by Hesslar (Proc. Ind. Acad., 18938, 269)
as occurring in Fayette county.

Anemone caroliniana Walt. Carolina Anemone.

Found in Vigo county in one locality on a wooded hillside, 53 miles
north of Terre Haute. First brought to my notice in 1894 by Miss Nora
Arnold, a pupil in the high school. She stated that they had occurred
abundantly in the one locality for 12 or thirteen years to her knowledge,
and how much longer she did not know.

The first record, the Manual range being “ Illinois to Nebraska and
Southward.”

Ranunculus obtusiusculus Rat. Water Plantain Spearwort.

Noted in one locality, the border of a marsh near the Goose Pond,
Vigo county, June 22, 1890.

Recorded from Noble county by Van Gorder under the name of R. alis-

maefolius Geyer.

29.

*30.

bao Es

34.

39.

135

Ranunculus purshii Richards.
(R. multijfidus terrestris Gray.)

Occurs sparingly about the borders of the Five-Mile Pond, Vigo
County. June l.

The first record.

Dentaria heterophylla Nutt. Diverse-leaved Toothwort.

Occurs sparingly in Monroe county in thickets and rich, moist woods.
Recognized as a distinct species in the new Check List. Noted as such in
my paper read before the Academy in 1889, though Dr. Coulter in his list
of Jefferson County plants stated that it was, in his opinion, a variety of
D. laciniata Muhl.

In Monroe county it blooms at least two weeks later, and no connect-
ing forms were noted. Of a specimen submitted to Dr. Coulter, he wrote:
“Tt looks very much like typical D. heterophylia Nutt., and is as near it as
anything I have seen from the State.”

The first Indiana record.

Draba caroliniana Walt. Carolina Whitlow Grass.

Frequent in Vigo county along the banks of the old canal and on
sandy hillsides near it.

One of a MSS. list of additions to State Catalogue furnished me by
Dr. J. M. Coulter. Locality not given.

Descurainia pinnata (Walt.). Britton. Tansy Mustard.
(Disymbrium canescens Nutt. )

Frequent in Vigo county along the gravelly banks of railways and
canal. Recorded only from Tippecanoe county. April 20.

Arabis dentata T. and G. Toothed Rock-Cress.

Rare in Vigo and Monroe counties, along gravelly banks or rocky hill-
sides. Recorded before from Gibson county. May 3, 1891.

Arabis hirsuta (L.) Scop. Hairy Rock Cress.

Found by the writer in Monroe, Montgomery and Vigo counties.
Grows along rocky hillsides.

Recorded by Van Gorder as being scarce in Noble county.

Sedum telephioides Michx.

Collected along the hillsides at Coal Creek, Vigo county, by Dr. B. W.

Evermann in 1889. April 30. The State Catalogue record is ‘‘ Knobs,”

Clark county.

136

*36.

a
ee)
(ve)

40,

41.

Parnassia earoliniana Michx. Grass of Parnassus.

This species was recorded by Stanley Coulter, Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci.,
1894, 105, as being found in Noble and Kosciusko counties, the latter
record being based on a specimen collected by the writer, now in DePauw
herbarium, It has since been noted by myself at Lake Maxinkuckee,
Marshall county, and in a marsh on the banks of White River one mile
south of Broad Ripple, Marion county.

Opulaster opulifolius (L.) Kuntze. Nine-Bark.
( Physocarpa opulifolia Raf. )

Recorded in the State list from Gibson, Jefferson and Monroe counties.

This handsome flowering shrub has been noted by the writer as grow-
ing plentifully on the banks of White River below Broad Ripple, Marion
county, and on the banks of the Wabash just south of the city of Wabash,
Wabash county. It has also been recorded from Wayne and Lake coun-
ties, so that its range undoubtedly includes the whole State.

Geum macrophyllum Willd.

Taken in the borders of rich open woods two miles east of Terre
Haute, Vigo county, June 26, 1892.

The first Indiana record,

Sanguisorba canadensis L. Canadian Burnet.
(Poterium canadense Benth. and Hook.)

Occurs along the borders of ditches and damp virgin prairies near
Heckland, Vigo county. In flower from August 10 to October 20.

The first Indiana record, the range of Manual being ‘‘ Newf. to moun-
tains of Georgia, west to Michigan.”’

Trijol um reflerum L. Buffalo Clover.

Rare in Vigo county, along open sandy hillsides and borders of
prairies. Heretofore noted from Marion county. May 28.

Amorpha fruticosa L. False Indigo. River Locust.

Frequent along the bed and sides of the old canal both north and south
of Terre Haute, and as far north as Montezuma, Parke county.

Recorded from Gibson.

Falcatu pitcheri (T. & G.) Kuntze. Large-leaved Hog Peanut.
(Amphicarpea pitcheri T. & G.)

Found sparingly along damp hillside thickets in Vigo county.

The first Indiana record.

Leatlets much larger than in F. comosa L., the blade often more than
3 inches long; pods—ten or more—1} inches long, borne on a long, hairy

rachis; seeds, 5 mm. in length.

44,

45,

46.

48.

*49,

137

Polygala polygama Walt. Pink Polygala.

Vigo county, in small numbers, along the Vandalia Railway, one mile
east of Terre Haute.

Recorded before from Lake and St. Joseph counties.

Euphorbia heterophylla L.

Occurs in Vigo county, along the banks of oid canal near Five-Mile
Pond.

The first Indiana record.

The pods of this and allied species, when dry, burst open with a snap-
ping or crackling noise, and project the seeds to a distance of several feet.
Callitriche heterophylla Pursh. Water Starwort.

Vigo county, in ponds; frequent. April 30.

Recorded from Gibson county.

Rhus aromatica Ait. Fragrant Sumach.
(Rhus canadensis Marsh. )

Recorded in the State list from Jefferson and Lake, the two extremes
of the State. Taken by the writer in Monroe and Crawford counties.
Grows on rocky hillsides along streams.

Rhamnus caroliniana Walt. Carolina Buckthorn.

A shrub or small tree of southern range which occurs as far north as
Crawford and Harrison counties, Indiana, where it was first noted by the
writer November 5, 1896. Straggling in habit; 10 to 20 feet high, with
peach-like leaves, glossy green above; bark smooth and light colored; the
wood bright yellow; fruit, a black drupe resembling a cherry. Hillsides
along Blue River near Wyandotte cave, and roadsides between there and
Corydon; scarce. The first Indiana record, the Manual range being ‘‘ N.
J., Va. to Ky. and southwest.”

Hibiscus lasiocarpus Cav.

Grows in prairie swamp near Heckland, Vigo county.

Recorded before from Gibson.

Hibiscus militaris Cay. Halberd-leaved Rose Mallow.

Frequent along the sandy banks of old canal between Ft. Harrison,
Vigo county, and Montezuma, Parke county. ‘‘ Knobs,” and Jefferson
county are the two previous records. July 10.

Hypericum aseyron L. Great St. Johnswort.

Banks of larger streams in Monroe and Putnam counties; scarce.

Mentioned in my 1889 paper. Since recorded from Noble county by Van

Gorder.

138

51.

52.

*5)5,

57.

58.

Hypericum densiflorum Pursh.

Found on edge of river bank in woods just below Ft. Harrison, Vigo
county, Oct. 12, 1896.

The first record for Indiana; the Manual range being ‘‘ Pine barrens
of N. J. to glades of Ky., Ark. and southward.”
Helianthemum canadense (L.) Michx. Frost-weed; Rock-rose.

Vigo county, on a sandy hillside near Five-Mile Pond; frequent
locally. May 28.

Recorded from the sand hills of Lake county; also from Noble.
Viola lanceolata L. Lance-leaved Violet.

Margins of Goose Pond and moist prairies at Heckland, Vigo county.
April 16. :

The previous records are Lake and Jefferson counties.

Rotala ramosior (L.) Keehne.

Vigo county, in ditches and along margins of ponds; scarce.

Jefferson and Clark counties are its previous records.
Ammannia coccinea Rottb, Ammannia.

(Ammannia latifolia L. Gray’s Manual, 5th ed.)

Noted in both Vigo and Monroe counties; scarce in the latter. Aug.
10 to Oct. 20.

Recorded from Gibson.

Decodon verticillatus (L.) Ell. Swamp Loosestrife.
(Nescea verticillata H BK.)

Occurs rarely in Monroe, Vigo and Marshall counties.

Recorded in State Catalogue from ‘‘Gibson and Posey. Rare.” Re-
corded since from Noble and Steuben. It therefore probably occurs in
suitable localities throughout the State.

(Enothera sinuata L.

Vigo county, about the borders of a sandy cultivated field near Ft.
Harrison; scarce. May 14, 1891.

Probably a railroad migrant from the South, the Manual range being
““N. J. to Fla., west to E. Kansas and Texas.”

The first Indiana record.

Myrvophyllum verticillatum L. Water Milfoil.

Ponds of Vigo County; scarce. May 2.

Mentioned without note in the Steuben County Flora.

59.

*60.

61.

*62.

*63.

*64.

66.

*67.

139

Eulophus americanus Nutt.

Borders of damp prairie, near Heckland, Vigo County; scarce. Octo-
ber 5, 1889.

Recorded from Gibson County.
Cornus circinata L’Her. Round-leaved Dogwood.

Borders of open, moist woods four miles southeast of Terre Haute;
scarce. May 8.

Recorded from Lake County.

Hypopitys hypopitys (L.) Small. Pine-sap. False Beech-Drops.

Found on high, dry wooded hillsides in both Monroe and Vigo coun-
ties; rare. A specimen taken in Monroe, June 30, 1886, had the raceme
21 flowered.

Recorded from Jefferson and Noble counties.

Gentiana andrewsii albiflora Britton. White Gentian.
(Gentiana alba Muhl.)
Grows in one locality in Vigo county, a wooded hillside north of

Terre Haute near the Five-Mile Pond; scarce. September 23, 1888.

Tippecanoe and Noble counties are its other State records.

Gentiana saponaria L. Soapwort Gentian.
Vigo county along the borders of prairies; scarce. September 15.
Its previous State record is Lake county.

Obolaria virginica L.

Collected on several occasions in both Monroe and Vigo counties, but
rare ineach. Three plants, taken in doors by Prof. Evermann on Janu-
ary 26, bloomed on February 11.

Its other State record is Clifty Falls, Jefferson county.

Phlox bifida Beck. Dwarf Phlox.
In the State Catalogue this species is said to be

‘common in Tippe-

canoe.” It has been taken by me in both Vigo and Monroe counties; in
the former being very common on the sandy hillsides north of Terre
Haute. April 7.

HAydrophyllum canadense L. Canada Waterleaf.

Noted heretofore from Jefferson and Laporte counties. It occurs also
sparingly on the sides of deep wooded ravines in both Monroe and Vigo
counties.

Macrocalyx nyctelea (L.) Kuntze. Ellisia.
(Ellisia nyctelea L.)

Rare in Vigo county, having been taken but once from a damp spot
in sandy open woods, two miles east of Terre Haute. May 25.

The first Indiana record.

140

68.

69.

~i

oo

74.

Cunila organoides (L.) Britton. Common Dittany.
(Cunila mariana L.)

Occurs frequently on the summits of dry rocky hills in Monroe county.
June 20.

Recorded in the State Catalogue from the ‘‘ Knobs.”

Synandra hispidula (Michx.) Britton. Large-flowered Mint.
(Synandra grandiflora Nutt. )

Taken by the writer in Monroe, Putnam, Vigo and as far north as Wa-
bash county, though its range is given in the Barnes & Coulter Flora as
‘*Banks of the Ohio and its tributaries.” May 25.

Stachys cordata Riddell. Heart-leaved Hedge Nettle.

Borders of damp upiand thickets in Vigo county; scarce.

‘‘ Jefferson and Gibson” are its previous records.
Trichostema dichotomum L. Blue Curls. Bastard Pennyroyal.

Discovered by Professor Evermann, September 1, 1889, in sandy soil
on the banks of the Wabash River south of Terre Haute, Vigo county.

A species of southern range, probably introduced in the past by the
commerce of the river.

Its first Indiana record.

Gratiola spherocarpa Ell. Hedge Hyssop.

Taken in both Monroe and Vigo counties; scarce. April 30.

In the State Catalogue recorded from ‘‘ Barrens of Southern Indiana.”
Wulfenia houghtoniana ( Benth.) Greene.

(Synthyris houghtoniana Benth. )

Found in one locality on sandy hillside one-half mile southeast of Five-
Mile Pond, Vigo county, where it was uncommon.

‘‘Tippecanoe and northward” is the only previous record.

Afzelia macrophylla (Nutt.) Kuntze. Mullein Foxglove.
(Seymeria macrophylla Nutt. )

On dry hillsides in Montgomery, Putnam and Vigo.

‘“Near the Ohio and Wabash” was recorded in the Barnes and Coulter
Flora.

Orobanche ludovicana Nutt. Broom-rape.
(Aphyllon ludovicianum Gray.)

Banks of Wabash River near brick yards above Terre Haute, Vigo
county; frequent locally. Parasitic on the roots of the Great Horse-weed,
Ambrosia trifida L. Discovered by Prof. Evermann October 2, 1889.

The first Indiana record, its Manual range being ‘‘ Minnesota to IIli-

nois and Texas.”

76.

mio:

80.

*81.

141

Plantago aristata Michx.
(Plantago patagonica aristata Gray.)

Evansville & Terre Haute Railway and canal banks south of Terre
Haute, Vigo county; scarce. June 24, 1888.

The first record for the State.

Viburnum moile Michx.

Found along the fence-rows and margins of dry upland prairies below
Youngstown, Vigo county; scarce.

The leaves larger, more rounded, thicker and more soft and downy than
those of V. dentatum L.

_ Recorded from Jefferson county.
Willoughbya scandens (L.) Kuntze. Climbing Hemp-weed.
( Mikania scandens L. )

A handsome twining member of the Compositae.

Found in abundance covering the shrubs growing south of the wagon
bridge across Sandy Hook creek, five miles east of Hebron, Porter county,
September 21, 1897.

Recorded before from Gibson county by Dr. Schneck. Manual range,
““E. New Eng. to Ky. and southward.”

Lacinaria spicata (L.) Kuntze.
(Liatris spicata Willd. )
Virgin prairies near Heckland, Vigo county; scarce. Aug. 17.
Recorded from Jefferson and Lake.
Chrysopsis villosa (Pursh) Nutt. Golden Aster.

Along the sandy banks of the old canal between Ft. Harrison and Five-
Mile Pond, Vigo county.

The first record for the State, its range being given as “ Wisconsin to
Kentucky and westward.” /

Solidago odora Ait. Sweet Golden-rod.

Near Heckland, Vigo county, from borders of prairies; rare. Sept. 15.

Recorded before only from Gibson county, by Dr. Schneck, who, accord-
ing to State Catalogue, ‘‘was inclined to doubt this species.” Dr. J. M.
Coulter, to whom my specimen was sent for verification, noted it as ‘‘a good
find,” so that it must be rare in the State. It is regarded as a valid species
by the authors of the Catalogue of the Flora of Northeastern North America.
Solidago rigidiuseula (T. & G.) Porter.

(Solidago speciosa angustata T. & G.)
Clearings and borders of prairie at Heckland, Vigo county. Sept. 5.
The first Indiana record.

142

*82.

84.

85.

*87.

88.

Solidago serotina Ait.

In woods along the borders of the Wabash River below Ft. Harrison,
Vigo county; frequent locally.

Recorded from Jefferson county. Sept. 8.

Solidago speciosa Nutt.

Une of the most handsome of the Golden-rods. Grows plentifully in
the prairie at Heckland, Vigo county. Aug. 25,

The first Indiana record.

Euthamia caroliniana (L.) Greene. Slender-leaved Golden-rod.
(Solidago tenuifolia Pursh. )

Frequent in Vigo and Monroe counties; along shaded banks, usually
in sandy soil. Aug. 21.

Noted before from Jasper county.

Sericocarpus linifolius (L.) B.S. P.
(Sericocarpus solidagineus Nees. )
Borders of prairies at Heckland, Vigo county, where it is scarce.
Recorded from Floyd county in B. & C, Flora.
Aster drummondii Lindl. Drummond’s Aster.

Low open pastures and prairies; frequent in Vigo county. The first
record for the State, its range being given by Gray as “Illinois to Minne-
sota and Kansas.”

Aster ericoides L. Heath-like Aster.

Fence rows and old fields, in open, dry soil. Common in Monroe,
scarce in Vigo county.

Recorded in B. & C, Flora only from Jefferson.

Aster linariifolius LL. Double Bristled Aster.

On dry, sandy hillside near Five-Mile Pond, Vigo county; scarce.
Also near Miller’s, Lake county.

Recorded in the State Catalogue from the ‘‘Knobs” under the name
of Diplopappus linartifolius Hook.

Readily known by the shortness of the stems, which grow in clumps,
and by the rigid linear leaves. Heads large and showy.

Ambrosia bidentata Michx. Two-toothed Ragweed.

Roadsides and borders of cultivated fields between Glen, Vigo county,
and Staunton, Clay county; common locally. First noted August 23, 1895.
The first record for the State, its Manual range being ‘‘ Prairies of Illinois,
Missouri and Southward.”

143

90. Bidens trichosperma (Michx.) Britton. Tickseed Sunflower.
(Coreopsis trichosperma Michx.)

Occurs sparingly in Monroe county in swamps along the bottom lands
of Bean Blossom Creek. August 10, 1886.

Recorded in B. & C. Flora from Jefferson county.

91. Hymenopappus caroliniensis (Lam.) Porter.
(H. seabiosceus L’ Her. )

Found sparingly on the side of a sandy ridge northeast of Seventh
Street Bridge across Lost Creek, Vigo county. May 31, 1890.

The first record for the State, its.range being given in the Manual as
**Tlinois and Southward.”

92. Senecio lobatus Pers. Butterweed.

Taken on several occasions in 1891 and 1892 from low, damp places
about ponds and ditches in Vigo county. The first Indiana record, its
Manual range being ‘‘ North Carolina to Southern L[llinois, Missouri and
Southward.”

93. Lactuea hirsuta Muhl. Hairy Wild Lettuce.
(Lactuca sanguinea T. & G.)

Borders of prairies and dry, sandy fields in Vigo county; scarce.

Recorded from Gibson county by Dr. Schneck.

PeErRiopiciry OF Root PrREessuRE. By M. B. THomas.

The fact that the roots of plants absorb water and force it up through the
stem, producing bleeding whenever the stem is injured, was discovered by Hales
in 1721, and since that time numerous investigators have examined this phenom-
enon of root absorption in a more or less exhaustive way until we have to con-
cern ourselves only with an inquiry iuto its daily variations and see if there is
not some law governing the changing phenomenon that will give us a more com-
plete insight into this important physiological problem in plant growth.

The general matter of the periodicity of root pressure in forcing water through
stems in opposition to gravity was studied by Sachs, and his observations form a
basis for our present work. He made experiments regarding the time of maxi-
mum and minimum pressure with a few common plants, and his results are too
well known to need extended description. The conclusions of his experiments
have been to fix the time of maximum pressure at 9-11 A. M., with a decrease

144

through the p. M. and early night, when a minimum was reached. After this the
pressure increased until it attained the maximum during the following A. M.
Sachs further showed that the periods of maximum and minimum pressure were
independent of small variations in temperature.

The work of Sachs was done by the use of crude instruments that required
constant attention, and it seemed that an instrument of precision, making auto-
matic records, would enable one to add something to the work already done on
the subject of root pressure. In 1890 a rude instrument was made of wood and
iron, and some few experiments conducted on the subject. Later a machine of
more accurate working was constructed at the college workshop in Crawfordsville,
and this formed a pattern for the one made at Lafayette under the supervision of
Dr. Arthur. In the evolution of the apparatus to its present condition changes
have been introduced that brings the machine into a form easily used by the
average student and capable of giving accurate results.

For our work on the subject of root pressure many plants were grown from
seeds in the greenhouse, and were used when the stems were 4-5 mm. in diameter.
With those plants secured from out of doors or at other green houses, they were
brought in weeks before the experiments and given ample time to adjust them-
selves to any changes in their surroundings. The results show that the latter
plants corresponded in their records with those grown in the green house from
seeds. For the experiments the attachment of the plant to the machine was
made in the usual way under water, and the apparatus placed on an iron pier to
prevent jarring. The records of temperature were made by a self-recording ther-
mometer. The clock used in the root pressure machine would run for eight days,
and an experiment when properly started needed no attention until its comple-
tion, or until the time when the pressure was insufficient to show itself on the
rods of the instrument. The increasing weight of the column of mercury usually
produced this result in 4-5 days. The smoked rods with the record of the peri-
odicity were placed on sensitive paper, and the lines printed for permanent pres-
ervation. Temperature cards were preserved along with these for comparison.
The plants experimented upon were fuchsia, bean, geranium, grape, sunflower, °
tomato, etc.

Occasionally upon the attachment of the plant a decided negative pressure in
the stem would be observed. This was especially noted in the grapevine growing
out of doors, where the records were made. The negative pressure was so great
that the water and part of the mercury were pulled down into the stem and the
particles of mercury could be found in the ducts upon splitting the twigs an inch

or more from the top, where the attachment was made. This phenomenon was

* 145

observed by Sachs, and is, no doubt, due to the fact that where active transpira-
tion is going on no root pressure exists, but transpiration or other current do not
permit the ducts to become filled with water, but, rather, they contain rarified air
that allows the water poured in on top of the cut surface to be drawn down in
the stem.

A study of the records warrant the following general statements regarding
the relation between temperature and root pressure: Under usual conditions
there can be no relation between the periodicity of root pressure and the daily
variations in temperature, the latter being between 50° F. and 90° F., as determ-
ined in the course of the experiments. Even where the periods of maximum and
minimum temperature were reversed in the test, and the reversed condition con-
tinued for several successive days, no appreciable effect was noticed in the period-
icity of root pressure.

The changes in temperature above or below certain limits may alter the
regularity of the times of maximum and minimum pressure periodicity, but do
not interfere with the main cycles of greater or less pressure.

The time element is the all important one, and for most plants the period of
maximum pressure is 12 M., with the limits between 9 A. M. and 1 P. M.

No appreciable difference exists between the times of maximum pressure in
the variety of plants studied and certainly none whatever in a large number of
specimens of the same species even though they may have been grown under
different conditions.

The age of the plant seems to make no difference in the times of maximum
and minimum periodicity or its general behavior in the experiment, except, as
would be expected, a large and vigorous plant shows more difference between the
amount of maximum and minimum pressure than a small and less vigorous one.

In different genera marked differences exist as to the maximum amount of
root pressure and in some it is so small that at no time can it be measured except
with great difficulty,

The amount of water present in the soil within certaiu limits does not affect
the time of periodicity or amount discharged, but in very dry soil, where the roots
become wilted, changes are evident as the result of the loss of the turgidity of the
root.

A consideration of the relation between root pressure and the other phe-
nomena in living plants will be interesting in this connection. With regard to
its relation to transpiration, the latter can not be explained by the former, since,
at the most, it is not sufficient to lift the water above 80-90 feet. Root pressure

furnishes only a part of the water used in transpiration, as was shown by our own

146

and previous experiments, ! and no root pressure was found in plants during rapid
transpiration. The time of greatest transpiration seems to bear no relation to the
time of greatest or least root pressure, and changes in temperature that affect the
former do not influence the latter to any degree.

Where no transpiration is going on the root pressure may produce sufficient
pressure in the plants of medium height to force the water out through the water
pores of the leaves, or in some cases producing blistering in the tissues of the stem,
as in the well-known case of the Oedema of the tomato. ?

The relation of the root pressure with growth does not warrant any statement
as to the influence of one upon the other. The time of either the maximum or
minimum periods of each do not correspond, and changes in temperature that af-
fect growth produce no changes in the constancy of the root pressure.

Studies regarding the relation between root pressure and assimilation show
all negative results, and the changes producing variations in the latter have no
effect on the former. The same may be said of the relation between root pressure
and respiration. .

In view of these facts we are warranted in the following general conclusions.

The periodicity of root pressure seems to be inherent in the plant, and has
either been acquired by previous adaptation to environments, or as the results of
the action of some constant or periodic changes in the plant. As with the
periodicity of growth and other periodic phenomena it does not always follow
that a periodic change has not been produced by some constantly or continuously
acting agent.

Root pressure does not seem to have any relation to the previous periodicities
of the vital activities of the plant when the top was connected with the roots.

The measure of the root pressure seems to be the osmotic activity of the root
hairs, and is probably due to the presence of organic acids and other substances
in the rhizoids that show great affinity for water.

Although the organic acids increase in the cells at 50°-60° F., yet their in-
crease does not seem to make any appreciable difference in the periodicity.
This is true even when the temperature of the soil is brought up to 55° F., ap-
proaching the time of minimum pressure.

The fact that seems inexplicable is that, when the temperature is raised above
the point where the organic acids decompose (60° F.) tin most plants, the roots

may show an increase in their osmotic activity at the daily period of maximum

1DeVries, Arb. Les. Bot. Inst. (B. I, p. 228).

2Atkinson, G. F., Bull. Cornell Exp. Station, No. 83, 1893.
3DeVries, Bot. Zeitung, 1877, 8. 1-10.

4DeVries, Bot. Zeitung, 1883, 8. 850.

147

pressure. The absence of a top to the plant, and its consequent loss of periods of
maximum and minimum oxidation, which are the real causes of the variation in
the quantity of organic acids in the cell,° “may be the reason for the failure to
produce the expected results. The time of periodicity of root pressure is con-
stant in the same genus, but some species may show greater absolute pressure than
others. This may be due to accidents in growth, etc. The fact of the periodicity
of root pressure seems to be established beyond the possibility of a doubt, and capil-
arity and similar phenomena, as suggested by Prof. C. B. Clark’ and others, can

not account for the facts observed.

NotTEs ON THE FLORA OF THE LAKE REGION OF’ NORTHEASTERN INDIANA.
By W. W. CHIPMAN.

A glance at any map of Indiana showing the lakes and marshes will convince
one of their special abundance in the north part of the State; and many more
will be observed in the northeastern counties than in the northwestern.

In the Fifteenth Report of the State Geologist of Indiana?, Dr. John M.
Coulter divides the State into seven botanical regions, one of which he calls the
‘‘Lake Region.” Included in this ‘‘ Lake Region” are the sixteen northernmost
counties of the State, with the exception of the very northwestern counties, Lake
and Porter.

I would separate from his Lake Region some of the most northeastern coun-
ties, and claim for this territory sufficient peculiar conditions for plant growth to
merit its being considered a distinct botanical region, and would call it ‘‘The

Lake Region of Northeastern Indiana.”

OUTLINE OF THE REGION.

Aline drawn from the vicinity of Warsaw, Kosciusko County, north along
the line of the C., C., C. & St. L. R. R. to its intersection with the northern
boundary of the county, and from thence northeast through LaGrange, LaGrange
County, to the northern boundary of the State; and a line drawn from the vicin-
ity of Warsaw east along the line of the P., Ft. W. & C. R. R. to its intersection

5Ward, Proceedings of Royal Soc., Vol. XLVII, pp. 393-443.
®Warbung, Untersuchungen, etc., pp. 77-92.

7Linnean Soc. Journal.

115th Rep. State Geologist Ind., p. 256.

148

with the eastern boundary of the county, and from thence northeast through
Waterloo, DeKalb County, to the eastern boundary of the State, would enclose
approximately this Lake Region of Northeastern Indiana.

I would not attempt to bound it by any invariable line. The characteristic
conditions for plant growth found in the center of the region may at some places
extend somewhat beyond the limits given, and at other places may not reach
them.

The region includes, in general, all of Steuben County and Noble County,
the northeast part of Kosciusko County, the southeast part of LaGrange County,
and the extreme north part of Whitley County.

This part of the State has for some time appeared to me to present conditions
for plant growth different even from the rest of the northern counties contained
in Dr. Coulter’s ‘‘Lake Region,” and I am glad to have it proven by Dr. Dryer
in his geological report of Steuben County? that this region as outlined above has
separate and distinct geological features. After speaking of the drift left by the
Saginaw ice and the Erie ice, and the confused mass of drift left by their union,
he says*: ‘‘Such a belt or drift forms the Saginaw-Erie interlobate moraine,
which in Indiana stretches across the counties of Steuben, LaGrange, Noble,
Whitley and Kosciusko. Thus are the peculiarities of topography and soil in
that region accounted for.” 5

It is not claimed that plants characteristic of the region are not found in the
neighborhood of lakes of northern Indiana outside of its limits.

The proportion of lakes and their characteristic surroundings outside of the
Northeastern Indiana Lake Region, is so small when compared with such condi-
ions in the region, that plants found farthest from the lakes, together with others
entirely foreign will predominate in the other northern counties.

In a report in 1874, by G. M. Levette?, upon the geology of the northern
tier of counties, including a greater part of the region under discussion and the
most northern counties of Dr. Coulter’s Lake Region, he says®: ‘‘On the eastern
side of the district, the land originally timbered is largely in excess of prairies
and openings, but, as we go west the proportion of prairie land increases.” In
the same report he says of Elkhart County®: ‘‘ Only a small per cent. is covered
with peat-bogs, lakes and marshes.” Of St. Joseph County he says’: ‘‘ Diversi-

ed with prairies, oak, openings, and rolling timber lands;” and’, ‘‘small tracts
} ? d p $ ? Do )

217th Rep. State Geologist Ind., 1891.
3 Tdem, p. 182.
45th Rep. State Geologist, Ind., 1874.
> Idem, p. 482,
® Tdem, p. 452.
7 Tdem, p. 457.

149

of low, marshy ground.” Of LaPorte County’: ‘The central and southern parts
are mostly prairie;” and only’, ‘‘small marshy spots and peat-bogs” to the
north. Marshall County.is spoken of in another report by W. H. Thompson® as
mostly prairie and large tracts of barren land.

These references to small percentagé of lakes, swamps and bogs from these
northern counties not in the lake region under discussion, when compared with
the continued references, everywhere, to the large percentage of such conditions
in the northeast Indiana lake region, would seem to be sufficient authority for

b

: ; . . s. A
separating it from the ‘‘lake region,” as formerly considered.

OUTLINE OF THE BOTANICAL WORK DONE IN THE REGION.

A Flora of Steuben County was published in 1892 by E. Bradner'®, and a
Flora of Noble County in 1893 by W. B. Van Gorder!!. So far as I can ascertain,
no geological report has ever been made for Kosciusko County, and no specimens
of plants preserved, other than those in my herbarium.

In company with Prof. A. B. Crowe, of Ft. Wayne, and Thomas A. Davis,
of Goshen, I made a short collecting trip through the lakes and marshes in the
northeastern part of Kosciusko County, during the last of June and the first of
July, 1894; and I have made collections in the more immediate vicinity of
Warsaw since 1893.

During the summer of 1896 I spent several weeks in the study of the grasses
and sedges of the immediate vicinity of Warsaw, under Dr. Stanley Coulter, but
owing to rains and floods making it impossible to get to desirable low regions,
and to the fact that I was limited to a part of each day by other work, I was able
to collect and study but some forty species.

I may say that it is at the suggestson of Dr. Coulter that I attempt this paper.

The Floras of the two counties mentioned, and my own collections will be re-
ferred to as a basis for deductions, since the three counties thus covered will com-
prise the greater part of the region, and no reports of the botony of the other

counties—only small parts of which are included in the region—have been made.

GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS.

The climate throughout the region is the same; there being only about forty
miles difference in latitude and sixty miles in longitude. The general surface of

the country is rolling, and almost hilly to the north, sloping in general to the

*Idem, p. 462.

"15th Rep. State Geologist Ind., p. 178.

1° 7th Rep. State Geologist Ind., 1891-2, p. 135.

118th Rep. State Geologist Ind., 1893, p. 33.
11

150

southwest. About one-third of the region was originally covered with heavy tim-
ber, and the soil of this part is a clayey loam. The soil of the very small areas
of prairie land is a sandy loam, and the swamps are filled with rich, black muck
and peat many feet deep. This is the general distribution, but pure sand and
clay are often found by themselves, over more or less extensive areas. Occasion-
ally sand and muck are found in combination.

These different soils furnish sustenance for a flora of a widely varied species,

while those thriving best in wet soil or growing in water will predominate.
;

LOCAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS.

In the northern part of Steuben County, to the extreme northeast of the
region, are localities of pure sand of rather extensive area, and lakes entirely
surrounded by sand and lime deposits, around whose edges, and in whose bot-
toms, scarcely any vegetation is to be found. Sandy spots devoid of vegetation
are occasionally found throughout the region, but of very limited extent. The
Steuben County tracts are quite peculiar to their immediate vicinity, and per-
haps should not be included. In none of the other counties do we find entire
lakes so destitute of vegetation. I have counted over ten plants in Bradner’s
list!? characteristic of a barren soil which are not found so far, or only occa-
sionally, in the rest of the region. In general, there would seem to be the greatest
prevalence of plants characteristic of lighter sandy soil in Steuben County, the
greatest prevalence of plants indicative of a wet, peaty soil in Kosciusko County,
and rather more of a mixture of the two in Noble County, between. But a very
general uniformity of species will be found throughout the region, which will

increase with closer study and more extended collecting.

PHYSIOGRAPHIC CHANGES.

1. Low Swamps. The lakes are for the most part surrounded by low lands
or marshes, which show that the lakes were once of much greater extent. Soil is
accumulating around these lakes by the growth and decay, from season to season,
of the rank vegetation around the edges, and this process is continually diminish-
ing the size of the lakes, forming large marshes, which are being drained by
ditching and tiling. A great deal of valuable land has thus been- reclaimed and

successtully farmed.

1217th Rep. State Geologist Ind., 1891-2, p. 135.

151

The result of this change is a decreasing area for water plants, but an
increasing area for swamp plants, which area is again converted into cultivated
dry land. While this is a slow process, and has not materially decreased the size
of the lakes very lately, yet a great deal of swamp land which formerly was over-
flowed at periods of high water has been, within the past twenty years, so success-
fully drained as to make dry, tillable land. The amount of swamp land in
Kosciusko County at present is not one-half what it was twenty years ago; but
there was so much land of this character then, that the remainder, with the lakes
added, is sufficient to designate this as a true lake region.

The same changes have taken place to a greater or less extent in all the other
counties of the region.

But few species have, in all probability, been yet lost to this flora by these
changes, but the abundance of many species must be greatly reduced.

By means of this system of drainage the land passes from the wettest swamp
through all gradations to dry, solid land, and the plants growing on it change in
a like manner.

I have in mind a certain swamp, which was an outlot of the city of Warsaw,
Kosciusko County, in which grew, fifteen or sixteen years ago, great quantities of
Typha latifolia L., Sagittaria variabilis Englem., Cypeous strigosus L., and such
plants as grow in the wettest swamps. Open ditches were put through and the
soil was gradually dried. These plants gradually disappeared, and such plants as
Lobelia syphilitica L., Lobelia cardinalis L., Lysimachia stricta Ait., Iris versicolor L.,
and Potentilla fruticosa L., were noticed. As the ground further dried out, and
these began to disappear, others were observed, such as Parnassia Caroliniana
Michx., Viola palmita L., var cucullata Gray, Viola Canadensis L., and Gerardia
purpurea L. Even these finally disappeared, until one can now only occasionally
find a plant of Viola palmata L., var cucullata Gray, and such weeds as grow in a
pasture lot—thistles, burdock, ete.

This land has, under my observation, undergone these complete transforma-
tions as regards its soil and plant life, and is only an example of numerous similar
instances throughout the entire region.

The rich black muck soil thus formed and mixed with some sand and lime
(which latter shows itself in places in marl deposits) produces plants of exceptional
size, shows many specimens of rapid growth and unusual development, and
affords much material for study along that line.

This reclaimed soil has proven specially adapted to the growth of celery, and
Warsaw is becoming a large shipping point for celery of exceptionally fine
quality.

152

2. Tamarack Swamps. Much of this peat or muck land was formerly covered
with tamarack, Larix Americana Michx. The trees grew very near to one another
and formed a very dense forest, often with an undergrowth of hus venenata DC.,
and Betula pumila L.

The tamarack has for the most part been cut down, and where standing, the
trees are often dead. The drying of the soil takes away one essential condition
to their growth.

In and near a few tamarack swamps still standing I collected the only
specimens of Betula pumila L., I have seen in Kosciusko County. It is not
reported from Noble County by Van Gorder?!*, but is from, Steuben County, by
Bradner !#, so that it is probably found sparingly throughout the region and dis-
appearing with the tamaracks.

About ten years ago I collected one specimen of Cypripedium acaule Ait., in
the edge of a tamarack swamp in the vicinity of Warsaw, Kosciusko County.

In 1882 Dr. Coulter?® lists it as found in a tamarack swamp in Noble County.
Mr. Van Gorder gives reference to the ‘‘ Editors of the Botanical Gazette, 1881,”
as his authority for listing it in his Noble County Flora'**. It is not reported
from Steuben County by Mr. Bradner‘+, and has not been seen in Kosciusko
County since the specimen mentioned. The authors of the Lake County list ?®
claim that as the only Indiana station, and mark it ‘‘local.” The specimen has
evidently been lost to this flora by absence of proper conditions for growth.

In connection with the decadence of tamarack swamps in this region, it has
been observed that a great many of the plants listed by Dr. Jno. Coulter!’ as
being characteristic plants of his ‘‘ Lake Region” are not at present the charac-
teristic plants of the ‘‘ Lake Region of Northeastern Indiana.” Of his list of
twenty plants, Betula pumiia L., Tofieldia glutinosa Willd., Lilium superbum L.,
Ruellia. eiliosa Pursh., Solidago stricta Ait., Ribes rubrum L., Potentilla argentea
L., and Myriaphyllum spicatum L., are very rarely found; while Cypripedium
acaule Ait., Oxalis acetasella L., Aster longifolius Lam., and Vaccinium Pennsyl-
vanicum Lam., have not been reported since that time. Arabis lyrata L., and

Lechea major Michx., are only occasionally found. Hlodes campanulata Pursh.,

1318th Rep. State Geologist Ind., 1893, p. 33.

1417th Rep. State Geologist Ind., 1891-92, p. 135.

25 Bot. Gazette, V. Sup. I., 1882, Flora of Indiana.

16 Higby, Wm. K., and Raddin, Chas. S., Flora of Cook Co., Il., anda part of Lake
Co., Ind. Bull Chicago Acad. Sei. IT.

17 15th Rep. State Geologist Ind., p. 259.

*Mr. Van Gorder recently reports it personally found in Noble County, but it is by no
means common.

153

Maianthemum Canadense Destf., and Allium cernuum Roth., are found more com-
monly, but not in such abundance as to be termed characteristic of the region.
This only leaves two plants of the list which now remain as characteristic, viz. :
Lobelia Kalmii L., and Seutellaria galericulata L.

It is true, of course, that Dr. Coulter’s ‘‘ Lake Region” covered more terri-
tory than the “‘ Lake Region of Northeastern Indiana,” but this latter was in-
cluded, and formed a very considerable part of it, and the fact that only two of
his list can now be called characteristic of our smaller Lake Region has its sig-
nificance.

It must be that the entire north part of the State has undergone a noticeable
change in conditions producing its characteristic plants, or that this northeastern
part under consideration has alone changed, or that we have here conditions dif-
ferent from the remainder of the former Lake Region which were existent at that
time. Most of Dr. Coulter’s observations were along the line of the L. S. & M.
S. R. R.—largely in St. Joseph County—and only touching our region in Noble
County.

It is quite probable that the observations at that time did not extend so
thoroughly in our region as in the districts to the north and west, where there was
not such an abundance of lakes and pure lake forms.

* The tamarack and associated swamp plants are more frequent in Dr. Coulter’s
list than our present lake plants and swamp plants free from tamarack surround-
ings. Our most common species of this latter class, now so abundant, can scarcely
be of very recent introduction, and this would seem to show that our pure lake
plants were not even then (1886) so abundant in the remainder of Coulter’s
Lake Region as in this part of it which we call the Lake Region of Northeastern
Indiana, proving more conclusively the distinctiveness of this region. The gradual
disappearance of the tamarack is no doubt general throughout northern Indiana,
and the list referred to would not include so many characteristic plants for any
northern county as when made, yet it would seem evident that the list never con-
tained as many plants peculiar to our region as to the counties north and west of us,
and that there always have been more pure lake forms in the counties included in
the Northeastern Indiana Lake Region than in the remainder of northern Indiana.
From the frequent references which will occur to Lake County as the only other
station, or one of a few other stations, for a number of the plants peculiar to the
Northeastern Indiana lake region, it may be inferred that Lake County as a whole
is very similar to this region, and, with the intervening territory, should be in-
cluded. When the lists of this region and the lists of Lake County are compared

it will be found that there are many plants not in common.

154 -

A large part of Lake County is the sandy region—to which we have no paral-
lel—left by the receding of Lake Michigan to its present bounds. There are in
northwestern Lake County—the southeast part of the region covered by Higley
and Raddin’s catalogue—some lakes and marshes which present conditions similar
somewhat to our own. These localities in Lake County have been so thoroughly
examined that it is not strange to find some of our less frequent species also
‘very infrequent” there. Most of all the references made are to plants very
rare or local in Lake County. Many of our common species would not be found
in Lake County, and very many common Lake County species would not be found
here at all. While Lake County offers similarities in a small part of its territory,
the Lake region of Northeastern Indiana and the Lake County region, as a whole,

are dissimilar.

Notes IN GENERAL, UPoN OccURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF RARE oR IN-
TERESTING SPECIES.

Those who have published lists covering any part of Northeastern Indiana
do not claim them to be complete, and doubtless new plants are yet to be observed.
By comparing the partial catalogues referred to with my own collections I find a
total of some nine hundred and fifty species reported from the ‘‘ Lake Region of
Northeastern Indiana.”

It is to be regretted that Mr. Bradner has not given in his catalogue'* any
notes as to abundance of species, or to distribution over the territory. With the
exception of one or two instances it is impossible to tell whether a supposable
rare plant is rarely or more commonly met with, or in what kind of soil, or under
what conditions it is found. If scarce, whether it is recently noticed and just
appearing, or whether formerly seen and just disappearing. With the geology of
the county given by townships in the same volume, Mr. Van Gorder’s reference’ ®
to scarcity or abundance, and to locality by townships, is very helpful.

It would seem that much more importance should be placed on these anno-
tations than is often done. The helpfulness of richly annotated lists is double

that of those with bare names of species.

18]7th Rep. State Geologist Ind. 1891-2, p. 135.
1918th Rep. State Geologist Ind. 1893, p. 33.

155

PLANTS NOT GIVEN IN COULTER’S LIST. 2°

During my collecting in Kosciusko County I have found seven plants not re-
ported in Coulter’s List. On the sandy, low shore of Chapman’s Lake, Kosciusko
County, I found, in 1894, two specimens only of Epilobium Adenocaulon Haussk.
Although growing very near each other they have a very different aspect, and so
far as I could judge from the manual description I had a specimen of E. glandu-
losum Lehm., which Trelease says”! does not occur in the United States. The
specimens were both sent to Dr. Trelease, and he writes me that they are both
E. adenscaulon, much as they appear different; and that EF. adenscaulon is very
variable. So far as I can ascertain EF. adenscaulon has never been found in In-
diana with the exception of the two specimens I possess; and it is interesting to
note that Beal & Wheeler?” do not list it from Michigan farther south than
Keewenaw County, the very northermost county of the Upper Peninsula.

