m m ' r^N ;^a lasii MWMfti %■ I ^35 ^^C? •tfa&te IT- •NS ^^ ^St ^S^S^s ^fc-wTWg ^ ^,:^ y % - ^ s •Ns ^ ' T^: n~ xl - T i \ .CX V-, ' ' £sr> - _ SSi ^"^VX; -*r«<*% Zs* A&', m> ty c V & - -""^ ^ _^X-i , ^ S S _->^C< _5&~ S^SSS >*% ^Ns^t"^ ^^='~ *e S5?« ^■. Sfe% • V *P i ' *% uw 4&£ c ..- *k PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCE-. PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. NEW SERIES. Vol. XX. WHOLE SERIES. Vol. XXVIII. FROM MAY, 1892, TO MAY, 1893. SELECTED FROM THE RECORDS. BOS T 0 N : UNIVERSITY PRESS: JOHN WILSON AND BON. 1893. ,ftx CONTENTS. Paoi I. A Revision of the Atomic Weight of Barium First Paper: The Analysis of Baric Bromide. By Theodore Wii i.i \m Richards 1 II. On the Development of the Spermogonium of Caoma nitens (Schw.). By Herbert Mahle Richard* :;i III. On a Thermo-electric Method of studying < 'ylinder Condi n- sation in Steam-engines. By Edwin H. Ham 37 IV. Note on an Approximate Trigonometric Expression for Fluctuations of Steam Temperature in on Engir I By Edwin H. Hall .".1 V. Studies on the Transformations of Moths of the Family Satur- niidat. By A. S. Packard, M. D i.i VI. An Investigation of the Excursion of the Diaphragm of a '/'. phone Receiver. By Charles R. Cross \nd ARTHUR N. Mansfielii VII. Additions to the Phanogamic Flora of Mexico, red by C. G. Pringle in 1S91-9L'. By B. L. ROBINSON UCD II. E. Seaton VIII. New and little known Plant* collected on Mt 0 the Summer o/1891. By Henry E. Si \i.i\ . . llfl IX. The North American Sileneoz and Polycarpeee. Bt B. I Robinson 50 VI CONTENTS. Page X. New Species of Laboulbeniacecc from various Localities. By Roland Thaxter 156 XI. On the Variations of the " Hall Effect" in Several Metals with Changes of Temperature. By Albert L. Clough and Edwin H. Hall 189 XII. On the Occlusion of Gases by the Oxides of Metals. By Theodore William Richards and Elliot Folger Rogers 200 XIII. On Real Orthogonal Substitution. By Henry Taber . . 212 XIV. On the Formation of Chlor and Brombenzoic Anhydrides. By George D. Moore and Daniel F. O'Regan .... 222 XV. On the Formation of Substituted Benzophenones. By George D. Moore and Daniel F. O'Regan 226 XVI. On the Excursion of the Diaphragm of a Telephone Receiver. By Charles R. Cross and Henry M. Phillips . . 234 XVII. On the Cupriammonium Double Salts. By Theodore Wil- liam Richards and Hubert Grover Shaw . . . 247 XVIII. Notes on the Oxides contained in Cerite, Samarskite, Gado- linite, and Fergusonite. By Wolcott Gibbs, M. D. . . 260 XIX. Turmerol. By C. Loring Jackson and W. H. Warren 280 Proceedings 287 Biographical Notices : — John Montgomery Batchelder, by John Trowbridge .... 305 Henry Ingersoll Bowditch, by Charles F. Folsom 3.10 Phillips Brooks, by William R. Huntington 331 James Bicheno Francis, by William E. Worthen 333 Eben Norton Horsford, by Charles L. Jackson 340 William Raymond Lee, by John C. Ropes 346 Lewis Mills Norton, by Thomas M. Drown . 348 Andrew Preston Peabody, by Edward E. Hale 351 CONTENTS. vil Paqi George Cheyne Shattuck, by Samuel Eliot 356 Johu Greenleaf Whittier, by Barrett Wendell 357 William Ferrel, by AVilliam M. Uavis 388 Frederick Augustus Geuth, by Wolcott Gibbs 393 John Strong Newberry, by Raphael Pumpelly 391 William Petit Trowbridge, by Gaetauo Lanza George Vasey, by Benjamin L. Robinson 4()1 William Bowman, by Henry W. Williams 403 Alphonse Louis Pierre Pyramus de Candolle, by William G. Farlow 406 August Wilhelm von Ilofmanu, by Charles L. Jackson . . . 411 Sir Richard Owen, by Thomas Dwight 418 Alfred, Lord Tennyson, by Edward J. Lowell 420 List of the Fellows and Foreign Honorary Members . . 433 Index 441 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. VOL. XXVIII. PAPERS READ BEFORE THE ACADEMY. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE CHEMICAL LABORATORY OF HARVARD COLLEGE. A REVISION OF THE ATOMIC WEIGHT OF BARIUM. FIRST PAPER: THE ANALYSIS OF BARIC BROMIDE. By Theodore William Richards. Presented January 11, 1803. Table of Contents. PAGE Introduction 1 Balance and Weights 5 Spectroscopic Detection of Calcium, Strontium, and Barium .... 7 Choice of Material 9 Properties of Baric Bromide . . Preparation of Materials . . . Method of Analysis . . . . Data and Results The Atomic Weight of Barium PAOl 11 10 23 36 80 Introduction. In the course of a recent determination of the atomic weighl of copper,* there was an attempt made to determine (the ratio of cupric to baric sulphate; hut in the discussion of the result it became evident that the ordinary method of precipitation was far too crude for the desired purpose. Moreover, even had there not been pos- sible errors of a serious nature in the method, the atomic weigh! "f barium was evidently too uncertain to form the basis of any accu- rate comparison. Hence this attempt was at the ti given op, * These Proceedings, Vol. XXVI. p. 2 vol. xxvni. (n. s. xx.) 1 2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY and the plausibility of the single result obtained was ascribed to a chance elimination of opposite errors. During the early part of this century, a number of chemists have investigated the atomic weight of barium with very widely varying results. The first experiments worthy of mention were made by Berzelius and Klaproth;* but these are now of historical interest only. In 1818 the problem was again undertaken by Berzelius, f who found that from 100.00 parts of anhydrous baric chloride he could obtain 138.07 parts of argentic chloride; whence the atomic weight is readily computed to be 136.8. At the same time he found that the same amount of baric chloride yielded 112.175 parts of baric sulphate, which gives Ba = 135.6. In 1829 Edward Turner \ published a redetermination of the latter ratio, finding the equivalents to be as 100.00:112.19. He too weighed the argentic chloride obtainable from a given amount of baric chloride, and arrived at the conclusion that the atomic weight of barium could not be far from 137.45. Two years later T. Thomson § described several attempts to weigh barium as the sulphate, which need not be further discussed. In 1833 Tiirner || found as a mean of three experiments that 112.03 parts of baric nitrate were required to form 100.00 parts of baric sulphate; a re- sult indicating 137.0 as the atomic weight of barium. Ten years later Salvetat % published a very incomplete account of the quanti- tative study of the conversion of baric carbonate into sulphate, giving a final result of 136. Soon after this both Pelouze ** and Marignac ft determined the ratio of baric chloride to metallic silver, the first finding the atomic weight of barium to be 137.3, and the second 137.1. In 1850 Levol $t reduced auric chloride with sulphurous anhydride, and de- termined the sulphuric acid which resulted with baric chloride. Recalculated with the recently determined atomic weight of gold, 197.3, §§ these results give 138.3 as the atomic weight of barium. * See Wollaeton, Phil. Trans., 1814, p. 20. t Pogg. Annalen, VIII. 189. t Phil. Transactions, 1829, p. 296. § System of Chemistry, 7th Edition, 1831, I. 426. || Phil. Transactions, 1833, p. 538. T Compt. Rend., XVII. 318. ** Ibid., XX. 1047. tt Liebig's Annalen, 1848, LXVIII. 215. J} Ann. Chim. Phys., [3.] XXX. 359. §§ Kriiss, 1887 ; Thorpe and Laurie, 1887 ; and Mallet, 1889. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 3 In the next year H. Struve* found that 100 parts of baric chloride produced 112.094 parts of baric sulphate, a value which leads to an atomic weight of barium equal to 137.0. T. Andrews! obtained in 1852 the value 137. G, but be gives none of his details. Six years afterwards Marignac J redetermined the ratio of baric chlo- ride to the sulphate, with a result very different from those of his predecessors. In his hands one hundred parts of the former sail yielded only 112.011 parts of the latter, instead of 1 L2.09 or more. In the same investigation he determined the amount of water <.f crystallization in baric chloride, with results so unsatisfactory thai the values calculated from the various ratios varied from 128.5 t" over 138,§ as well as the ratio of baric chloride to metallic silver. This last determination led to a value for barium only four one- hundredths of a unit higher than his previous work, tin years be- fore. He admits that the substances used in the analysis were not perfectly pure, but assumes that the impurities were not gnat enough seriously to influence the result. At about the same time Dumas || was also determining the ratio of baric chloride to silver. He fused the salt in a stream of hydrochloric acid gas, but gives no proof that a slight excess of the gas was not absorbed. If tlii- had been the case, of course the observed atomic weight of barium would have been too low. As a matter of fact, he obtained 137.0 for the value of this "apparently variable constant." Below is tabulated a list of the various determinations, grouped according to the processes employed. The Atomic Weight of Barium.^ 0=: 16.000. Analysis of Baric Carbonate : Berzelius, 1811 Ba = 134 to 143 Wollaston and Klaproth, 1814 1 ■ '■'•' ■ » ■ - Salvetat, 1843 1;:,; * Liebig's Annalen, 1851, LXXX. 204. t Brit. Assoc. Report, 1852, Part 2, p. 33. $ Liebig's Annalen, CVI. 165. § See Meyer and Seubert's " Atomgewichte," p. 176. || Liebig's Annalen, CXIII. 22. f The writer is much indebted to the works of Becker, Clarke, Meyer and Seubert, and Ostwald for valuable assistance in preparing this list. PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY Conversion of Baric Chloride to Sulphate : Berzelius, 1818 Ba: = 135.6 Turner, 1829 Ba: = 135.4 Thomson, 1831 Ba: = 136± Struve, 1851 Ba: = 137.0 Marignac, 1858 Ba = = 138.5 Conversion of Nitrate into Sulphate : Turner, 1833 Ba: = 137.0 Comparison of Baric Sulphate with Gold : Levol, 1850 138.3 Ratio of Baric Chloride to Argentic Chloride : Thomson Ba: = 136± Berzelius, 1818 Ba: = 136.8 Turner, 1829 Ba: = 137.4 Marignac, 1858 Ba: = 137.1 Ratio of Baric Chloride to Silver: Pelouze, 1845 137.28 Marignac, 1848 137.11 Marignac, 1858 137.15 Dumas, 1859 137.00 Ratios including Water of Crystallization : Marignac, 1858 (averages) 130.7 to 138.5 Unknown Ratio: Andrews, 1852 137.6 Clarke, 1883, selects* Ba: = 137.0 L. Meyer and Seubert, 1883, select Ba: = 137.2 Ostwald, 1885, selects Ba: = 137.04 Van der Plaats, 1886, selects Ba: = 137.1 A cursory glance at the list will show a lamentable lack of con- sistency in the results of even a single method in different hands. The only ratio which seemed capable of yielding approximate re- sults was the ratio of baric chloride to metallic silver, and here the variations in the atomic weight of barium amounted to nearly three tenths of a unit. The question whether the errors were due to me- chanical defects of analysis, or to admixture of foreign substances, * In Clarke's original treatise 137.007 is apparently misprinted for 137.07 (Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. XXVII. p. 63). OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 5 became an important subject for consideration; but it is evidently of little use to recalculate sucb heterogeneous results. The n- • sity for a careful experimental revision is very apparent. Sucb a revision would be especially interesting in view of the fact that barium is a member of one of the best marked series of elements known, — a series which might yield important information regard- ing a possible mathematical relation of the atomic weights. More- over, the atomic weights of no less than eighteen other elements * have been determined, at one time or another, by reference to baric sulphate. Most of these determinations have been made without the least precaution with regard to the baric chloride