Anychia Capillacea DC., I have found in Kosciusko County in two places in
quite abundance—on the east shore of Tippecanoe Lake in woods, and in a simi-
lar situation in Winona Park, Winona Lake. The manual?® says, ‘‘ More abun-
dant northward,” but it is not given by Beal & Wheeler, as found in Michigan,
just north of us. Higley & Raddin?* list it as found in Riverside, Ill., Cook
County, but do not list it from Lake County, in their list of Cook County, I1.,
and Lake County, Indiana, plants.

Specimens of Bidens Beckii Torr. were found by me in 1893 in the slow waters
of the Tippecanoe River, near Warsaw, Kosciusko County. I could find no list
of any section in Indiana containing this species, and reported the same to Dr.
Jno. M. Coulter. Since then I have found it mentioned as rare in Lake County,
and by Bradner from Steuben County.”° I failed to find it elsewhere, nor could
it be found in the same place the next year.

I found, in 1894, a few specimens of Asclepias phytaloccoides Pursh. near
Chapman’s Lake, Kosciusko County. It is not in Couiter’s list, but I have since

2°Bot. Gazette V, Sup. I, 1882, Flora of Indiana. From which all future references to
“Coulter’s List’’ or to the “‘State Flora’’ are taken.

21Monograph Genus Epilobium, p. 100.

22Mich. Flora, 1892, W.J. Beal and C. F. Wheeler, Agricultural College, Mich. From this
work all future references to Beal & Wheeler, or Michigan Flora, or to:plants of Mich. are
taken.

23Gray’s Manual, 6th Edition. All references to Manual are Gray’s 6th Ed.

24Bull. Chicago Acad. Sci., Vol. II, No. 1, 1891. From which all future references to
Lake County are taken.

2°17th Rept. State Geologist Ind., 1891-2, p. 135. From which all future references to
“Bradner’s List’’ or “Steuben Co.’’ are taken.

156

found it reported from Lake County ‘‘rare,” from Central Eastern Indiana?®
“rare,” but more common in Noble County’? and Steuben County than elsewhere,
showing that this lake region must offer peculiar suitable conditions for its growth.

Trifolium Lybridum L. is fast becoming common in this flora, and is mixing
so with Trifolium repens L., it seems quite impossible to find T. repens very often
true to the type. It is reported from the other counties of this region as quite
common, while to the northwest, in Lake County, it is listed as infrequent, as also
in Beal & Wheeler’s ‘‘ Michigan Flora.”

Boutelona racemosa Lag. I found this last summer (1896), on a hillside in
Winona Park, Kosciusko County; very abundant in one plat about one rod
square, but seen nowhere else. It is not listed by Troop in his ‘‘ Grasses of Indi-
ana,”’* nor do I find it listed anywhere from Indiana except by Bradner, from
Steuben County, in this region.

Eleocharis quadrangulata R. Br., is not listed by Dr. Coulter, but is marked
‘‘rare” in the Manual. This was found last summer (1896) in Winona Lake;
quite abundant in one locality. It is reported from South Michigan as rare, and
from Steuben County by Bradner. Outside of these two reports from this region,
I find only one other report from Indiana, and that in the appendix to the Lake

County list, in one locality only.

PLANTS IN COULTER’S LIST, BUT NEW TO OR RARE IN THIS REGION.

Eleocharis avata R. Br., though given in Coulter’s List as common to the State,
is not reported in any local list of the south part of the State at my command, and
is ‘‘infrequent” in Michigan to the north, but I found a few specimens at Winona
Lake, Kosciusko County, and it is reported from Steuben County, this region.
This northeast part of Indiana would seem to be more suited to it than other parts
of the State. It is ‘‘ very infrequent” in Lake County.

Hibiscus Moschentos L. is only reported from the ‘‘ knobs” in Coulter’s list, and
I can find no other report of it from this State than in Lake County. I found a
large clump of it on the Tippecanoe River, Kosciusko County, in 1893.

In-1894 I found about six plants of Parietaria Pennsylvanica Muht., on a sandy
shore of Turkey Lake, Kosciusko County. Coulter’s list reports it only from the
banks of the Ohio. I can find no other locality in the State from which it is re-

ported, except from Lake County, and then marked “rare.”

2619th Rept. State Geologist, 1882, “Flora of Central Eastern Indiana,’’ A.J. Phinney,
M. D., p.196. From which all references to Cent. Eastern Ind. are taken.

2718th Rept. Ind. State Geologist, 1893, p.33. From which all future references to “Noble
Co.’ or “Van Gorder’s List’’ are taken.

' ee 29 Ind. Agri. Expt. Sta., Lafayette, Purdue Univ., 1889. “ Grasses of Indiana.’’
—J. Troop.

157

I found in 1893, on waste ground, Kosciusko County, one specimen of Ipomee
hederacea Jacq., which is the only discovery of the species I can find north of
Centrai Indiana, nor is it reported from Michigan, to the north.

A few specimens of Myriaphyllum heterophyllum Michx., which I found in
Boydston’s Lake, Kosciusko County, are the only plants of the species I can find
reported from the north part of the State, but from Steuben County, this region,
and from Lake County.

[ would add Kosciusko County as another locality, for four plants mentioned
in Dr. Stanley Coulter’s paper?° before the Academy last year, as occurring at
only one or two stations in the north part of the State.

They are Liparis heselii Richard., Menyanthes trifoliata L., Aster umbellatus
Mill., and Galium boreale L. Other plants, not previously reported from the north
part of the State, or if so, only from Lake County, could be stated as having

been found in this Northeastern Indiana Lake Region.

SOME GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

In this connection I would call attention to the listing of Prunus Pennsylva-
nica L. f., in a list of the common timber trees of seven counties in this immediate
section.?” Is this not a mistake? Should it not be Prunus serotina Ekoh.? P.
Pennsylvanica is not in Coulter’s list, and is not reported from this region by any
list whatever other than this reference. It is marked ‘‘very rare” from Central
Eastern Indiana, and also ‘‘rare along the lake shore,” in Lake County. Beal &
Wheeler say in ‘‘Michigan Flora,” ‘‘ Very abundant on sandy soil in the north
half of the State, but less common southward, where -P. serotina takes its place.”
P. serotina is surely the only wild cherry here which could be used for lumber
(the only other tree of this genus found here—P. Americana Marshall—being too
small), and should be substituted in the list referred to for P. Pennsylvanica.

I would also call attention to some species listed by Bradner & Van Gorder,
which appear to me to be probable errors.

Mr. Van Gorder lists from Noble County, ‘‘ Hepatica acutiloba DC., Liver
leaf, common”; as does also Mr. Bradner, from Steuben County, and neither list
Hi. triloba Chaix. In all my collecting in Kosciusko County I have never seen
H, acutilobs, while H. triloba is one of our most common spring plants. I am
well aware that the two species are apt to approach each other, and that transi-
tion forms are apt to be found, but am well acquainted with the two species,

having been able to find at Crawfordsville, Indiana, with close searching for two

2°Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 1895, p. 183.
55th Rept. State Geologist Ind., 1873. Observations by G. M. Levette, p. 434.

158

seasons, nothing but H. acutiloba, and tind nothing in Kosciusko County but i,
triloba, the scapes of which seldom grow to the height of those of aeutiloba.

It would seem strange that such an apparent difference should exist between
counties of the same region, and I feel quite certain, since these lists report but
one form, it must be H. triloba.

Mr. Bradner lists from Steuben County, ‘‘Claytonia Caroliniana Michx.,
Spring Beauty.” Mr. Van Gorder reports from Noble County only C. Virginica
L., and that is the only species reported from Kosciusko County.

It is not at all probable that C. Caroliniana is found so far south in this longi-
tude. Beal & Wheeler say Caroliniana is not found in the south part of Michigan.
It is reported from Lake County, where the conditions are more like those of
Northern Michigan, and it seems very certain that the plants referred to in Mr.
Bradner’s list should be written C. Virginica.

Nowhere can I find Viburnum nudum L. reported outside the limits given in
Gray’s Manual, 6th edition, viz.: ‘‘From N. J. to Florida,” except from Steu-
ben County by Bradner, and if it be correct, is worthy of mention as an entirely
new plant to this region.

Mr. Bradner also reports Typha augqustifolia L. from Steuben County, which
is very rare indeed, and deserves special notice.

I have not corresponded with either Mr. Van Gorder or Mr. Bradner, nor
seen their collections, and draw the above conclusions wholly from general obser-
vation.

It is worthy of note that Nelumbo lutea Pers. is reported from Blue River
Lake, Whitley County *!—a part of this region. This is the only reported local-
ity in Indiana, except Lake County, and the species is very rare in the Central
States.

This region, as a whole, seems to possess a flora considerably different from
that which it had a decade since; to have lost many of its northern forms, and
to have gained some southern forms. Introduced species from the east and west
have been brought in by the railroads. The climate is much milder than form-
erly, and the various conditions for plant growth materially changed. Until re-
cently it has not had as much attention from botanists as other sections of the
State.

A more careful study of the flora will surely develop interesting facts.
There is much to be done along the line of cryptogamic botany. Surely the ter-
ritory as outlined is worthy the designation of a separate and characteristic

region, and will repay the more extended investigations of botanists.

5 17th Rept. State Geologist Ind., pp. 166.

159

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE FLoRA oF INpDrIANA, No. IV. By SrantEy Coulter.

The preceding papers in this series are those entitled Sarifragacee of Indiana
(Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 1894, pp. 103-107); A Preliminary List of Plants Growing
in the Vicinity of Washington, Daviess County (Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 1895, pp.
169-182) ; Noteworthy Indiana Phanerogams (Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 1895, pp. 183-
198). Thé notes are incidental to the preparation of the catalogue of the flora of
the State, and are in a measure supplemental to that work.

Many plants which were originally included in this contribution have been
omitted, because of their inclusion in much fuller detail than I could possibly
have given in the papers of Messrs. W. S. Blatchley and Robert Hessler, M. D.,
published in these proceedings. With the exception, therefore, of a few forms
to which I desire to call attention, the body of this paper concerns the composite
of the State, with special reference to their distribution.

Coptis trifolia Salisb. Mr. Van Gorder reports this plant as very abundant
in certain localities in both Noble and DeKalb counties. So far as has come to
my knowledge, this is the only record of the plant in the State authenticated by
herbarium specimens. Its range and habits of growth would indicate its pres-
ence in the swamp regions of our northern counties.

Ailanthus glandulosus Desf. This tree, not as yet included in the lists of the
forest trees of the State, seems to have become thoroughly naturalized, and is
entitled to a place in our flora. In Jefferson county it has escaped from cultiva-
tion and covers entire hillsides, notably in the vicinity of Madison and Hanover
college. The growth is so dense and rapid as to make it a somewhat doubtful
acquisition. A thicket of Ailanthus in full foliage gives a very fair idea of the
appearance of semi-tropical undergrowth. The tree should be included in the
flora of the State.

Sullivantia Ohionis Torr. and Gray. This form, the distribution of which I
limited (Saxifragacee of Indiana, Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 1894, p. 104) to a single
station at Clifty Falls, Jefferson county, must have an added station in Clark
county. The determination of Dr. C. R. Barnes, questioned in that communica-
tion, has been verified by abundant specimens found among the duplicates in
Purdue university. The Clark county station is of the same general, character
as that at Clifty Falls, the plant clinging to the vertical sides of moist limestone
cliffs, by no chance seeming to leave this apparently barren position for the
deeper and richer soils surrounding. The plant in our region may be considered

as the most characteristic of the limestone cliffs.

160.

Juniperus Virginiana L. The apparently rapid increase of this cedar through-
out southern Indiana is worthy of note. Within ten years the number of well-
grown forms has increased at least fourfold. The explanation of this increase is
to be found in the almost universal fencing of regions formerly wild, and the con-
sequent restriction of cattle ranges. It is an extremely suggestive example of the
almost immediate effect of a modification of the factors entering into the struggle
for existence. It is incidentally suggestive of the fact that when reforestration is
attempted, the young forest areas must be as carefully guarded as are flower or
vegetable gardens,

Tipularia discolor Nutt. This rare orchid is reported by Prof. A. H. Young
as having been found at the Clifty Falls station, in Jefferson county, the past sea-
son. This is much south of its central range, although in its easterly range it ex-
tends as far south as Florida.

The plant affects sandy woods, while the Clifty Falls Station can offer noth-
ing except a thin limestone soil or a heavy, cold clay. The record is verified by

herbarium specimens.

The composite of Indiana, so far as reported to the survey, number 213
species, distributed through 55 genera. The Asters lead with 32 reported species,
Solidago coming second with 28. The other larger genera are Helianthus, 13
species; Hupatorium, 7 species; Erigeron and Coreopsis each with 6 species; Bidens,
Silphium and Liatris each with 5 species. Owing to imperfect notes and “‘ scrappy ”
material the work, especially in the Asters and Solidagos, was extremely difficult.
While doubtless many errors occur, there has been a constant endeavor to elim-
inate all doubtful references. In some cases specimens have not been seen, but
where admitted the original specimens have been passed upon by some well-known
expert. Very few of Dr. Schneck’s specimens have come into my hands, but all
of his doubtful forms were referred at the time of collection to Dr. Gray. It may
be assumed that all admitted forms have been inspected or passed upon by some
botanist entitled to speak with authority.

It may be intimated here that apparently no other family responds so quickly
to changed conditions. The response, even to slight changes, is often very marked.
Many Asters and some Solidagos present fairly distinct forms, determined appar-
ently merely by the amount of light or shade. Others indicate clearly the amount
of moisture in the soil. Because of this ready response to environmental changes
a determination of a form from a single specimen is often an impossibility. I
have felt compelled in some cases to omit from the list forms of apparently correct
determination until fuller notes or a larger suite of specimens proved them not to

be environmental variations.

161

With but few exceptions, the composites within our bounds do not come into
full flower until July and August. Asa rule the flowering season is long, many
genera blossoming abundantly from Juiy until checked by the frosts. From the
middle of August they determine the physiognomy of the vegetation over the
entire area of the State. This is especially true in the prairie region and in open
fields. Indeed, the great majority of the composites of Indiana are found in their
greatest abundance and luxuriance in dry soils and in regions exposed to the full
action of the sun. They seem to be xerophytes of the xerophytes.

Some species of Eupatorium, Liatris spicata and other forms, however, furnish
exceptions as regards dryness of soil, while Po/ymnia and a few others give excep-
tion as to light. Certainly in no-other family in our area can xerophytic adap-
tations be so satisfactorily studied.

While the flowering season is so extended, and the consequent number of
achenes formed enormous, it is probable that but a small proportion of them
germinate. Theseedlings, also, in all cases in which experiments were tried, were
remarkably sensitive to changes in temperature and moisture. Almost every
other form used was more hardy in the seedling stage than the compositae. Ex-
ceptions to this were the Ambrosias and Lactuca Canadensis L. In the series of
experiments the percentage of seeds germinating was very small in the composite,
with the exception of Arctium, where the per cents, in three experiments were, 87.5,
80, and 87.5. In Bidens 20 per cent. was the highest, in Lactuea 25 per cent., in Am-
brosia 20 per cent.,-while in Cnicus out of three plantings of 30 achenes each,
only two achenes germinated. Under the same conditions Abutilon Avicenner
Gaertn, in two experiments guve 100 per cent., and in a third, 96.7. The seedlings
of this plant were extremely hardy, withstanding wide ranges of temperature and
moisture. Solanum nigrum L, Datura stramonium L., and Scrophularia nodosa L..,
Marilandica Gray, invariably showed germination per cents. above eighty-five.
The plants, other than composites, are introduced simply for purposes of com-
parison. The data given above are derived from a large number of germination
experiments conducted in the Laboratories of Purdue university. In these ex-
periments I have endeavored to eliminate possible error, and to give, so far as
could be determined, natural conditions. The experiments cover some 30 com-
posite species distributed among 15 genera, and 450 species representing families
other than the composite. The material was gathered in almost every instance
with extreme care in order that conclusions might be based upon known condi-
tions. So far as the experiments go concerning composite, I am convinced that
the distribution of this family is largely limited, first, by the small germination

percentage of the achenes; second, by the extreme sensitiveness of the seedlings

162

to heat and moisture changes. A series of pots containing seedlings was subjected
to an artificial drought of five days. Of theeleven species of composites all except
Ambrosia died. Often species of other families, only Serophularia nodosa Marilandica
died. Repetitions of tke experiment showed similar results. Another line of ex-
periments showed that the composite seedlings were unable to withstand any con-
siderable change in temperature, being much more affected by temperature in-
crease than by its decrease. An increase of 5° C., from 25° C. to 30° C, usually
proving sufficient to kill them or greatly retard their growth. When it is remem-
bered that the distribution of composites is for the most part in dry soil, in places
exposed to the full force of the sun, it is apparent that large numbers of seedlings
must perish. It is possible that the danger of a spread of these forms through
seed dissemination has been overestimated.

Another fact indicated by the experiments was that the achenes of the earlier
and later flowers were rarely viable, this being especially true in Helianthus.

It is somewhat surprising that in a family so dominating in species and indi-
viduals there is not included a greater number of ‘‘ worst weeds.” Considering
the immense size of the family, the number is astonishingly small.

Taraxacum invades the lawns; the Lactucas, Cnicus, Arctvwm and Erigeron the
fields; but none of them compare in noxious features with forms from other fam-
ilies. Ambrosia, which overruns waste fields, I find is considered by the farmers
as a positive benefit to the land. Evrigeron, which a few years ago was a great
annoyance, seems to have yielded to cultivation, and to have practically lost its
place among bad weeds. Doubtless in some places it is still annoying, but the
evidence is that it disappears from carefully cultivated fields. Chrysanthemum
Leucanthemum L. is certainly bad, but is of restricted range. Bidens is annoying
to the sheep-raiser, but does not otherwise rise to the rank of a ‘‘bad” weed. For
the most part the composite seem perfectly content to occupy waste places, and
readily yield to man the possession of the soil.

So far as I have been able to discover, none of the species are poisonous, if I
except a few reported instances of poisoning by forms of Cnicus. Most of these
cases, I think, can be referred to personal idiosyncrasy. I have tested all the
forms of Cnaicus upon myself and upon numbers of students without results other
than were referable to the mechanical action of the prickles. Nanthium Cana-
dense Mill. is said to be poisonous to the touch.! If this be true, the forms found
in the State, X. spynosum L. and X. strumarium L., are to be regarded with sus-
picion by persons susceptible to plant poisoning. It is to be remembered, how-

ever, that even the known poisonous plants are only poisonous to a small percent-

1White, Dermatitis renenata. Boston, 1887.

163

age of those touching them, and many are only poisonous in certain stages of
their growth.

Save for the medicinal value of some few forms, none within the State are of
economic value, if Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus L.) and the Dande-
lion ( Taraxacum officinale Weber), both of which are occasionally used as food, are
excepted.

Very few of the composite are eaten by animals, except by accident or under
pressure of hunger. They are also largely free, at least the Indiana forms, from
plant diseases. Their limitation in numbers and distribution I believe to be
largely determined by the causes named earlier in this paper.

It is not the purpose of this paper to give a full list of the forms found in the
State, but rather to call attention to the more general facts concerning their
distribution.

I. LOCAL FORMS.

The species included in this list, so far as has come to my knowledge, are only
reported from a single locality. A close examination of the list will show that in
many cases this apparently restricted State range is but an indication of territory
that has been closely and continuously worked.

Vernonia altissima Nutt. Reported from Tippecanoe county by Messrs.
Laben and Conner. The distinction between this form and V. fasciculata Michx.,
turns upon the character of the inflorescence and the surface of the achene. Any
one familiar with the varied inflorescence of V. fasciculata will see that the ulti-
mate distinction is upon the character of the achene. In fasciculata the achene is
smooth; in altissima hispidulous on the ribs. In the specimens reported the
achenes were hispidulous on the ribs and the plant was referred to altissima Nutt.
Further examination of the genus showed that the achenes of V. Noveboracensis
Willd., showed the same characters. The character of the involucral scales, how-
ever, excludes the form from Noveboracensis. V. altissima Nutt. is, therefore,
added to the State flora. In a general way the plant has the inflorescence and
achene of Noveboracensis, the involucral scales of fasciculata, and leaves intermediate
between the two. Its appearance is strongly suggestive of the possibility of its
being a hybrid form.

Mikania scandens L. Reported from Gibson and Posey counties by Dr. J.

2

Schneck. ‘‘Sandy thickets along streams; rare.” There seems to be no reason

27th Rep. Geol. Sury. Ind., 1875, p. 525.

164

why this plant should not be found in other localities. It, presumably, from what
is known of its distribution, came into the State from the north and east.*
Liatris squarrosa Willd. Gibson and Posey counties, Dr. J. Schneck. ‘‘ Dry

soil; rare.”* Another form which is probably of much wider range than present
reports indicate.

Chrysopsis villosa, Nutt. Keported from Vigo county by W. S. Blatchley,
“Frequent; banks of old canal, prairies, etc.” * This species has evidently entered
our territory from the west and may be found in the western tier of counties.

Solidago squarrosa Muhl. Reported from Floyd county in 1837 by Dr. A,
Clapp, and not since recorded in the State. A number of species found in the
Clapp collection are in similar case. Their disappearance from our flora empha-
sizes the importance of continuous regional study in order that we may have more
accurate knowledge of plant movements.

Solidago petiolaris Ait. Specimens by Baird and Taylor from Clark county
have been referred to this species. The specimens are not entirely satisfactory,
but there seems no doubt of the accuracy of the reference. The plant entered the
State flora from the southwest.

Solidago odora Ait. Gibson and Posey counties, Dr. J. Schneck. ‘‘Sandy
soils, scarce.” Specimens have not been examined, but the species is admitted
for reasons indicated earlier in the paper.

Solidago rupestris Rat. Reported from Clark county by Baird and Taylor.

The inclusion of Indiana in the range of this species in the 6th edition of the

Manual was doubtless based upon this collection.

Brachycheta cordata Torr. and Gray. Jefferson county. For full notes on
this form reference is made to Noteworthy Indiana Phanerogams, in Proc. Ind.
Acad. Sci., 1895, p. 189.

Servocarpus solidagineus Nees. In the Clapp collections of 1834-37, from
Floyd county. It does not seem to have been recorded since that time.

Aster macrophyllus L. This form from the north is reported from Noble
county, by Mr. W. B. Van Gorder.

Aster Drummondii Lindl. Reported as ‘‘frequent in low, open pastures and
prairies”® in Vigo county, by W.S. Blatchley. A western form very close to
A. sigittifolius Willd., and possibly a mere geographical variety.

°Tbid, p. 534.
* Blatchley, W.S., Compositex of Vigo County. In ed.
* 7th Rep. Geol. Surv. Ind., 1875, p. 536.
® Blatchley, W.S. Composite Vigo county. In ed.
* Since this was in type, Mr. W.S. Blatchley, under date of September 26, 1897, sends me
abundant specimens of this form from Lake county. He reports itas “‘ growing plentifully
over bushes on the mucky margin of a stream, four miles east of Hebron.’’

165

Aster vimineus Lam., folvolosus Gray. This form is reported from Franklin
county by O. M. Meyncke. So far as I am able to judge the reference is correct,
although the well-known difficulty of separating the group of species in which it
is found renders absolute vertainty impossible.

Aster junceus Ait. Reported from Clarke county by Baird and Taylor is in
all probability not a member of the State flora. The very scant specimen I have
examined from the Clark county locality is probably A. Novi-Belgii L. As the
specimens fit the latter as well as they do junceus, range probabilities lead to the
exclusion of A. junceus Ait., from the State flora.

Ambrosia bidentata Michx. Reported as ‘‘common, dry prairies” ’ in Gibson
and Posey counties by Dr. Schneck. From the west and probably to be found as
far north as Vermillion county, although the Gibson and Posey county station
the only one reported.

Rudbeckia specuosa Wenderoth. Reported from Jefferson county by J. M.
Coulter. The specimen has not been examined, but is admitted upon the author-
ity of the collector.

Rudbeckia fulgida Ait. Reported by Dr. A. J. Phinney from Jay, Delaware,
Wayne and Randolph counties. Dr. Phinney states that his specimens were veri-
fied by Dr. John M. Coulter. The species is therefore admitted, although so
marked a form should not rest upon a single reference.

Helianthus rigidus Desf. Jay, Delaware, Wayne and Randolph counties,
Dr. A. J. Phinney. The form is very characteristic and could scarcely be mis-
taken. It is probably a member of the State flora, although its more natural lo-
cation would be the western portion of the State.

Helianthus occidentalis Riddell. St. Joseph county. Reported by Dr. Charles
R. Barnes and verified by abundant specimens.

Helianthus tomentosus Michx. Reported from Clark county by Baird and
Taylor, is probably an incorrect reference. No specimens have been examined
and the range probabilities are sharply against its presence in the State.

Coreopsis auriculata L. Clark county, Baird and Taylor.

Coreopsis discoidea Torr. and Gray. A specimen of this species is in the Pur-
due herbarium labelled Gibson county. No collector’s name is given. The plant
is not included in Dr. Schneck’s Flora of Lower Wabash Valley. The identification
is correct, the only question which arises is concerning the locality. I know of
no collector other than Dr. Schneck in that region. Upon the specimen, the

species is admitted to the flora.

7 7th Geol. Rep. Ind., 1875, p. 537.

12

166

Bidens Beckii Torr. Reported by W. W. Chipman from a single locality in
Kosciusko county. Mr. Chipman secured abundant material of this interesting
species which is northern in mass distribution.

Hymenopappus scabiosaevs, L’Her. ‘‘ Scarce on sandy knolls”’* in Vigo county
Reported by W. S. Blatchley. This is only one of a large number of plants
added to our flora by the careful investigations of Mr. Blatchley. The plant
entered the State from the southwest. Verifying specimens in De Pauw univer-
sity herbarium.

Artemisia Canadensis Michx. Lake county, E. J. Hill. For full report see
Noteworthy Indiana Phaneroygams, Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 1895, p. 191.

Artemisia annua L. A Gibson county specimen with no further data. In-

vestigation indicates that it is probably not uncommon in the State, although not.

definitely reported from other localities.

Artemisia Absinthium L. Escaped and well established in Gibson and Posey
counties. Not reported from any other locality.

Senecio palustris Hook. This species, reported from Clay county by D. T.
MacDougal, is represented by specimens in the DePauw herbarium. I have ex-
amined the forms and believe the determination accurate. Range probabilities

? seem

would suggest the form to be S. lobatus Pers., but the ‘‘ 20 or more rays’
sufficient grounds for holding to the original reference. It is probable that the
range as indicated in the manual! should be somewhat extended southward.

Cacalia tuberosa Nutt. Reported from LaPorte, LaPorte county, by Dr. C. R.
Barnes. I have also found this species in fair abundance in the low ground to the
south and west of Pine Lake, near LaPorte. Abundant herbarium specimens
verify the reference. The form has probably a much more general distribution
through the northern portion of the State in wet lands.

Cnicus horridulus Pursh. Reported from Putnam county by D. T. MacDougal,
with verifying specimen in herbarium of DePauw university. The reference is
incorrect. The specimen is Cnicws lanceolatus Hoffm., in which the leaf prickles
have a yellowish caste. With this exception the form is the typical lanceolatus.
Cnisus horridulus is a coast plant, and should be excluded from the State flora.

Cnicus Pitcheri Torr. Lake county, E. J. Hill.°

Cnicus pumilus Torr. Lake county, E. J. Hill.+°

Cnicus Hillii, W. M. Canby. Lake county, E. J. Hill.*!

5SBlatchley, W.S.: Composite of Vigo county. In ed.

*Coulter, Stanley: Noteworthy Indiana Phanerogams, Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 1895, p. 193.
1eThid., p. 193.

UThid , p. 193.

167

Cichorium Intybus L. Reported from Noble county by W. B. Van Gorder.
This form escapes readily from cultivation, and to my personal knowledge has
made a foothold for itself in several localities in the State. This is notably true
in Jefferson county. The only specimens, however, are from Noble county.

Hieracium Canadense Michx. Reported from Lake county by E. J. Hill.
The form will probably be found to be confined to the northern counties in favor-
able localities, its mass distribution being northerly.

Hieracium longipilum Torr. ‘‘Prairies and open woods, common,’’!? Gibson
and Posey counties, Dr. J. Schneck. From the north.

Prenanthes serpentaria Pursh. Listed from Clark county by Baird and Taylor.
No specimens have been examined. The species is eastern in its distribution,
and the reference is probably incorrect. Excluded from the State flora in absence
of verifying specimens.

The following forms seem to be limited within the State to the northern
counties:

Solidago stricta Ait. Reported from St. Joseph county by Dr. C. R. Barnes,
and from Noble county by W. B. Van Gorder. From the north, and probably to
be found in favoring localities in low, damp ground in the northern tier of
counties.

Solidago uliginosa Nutt. Lake, St. Joseph and Noble counties.

Solidago Riddellii Frank, Reported from Noble county by W. B. Van Gor-
der; from Tippecanoe county by Prof. Hussey; from Jay, Delaware, Randolph
and Wayne by Dr. Phinney. The Noble county reference is well authenticated
and sufficient to admit form to State flora. The Tippecanoe county specimen is
unsatisfactory, being both scant and incomplete. No special feature excludes it
from the reference, nor, on the other hand, does any marked character require
the reference. I am inclined to think the Tippecanoe county specimen, S. Ohio-
ensis, Riddell, a species of known occurrence in the county. Dr. Phinney’s
specimens are not accessible. As it stands, Noble county is the only authenticated
station for the species.

Solidago tenuifolia Pursh. Reported from Jasper county by Dr. C. R. Barnes,
and authenticated by abundant specimens in the Purdue herbarium. Also
included by Dr. Phinney in his list of Jay, Delaware, Wayne and Randolph
counties.

Coreopsis palmata, Nutt. Laporte and St. Joseph counties, reported by Dr.
Barnes. Specimens in Purdue herbarium. Probably from the northwest.

127th Geol. Surv. Ind. 1875, p. 541.

168

Artemisia caudata Michx. This species, which has heretofore had its sole sta-
tion in Lake county, but which I intimated should be found more widely distrib-
uted,1° has an additional station reported in Fulton county by Dr. Robert
Hessler. The specimens were examined and are unquestionable.

Artemisia Canadensis Michx.1®

Prenanthes racemosa Michx.'!* Formerly reported only from Lake and Noble
counties, has been reported from Cass county by Dr. Hessler. Abundant speci-

“mens were submitted to the survey.

The following species, so far as can be determined, seem to be restricted in
range to the southern portion of the state. It is probable, however, that more
extended study will extend many of these ranges.

Elephantopus Carolinianus Willd. Reported only from Gibson, Posey, Jeffer-
son, Clark, Daviess and Vigo counties.

Eupatorium celestinum L. Reported from Gibson, Posey, Jefferson, Franklin,
Monroe and Daviess counties. There seems to be no reason why it should not be
found throughout the State, as the mass distribution of the form is northward.

Solidago neglecta Torr. and Gray. Reported from Jefferson county by John
M. Coulter, and from Clark county by Baird and Taylor. The Clark county
specimen has not been examined. The Jefferson county specimen in the Purdue
herbarium is S. arguta Ait. In absence of further data, the form is excluded
from State flora, the range probabilities being against its occurrence in the locali-
ties cited. If found in the State it will probably be in the swamps of the northern
counties.

Solidago Shortii Torr. and Gray. Floyd county, 1837, Dr. A. Clapp. Re-
ported also from Clark county by Baird and Taylor. Indiana probably repre-
sents the eastern limit of this species.

Boltonia asteroides L’ Her. Reported from Gibson, Posey and Jefferson coun-
ties. Also includedin Dr. A. J. Phinney’s list of the central-eastern counties.

Aster ericoides L., villosus Torr. and Gray. This variety should be, and prob-
ably is, fairly abundant in the State. It is, however, only definitely reported
from Jefferson, Franklin and Vigo counties.

Erigeron divaricatus Michx. In the Sixth Edition, Gray’s Manual, the range
given is ‘‘Indiana to Minnesota, and southward.” The species, however, is only
reported from Jefferson, Gibson and Posey counties. In both localities it is said

ce

to be ‘‘not abundant.”

13 Coulter, Stanley: Noteworthy Indiana Phanerogams. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 1895,
p. 191.

tS Tibids, pes 1925

To'Tbid:, p. 191.

169

Pluchea camphorata DC. In Jefferson county, on river banks. In Gibson
and Posey counties, ‘‘common in rich clearings and moist glades.”

_ Polymnia Uvedalia L. <A species found in moist and miry places. Reported
ouly from Gibson, Posey, Jefferson, Franklin and Clark counties.

Eclipta alba, Hassk. Probably occurring throughout State, but, so far as re-
ports go, not found north of Johnson county. Very abundant and variable in
the more southern counties.

Heliopsis laevis Pers. Reported stations of this species indicate that it is not
found farther north than Johnson county. As in the preceding species, its mass
distribution in the State is evidently southern.

Heliopsis scabra Dunal. Reports indicate this species to be southern in its dis-
tribution. Putnam county represents the northern station in the State.

Helianthus parviflorus Bernh. This form is reported from Gibson, Posey, Jef-
ferson and Franklin counties, and in the list of Dr Phinney.

Helianthus doronicoides Lam. Is reported from the same localities as the
preceding species, with Putnam county as an added station. There is no ap-
parent reason why both forms should not be of more general distribution.

Anthemis arvensis L. Reported from Monroe and Clark counties. The occur-
rence of the species within our boundary is exceptional, and it is a question as to
whether it has maintained its place in the localities in which it was found.

Chrysanthemum Parthenium Pers. Reported from Gibson, Posey and Clark
counties. The position of these ‘‘escapes” in a local flora is very questionable. °
I am inclined to exclude such forms from the State list unless the form generally
escapes from cultivation and successfully maintains itself for a series of years.

Onopordon Acanthium L. Doubtfully admitted on reports from Jefferson
county by Dr. John M. Coulter, and from Clark county by Baird and Taylor.

Centaurea Cyanus L. This species undoubtedly escapes at times from cultiva-
tion. It is so reported from Gibson, Posey, Clark and Monroe counties. Its
admission to the State flora will depend upon proof that it has maintained itself
in the localities in which it has escaped.

Hieracium paniculatum L. Reported from Clark, Monroe, Jefferson and Har-
rison counties. While no range improbabilities intervene the somewhat scant
specimens examined are perilously close to H. scabrum Michx. The well known
variability of the latter species in our range leads to a slight degree of uncertainty
in the reference. The number of flowers in the head, 12-20, however, determined
the reference.

Hieracium venosum L. This species is reported from the ‘‘Knobs” by Dr.

Barnes and from Monroe county by Mr. Blatchley. Its mass range is decidedly

170

to the north of these localities, and it may be looked for with confidence in the
northern portions of the State.

Prenanthes aspera Michx. As reported, this species is confined to Jefferson
and Clark counties. There is reason to believe it of more general distribution.

Lactuca hirsuta Muhl., L. Floridana Gaertn. and L. cucophea Gray, are all
confined to the southern counties, Monroe being the extreme northern reference
in any case.

Only one form appears to be strictly western in its State distribution.

Solidago Missouriensis Nutt. This species is reported from Jasper county by
Prof. Barnes, but with this exception is confined to counties bordering the Wabash
River as far south as Gibson and Posey.

It is thus seen that 36 species have a single reported station; that 8 species
are strictly northern, 24 species southern and 1 species western in distribution
within our territory. The range of many of these 69 species will doubtless be ex-
tended as the result of further study. The remaining 144 species of the family
are so generally reported, or are reported from such widely separate stations as to
make it probable that they are found throughout the State in greater or less
abundance. In many cases the distribution of these general forms is so thor-
oughly worked out as to give with a fair degree of certainty the determining fac-
tors in the distribution. It is impossible in this paper to give in detail illustrative
cases. In a general way, water courses may be said to be an important determin-
‘ing factor. In the case of Liatris pycnostachya Michx., a prairie form, the south-
ward extension of the species from the prairie region is found to follow closely
the course of the Wabash River as far south as Gibson and Posey counties. The
same thing is true in a less marked degree of Eupatoriwm sessilifolium L., which
nownere wanders far from water ways.

The prevailing winds play a large part in the direction of movement of com-
posite species. After lodgment has once been obtained, the direction in which
any given form spreads seems in many cases to be absolutely conditioned by the
direction of the prevailing winds at the season of the dissemination of the
achenes. A number of lines of distribution are easily attributable to this con-
ditioning factor.

The great trunk lines of railway may serve to introduce new forms, many may
find lodgment because of impure seed supplies furnished the agriculturists, but
the after distribution, with but few exceptions, is determined by water courses and
prevailing winds.

To a slight degree within our area the elevation seems to determine distribu-

tion. Thus our extreme southwestern counties are but 300 feet above sea level,

171

while the remainder of the State ranges from 700-1,100 feet above sea level. A
single instance illustrates the point. Solidago latifolia L. is found abundantly
throughout the State, with the exception of the extreme southwestern counties.
It is found, however, in the higher land a little to the west in Illinois, and a little
to the south. Other forms occur which indicate that even a slight change of
elevation may at times enter as a very positive factor in distribution.

I ask the botanists of the State in their future study of composite forms to
devote more time and care to ecologic observations, since by this means only can
our State flora be made of such nature as to be readily correlated with work done
in other parts of the country. Many lists are a weariness to the flesh, but ecologic

facts do good as a medicine.

ADDITIONS TO THE PUBLISHED Lists oF INDIANA CryptToGAMs. By LucreNn
M. UnpDERWooD.

The following plants, mostly collected during my connection with the State
Biological Survey, have not been reported as growing in Indiana, and may prop-
erly be noted in this connection. All are represented by specimens in my her-
barium:

UNREDINES.

Aecidium Cyparissie DC. On Euphorbia commutata, Montgomery, 5, 1895

(Olive).

Coleosporium ipomoec. On Ipomoer pandurata, Tippecanoe, 9 1895 (Arthur).

THELEPHORACE#.

Corticium alutarium B. & C. Putnam, 10, 1892.

Corticium caleum Fr. Putnam, 5, 10, 1893; 12, 1894.

Corticium cinereum Pers. Putnam, 12, 1891.

Corticium fiilamentosum B. & C. Putnam, 10, 1892; 12, 1894.

Corticium lacteum Fr. Putnam, 6, 9, 1893.

Corticium lividum Pers. Putnam, 5, 10, 1893.

Corticium ochraceum Pers. Putnam, 10, 1891.

Corticium portentosum B. & C. Putnam, 10, 1892.

Corticium rubropallens Schw. Putnam, 10, 1893.

Hymenochete fuliginosa (Pers.) Ley. Putnam, 12, 1894.

Hymenochete purpurea Cke. & Morg. Putnam, 9, 1893.

Peniophora cinerescens (Schw.) Sacc. Should stand in place of Hymenochete
cinerescens previously reported. Putnam, 10, 1891; 12, 1894.

Stereum coffeatum B. & C. Putnam, 12, 1891.

172

Stereum hirsutum (Willd.) Fr. Putnam, 10, 1893; 12, 1894.
Stereum ochraceoflavum Schw. Vigo, 10, 1893.
Thelephora tephroleuca B. & C. Putnam, 7, 1894 (Melia Ellis).

AGARICACEX.

Collybia zonata Pk. At the foot of a maple, Putnam, 8, 1896.

LYCOPERDACE®.

Geaster fimbriatum Fr. Putnam, 11, 1894.

Lemanea catenulata grows in abundance, forming fringes on the rocks above
the upper fall (Eel River Falls, Owen County), where I collected it in May, 1893.
According to Dr. Atkinson this species has not before been teported from America.
Its Chantransia stage is still a desideratum. The plant was distributed in Setchell,
Holden and Coliins: Phycotheca Americana.

Additional Hosts for Indiana fungi previously reported.

Carex Pennsylvanica (Puccinia ecaricis). Montgomery, 5, 1895 (Olive).

Galium aparine (Puccinia galii). Montgomery, 5, 1895 (Olive).

Ipomea nil ( Albugo ipomece-pandurine). Tippecanoe, 9, 1895 (Arthur).

Phaseolus diversifolius ( Uromyces appendiculatus). Tippecanoe, 9, 1895 ( Arthur’.

Columbia University, 26 December, 1896.

CHANGES IN THE PitH CELL PRELIMINARY TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF CAVITIES
IN THE STEMS OF SOME GRASSES. By GEORGE J. PIERCE.

THE BACTERIOLOGICAL FLORA OF THE AIR IN STABLES. 3y A. W. Bittine
AND CHAs. E. DAVIs.

During the first five months of the present year a study was conducted to
determine the number of bacteria found in the air in stables and to determine
whether a relationship existed between the number of germs found in the air and
the sanitary condition of the place.

Ten barns and stables were selected, representing fairly well good, average
and poor sanitary conditions. Fifteen tests of the air were made inside the build-
ings with Hesse’s apparatus and a corresponding number of tests made on the
open air at the same time. The average number of colonies developed per liter
from the air inside the stables was 86; the average number of colonies developed
per liter from the air outside the stables was 27. Thirty tests were made by Petri

dish exposures for two minutes each in the air inside the stables and fifteen tests

173

for the same length of time outside the stables. The Petri dish exposures were
made at the same time the Hesse tests were made. The average number of colonies
grown on the plates exposed inside the stables was 174, and 55 for those exposed
on the outside. In almost every case the number of germs obtained by both
Hesse’s apparatus and Petri dish exposures was greater inside than outside the
stables. It was determined that the number of germs per liter of air could not be
taken as an index of the sanitary surroundings. The dust caused by the feeding
operation, the moving of bedding, currying, etc., have more to do with the number
of germs which will be drawn into a Hesse tube or fall upon a Petri dish than has
lack of ventilation. A box stall with sides and ceiling lined with matched lumber
with no place for ventilation or the admission of food except a tightly closing door
showed the fewest germs. The air became so foul in twenty-four to thirty hours
that acute catarrh developed in the three different horses confined in it during the

experiment.

A description of eighteen forms studied in detail is herewith appended :

174

175

We)
~

DESCRIPTION OF FORMS OF BACTERIA OBTAINED FROM THE AIR IN STABLES.
FORM No. 1.

Obtained from the air of the stable in the horse barn at Purdue.

Morphology, a diplococcus 1 to 1.5" in diameter. Sometimes three or four are
joined together.

Biological Characters. An erobic, liquefying motile diplococcus. It grows in
various media at room temperature. In Bouillon it produces turbidity and a white
sediment is formed in bottom of the tube. In Gelatine Stick culture, growth oc-
curs only at the surface; is not luxuriant, of a whitish color; producing a lique-
faction which is covered with a white film. It grows at a temperature of 102° F.
producing a whitish though not luxuriant growth. On Potato it gives a luxuriant

reddish growth with a white growth intermingled. On Agar Plate the colonies

178

are white, slick, smooth surface, regular outline with a finely granular portion at
the edge. On Agar Streak it gives a cream-colored, raised convoluted growth
with folds running from the center to the edge. On Lactose Litmus Agar Plates
the colonies were large. They produce no change in the litmus, showing that lac
- tic acid is not formed. ;
FORM No. 2.

Obtained from the air in the Purdue horse barn. The form is very abundant.

Morphology. A micrococcus 1 to 1.5" in diameter. It often occurs in masses
of three or four.

Biological Characters. A liquefying, motile wrobic, micrococcus. In Bouillon
it produces turbidity and forms a yellow ring on tube at surfaces of the liquid. A
yellow precipitate collects in bottom of tube. On Potato it produces a raised,
yellow, granular growth along the streak. In Gelatine Stick culture a yellowish
growth occurs only on the surface which liquefies the gelatine. On Agar Plate the
colonies are of a brownish color, of irregular. outline and of a granular appear-
ance. The colonies that grow on the surface are larger than those that grow on
the bottom of the plate. This form grows at a temperature of 102° F.; giving a
medium, irregular, white slick growth along the streak. On Agar Streak it forms
a light yellowish, granular growth of irregular outline. On Lactose Litmus Agar
plates the colonies are large and white. They produce a small amount of lactic
acid,

FORM No. 3.-

Obtained from the air in the Purdue cattle barn. Only a few colonies
obtained.

Morphology. A bacillus 4" in length and about 1" in width. It oceurs in
short chains. |

Biological Characters. A liquefying facultative anerobic, motile bacillus.

In Bouillon a white flacculent mass forms both on the surface and in the
liquid. In Gelatine Stick cultures it produces a slight white growth along the
puncture. It gives a light brownish, slick, luxuriant growth at a temperature of
102° F. It grows over the whole surface of the Agar and colors it brassy. On
Potato it gives a raised, wrinkled, luxuriant, white powdery growth. On Agar
Streak it forms a convoluted, raised, white growth, which is slightly granular at
the edge. The colonies on Agar Plate, white with a pale spot in the center
and are fringed at the edge. On Lactose Litmus Agar Plates the colonies are
white, raised, wrinkled, with a granular growth around the edge. The litmus is
changed slightly pink, showing a small production of lactic acid. The growth
on this media is quite rapid. . .

FORM No. 4.

Obtained from the air in the Purdue horse barn. This form is quite
abundant.

Morphology. A bacillus 3" long and 1” in width.

Biological Characters. A facultative anerobic bacillus.

In Bouillon it produces turbidity and a white sediment forms in bottom of
tube. On Potato it forms a luxuriant, light brownish, raised growth. The
growth at a temperature of 102° F. is very luxuriant over the whole surface of
Agar and has a slick appearance. On Agar Streak it produees a greenish slick
growth only along the streak. On Agar Plate, pale white colonies with a smooth
outline are found, which later turned slightly green. The colonies which grow

"on the surface are larger than those on bottom of the plate. On Lactose Litmus

Agar it produces no change in litmus, showing that this form does not produce

lactic acid.

FORM No. 5.

Obtained from the air in the Purdue sheep barn.

Morphology. A diplococcus about 1” in diameter.

Biological Characters. A liquefying, motile robic, non-spore forming diplo-
coccus. It grows in various media at room temperature. In Bouillon it pro-
duces turbidity, and forms a white precipitate in the bottom of the tube. In
Gelatine Stick a white growth forms only on the surface. The growth at a tem-
perature of 102° F. is very slight, and is of a pale white or bluish color. On
Potate a whitish growth forms over the whole surface of the Potato. On Agar
Plate small white colonies, with smooth outline and smooth edges, are formed.
They grew as luxuriantly on the bottom of plate as on the surface of the Agar.
On Lactose Litmus Agar a portion of the litmus is colored pink, showing that a

small quantity of lactic acid is produced.

FORM No. 6.

Obtained from the veterinary hospital when the ventilation was very poor.

Morphology. A bacillus from 2 to 3" in length and 3” in width.

Biologieal Characters. A liquefying xrobic, motile, a trembling motion, spore
forming bacillus. It grows on various media at room temperature. In Bouillon
it causes considerable turbidity, but forms only a slight sediment. On Potato it
produces a yellowish, raised, wrinkled growth. In Gelatine Stick it liquefies the
gelatine on the surface and forms a white scum over the part that is liquefied.*

* See Plate No. 10.

180

On Agar Plate it forms small white irregular colonies which are fringed at the
edge. The growth at a temperature of 102° F. is white, smooth, very luxuriant,
and grows over whole surface of Agar. On Lactose Litmus Agar Plate the col-
onies are white and produce a slight change in the litmus, showing the produc-

tion of a small amount of lactic acid.

FORM No. 7.

Obtained from the veterinary hospital.

Morphology. A sarcena about 13" across.

Biological Characters. A non-liquefying wrobic sarcena. It grows in most _
media at room temperature. In Bouillon it produces turbidity and forms a white
sediment in bottom of tube. On Gelatine Stick cultures a very slight yellow
growth forms on the surface. On Agar Streak it gives a slick yellowish growth.
The growth extends over surface of Agar, and has an irregular outline.* On
Potato it forms a deep yellow, slick growth along the streak. The growth at the
temperature of 102° F. was very slight, and has an irregular outline. On Agar
Plate it forms small, yellow granular colonies with a smooth outline. The col-
onies that grow on the bottom of the plate are transparent at the edges and gran-
ular in the center. On Lactose Litmus Agar Plate small white colonies are
formed, which produce a slight change in the litmus showing the formation of

lactic acid.
FORM No. 8.

Obtained from the veterinary hospital. Only a single species was obtained.

Morphology. A short round bacillus 2" long and 1" broad. It occurs singly.’

Biological Characters. A non-liquefying, non-spore forming motile bacillus.
The growth on usual media at the room temperature is very slight. In Bouillon
it produces slight turbidity and forms a brownish sediment in bottom of tube. it.
does not grow on potato. In Gelatine Stick it produces a very slight, transparent
growth. The growth at a temperature of 102° F. is very slight, and is of a pale
white color, with an irregular outline. On Agar Plate it forms small, white or
transparent colonies with a smooth edge. Lactose Litmus Agar Plate, it produces
no change in litmus, showing the production of no lactic acid. In a hydrogen
atmosphere this form grows very luxuriant. The growth is white granular and

extends over surface of Agar.

* Plate.

181

FORM No. 9.

Obtained from the air in the veterinary hospital.

Morphology. A bacillus 3" long and 3" broad. It occurs singly.

Biological Characters. A non-liquefying, faculative anerobic, actively motile-
spore-forming bacillus. In Bouillon it produces turbidity and forms a slight,
whitish sediment in the bottom of the tube. On Potato it forms a white, smooth
growth. In Gelatine Stick cultures it forms a small cup-shape growth on sur,
face. It grows slightly along stick and did not liquefy the gelatine. On Agar
Streak it forms a slick white growth over the whole surface of Agar. On Agar
Plate white, irregular, finely granular colonies are formed. It grows both on sur-
face of Agar and on bottom of plate. The growth at a temperature of 102° F. is
‘slick, white, luxuriant and extends over surface of Agar. On Lactose Litmus
Agar Plate it forms pearly white colonies, which produce lactic acid in consider-
able quantity.

FORM No. 10.

Obtained from the air in the veterinary hospital.

Morphology. A long slender bacillus with square ends. It occurs united in
chains of two or three cells. Length 4", width 1".

Biological Characters. A liquefying, non-motile, spore-forming, facultative,
anerobic bacillus. In Bouillon it forms a white sediment on bottom of tube and
a white film over surface. On Agar Streak it produces a brownish slick growth
with an irregular outline and a white portion on the edge.* On Potato luxuriant
white, raised, wrinkled growth appears. In Gelatine Stick culture it rapidly
liquefies the gelatine and forms a white scum on the surface. On Agar Plate it
develops into white colonies with a smooth outline. They grow both on surface
and on the bottom of the plate. The growth at temperature of 102° F. is white
and not luxuriant. On Lactose Litmus Agar Plates no change is produced, show-
ing that lactic acid is not formed.

FORM No. 1.

Obtained from the air in the veterinary hospital. This form is quite abundant.

Morphology. A short, thick bacillus. It often occurs united in chain of two
cells. Length 3", width 14", :

Biological Characters. A liquefying, non-motile, facultative, anxrobic, spore-
forming bacillus. In Bouillon it forms a white sediment in bottom of tube and a

*See Plate.
13

182

white scum over the surface. On Agar Streak it produces a white, raised, folded
growth. On Agar Plate it forms smooth white colonies with an even outline. The
colonies grow both on bottom of plate and on surface of Agar. In Gelatine Stick
culture it liquefies the gelatine in a dish-shape growth. It grows along the stick
and liquefies the gelatine. On Potato it forms a raised, wrinkled, white growth.*

On Lactose Litmus Agar small white colonies grow, which produce lactic acid.

FORM No. 12.

Obtained from the air in Mrs. Morley’s barn.

Morphology. A small bacillus 1 to 2" in length and 3" in width. It occurs
singly.

Biological Characters. A liquefying, actively motile, facultative, anwrobic,
non-spore-forming bacillus. In Bouillon it produces turbidity in a short time and
forms a white sediment in bottom of tube, On Potato it gives a reddish growth
extending over surface. On Agar Streak the growth is of a cream color and not
very luxuriant. The growth presented an irregular outline and was lined with
small white dots near the edge. It produces a white growth all over the surface
of Agar at a temperature of 102° F. In Gelatine Stick culture it liquefies the
gelatine in a saucer-shape growth, and it grows slightly along the stick. On Agar
Plate it forms white, granular colonies with a smooth outline. It grows mostly
on the surface of the Agar. On Lactose Litmus Agar large round colonies grow.

It produces no change in litmus, showing no lactic acid.

FORM No 1s.

Obtained from the air in the veterinary hospital.

Morphology. A short bacillus with round ends. 23" in length and 1” in
width. It occurs in short chains.

Biological characters. A liquefying non-motile, spore forming, facultative
anerobic bacillus. In Bouillon it produces turbidity and forms a white sediment in
bottom of tube. On Agar Streak it forms a light yellow smooth growth with an
irregular outline. The growth was near the edge and was of a whiter color than
the center. On potato it forms a slick, raised, cream-colored growth along the
streak. In Gelatine Stick culture it liquefies the gelatine and forms a white scum
over the surface. The growth at temperature of 102° F. is slight and of a white
color. On Agar Plate it produces large pearly white colonies with a smooth out-
line, which later turned to a brownish color. On Lactose Litmus Agar it forms

white colonies which do not produce lactic acid. (See plate. )

*See Plate.

183

FORM No. 14.

Obtained from the air in the veterinary hospital.

Morphology. A diplococcus 3° in diameter.

Biological Characters. A non-liquefying xrobic, probably motile diplococcus.,
In Bouillon it produces turbidity and a light greenish sediment forms in bottom of
tube. A white scum forms on tube at surface of liquid. On potato it forms a
greenish yellow growth along the streak. The growth on potato is not luxuriant
and has a granular appearance. The form does not grow very luxuriant at a
temperature of 102° F, In Gelatine Stick culture it forms a dish shape white
growth and does not liquefy the gelatine. On Agar Streak a greenish yellow,
_ slick growth with a smooth outline appears. On Agar Plate it forms yellowish
green colonies with a ragged outline. The colonies present a granular appearance
with a light or transparent ring about half way between the edge and the center.
The colonies that grew on the surface are larger than those that grew on the bot-
tom of plate. On Lactose Litmus Agar it forms large white colonies which do
not produce lactic acid. (See plate.)

FORM No. 15.
Red yeast.

Obtained from the air in Professor Troop’s barn.

Morphology. It appears as oval shaped cells 3 to 4" long and 3" broad.

Biological Characters. Aerobic. In Bouillon it forms a reddish sediment in
bottom of tube. On Potato it produces a pinkish though not luxuriant growth.
On Ager Streak it forms a pinkish slick growth. It does not grow at the tem-
perature of 102° F. In Gelatine Stick culture it grows only on surface and does
not liquefy the gelatine. (See plate.)

FORM No. 16.

Obtained from the air in Professor Troop’s barn. Only one colony was
obtained. » ;

Morphology. It appears as tetrads, and is composed of four germs in a group;
it is about 23" across.

Biological Characters. A non-liquefying, facultative anerobic motile, non-spore
forming tetrade. In Bouillon it produces turbidity and forms a white sediment in
bottom of tube. On Agar Streak it forms a white branched growth. On Potato
the growth is slow, does not show the branched appearance, and has a granular
appearance. In Gelatine Stick culture it forms an irregular dish shape growth.

184

It grows slightly along the stick. It does not grow at a temperature of 102° F.
On Agar Plate it forms small pearly white colonies with a smooth outline and a
white spot in center. It grows as well on bottom of dish as on surface of agar.
On Lactose Litmus Agar it forms branched white colonies. It produces no lactic
acid. (See plate.)

FORM No. 17.

Obtained from Gregory & Dobbins’ livery barn. This form is fairly abundant.

Morphology. A diplococcus }™ in diameter. *

Biological Characters. A non-liquefying, non-motile «wrobie diplococecus. In
Bouillon it produces turbidity and forms a white sediment in the bottom of tube.
A white ring forms on tube at surface of Jiquid. On Agar Streak it forms a
slick, red colored growth along streak. In Gelatine Stick culture it grows only on
surface, is of a pink color and does not liquefy the gelatine. On Agar Plate it
forms small white colonies. The growth is very slow. On Lactose Litmus Agar
no change was produced in litmus, showing no lactic acid. It does not grow on
Potato.

FORM No. 18.

Obtained from Godman’s livery barn.

Morphology. A small micrococcus about 4" in diameter.

Biological Characters. A non-liquefying, non-motile, #robic micrococcus.
In Bouillon it produces considerable turbidity and forms a white ring on tube at
surface of liquid; it also forms a white precipitate in bottom of tube. On Potato
it forms a raised granular cream-colored growth along streak. In Gelatine Stick
it produces a white convoluted growth on surface, and does not liquefy the
gelatine. On Agar Streak it forms a milk white growth with irregular outline.
On Agar Plate it produces pale white luxuriant colonies with a smooth outline.
On Lactose Litmus Agar the colonies are small and white, producing considerable

lactic acid.

HAVE THE CoMMON YEASTS PATHOGENIC PROPERTIES7—AN EXPERIMENTAL
Stupy. By KatTHERINE E. GOLDEN.

Yeasts have always been considered as purely saprophytic organisms, and not
supposed to be parasitic in any sense; but, in the light of some recent experi-
ments, this classification would seem to need reconsideration. These experiments
indicate not only that some yeasts are parasitic, but that they are also pathogenic.
These results are not at all at variance with developments made in the study of
other organisms, as many bacteria which at first were supposed to be saprophytic

185

have developed parasitic properties; this being brought about through a course
of adaptation, which has enabled them to exist under the changed conditions.
There are other bacteria possessing pathogenic properties which can be treated in
such a manner as to cause them to lose their virulency, among these a notable one
being anthrax, which when carried through a course of gelatine cultures is no
longer pathogenic. The pathogenic properties may be restored, however, by ap-
propriate treatment, such as cultivation at the body temperature in specially pre-
pared media. Of course, the conditions for a saprophytic mode of life are more
generally met with than those for the development of parasitic life, so that it is
presumable that most organisms become adapted to them.

About twenty years ago yeast was used in water to spray plants in green-
houses for the purpose of getting rid of insect pests.* This treatment was based
upon the belief that the yeast entered the body of the insect and produced a
growth which was fatal. As pure yeast was not used, and as yeasts usually have
associated with them bacteria and molds, the use of yeast for such purposes is not
conclusive in proving it to be pathogenic.

Somewhat later a yeast, S. Allii, was grown on the bulbs of onions, and caused
them to rot by reducing them to a gelatinous condition, during which time a
powerful odor was emitted by them. Bacteria were also found in conjunction
with the yeast in the onions.

In recent years, since accurate methods have been devised for the separation
of the various species and varieties of yeasts, a more definite knowledge has been
obtained of their properties. It has been determined that while most of them
possess the property of exciting alcoholic fermentation, that, aside from this, they
differ widely in the formation of other products that accompany the fermentation.
For example, two species that were found on the fruit of Ilex aquifolium, though
having the same habitat, gave different products, the one (S. ilicis Grénlund)
gave a disagreeable, bitter taste to wort, while the ,other (S. aquifolii Grénlund)
gave a disagreeable, sweet taste. Of two ellipsoid species studied by Will, the
one gave a rough, bitter after-taste, while the other imparted a disagreeable, aro-
matic taste during the fermentation, and a bitter, astringent after-taste to wort.
Then of two species studied by Hansen, one (S. Pastorianus I.) gave a disagree-
able, bitter taste and unpleasant odor to wort, while the other (S. anomalous) gave
an ethereal, fruity odor. One might go on at length giving examples of the dif-
ferences in the products of yeasts, but from what has been given, it can be seen
that the products differ widely, and that it is highly probable that some of these

“Hagen, H.A., “ Nature,’’ Vol. XXI, p. 611. 1880, April.
tSorokin, N., Jour. Roy. Micr. Soe., 1889, Pt. I.

186

various products might be of a toxic character, and also highly probable that if
these yeasts were growing vigorously and metabolic activity high, these toxic sub-
stances might cause injurious effects either locally or constitutionally in the ani-
mal body.

A somewhat common opinion in regard to the yeasts is that when talten into
the stomach in bread not cooked sufficiently they set up a fermentation, generate
gas, and thus cause great discomfort, though the same kind of gas when taken in
soda water seems to have a rather soothing effect. Then this opinion does not
seem to prevail in regard to the use of beer or other fermented drinks, though
there is no question in regard to the presence or vitality of the yeasts in these
beverages.

To determine the effect of yeasts taken into the stomach, two rabbits were
placed in a cage in the laboratory where they could be observed conveniently.
They were kept over night without any food, and in the morning were given two
compressed yeast cakes. These they refused to eat, presumably from their be-
haviour objecting to the odor. The yeast was then smeared on sugar beet, which
they ate. No apparent result followed. After two days about two grams of a
pure culture yeast were smeared on sugar beet, which was fed them, after which
a week was allowed to intervene. Then, at intervals of two days, each rabbit was
given a dry yeast cake, until each one had eaten five cakes. The dry cakes were
eaten with avidity, being preferred to the sugar beets, their usual food. At the
end of this treatment the rabbits were still healthy, had apparently experienced
no discomfort from the unusual addition to their diet, and showed no symptoms
of disease. After two days one was chloroformed and then examined, to deter-
mine if there were any internal lesions. There proved to be none, all the organs
being in their normal, healthy condition. During this examination inoculations
were made from the various parts of the intestinal tract—cardiac portion of
stomach, pyloric portion of stomach, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, caecum, anterior
‘colon, posterior colon—into sterilized bouillon and wort.

During the time the experiment was in progress, inoculations were made
daily into sterilized bouillon and wort from the discarded portions of food which had
passed through the intestinal tract. Out of those cultures in wort seven developed
yeast alone, seven developed yeast and mould, and two developed mould alone. In
conjunction with two of the’ yeasts was a’ red yeast which occurs in the air in the
laboratory. All of the cultures in ‘bouillon, but one, had a bacterium, resem-
bling the ‘‘thrix” forms. An inoculation into bouillon and wort was made in
each case from the same material, the bouillon being neutral, the wort acid.
The yeasts and mould developed in the wort, but not in the bouillon, whereas,

187

the bacterium developed in the bouillon, but did not appear in the wort. The
organisms in both media were very slow in developing, the first appearance of
growth being in about five days, some taking even six and seven days; and in the
case of the yeast the fermentation was weak. But in most cases the fermentation
lasted for over three weeks.

To test the effect of yeast when introduced into the circulation of animals,
pure culture yeasts were used, one separated from a moist yeast cake, one from a
dry yeast cake, and the third a wild yeast obtained from the surface of plum.
Ten drops from a four days’ culture in wort of each yeast were injected into the pos-
terior branch of the main vessel of the ear of three rabbits. These were kept under
constant observation, but showed no ill effects from the introduction of the yeast.

Another test was then made upon two different rabbits, and upon two guinea
pigs. The yeasts used for the rabbits were a wild one from the surface of persimmon,
and one from a moist yeast cake, but a different yeast from the one used in the first
experiment. The yeasts used for the guinea pigs were one from the surface of
grape, and one from a moist yeast cake, also different from the two previous
yeasts. The inoculations in the rabbits were in the vessel of the ear, but those of
the guinea pigs were intra-peritoneal. The following day the guinea pigs were
slightly sore in the region of the puncture of the hypodermic needle, but that
wore off in a short time, and no other ill effects were experienced by any of the
animals.

For the next experiment twenty-two different yeasts were grown at the body
temperature (374° C.) in order to select from them the ones growing most vigor-
ously. These proved to be two wild ones, one from apple, the other from guava,
and two cultivated ones, one from beer, and one from a moist yeast cake. One of
the yeasts was injected into the ear of a rabbit, a second into the ear of a guinea-
pig, while the third and fourth were subcutaneous, into the abdominal wall of
guinea-pigs. No ill effects followed the inoculations.

After two days sterilized bouillon and wort were inoculated with blood from
the ear of each animal, but in all eases remained sterile. In one tube of wort,
in which a large drop of blood had been placed, a few dead yeast cells were
found, but no growth took place, indicating that the yeast must have been de-
stroyed in a short time.

The results of the experiments agree in the main with those of Neumayer,*
except that he claims that an injury to the animal may always be expected if a
fermentable substance be taken at the time the yeasts are. He also claims that

when yeasts are grown at a high temperature, abnormal fermentation products

“Neumayer, J. Centralb. fiir Bakt. und Parasitenk., Bd. XIII, 1893, p. 611.

188

are formed which may be injurious, this being true for both wild and cultivated
yeasts, but that the normal products of fermentation or the multiplication of the
yeast cells are not injurious.

Busse* has found a yeast which causes a chronic pyemia. From its resem-
blance to Actinomycosis he gave the disease the name Saccharomycosis hominis.
The course of the disease, as outlined, is that the yeast falling upon the body in-
creases and causes a local change, this eventually leading to formation of pus and
general inflammation. The yeast causes the death of white mice, the blood of
which is found to contain numerous yeast cells.

Rabinowitsch,t out of fifty different varieties of yeasts, obtained seven pathos
genic ones, which, when injected subcutaneously into mice, rabbits and guinea-
pigs, caused their death. Jt is claimed in this case that the fatalities were due to
the rapid multiplication of the yeast cells in the body, and not to any products of
fermentation. The yeasts seem to be different from the pathogenic ones of other
observers.

The only reasonable conclusion which can be drawn in regard to these vary-

ing results is that different species or varieties of yeast were used, these different
yeasts having very different products. The writer used only common yeasts, such
as are being taken into the system through various sources, from time to time.
Though the pressed yeasts, when used in bread, are killed, the products are taken
into the system, and all the others used would be taken into the system alive, as
they occurred on the skin of fruits and in beer.
The first set of experiments indicate that yeast, when taken into the stomach
of rabbits, causes neither discomfort nor lesions in any organ, even when a fer-
mentable substance be eaten at the same time. They also indicate that certain
organisms —yeasts, bacteria and moulds—can pass through the intestinal tract
without being killed, though from the slowness of growth and the weakness cE the
fermentation, their vigor must be somewhat impaired.

The second set of experiments indieate that of the common yeasts those used
possessed no toxic properties for rabbits or guinea-pigs, neither did they multiply
when introduced into the animal body, and in the case of four of them, they must
have been destroyed within 48 hours, though these same yeasts were very vigor-

ous at the same temperature outside the body.

*Busse. Centralb. fiir Bakt. und Parasitenk., Bd. XVII, 1895, p. 719. i
+ Rabinowitsch, L. Centralb. fiir Bakt. und Parasitenk., Bd. XVIII, 1 Abt., 1895, p.580-

189

EXCEPTIONAL GROWTH OF A WILD Rose. By STANLEY COULTER.

While botanizing at Eagle Lake, Indiana, the past summer, my attention was
attracted by the peculiar growth of a wild rose. The bush arose from near the
center of an oak stump, which was some two or three feet in diameter. The
wood of the stump was extremely hard, and showed no signs of decay so far as
could be determined by a Jarge knife. No cracks of any character, large or small,
were observable upon the summit of the stump or along its sides. The three
stems of the bush seemed at first glance to emerge, each from a specially prepared
hole, which it fitted with extreme accuracy, so closely indeed as to prevent move-
ment in any direction. My first impression was that it was a skillfully executed
trick. Further examination, however, showed that at the point of emergence
from the stump each stem showed a well marked intumescence, evidently the
result of arrested growth currents. These swellings resembling exactly those found
at the bases of branches in girdled trees. The bush itself was some two feet high,
and when first visited was in full bloom, bearing fourteen flowers. It continued
flowering throughout the season, and later set seed well. ‘Lhe foliage leaves,
while perhaps not so large as in bushes of corresponding size growing in the earth,
were in all other particulars perfectly normal. Evidently the plant was several
years old, and that it had had a vigorous growth was sufficiently evidenced by
the intumescences upon the stem, by its prolific flowering and abundant seed set-
ting. A careful examination of the stump at its base showed no crevices in which
seeds could find lodgment. It was very plain that in some way, on the surface of
this apparently solid oak stump, the bush had succeeded in finding the requisites
for a successful growth.

In May, 1897, I again visited the stump and found the bush making a vigor-
ous growth. At this time, however, I observed some wood peckers at work on
the stumps of some newly sawed oaks. Examining the stumps I found many in
which holes had been drilled by this bird. I mention this as a possible explana-
tion of the way in which the seeds obtained lodgment. It does not, however,
account for such a vigorous growth under such apparently adverse circumstances.
The stump, so far as could be determined, was perfectly solid, with not even a
marginal rim of decay, although in one or two places the bark had fallen away.
How did the bush on the summit of a solid oak stump, four feet from the ground,
obtain sufficient moisture? Its stems were so securely fixed in the surrounding
wood that the most vigorous efforts failed to produce movement in any direction.
In the absence of decayed material, what was the source of food supply? I ex-

amined the plant many times, and have not been able to answer these questions

190

to my own satisiaction. It has been suggested that the growth was from a crack
which had gathered soil. A mere glance negatives the suggestion. Again it has
been said that the stump, though apparently sound, is really decayed. This, of
course, is possible, but in no part of the stump to a depth of three inches was
there the slightest trace of decay that could be detected.

To my mind it stands as the title indicates, as an exceptional growth of a

wild rose.

A REVISION OF THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS PLANTAGO OccCURRING WITHIN
THE UNITED STATES. By ALIDA MABEL CUNNINGHAM. !

The genus Plantago of Tournefort under rule 2 of the Madison code is now to
be referred to Linneus, Sp. Pl. 112 (1753). The description of the genus found
in the 6th edition of Gray’s Manual is so complete that it is here quoted without
change.

The purpose of the following study was a revision of the various species of
this genus, based upon seed characters hecause of the belief that sueh characters
were most likely to be constant and of diagnostic value. The results obtained by
this study have led to a confirmation of these views, and it is believed that an ex-
tension of studies of this character would be of high value.

The material examined was that contained in the herbaria of the United
States Department of Agriculture, the University of Minnesota, Purdue University
and the private herbarium of Dr. John M. Coulter. I extend my thanks to the
gentleman owning or in charge of these collections for their kindness in permit-
ting me to retain the material for the time needed, and to Mr. E. B. Uline for
some original descriptions. I am also deeply indebted to Dr. Stanley Coulter for
his trouble in procuring the material examined, and for his many valuable sug-
gestions in the study of the subject.

The results show that the genus may be broken up into three sections, clearly
separated by seed characters, as follows:

I. Seeds oval in cross section.
P. cordata, major, Rugelii, eriopoda, decipiens, maritima, Tweedyi.
II. Seeds more or less anther shape in cross section. i
P. lanceolata, Patagonica, hirtella, Virginica, rubra and minima,
III. Seeds irregularly lobed in cross section.

P. elongata, heterophylla and Bigelovii.

1Plates 1-20, photographs of the various species, which were intended to accompany this
article, are omitted because of lack of funds.

191

The differences in present arrangement, resulting from this, are as follows:
lanceolata and Patagonica are placed in section two, instead of one; while elongata
and heterophylla are placed in a third section.

In the material examined it has been found necessary to establish two new
species, P. rubra and P. minima, which was done somewhat reluctantly.

It has been found impossible to follow, in all particulars, the nomenclature
in the ‘‘List of Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta, Botanical Club, A. A. A. 8S.”
There seems to be no good reason why varieties aristata and gnaphalioides of
Patagonica, and longifolia of Virginica should be raised to specific rank. Cer-
tainly if seed characters have any value in determining specific rank, the reason
would seem positive why they should still be considered as varieties.

P. decipiens, on the other hand, is not to be included under P. maritima,
being clearly separable from it, as indicated below.

The original description of P. Tweedyi was not secured. A single specimen
was examined, and on account of its seed characters was placed in section 1.
Judgment as to exact relationship must be suspended until more specimens and
the original description can be obtained.

No specimens of P. sparsiflora were examined, but from the description given
in ‘“‘Chapman’s Flora of the Southern States,” it probably belongs in section 2.

All specimens of P. major, var. Asiatica, were referred to either P. major or
P. Rugelii.

P. media is mentioned in the ‘‘ List of Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta of
the United States,” but is not described in ‘‘Gray’s Manual,” ‘‘Coulter’s Rocky
Mountain Botany” or ‘‘Chapman’s Flora of the Southern States.” The specimens

examined were from Europe, and are not, therefore, included in this work.

ANALYSIS OF THE SPECIES OF PLANTAGO.

oY
_
.

Flowers perfect ; stamens, 4; corolla not closed over fruit; seeds oval in cross
section.
* Leaves broadly ovate, strongly veined.
T Leaves and scape glabrous, or slightly hairy; seeds light brown.
: P. cordata.
Tt Leaves and scape glabrous, or slightly hairy; seeds angled, black.
t Capsule ovoid, circumscissile at the middle, 8-18 seeded; seeds
$mm. x 2mm. P. major.
tt Capsule conical, circumscissile below the middle, 4-9 seeded ; seeds

13 mm. x 3 mm. P. Rugelii.

192

** Leaves lanceolate to linear, not strongly veined, thick and rough.
+ Leaves smooth; scape smooth or slightly hairy. P. eriopoda.
TT Leaves and scape slightly pubescent.
t Capsule circumscissile at the middle, seeds black; hilum not at
centre of seed. P. decipiens.
tt Capsule circumscissile below the middle; seeds dark brown; hilum
at centre of seed. P. maritima.
*** Leaves lanceolate, smooth; capsule circumscissile below the middle; seed.
light brown. P. Tweedyi.
32. Flowers various ; stamens, 4; seeds more or less anther shape in cross section.
* Corolla not closed over fruit; leaves lanceolate to linear.
t Leaves lanceolate ; scape grooved, slightly hairy; seeds yellow, surface
smooth. P. lanceolata.
TT Leaves linear; scape not grooved, densely hairy.
t Capsule twice as long as calyx; seeds yellow, surface smooth.
P. minima.

ti Capsule slightly longer than calyx; seeds dark brown, surface

pitted. P. Patagonica.

** Corolla closed over fruit; leaves ovate to lanceolate.
T Capsule oblong, circumscissile below the middle; seeds black.
P. hirtella.
TT Capsule ovoid, circumscissile at the middle; seeds yellow.
P. Virginica.
TTT Capsule oblong, cireumscissile below the middle; seeds dark red.
P. rubra.
73. Flowers polygamo-dioecious; stamens, 2; corolla closed over fruit; seeds
irregularly lobed in cross section.
* Leaves linear to filiform, smooth or minutely pubescent, scape very slender.
j Capsule ovoid, circumscissile at the middle; 4 seeded; seeds 12 mm.
x3mm., P. elongata.
+? Capsule conical, circumscissile below the middle; 10-28 seeded; seeds
2mm. x j mm., P. heterophylla.
TTT Capsule conical, cireum’cissile below the middle, 5 or 6 seeded; seed,

11 mm. x }mm., - P. Bigelovii.

193

ANALYSIS OF THE SPECIES OF PLANTAGO, ACCORDING TO SEED CHARACTERS.

21. Seeds oval in cross section.

T Black, surface glossy.

t Size, 3 mm. x 2? mm., P. major.
tt Size, 18 mm. x 3 mm., P. Rugelii.
tT Black, surface dull.
<~ Hilum at centre of seed, P. eriopoda.
ti Hilum not at centre of seed, P. decipiens.
TT? Light-brown, surface dull.

t Size, 6mm. x 3 mm., P. cordata.

tt Size, 14 mm. x 2.mm., P. Tweedyi.

TiTT Dark-brown, surface dull, P. maritima.

72. Seeds more or less anther shape in cross section.

t+ Yellow, surface smooth.

t Size, 2} mm. x } mm., P. minima.

tt Size, 5 mm. x 13 mm., ‘P. lanceolata.

TT Yellow, surface striated; size, 1} mm. x { mm., P. Virginica.
tt? Dark brown, P. Patagonica.
TTTT Black, P. hirtella.
TTTTT Red, P. rubra.

#3. Seeds irregular in cross section.

7 Longitudinal section deeply lobed.

t Size, 12 mm. x 4 mm., P. elongata.
tt Size, 8 mm. x } mm., P. heterophylla.
tf Longitudinal section regular in outline, P. Bigelovii.

PLANTAGO, TouRN.- PLANTAIN.

Calyx of four imbricated persistent sepals, mostly with dry membranaceous
margins. Corolla salver form or rotate, withering on the pod, the border four-
parted, or rarely two, in all or some flowers with long and weak exserted fila-
ments, and fugacious two-celled anthers. Ovary two (or in No. 8, falsely, three-
four) celled, with one-several ovules in each cell. Style and long hairy stigma
single, filiform. Capsule two-celled, two-several seeded, opening transversely, so
that the top falls off like a lid and the loose partition (which bears the peltate
seeds) falls away. Embryo straight, in fleshy albumen. Leaves ribbed. Flow-

ers whitish, small, in a bracted spike or head, raised on a naked scape.

194

21. Flowers perfect; stamens four; corolla not closed over fruit; seeds oval in
cross section.
* Leaves broadly ovate, strongly veined; petioles long, flat and chan-
nelled.

t Leaves and scape glabrous; seeds light brown.

1. P. cordata Lam.—150 mm. to 300 mm. high; leaves round ovate,
glabrous, seven or nine veined, more or less cordate at the base, margins entire or
slightly toothed; petioles smooth, long, flat, channelled; spike long, cylindrical,
looosely flowered, lower ones scattered with round, ovate bracts; scape smooth,
150 mm. to 450 mm. long; corolla longer than the calyx ( Plate I); capsule
twice as long as the calyx, two-celled, from two to four-seeded; ripe seeds light
brown, surface dull, minutely striate longitudinally, cross section oval (Plate A,
Fig. 1); longitudinal section oval (Plate D, Fig. 1); size 6 mm. x 3 mm.; hilum
at center of seed.

Found in low ground and along streams from New York to Missouri and
southward.

Specimens examined: Chicago, Illinois (Brendol, National Herbarium) ;
Allenton, Missouri (G. W. Letterman, 1882, National Herbarium); Winnetka,
Illinois (Aiton Collection, May 10, 1891, Herbarium of the University of Minne-
sota); Alma, Michigan (C. A. Davis, May 29, 1893, Herbarium of the University
of Minnesota; Alexandria, Virginia ( Prof. Comstock, 1881, National Herbarium);
Tippecanoe County, Indiana (Hussey, Herbarium of Purdue University); Hub-
bardston, Michigan (C. F. Wheeler, May, 1876, Herbarium of J. M. Coulter).

tt Leaves and scape glabrous or slightly hairy ; seeds black.

2. P. major L.—75 mm. to 350 mm. high; leaves broadly ovate or oblong,
smooth or slightly hairy, five or seven nerved, margins entire or slightly toothed,
abruptly narrowed into a flat, channelled petiole; spike 473 mm. to 200 mm.
long, cylindrical, obtuse at apex, densely Howered; bracts ovate; scape 125 mm.
to 400 mm. long, smooth or sparingly hairy, round; sepals round, ovate, obtuse,
not carinate (Plate 2); capsule short, ovoid, slightly longer than the calyx, cir-
cumcissile at the middle, eight-18-seeded; ripe seeds black, angled, surface
glossy, minutely granular, granules irregularly arranged, cross section oval (Plate
A, Fig. 2); longitudinal section oval (Plate D, Fig. 2); size } mm. x 3 mm.;
hilum at center of seed. 1

An exceptional form of P. major found at St. Paul, Minnesota (Herbarium
of the University of Minnesota), hasa leafy spike. Just below each seed is a
leaf. These leaves are of considerable size at the base of the spike, but become
gradually smaller toward the apex.

Grows in moist places from Delaware to California and northward.

195

Specimens examined: Vegas Valley, Nevada (Coville and Funston, 1891,
390, alt. 1,065 meters, National Herbarium); Sleepy Eye, Minnesota (E. P. Shel-
don, July, 1891, Herbarium of the University of Minnesota); California (C. R.
Orcutt, June, 1889, National Herbarium); Shore of Lake Superior, Minnesota
(F. F. Wood, 1891, Herbarium of the University of Minnesota); Ogden, Utah
(G. W. Letterman, July 29, 1885, National Herbarium); Nicollett’s Northwestern
Expedition (C. A. Geyer, July 24, 1839, National Herbarium); Minnesota (F. F.
Wood, 1891, National Herbarium); Centreville, Delaware (Commons, August 3,
1878, National Herbarium); Mishawaka, Indiana (E. B. Uline, July, 1891, Her-
barium of J. M. Coulter); Elliston, Montana (F. D. Kelsey, Herbarium of J. M.
Coulter); Georgetown, Colorado (H. N. Patterson, July 11, 1885, Herbarium of
J. M. Coulter); Oregon (P. major, var. Asiatica, T. J. Howell, May, 1880,
National Herbarium).

3. P. Rugelii Decaisne:—125 mm. to 300 mm. high; leaves broadly ovate
or oblong, smcoth or sparingly hairy, five or seven nerved, margin entire or
toothed; petioles flat, channelled; spike, 75 mm. to 250 mm. long, cylindrical,
loosely flowered, acute at apex; bracts acute; scape, 125 mm. to 450 mm. long,
smooth or sparingly hairy; sepals oblong, acute, carinate (Plate 3); capsule con-
ical, twice as long as calyx, circumsissile below the middle, 4-9 seeded: ripe seeds
black, angled, surface glossy, minutely granular, granules irregularly arranged,
cross section oval (Plate A, Fig. 3); longitudinal section oval (Plate D, Fig. 3);
size 12 mm. x 3 mm.; hilum at center of seed.

Grows in moist soil from Vermont to Minnesota and south to Texas and
Georgia.

Specimens examined: Peoria, Illinois (McDonald, Aug. 4, 1893, Herbarium
of the University of Minnesota); Allenton, Missouri (G. W. Letterman, 1882,
National Herbarium); Camden, New Jersey (I. C. Martindale, 1878, National
Herbarium); Harrisburg, Pennsylvania (Sandberg Collection, Aug. 14, 1888,
Herbarium of the University of Minnesota); Michigan (C. F. Wheeler, July 23,
1890, National Herbarium); Minneapolis, Minnesota (C. L. H., June 20, 1876,
Herbarium of the University of Minnesota); Blue Earth Co., Minnesota (Sand-
berg Collection, Herbarium of the University of Minnesota); Jordan, Scott Co.,
Minnesota (C. A. Ballard, June, 1891, Herbarium of the University of Minnesota) .
Cannon Falls, Minnesota (P. major, J. H. Sandberg, Aug., 1881, Herbarium of
the University of Minnesota); Charlotte, Vermont (C. G. Pringle, Sept. 8, 1878,
National Herbarium); Belle Isle, Detroit, Michigan (O. A. Farwell, July 3,
1893, Herbarium of the University of Minnesota); Centreville, Delaware (Com-
mons, Sept. 28, 1878, National Herbarium); Indian Territory (Dr. Palmer, 1868,

196

National Herbarium); Glencoe, Minnesota (P. major, T. J. M., Aug. 1, 1890,
Herbarium of the University of Minnesota); Cambridge, Massachusetts (Keller-
man, July 5, 1878, Herbarium of J. M. Coulter).

Between P. major and P. Rugelii are found a number of intermediate forms
which are difficult to classify except in fruiting stage.

** Leaves lanceolate to linear, not strongly veined, thick and rough.
t Leaves smooth, scape smooth or slightly hairy.

4. P. eriopoda Torr.—50 mm. to 150 mm. high; usually having a mass of
yellowish wool at the base ; leaves ovate to lanceolate, thick, rough, three to seven
nerved, obtusely or acutely pointed, tapering gradually into a short, margined
petiole, margins entire; spike 25 mm. to 125 mm. long, cylindrical, densely or
loosely flowered; scape 100 mm. to 300 mm. Jong, smooth or hairy; sepals.
ovate, scarious (Plate 4); capsule ovoid, slightly exceeding the calyx, circumscis-
sile below the middle, from 2-4 seeded; ripe seeds black, surface dull, striated
longitudinally ; cross section oval (Plate A., Fig. 4); longitudinal section oval
(Plate D., Fig. 4); size, 2} mm. x 1 mm. ; hilum at center of seed.

An exceptional form found at Evaston, Utah (G. W. Letterman, National
Herbarium), is 200 mm. high; has thin leaves; scape 425 mm. long; spike
150 mm. long; petioles nearly as long as the leaves.

Moist and saline soil, from Minnesota to California and the lower St.
Lawrence.

Specimens examined: Rimouski County, P. Q. (J. A. Allen, August 5, 1881,
National Herbarium); Kearney County, Nebraska (P. A. Rydberg, June 25, 1891,
304 National Herbarium); Nicollett’s Northwestern Expedition (C. A. Geyer, July
16, 1839, 276, National Herbarium); Montana (L. F. Ward, 1883, National Her-
barium); Han’s Fork, Wyoming (L. F. Ward, 1881, National Hebarium); Gotten-
burgh, Nebraska (Sandberg Collection, June 19, 1889, Herbarium of the Uni-
versity of Minnesota); Oak Wood Lakes, Dakota (Sandberg Collection, June 4,
1892, Herbarium of the University of Minnesota); Brookings, South Dakota
(E. N. Wilcox, May 19, 1891, National Herbarium); Western Dakota (Sandberg
Collection, Herbarium of the University of Minnesota); Ruby Valley, Nevada
(S. Watson, August, 1868, 740, alt. 6,000 ft., National Herbarium); Hayden’s
Gulch, Granite, Colorado (P. Patagonica, var. nuda, Mrs. 8. B. Walker, 1890,
544, National Herbarium); Ft. Bridger, Wyoming (Porter, July, 1893, National
Herbarium).

t7 Leaves and scape slightly pubescent.

5. P. decipiens Barneoud.—50 mm. to 200 mm. high; leaves linear, chan-

nelled, acuminate, erect, three or five veined, margins entire; spike slender,

197

loosely flowered, 25 mm. to 100 mm. long; scape slightly or densely hairy, 100
mm. to 275 mm. long; calyx obtuse; scarious (Plate 5); capsule ovoid, obtuse,
twice as long as calyx, circumscissile at the middle, 2-4 seeded; ripe seeds black,
surface dull, minutely granular, cross section oval (Plate A, Fig. 5); longitudinal
section oval (Plate D, Fig. 5); size, 14 mm. x 22 mm.; hilum not at center of seed.

This species can be distinguished from P. maritima by the shape and surface
of the calyx, the shape, length and dehisence of capsule, color of seeds and the
position of the hilum.

Salt marshes along the Atlantic coast from Labrador to New Jersey.

Specimens examined: Nahant, Massachusetts (J. A. Manning, July 29, 1886,
Herbarium of the University of Minnesota); New Foundland (H. L. Osborn, July
23, 1879, National Herbarium); Newport, Rhode Isiand (W. W. Bailey, 1878,
Herbarium of Purdue University); Cambridge, Massachusetts (Walter Deane,
Oct. 5, 1890, National Herbarium); New Haven, Connecticut (A. H. Young,
Sept., 1874, Herbarium of Purdue University).

6. P. maritima L.—50 mm. to 225 mm. high; leaves linear, acuminate,
channelled, nearly as long as the scape, three or five nerved, margins entire;
spike loosely to densely flowered, 25 mm. to 75 mm. long; scape round, slightly
hairy, 50 mm. to 325 mm. long; calyx acute, carinate (Plate 6), capsule acute,
slightly longer than the calyx, circumscissile below the middle, two seeded; ripe
seeds dark brown, surface dull, minutely granular, cross section oval (Plate A,
Fig. 6); longitudinal section oval (Plate D, Fig. 6); size, 2} mm. x 1} mm.; hilum
at center of seed.

Grows in salt marshes along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, the Gulf of St.
Lawrence to Labrador and Greenland.

Specimens examined: San Francisco, California (G. R. Vasey, 1880, 513,
National Herbarium); Little Metis, P. Q. (J. A. Allen, July, 2, 1881, National
Herbarium); Pigeon Cove, Massachusetts (Aiton Collection, Herbarium of the
University of Minnesota); Portland, Oregon (Drake and Dickson, July, 1882,
Herbarium of J. M. Coulter); Charlotte, Vermont (Herbarium of J. M. Coulter).
7. P. Tweedyi Gray.—The original description of this species has not been
secured. A single specimen, so referred, from Pelican Creek, in the National
Herbarium, has been examined. According to its seed characters it belongs in
the first section. The other characters of the plant are as follows: 125 mm. high;
leaves lanceolate, smooth, five-nerved, margins entire; spike 50 mm. long; scape
smooth below, slightly hairy above, cylindrical, 175 mm. long; sepals obtuse,
scarious, with a thick centre; capsule oblong, twice as long as calyx, circumscis-

sile below the middle, four-seeded; ripe seeds light brown, surface dull, striated
14

198

longitudinally, cross section oval (Plate A, Fig. 7); longitudinal section oval
Plate D, Fig. 7); size, 15 mm. x 2 mm.; hilum at centre of seed.

72. Flowers various; stamens 4; seeds more or less anther shape in cross
section.

“Corolla not closed over fruit; leaves lanceolate to linear.

{Leaves lanceolate, acute; scape grooved, angled, slightly hairy; seeds yel-
low, with smooth surface.

8. P. lanceolata L.—50 mm. to 275 mm. high; leaves lanceolate, acute,
tapering gradually into margined petioles, five or seven-nerved, margins entire or
slightly denticulate, sparingly to densely hairy; spike densely flowered, capitate
at first, in age cylindrical, 123 mm. to 623 mm. long; scape grooved, slightly
hairy, 225 mm. to 600 mm. long; sepals acuminate, scarious (Plate 7); capsule
short, ovoid, circumscissile below the middie, two-seeded, ripe seeds light yellow,
having a longitudinal line through the centre lighter than the margins, surface
smooth, cross section anther shape (Plate B, Fig. 1); longitudinal section oval
(Plate E, Fig. 1); size, 5 mm. x13 mm.; hilum at centre of seed.

Dry fields, waste places and along the shores of lakes. (Introduced. )

Specimens examined: Providence, Rhode Island (J. F. Collins, July 15,
1892, National Herbarium); Kootinai County, Idaho (Aiton Collection, Septem-
ber, 1887, Herbarium of the University of Minnesota); North Carolina (G. R.
Vasey, 1878, National Herbarium); Virginia (C. Wright, 1853, National Her-
barium); Central California (Dr. Palmer, 1876, National Herbarium); Jefferson
County, Indiana (C. R. Barnes, May 20, 1876, Herbarium of Purdue University) ;
Pittsford, Vermont (H. L. Osborn, July 2, 1880, Herbarium of Purdue Uni-
versity); Mishawaka, Indiana (E. B. Uline, July, 1891, Herbarium of J. M.
Coulter); Arizona (Palmer, 1876, 308, Herbarium of J. M. Coulter); Charlotte,
Vermont (June 10, 1879, Herbarium of J. M. Coulter); Hope, Idaho (Sandberg,
July, 1887, 113, Herbarium of J. M. Coulter).

tf Leaves linear, acute or obtuse; scape cylindrical, not grooved, densely
hairy; seeds dark brown, surface minutely pitted.

9. P. Patagonica Jacq.—75 mm. to 225 mm. high; leaves glabrate or silky
lanate, linear, acutely or obtusely pointed, three or five nerved, margins entire ;
spike 25 mm. to 75 mm. long; densely flowered; scape cylindrical, densely hairy,
100 mm. to 300 mm. long; sepals very obtuse, villous; corolla with broad cordate
or ovate lobes (Plate 8); capsule short, ovoid, circumscissile at the middle, slightly
longer than the calyx, 2-seeded; ripe seeds dark brown, surface dull, covered with

minute pits arranged in longitudinal lines; seeds have a transverse line on the

199

surface near the center; cross section anther shape (Plate B, Fig. 2); longitudinal
section oval (Plate E, Fig. 2); size, 53 mm. x 2? mm.; hilum at center of seed.

Dry ground, from the Mississippi Riyer westward.

Specimens examined: Brazos, Texas (G. C. Nealley, 1889, National Herba-
rium); San Bernardino County, California (S. B. Parish, April, 1890, Herbarium
of J. M. Coulter); Prescott, Arizona (Dr. Palmer, 1869, National Herbarium) ;
San Diego, California (C. R. Orcutt, April 22, 1882, Herbarium of J. M. Coulter) ;
San Quentin Bay, California (Palmer, January, 1889, Herbarium of J. M. Coul-
ter); Austin, Texas (P. Patagonica, var. nuda, Elihu Hall, May 12, 1872, 397,
National Herbarium); St. George, Utah (M. E. Jones, April 2, 1880, Herbarium
of J. M. Coulter); Portland, Oregon (Drake and Dickson, May, 1889, Herbarium
of J. M. Coulter); Uintah, Utah (M. E. Jones, July 2, 1880, alt. 5,000 ft., Herba-
rium of J. M. Coulter); Los Angeles, California (P. Bigelovii, H. E. Hasse,
April, 1888, National Herbarium); Oregon (P. Bigelovii, Mrs. Nevins, National
Herbarium. )

Var. gnaphalioides Gray.—75 mm. to 125 mm. high; leaves canescently vil-
lous, wool often floccose and deciduous, linear to lanceolate, acutely pointed,
margin entire; spike 123 mm. to 1123 mm. long, densely flowered, varying to
capitate and few flowered; bracts oblong to linear, acute, not exceeding the calyx;
scape 50 mm. to 225 mm. long, densely woolly; sepals obtuse, villous; capsule
slightly longer than the calyx, 2 seeded; size of seeds, 4 mm. x 2 mm.; other seed
characters same as species (Plate 9).

Dry, sandv soil, from Minnesota westward and south to Texas.

Specimens examined: Courtland, Minnesota (C. A. Ballard, Jnly, 1892,
National Herbarium); Klickitat County, Washington (W. N. Suksdorf, May 16,
1885, National Herbarium); Minnesota (E. P. Sheldon, August, 1891, Herbarium
of the University of Minnesota); Oregon (Elihu Hall, 1871, 362, National Her-
barium); San Diego, Texas (M. B. Croft, 1884, 112, National Herbarium); Min-
nesota (Aiton Collection, May 11, 1888, Herbarium of the University of Minne-
sota); Lincoln, Nebraska (T. A. Williams, June 1, 1890, National Herbarium) ;
Blue Earth County, Minnesota (P. Patagonica, Sandberg Collection, Herbarium
of the University of Minnesota); Kearney, Nebraska (J. H. Holmes, August,
1889, National Herbarium); Mexican Boundary Survey (706, National Her-
barium); Washington (Dr. Cooper, National Herbarium); Utah Valley, Utah
(S. Watson, July, 1869, alt. 4,500 feet, 750, National Herbarium); Eastern Texas
(Elihu Hall, April 20, 1872, 396, National Herbarium); Ponca Agency, Okla-
homa (Bailey, August 5, 1892, National Herbarium); El Paso, Texas (M. E.
Jones, April 16, 1884, Herbarium of J. M. Coulter); Hastings, Nebraska (June

200

23, 1888, Herbarinm of J. M. Coulter); Indian Territory (G. D. Butler, June 2,
1877, Herbarium of J. M. Coulter); Redfield, Dakota (FE. Butler, Herbarium of
J. M. Coulter).

Var. spinulosa, Gray.—75 mm. to 125 mm. high; leaves linear, very acutely
pointed, three or five nerved, nearly as long as the scape, margins entire, white,
with long, soft hairs; spike loosely flowered, 25 mm. to 100 mm. long; bracts
slightly exceeding the calyx, obtuse, densely hairy; scape covered with soft,
white hairs, 100 mm. to 275 mm. long; sepals obtuse, scarious, with a thick cen-
tre, densely hairy; slightly longer than calyx, 2 seeded; size of seeds 33 mm. x
2mm.; other seed characters same as species. (Plate 10.)

Found on dry prairies from the Mississippi River westward.

Specimens examined: Blue Earth County, Minnesota (P. Patagonica, John
Leiberg, 1883, Herbarium of the University of Minnesota), Zanesville, Minne-
sota (P. Patagonica, var. gnaphalioides, B. C. Taylor, June, 1891, 177, Her-
barium of the University of Minnesota); Crete, Nebraska (P. Patagonica, var.
gnaphalioides, Herbarium of the University of Minnesota); St. James, Nebraska
(P. Patagonica, var. gnaphalioides, Fred Clements, 1893, 2615, National Her-
barium); Jordan, Minnesota (P. Patagonica, var. gnaphalioides, C. A. Ballard,
June, 1891, 241, Herbarium of the University of Minnesota); Wilson Creek, Wash-
ington (Sandberg Collection, June, 1893, Herbarium of the University of Minne-
sota); North Dakota (P. Patagonica, G. A. Holzinger, 1891, National Her-
barium); New Mexico (P. Patagonica, var. gnaphalioides, Sandberg Collection,
April, 1880, Herbarium of the University of Minnesota); Kansas (P. Patagonica,
var. gnaphalioides, B. B. Smyth, August 19, 1890, 161, National Herbarium) ;
Kansas (P. Patagonica, var. gnaphalioides, Sandberg Collection, July, 1887, Her-
barium of the University of Minnesota); Minneapolis, Minnesota (P. Patagonica,
var. gnaphalioides, Sandberg Collection, June, 1892, Herbarium of the University
of Minnesota); Pueblo, Colorado (Aiton Collection, June, 1890, 188, Herbarium
of the University of Minnesota); Dublin, Texas (C. F. Maxwell, 1893, Herbarium
of J. M. Coulter).

Var. aristata, Gray.

100 mm. to 225 mm. high; leaves linear, glabrous to
densely hairy, three or five-veined, margins entire; spike cylindrical, loosely
or densely flowered, 25 mm. to 125 mm. long; bracts linear, acute, several times
longer than the calyx; scape slightly to densely hairy, 125 mm. to 300 mm. long;
sepals obtuse, scarious with a thick centre; capsule slightly longer than calyx, 2
seeded; size of seeds, 5 mm. x 2} mm., other seed characters same as species.
(Plate IT.)
Grows on prairies and in dry soil from the Atlantic coast to California.

201

Specimens examined: Stone Mountain, Georgia (G. McCarthy, 1888, Na-
tional Herbarium); San Diego County, California (C. R. Oreut, April, 1870,
National Herbarium); Dunson County, Montana (John Lieberg, 1883, Herbarium
of the University of Minnesota}; Scottville, Texas L. C. Johnson, May 14, 1886, Na-
tional Herbarium); Ellis, Kansas (Sandberg Collection, June 17, 1888, Herbarium
of the University of Minnesota), Providence, Rhode Island (J. F. Collins, July
8, 1892, National Herbarium); Knoxville, Tennessee (Aiton Collection, July,
Herbarium of the University of Minnesota); Cranston, Rhode Island (J. F. C.,
July 7, 1892, National Herbarium); Fayetteville, Arkansas (F. L. Harvey, Her-
barium of the University of Minnesota); Colbert’s Station, Indian Territory (C. S.
Sheldon, June 20, 1891, National Herbarium); Suffolk, Virginia (P. aristata, A.
A. Heller, June, 1893, National Herbarium); Indian Territory (Dr. Palmer,
1868, 251, National Herbarium); DeKalb County, Georgia (P. aristata, J. K.
Small, July 28, 1893, altitude 1,100 feet, National Herbarium); Converse, Mis-
souri (C. R. B., July, 1877, Herbarium of Purdue University); Vigo County, In-
diana (W.S. B., June 10, 1888, Herbarium of DePauw University); Northwest
Arkansas (Harvey, 1881, National Herbarium); Nicollett’s Northwestern Expe-
dition (P. aristata, C. A. Geyer, June 6, 1839, 275, National Herbarium); New
Mexico (E. A. Merus, April 20, 1892, 126, National Herbarium); Eastern Texas
(Elihu Hall, April 20, 1872, 399, National Herbarium); Dakota (Sandberg Col-
lection, Herbarium of the University of Minnesota); Texas (P. Patagonica, var.
spinulosa, Steele, July, 1881, National Herbarium); Oklahoma (M. A. Carleton,
July, 1891, 182, National Herbarium); Wilmington, North Carolina (F. V.
Coville, June 28, 1890, 191, National Herbarium), Suffolk, Virginia (A. A. Hel-
ler, June 8, 1893, Herbarium of J. M. Coulter); Camp Lowell, Arizona (C. G.
Pringle, April 9, 1881, Herbarium of J. M. Coulter); Hockley, Texas (W. F.
Thurrow, 1890, Herbarium of J. M. Coulter); Indian Territory (G. D. Butler,
June 14, 1877, Herbarium of J. M. Coulter); Converse, Missouri (C. R. B., July
14, 1877, Herbarium of J. M. Coulter).

Var. nuda Gray.—leaves linear, margins entire, scape slender, slightly hairy ;
sepals obtuse, scarious, with a thick center, hairy ; bracts very short, acute.

Specimens examined: California (M. E. Jones, March 27, 1882, National
Herbarium).

Var. lanatifolia C. and F.—112} mm. to 137} mm. high; leaves linear,
acute or obtuse, very densely woolly, five or seven veined, margins entire ; spike
25 mm. to 75 mm. long, cylindrical, densely flowered; scape 100 mm. to 225
mm. long, densely hairy; sepals obtuse, scarious, with a thick center, woolly;

202

capsule ovoid, obtuse, circumscissile at the middle, two seeded; seed characters the
same as the species (Plate 12).

Specimens examined: Industry, Texas (W. H. Wurtzelow, 1891, Herbarium
of J. M. Coulter).

10. P. minima, Nov. Sp.—25 mm. to 50 mm. high; leaves linear, acute,
white, with long, soft hairs, margins entire; scape round, very slender, densely
hairy, 25 mm. to 125 mm. long; spike capitate, loosely flowered, 6} mm. to 18?
mm. long; sepals obtuse, scarious, with a thick center; capsules ovoid, twice as
long as calyx, 2 seeded; seeds light yellow, surface smooth and glossy, cross sec-
tion anther shaped, longitudinal section oval; size, 2} mm. x }mm.; hilum at
center of seed (Plate 13).

Separated from P. Patagonica, var. gnapholioides, to which it is closely allied
by size of plant, surface of sepals, size of capsule, color, size and surface of seed.

Dry soil in western United States.

Specimens examined: Lincoln, Nevada (P. Patagonica, var. gnaphalioides,
Bailey, May 6, 1891, 1912 National Herbarium); Arizona (P. Patagonica, var.
gnaphalioides, Dr. Palmer, 1869, National Herbarium); Panamint Valley, Cali-
fornia (P. Patagonica, var. gnaphalioides, Coville and Funston, April 17, 1891,
678, alt. 400 meters, National Herbarium); California (P. Patagonica, var. gnaph-
alioides, C. and F., April 17, 1891, alt. 400 meters, Herbarium of J. M. Coulter).

* Corolla closed over fruit ; leaves ovate to lanceolate.

* Scape grooved ; capsule oblong, circumscissile below the middle; seeds
black.

11. P. hirtella H. B. K.—75 mm. to 500 mm. high ; leaves oblong to lanceo-
late, smooth or slightly hairy, five or seven nerved, margins entire or slightly
denticulate ; spike cylindrical, very densely flowered, lower ones often scattered,
75 mm. to 300 mm. long; seape round, slightly hairy, 150 mm. to 875 mm. long;
sepals obtuse, scarious (Plate 14); capsule oblong, slightly longer than the calyx,
circumscissile below the middle, three seeded; ripe seeds black, surface dull,
minutely striate longitudinally, cross section slightly anther shape (Plate B, Fig. 3);
longitudinal section oval (Plate E, Fig. 3); size, 13 mm. x mm. ; hilum at center
of seed.

Dry ground in western United States.

Specimens examined: Mendocino, California (C. 8. Pringle, Aug. 3, 1882,
National Herbarium); Los Angeles, California (Dr. H. E. Hasse, June 5, 1888,
National Herbarium); Central California (Dr. E. Palmer, 1876, 306, National
Herbarium); Sweet Water, California (May 7, 1884, Herbarium of J. M. Coulter);
Mendocino, California (C. S. Pringle, Aug. 3, 1882, Herbarium of J. M. Coulter).

tt Seape grooved; capsule ovoid, circumscissile at the middle ; seeds yellow.

203

12. P. Virginica L.—25 mm. to 125 mm. high; leaves ovate to oblong, ob-
tuse, tapering gradually into margined petioles, sparingly to densely hairy, three
or five nerved, margins entire or slightly denticulate; spike cylindrical, densely
flowered above, often loosely flowered below, 25 mm. to 175 mm. long; scape
grooved, densely hairy, 50 mm. to 350 mm. long; sepals obtuse, scarious with a
thick center, hairy (Plate 15); capsule short, ovoid, not exceeding the calyx, two-
seeded; ripe seeds golden yellow, surface striated longitudinally, cross section
anther shape (Plate B, Fig. 4); longitudinal section oval (Plate E, Fig. 4); size
14 mm. x { mm.; hilum at center of seed.

Low, sandy ground from Pennsylvania to Arizona.

Specimens examined: Cincinnati, Ohio (Sandberg collection, June 17, 1883,
Herbarium of the University of Minnesota); District of Columbia (W. J. Canby,
1881, National Herbarium); Smithville, Pennsylvania (A. A. Heller, May 30,
1893, 900, National Herbarium); Baumgardner, Pennsylvania (Aiton Collection,
May 24, 1890, Herbarium of the University of Minnesota); Tucson, Arizona (Dr.
Smart, 1867, National Herbarium); Vinita, Indian Territory (M. A. Carleton,
April 17, 1891, 21, National Herbarium); Wichita, Kansas (Sept. 30, 1889, Her-
barium of J. M. Coulter); Hockley, Texas (W. F. Thurrow, 1890, Herbarium of
J. M. Coulter); Guthrie, Oklahoma (M. A. Carleton, May 28, 1891, 168, National
Herbarium), Gillespie County, Texas (G. Jerney, Herbarium of J. M. Coulter);
Fayette County, Texas (H. Wurzlow, 1891, Herbarium of J. M. Coulter); Duval
County, Florida (A. H. Curtiss, National Herbarium); Lancaster, Pennsylvania
(A. A. Heller, June 2, 1893, National Herbarium); Arizona (C. G. Pringle, April,
1881, Herbarium of J. M. Coulter); Hibernia, Florida (W. M. Canby, March, 1869,
National Herbarium); Charleston, Indiana (C. R. B., May 14, 1877, Herbarium
of Purdue University); Lancaster, Pennsylvania (A. A. Heller, May 30, 1895,
Herbarium of J. M. Coulter).

Var. longifolia, Gray.—Leaves oblong, spatulate, 623 mm. to 125 mm. long,
tapering gradually into long petioles, margins slightly denticulate or strongly
toothed; seed characters same as species (Plate 16).

Specimens examined: Little Rock, Arkansas (Dr. Hasse, May, 1886, National
Herbarium); Brazos, Texas (G. C. Nealley, 1889,. National Herbarium); Brazos,
Texas (P. Virginica, G. C. Nealley, 1889, National Herbarium); Industry, Texas
(H. Wurzlow, 1890, Herbarium of J. M. Coulter).

Tit Scape not grooved; capsule oblong, circumscissile below the middle; seeds
dark red.

204

13. P. rubra, Nov. Sp.—625 mm. to 100 mm. high; leaves oblong, densely
hairy, sometimes having a reddish color, three or five-nerved, obtuse, margins en-
tire or strongly denticulate, petioles short, densely hairy; spike cylindrical, densely
flowered, 125 mm. to 125 mm. long; scape densely hairy, 25 mm. to 200 mm. long;
sepals acute, scarious, with a thick centre (Plate 17); capsule oblong, obtuse,
sometimes purple, longer than the calyx, circumscissile below the middle, two-
seeded; ripe seeds dark red, surface dull, minutely striate longitudinally, cross
section slightly anther shape (Plate B, Fig. 5); longitudinal section oval (Plate
E, Fig. 5); size 5 mm. x 2} mm.; hilum at centre of seed.

Separated from P. Virginica by the dense hairs, acute sepals, shape and de-
hiscense of capsule, color, cross section and size of seeds.

Sandy soil in western United States.

Specimens examined: Indian Territory (P. Virginica, Dr. Palmer, 1868,
253, National Herbarium); Southwestern Texas (P. Virginica, Dr. Palmer, Sep-
tember, 1879, 1108, National Herbarium); Mesas, Arizona (P. Virginica, var.
longifolia, C. F. Pringle, May 3, 1884, National Herbarium); Mexican Boundary
Survey (P. Virginica, W. H. Emory, 707, National Herbarium); Mesas, Texas
(P. Virginica, var. longifolia, C. F. Pringle, May 3, 1884, Herbarium of J. M.
Coulter).

14. P. sparsiflora Michx.—The description of this species, according to Chap-
man’s Manual, is as follows: Leaves smooth, lanceolate, toothed or entire, nar-
rowed into a long petiole; seape much longer than the leaves, pubescent below;
spike 6’ to 9’ long, loosely flowered; bracts ovate; calyx lobes obtuse; capsule
two-seeded.

Moist pine barrens, Georgia and South Carolina. June—September.

The following specimens so referred were examined: Putnam County, In-
diana (D. T. McDougal, July 30, 1888, DePauw Herbarium); Union County,
Illinois (G. H. French, July 27,1878, National Herbarium); Wyandotte, Kansas
(Elihu Hall, September, 1869, National Herbarium); Columbia, South Carolina
(E. A. Smith, April 15, 1891, Herbarium of the University of Minnesota).

The first three of these should be referred to P. Rugelii and the fourth one
to P. Virginica. ;

73. Flowers polygamo—dioecious; stamens, 2; corolla closed over fruit;
seeds irregularly lobed in cross section.

* Leaves linear to filiform, smooth or minutely pubescent ; scape very slender.

15. P. elongata Pursh. (P. pusilla, Nutt.).—25 mm. to 100 mm. high; leaves

linear to filiform, smooth or minutely pubescent, margins entire; spike 12} mm.

205

to 100 mm. long, loosely flowered ; scape 31} mm. to 150 mm. long, slender, spar-
ingly hairy; sepals obtuse, scarious with a thick center (Plate 18); capsule short,
ovoid, obtuse, slightly longer than the calyx, circumscissile at ihe middle, 4
seeded.; ripe seeds light brown, surface dull, deeply pitted, cross section irregu-
larly and deeply lobed (Plate C, Fig. 1); longitudinal section irregularly lobed
(Plate F., Fig. 1); size, 13 mm. x 4 mm.; hilum at center of seed.

Dry, sandy soil, or damp places in western and southern United States.

Specimens examined: Shannon County, Missouri (B. F. Bush, April 13,
1889, National Herbarium); Nicollet’s Northwestern Expedition (C. A. Geyer,
June 20, 1839, 279, National Herbarium) ; Western Klickitat County, Washington
(W. N. Suksdorf, April 26, 1883, National Herbarium); Lincoln, Nebraska
(Aiton Collection, May, 1888, Herbarium of the University of Minnesota); Mus-
kogee, Indian Territory (M. A. Carleton, April, 1891, 64, National Herbarium) ;
Todan Valley, Utah (Sereno Watson, June, 1869, 749, National Herbarium) ;
Portland, Oregon (Drake and Dickson, April, 1887, Herbarium of J. M. Coulter) ;
East Hampton, Long Island (E. S. Miller, June 2, 1877, Herbarium of J. M.
Coulter); Oregon (T. Howell, April, 1885, National Herbarium) ; Georgia (T. C.
Porter, 1847, National Herbarium); Dakota (Sandberg Collection, Herbarium of
the University of Minnesota); Springfield, Missouri (J. W. Blankinship, 1888,
National Herbarium); Montana (R. S. Williams, June 25, 1888, 301, Herbarium
of the University of Minnesota); Arkansas (Sandberg Collection, April-May, 103,
Herbarium of the University of Minnesota); Seattle, Washington (P. Bigelovii,
E. C. Smith, June 21, 1890, National Herbarium); California (P. Bigelovii, M.
E. Jones, March 28, 1882, National Herbarium).

16. P. heterophylla Nutt.—25 mm. to 100 mm. high; leaves linear to fili-
form, smooth or slightly pubescent, margins entire; spike 6} mm. to 50 mm. long,
loosely flowered, lower ones often scattered; scape smooth or slightly pubescent,
very slender, 25 mm. to 125 mm. long; sepals obtuse, scarious with a thick center
(Plate 19); capsule conical, nearly twice as long as calyx, circumscissile below
the middle, 10-28 seeded; ripe seeds light brown, surface dull, deeply pitted,
cross section irregularly and deeply lobed (Plate C, Fig. 2); longitudinal section
irregularly lobed (Plate F, Fig. 2); size 8 mm.x } mm.; hilum at center of seed.

Low or sandy ground in western and southern United States.

Specimens examined: Statesville, North Carolina (Sandberg Collection,
Herbarium of the University of Minnesota); Eastern Texas (Elihu Hall, April
10, 1872, 395, National Herbarium); Wilmington, California (C. G. Pringle,
March 31, 1882, National Herbarium); Aiken, South Carolina (W. M. Canby,
May, 1869, National Herbarium); Wilmington, California (C. G. Pringle, March

206

31, 1882, Herbarium of the University of Minnesota); Aiken, South Carolina
(W. M. Canby, May, 1869, Herbarium of J. M. Coulter); Florida (Chapman,
National Herbarium); Hockley, Texas (W. F. Thurrow, 1890, Herbarium of J.
‘M. Coulter); Wilmington, California (C. G. Pringle, March 31, 1882, Herbarium
of J. M. Coulter).

17. P. Bigelovii, Gray.—374 mm. to 75 mm. high; leaves linear to filiform,
obtuse, smooth or minutely pubescent, entire or slightly denticulate; spike 6}
mm. to 31} mm. long, loosely or densely flowered; scape slightly, hairy, 50 mm.
to 100 mm. long; sepals broadly oval, obtuse, scarious with a thick center; flowers
twice as large as those of P. pusilla, stamens exserted but not as long as the style
(Plate 20); capsule conical, slightly longer than the calyx, circumscissile below
the middle, 5 or 6-seeded; seeds light brown, surface dull, minutely pitted, cross
section slightly irregularly lobed (Plate C, Fig. 3); longitudinal section oval
(Plate F, Fig. 3); size 1} mm. x4 mm.; hilum at center of seed.

Moist and saline soil western United States.

Specimens examined: Vacaville, California (W. L. Jepson, May 31, 1891,
National Herbarium); Vacaville, California (W. L. Jepson, May 31, 189], Herba-
rium of the University of Minnesota); North Lower California (Sandberg Col+

lection, March, 1886, Herbarium of the University of Minnesota).

208

A Microscopic EXAMINATION OF CERTAIN DRINKING WATERS. By GEORGE
J. Prercz, F. M. ANDREWS, AND A. C. LIFE.

THE EFFEcts oF DrouGHT Upon CERTAIN PLANTS.—AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY.

By Ciara CUNNINGHAM.

Because of the general knowledge of the subject, and the great influence of
drought upon the economics of agriculturists and manufacturers, the following.
experiments were undertaken.

The purpose of this paper is to show by results of experiments the effects of
drought not only upon the general appearance of the plants studied, but more
especially upon the different tissues.

The plants used for observation were grown under conditions favorable to
normal and healthy growth for three or four weeks or until the plants were large
enough to use for experiments; then removed and subjected to drought.

The simple apparatus used to give the favorable conditions in air and soil,
consisted, first, of a large glass box 5 ft. long, 2 ft. wide, and 13 ft. deep, and fit-
ted with a glass cover; second, a number of Erlenmeyer flasks fitted with perfor-
ated stoppers holding long glass tubes. These flasks were filled with water and
inverted so that the glass tubes dipped into shallow pans containing the plants in
flower pots. .

The plants used in the experiments were Oxalis, Canna, corn, common bean,
Castor bean and cucumber. In making the drawings the camera lucida was used.

Two Oxalis plants were taken from the green house, These plants were of
equal size and uniform appearance. One of these plants was examined immedi-
ately, and one was placed in the dry air of the laboratory and a minimum amount
of moisture supplied to the roots.

Comparing the two plants as regards general appearance, I noticed that the
oldest leaves of the plant subjected to drought soon grew yellow and dropped oft.
The leaves just budding when brought into drought grew very slowly, and did
not expand properly, and presented a peculiarly twisted or folded surface. After
being subjected to drought five weeks the leaf stalks had grown in length only
three inches, were of an intense dark green color, and somewhat stiffened or
woody. Leaves of plants subjected to drought also showed a tendency to earlier

acquire the xanthophyll than those of plants under normal conditions. The effect

209

of drought on the trichomes caused the plant to become exceeding!y viscous, giv-
ing the plant a glistening appearance. Another effect of drought on the general
appearance of the plant was the prevention of the opening of the flower buds,
which soon withered.

In the case of the plant kept under normal conditions for the same length of
time the leaves expanded perfectly, the leaf stalks were much elongated and quite
flexible. The plant was of lighter green color, and in general did not show the
dwarfed appearance of plants subjected to drought.

When examined with a microscope the different tissues are found to show as
marked differences as the general appearance of the plants.

When we compare two strips of epidermis, one taken from the lower surface
of the leaf of the plant grown under normal conditions and one from a plant sub-
jected to drought; the first difference noticed is that of the turgescence of the
plant cells.

The cells of the plants grown under normal conditions are very large and
turgescent.

The cells of plants subjected to drought lack turgescence, and show a weak,
flaccid cell wall, are also much smaller than these under influence of moisture.
The growth of the cells being retarded, the stomata are brought nearer to each
other so that the number per inch is 1400, while the number under normal con-
ditions is only 400 per inch.

“Drought also causes a slight change in the guard cells, producing a
corresponding change in the breadth of the stomata.
See figures I and II.

The trichomes of Oxalis are numerous and are of the glandular variety.
Their distribution over the surface of the leaf corresponds to that of the stomata.
On the epidermis of plants subjected to drought the trichomes are more numerous
than those of plants grown under moist conditions; are also shorter and more
globular.

The cells of normal plants contain an abundance of starch; under the influ-
ence of drought this starch is greatly diminished.

The Canna was the next plant observed, and was if possible more changed by
drought as regards manner of growth than the Oxalis. The plant was only sub-
jected to drought for three weeks, but in that short time the growth was consider-
ably retarded.

When the seeds of the Canna are allowed to germinate under conditions of
drought, the plantlets grow very slowly, sending out numerous opposite leaves.

When the plants were removed to good conditions for growth, they refused for

210

several weeks to grow; then above the stunted portion strong leaf stalks shot
upward, and in three weeks had attained a height twice as great as the stunted
portion had reached in two months. The leaves of plants grown under normal
conditions were alternate.

The effect of drought on the Canna was not as immediate as in case of the
Oxalis, not causing wilting, but in time became more decided because of the
changed position of the leaves.

The structural differences were quite apparent. In a strip of epidermis taken
from the leaf of a normal plant the cells were irregular and angular; the angles
were held firmly in position by the turgescence. The guard cells showed a firm
outline. The stomal openings were quite narrow. The stomata were slightly more
numerous under drought, being 600 per inch, in normal plants 400 per inch. The
stomata openings were also wider in drought. See figures 3 and 4.

The common bean will apparently withstand more drought than any of the
plants examined. The general appearance of the plant was not materially
changed. The growth, however, was retarded by drought, the stalk only growing
half as long as the stalk of normal plant in the same length of time. The shorter
stalk was also larger in diameter. The plant grown under favorable conditions
was more flexible, not because of lack of turgescence, but because of lack of thicker
cell walls developed by drought.

The plant cells were smaller and less turgescent when subjected to drought.
The stomata were increased in number, the guard cells metamorphosed, and the
stomal openings larger than those of plants grown in moisture.

The trichomes of the bean are not branched, and are of the non-glandular
variety. When subjected to drought they remain shorter, and the diameter is
increased slightly.

In a cross section of the stem of plants subjected to drought, the non-
turgescence of the cells was shown, also a slight thickening of the cell walls. This
thickening was demonstrated by the time required for the iodine to penetrate the
cell walls as compared with the walls of cells grown in favorable conditions. See
figures 5 and 6.

The general appearance of corn showed the effects of drought more in change
of color and the tendency of the leaves to twist and wrinkle lengthwise. The
growth was also stunted.

The epidermis was more difficult to separate from the underlying tissue of
plants subjected to drought than from plants under normal conditions. The char-
acteristic difference in turgescence of the cells was shown, also metamorphosed

guard cells and stomata. See drawings, plates 7 and 8.

211

\

The Castor bean can withstand the least amount of drought of any of the
plants observed. After being subjected to drought for one week, there was a de-
cided change in general appearance. The leaves wilted and shrivelled, and the
stalk was not turgescent enough to remain erect, but wilted. It was almost impos-
sible to obtain the epidermis from the leaf because of its clinging to the under-
lying tissue. By referring to the accompanying drawings of the Castor bean
(Plate 9) the differences in structure of the plants grown under the different con-
ditions may be seen. The stomatal guard cells and the surrounding tissue cells
are seen to be smaller in plants subjected to drought. The stomata are increased
in number from 500 per inch in moist air to 700 per inch in drought.

A cross section of the stem showed the characteristic difference in turgidity
and size of the cells.

The effect of drought on the cucumber in general is to destroy the turgescence
and give the stem a wilted appearance. The number of stomata are increased in
drought, as seen in figure 10.

From the above experiments it may be seen that immature plants subjected
to drought for only a short time have decided changes in general appearance and
structure. It seems very probable that in different plants such changes might
occur, as a result of drought, as would greatly change not only the habits of the
plant but its life history.

Fig.t.

Epidermis ,leaf of Oxalis
Grown under normal conditions.

Epidernis,leaf of Canna, —
grown under normad conditions.

Bpidermis leaf of common bean,
grown under normal conditions.

Epidermis ,leaf

of common bean,
plant subjected to drought.

213

‘Epidermis,blade of corn,
Epidermis,Corn grown under normal conditions gupjected to drought
showing turgescent cells.

Epidermis Castor bean. Epidermis of Cucumber.
a-Under normal conditions. a-Under normal conditions.
pD-Subjected to drought. p-Subjected to drought.

15

214

ADDITIONS TO THE CRYPTOGAMIC FLORA OF INDIANA. By J. C. ARTHUR.

It was not my privilege to be present at the meeting of the Academy a year
ago, at which time I was appointed to take charge of a part of the work of the
Biological Survey of the State. No official notice of my appointment has ever
reached me, and no material appertaining to the Survey, such as herbarium spec-
imens upon which the work of the Survey is based, reserve or duplicate speci-
mens for exchange, books, circulars, extra copies of lists already reported, etc.,
have yet been turned over to me, if, indeed, such exist. This state of affairs has
caused some doubt in the mind of the writer as to the exact degree of responsi-
bility which has fallen to him, and some uncertainty as to the scope of the work
he is expected to superintend.

Some good intentions of the earlier part of the year, to send out appeals to
the botanists of the State for their support and active codperation, were allowed
to remain in embyro. A vear has thus passed, and no special effort has been
made to further the interests of the Survey. But the writer desires to state most
emphatically, and he would do it orally were he able to be present at the current
meeting of the Academy, that this lack of activity is not due to a want of sym-
pathy with the aims of the Survey or unwillingness to give as much effort to the
work as time and opportunity permit.

The following list of species is the result of setting aside such specimens as
came to my attention during the year, that have not appeared in the previous
lists of the Survey. They have been handed to me by various persons, but all
residents of Lafayette, in part members of the University and in part citizens of
the town. It includes all classes of cellular cryptogams coming to hand except
Uredinew, which are reported in a paper to be presented by Miss Lillian Snyder.

It is to be hoped that at the next annual meeting a far larger showing can be
made, although the present list is by no means uninteresting. If every collector
will send to the writer whatever may come in his way, whether its value is known
or not, it will be easy to greatly extend the list, and in this way to distribute the
labors of the Survey so that it will not be burdensome, and, indeed, may yield a
measure of scientific profit to the participants.

ALGE.

Cladophora glomerata genuina Kirch. ;

On wood in Wabash River. Tippecanoe 10, 1896 (R. I. Hight.)

Chameesiphon confervicola A. Br.

On Hydrodictyon, Spirogyra and other alge. Tippecanoe 11, 1896 ( Miss K.
E. Golden).

215

AGARICINES.

Lepiota procera Scop.

On ground in open woodland. Tippecanoe 5, 1896 (Throckmorton).

This well known edible agaric was found in considerable abundance in one
place. The specimens were finely developed, the pileus of many measuring four
to five inches in diameter. They were distributed to several families, and prob-
ably as many as a score of persons ate of them. They were palatable and pro-
nounced good eating. The results, however, were unpleasant, for a majority of
the persons who ate of them, even in small amount, were made sick. The symp-
toms in this instance were not those of poison, but everything indicated that the
mushrooms were highly indigestible. Whether this was due to the mode of
cooking, or to the age of the specimens, or to some other cause, was not ascertained.

Pleurotus sapidus Kalch.

On decaying stump. Tippecanoe 7, 1895 (Arthur).

This is also a large edible species, but its merits were not tested. It made its
appearance about the first of July in a Jawn where a tree had been cut down and
the trunk cut off about six inches below the surface of the ground. The fungus
flourished until a yellow mycetozoan ( Tilmadoche gyrosa ) spread over the gills, and
in the course of a week devoured the whole fungus, leaving only a small amount
of debris not exceeding the size of a walnut. The mycetozoan, having no more
food, spread out over the grass of the lawn a yard in all directions and went into
the fruiting stage. After a few days a fresh crop of the agaric appeared, the rain
dissolved the fruit-heads of the mycetozoan, and it again attacked the fungus.
This alternation continued until frosts and chilly days put an end to the activity
of the mycetozoan. The agaric continued to flourish, however, throughout the
winter, making some growth whenever not frozen, and proving, in fact, of about
the same hardiness and vigor as winter wheat plants. When frozen solid, a piece
taken into a warm room appeared as fresh and unharmed upon being thawed as if
never frozen. The severe changes of thawing and freezing in March and April at
last killed the fungus.

LICHENES.
Cladonia mitrula Tuck.
On ground in pastures. LaPorte 6, 1883 (Arthur). Determined by Fink.

MUCORACE®.

Mucor racemosus Fres.

On starchy food (cracker). Tippecanoe 2, 1896 ( Miss Lillian Snyder).
Rhizopus nigricans Ehrenb.

On germinating seeds. Tippecanoe 2, 1896 (Arthur).

216

Rhizopus elegans ( Eidam) Ber. & De T.
On masses of corn smut. Tippecanoe 2, 1896 (Wm. Stuart ).
Thamnidium elegans Lk.

On vegetable refuse in greenhouse. Tippecanoe 1, 1896 (Arthur).

MISCELLANEOUS FUNGI.

Ascophanus carneus ( Pers.) Boud.

On paper lying against sheep’s dung. Tippecanoe 3, 1896 (Arthur).

Chictomium bostrychodes Zopf.

On sheep’s dung. Tippecanoe 3, 1896 (Arthur). Determined by J. B. Ellis.

Monilia Martini E. & §.

On a culture of mold in the laboratory. Tippecanoe 3, 1896 (Arthur).

Determined by J. B. Ellis, who thinks that while not agreeing exactly with
this species as it usually appears, yet is not distinct enough to merit a sepa-
rate description.

Podospora penicillata E. & E.

On sheep’s dung. Tippecanoe 2, 1896 (Arthur).

Stilbum erythrocephalum Ditm.

On rabbit’s dung. Tippecanoe 10, 1896 ( Burrage).

Atthalia bombacina Pers. (Institale bombacina Fr., Sporotrichum bombacinum Lk.)

On dead wood under a board walk. Tippecanoe, 1895 (Stanley Coulter).

Determined by J. B. Ellis, who has also received it from North Carolina,
Louisiana and Mexico, collected in similar situations. It forms large, thick,
cake-like masses, six inches or more in length, of a dark purple color, with an
etHlorescence of white spores, and exudes a watery liquid that collects both inside

and outside the mass in copious amber-colored drops.

THE UREDINEX OF TIPPECANOE County, Inv. By LinitAn SNYDER.

Up to the present time about seventy species of Uvredinee have been found
within Tippecanoe County, out of which there are about fifteen that are new to
the State of Indiana. These species I wish to present to you, noting the points of
interest concerning them. All the species herein mentioned have been closely
examined by the writer in order to detect any differences from typical specimens

that might exist, caused from difference in locality or otherwise.

217

Some of the additional species mentioned are so rare that it was with dif_fi-
culty a good specimen was collected, while others are so abundant that it seems
strange they have not been previously reported.

The collector’s name, with date of collection, follows the name of the host,
and the specimens may be found in the herbarium of the persons named. Those
not so designated are in my own collection.

Sincere thanks are extended to Dr. J. C. Arthur for his assistance in the de-
termination of many of the host plants.

Axidium asterum Schw. Very common.

On Aster sp., 6, 1896.

cidium compositarum: As this is only a convenient name under which to
place forms found on composite, the host holds an important part in the classifica-
tion. The form on Eupatorium was found in May and June, growing in marshy
ground. All plants observed were well covered with the d:cidia.

On Eupatorium perfoliatum, 5, 6, 1896.

Axcidium euphorbiae Gmel. Common.

On Euphorbia maculata, 8, 1887 (Arthur).
On Euphorbia dentata, 5, 1896.

Axidium geranit DC. Rare.

On Geranium maculatum, 5, 1894 (Golden).

Eeidium impatientis Schw. Common.

On Impatiens pallida, 6, 1896.
Eeidium enothere Pk. Common.
On C£nothera biennis, 6, 1&96.

cidium pentastemonis Schw. was collected in the immediate vicinity of La-
fayette by Mr. Stuart, and although the species was found in abundance in that
particular locality, a close examination of the Pentstemon plants on the part of
others failed to reveal the parasite in other parts of the county.

The spots are irregularly scattered over the leaf, appearing purple in the
fresh specimen, turning brown when dry.

On Pentstemon pubescens, 5, 1896 (Stuart).

Eeidium Ptelea B. & C. Rare.

On Ptelea perfoliatum, 6, 1896.

Eeidium ranunculacearum DC.

Cultures have been made by Plowright working out the life history of the
species and thus connecting the first and third stages, but it is probable that the
American differs from the European forms.

On Anemone Pennsylvanica, 6, 1895.

218

Eeidium trillii Burrill. In this species the sori are usually in circular
patches, the central portion free from the rust, or eating through to the upper
side of the leaf.

The species is very closely allied to A£cidiwm courallancia of Schweinitz.

On Trillium sp., 6, 1894 (Golden).

Ecidium verbene Spreng. is extremely abundant. In the last season almost
every plant of Verbena stricta, I observed, was affected with the rust. The plants
grow along the roadside, and even on streets leading out of town.

The fungus may be found on the lower leaves of the host near the ground,
and the -#eidia occur usually in white circular spots, scattered irregularly over
the under surface of the leaves and producing a discoloration of the leaf.

On Verbena stricta, 6, 1896.

Ceeoma agrimonie Schw. Common.

On Agrimonia Eupatoria, 7, 1896.

Coleosporium hydrangee (B. & C.) Only the uredospores of this species were
found, and these seemed to be in great abundance in various parts of the county.

The species is described by most writers under the genus Uredo, but the third

stage has recently been found and connected with the Uredo, thus putting it in the
proper genus.

On Hydrangea arborescens, 9, 1896.

Coleosporium ipomoee (Schw.) Burrill. In this the teleutospores do not usu-
ally appear until late in autumn after frost. They occur in bright orange sori
with spores from four to six celled, cells soon separating at the septa and losing
their bright color.

On Ipomea sp. 12, 1895 (Arthur), 7, 1896.

Coleosporium Sonchi-arvensis (Pers.) Ley. Common.

On Solidago sp. 6, 1896.
Diorchidium lateripes (B. & R.) Mg. Common.
On Ruellia strepens, 11, 1895 (Stuart), 6, 1896.
Gymnosporangium macropus Lk. Common.
On Juniperus virginiana, 3, 1889 (Bolley).
On Pyrus coronaria, 9, 1892 (Arthur), 6, 1896.
Melampsora populina (Jacq.) Ley. Common.
On Populus monilifera, 7, 1896.

Melampsora Salicis-capree (Per.) Wint. Common.
On Salix discolor, 8, 1896. .

Phragmidium fragarie (DC.) Wint. Rare.
On Potentilla canadensis, 6, 1896.

219

Phragmidium speciosum (Fr.) Arth.

Stages I and II of this species are found on the same host, the «cidia appear-
ing in summer as reddish-yellow spots that follow the veins and petioles of the
leaves, producing much distortion. The third stage appears about two months
later, and, in specimen examined, on the same individual host as the cecidia.

On Rosa Carolina, 7, 9, 1895 (Arthur), 5, 1895.

Puccinia Anemone-virginiane Schw. was first described by Schweinitz as early
as 1822, in the ‘‘Synopsis Carolina,” under the name P. anemone-virginane, and is
referred to by him in a later work under the name P. solida.

The sori occur in dark-brown hardened spots, difficult to free from the host.
The spores are long and linear, and slightly colored.

Only the third stage is known, and is quite common, first appearing about
the month of July.

On Anemone cylindrica, 7, 1892 (Arthur).

Puccima andropogi Schw. Very common.

On Andropogon scoparus, 9, 1896.
On Andropogon furcatus, 9, 1896.

Puceinia augustata Pk. Common.

On Scirpus atrovirens, 9, 1896.
Pucecinia asteris Duby. Common.

On Aster diffusus, 6, 1896.
Puccinia Bolleyana Sace. Rare.

On Carex sp., 11, 1888 (Bolley).
Puccinia convolvuli (Per.) Cast. Common.

On Convolvulus sepium, 10, 1895 (Stuart).

On Polygonum dumetorum, 6, 12, 1896.
Puccinia eyperi Arth, Common.

On Cyperus strigosus, 9, 1896.
Puecinia circaee Pers. Rare.

On Circeea lutetiana, 7, 1896.

Puccinia coronata Cda. Common.

On Avena sativa, 11, 1896 (Stuart).

Puecinia earicis (Schum.) Wint. Very common.

On Carex sp., 10, 1896.

Puecinia eleocharidis Arth. Rare.

On Eleocharis palustris, 11, 1896.

Puccinia flosculosorum (A. & 8.) Wint. Common.

On Taraxacum officinale, 5, 1895; 6, 1896.

220

Puccinia graminis Per. Common.
On Avena sativa, 10, 1896.
On Dactylis glomerata, 10, 1896.
On Hordeum jubatum, 11, 1896.
Puccinia interstitialis (Schl.) Franz. Common.
On Rubus villosus, 5, 1896.

Puceinia Kuhnie Schw. Rare.

On Kuhnia eupatoriodes, 9, 1888 ( Bolley).

Puccinia Lobelive Gerard. Rare.

On Lobelia syphilitica, 8, 1896.

Puceinia ludibunda E. & E.

The original description of this species may be found in the proceedings of
the Philadelphia Academy of Science, 1894. The projections at the apex of the
spores, spoken of there, resembling closely Puce. coronata, I have observed in some
cases, but they are very small and inconspicuous.

The host plant was found in low ground along the Wabash River. Most all
plants observed bore some rust, but, generally, the sori were few and scattering,
and being small were difficult to see.

On Carex sparganioides, 10, 1896.
Puccinia menthe Pers. Common.
On Monarda fistulosa, 6, 1896.
On Blephilia hirsuta, 7, 1896.
On Pycnanthemum sp., 10, 1896. -
Puccinia nigrovelata Ell & Tracy. Rare.
On Cyperus strigosus, 3, 1896.

Puccinia nolitangere Cda. Found in the extreme northern part of the county
in low ground. The plants in the immediate vicinity were badly affected with
the rust, but efforts to find the species in other parts of the county proved unsuc-
eessiul.

The species was first described by Corda in Icones IV as early as 1841.

On Impatiens fulva, 9, 1896.

Puccinia Physostegie P. & C. Only the teleutospores were examined. These
are usually placed obliquely on the pedicels, but none were found with pedicels
parallel to the septum, as they are in the typical Diorchidium genus.

The original description of this species occurred in 1878 in the 29th Rep.
NAGS. Mus.

On Physostegia virginica, 8, 1895 (Arthur).

Puccinia panici. Very common.

221

On Panicum capillare, 9, 1896.
Puccinia prenanthis (Per.) Fhll. Very rare.
On Prenanthes alba, 5, 1895 (Golden).

Puccinia podophylli Schw. Common.

On Podophyllum peltatum, 6, 1896.
Puccinia polygoni-amphibui Pers. Common.
On Polygonum erectum, 6, 1896.

Puccinia Rubigo-vera (DC.) Wint. Common.
On Glumes of Rye, 7, 1889 (Arthur).
On Elymus virginicus, 7, 1896.

Puccinia Sporoboli Arth. Found on Sporobolus cryptandrus, differs some from
the form found on S. heterolepsis. On the former the spores are larger, usually
constricted at septa, pedicels much longer, generally two or three times the length
of the spore, and slightly tinted. The one-celled teleutospores spoken of in the
original description were not present in specimen examined, probably due either
to the different host species or more mature state of material. The grass is found
in sandy places in great abundance. The leaves and stems are usually entirely
covered with the rust, causing the leaves to curl.

On Sporobolus cryptandrus, 4, 1896.

Puccinia triodie Ell, and Barth. Has been until recently classed under Puce.
emaculata Schw., and has probably been reported as that species, but there are some
differences existing along with the different hosts, making it certainly justifiable
in separating the forms.

The host plant is found in dry, sandy soil, and the rust is very abundant, the
sori usually covering the whole upper surface of the leaves. All plants observed
were badly infected with the fungus. There are some differences in the teleuto-
spores growing upon the different species of Triodia, mainly in size and shape of
spores.

On Triodia seslerioides, 3, 1896.

Puceinia tenwis Burrill. Rare.

On Eupatorium ageratoides, 5, i896.

Puccinia tanaceti DC. Common.

On Helianthus grosse-serratus, 6, 1896.

Puccinia vulpinoides D. & H. Rare.

On Carex vulpinoides, 11, 1888 (Bolley).

Pucewnia windsorie Schw. Very common.

a Muhlenbergia sylvatica, 9, 1896.

Puecinia xanthii Schw. Very common.

222

On Xanthiwm Canadense, 6, 1896.
On Ambrosia trijida, 6, 1896.
Reestelia lacerata (Sow.) Fr. Common.
On Crategus sp., 6, 1896.
Uromyces appendiculata (Pers.) Lévy. Common.
On Phaseolus diversifolius, 6, 1896.
Uromyces caladii (Schw.) Farl. Common.
On Arisemia triphyllum, 5, 1896.
On Arisceemia Dracontium, 6, 1896.
Uromyces Euphorbie (Schw.) C. & P. Common.
On Euphorbia dentata, 7, 1896.
On Euphorbia hypericifolia, 6, 1896.

Uromyces gaurina* (Pk.)

The second stage or uredo stage of this species has been described by Peck in
the Botanical Gaz. IV as early as 1879 under the name Trichobasis gaurina, of
which he says that it is probable that the species is the second stage to some species
of Uromyces or Puccinia not yet known. I found the teleutospores July 25, 1896, on
the same host with wredo which correspond with those described by Peck. So I
take it that the form recently found belongs to what has been previously known
as Uredo gaurina, but must now be classed under the genus Uromyces.

On Gaura biennis, 7, 1896.
Uromyces Howei Pk. Common.
On Aselepias incarnata, 10, 1896.
On Asclepias cornuti, 9, 1896.
Uromyces hedysari-paniculati (Schw.) Farl. Common.
On Desmodium Canadense, 6, 1896.
On Desmodium diellenii, 6, 1896.
Uromyces junci (Schw.) Tul. Common.
On Juncus tenuis, 10, 1896.
Uromyces lespedeze (Schw.) Pk. Rare.
On Lespedeza repens, 9, 1894.

Uromyces orobi (Per.) Wint. is rare. In only one locality could I find plants
affected with the fungus, and then only a very few leaves could be found bearing
rust. Plants not ten feet distant seemed to be perfectly free from. any infection.

On Vicia Americana, 10, 1896.

*Uredo sori scattered, brown; spores globose, finely echinulate 19-22/ w. by 20-26” 1.;
teleutosori dark brown, erumpent, roundish; spores sub-globose, ovate or oblong, vertex
strongly thickened with a blunt-colored apiculus, smooth, 19-24” w. by 20-30! 1.; pedicels
once to three times the length of the spore, hyaline.

_—

223

Uromyces polygoni (Per.) Fkl. Common.
On Polygonum aviculare, 6, 1896.

Uromyces trifolii (A. & S.) Wint. Rather ¢ommon.
On Trifolium protense, 7, 1896.

Uromyees terebinthi (DC.) Wint. Very common.
On Rhus toricodendron, 10, 1896.

Besides these species a few additional host plants have been found, the most
interesting and noteworthy of which is Polygonum dumetorum var. scandens.

A number of species are common on Polygonum species, but in the past
season Puce. Convolvuli has been found upon this host in great abundance. The
rust occurs on the leaves, petioles, and occasionally on the stems in about the
same manner as it does on plants of Convoivulus. In fact, had I not been especially
fortunate in securing the host plant in bloom I should certainly have been led to
believe that I had found the rust upon some species of Convolvulus, as the foliage
and manner of growth of the two plants are very similar.

Although there are some differences existing between the two forms of fungi,
I believe without a doubt they belong to the same species.

Uredospores growing upon Polygonum dumetorum are not so uniform, and of a
much darker color than those on Convolvulus, while teleutospores upon the former
are slightly larger, more varied, with pedicles more deeply tinted, and sometimes
placed obliquely on the spore.

The uredospores were collected the latter part of June, and were not abund-
ant. Tne marked differences between these spores and uredo of authentic speci-
mens of Uromyces polygoni and Puccinia Polygoni amphibii led me to make further
search for material, and in the early part of the present month the teleutospores
of the above species were found in great abundance upon the same individual host
as the earlier stage. Host plants of the same species in various other localities of
the county were examined, but were not affected in the least with any rust.

Dactylis glomerata (Puce. graminis). As far as I have been able to make out,
Puce. graminis has never been reported as growing upon this host, the usual species
found upon it being Puce. coronata Cda. Through the experiments of Eriksson,
he has found that, among other host plants, Puce. graminis will grow upon Dac-
tylis glomerata.

The rust was found in the Experiment Station yard, appearing in linear sori,
and almost covering both sides of the leaves of the host. Although the grass
grew there in great abundance, only one or two tufts seemed to be infected with

the fungus.

224

Hordeum jubatum (Puce. graminis). Although some search has been made for
this plant, I have never found it in great abundance. Gray’s Manual gives the
range sandy sea shore, Upper Great Lakes and westward. Bulletin of Indiana
Experimental Station, No. 29, reports the plant as frequently occurring along the
Wabash River, but rather sparingly.

The few plants that I have found have their leaves dotted over rather scant-
ily with the uredo, and the culms entirely covered with the teleutospores of P.

graminis, the latter appearing sub-epidermal.

TRAUMATROPIC CURVATURE OF TENDRILS. By ID. T. McDouGAL.

MECHANISM OF CURVATURES OF Roots. By D. T. McDouGat.

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE RussIAN THISTLE (SALSOLA Katt TraGus) IN
WapsasH County. By ALBERT B. ULREY.

[ABSTRACT.]
The Russian thistle is recorded as occurring in two localities near North Man-
chester, Ind. One locality is on the Erie R. R., while the other is somewhat

more than a half mile from the Big Four road.

Some AppiTions TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY OF
THE Houostomip&. By L. J. ReTTGer.
[ABSTRACT.]

The holostomide belong to the class of trematodes and to that division of this
class designated as the digenea, on account of their passing through two stages,
entirely marked off from each other in reaching maturity. They vary in size
from almost microscopic forms to forms five to ten mm. long. The holostomide
are usually parasitic in the intestines of birds, though they have been noted
occurring elsewhere. Comparatively few forms are known through all their larval
stages, and in some of the few cases apparently known there is still a large element
ef uncertainty. This lack of definition is caused by the difficulty of finding the
larval forms, and then growing the larve into the adult parasites.

During last winter while engaged in studying some forms of distomum, I

ehanced to find living parasites in the liver of Lymnia stagnalis innumerable

225

larve, which, upon careful study, seemed to be larval forms of some trematode.
These larve had been observed before and designated as tetracotyle from their
four sucker-like depressions. The complete literature on. the form in question
showed that its anatomy was practically entirely undetermined, and study re-
vealed that the few statements made by the earlier observers were not correct.
The form was therefore subjected to a critical morphological study and its anatomy
fairly well determined. The observations were, however, extended further. It
was necessary to determine of what species this was of the larval stage. Follow-
ing the experiments of the Italian Helminthologist, Ercolani, some of these larve
were fed to a duck in the hope that the adult forms might make this bird a tem-
porary or forced host at least long enough to mature. The excreta were ex-
amined prior to the feeding to see whether the duck might already be harboring
similar parasites. None such were found. After about ten days, typical trema-
tode eggs appeared in the excreta, and upon examination the intestines of the
duck yielded about forty mature holostomide. This seemed a clear case of es-
tablished identity. These forms had been noted but once before by Ercolani, and
he had limited his observations to a few external points. These mature forms
were then subjected to a similar morphological study, and because of the excel-
lent material afforded, their anatomy and histology was determined with more
success than is usual in dealing with such forms. Ercolani had wrongfully clas-
sified the form, and comparison with all the determined species showed this form
to be a new one to science.

It was now hoped that the eggs found in the excreta might be watched in
their development until they should as lary enter again the body of a snail and
so complete the life-cycle of this trematode. The early segmentation was followed
and its development toward a ciliated embyro noted, but it was not possible to fol-
low the cycle farther. There is, however, from what we know of related forms,
no special difficulty in bridging over this gap.

The results of the observations briefly summarized are these:

(1.) The determination of the anatomy of the tetracotyle larve.

(2.) The identity of this larve with a definite adult form of holostomum.

(3.) The determination of the anatomy and histology of this adult form.

(4.) The development of the eggs through the earlier stages of segmentation

‘toward the formation of a ciliated embyro.

(5.) The correct placing of two forms (the larval and the adult) in the sys-
tematic arrangement of the trematodes.

[The detailed accounts of these observations, together with the drawings of
all the structures described, are intended to appear in a published report later. ]

226

ABNORMAL INCISOR GROWTH OF RopeEnts. C. E. NEwLIn, INDIANAPOLIS.

The omnipotent and omniscient hand of Mother Nature in providing for the
varied wants and conditions of her children is nowhere better shown than in the
constant and rapid growth of the incisor teeth of that order of little animals
known as Rodents. Securing their food as they do by gnawing the hard hark,
roots and nuts, their incisor teeth would soon be worn off to the very gums if it
were not for the constant and rapid growth of these teeth. To show the rapidity
of this growth is the object of this short paper.

It is no unusual thing to kill a squirrel or rat that by some accident has lost
one of its incisor teeth. The opposing tooth, having no direct opponent to hold
the food against it, often becomes abnormally long, often becoming very incon-
venient to the owner in procuring its food. But usually the remaining tooth is
brought into more or less use in procuring food, and is thus kept ground off to
some extent, though I have sometimes found them quite long.

I have in my possession the skull of a Ground Hog, Actomys Monazx, which
shows such abnormal growth of all the incisors that I thought it might be of in-
terest to the members of the Academy to call their attention to it.

The specimen that was the unhappy possessor of this skull in life was killed
in a meadow on a farm near Shannondale, Ind., by Wm. T. Beck, now of Craw-
fordsyille. He noticed his dog attacking some animal and going to its assistance
found a Ground Hog offering poor resistance, and killed it by crushing the back
of its head with his fork handle. Picking it up he noticed the two white tusk-
like teeth projecting up over its nose. He cut its head off and took it to his
woodshed and laid it upon a cross-beam over the door, and there the insects did
what they could to preserve it by denuding it of its flesh. The teeth became
loose, and in handling it the longest lower incisor dropped out and was broken.
But I had a dentist carefully reproduce the part broken off with paste dentine,
and wired the skull together. Otherwise it is just as it was when it thwarted his
wood-chuckship in his struggle for existence. The right lower incisor is 3} inches
long and correspondingly abnormally large in circumference. The lower incisor
on the left side seems to have come in contact with the left upper incisor to some
extent and did not grow so long. Both lower incisors extend up over the nose
and securely locked his mouth, so that securing food was almost impossible.
This was possible at all only on the left side and then only by separating his lips
and biting off clover leaves, ete., with his back molar teeth. He had done this so
long that the lips on that side remained wide apart, exposing all the back teeth,

while the lips on the opposite side grew fast together and fast to the gums.

227

The left upper incisor grew in a circle, and when it came ¢o the roof of the
mouth became deflected until it found the suture of the palatal surface of the
superior maxillary and passed through this up into the nasal passage and contin-
uing its growth in th: circle turned downward through this bone again into the
mouth, completing over a circle and a quarter. The pleasant sensations he must
have experienced while this growth was taking place must have been entertaining
at least. The right upper incisor was forced to the right and missed the superior
maxillary, and performed the same circular growth between the lip and gum.
Each of the upper incisors are about 33 inches long. The right one shows by the
abrasions on it where it came in contact on its side with the lower incisor in the
earlier stages of its abnormal career, but the contact was not sufficient to arrest
its growth. .

The animal was weak and almost starved when killed, and I think no animal
could live long on the small amount of food that could be procured after these
teeth reached one-half their present length. Thus I reason that the growth of
the incisor teeth of rodents must be very rapid, and I would place the time that
elapsed after the accident happened this unfortunate creature, by which his teeth
were so dislocated as not to oppose each other, and the time that he was killed
could not have been more than a few months, under a year at the farthest. This
rapid growth seems to be reasonable, too, when I consider the growth necessary to
counteract the tremendous wear to which the incisors of a rodent are subjected.
If this were not so, many a little fellow would find himself frequently in the
condition of the fabled rat that gnawed the file.

THE BosontnKk (DoLICHONYX ORYzIvoRUS) IN INDIANA. By A. W. Burwer.

The Bobolink was one of the fanciful birds of my boyhood. The accounts of
it which came to me, both by tongue and pen, interested me greatly. I longed to
see the bird and hear him sing. At first I concluded it was to be found abund-
antly—a characteristic feature of the landscape—each spring. Year after year I
watched for it, but it did not come. I consulted others who enjoyed the company
of birds, and learned they had not seen it. The natural conclusion was I must
see it in some other locality; but finally, before my purpose was carried out, it
came to me. I saw my first Bobolink in the spring of 1881. On May 5, when
walking by a timothy meadow within the town of Brookville, Ind., I saw a half

dozed males, dressed in their distinctive colors, arise, one after another, from the

228

grass, only to alight again beneath its waving tops. They were busily feeding,
and sang no song. Up to this time there were perhaps not a dozen localities with-
in a hundred miles of the Ohio River, throughout its entire length, from which it
had been reported. Dr. F. W. Langdon had noted it in the vicinity of Cincin-
nati, Ohio; Dr. Rufus Haymond had found it in Franklin County, Ind.; Dr. A.
W. Brayton gave it from Marion County. All these records were of its spring
occurrence. Since then almost every spring it has been met with, in limited num-
bers, in the southern part of this State, but records of its occurrence in fall are
very few. At that time it had been found to range in summer as far north as
Quebec, towards the coast, and in the interior to the Saskatchewan (latitude 60°).
In winter it passed south beyond the United States, reaching the West Indies,
Central America, Galapagos Islands, and going as far south as Bolivia, Argentine
Republic and Paraguay. It was said to reach west, during the period of its visits
to our land, to Kansas and Dakota. But continued explorations have shown its.
presence in Utah, Nevada, Wyoming, Montana, also, and, more recently, Maj.
C. E. Bendire has ascertained its occurrence in British Columbia, thus extending
its range to the Pacific Coast. To the form ranging from Kansas and Dakota
westward the subspecific term albinucha has been given. Dr. T. M. Brewer gave
its breeding range from latitude 42° to 54° North; that is to say, from the south-
ern boundary of Massachusetts, New York, Michigan and the latitude of Chicago
northward to the extent of its range. In the early days of this country’s history
they doubtless were found in great numbers, as summer residents, in natural
meadows, prairies and marshy places—such open land as was suited to their needs
for housekeeping and for food supply—in the region indicated. They did not
frequent the timbered districts. The forest lines were barriers to them; but as
the woods of the more level region gave place to grain and then to grass, the ter-
ritory over which they might spend the summer extended, while, on the contrary,
in certain districts, where the forest growth encroached upon the prairies, the area
of breeding ground was correspondingly lessened. Their summer range, at least
in Indiana, Ohio, Michigan and Illinois, has been much misunderstood. Where
it is found no general statement as to its distribution can be made, for it appears
to be quite irregular; indeed, in many localities, exceedingly local. The extent
of its distribution and numbers depends primarily upon the area of land suitable
for its occupation. The extension or restriction of the latter has a corresponding
effect upon the former.

In order that its local distribution and the effect of man’s occupation upon
its history may be made clearer I submit the results of some investigations I have

been permitted to make.

229

I shall refer first to Michigan. It is common and breeds at Port Sanilac
(W. A. Oldfield). Common and breeds at Bay City (N. A. Eddy). Breeds
commonly at Saline (Norman A. Wood). Common summer resident; breeds at
Belle Isle ( Louis Fites). Common; breeds at South Ogden ( Mrs. H. C. Somes).
Raisin, Lenawee County; common, breeds (Alfred W. Comfort). Common,
breeds, Ganges, Allegan County ( David Lewis). Brant, Saginaw County, com-
mon, breeds (W. De Clarenze). Ann Arbor; common, breeds (A. B. Covert, L. T.
Meyer, James Savage, F. L. Washburn). St. Clair County; common, breeds
(Stephen A. Warnie). Windmill Point; common, breeds (N. J. R. Kennedy).
Common; breeds, Battle Creek ( Nathaniel Y. Green). Manchester; common,
breeds (L. Whitney Watkins).

Abundant summer resident at Albion, Calhoun County, and St. Joseph,
Berrien County (O. B. Warren).

Mr. R. C. Alexander, Plymouth, says that they have been there for fifty
years and steadily increased in numbers, more common than usual this summer
(1894). Evenly distributed in this locality. Breeds abundantly.

Prof. A. J. Cook says they were not found in central Michigan until within
a few years ( Birds of Mich., p. 101).

I can not tell at how many of these localities it has been coutinuously a
breeder as at present. The following localities report a change: At Agricultural
College, Ingham County, they were first seen in 1874 (A. J. Cook). At Locke
they were rare until 1874 and very common in 1875 ( Dr. H. A. Atkins). First
seen in Monroe County in 1872 (Jerome Trombley). Grand Rapids, Kent
County ; never common, but two or three pairs breed near this city (Stewart E.
White, 1888). Benzie County: Never seen until late years; rare (Wm. G.
Voorheis, 1892). In the Northern Peninsula, Prof. Cook says, upon the au-
thority of Mr. E. E. Brewster of [ron Mountain, Dickinson County, that it oceurs
rarely at that place. In 1895, Mr. O. B. Warren saw them for the first time at
Palmer, Marquette County. They remained and bred.

In Illinois, Mr. Robert Ridgway says it breeds only in the northern part of
that State ( Birds of Ill., Vol. I, p. 309).

My own experience is that in the vicinity of Chicago, Illinois, it is the most
abundant I have ever seen it. This is especially true in the vicinity of South
Englewood and southeast of Grand Crossing towards Indiana. The reports of
Messrs. J. O. Dunn and C. A. Tallman from the last mentioned neighborhood
and of Mr. Eliot Blackwelder from the vicinity of Morgan Park corroborate my
experience. Mr. Blackwelder in 1894 wrote me that it was increasing yearly and

was excessively numerous that year.

16

230

In Indiana, Mr. L. T. Meyer has assured me of their abundance in the
northern part of Lake County. Mr. C. E. Aiken tells me they were abundant in
that county in 1871. Mr. J. Grafton Parker and Mr. H. K. Coale have noted
them as common in that county. In 1886 Mr. R. B. Trouslot told me it was com-
mon in Porter County. Summer resident near Michigan City, Laporte County
(J. W. Byrkit). Laporte County: Abundant; breeds (Chas. Barber). Mr.
Ruthven Deane reports them abundant and apparently breeding at English Lake,
Starke County. Marshall County: Common (A. I. Mow). Dr. Vernon Gould,
of Rochester, Fulton County, informs me that upon the prairies and open
marshes in the western part of that county the Bobolink is found quite common
in its favorite localities and has been for fifty years. In the eastern half, or tim-
bered section, it is not often seen. He doesnot think there has been any percepti-
ble change as to numbers since the country was settled. Mr. Victor H. Barnett
reports them present at Francisville, Pulaski County, June 11, 18, 19 and 20,
1896, and thinks they breed sparingly. In 1891, Hon. R. Wes. McBride, a close
observer, wrote me that the Bobolinks were entirely unknown in Elkhart County.
That he had not seen one there nor had any one else to his knowledge. In 1895,
Mr. Chancey Juday wrote that he saw a number near Millersburg, that county,
the week ending June 22. In Kosciusko County, Mr. L. H. Haymond, informs
me they were first observed in 1872 or 1873. The next summer a few pairs bred ina
swamp within the city limits of Warsaw. They have increased in numbers yearly.
At Fountain Spring Park (Winona) many pairs now breed annually. I, my-
self, have for two seasons, found a great company in the meadow west of the
assembly ground in the latter part of June and early July. In 1894, a pair of
Bobolinks were discovered to have built their nest on ground often occupied for
shooting tournaments. The traps were so placed that the nest was between them
and the shooters. All the firing was over the nest. At first the birds were very
much frightened by the noise. The female left the nest at the beginning of the
shooting, returning when the first match was shot. She left again when the next
match began. After some time, however, she returned to her nest and remained
there until the close of the shooting. Hundreds of shots were fired over her, yet
she sat quietly on her nest through it all. Mr. J. E. Mow says they are common
and breed at Millwood in Kosciusko County. Mrs. Jane L. Hine, of Sedan, Indi-
ana, wrote me in 1892, that the first Bobolinks appeared near Kendallville, Noble
County, in 1883. She saw them there the next year, June 4, 1884. In 1885
they appeared two and a half miles east of the DeKalb and Noble County line. In
1886, at Sedan, two miles farther east, she saw three males thatspring. There was

more of them in 1887 and increased after that. In 1888 the people of a neighborhood

231

six miles east of Sedan were telling of their new bird, the Bobolink. Mr. McCord,
who has been much upon the Auburn and Fort Wayne road, saw his first Bobo-
link there in 1887.

According to Hon. R. Wes. McBride, Bobolinks first appeared about Water-
loo, Dekalb County, about 1880. In 1891 he wrote me they were one of the most
common summer residents in Dekalb, Steuben and Lagrange counties, and in a
paper before this Academy (Proc. 1891, p. 167,) he reiterates his remarks in sub-
stance, and adds: ‘‘It is still very rare in Elkhart County, only a short distance
west, with the apparent conditions not materially different.” In 1886 Mr. J. O.
Snyder informed me that pairs remained all summer at Waterloo. In 1887 he
said it was uncommon and bred. In 1888 he noted it as becoming more common
each year. In 1894 Mr. J. P. Feagler said, in speaking of Dekalb and Steuben
counties, the rate of increase is about ten percent. a year. In 1889 Mr. C. A.
Stockbridge, of Ft. Wayne, wrote me they were found in Allen County all sum-
mer, and he thought they bred. In 1893 Mr. W. O. Wallace wrote me it was a
common summer resident at Wabash. It was first noticed there about 1887, when
he saw two males. From that time they have been increasing until they are now one
of the commonest meadow songsters. Dozens of persons—adults—asked him what
the new bird was. Upon their describing it he recognized their new acquaintance
as the Bobolink. Mr. D. C. Ridgley first noted it breeding in Wabash County about
1891. Since then Mr. Wallace has often caught young unable to fly, but has never
found their nests. (Birds of Wabash County, Proc. I. A. S. 1895, p. 153.) Mr.
F. E. Bell reports it as common and breeding at North Manchester.

In 1892 Prof. E. E. Fish, Buffalo, New York, wrote me that several years ago
he craveled slowly through several of the northern counties of Indiana without
once seeing a Bobolink. He adds, ‘‘but they now sing in the meadows near Lo-
gansport, and doubtless they nest there, as they remain so late in the summer.”
Prof. A. H. Douglass, of Logansport, has recently written me that he has observed
these birds for a number of years. Their numbers have increased steadily every
summer. They breed there now in almost every timothy meadow. He adds:
“Tt is a great joy to me during the latter half of May and the month of June to
drive into the country and see them so abundant where there were none a few
years ago. In some meadows last year (1896) there were more Bobolinks than
Meadow Larks.” They were first reported as migrants from Carroll County in
1884 by Prof. B. W. Evermann. Mr. Sidney T. Sterling says the first of these
birds he saw in that county was in 1891. That summer two pairs remained about
a wet place in a timothy meadow. As they remained so constantly near the same

place, he concluded they were nesting. They disappeared about harvest time, to

232

be seen no more until the following spring, when they returned to the same place.
In 1895 the field was put in wheat, and the birds were not seen any more. At
Lafayette it is rare, and I can not learn that it is a summer resident, or breeds.
(L. A. and C. D. Test, R. R. Moffitt). Mr. J. E. Beasley, Lebanon, says that the
first of this species he saw in Boone County was in 1869. There were three males.
They have been increasing since that time. While the greater part seen are mi-
grants, there are always a few pairs that breed. I myself have seen them during
the spring migration in Howard County, but do not know that they have been ob-
served to breed there. Mr. A. B. Ghere says they breed commonly in Clinton
County. In 1889 Mr. J. R. Slonaker reported them common at Terre Haute, and
added they had been noticed to breed there for the past three years only. Mr. A.
H. Kendrick reports them as breeding near Ellsworth, Vigo County, in 1896. In
1887 Dr. A. W. Brayton informed me that he had found them breeding upon the
grounds of the Institution for the Deaf and Dumb within the city of Indianapolis.
In 1889 Mr. W. P. Hay reported them breeding at Irvington, adding, they had
been scarce until the last two years. Mr. Roy Hathaway informs me they breed
in Jay County, near Red Key. In 1886 Mr. G. G. Williamson reported one from
Delaware County, June 3, and added they bred there. In 1890 he notes it as not
common; breeds. In 1892 he informed me the Bobolink had surprised him. He
writes: ‘‘He has come and brought all his friends and relatives with him. He
has always been a scarce bird hereabouts before this. But this time he is actually
abundant. Every suitable meadow furnishes one or more, and their music boxes
are in the best of order.”

The first record I have from Wayne County is from Dr. Erastus Test, Purdue
University, Lafayette. He tells me he saw a number of Bobolinks there from
1883-6, and especially refers to them in the vicinity of Earlham College, near
Richmond. They were next reported from that county in 1888 by Messrs. H. N.
McCoy, W. C. DeWitt and Fred. M. Smith, of Richmond. They noted them as
remaining as late as July Ist. I have reports from there almost every year since.
In 1891 I found it near the southern boundary of Wayne County. I called the
attention of some of the members of the Wayne County Horticultural Society to

this occurrence. As a result I received a report for that year from Mr. Walter S.
"Ratliff. This was the first time he had observed them. There were only three.
They were seen about the edges of the same meadow every day until July 21st.
He says they bred. In 1892 they returned to the same farm. There were nine.
They paired and again nested in the meadows. Young were noted a mile farther

north. July 20th they left. In 1893 these birds came again in larger numbers

233

than before. In 1896, however, they remained but a few days in the locality for-
merly frequented, and did not breed there.

Bobolinks have been reported from Decatur County for a number of years.
Prof. W. P. Shannon found them June 1, 1895, and a pair July 2, 1896. He is
inclined to think it breeds. ‘

Thus it can readily be seen how the breeding range of this species has been
extended within recent years through the encroachment of man upon the original
forest area of our region until it now occupies in summer near two-thirds of the
State. By this also its range during the breeding season is extended southward
about three degrees. In addition to those noted, the Bobolink has been reported
from the following counties in this State, in most of which it probably occurs as
a migrant: Knox—Bicknell (E. J. Chansler), Vincennes (Angus Gaines); Mon-
roe—Bloomington (W. S. Blatchley, C. H. Bollman, B. W. Evermann, G. G.
Williamson, E. M. Kindle); Bartholomew—Newbern (U. F. Glick); Fayette—
Connersville (J. E. Rehme); Dearborn—Moore’s Hill (C. W. Hargitt, G. C. Hub-
bard); Grant—Marion (H. N. McCoy); Putnam—Greencastle (J. F. Clearwaters,
Jesse Earlle); Henry—Dunreith (E. Pleas); Brown—Spearsville (Victor H. Bar-
nett); Madison—Anderson (Charles P. Smith); Johnson—Trafalgar (Miss Harriet
Jacobs).

It is interesting to note the summer range of the Prairie Horned Lark, O. a.
praticola and of the House Wren (Z’. wrdon), arid see how nearly they coincide in
this State with the summer range of the Bobolink.

In Ohio, Dr. J. M. Wheaton (Report on the Birds of Ohio, 1882, p. 352) tells
us: Dr. Kirtland gives it without comment, Mr. Read gives it as very abundant
and breeding, and says that ‘‘years ago it was not found upon the reserve.” Mr.
B. F. Abell, of Welchfield, Geauga County, says that it was first observed in
that place May 20, 1857. In the vicinity of Columbus, he states, it was unknown
to old residents. Hesays: ‘‘I first saw them in May, 1857, when I obtained a
specimen which, with two or three others, was perched upon a tree upon the bank
of Alum Creek. Since then they have increased in numbers and, during the last six
or seven years at least, a few have nested with us. They are also known to breed
at Yellow Springs, about fifty miles south of west of this city.” Dr. F. W. Langdon
(Journal Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. ITI, Oct., 1880, p. 224), the week ending July
4, 1880, observed a few birds only near Port Clinton, Ottawa County. Prof. E.
L. Moseley reports it from the vicinity of Sandusky. Im addition to those noted
Prof. A. L. Treadwell, Oxford, O., and Mr. Charles Dury, Cincinnati, note it in

their respective localities, where it is probably only found as a migrant.

234

It would seem that it is entirely probable before man commenced his warfare
upon our forests and began to replace the trees with grass, the Bobolinks found
suitable breeding grounds about the lower end of Lake Michigan, reaching indefi-
nitely westward and possibly southward into Illinois. They extended over some
six or eight counties of northern Indiana to the vicinity of Rochester, Fulton
County, and a few of the southwestern counties of Michigan. From this center
they seem to have spread out in all directions. It is probable that along Lake
Erie, in Ohio, there were localities they also originally sought as summer homes,
and from there have spread over quite a large part of that State. The data at
hand is not sufficient to guide one very correctly in this regard. From southeast
Michigan, however, more observations are available, and would indicate that
even there the Bobolink is a recent advent. Whether or not they are of recent
introduction into the Saginaw Bay region the evidence does not say.

Prof. W. W. Cooke and Mr. Otto Widmann give it as a summer sojourner at
Jefferson Cisy, Mo. (Bull. No. 1, Ridgway Ornithological Club, December, 1883,
p. 33). Dr. William C. Rives thinks it may breed in the Virginias (Cat. Birds of
the Virginias, Proc. Newport, N. H., Soc., October, 1890, p. 69). These locali-
ties are slightly farther south than those I have noted. With these exceptions
I have given the extreme southern points oi their breeding range, and they are the
fringing markers on the barriers of the breeding region. Capt. C. E. Bendire, in the
second volume of his valuable ‘‘ Life Histories of North American Birds,” has re-
corded the unusual fact that the Bobolink breeds, in April, in small numbers, on
Petite Anse Island, on the coast of Louisiana, and that it probably breeds rarely
in Florida (Special Bulletin U. S. National Museum, Smithsonian Institution,
1895, p. 433).

The Bobolinks reappear on the southern border of the United States in April,
and for about a month are very destructive to the planted rice. Then they move
northward to their breeding grounds. This is true of the bulk. There are single
birds which often push on ahead of the crowd—some of them at a very early date.
April 4, 1890, I found a single male at Brookville, Ind. No others were seen
until May 17. Dr. P. L. Hatch says it arrived in the vicinity of Minneapolis,
Minn., April 5, 1870. (Notes on the Birds of Minnesota, First Rept. State Zodlo-
gist, Geol. and N. H. Surv., June, 1892, p. 271.) Im 1885 it first reached Mount
Carmel, Mo., April 20. (U.S. Dept. Agriculture, Div. of Economic Ornithology,
Bull. No. 2, Report on Bird Migration in the Mississippi Valley in the years 1884
and 1885, by W. W. Cooke, 1888, p. 169.) Im 1885, also, Mr. C. H. Bollman found

a single male at Bloomington, Ind., April 17. It was next seen there May 2.

235

I am convinced that the great bulk of these migrants pass up the Atlantic
Coast and seek their summer homes in this region from the east or southeast.
The migrants that are seen with us are exceedingly few compared with the im-
mense numbers that frequent our Northern meadows and prairies. While it is
true they migrate at night, yet we see neither the weary resting by day nor hear
the noise of the winging hordes by night. In the East it is commonly said that
their unmistakable voices come to the listener as one of the characteristic sounds
of the warm nights in early May. Who has had such an experience among us?
Strange as it may seem, the birds in thtir original breeding range, and in South-
ern Michigan generally, arrive as soon —and in some cases actually sooner—than
they do in the localities farther south, where they more recently began to nest. It
is further true that often the corresponding dates of first arrival, etc., of the sched-
ule are as early—and not infrequently earlier—in the old summer home than they
are in the localities southward, where they occur only as migrants. This may be
another clew from which further investigation will derive a point tending to show
the route of the migration of the bulk of the Bobolinks to these breeding grounds
is farther to the eastward, and earlier, and not across the interior States of the
Mississippi and Ohio Valleys. .

While Bobolinks, singly or few in number, migrate very early, as heretofore
stated, most of them are actually noted between April 27th and May 8th. This
may in some years be a day or two earlier, in others a few days later. The date
at which they have been noted as common in various localities in general may be
said to range from May Ist to 15th. The males precede the females by from two
days to two weeks, averaging at least a week earlier. They are the features of the
early clover field as it comes into bloom. The blossoms of the small red clover
( Trifolium pratense) and the Bobolink come together.

For reference I give at the end of this paper a synopsis of the reports received
for the years 1885 to 1896, both inclusive. These reports include not only obser-
vations from Indiana, but also some reports from correspondents in Ohio, Illinois
and Michigan. 1 desire to thank them all, and also to express my appreciation
of the courtesies extended to me by Dr. C. Hart Merriam, Chief of the Biological
Survey of the United States Department of Agriculture.

When the Bobolinks come north in the spring the males wear an attractive
livery of black, with white and light brownish markings above. They are attired

"for the opera. Their exquisite songs and lively, cheery, droll ways which form a
characteristic feature of the life of a locality where they abound are shown to
please the other sex—to make them attractive to the females and not to please you

and me. But in fact we do derive much enjoyment from their life and song.

236

Whether or not it is so, it seems that there are two or three males devoting them-
selves to every female. The latter, in their sparrow-like dress of yellowish and
brown, are comparatively inconspicuous, and this may be the reason they seem so.
few. The days of courtship are soon over and the Bobolinks settle down to house-
keeping. Often there are many pairs nesting close together. They prefer a
sociable company. They nest in cloverfield, prairie, meadow or grassy marsh.
Nest building is begun within a few days after arriving, usually about the middle
of May. The full complement of eggs may usually be found in them by the first
week in June. Some of the earlier laid sets are found far advanced the second
week of that month, while between June 15th and July 5th the nests usually
contain young. The nest is built of dried grass, flags or weeds loosely placed
together and lined with finer dried grass. It is often, perhaps usually, built in a
slight natural depression in the ground. Sometimes it is placed upon the level
earth. In either case it is arranged so as to be concealed by the dead grass stems.
and growing blades. Often the nest is placed in a clump of clover or tuft of grass
above the ground and fastened to the stems of the plant.

The average nest is four inches in outer diameter by two inches in depth; the
inner cup is two and one-half inches in diameter hy one and one-fourth inches
deep (Bendire, loc. cit. p. 433). The eggs are ovate. The ground color varies
from pearl gray or drab to reddish brown or cinnamon. They are irregularly
spotted with different shades of brown, heliotrope and lavender. Almost no two
eggs are marked alike. The average size is .83 by .62 inch.

By the middle of July the young are beginning to leave the nest and labor
for themselves. The males in a surprisingly short space of time take on the
plumage of the females, and the families form groups and many families unite,
all attired in plain colors, living a quiet life until they begin their journey toward
their winter homes. Many persons are not acquainted with the female, and when
the attractive coat of the male changes to plainer hue they conclude the birds
have gone. - Hence many think the Bobolinks leave from the 20th to 30th of July.
In some localities they perhaps desert more undesirable places and congregate in
favorite spots, in others they remain about their homes. Most of them seem to
leave about the middle of August, though it is much more difficult to get satis-
factory statistics as to their fall movements in the northern States than of their
spring migrations. That they often remain much later than the date noted, and
well into September, is known. In 1890 Mr. H. N. McCoy sent me a Bobolink
taken at Marion September 29. In 1891 the last was reported from South Ogden,
Mich., September 2. In 1892 from Plymouth, Mich., September 12. In 1894

237

from Plymouth. Mich., September 21, and from Cook County, IIl., September 24.
In 1895 from Morgan Park, IIl., September 12.

During the spring migrations with us and throughout the breeding season the
food of the Bobolink is largely insects. ‘ Naturally those species frequenting grass
lands are chiefly preyed upon. As illustrations of this I may refer to the results
of two investigations of their food at this season. Dr. B. H. Warren, of West
Chester, Pa., examined the stomachs of twenty-seven specimens taken in Chester
County, Pa., in May, 1879, 1880, 1882 and 1883, and found that eighteen fed
exclusively on beetles, larve, ants and a few earthworms; five, in addition to
insects and larve, showed small seeds and particles of gray vegetable materials,
apparently the leaves of plants; the four remaining birds revealed only small
black and yellow colored seeds. (Birds of Pennsylvania, second edition, 1890, p.
207.) In the early part of May, 1886, Mr. George L. Toppan, of Chicago, exam-
ined the stomachs of nine Bobolinks taken near Grand Crossing, Ill., not far from
the Indiana line. Eight had their stomachs full of insects, while the ninth con-
tained, in addition, a few worms. After the breeding season is over these birds
turn their attention to the ripening grass seeds. They seem to be especially fond
of the seeds of Hungarian grass. They are also said, in some localities, to eat
the milky grains of the maturing corn. On the whole, their life with us may be
said to be one of blessing and benefit, of happiness and good cheer. In the South,
along the South Atlantic and Gulf coasts, how different are its portents. There
they are winged destroyers, blighting the prospects of the results of man’s labors.
Dr. Merriam, in his report as Chief of the Division of Ornithology and Mammal-
ogy of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1886, gives the results of
his investigations of the destruction caused by the Bobolinks, locally known as
“rice birds,” among the rice-growing regions of the South. I take the liberty of
giving the following extracts from a letter from Capt. William Miles Hazzard,
of Annadale, S.C., one of the largest rice growers of that state, which is included
in the above-mentioned report and will, better than anything else that I know,
give an idea of the work of these birds among the rice fields.

‘*The Bobolinks make their appearance here during the latter part of April.
At that season the plumage is white and black, and they sing merrily when at
rest. Their flight is always at night. In the evening there will be none. In the
morning their appearance is heralded by the popping of whips and firing of mus-
ketry by the bird minders in their efforts to keep the birds from pulling up the
young rice. This warfare is kept up incessantly until about the 25th of May,
when they suddenly disappear at night. Their next appearance is in a dark yel-

low plumage as the ricebird. There is no song at this time, but instead a chirp

238

which means ruin to any rice found in milk. My plantation record will show
that for the past ten years, except when prevented by strong south or southwest
winds, the ricebirds have come punctually on the night of the 21st of August,
apparently coming from the seaward. All night their chirp can be heard passing
over our summer homes on South Island, which is situated six miles to the east of
our rice plantations, in full view of the ocean. Curious to say we have never
seen this flight during the day. During the nights of August 21, 22, 283 and 24,
millions of these birds make their appearance and settle in the rice fields. From
the 21st of August to the 25th of September our every effort is to save the crop.
Men, boys and women, with guns and ammunition, are posted on every four or
five acres, and shoot daily an average of about one quart of powder to the gun.
This firing commences at first dawn of day and is kept up until sunset. After all
this expense and trouble our loss of rice per acre seldom falls under five bushels,
and if from any cause there is a check to the crop during its growth which pre-
vents the grain from being hard, but in milky condition, the destruction of such
fields is complete, it not paying to cut and bring the rice out of the field. We
have tried every plan to keep these pests off our crops at less.expense and manual
labor than we now incur, but have been unsuccessful. Our present mode is ex-
pensive, imperfect and thoroughly unsatisfactory, yet it is the best we can do. I
consider these birds as destructive to rice as the caterpillar is to cotton, with this
difference, that these ricebirds never fail to come.”

Captain Bendire thinks it probable the decrease in the numbers of Bobolinks
noticeable in their breeding range in some of the eastern states is due to this relent-
less warfare by the planters. That there is no decrease but rather a noticeable and
continual increase in numbers and also in the gradual extension of their range in

our region is the burden of the testimony I have been able to collect.

239

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244

Tue Brirps, Our Frtenps. By E. J. CHANSLER.

Some ADDITIONS TO THE INDIANA Brrp List, witH OTHER Noves. By A. W.
BUTLER.

The reports upon the migration of birds for the past year have not all been
received; consequently the notes which I had hoped to report at this time will
not all be given. What I have to say will be quite short. The facts, though few,
are interesting and of much importance to Indiana ornithology. These include
the addition of two species to the list of the birds of the State; also notes upon
other species which are of rare occurrence or in other ways worthy of attention at

this time.

Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus (Bonap.) Yellow-headed Blackbird.

Reported by Mr. C. A. Tallman from Cook County, Ill. It was first seen
May 9, 1896, when two were noted; next observed May 16, and became common
the same day. He found them nesting in a swamp abont seven miles west of
Morgan Park, and also at Mud Lake, on the Illinois and Indiana line. Their

breeding habits are very similar to those of the Red-winged Blackbird.

Ammodramus henslowii (Aud.) Henslow’s Sparrow.

Not common in Cook County, Ill. The first one the past spring was seen
April 19; next noted April 25, when it was as numerous as it became; breeds.
(C. A. Tallman).

Arenaria interpres (Linn.) Turnstone.

May 23, 1896, Mr. Eliot Blackwelder and Mr. C. A. Tallman, of Chicago,
noted two Turnstones at Wolf Lake, in Indiana. They were in company with a
miscellaneous flock of small Sandpipers. They were again seen June 9. I am
informed upon the same authority that Mr. F. M. Woodruff has taken specimens

of this species in Cook County, Ill.

Dendroica discolor (Vieill.) Prairie Warbler. =
Mr. J. E. Beesley mounted a female that was taken at English Lake, Ind.,
June 14,1896. It is now in the collection of the State Museum in the State House,

Indianapolis.

245

Ampelis garrulus Linn. Bohemian Waxwing.

I am informed by Mr. J. E. Beesley that one spring, about forty years ago,
he took nineteen Bohemian Waxwings in one day near Indianapolis. They were
all in one flock, and were flying forward and backward over the river, catching
insects, after the manner of Flycatchers.

Protonotaria citrea (Bodd.) Prothonotary Warbler.

Mr. Beesley informs me that some years ago he obtained a pair of these warb-
lers on the farm formerly owned by Judge Terhune, three or four miles from
Lebanon, Ind.

Buteo borealis harlani (Aud.). Harlan’s Hawk.

This hawk is also known by the names Black Hawk and Black Warrior.
‘There is a specimen of this rare species in the possession of Mr. R. B. Williams,
who mounted it, at Lebanon, Ind. The bird was obtained in Perry Township,
Boone County, Ind., in September, 1887. It was shot and its wing broken by Mr.
W. H. Moler. He brought it alive to the present owner. The following are the
measurements taken from the mounted specimen: Length, 24% in.; wing, 164 in.;
tail, 95 in.; culmen, 1} in.; tarsus, 2 in.; bare tarsus, 1} in.; middle toe, 1} in.;
claw, § in. This is the first record of its occurrence in the State. It had pre-
viously been taken in Illinois, where Mr. C. K. Worthen shot one of a pair on the
Mississippi River, near Warsaw, Hancock County, in March, 1879. There is in
my collection a specimen taken several years ago in Cumberland County, IIl., and
presented to me by Mr. W. 8S. Everhart, of Toledo, III.

Fregata aquila (Linn.). Man-o’-War Bird.

The past fall I had the pleasure of seeing in the office of Mr. J. E. Beesley,
at Lebanon, Ind., a fine specimen of a young male of this bird. He informed me
he received the specimen in the flesh July 15, 1896, from Mr. W. I. Patterson,
Shelbyville, Ind. It was killed the day before he received it (July 14), near that
city. The following are the measurements taken from the mounted specimen :
Length, 3 feet; wing, 2 feet; tail, 16 in.; depth of fork, 7 in.; culmen, 4} in.
This is a bird of the tropical and subtropical seas. Its occurrence with us is
wholly accidental. This is its first record for our State, although Mr. Robert
Ridgway has previously reported it from Ohio. (Man. N. A. Birds, 1887, p. 83.)

17

246

Numenius longirostris Wils. Long-billed Curlew.

A mounted specimen of this bird was seen in the possession of Mr. Fletcher
M. Noe, of Indianapolis, Ind., the past summer. He told me it was taken by
Herman Eckert in a swamp near Jasper, Dubois County, Ind., April 2, 1896. The
mounted specimen showed the following measurements: Length, 21 in.; bill, 5

in.; wing, 10 in.; tail, 4 in.; tarsus, 2# in.

Ardea cerulea (Linn.). Little Blue Heron.

Reported by Mr. E J. Chansler from Bicknell, Knox County, April 18, 1896.
He says they are not uncommon in that vicinity in summer, though he does not
think they are now so numerous as they were before they began to drain the

ponds and swamps.

Faico peregrinus anatum (Bonap.) Duck Hawk.
In the State Museum in the State House at Indianapolis is a Duck Hawk
taken in Boone County, Ind., May 14, 1896. (Beasley).

Anas penelope Linn. Widgeon.

Mr. Ruthven Deane wrote me of the capture of the fourth specimen of the
European Widgeon in this State at English Lake in the spring of 1896. This is
the eighth record of this species from the interior of the United States. It was
killed on the marshes of the English Lake Shooting and Fishing Club by Mr.
John E. Earle, of Hinsdale, Ill., March 23d last, and is now in Mr. Earle’s pos-
session. (The Auk, Vol. XIII, July, 1896, p. 255).

Ammodramus sandwichensis savanna (Wils.). Savanna Sparrow.
Mr. J. E. Beasley mounted a specimen of this sparrow, a female, which was
killed at English Lake, Ind., June 14, 1896. The specimen is now in the collec-

tion of the State Museum.

Peucea estivalis bachmanii (Aud.) Bachman’s Sparrow.

September 22, 1896, I found a specimen of this species three miles north of
Brookville. It was seen along a rail fence, and tried a part of the time to keep
hidden behind a rail. It was very tame and unsuspicious. Often would squat
upon the bare ground or in the short grass and remain there motionless for some
time. I was within an arm’s length of it quite frequently, and saw it very dis-
tinctly a number of times, as I followed it along the fence. This-is its first record

for the White Water/Valley, and, indeed, for southeastern Indiana.

BROOKVILLE, [Np., Dec. 29, 1896.

247

Some InTeREsTING Bones. By M. B. Tuomas.
| ABSTRACT.]

In October, 1896, there came to Crawfordsville a man by the name of Henry
Patterson with a large wagon load of bones. These were extravagently described
in handbills and attracted many visitors.

They were studied by the author and Prof. D. Bodine. Afterwards by Dr.
E. E. Cope, with the aid of photographs. The bones were from some recent fin-

back whale, but they made a profitable exhibition for their owner.

Tur HyprocrapHic Basins oF INDIANA AND THEIR MoLnuuscAN FAUNA.
By R. ExtswortH CALt. 4

For the purposes of this paper the State of Indiana is regarded as being di-
vided into ten major hyrographic basins, as shown in the accompanying map.
Of these the largest is the basin of the Wabash; the smallest the basin of the Pa-
toka. Some of the waters of the State debouche into the Atlantic through the
great lakes; others find their way to the gulf by way of the Illinois and Missis-
sippi, still others reaching the same destination by way of the Ohio and
Mississippi. Of these two major systems of drainage the latter is by far the most
important.

Waters of the Atlantic Drainage.—In the northeastern part of the State is a
considerable area of country, drained by the Maumee, itself a stream formed by
the St. Mary’s and St. Joseph rivers, and emptying into Lake Erie. Of the sur-
face features of this small basin more will be said in the section devoted to the

physiographic features of the various regions.

The second and third sub-drainage areas of northern Indiana contribute their
waters to Lake Michigan; one, the largest, through the St. Joseph’s River, the
second of that name within the State; the other, the smaller, has no large streams
and is directly drained into Lake Michigan. Between the two last named lies
the upper portion of the Kankakee River, a considerable stream, which flows into
the [llinois.

Waters of the Gulf Drainage.—More than nine-tenths of the State’s area is
directly contributary to the Ohio through the remaining six basins which we have
found it convenient to establish. Nearly all of this vast territory is drained by
the Wabash and its two principal tributaries, the east and west forks of the
White River. Next in order of size come the Ohio, the Whitewater and the Pa-
toka, the latter, however, tributary to the Wabash directly.

248

Surfuce features.—The northern region of Indiana is entirely within the region
of ancient glaciation; its surface is characteristic of the drift areas. It is char-
acterized by streams which are almost entirely in glacial debris, sand, gravel,
boulders and clay variously contributing to the bottom features of the several
streams; in the low-lying and imperfectly drained prairie regions are many lakes
of varying areas, as the seasons are wet or dry, and of very great differences in
their comparative sizes. These lakes are, for the most part, shallow, with more
or less sandy, or gravelly, or bouldery, bottoms and shores. An abundant marshy
vegetation surrounds them, and sluggishly flowing streams serve to drain most of
them. The whole region being so heavily covered with glacial deposits there are
few elevations and they are mostly portions of the several terminal moraines;
the country rock rarely, if ever, appears in either natural or artificial sections.
The beds of all the streams are full of glacial boulders and sands or gravels.

The Kankakee basin differs in no essential respects from those just described.
It is worthy of note, however, that the course of this river, as indeed that of all
within the drift area, has been largely determined by the moraines which cross
the State in a series of irregular lines, most of which are north of the Wabash.
The same general truth is apparent of the Maumee River, the course of which
has certainly been determined by the glacial detritus over which it flows. But
the general drainage level is so slight that there are sections, as those between
Huntington and Fort Wayne, where, at seasons of the vear when the streams are
all at full flood, the waters indifferently flow to either the Atlantic or the Ohio
drainage. This important fact will be again noted in the matter of distribution
of the mollusks of the two regions.

The region drained by the Wabash and the White rivers is, in many respects,
widely different from the region previously described. For many miles of its
course the upper Wabash flows through canons cut into the country rock within
its own life history ; at Wabash and Peru the real nature of this corrasiye work is
well exhibited. But higher up the canon is deeper and the stream less wide;
suddenly it rises high on the surface and flows along over glacial detritus, like the
rivers farther to the north. That it flows, for some part of its course, in pregla-
cial channels is true, but it is also true that it has abandoned those channels in
other portions of its course. It results from this that its character changes at va-
rious points along its course; a fact of importance that should be borne in mind
in discussing the distribution of the fresh-water mollusks found in its waters.

Both the basins of the White rivers present two features in common; they
flow, at their beginning, over a surface covered with glacial matter and then sud-

denly pass beyond its limit of distribution and flow in channels through regions

249

the physiographic features of which were determined in preglacial times. In the
upper portion of their courses, therefore, they present similar features to those of
the upper Wabash, but in their lower valleys they are quite different though alike
in most respects when compared with each other. The highest and roughest re-
gion of the State is drained by the White River and the small Wabash contribu- _
tary basin, the Patoka. This region is the least well known conchologically.

The Whitewater basin is very like the upper Wabash and for the most part is
entirely within the limit of glaciation, which reaches the Ohio in the vicinity of
Lawrenceburg, in Dearborn County. The lower portion of the Whitewater is pe-
culiarly sandy and does not seem to be suited to very great development of mol-
luscan life.

The long and narrow basin of the Ohio is very rough and the country rock,
chiefly limestone, everywhere appears in the bluffs and along the small tributary
streams. In certain of the smaller streams of this basin Strepomatid shell life
appears in great abundance, but the Unionid fauna is mainly confined to the Ohio
itself and no species appear which are not to be found in that stream.

From these facts it is evident that a wide diversity of environmental condi-
tions is exhibited in the several basins as herein outlined. These differences find
corresponding variables in the waters of the streams; in some they are quite soft,
while in others the waters are very hard. Most of the small lakes in the northern
portion of the State present waters that are very hard; in them the waters are
often so highly charged with calcium carbonate that it is deposited thickly on the
portions of the shells that project above the bottoms in which they are partly
buried. In many of the streams the same facts are to be observed; this is especi-
ally noticeable in the upper Wabash, the shells from which are all more or less
heavily coated with this substance. Collections from lower down, notably from
Terre Haute to the mouth, are almost entirely devoid of this accretion.

It is important to note the molluscan facies of the various drainage areas and
by a.comparison of their faunas seek to correlate, if possible, the facts of distri-
bution with the physiographic and geologic features. The physiographic features
have already been noted; to facilitate comparisons of this nature lists of the
mollusks have been collated, in every case based upon specimens actually col-
lected at one or more localities in the several basins. While these lists are incom-
plete in that they do not represent the full richness of the several faunas they
have proven instructive and may be useful in the general biologic study now un-

dertaken by the Academy. These lists now follow.

250

SUMMARY OF GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.

SPECIES.

Ohio Basin.

Whitewater Ba-

sin.

Patoka Basin.

sin.

East White Ba-

sin.

West White Ba-

Wabash Basin.

Maumee Basin.

St. Joseph Ba-
sin.

Kankakee Ba-
sin.

UNIVALVES.

Amnicola cincinnatiensis Anth.

Amnicola limosa Say.........--
Amnicola porata Say...........
Ancylus tardus Say.............
Bulinus hupnorum Linneus. ..
Helisoma bicarinata Say.......
Helisoma campanulata Say....
Helisoma trivolvis Say..........
Limnophysa caperata Mull.....
Limnophysa desidiosa Say.....
Limnophysa humilis Say......
Limnophysa palustris Mull ....
Limnophysa reflera Say........
Menetus exracutus Say........-..
Physa ancillaria ....... 22. .+5-
Physa gyrina Say...........-.-
Physa heterostropha Say .......
Valvata tricarinata Say........
Nomatogurus subglobosus Say...
Pomatiopsis lapidaria Say.....
Campeloma decisum Say.....-..
Campeloma integrum DeKay.
Campeloma ponderosum Say...
Campeloma rufum Hald........
Campeloma subsolidum Anth ..
Lioplax subcarinata Say ......
Vivipara contectoides Binney..
Vivipara intertexta Say........
Vivipara subpurpurea Say. oe:
Anculosa prerosa Say..........
Anculosa trilineata Say ........
Anculosa carinata Brug .......
Angitrema armigeraSay.......
Angitrema verrucosa Say ......
Goniobasis bicolorata Anth .
Goniobasis cubicoides Anth ....
Goniobasis depygis Say ........
Goniobasis infantula Lea ......
Goniobasis informis Lea........
Goniobasis interlineata Anth ..
Goniobasis intersita Hald ......
Goniobasis livescens Menke....

oniobasis louisvillensis Lea . . . |

Goniobasix semicarinata Say ...
Goniobasis spartenburgensis Lea

oniobasis pulchella Anth.....
Lithaia obovata Say ...........
Meseschiza grovesnorii Lea.....
Pleurocera canaliculatum Say. .
Pleurocera elevatum Say.......
Pleurocera moniliferum Lea ...
Pleurocera simplex Lea ........
Pleurocera subulare Lea .......
Pleurocera troostii Lea... ..
Pleurocera undulatum Say

Lake Michigan
Basin.

251

SUMMARY OF GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION—Continued.

asin.

Whitewater Ba-

SPECIES.

Lake Michigan

sin.
sin.
sin.
sin.
Basin.

sin.
Maumee Basin.

Ohio Basin.
Rast White Ba-
West White Ba-
Wabash Basin.
Kankakee Ba-

Patoka B

St. Joseph Ba-

BIVALVES.

Pisidium abditum Hald........ eel ie I ee x x Xs) xy a eee
Pisidium rotundatum Prime ...|......|......]..2...|----2.|.20.5- Is Seco eee [x
Pisidium virginicum Bourg....| Xj ...--.).-p.-|eeeeee [eee {3 te an Saar iy Se | Sey ee
SHlervinnfababe ETIMOG oe ole Beate so) cee sOl wee Sadie eee» 2 Wide eS et Sap Beene Beene ae aa
Spherium rhomboideum Prime.|......|......|......|.+-e002 | sees pa Sat le ete Ry eae Sa
Sphzerium solidulum Prime .... xe |
Spherium sphericum Anth ....)......) 0.2.0.) .-00-- (Seen (ees ees 5 aa NS Rn 2 bee eae Hoe tere ete
Sphzrium stamineum Conrad... x
Sphxrium striatinum Lam ..... x
Nphxrium sulcatum Lam....... x
Sphexrium transversum Say..... <
x
x

7]
nw
tl
:
ial

Anodonta decora Lea ..........
Anodonta edentula Say.........
Anodonta ferruginea Lea.......|..----|..----|------ hatetone ie od (secrets Sener
Anodonta ferussaciana Lea..... xX x x | ex

Anodonta pavonia Led... 22.2.0) i cc .celwackoe lon cace
Anodonta plana Lea...........| X > dee Pes. <
Anodonta salmonia Lea........ i teat |e Sa Parts oboe es.
Anodonta shefferiana Lea......)......).----. eee? | eae Sow
Anodonta subcylindracea Lea..|......|.....- [ee a | esate 2 ae SSRI eee x x
Anodonta wardiana Lea .......| X |......)....s. See IN xa cee Bees eet [a s5e lee oee
Anodonta suborbiculata Say....|)......)....-- Set mee eae esee 5 ad (ee eee oieid ceca eve
PAmoulontite wndulata: SLY se oes ee) =e sae lane cee conte | car cc ee eo eee a ee x7 ‘nl eis-es eames
Margaritana caleceola Lea...... | x x
Margaritana complanata Bar... x > ape | Peeks fe Se
Margaritana confragosa Say...|......|......]...0.-|eeeeee [ee eee
Margaritana dehiscens Say ....| xX
Margaritana hildrethiana Lea. x
Margaritana marginata Say...) x
Margaritana monodonta Say...| x
Margar:tana rugosa Barnes .. | xX
Unio abruptus Say ............. x
Unio xsopus Green ............ x
Unio alatus Say ..............-+ ees
Unio anodontoides Lea.........| X
Unio arctior Lea............... x
Unio asperrimus Lea .......... x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
3
x
0
x

Unio camptodon Say ........--- |
Unio capa Green .............
Unio cicatricosus Say...........
Unio ecincinnatiensis Lea .......
Unio eurculus Lea..............
Unio clacus Lam...............
Unio coccineus Lea.............
Unio cooperianus Lea ..........
Unio cornutus Barnes ..........
Unio crassidens Lam..........-
Unio cylindricus Say ........... /
Unio distans Amin ae. 2012 cor eas leken = gees 4s obs | ete eee ares ahd Oe ae 2 eh eee Ree
Unio donaciformis Lea.........

Unio dorfeutllianus Lea........
Unio ebenus Lea.............-.- |
Unio elegans Lea...............
Unio ellapsis Lea............... |
Unio fabalis Lea. ..............
Unio foliatus Hild .............|

HAK Kea
nw
wn
anal

252

SUMMARY OF GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION—Continued.

asin.

SPECIRS.

sin.
sin.
sin.
sin.
sin.
Basin.

Whitewater Ba-
Patoka Basin.
East White Ba-
West White Ba-
Wabash Basin.
Maumee Basin.
St Joseph Ba-
Kankakee Ba-
Lake Michigan

Ohio B

Unio fragosus Conrad..........
Unio gibbosus Barnes ..........
Unio glans Lea ................
Unio gracilis Barnes.........--
Unio graniferus Lea ........-..
[Via Gp UEW c5.jooe gaan codes
mio trroratus Lea...........--
Unio lachrymosus Lea.........-
Unio levissimus Lea.......----|
Unwoileng lied teen kites eee:
Unio ligamentinus Lea .........
Unio luteotus Lam ..........-.-
Unio metanevrus Raf..........-
Unio multiradiatus Lea........
Unio multiplicatus Lea.........
mio mytiloides Raf............
(OCB OG BOLL ASE ee pote beet cease Boonnolle cs an! lossen BSR 3 ee lta aos tert [eta baad yo) Laiaecie
mio obliquus Lam............. xe
Unio occidens Lea...........-.. X
Unio orbiculatus Hild.......... on bl eee Ae | ae eee oe teal crams
x
x
x

KK KK KR KK RK KK KM
RAK KKH KK KK KKK KKK
nw

x

x

x

Unio ovatus Say..............-+- x

Unio parvus | arnes ........-.. x

Unio perplewus Lea............ 2 x

OTOL E NSH Wh Bent Scene lseonad lsseieal ieeaen|aemoee |tetnsee x

Unio phaseolus Barnes ........ x x.

Unio plenus Lea ...........%..- x x

Inio plicatus LeSueuer .......| xX xe x:

MLO Pr eEssUs Le Bs tpi naale fol x exe ie
nio pustulatus Lea............ Mi Rees Ae te Lee ete S| ey ee x XK. slik 6.2855 See eee

RE x x

x x

x x

x x

x x

x

x

x

x

x

xe

x

mio pustulosus Lea.........---

nio pyramidatns Lea .........
Unio rangianus Lea ..........-
Unio rectus Lam.........-...--
Unio retusus Lam.............-
Unio rubiginosus Lea .......... x x x
(Ohikeciarieseuiis Wie sb s<Seeeeel loc apac||s5 a360]\Soo629||eacema|loee. se
Unio securis Lea...............

x
Unio solidus Lea..............- x
Unio spatulatus Lea ........... x
Unio subovatus Lea............ x
Unio subrostratus Say.......... x
Unio sulcatus Lea.............. x
Unio tenwissimus Lea .......-.. 58 | es Peeeny leet NS Seren Pra SSE
x
x:
x
oe
x

Unio trian ularis Barnes ......
Unio trigonus Lia.............-
Unio tuberculatus Barnes ......
Unio undulatus Barnes ........
Unio varicosus Lea ..........-.
Unio ventricosus Barnes........|......|.----- apace We crete a ama, | hes x x x x
Unio verrucosus Barnes......-.. LN aeasa lle aniecs eeeeAiae > a > Ga (ESA) (Seal loelec55!| oacc<10
Unio zigzag Lea................ x xe

From this table it will be observed that the species of the following list are
quite generally distributed throughout the State, representatives having been seen

from nearly every basin. It will be noted at once that most of these forms are of

253

wide geographic distribution over the northern United States, a fact which goes a
long way, first, in establishing their high antiquity as species, and second, the
fact that they have successfully adapted themselves to conditions which are widely
variant. Many of them occur far to the southward, beyond the limits of glacia-
tion, extending even to the middle portions of Alabama, some of them under
other names than those which we are accustomed to apply to them here. Dif-
ferences of a trivial character, the result of environment, appear to have been
seized upon by the species makers and the older naturalists whose ambitions alike

seemed to have been to write ‘‘ nobis” after a specific name.

REGISTER OF GENERALLY DISTRIBUTED SPECIES.

Unio clavus. Unio ellipsis.

* Unio iris. Unia pres-us.

Unio luteolus.
Unio ligamentinus.
Unio multiradiatus.

Unio rubiginosus.

* Margaritana marginata.

Anodonta ferussaciana.
* Anodonta grandis.
Sphaerium striatinum.
Amanicola porata.
Limnophysa palustris.
Limnophysa desidiosa.

Physa heterostropha.

Unio gibbosus.

Unio rectus.

"Unio oceidens.
Margaritana calceola.
Margaritana rugosa.
Anodonta edentula.

Sphaerium solidulum.

*Sphaerium transversum.

Amnicola limosa.
Limnophysa reflexa.
Helisoma trivolvis.

Physa gyrina.

Goniobasis pulchella.

Summarizing this group of names, there are nine genera and twenty-nine spe-
cies; of these four genera and twenty species are bivalves; the rest are univalves.
There have been found up to this time, and thus certainly known to belong to
the Indiana fauna, a total of one hundred and sixty-five species of fresh water
shells. Nearly one-sixth, therefore, of our species are to be found all over the
State; this proportion will certainly be increased on thorough exploration. Geo-
graphic series, which have been studied, of these widely distributed forms show
some interesting facts in the line of variation, facts which are, most certainly, to
be correlated with peculiarities of environment. This is especially true of those

forms which are indifferently found in lakes, ponds or flowing streams, such as

*These forms have been found in all but one basin in Indiana, with every probability
that each occurs therein and will be found on full exploration.

254

Margaritana rugosa and Unio luteolus. No two series, from the different areas,
present exactly the same facies. So marked is this, in some cases, that the lake
forms can always be separated from those which were obtained in streams. This
general study is reserved for more abundant data and final discussion on another
occasion.

A further study of the geographic tables will demonstrate that the richest
shell faunas occur in the Wabash and the Ohio drainages, these two areas furnish-
ing nearly the same species in common, though many of each are not generally
distributed over the State. Of the shells which are both common and yet limited
in distribution Unio ebenus, Unio irroratus and Unio wsopus among the bivalves,
and Campeloma ponderosum and Pleurocera canaliculatum among the univalves will
serve as types. The differences between the two basins may be noted from the fol-

lowing lists:

OHIO BASIN. WABASH BASIN.
Unio camelus. Unio personatus.
Unio varicosus. UNIO SAMPSONII.
UNIO CINCINNATIENSIS. Anodonta suborbiculata.
Unio foliatus. Margaritana confragosa.
Unio dorfeuiilianus. Sphaericum sphaericum.
Sphaerium stamineum. *Spherium fabale.
Anculosa prerrosa. Goniobusis spartenburghensis.
Anculosa trilineata. Goniobasis livescens.
Anculosa carinata. Goniobasis cubicoides.
Goniobasis bicolorata. Angitrema armigera.
Goniobasis depygis. MESESCHIZA GROVESNORII.
GONIOBASIS INFANTULA. Pleurocera troostit.
Gontobasis informis. Viwwipara subpurpurea.
Goniobasis intersita. Vivipara contectoides.
GONIOBASIS LOUISVILLENSIS. Vivipara intertexta.
Pleurocera simple.. Menetus exacutus.
Amnicola cincinnatiensis. Campeloma decisum.

Campeloma rufum.
Campeloma subsolidum.
Limnophysa eaperata.

Planorbella campanulata.

.

“Not seen; admitted to the list on the authority of Temple Prime, vide “ Catalogue of
the Species of Corbiculadx,’’ p. 10, 1863.

255

Here are totals of eleven species found in the Ohio basin against fifteen
which are found in the Wabash basin. The proportion would be substantially
the same if the synonymous forms included, printed in small capitals, were ex-
cluded from the list. None of the members of the genus Vivipara appear in the
Ohio basin, while but two Uniones are found in the Wabash basin that are not
found in that of the Ohio. No limneids appear to be characteristic of the Ohio
basin, while three such are found in the Wabash. Yet it is to be constantly
borne in mind that further collections may invalidate this comparison by the
discovery of other common forms, or that some of these forms may yet be ascer-
tained to be common to the two faunas.

Turning again to the northern portion of the State, the most interesting fact
presented is the existence of a number of Ohio drainage forms in the Maumee
River, a stream of the Atlantic drainage. Opportunity was afforded the past
spring to make a small collection in the Maumee and the St. Mary’s Rivers at
Fort Wayne, well within the Maumee Basin. While the collection was by no
means exhaustive, it developed some very interesting facts which possess more
than a passing significance.

Among the Ohio River forms found were the following:

* Unio rubiginosus, Unio clavus,
Unio glans, Unio gibbosus,
Unio luteolus, Unio parvus,
Unio retusus, Margaritana calceola,
Margaritana complanata, Goniobasis pulchella,
Anodonta edentula, Unio pressus.

These species are accredited to the Western fauna, and most of them are not
hitherto recorded as belonging to the Atlantic fauna. Two of these were so re-—
corded by the writer as long ago as 1877, in the Erie Canal, in the Mohawk drain-
age, at Mohawk, N. Y., and record made of the fact in the ‘‘American Natural-
ist,” Vol. XII, pp. 472, 473. Other records have since appeared. Unio luteolus
is often quoted in faunal lists used for exchange purposes by Eastern collectors,
but in every case where specimens have been secured, thus far, they have proven
to be the male forms of the totally distinct Unio cariosus, a form not yet found in
Western waters. Anodonta edentula may be, and probably is, a geographic variety
of the Eastern Anodonta undulata, but the Maumee forms are Western in facies.
It is therefore proper to regard it here as a Western shell in the drainage of an
Atlantic stream. So far as the specimens go which are in my possession, they do
not present very marked differences from the same shells found a few miles to the

west in waters tributary to the Wabash. The environmental factors are precisely

256

the same in both areas, and there should be no marked differences. There are
none. But mingling with the Western fauna of the Upper Wabash were found
large numbers of the Eastern strepomatid shell, Goniobasis livescens, a form which
is abundant from New York throughout Northern Ohio and along the Great
Lakes. Near Huntington, on the Wabash, this shell was the most abundant
strepomatid found. The same facts were true of the St. Mary’s and the Maumee,
though the greatest numbers were found in the former stream, clinging to the
rocks along the banks, in the heart of the city of Fort Wayne. Associated with
them were large numbers of Pleurocera subulare, a form abundant in the East, but
also of wide Western distribution, and an undetermined pleuroceroid mollusk of
Western affinities. It closely resembles Plewrocera lewisii, but of this determina-
tion I am yet uncertain.

It is important to note, in this connection, that the headwaters of the Aboite
River, or its east fork, approach to within three miles of the St. Mary’s at Fort
Wayne, and that the divide at that locality is hardly perceptible. Moreover, the
Wabash & Erie Canal has long established water communication between the two
basins—probably long enough to establish interchange of faunas, especially in the
case of the univalves, which are far more migratory in their habits than the
Unionide. This is the case in the Erie Canal in New York, by means of which
the advent of the Western fauna into Eastern waters may be almost chronolog-
ically traced. To offset this possible explanation is the fact that the species seem
to be well established, and occur, many of them, in great numbers in the Maumee
Basin. But, whatever the explanation, the species appear in the two basins, and
in them both there is a commingling of the two faunas, with but few Western rep-
resentatives of the Eastern fauna. The Eastern representatives in the Western
fauna greatly outnumber, both in species and individuals, the Eastern fauna in
the Western Basin.

The suggestion of the relation of this distribution to glaciation and its physi-
ographic results has before occurred to the writer, though in another connection.
As long ago as 1886, in discussing certain anomalies in the distribution of Ohio
River forms of Unionide in the State of Kansas, attention was directed to this
problem in the following language: ‘‘Considerable data have accumulated in the
hands of the writer which seem to imply the necessity of correlating this peculiar
distribution with certain facts in glacial geology, but those data will not warrant
the statement that such correlation exists. Attention is directed to this problem

in the hope that other observers may use their opportunities and supply all the in-

257

formation possible.”* A recent writer proposes** the same explanation for the
distribution of the two faunas in this region and, from the facts we have herein
adduced, the locality offers most excellent opportunities for a careful study of the
problem. Yet, the fact of the artificial’connection of these two areas must con-
stantly be borne in mind. A second region where the heads of the drainage areas
are practically coincident occurs in Kosciusko County, where the several small
lakes and general low-lying region are all drained by streams which flow either
into the Tippecanoe or the Turkey rivers, the first of which is tributary to the
Wabash, the second to the St. Joseph’s, of Michigan. A low moraine separates
the two basins. This is the loeation of the Biological Station of the State Uni-
versity which will, presumably, interest itself in this question.

An investigation of the fauna of the Upper Wabash that would be complete
might disclose others of the eastern species in its waters. Strong corroborative
evidence might be secured through the ichthyic fauna of the two rivers, the Wa-
bash and the Maumee, for, if the suggestions of this paper are tenable, some de-
gree of correspondence should be disclosed by a study of the fishes. This corre-
spondence, if it exists, will aid in understanding the method of distribution of the

Unionide which is so largely effected through the medium of fishes.

* Vide, Call, *‘ Fifth Contribution to a Knowledge of the Fresh-Water Mollusca of Kan-
sas,’ Bull. Washburn College Laboratory of Nutural History, vol. i. No. 6, pp. 178, 179, 1886.

*=Simpson, “On the Mississippi Valley Unionidew Found in the St. Lawrence and At-
lantic Drainage Areas,’’ American Naturalist, vol xxx, pp. 379-284, 1896.

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259

Tae AMERICAN [NpDIAN, His Renicion. By GrorGE L. Curtis.

NoTES ON THE ORIGIN OF THE EPIPHYSIS CEREBRI IN Amira. By B. M. Davis.
[ABSTRACT.]

The presence of the epiphysis in all the vertebrates from the Cyclostomes up
has made it an object of study among comparative anatomists for a long time.
Its structure and development has been described for all the groups except the
Ganoids.

I have had occasion lately (together with Dr. Eyclescheimer of Chicago Uni-
versity) to examine the early development of this structure in Amia calva, and
this is merely a preliminary note to a more detailed and complete account, which
will be published later.

It has been described (e. g., Hertwig’s Embryology) as always arising in
exactly the same way, i. e., as a forward evagination of the roof of the thalamen-
cephalon. As a matter of fact, however, the opposite is true in several forms.
(Petromyzon, Acipenser, Amia, Chick.)

Its first appearance in Amia is in a larva still uncoiled from the yolk. It is
noteworthy that it does not appear this early in all individuals. In some cases it
does not develop until the larva has uncoiled from the yolk and has attained a
length of four or five millimetres.

It is at first a simple fold in the brain-roof directed backward. There are no
histological features which would distinguish it from the adjacent parts of the
brain.

The stages immediately succeeding this show a gradual change in structure.
The upper part of the fold is differentiated into the epiphysis. It is a glove-finger-
like structure, with its cavity bounded above by two rows of cells and below by
several. ‘

The distal end for some time remains much the same in structure, but the
dorsal wall of the proximal end becomes thickened. This thickened portion
extends iorward and becomes the so-called ‘‘ anterior vesicle.”” From the time of
origin it would seem that ‘‘secondary vesicle” would be a better designation.

The two vesicles are attached to the brain-roof by a stalk and have a common
opening into the thalamencoele.

Later the anterior or secondary vesicle shifts to the left, and from the ten-

millimetre stage on is found to the left of the primary vesicle.

260

A SUMMARY OF THE LITERATURE ON THE EpipHysis CEREBRI. By B. M. Davis.

1883. Ahlborn, F. Untersuchungen tiber das Gehirn der Petromyzonten. |
Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zod]. Bd. XXXIX.

Hs sor: Ge mete oie arc Ueber ‘lie Bedeutung der Zirbeldriise.
Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. Bd. XL.

1828. Baer, F. M. Ueber Entwicklungsgeschichte der Thiere. Beobachtung

und Reflexion.

Kénigsberg, I. Theil, 1828.

USSia” see ese ‘TI. Theil” of the same.

1874. Balfour, F. M. Selachians.

Quart. Journ. Micro. Sci. Oct., 1874.
ASTSS Wena as cles ee A Monograph on the Development of Elasmobranch Fishes.

USSU eee teens ots A Treatise on Comparative Embryology. 2d ed., 1885.
1882. Balfour and Parker (W. N.) On Structure and Development of Lepidos-
teus osseus.
Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. Vol. 78, Part IT.
1887. Bandoin. La glande pinéale et le 3me oeil vertébrés.
Progrés Médical, 1887, N. 50-51.
1887. Beard, J. The Parietal Eye in Fishes.
Nature, Vol. XXXVI.
LESSOR BEL Weer he Morphological Studies. I. Parietal Eye of the Cyclo-
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Quart. Journ. of Micro. Sci., Vol. XXIX.
1881. Beauregard. Encéphale et nerfs craniens du Ceratodus Forsteri.
Journ. de l’Anat. et de la Phys., 1881.
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Jenaische Zeitschr. f. Nat., Bd. XXI.
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Anat. Anz., Jahrg. VII.
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Anat. Anz., Jahrg. VIII.
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Revue Suisse de Zodl., 1893.
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Wanderversammlung der schlesischen Gesellschaft fiir vaterlindische Cultur
zu Kattowitz, Jun. 29-30, 1889.

261

1829. Brandt, Fr. Medicinische Zoologie.
1891. Burckhardt, R. Untersuchen am Hirn und Geruchsorgan von Triton und
Ichthyopsis.
Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zodl., Bd. LIL. |
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annectens.
Anat. Anz., Bd. VI.
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Anat. Anz., Bd. IX, N. 10.
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Revue Scientif.

18

262

1875. Dohrn, A. Der Urspruug der Wirbelthiere und das Princip des Functions-
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Anat. Anz. III. Jahrg. (1888.)

263

1888. Francotte. Kecherches sur le développement de l’epiphyse.
Arch. de Biol. t. VIII.

BOA eet anes 3 ee Sur Voeil pariétal, V’epiphyse, la paraphyse et les plexus
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Bul. de l’Académie Royale de Belgique. 3me série. t. XXVII.
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Mémoires couronnés et Mémoires des Savants étrangers. t. LV.
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Proceed, Amer. Micros. Soc. XVII.
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Zool. Anz. Bd. IX.
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Leyden. 1886.
1887. Grauel. La glande pinéale, etc.
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Archiv. f. Anat. und Phys. 1872.

264

1888. Hanitch, Rich. Pineal Eye of young and adult Anguis fragilis.
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Archiv. f. Anat. u. Phys. Anat. Abth., 92.
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SB OS ers cats. sys votes Weitere Untersuchungen zur Entwicklung der Reptilien,
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Bronn’s Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reiches. Bd. VI.
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Zoél. Jahrb. Bd. LV.
1894. Humphrey. On the Brain of the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina).
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1876. Huxley, T. H. On Ceratodus Forsteri.
Proceed. Zoél. Soc. of London.

1886. Julin, Ch. De la signification morphologique de l’épiphyse des ver-
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Bull. Scientifique du Nord de la France et de la Belgique. 2e. Série, 10e
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1886. Kleinenberg. Die Entstehyng des Annelids aus der Larve yon Lopo-
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Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zod]. Bd. XLIV.

265

,

1893. Klinckowstrém. Le premier developpement de l’oeil pinéale, l’epiphyse et
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Anat. Anz. Jahrg. VIII.

MBO Ser ee staat Senciore Die Zirbel und das Foramen parietale bei Callichthys.
Anat. Anz. Jahrg. VIII.
Bee sicc ts Ae Rte 2 Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Parietalauges.

Zoél. Jahrb, Bd. VIL.

1876. Kd6lliker, A. von. Entwicklung des Menschen und der héheren Thiere.
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MSS (ory teeters xe s/e Ueber Zirbel oder Scheitelauge.
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1861. Kollman, Jul. Die Entwicklung der Adergeflechte, ein Beitrag zur Ent-

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1884. Kraushaar. Entw. der Hypophysis und Epiphysis bei Nagethieren.
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1886. Korschelt. Ueber die Entdeckung eines dritten Auges bei Wirbelthieren.
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1887. Kupffer, C. Ueber die Zirbeldriise des Gehirns als Rudiment eines un-
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EUR he aas pirasroc ae Studien zur vergleichenden Entw. des Kopfes der Krani-

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BOA tere Wales cer oe Studien zur vergleichenden Entw. des Kopfes der Krani-
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1873. Langerhans, P. Untersuchungen tiber Petromyzon Planeri.
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1868, Leydig, Fr. Ueber Organe eines sechsten Sinnes.
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Zo6l. Anz. 1887.

LBSOReekcre recites Das Parietalorgan der Reptilien und Amphibien kein Sin-
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Abh. der Senckenb. Gesell. in Frankfurt. Bd. XIX.
1871. Lieberkuehn, N. Ueber die Zirbeldriise.
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1895. Contribution to the Structure and Development of the Vertebrate Head.
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1874. Mayer, J. F. Ueber den Bau des Gehirns der Fische.
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1861. Marshall. On the Brain of a Young Chimpanzee.
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1882. Mayser, P. Vergleichend-anatomische Studien tiber das Gehirn der
Knochenfische, mit besonderer Bemerksichtigung der Cyprinoiden.
Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. Bd. XXXVI.
1891. McIntosh and Prince. Development and Life Histories of the Teleostean
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Trans. R. Soc. Edinburgh. Vol. XXXV.
1889. McKay, W. J. The Development and Structure of the Pineal Eye in
Hinulia and Grammatophera.
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 2d Ser. Vol. III, pt. 2.
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1870. Miclucho, Maclay. Beitrage zur vergleichenden Neurologie der Wirbel-
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1874. Mihalkovics, Victor von. Entwicklung der Zirbeldriise.
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1892. Minot, Chas. S. Human Embryology.

267

1889. Moller, J. Einiges iiber die Zirbeldriise des Chimpanse.
Mitth. aus d. anat. Institut in Vesalianum.
1838. Miller, J. Vergleichende Neurologie der Myxinoiden.
Verhandl. d. Akad. d. Wiss., Berlin.
1871. Miiller, W. Ueber Entwicklung und Bau der Hypophysis und des Pro-
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Jenaische Zeitschr. Bd. VI.
1891, Nicolas, M. Sur le 3me oeil des vertébrés.
1887. Osborn. A Pineal Eye in Mesozoic Mammals.
A Pineal Eye in Tritylodon.
No Pineal Eye in Tritylodon.
Science, Vol. IX.
TBSR UG See 2). S65 A Contribution to the Internal Structure of the Amphibian

Journ. of Morph., Vol. II.
1887. Ostroumoff, A. von. On the Question Concerning the Third Eye of Ver-
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Beilage zu den Protocollen der Naturforsch. an der Kaiserl. Universitit zu
Kasan. (Russian.)
1839. Owen. Description of the Lepidosiren annectens.
Trans. Linn. Soc., London.
1888. Owsjannikow, P. H. Ueber das dritte Auge bei Petromyzon fluviatilis,
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Mem. de l’acad. imper. de St. Petersbourg. 7e Serie Tom. XXXVI. N. 9.
Review of this art. in Zodl. Jahresb., 1888.
EN She Nesta ea schon Sur Voeil pariétal de Petromyzon. (Russian.)
Traveaux de la Société des Nat. deSt. Petersbourg. Sec. Zodl. Tom. XV., p. 1.
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Revue des Sc. naturelles de la soc. des nat. de St. Petersbourg. Année II. N. 2.
1892. Parker, Jeffery. Observations on the Anatomy and Development of
Apteryx. f
Phil. Trans. of the R. 8S. of London, Vol. CLXXXII.
1887. Peytoureau, S. A. Le glande pinéale et la 3me oeil des vertébrés.
Thése, Paris.
1891. Polejaef, N. Ueber das Scheitelauge der Wirbelthiere in seinem Verhalt-
niss zu den Seitenaugen.
Revue Scientifique de la Soc. des Nat. de St. Petersbourg, N. 5.

268

1893. Prenant, A. Sur l’oei] pariétal accessoire.
Anat. Anz., Bd. IX.
OO Bers. 2 ere decevers Les yeux pariétaux accessoires d’ Anguis fragilis.
Bibliograph. Anat., N. 6.
1896. L’Appareil pinéal de Sincus officinalis et Agama bibroni.
Bull. de la Soc. des Sci. de Nancy, 1896.
1896. Eléments d’embryologie, Region pinéal et paraphyse.
1890. Purvis, On the Pineal Eye of Lamna corumbica.
Proc. of the Roy. Phys. Soc. 1890-91.
1882. Rabl-Riickard, Zur Deutung und Entwicklung des Gehirns der Knoch-
enfische.
Archiv. f. Anat. u. Phys. Jahrg., 1882.
TICKS hay OS rea Ane ai cro Das Grosshirn der Knochenfische und seine Abhangsgebilde.
Archiy. f. Anat. u. Phys. Jahrg, 1883.
1886. Zur Denutung der Zirbeldriise.
Zo6]. Anzeiger, Bd. IX.
1861. Rathke, H., Entwicklungsgeschichte der Wirbelthiere. Leipsig.
1859-1861. Reichert, K. B., Der Bau des Menschlichen Gehirns, II Abth.
1851. Reissner, De auris internae formatione, Dorpat, 1851.
1850-1855. Remak, R., Untersuchungen iiber die Entwicklung der Wirbelthiere.
1893. Retzius, G., Das Gehirn und Das Auge von Myxine.
Biol. Untersuch, N. F., Bd. V.
1891. Rex, Beitrige zur Morphologie der Hirnnerven der Elasmobranchier.
Morph. Jahr, 1891.
1891. Ritter, W. E. The Parietal Eye in some Lizards from Western U. S.
Bull. Mus. Comp. Zodl. Vol. XX., No. 8.
BOA, overstayed hs wrstarste On the Presence of a Parapineal Organ in Phrynosoma.
Anat. Anz. IX.
1882. Romiti. Lo sviluppo del conario.
Soc. Tose. di Se. Natur., 1882.
1878. Salensky, W. Entwicklungsgeschichte des Sterlet.
Arbeiten der Naturforschergesellschaft an der Kaiserl. Universitét zw
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French translation, Archiv. d. Biol. t. 2-8.
1889. Sanders. Contribution to the Anatomy of the Central Nervous System of
Ceratodus Forsteri.

The Annals and Magazine.

269

‘a a a ree Researches on the Nervous System of Myxine glutinosa.
Williams and Norgate. London.
1862. Schmidt, F. Beitrige zur Entwickelungsgeschichte des Gehirns.
Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zo6l. Bd. XI.
1881. Scott, W. B. Beitrage zur Entwick. der Petromyzonten.
Morph. Jahrb. Bd. VII.
BES oboe setes os Notes on the Development of Petromyzon.
Journ. of Morph. Vol. I.
1890. Selenka, E. Das Stirnorgan der Wirbelthiere.
Biol. Centralblatt. Bd. X. N. 11.
1824-28. Serres. Anatomie Comparée du Ceryeau dans les quatre Classes des
Animaux vertébrés. (Citée par Ahlborn.) Paris.
1887. Shipley, A. E. On Some Points in the Development of P. fluviatilis.
Quart. Jour. Micros. Sci. XX VII.
1893. Sorensen. The Roof of the Diencephalon.
Journ, of Comp. Neurol. Vol. III.
oe Sy Rae Comparative Study of the Epiphysis and the Roof of the
Diencephalon.
Journ. of Comp. Neurol. IV.
1886. Spencer, B. Preliminary Communication on the Structure and Presence
in Spenoden and other Lizards of the Median Eye.
Proceed. Roy. Soc. WN. 245. 1886.

UL ps te ee On the Presence and Structure of the Parietal Eye in
Lacertilia.
Quart. Journ. of Micros. Sci. Vol. XXVII.
Pee ents cs Parietal Eye of Hatteria.

Nature. Vol. XXXIV.
1887. Spronck. De epiphysis cerebri als rudiment van een derde af pariétal org.
Nederl. Weekbl. N. 7, 1887.
1865. Stieda, L. Ueder den Bau der Haut des Frosches.
Archiv. f. Anat. u. Phys. u. wiss. Med. Jahrg., 1865.
MSG n oeicisie ss ores =" Studien iiber das Centralnervensystem der Vogel und
Siugethiere.
Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zodl. XIX.
1870. Studien iiber das Centralnervensystem der Wirbelthiere.
Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zodl. XX.
1873. Ueber die Deutung einzelner Theile des Fischgehirns.
Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zodl. XXIII.

270

1875. Ueber den Bau des Centralnervensystems des Axoloti und der Schildkrote.
Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zodl. Bd. XXV.
1854. Stannius, H. Handbuch der Anatomie der Wirbelthiere.
1884. Strahl, H. Das Leydig’sche Organ bei Eidechsen.
Sitzungsb. d. Gesellsch. zur Beférd. d. gesam. Naturwiss. zu Marburg., N. 3.,
1884.
1888. Strahl and Martin, Entwicklungsgeschichte d. Parietalauges bei Lacerta
vivipara u. Anguis fragilis.
Archiv. f. Anat. u. Phys. Jahrg. 1888.
ESO Ste eerste toate Studnicka, Sur les organes parietaux de P. planeri.
Prague, 1893.
MOSS tate, cus eniale sels Prispevky K. morfologii parietalnich organu craniotu.

BOGE, seks ttaeraie sss Zur Anatomie der sog. Paraphyse des Wirbelthiergehirns.

eh GEM) SS eae AAR Beitrige zur Anatomie u. Entwicklungeschichte des Vor-
derhirns der Cranioten.
Ko6nig Béhmish. Gesell. der Wiss., 1895.
1816. Tiedmann, Friedr. Anatomie und Bildungsgeschichte des Gehirnsin
Foetus des Menschen.
Niiremberg, 1816. ;
1884. Van Wijhe, Ueber den vorderen Neuroporus und die phylogenetische
Function des Canalis neurentericus der Wirbelthiere.
Zo6l. Anz. 1884.
1876. Viault, Fr. Recherches histol. sur la structure des Plagiostomes.
Archiv. de Zo6l. Experim. t. V.
1887. Waldschmidt. Beitrag zur Anatomie des Centralnervensystems u. des
Geruchsorgans von Polypterus.
Zool. Jahrb. 1888.
1887. Weissmann, A. Ueber den Riickschritt in der Natur.
Ber. d. Gesellsch. zu Freiburg. Bd. II.
1812. Wenzel, J. De penitiori cerebri structura. Tubigen.
1888. Whithwell. The Epiphysis cerebri in Petromyzon fluviatilis.
Journal of Anat. and Physiology, 1888. -
1880. Weiderscheim, R. von. Das Gehirn von Amnocoetes und P. planeri.
Janaische Zeitschr. Bd. XIV.
LS8GS «ele crette ears Ueber das Parietalauge der Saurier.
Anat. Anz. Ed. I.

271

1884. Wright, Ramsey. On the Nervous System and Sense-organs of Amiurus.

Proc. Canadian Instit. Toronto. Vol. II. fase. 3.

The above list is as complete as I could make it and includes all the impor-
tant papers on the subject. For the titles of some of the articles which I was
unable to consult, I am indebted to the papers of Sorensen and Francotte and
Prenant’s ‘‘ Elements d’Embryologie.”

THE SNOWBIRD AT NIGHT. By W. P. SHANNON.

On THE OCCURRENCE OF SEVERAL FAMILIES OF AQUATIC ANIMALCULZ IN
New Stations. By Etwoop PLeas.

On February 25, 1896, while searching a small lichen for diatomes that might
have found a possible lodgment, it was a matter of much surprise to find a large
and active Rotifer vulgaris measuring its length across the microscopic field. Far-
ther examination of this lichen, as well as others from the same and neighboring
trees, logs, stumps, board and rail fences, disclosed the fact that the Rotifera (in
several genera and species), Anguillula fluviatilis, Maeribiotus americanus, Paramecia,
and many more minute ffagellate Monads (some or all of them) might be expected
in every lichen, -in short, compact, growing mosses, and in fact wherever a crypto-
gam can be found.

The temperature was below freezing when the first lichens were collected, and
had been 15° below zero a few days earlier, but upon soaking the lichens for a
minute or two in about as much water as they would absorb, and squeezing into a
smal] dish and transferring two or three drops (dregs and all) with the dipping
tube to a slip or cell, it was generally found that some or all of these strangely
domiciled animals had already resumed the functions and activities of life.

A few of these microscopic animals had become quite familiar as denizens of
almost every ditch and pool in the land, but the astonishment was scarce greater
at finding such creatures in such a habitat than at the great variety and vast num-
bers of them on exhibition.

On March 22 a lichen about 1x14 inches, pared from the upper edge of a
fence board, yielded 203 rotifers, besides other living forms.

Examination was not resumed until December 4, when a lichen about 1} x 13
inches, yielded 69 rotifers, 18 water eels, 7 water bears, several Paramecium and

many minute flagelate protozoa.

272

On December 13, a fragment of lichen 1}x1} inches square slipped from the
bark of a May cherry, yielded 828 ‘‘ wheel bearers,” 10 ‘‘water eels,” 25 ‘‘ water
bear,” and greater numbers of minute infusoree; while on the same day, from a
minute greenish yellow lichen, estimated at } inch in diameter, there were taken
65 rotifers, 4 eels, 1 bear and 4 mites.

So universal seems to be the distribution of some of these forms that the diffi-
culty is to find a spot where lodgment is possible not already occupied.

On December 19, from the calyx of an apple that had been in a dry cellar for
a month 2 rotifers and 6 eels and other things were obtained, and 3 apples yielded
32 of these forms, fragments of insects and the wreckage of various filamentous
fungi, and innumerable unknown spores and bacteria.

The writer of this paper has neither the fine microscopic appliances nor
works of reference necessary for a close study and determination of the most
minute forms observed, and the names of a few in the list which follow are given
provisionally. We are, however, indebted to the distinguished microscopist and
widely known writer and author of several splendid books on microscopic sub-
jects, Dr. Alfred C. Stokes, of Trenton, New Jersey, for having examined material
sent and identified a dozen or more of the species in the list, which is as fol-

lows:

INFUSORIA.
Ampluileptus, sp. ?.
Heteromita, sp. ?.
Tellina, sp. ?.
Vorticella, sp. ?.
Paramaecia, sp. ?.
Chilodon, sp. ?.

Free swimming Monads, several sp. ?.

RHIZOPODS.
Euglypha Cilliata.
Euglypha alveaiata. ?.
Arcella vulgaris.
Amueba verrucosa.
Assulina seminulum.
Difflugia pyrvformis.

Diflugia corana ?.

273

Kets, Mires, Etc.
Anguillula fluviatillis.
Alacrobioties americanus.
Water Mite, sp. ?.
Mite, sp. ?; probably terrestrial.
Entomostraca, resembling Dioptomus.
ROTIFERA.
Rotifer vulgaris,
Rotifer, 2 sp. ?.
Philodina aculeata.
Rotifer, eggs, sp. ?.
ALG&.
Nostie lichenoides, ?.
Pratécococus viridis.
Spirogyra, sp. ?.
Oseiilaria, sp. ?.
Diatomes, species, ?.

Examples of lichens rich in the aquatic organisms above listed were sent to
half a dozen prominent microscopists with the request that they report the things
found in them, and whether the finding of such creatures in such habitats was
new; and if not they were requested to cite some article or work of reference giv-
ing information upon the matter.

All expressed surprise at the find and failed to cite any work of reference,
save a distinguished lady of Pennsylvania, who referred to Dr. Joseph Leidy
(XII vol. Hayden’s Geol. Rep., 1870), where, in speaking of Rinizopods, he says,
substantially: ‘‘ While essentially aquatic,” they occur wherever there is moist-
ure, commencing with one’s own doorstep and extending to ocean’s depth, and
even upon the bark of growing trees, etc., etc.

The theory generally advanced to account for the sudden appearance of
countless numbers of Bacteria, Infusoria, Rhizopoda, etc., in cisterns, watering
troughs, transient pools and puddles of water, is that they or their eggs or germs
have been gathered up from dried-up ponds and ditches by the summer winds
and carried for long distances and deposited on walls and roofs, etc., from whence
they are washed by copious rains and afterward germinated, or are developed or
revived.

While this may be true in part as to some of the almost structureless Pro-
tozoa, it would seem scarcely sufficient to account for the appearance of the more
highly organized Rotifers, Anguillula and mites, in the driest of dry lichens, in
every stage of development from egg to the full-grown animal, and that in the

274

dead of winter. One of the correspondents reporting on material sent for exam-
ination, twice reported Rotifer eggs, and the second time as being furnished with
hooked spines, and the young rotifer alive within the egg and its mastax in oper-
ation; while on December 5th the writer witnessed a Macrobiotis ovipositing in its
peculiar style, which consists of depositing a dozen or more rather large eggs in
the posterior portion of its skin and frantically scrambling out at the front end,
and leaving the sack for the use of its young.

The first animals found were of various sizes, last February, and must have
occupied the position in which they were discovered for several months at ieast;
and to test their capacity for withstanding great and sudden vicissitudes of
weather, both those in the lichen and those soaked out have been dried within
six inches of a gas stove, running day and night for two weeks, and a portion of
the Rotifers, Eels, Bear and Infusoria resumed life after soaking five to ten min-
utes. The thermometer indicated that they were withstanding the temperature
and desiccation of 75° to 110°. Some of those washed out and put to dry (in a
teaspoonful of water) were resoaked and redried four or five times at intervals of
twenty-four hours.

Others were subjected to zero temperature for 23 hours, and after being
thawed over a gas jet a few Rotifers and Eels were resurrected in five to 10 min-
utes, but no Infusoria appeared to have withstood the ordeal.

A very surprising feature of the survey taken is, that of the thousands of
minute living forms forced to pass in review, certainly not one in a hundred
were of such as are commonly regarded as ¢errestrial. Insects were mostly repre-
sented by fragments.

In view of the facts cited the problem, from whence came these myriads?
may not be solved, but it does seem clear that the ‘‘ germ-and-egg” transportation

theory of their distribution is insufficient.

NoreEs ON THE BroLocicAL SuRVEY OF M1nAn Ponp. By A. J. BIGNEY.

Milan Pond is situated in the eastern part of Ripley County, one-fourth mile
east of the village of Milan. The pond is an artificial one, having been con-
structed by the old O. & M. Railroad in 1854 as a watering station. It is nearly
one-half mile long and one-fourth mile wide. Its greatest depth is twelve feet.
It receives water from four small streams, but is drained at a certain height, so
that it keeps at the same stage most of the time, except in dry seasons. In the
summer of 1895 it would have gone dry had not the railroad company kept it

supplied with transported water. This is the only time it has been very low.

275

However, there was sufficient water in it during that season to prevent much in-
terference with the life forms. Since then the life has been just as abundant.

Since the organization of the Biological Survey of Indiana I have thought it
would be profitable to make a study of the plants and animals of this pond in
order to discover the forms existing and to note any change in the organisms
during a number of years and to record any facts of interest in biological lines.

This paper makes no pretensions of being exhaustive, but is merely intended
to be preliminary, for I have not had an opportunity to make a thorough study
of the forms of life.

I. Botany.—On the banks of the pond are found the ordinary hard-wood
trees of Indiana and much shrubbery, such as the elder, willow, hazel and gum.
Many of the smaller Phanerogams abound on the margin, but very few occur in
the shallow waters. The pond is very rich in algw, such as spirogyra, zygnema,
vaucheria, oscillaria, euglena, diatoms, desmids and kindred forms. No classified
list has yet been made.

II. Animals.—Among the vertebrates are to be found several kinds of snakes,
wild ducks, several species of snipes, frogs in great abundance, sun-fish, cat-fish -
and carp. The insects have many representatives, The crustacea are really the
most numerous. Crayfish, water-fleas, ostracods, copepods, isopods, and amphi-
pods and rotifers are almost without number. Several species of worms occur,
and among the mollusks physa, limnzus and planorbis are quite plentiful. It is
the best place for hydra, both brown and green, that I have ever found anywhere.
In the dry seasons the pond scums are almost filled with them, In even a small
handful of the alge I have found more than a hundred. Among the porifera is
the fresh-water sponge, spongilla. This is the only place that it has ever been
found in this section of the State. The pond is also rich in protozoans. All the
forms will be classified and described during the coming year. The pond is very

valuable for laboratory purposes.

SUICIDE OF A Crow. By STANLEY COULTER.

The paper reported the finding of the body of a crow under the following cir-
cumstances: The head of the crow had been passed between the trunk and a strip
of the bark of the ordinary shell-bark hickory. Its withdrawal was prevented
by the projections of the occipital bone. ‘The protruded tongue, the bulging
eyes, and the position of the body showed that death had occurred by strangula-
tion. The location of the tree in an unfrequented portion of the woods, and the
fact that the crow was suspended much above the reach of any one furnished suf-

ficient evidence that it was responsible for its own death,

‘VYSVY WO YSN} QOUMEM Y “f, “AsN} YyOMMVM Y “We “ASN, Yor [wursq0 ayy, “oO

277

Tue RanpotepH Mastopon. By Pror. Jos. Moore.

The genus Mastodon, belonging to the elephant family, began as far back in
time as the miocene, or middle tertiary, and continued into the earlier centuries
of the present epoch. First and last there have been as many as twenty known
species, distributed about as follows: Europe nine, Asia five, N. America four,
S. America two. Remains have been found in Australia which have been claimed
for Mastodon, but naturalists are waiting for the claim to be better substantiated.

The species known to N. America are, M. Americanus (same as M. giganteus
or M. ohioticus), M. obscurus, M. productus and M. murificus. The only species
found in Indiana or adjoining states, so far as I have learned, is M. Americanus.
That this majestic creature once trod our wilds in prehistoric times, roaming in
herds from Canada to the Gulf, feeding on the prairies, in the forest jungles and
on the banks of lakes and streams, often getting helplessly and fatally mired in
our bogs—that it did all this and more seems to be quite satisfactorily evident.

They must have been crowded slowly southward before the great ice sheet,
and afterwards followed the retreat of the same northward that they might pos-
sess the land in company with the Mammoth and other great beasts during the
champlain and terrace epochs and into the beginning of the present.

It is a common thing to find Mastodon remains. Hardly a week passes but
that some paper near or far reportsa find. Often it is a false report, but probably
oftener it has some foundation in fact, even if the discovery be but a grinder or
part of a tusk.

People say they never lived in herds here for thousands of years, or with all
the digging for wells, sewers, cellars, railroads and hundreds of other things, we
would be finding remains every few hours. There were millions of horses in
Indiana previous to, say, 1860. Now send out a company of explorers to find
skeletons of horses that died previous to said year and see how many they will
bring in. But it is far from common to find the skeleton of a Mastodon that is
approximately complete, and rarer still to find such an one which, on drying,
does not crumble to bits.

Near twenty years since a farmer struck some very large bones and a tusk two
or three miles from New Paris, Ohio. A number of the bones were well preserved.
A tusk was taken out, entire, which measured near eleven feet in length and ten
inches in diameter at base. Such a tusk would seem to indicate a powerful male
of full age. On drying, for want of proper treatment, this majestic specimen went
to crumbs and splinters, except three and a half feet of the outer end. The other

remains consisted of a pair of grinders, half a dozen vertebr, more than a dozen
19

278

ribs, stumps of the scapule, one femur, one humerus, the lower seginents of the
hind legs, the main part of the sternum and a few feet bones. After the original
purchaser had tried the show business for a time, said remains were secured for
Earlham College.

Some eight years later a Mr. Bookout, near Losantville, Randolph County,
while ditching to drain a small bog abounding in peat, struck the major part of
an entire skeleton, which almost exactly matched, for size, the New Paris rem-
nant. While the head was of extraordinary size, the tusks were but moderate.
The pelvis was six feet, two inches across and ample in every direction. This was
most likely a female. In prying at the larger parts, the head and pelvis, to re-
move them from the mud they parted, each into a number of pieces. These, on
drying for years, would of course crumble at the broken edges. These massive
fragments of head and pelvis were sent to Ward & Co., of Rochester, New York,
who arranged them in original position, and so welded them by filling in the gaps
that only an expert would suspect they had ever been in fragments.

The Randolph remnant, in addition to the head and pelvis, gave us about half
the vertebr, both scapulz, radius and ulna, both right and left, one good femur,
the right, a majority of the ribs, and near a bushel of feet bones. The Randolph
remnant would have been secured when first taken up but for the price. By wait-
ing more than eight years it shrank to less than a quarter the original standard.

The composite skeleton as it now stands was mounted by the curator of the
museum, assisted by a very efficient student. It is nearly all bone. Both rem-
nants, however, furnished but one humerus, the right. The lower jaw is perfect,
with all the grinders. The tusks are paper but are moulded exactly after orig-
inals. A tusk of the Randolph find lies on the platform, but was too heavy in its
brittle condition to mount. Of the vertebra, including those of the neck, body
and the larger joints of the tail, thirty-six are bone. Of the thirty-eight ribs all
are bone but three. The hind legs are all bone except the fibula on the right
side. The sternum is bone.

From the pedestal to the top of the highest spine is eleven feet, less half an
inch. From pedestal to crown of head is eleven feet two inches. From pedestal
to summit of pelvis, nine feet. From sole of foot to top of scapula, nine feet,
seven inches. From forward curve of tusks to backward curve of tail, twenty
feet, two inches. It ranks among the largest of known mastodons. - Such a crea-

ture when alive could scarcely have weighed less than ten tons.

279

Tue INCREASING ABUNDANCE OF THE OpossuM (DIDELPHIS VIRGINIANA SHAW)
IN NoRTHERN INDIANA. By Apert B. ULREY.

(ABSTRACT. ]

During the past year my attention has been called to the fact that an unusual
number of specimens of the Common Opossum has been taken. On inquiry I
found this was true not only in the immediate vicinity, but reports from other
places in northern Indiana indicated a similar increase in abundance. The past

few years show a somewhat progressive advance in numbers.

TEMPERATURE OF LAKE WAWASEE. By J. P. DOLAN.

One of the problems presented in the study of the temperature was, ‘‘ Does a
period of stagnation obtain for any considerable period, especially during the
summer months?”

It will be seen by a perusal of the tables and charts that during the winter
months, when the lake is covered with ice, that there is only a slight difference
between the surface and bottom temperatures, but that during the summer months
there is much difference. What was only conjectured after a few months’ observ-
ation last year is now conclusively shown, namely, that no condition of stagnation
obtains during the summer and autumn months.

It will also be seen that, notwithstanding Lake Syracuse is forty feet shallower
than Wawasee, the temperature of the former is from one to two degrees higher,

both top and bottom, than the latter during the summer months.

280

TEMPERATURES OF LAKE WAWASEE.

.1,2,3,4. N.E. Bio. Laboratory.
Mouth of Johnson Bay.

Jarrett’s Bay.

»8,9,10. West of Blk. Stump Point.

~I o> Ot

281

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282,

‘EMVT ASNOVYUAS WO SAUNLVURI WEL

283

Rise AND Fatt oF LAKE WAWASKE FROM JULY 6, 1895, TO NOVEMBER 1, 1896.

baches,

8 A PE

EES hee ae Se ee a A

—- ++ f_+++ 1 ¥
Juy6ieuston\y | | | | fer | aes;
Riviere 9. ty
es aE

S200ES OC UIULS Of PUPS,

Ten and one-half inches below zero of July 6, 1895, is lowest stage reached.
Thirteen and one-fourth inches above zero of July 6, 1895, is highest stage reached.

TABLE OF PRECIPITATIONS aT LAKE WAWASEE MRASURED IN RAINFALL INCHES FROM JULY,
1895, TO DECEMBER 1, 1896.

1895. Inches. | 1896. Inches. 1896. Inches.
MGR Sees co Soro PATA ES > Ae ee fe35)|\ dnlyins ce eee eee . 8.93
PAMEIS UR come ic halen. Bae << poe PMO PE UAE, scan sie ese = ~s 155i Angust.secd ee ceeeos eer 5.19
September ..........-- oe Roy GREG Is hn ces Scie os - 2.5) | September .............. 4.54
REGGE ht oa cn, ele On PACE 1 lees ee ne Sern. Safer 351: October: tosses tee ee 59
MagEiibons-<5. Gen aa; cra tyl hi Eo ie ae 2 Se Be a a 343:| November... --7-aseeee 2.49
IDBCE MOR Meo ...58xice'sts Cis u pe Le ee a eee ane 204} Deeembers.0-2- 2s see ee

TABLE oF RISE AND FALL oF Lake WaAWASEE FROM JULY, 1895, To DECEMBER 1, 1896.
Rise and fall measured in inches.

1895. Loss. Gain. 1896. Loss. Gain. 1896. Loss. | Gain.
| /

alyssa. Le oon ae ON 8 = TOUTES Ga ee AB Spebal Nemes J aly eee caer, is
ANGUS cl cc-x% Va | ee ee February ..... eke ee I? le | Angaste ----- Sarees 4.75
September ..... Ei eee WMExEG 5---)----|- 22+ | 1.45 September selene eset le ee
October ........ 37H} |seaeaoc PATE se. cise 2 DRT beth ee || October........ Me eert||Nerceae
ING VENUer oe. silco. se } 45 5 ETS fe SOOM ae | November
December: 22. -|.-c22: t

ie | 3/95 |" "3.00 || December .....|.......]....-.-

Total gain, 29.75 inches: total loss, 16.50 inches; net gain, 13.25 inches.

234

>
s | 5
ne sre ia _ Direction Ee}
Month. ge : ° Character of the Day. sg
| go Wind. ‘2
ae c a = x “
a > met j oD
ES) a ae 7)
s acs a.m. p.m. =
1895 | December..|/ 3: | 375 | 10 to 34 Wieass Clear.
1896 | January....| 1 1.875 | 34 30 S. W. Clear.
Pe eas: 34 3 Save Snow. Cloudy. .09
3| 3.25 4 -2 W. Partly cloudy.
4) 55 -10 to —2 W. lear.
5 7 2 to 14 We Snow. Cloudy.
6 75 12 20 S.E. lear. 01
7 Veo 16 if Ss. Partly cloudy.
8 8 28 30 Ss. lear.
9] 8 32 36 | S.W.to W Cloudy.
10 | 8 33 34 ators Clear.
IR Pres: 36 Ss. Clear.
TPA le 76 22 W. Clear.
| 13 8 17 22 W. Partly cloudy.
| 14| 8.25 20 Vie Snow. Trace.
115} 8.75 20 22 N.to E Clear.
| 16| 95 12 34 S. E.to S
| eral lO 32 38 s.
2
os
| Seely | ze
aa re a | Direction So
Month Rs Y o Character of the Day. | 3S .
as Wind. A288
x (ee he ests = ‘503
2 at as 7 5 = ac
on ~
al a | a.m. p.m. a
1896 | January....| 18 | 10 36 36 Ss. Snow. Rain. .09*
19 | 10 32 38 Wi Partly cloudy.
20 | 10 31 34 S.toS.W. Cloudy. Trace
Bie) MOS 26 30 E. Snow. Cloudy. Trace
22} 9 Dhl 582 E. Rain. 30
DSW nce ace Rain. E. _ Rain. 30
2 As |S eee ee Rain, snow. N. E. Rain and snow. 36
PETS ad Wee Rain, snow. We ain 10
BERS SP actin oc Cloudy
| Wie Clear
Ss. W. Cloudy
Ss. Clear
| 8. Clear
Ss. Rain. att
1896 February... W.toN.W. Partly ‘cloudy. ~~ }/72-- =a
E. Sleet. Rain. 49
| E. Snow. Rain 07
S. We Snow... Trace.
Ss. Snow. Rain. 03

|

*Tee badly honeycombed.

+ Heavy fog from 2 to6 P.M.
t From 1st to 5th the rains soften the ice without diminishing its thickness perceptibly
and melts the ice at the shore line.

Year.

1896

o

pi

- .

x Tempera-

Month. oS —e
| ag
. | re -
2 Lo 7 5
A | = a.m. p.m.
1
February...| 6 9 33 30

7 9 27 32
8 85 | 28 32
inl 95 | 23 28
ga ee eee 20 26
rE eee 22 28
15 9 40 30
17 10 -1 20
18 11 22 22
1h er 6 0
7 Yt es SOR -2 8
21 a5?) <2 20
DIN AZ 18 40
2 | 12 20 34
ol een eae 34 46
ie Le 44 58

285

*Tee growing strong and hard.

yRain,1linch; fog on 23d.
tIce honey-combed.

r=
°o
; : =
piresion of Character of Day. |
a)
oO
a
Poy te ee nia. hoe N.to N. W. Partly cloudy.
N. Cloudy.
NEW Snow.
W. High wind all day.
S.E. Snow, 6 inches. 63
N. Snow, 1 inch. 05
S. to N. Snow, “cloudy. Trace
N. Clear.
/ NW. Snow, 2 inches. 20
/ Wi - Snow, blizzard. 02
We , Snow, blizzard. Trace
Wee Snow, blizzard.
S.to S. W. Partly cloudy.
| N. to S. W. Clear. 7
W. Balmy, clear.
s. Clear. if
| es
| &
| Direction of Character of Day. SE
Sas
OM
om
!
N Snow. 45
N.toE Rain, partly cloudy. 30
S.to N.W _ Snow. Trace
W.toE Snow, cloudy. 15
N.toN.E Snow, cloudy. 10
N.E. to N Snow, 2%4 inches. Pal
W. Snow squalls all day. 01
We. Clear.
We Clear.
bg. Snow, lz; inches. 10
W. Snow, clear most of day.
S.W.toS.E. Snow, cloudy. Trace
N. Snow and high wind. 22
N.to N.E. Snow, % inch. 03
S. to S. W. Cloudy, rain.
N. W. to N. Snow. 7
S. E. Clear. Tt
Ss. ‘Rain, th’d’r and lightn’g. 71
S. W. Clear. 2

5
—
oe
= we Tempera-
Month. as ture.
ac
.| 34 :
& = r=] 7 3)
a= a.m. p.m
March...... 1 1l 28 26
hel |S Seen 24 38
Otlosss ee 38 35
9 10 30 40
10 10 34 33
jt He eA ees: 24 20
12 12 1 15
13 14 10 18
14 13 10 28
30 eee 24 30
17 12 26 3
Uh ese Ree 32 36
| MOMs ce doe 2 32
23 10 28 3
25 8 36 60
26 8 32 30
24 [| belies so 26 38
Dae cc cic ete 36 56
| 1) ees 48 §2

*High wind all day and night.
yIce bursting and disintegrating.
tIce honey-combed and fractured.

2Ice driven out of lake.

286

Ick ForMATION LAKE WAWASEE. By J. P. Doman.

In the season of 1895-6 there were two periods of ice formation, one begin-
ning December 3 and terminating December 20; the other commencing December
31, 1895, and ending March 29, 1896. The first was fully described by Mr. D. C.
Ridgley in his excellent report last year on the formation of ice, its effects on the
shore line, and other kindred subjects relating to it, so that there is but little left
to be said on these subjects in this paper.

From December 31 the ice continued to thicken till March 13, when the maxi-
mum thickness of fourteen (14) inches was attained, although there were brief
periods of slight diminution, and, besides, the last three inches were additions
rather than regular growth, being made up of partly melted snows.

After the 13th the disintegration was rapid. The rate of decrease from day
to day, as well as the increase, is shown in the accompanying tables.

South and southwest winds prevailed from 24th to 29th, which, together with
temperature ranging from 33° to 62°, swept the lake clear of all ice just four days
later than the previous year.

March 8, 1896, the effects of the expansion of the ice were seen at their maxi-
mum. Ice along the shore at Pickwick, Kale Island, Epert’s Vawter Park,
Sharp’s Bay and Wawasee a prominent ridge was pushed up, reaching in many
places a height of six feet.

The force was most noticeable along the shore at Epert’s, where for two
hundred feet riprapping had been done to protect the low sandy and gravely
embankments. This was all pushed back several feet and many of the largest
bowlders lifted clear over the top of the five-foot ridge.

Across the entrance to the Gordonierre the effects were also marked, and again
at Kale Island, though in less degree.

Photographs of these places were secured at the time.

Prior to 1895 the largest ice cracks observed were not more than three and
one-half inches wide.

On January 18, 1896, a well marked, clean cut crevice ten inches wide and
three hundred feet long was seen west of Blk. Stump Pt. The same day another
four and one-half inches wide and five hundred and fifty feet long was observed
northwest of the ten-inch crack just mentioned.

There was no suggestion of conformity to shore line in either of them; neither
was there any similarity in their trends.

The only instance in which the cracks bore any seeming relation to the shore

line was on lower Wawasee or Syracuse Lake, where a series of six wavy cracks

oka ae

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INDIANA UNIVERSITY BIOLOGICAL STATION,

Hydrographic Map of
TURKEY LAKE,

OR LAKE WAWASEE, KOSCIUSKO CO.,INDIANA.
BY

CHANGEW JUDAY,
From
The Government surveys and Surveys and
soundings ,made during the summer of 1895, by

CHANCEY JupAy, D.C.RiDGLEY and THOMAS LaRGE.
Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of the Indiana University.

under the direction of CARL HE/GENMANN, No /5c

vila =

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36 30

= 5 Vir «
pec s10L001cA. STATION

jo | Prvawremnann )y] =
a ‘

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Seale |) £7000

Vertical Seale
for 1

___ ws SECTIONS
vaz7o

i 10-60, sorTon conrouRs

Scale of Depths OM ELEVATION Lie

i [stem swe

* srroxG
“Roan

3 80.FEET IN DRrTH
1-XX1 stanoxs

287

three-eighths of an inch wide, about twelve inches apart and one hundred feet
long, were formed west of Weaver's Point.

In some instances the cracks seemed to be formed by an impact at right
angles to the field as if some subaqueous cyclops had hurled a thunderbolt against ©
. the frozen mass and sent fractures in all directions from this point as center.

Off the Pickwick shore covering a large area the cracks were so numerous as
to suggest a fine intricate mosaic. This will to some extent explain the readiness
with which ice eight inches thick was removed by the wind and made to resemble
slush in a few hours after it begins to move.

January 27, 1896, there occurred an unusual cracking of the ice, lasting all
day and far into the night. A constant bursting, crashing and booming pervaded
the whole lake. The noises suggested the crunching of heavy falling timbers and
the hoarse roar of distant cannonading. The day was clear, sun shining most of
the time, with temperature 26 to 34 degrees. The next day, with temperature 30
to 32, and cloudy, the lake was as silent as a cemetery.

After several days’ moderately high temperature, during the last week of
February the ice was well honeycombed. March Ist the temperature lowered to
26, accompanied by a high north wind and snow. The drifting snow was driven

into the cells of the ice, making the whole field resemble a fine piece of dolite.

THE PLANKTON OF TURKEY LAKE.* By CHANCEY JUDAY.

The data for this preliminary report were collected during July and August,
1896, at Indiana University Biological Station. To Dr. C. H. Eigenmann, Director
of the Biological Station, I am indebted for the plan of the net and for many
helpful suggestions.

Hensen, who is the author of the term ‘

‘plankton,” applied this term to all
plants and animals which are found floating free and which are carried about
involuntarily by winds, waves, tides or currents. Haeckel extended the applica-
tion so as to include all swimming and floating organisms. At present, however,
those-organisms that are not subject to the above-named physical forces are not
considered plankton, and they shall not be dealt with as such in this report.

It has been demonstrated that a part of the plankton, the crustacea, furnishes
nearly all the food of our most important fishes at a very critical period of their
lives, that is, while they are-very young fry (Forbes, 1889). This makes plankton
a very important factor in the environment of these fishes. Its scarcity or abund-

ance and the relative amount of crustacea will have much influence upon the

*Contributions from the Zoélogical Laboratory of the Indiana University under the
direction of C. H. Eigenmann, No. 19.

288

growth and development of the young fish. The plankton of Turkey Lake is here
considered as an environment rather than as including a large portion of its
inhabitants. As yet very little has been done toward classifying the various
organisms composing it, but a great portion of it is.crustaceans.

The net used in determining the quantity of plankton is essentially the same
as those used by Hensen, Apstein and Reighard. The upper part consists of a
truncated cone of canvas, supported by an iron framework. The diameter of the
upper or smaller end of this cone is 33.35 cm. and of the larger or lower end 49 cm.
The slant height is 36 cm. -

The net proper is made of Dufour’s No. 20 bolting cloth. It is a truncated
cone with a slant height of 86 cm. The larger end is attached to the iron ring
supporting the larger end of the canvas cone. To the smaller end is fastened a
flat metal ring which supports the bucket. Three ropes attach this flat metal ring
to the framework of the canvas cone. This relieves the net proper of the weight
of the bucket. A twine net of inch mesh surrounds the net, serving to protect it
and to remove as much strain from it as possible. .

The bucket is a metal cylinder 6.5 cm. in diameter and 7 cm. deep. A flat
metal ring is attached to the top. Through this pass three binding screws, which
fasten the bucket to the ring on the bottom of the net. The sides of the bucket,
except three narrow strips, are cut away, making three openings, 30x50 cm.
These openings are covered with a wire gauze which has 77 per cent. of its surface
solid and 23 per cent. open for the passage of water. The No. 20 bolting cloth
has 83 per cent. of its surface solid and only 17 per cent. open for the passage of
water. But an examination of water strained through each proved that the wire
gauze is as effective a strainer as the cloth, and when water rich in plankton is
forced through each by means of a pipette the gauze is the more effective strainer
(Eigenmann, 1895). The bottom of the bucket is cup-shaped and has a small
opening in the center. This opening is closed by a rubber stopper through which
passes a short glass rod that enables one to remove the stopper conveniently.
Three legs, each 10 cm. long, support the bucket.

Three ropes radiating from an iron ring are attached to the framework of the
canyas cone and support the entire net. The rope which is used in drawing the
net up is attached to this iron ring. This rope is measured off into feet or frac-
tions of a meter, so the depth to which the net descends can be determined easily.

The plankton boat is provided with a swinging derrick in the stern. In the
end of this derrick is a pulley through which the net rope passes. The derrick is
high enough to allow the net to swing clear of the sides of the boat, so that the

net may be swung into the boat after a haul has been made. (Higenmann, 1895.)

289

In making a haul, the net is lowered slowly at first, so as to allow it to fill
with water that has filtered through the bolting cloth. This prevents any abnormal
amount of plankton which might occur if the surface water, rich in plankton,
were allowed to fill the net without first being strained. The net is now lowered
to the desired depth and hauled in hand over hand. The number of seconds re-
quired to raise it to the surface is noted. This will give the velocity, and from
this the coefficient of the net, or its efficiency in straining, is calculated. The net
is now raised out of the water, and while the process of filtering is going on some
water is dashed against it so as to wash down any organisms that may be lodged
on the inside. When the filtering process has progressed far enough, the binding
screws are loosened and the bucket is removed. Filtering is now hastened by
gently tapping the wire gauze with the hand. As soon as nearly all of the water
has filtered.out the bucket is placed over a small, glass-stoppered bottle which
will hold about 250 ce., the rubber stopper is removed and the contents transferred
to the bottle. The organisms that may be lodged on the sides of the bucket are
rinsed into the bottle with filtered water. Enough 95% alcohol is now added to
the contents of the bottle to give the whole a strength of 70%. This kills and
preserves the organisms and facilitates the work by eliminating two or three
steps which are necessary when some other killing agent is used. Besides, the
organisms were found to be in a very good condition for qualitative work when
killed and preserved in this way.

In measuring the quantity of plankton, a centrifuge manufactured by
Richards & Co., of Chicago, was used. This is preferable to letting the material
settle twenty-four hours, because it requires less time and puts the mass into a
more compact form. This method also has an advantage in that it makes the
measurements more uniform. If there is a large amount of light material in a
haul, this will not settle very compactly in twenty-four hours, consequently the
volume will be large. On the other hand, another haul may have a greater mass
of material, but not yield such a large volume, because it is composed of material
that will settle more compactly in the twenty-four hours.

Each bottle is permitted to stand an hour or so after it is taken to the labora-
tory. Some of the alcohol may then be removed without danger of losing any of
_ the plankton. The remaining material is shaken up and poured into a graduated
cylinder. The bottle is carefully rinsed and the rinsings added. The material is
now thoroughly stirred with a small glass rod, so as to distribute the organisms
equally throughout the liquid. The two sedimentation tubes, which are gradu-
ated to tenths of a cubic centimeter, are filled and placed in the metal cases of
the centrifuge. The drive wheel is turned through 50 revolutions and the tubes

are permitted to stand a few minutes so that the few small organisms that may

290

still be floating in the liquid may settle to the bottom; 50 more revolutions are
given and the quantity of plankton is recorded. In all the measurements given
in the table below only from 20% to 50% of each haul was actually measured. As
a check upon this method several hauls were estimated and then the entire quan-
tity measured. The differences were so slight that they might be accounted for
by the small quantity of sand that is nearly always present. This would settle to
the bottom of the graduated cylinder quickly, and would not be included when
only a part of the haul is measured.

One revolution of the drive wheel of the centrifuge causes 313 revolutions of
the sedimentation tubes, and a hundred revolutions of the drive wheel are made
in one minute. Thus in each ease the plankton is subjected to 3,150 revolutions
per minute, which is equivalent to a centrifugal force of about 391,680 dynes.
In order to compare these results with those obtained by letting the material
settle twenty-four hours, eight measurements were made by both methods. These
show that the quantity obtained by the centrifuge is, on an average, only one-fifth
of the quantity obtained by the other method. So it must be borne in mind that
the results tabulated below must be multiplied by five in comparing them with
results obtained by letting the material settle twenty-four hours.

The quantity of plankton taken at each hau] does not represent the entire
quantity in the column of water through which the net passes. Some of the water
will be forced aside and the amount thus forced aside depends upon the velocity
of thenet. (Reighard, 1893.) That is, when the net is raised at a velocity of about
77 cm. per second, it will strain only half the column of water. In this case, to
get the entire quantity of plankton, the amount taken must be multiplied by two
which is the co-efficient of the net for this velocity. If the net is drawn slower
more water is forced aside, hence a greater co-efficient. By plotting the results
obtained by using the co-efficient for the observed velocity and that for the aver-
age velocity of the sixty hauls, it was found that the two curves differ very little
except in two places and these represent hauls in which the velocity is very low.
So it was deemed best to use the average velocity, 63.5 cm. per second, in com-
puting results. The co-efficient of the net for this velocity is 2.215.

Also, to find the quantity of plankton under one square meter of surface
another calculation is necessary. The area of the top of the net is 873.5 sq. cm.
or a little less than one-eleventh of a sq. m. (=m). Thus, the quantity taken
multiplied by the co-efficient of the net (2.215) and this by 11.448, or a total of
25.357, will give the amount of plankton under one sq. m. of surface. This result
divided by the depth of the haul will give the quantity of plankton per cu. m, of
water.

The tabulated results of the sixty hauls are as follows:

291

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294

In the table the stations are indicated by Roman numerals and the number
of the haul by Arabic. The other points are self-explanatory.

The twenty-one stations are quite widely distributed, as the accompanying
map will show, so as to include as many of the various conditions as possible.
To see whether local variations attect the distribution of plankton, two or more
hauls were made at the same station as nearly under the same conditions and in
as quick succession as possible. Following Apstein, the mean for the hauls thus
made is taken, and the per cent. of variation of each haul from this mean is cal-

culated. The results are shown in the following table:

Wet | Per cert. of

NUMBER OF | Volume per Sq. m.) x : Variation
HAUL. | Depth of Haul. | of Surface. AVERAGE. from Aver-
age.
Diener beeen ates 6.09 98.89 19
se er es aes 6.09 119.88 100.81 15.9
Tiles epee ote, ee 6.09 83.67 20.4
TLE eae ies ee es 3.04 131.09 118.93 f 9.8
II Aa VS, | 3.04 | 105.38 j e A
Te eee BO 0 Ra Se oe
A SmaoR Osea aoe i } . L| S| :
Tif ee RR ee eae 6.09 6950° ff 77.84 ( 112
Lee et 6.09 79.94 ‘ ( 79
Ve 6.09 62.75 | 72.96 4 16.2
TT Sse ee eS | 6.09 82.08 ( 11.1
Iv ie eee Bee si 6.09 or ise ies Or bec) i
eee Cs 7 he 6.09 20. \ :
TSO ae eel deo 6.09 107.04 ' 118.61 | 6.1
TV ae ee eee 6.09 99.97 \ | eA 5 §] 14.8
IE Views 6.09 69.73 - i PAT
Tih RE beeen rae ie | 6.09 148.33 ) ( 5.1
ih eee a | 6.09 97.87 : 117.9 4 | 20.4
IVa se e oer lace 6.09 | 10751: 0) (| 9.6
Wali Sane coop Aas asad coor 6.09 56.87 L | 55.86 f | 12
a [epi s bie apie ni aay fle > | 6.08 123.8 f | : | se
pe 4] 6. BD. x (| i
Dee ie a aR 6.09 Irs Peasant ail! 10
i, 6.09 131.22 1 11108 { | 15.2
Race 6.09 91.28 5 : a1 °
XII, Asis Seana oscdan 6644 iL-Sy/ 86.53 L | 78.28 5 9.5
SH Fbeecme eye
RAH De ee 6. j : { :
nT ee eer ee 6.09 118.86 t 121.55 1 2.2
SSTUIN, Pesca cole 3.04 164.82 V 140.65 j | 146
5 AI 1 RI ae 8 eae 3.04 116.48 | ‘ 20.7
D0 Ppa eae: 21 114.10 1 100.24 { 4.2
RIT ee 21 104 38 5] v- 46
REMC aie ep antes 6.09 | 45.64 53 91 §| 16.5
RONG SE ee eS 6 09 | 60.78 ; ( 12.4
OKT feral 6.09 43.36 45 6 §| 5.9
Loe | 6.09 | 48.55 j ae l 53
| |

Thus 9 hauls yary between .12 per cent. and 5 per cent.; 12 between 5.1 and
10; 7 between 10.1 and 15; 4 between 15.1 and 20, and 5 between 20.1 and 25;

1 haul varied 25.1 per cent.

295

Eighty-four per cent. of the 38 hauls do not vary more than 20 per cent and
only one over 25 per cent. This variation is slightly greater than in the results
obtained by Apstein and Reighard.

Station IV was selected for the purpose of studying changes in distribution
from day to day by making daily hauls, but this plan was not carried out. How-
ever, five hauls were made here in July and eight in August at a depth of six
meters. Those made in July have an average of 12.26 cc. of plankton per cu, m.
of water, while the eight made in August have an average of 16.86 cc. per cu.
m. of water. This increase of 4.6 cc. is due to the natural seasonal variation, as
Apstein (1892) found that there is a rapid increase in the quantity of plankton
during August and September, reaching a maximum about the Ist of October.

Turkey Lake is comparatively rich in plankton. Dobersdorf See, which is
classed as ‘‘ plankton rich” by Apstein, contained in July, 1892, 1,062 cc. of
plankton under one sq. m. of surface at a depth of 20 m., or 53 ce. per cu. m. of
water. One haul (III) in Turkey Lake, July 2, shows that it contained 348.6
(69.73 x5) ec. under one sq. m. of surface at a depth of nearly 20 m., or 18.15 ce.
per cu. m. of water. Thus Dobersdorf See contained not quite three times as
much plankton. In comparison with other North American lakes, Turkey Lake
has from thirty to fifty times as much plankton in August as Reighard (1893)
found in Lake St. Clair in September, and from fifteen to twenty times as much
as Ward (1894) found in Lakes Michigan, Round and Pine at the same depths
and during the same month, August.

A surface stratum about three meters deep contains most of the plankton of
Turkey Lake. The average number of cc. per cu. m. of water for the ten hauls
made at a depth of three meters is 36.4, for thirty-one hauls made at a depth of six
meters it is 14.8. By means of a pump, a piece of rubber hose, and a small net
of No. 20 bolting cloth, it was found that very few organisms live below a depth .
of six meters and scarcely any but Oligochetes below fifteen meters. Three hauls
(III,, 1V,, XX.) present some difficulties which are still unexplained. They are
hauls from a depth greater than six meters, and show a smaller quantity of plank-
ton actually taken than hauls made just before or immediately after at a depth of
six meters. This difficulty was not noticed, however, in time to make further
hauls in the same manner to see if an explanation might be found. The unusu-
ally large quantity taken in hauls XIV and XV is probably due to a local accumu-
lation, as the wind on the previous day was of such strength and from the proper
direction to cause such.

To sum up—

1. The plankton of Turkey Lake is quite uniformly distributed.

296

2. It is the richest in plankton of any of the North American lakes which
have so far been examined, and compares favorably with what are termed ‘‘plank-
ton rich” lakes.

Works consulted :

Apstein, C.

1892. Quantitative Plankton—Studien im Sitisswasser. Biol. Centralbl.
Bd. XII, pp. 484-512.

1894. Vergleich der Planktonproduktion in verschiedenen holsteinischen
Seen. Bericht d. naturf. Ges. zu Freiburg I Br. Bd. VIII, pp. 70-88.

Brooks, W. K.

1894. The Origin of the Food of Marine Animals. Bull. U. S. Fish Com.
Vol. XIII, pp. 87-92.

Haeckel, Ernst.

A Comparative Investigation of the Importance and Constitution of the Pe-
lagic Fauna and Flora. Translated by G. W. Field. Bull. U. S. Fish Com. for
1889-91, pp. 565-641.

Reighard, J. E. :

1893. A Biological Examination of Lake St. Clair. Bull. of Mich. Fish
Com. No. 4.

Ward, Henry B.

1894. A Biological Examination of Lake Michigan in the Traverse Bay
Region. Bull. Mich. Fish Com. No. 6.

PuysicaL Survey oF Lakes TrpPECANOE, EAGLE, WEBSTER AND CEDAR. By
THomas LARGE, AssISTED By C. O. & A. D. FISHER.

The method of measurement in this work was the same as that employed by
Messrs. Juday and Ridgley and myself last year in the survey of Turkey Lake,
differing only in an attempt to follow such established lines as section lines, quar-
ter and half-section lines, which are usually indicated by farm fences, and, there-
fore, can be readily found, and are thus permanently marked. Profiting by the
experience of the previous year, we made but few cross lines, as they are very
confusing, particularly when made in rough weather.

Three of the lakes sounded this year are parts of the Tippecwnee drainage
system—that river flowing through Lakes Webster and Tippecanoe, and being con-
nected with Eagle Lake by a small stream. Cedar Lake has for its outlet a small

stream flowing to the Kankakee River. Of these lakes Tippecanoe is the largest,

297

least known and retains most nearly its primitive condition. No damming or
draining have in any way affected it. The principal alterations by man being the
removal of the largest trees from its shores for lumber, and clearing of eight tracts
for farming, which border it in its twelve and three-fourths miles of shore line.
Did we know that the government surveyors in 1834 had followed the shore faith-
fully, we could now draw some conclusions of value concerning the rapidity with
which this basin is filling. I have good reasons to believe, however, that those
surveys can not be depended on for such work. The area, as computed for the
lake by the ‘‘ weighing method” used last year, is 1.41 square miles.

The amount of marsh land about the shore is very much less, comparatively,
than that about Turkey Lake. This may be accounted for by the fact that
Tippecanoe lies in the middle of a system rather than at the head, as in the case
of the former. The low wooded hills come quite close to this lake at almost all
points excepting the eastern end on the north and south sides. It is in three
basins: James Lake, of about a half square mile area at the east end connected by
a channel through swamp to the main lake, which is of about one and one-half
square miles in area, and Oswego Lake, below, also connected by a channel, and
having an area of about thirty acres. The channels are usually about four feet
in depth and are much frequented by minnows and young fish. Here and in the
mouths of streams are found the pond-lily plants (Nymphea) and spatter-dock
(Naphur), the root-stalks being in many instances four or five inches in diameter
and usually washed bare and shining. They were roasted and used for food by
the Indians; remains of pits lined with boulders and used for this purpose are yet
found on the south shore near ‘‘ Indian Furnace Point.”

This lake being greater in general depth (the greatest depth found is 121 feet
in the main lake) than any of the others, Turkey included, has less of the aquatic
vegetation than they. Bullrushes and bladderwort ( Utricularia) not seeming to
thrive in water more than eight or ten feet in depth, and these are usually the
advance guards of the vegetable encroachments.

Eagle Lake being second of those under consideration in general depth stands
next to Tippecanoe fewest in water plants. As Prof. S. Coulter is investigating
the conditions of life there I gladly leave that in his hands.

The measurements of Eagle Lake are as accurate as those of the others, but
owing to a flood at the time the work was done much that would be of interest was |
inaccessible. It will be noticed from the map that the lake consists of a main
body of water of almost a square mile in area and a small bay on the west side
connected by a shallow channel. The outlet is a small stream from the south end

of this bay. Two creeks and several springs on the east shore contribute water to

298

this lake. The amount of marshy land is small, lying principally at the south-
east end near the outlet.

The margin of the lake, according to the government survey (1834), is at
some distance from the present shore line, but I am inclined to think that that
only marked the edge of marshy ground, since at many points within this line are
quite large trees growing. I have not been able to obtain accurate information
concerning this matter. The greatest changes made in the form of this lake are
by the construction of a race-track by filling in a part of the lake on the east side
and excavation of a canal from the northwest part of the bay to a point near the
railroad depots. We are indebted to the members of the Winona Summer School
for boats for our work and admission to the grounds at the time we were making
soundings. The area is .987 square mile.

Webster Lake has been more changed than either of the others by human
agencies. It was formerly a group of two or three lakes of about thirty-five feet
at their deepest point, lying in the positions indicated by the dotted lines on the
accompanying map, surrounded by a marsh of about the extent of the present
lake. A dam was constructed for water power for a flouring mill, and this raised
the water to seven feet above its former level. In the north part of the lake nu-
merous stumps of various sizes indicate the position of a shore line. ‘‘The Back-
water” was entirely produced by this dam. The total area at present is 1.057 sq.
miles.

This lake presents a greater diversity than either of the others; being shallow, it
has great abundance of water plants, the ‘‘ Backwater” being literally crowded with
splatterdock and pond lilies. It has eight wooded islands and shore with variety
of meadow, wood, marsh and hill. On the shore also is a variety in vegetation.
The edge of the backwater in many places is crowded with cat-tails, while a bog
of about five acres in extent at the most northern part of this bay was covered
with pitcher plants (Sarracenia purpurea), and on a ridge somewhat farther east
was found a considerable diversity of fungus growth. The marsh at the north-
east part of the main lake was peculiar because of the height of the quaking,
grass-grown bog. In two places it was almost twelve feet in height and quite near
the lake. Lying behind this was bog lower than that mentioned. I can not ac-
count for this formation satisfactorily, unless it is caused by powerful springs of
water beneath making deposits there.

An instance where springs have built up bog to a greater Herbie is to be seen at
the northeast of ‘‘the backwater” on either side of a gravelly ridge, but here the
water may follow the ridge out from the higher ground.

A noticable thing about all of the Tippecanoe lakes in contrast to the Tankasp

Lake is the amber appearance of the water, given, perhaps, by the bogs from

299

whence it flows. In Turkey Lake the water has a clear, almost greenish appear-
ance. The measurements of inflow and outflow taken will have no value, because
of the swollen condition of the streams at the time they were taken.

Cedar Lake (or Clear Lake of the Government Surveys, also ‘‘The Lake of
the Red Cedars”) is a shallow, regular body of water having a more than ordi-
narily uniform slope of basin, and in no place exceeding twenty feet in depth.
About its shores are wooded hills which in almost every part come very near the
shore, the south end excepted. Here there is some marshy land. At the north
end the hills reach a height of sixty feet. They are a part of the moraine which
separates the Mississippi and St. Lawrence valleys. Within a fourth of a mile
from the north end of the lake is a narrow ridge 150 feet in length, 30 feet wide
and 8 feet high, in appearance very like a railroad embankment, which crosses a
narrow hollow and divides the waters which flow into these two systems. To the
north of it is a swamp of perhaps fifty acres in extent, extending to the ridge.
On the south side a narrow channel twenty feet in width, choked with grasses,
etc., but still with stagnant water in it, starts a few feet from it; further down the
soil has washed in and closed it, except for a narrow stream. The whole appear-
ance of the ridge is that it is very recent formation, but I am informed it was
there when the white men came. The moraine at the north, the appearance of a
wide valley to the southward and the shallowness of the lake make the conclusion
almost irresistible that this lake basin has been formed by the washing of the
water of the melting glacier which has rested on the north of it, as the water
found its way to the Kankakee. The present outlet is by a small stream flowing
past the town of Lowell to the southeast into the Kankakee.

The ice beaches on this lake are larger than those of any other I have
noticed. On the north is a ridge of sand, probably formed in this way, 1,000 feet
long, 35 feet wide, and about 7 feet high in the highest part. On the east side are
two others, but much less conspicuous. The bottom of the lake is generally sand.
Vegetation is less abundant than generally in the shallow lakes in the eastern
part of the State. The muskrat is very abundant, building, according to its
habit, reed houses in the fall in great numbers at a little distance in the lake.
At the northwest side near the end of the great sand ridge was found an Indian
mound. This had been opened and a number of skeletons found in it. On top
of it grew formerly an oak tree showing almost 200 ‘‘growth marks.”

I am under obligations to Rey. Timothy Ball, of Crown Point; Dr. Herbert
S. Ball, of Crown Point; Mr. A. D. Fisher, of Indiana University, and the Mo-
non Railroad Company for valuable assistance, information, ete. My report of
this lake would be very meager indeed had I not received the assistance from the

gentlemen at Crown Point.

300

EAGLE LAKE

In Secs.§5,16,i7, 21422 of
Top B2N,RGEE
INDIANA. (Kosciusko County)

from emap by Hor ‘Wagner
Boandings and Obsevedions by

THOS. LARGE ana 6.0.FISHER. |

Contributwn,
o\ INDIANA UNIVERSITY, No. 2c

from the 7h odlogicial Departart

ee eer

re
Peat ied
08 Kegs pans ry »

vas Fil :

G4
SV (OZ

Sin
NY

3

—+—--

a —— ar

LAKE TIPPECANOE
Tn See 6:7,8, 10.17 618 4f Tp.83 NRE, ant 411,612 4
Tp. 33N.RGE olnd. ir
Drown from Govt Surveys by Themas Large, wh ceretins ond |
Seandinas by C.0.Fisher ard Thee Large, August 1976 wander Ye Bagel |
5 Shee

Contribution No 210 from Indians amiversity Zaslerical Ladestery, |

S

WEBSTER or BOYDSTON LA
Ports of Seetrore (0.11,1213 14°15

of Township 33 NRaage7 ES

of Todiana
From alap by “etd Wagner, wilh covedhions
and toundings by
THOS. LAROE and C.OFISHER
Contribution NoBth, from the Zoslegical
Department of INDIANA UNIVERSITY

2 Stamps
Lily pads
Cabtails is woler

= ° Morshiowt

& Bprng Gres)

ooopenets)

301

2%,
The Backwater

or Lake of the Red Cedars

(Clear Lake of Sant Suey
Ln Sections 22,23,2627, 34734
of Tow nship O4 N. ROW
Drawn by it: Large
Contribution No 272 f rem

Indiana University Zoolog.
\cal Laboratory

Water area /./7 sq;
miles. v

* Cottages, Hotels, ete

Ry

ayourwe

Tce House

Old Indian
Mound

303

THE DEstRuUcTION oF A ScHoot oF BLUE Gitis. By THomas LARGE.

On August 14, 1896, Mr. A. J. Chapman, while standing on the bridge across
the channel between the main lake and the backwater bay of Webster Lake,
noticed immense schools of Blue Gills (Lepomis Pallidus)—among which were
but very few other fish—passing toward the main lake. On the days just preced-
ing this the temperature had risen the highest of any other period of the sum-
mer, and Mr. Chapman states that the water-gates of the grist mill at Boston, Ind.,
a few miles up the Tippecanoe River, had been closed, and caused the water be-
low to fall to a lower level than usual. None of the water of this part of the lake
is more than five or six feet in depth, and much of it much shallower. The wa-
ter became very much heated, and if this is the correct explanation of this move-
ment, these fish can not endure a great change in temperature, hence migrated to
the deeper water below. By opening the water-gates, a current being re-estab-
lished and the lake rising to its usual level, the fish attempted to return to their
usual feeding ground, and a large part of them lost their way in the lily-pads and
spatterdock which line either side of the narrow, winding channel, and, coming
into the shallow water near the shore on the east side, just below the bridge, were
killed by the great heat of the water there.

Four days later, when I visited this place and found the dead fish and re-
ceived the substance of the above explanation from Mr. Chapman, the margin of
the lake for about ten rods was thickly covered with dead fish. Among them, as
before stated, were very few other fish—one or two bass and a catfish being all
that I found. There was a considerable uniformity in size, ranging from three to
five or six inches in length. They had been fly-blown, and were almost entirely
destroyed, excepting bones, scales and skin, and the road at a distance of a dozen
feet was literally covered with maggots. The stench was great.

I have no better explanation to offer than the one given above, but noticed
on entering the channel, almost a half mile below, a film on the water, such as
one sees where organic matter decays, and noticed an odor different from that
near the fish. In the water were masses of decaying bladderwort ( Utricularia vul-
garis), Which might ,have been killed by the heat, and its presence in the water

might have caused the migration.

304

THE FoveEa. By J. R. STONAKER.

In a brief discussion of a subject like this one can but touch upon a few of
the many interesting and important points which present themselves in a careful
study. The following is mainly an abstract of a paper that will appear soon in
a number of the ‘‘ Journal of Morphology” under the heading of ‘‘A Compara-
tive Study of the Area of Acute Vision in the Vertebrates,” to which any one is
referred who may desire a more thorough and systematic treatise on this subject.

The term Fovea comes from the Latin, and means a pit or depression. It is
in this sense that I have used it, and not as the point of acute vision in any eye.
The significance of this statement will be readily seen when you consider the fact
that many animals do not possess such a pit or fovea, but do have an area of
most acute vision. However, when a fovea is present it is the point of most
acute vision.

Before giving a minute description of the fovea a few words concerning its
embryological development may be desirable.

J. H. Chievitz, a German investigator, has done a great deal on this subject.
He finds that there is first developed, in the place where the fovea afterwards
appears, a thickening of the retina. This thickening he terms the ‘‘Area cen-
tralis.” It is present in the human fetus about the sixth month, after which
time the fovea begins to appear. This increase in thickness is due largely to an
accumulation of cells in three layers, viz.: the nerve cell layer and the inner
and outer nuclear layers. Then follows a gradual pitting in of the vitreal sur-
face, due to a thinning out or pushing toward the periphery of the elements of
all the layers of the retina excepting the rod and cone and the pigment layers.
This development has proceeded in some animals only to the formation of an
area, in others to a very shallow fovea; while many have a very deep and well-
defined depression. Ina very shallow fovea all the layers may be present in the
center, though somewhat thinner; but in the center of a deep fovea some of the
layers will be entirely absent, and those which remain very much reduced, ex-
cepting, of course, the rod and cone and the pigment layers. The layer which
disappears first is the nerve fibre layer. Then follow the nerve cell layer, inner
molecular layer, inner nuclear layer, and, in a very deep fovea, the outer molec-
ular and nuclear layers may also be wanting. This is readily seem in the fovee
of the turkey, pigeon, robin, hawk or human. We thus have a fovea developed
which is always surrounded by an area, or, in the terms of human physiology, a

macula lutea.

305

As one approaches the fovea the rods and cones have less diameter, and are
more numerous per given area. ‘This necessitates an increase in the number of
cells which form the connection with the nerve fibres (ganglion or nerve cells and
cells of the inner and outer nuclear layers). But this is not the only cause for
an increase in number of these cells. Raymon y Cajal has carefully worked out
the manner in which these cells form the connection between the rods and the
cones and the nerve fibres. In general, processes pass outward (dendrites) from
the ganglion cells and branch profusely among the ingoing processes (neurites)
from the cells of the inner nuclear layer, A similar relation obtains in the outer
molecular layer between the dendrites and the neurites of the cells of the inner
and outer nuclear layers. Each ganglion cell, and consequently each nerve fibre,
comes in contact with from ten to thirty rods or cones. But in the region of the
area the dendrites and neurites of these cells branch less and finally reach that
condition in the center of the fovea where each ganglion cell is in contact with
but a single cone.

In the peripheral part of the retina the rods generally exceed the cones in
number, but as one approaches the area or fovea the cones become more numer-
ous, and finally in the center of the fovea the rods are entirely wanting.

The fovea varies greatly in form, number and position in different animals.
It varies from a very questionable depression found in the domestic guinea hen
to a very sharp and deep funnel-like pit found in most birds, especially birds of
prey, and in many lizards. The depression may be very broad, as seen in man
and some fishes; or, according to Chieyitz, we may have a trough-like fovea of
various depths, extending horizontally aeross the retina. In my researches I
have not been able to find such a fovea. It is true that in many birds I have
seen what appears, to the unaided eye, to be a trough-like depression, but when
sections were made across such a region and examined microscopically such a
fovea was not discerned. I have been able to examine but one of the species
which he has mentioned as haying this peculiar fovea, so have included them in
my tabulation as he has described them.

As a rule but one fovea is present, but twelve birds have been examined in
which two distinct foveze have been found. Chievitz has described some as having
also a trough-like fovea. A double fovea has been discovered only in birds,
Among those which I have found to possess double fovew are three species of
hawks, the white-bellied swallow, the common tern and the kingfisher.

The position of the fovea may be either on the nasal side of the entrance of
the optic nerve (fovea nasalis), as in most birds, or it may be situated on the

temporal side (fovea temporalis) as in man and the owls. The fovea nasalis

306

occupies about the central point of the retina and functions only in monocular
vision. The tempora] fovea functions in binocular vision. In man it is
located about the center of the retina, but in the owl it is some distance
to the temporal side of the center. In the case of two fovew, the one
at the center of the retina (fovea nasalis) functions in monocular vision; the
other (fovea temporalis) corresponds in position to that of the owl, and functions,
likewise, in binocular vision. If a trough-like fovea is present it would function
in acts of sight anywhere between monocular and binocular vision.

The area centralis also has a variety of forms, number and positions corre-
sponding to those of the fovea and similarly named. A simple fovea is always
surrounded by a round area which is frequently on or in a band-like area extending
horizontally across the retina. If a trough-like fovea should be present it would
lie along a band-like area. Frequently when two fovere are present the areas
surrounding each are connected by a band-like area.

We may thus have various combinations of area and fovea. The most com-
mon is a simple fovea surrounded by a round area. Further, this round area
may be continuous with a band-like one. Or two fovee may each be surrounded
by a round area, one of which may be continuous with a band-like area, or each
may be so connected.

When one considers the prevalence of a fovea in the different vertebrates he
finds that, though each class has representatives which possess a fovea, by far the
greater number have only an area centralis. Many have been examined in which
not even an area has been observed.

The following tabulation represents in a condensed form the results, so far as

I have been able to collect them, of all investigations up to the present time:

|
|
| AREA Founp. |

Fovea Founp.

|
|
l
| |
|

No. of Species
No. Area Found.
Round.
Band-like.
Trough-like.

| | | | |
PES Wei iy itl EP eoseesenenemerocs j
LOLA Birdssas cohorts 22 seas ees ees
Sul WReptilessemsecencce soos cena |
14) Am phibiansi.ees soso este.
AUDI MIMEEB Shace Sheed Soopcanobar

AVG ED) Geen eal eer ll Rneananice Selec] Sees Rouen nea

307

Of all the animals which I have been able to tabulate (227 species) no area
was found in 26, a round area was perceived in 183, and a band-like area in 55,
Of this number, 120 possessed a simple fovea, 12 a double fovea, and according
to Chievitz 25 had a through-like fovea.

Mammals do not as a rule possess a fovea, but generally have an area. Of
the 51 species tabulated 10 were found in which no area was demonstrated; 33
had a round area and eight a band-like area. Only 18 species (all primates) pos-
sessed a well-defined fovea.

Jn the 104 birds all had a clear fovea excepting one, the common chicken.
Why the chicken does not have a fovea when it is present in all the nearest allied
forms remains a query. A round area was found in every case, and in 36 a band-
like area was also observed. Ninety-one had a simple fovea, twelve double
fovea, and twenty-two the questionable trough-like fovea.

Among reptiles a well-defined fovea has generally been found in the lizards
and crocodiles, but it has not been observed in the snakes and turtles. Of the
twenty-eight species examined only three were found which did not possess an
area, while twenty-three had a round area and three band-like ones. A round
fovea was seen in the lizards tabulated and a trough-like fovea in the crocodiles.

A fovea has been observed in only two of the fourteen amphibians tabulated.
Chievitz reports a trough-like fovea in Bufo calamita and Hulke a simple fovea
in Bufo vulgaris, I have not found a fovea in any of the amphibians which I
have examined. In the tabulation, three of the number had no area, three had
a round area, and eight possessed a band-like one. I have found the band-like
area common to frogs and toads.

In fishes the absence of a fovea is the rule. In the thirty species given a
fovea was observed in but five, and no area in ten. In these ten, however, the
material at hand was not sufficient to warrant a definite statement. Of the
twenty-six fishes I have examined only one was found with a fovea. This was the
pipe fish (Siphostoma fuseum).

* When one compares the retinas in the different vertebrates he finds a
marked diversity. A great difference is noticed in the relative thickness of the
different layers. But the most marked change is noticed in the rod and cone
layer. Comparing the diameter, length, shape and relative number of the rods and
cones we find that fishes, frogs and mammals possess the longest rods. In mam-
mals the rods have the smallest diameter, and in frogs the greatest of any of the
vertebrates. In birds they are comparatively short and thick. The cones are the
longest in some of the reptiles (chameleon) and of greatest diameter in am-

phibians and mammals. They have about the same length in birds and am-

308

phibians, while in fishes they are the shortest. In birds the diameter of the cones
approaches very closely to that of the reptiles.

When one is comparing the sensitiveness of the retina of different animals
the diameter of the rods and cones is of vast importance. For since these sensi-
tive elements are arranged close together, where the diameter is small there would
be more per given area and a more sensitive retina.

The relative number of rods and cones is also of importance. In mammals
and amphibians the rods far surpass the cones in number. In birds, with few ex-
ceptions, the reverse is true, while in reptiles few or no rods are present. In
fishes they are more equally divided.

Investigations by experiment and histological examination prove that the
rods are more sensitive to faint impressions than the cones, but that the cones
have the greatest power of discrimination beth of color and shade. Most noc-
turnal animals that have been examined have few or no cones.

Experiments on the human retina show that the fovea has the power of
most acute vision, and that the power of distinct vision grows rapidly less toward
the periphery. We may thus assume that in other auimals the fovea, which has
the same general arrangement of retinal elements as in man, when present bears
the same relation to the more peripheral parts. The human macula, though
inferior to the fovea, sees objects more distinctly than the peripheral parts, and
we may reasonably say that in general the area centralis bears this relation to
the other parts of the retina.

The peripheral part serves as a sentinel, for it perceives objects in motion
more easily than objects at rest. Moving objects attract all animals more quickly
than stationary ones, and this is especially true in those animals whose retinal
development has not proceeded beyond the differentiation of an area. Only those
animals which possess a fovea seem to have the power of quiet and close dis-
crimination of an object at rest.

In speaking of the powers of sight in the different classes of vertebrates, J
can do no better than quote from the original article of which the foregoing is’a
summary.

Fishes as a rule depend upon sight for their food, excepting such as the
shark, which depends almost wholly on its smell. This class of vertebrates does
not, however, usually possess a fovea.

How distinctly they see we can not say, but we know that the trout quickly
takes the fly when thrown on the water, or the pickerel the whirling spoon as it is
drawn before it. They see the objects while in motion and are apparently una-

ble to distinguish them from the real article of food. An experience in fishing

309

confirms the fact that a pickerel will not bite at a motionless spoon-hook. The
retina of these fish has simply a thickening or area at the axis of vision.

A somewhat similar experiment can be tried with the frog or toad. If one
attaches a bit of red flannel, a green leaf or any other small object to a thread
and dangles it before a frog he will quickly jump for it. A toad may be fed on
meat in a similar way, but in no case will the meat be taken unless it is in mo-
tion. Neither do these animals show any marked power of discrimination by
sight. They will jump at any small moving object and are apparently not able
to distinguish, till they have it in their mouths, whether it is an article of food
ora pebble. Investigations again show the presence of an area and absence of
a fovea. .

In some of the reptiles, however, a marked difference in power of discrimi-
nation by sight is noticed. Experiments were made wholly on a small lizard
(horned toad). Ii a dead fly were put before him when he was hungry he
would eye it closely for a brief time then quickly take it. His aim was also cer-
tain, never missing his mark, while that of the ordinary toad was more at random,
throwing out her tongue indiscriminately at moving objects. It is true the lizard
was attracted more by a live and moving fly than by a dead, motionless one, but
he also had the power of perceiving things at rest. This little creature pos-
sessed a sharp and well defined fovea.

In general, bird’s eyes are almost as perfect as man’s, and, likewise, the optic
lobes are even greater in proportion to the size of the body than that of man. It
is true that the bird often catches flies as they buzz about, but it also inspects
each leaf carefully above and below for a worm or bug which may be there in
hiding and which it seldom fails to recognize. The hawk as it soars high in the
heavens sees the snake, rat or mouse in the grass and is frequently seen to dart
and secure its prey. Very acute sight is present in all birds and especially in
birds of prey.

A great difference exists in the power of sight in mammals. The primates
possess the power of most acute vision. Many of the mammals depend on smel!
and hearing more than on sight. The dog picks his master out of the crowd by
smell, so does the sheep her lamb. Sight in this case being only partial recogni-
tion and they are not sure until they have confirmed their sight by the sense of
smell. The same is true of the cow, for she must smell of the strange cow when
introduced into the herd. The horse is cured of his fright by smelling of the ob-
ject which caused it. In all these cases we find a motion of the ears showing that
the animal is not only using sight and smell but also hearing. Mammals in gen-

eral do not recognize a man by sight if he remains quiet, but the erow easily sees

2]

310

him and does not fail to distinguish his stick from a gun. The dog looks into
your face, but you can not tell whether he is looking into your eyes or at your
mouth. He has an indefinite gaze, and, like most mammals, is not satisfied with
the sense of sight alone, but must confirm and improve with the sense of smell
and hearing.

In conclusion, we may say, that though all animals may have the power of
accurate observation, yet the power to perceive the delicate lines and shades of
an object distinctly seems to reside only in those forms whose retinal development

has reached the highest stage, that is, a fovea centralis.

INDEX.

ACTIVE MEMBERS, 14.

Act for protection of birds, 5.

Act to provide for publication, +.
Ammonium citrate, action of, 112.
Andrews, F. M., 208.

Aquatic animalcule in new stations, 271.
Arthur, J.C., 214.

BACTERIOLOGICAL FLORA IN
bles, 172.

IBA. TSH, Pay toe

Barrett, J. M., 104.

Bedford limestone, 68.

Benton, George W., 63.

Bigney, A. J., 274.

Biological Survey of Milan Pond, 274.

Bitting, A. W., 172.

Blake, E. M., 87.

Blatchley, W.S., 54, 130.

Blue gills, destruction of, 303.

Bobolink in Indiana, 227.

Burk, W. E., 113.

Burrage, Severance, 56.

Butler, A. W., 227, 244.

By-laws, 12.

CALENDAR GROUP, 86.

Call, R. Ellsworth, 46, 54, 247.

Cedar Lake, 296.

Chansler, E. J., 244.

Chipman, W. W.., 147.

Clark and Weston cells, 98.

Committees, 6.

Composite of Indiana, general notes, 160.
Constitution, 10.

CO ae to the flora of Indiana, No. IV,
Correspondents, foreign, 19.

Coulter, Stanley, 33, 159, 189, 275.

Crushing strength of cylinders, 88.
Cryptogams, 171.

Cunningham, Alida Mabel, 190.
Cunningham, Clara, 208.

Curtis, Geo. L., 259.

STA-

DAVIS, B. M., 259, 260.
Davis, Chas. E., 172.
Davis, Sherman, 115.
Diphenylselenon, 114.
Dolan, J. P., 279, 286.
Duff, A. W., 97.

EAGLE LAKE, 296.

Engineering research laboratory, 59.
Epyphysis cerebri, 259.

Epyphysis cerebri, literature of, 260.
Euthymorphie functions, 87.

Evolution of map of Mammoth Cave, 46.
Exceptional growth of a wild rose, 159.

FELLOWS, 13.

Field Meeting, 1896, 32.

Filtration, 63.

Fisher, C. 0. and A. D., 296.

Flather, J. J., 79, 93.

Flora of Indiana, contributions to, No. IV,
159.

Flora of Lake Cieott and Lake Maxinkue-
kee, notes on, 116.

Foreign correspondents, 19.

Fovea, the, 304.

GOLDEN, KATHERINE E., 18+.
Goldsborough, W. E., 97.
Goss, W. F. M., 59, 88.

HATHAWAY, A.S., 85.

Hatt, W. K.., 68, 88, 97.

Heating effects of coals, 115.

Hessler, Robert, 116.

Holostomide, 224.

Huston, H. A.; 104, 112.
Hydrographic basins of Indiana, 247.

I'E FORMATION OF LAKE WAWASEE,
286.

Indiana Academy of Science, possible rela-
tion of, 54.

Indiana bird list, 244.

312

Indiana caves, 54.

Indiana cryptogams, additions to, 171.

Indiana, hydrographic basins and molluscan
fauna of, 247.

Tnoculations of animals with yeasts, 186.

JONES, W.J., Jr., 112.
Juday, Chancey, 287.

LAKE CICOTT
kuckee, notes on flora of, 116.

Lake Cicott, location and topography, 117.

Lake County, 73.

Lake Maxinkuckee, location and topogra-
phy, 118.

Lake Michigan, 72.

Lake region of northeastern Indiana, gen-
eral physiographic conditions, 149.

Lake region of northeastern Indiana, notes
on the flora of, 147.

Lake region of northeastern Indiana, out-
lines of, 147. .

Lake region of northeastern Indiana, physio-
graphic changes, 150.

Lake region of northeastern Indiana, some
general observations, 157.

Large, Thomas, 296, 303.

Life, A. C., 208.

Louisville filtration experiments, 63.

Lyon, Robert, 114.

MAMMOTH CAVE, 46.

McDougal, D. T., 224.

Mechanical computer, 88.
Mollusean fauna of Indiana, 247.
Moore, Jos., 75, 277.

Morainal stone quarry, 75.

Morley, Fred, 88.

Mounds of Vanderburgh County, 68.

NEF, J. U., 115.

Newlin, C. E., 226.

Non-resident members, 14.

Notes on L- and B-Lupanin, 115.

Notes on some phanerogums new or rare to
the State, 130.

Notes on the flora of the lake region of
northeastern Indiana, 147.

Noyes, W.A., 115.

OFFICERS OF INDIANA ACADEMY OF
SCIENCE, 7-9.

Ordinary yeasts possess no toxic properties,
188.

Orthogonal surfaces, 85.

AND LAKE MAXID- |

|

PERIODICITY OF ROOT PRESSURE, 143.

Peirce, G. J., 172, 208.

Pith cell changes, 172.

Phanerogams new or rare to the State, notes
on, 130.

Plantago, analytical key to species of, 191.

Plantago minima, nov. sp., 202.

Plantago rubra, nov.sp., 204.

Pleas, Elwood, 271.

Possible relation of Indiana Academy of
Science, 54.

Presidential address, 33.

Proceedings 12th annual meeting, 31.

Program 12th annual meeting, 25.

Purdue, A. H., 68.

RANDOLPH MASTODON, 277.
Rettger, L. J., 54, 224.
tevision of the species of the genus Plan-

tago, occurring within the U.S., 190.

Rodents, growth of incisor, 226.

Root pressu-e, periodicity of, 143.

Russian thistle, 224.

SCIENCE AND THE STATE, 33.

Shaft friction, 79.

Shannon, W. P., 6d, 271.

Snyder, Lillian, 216.

Soil solvents, 104.

Stonaker, J. R., 304.

Subdivision of power, 93.

Suicide of a erow, 275.

TAYLOR, S. N., 98.

Temperature of Lake Wawasee, 279.

Tests of car axle, 88.

The effects of drought upon certain plants,
great structural differences, 210.

The effects of drought upon certain plants;
plants which can withstand drought, 211.

Thomas, M. B., 148.

Tippecanoe lake, 296.

Tornado, 65.

Turkey lake, plankton of, 287.

ULREY, ALBERT B., 224.

Underwood, Lucien M., 171.

Uroglena in Lafayette, 56.

VANDERBURGH COUNTY MOUNDS, 68.

Volatile matter in bituminous coal, 115.

WABASH COUNTY, RUSSIAN THISTLE,
224.

Waldo, C. A., 86.

Webster lake, 296.

YEASTS, PATHOGENIC ORGANISMS, 18.

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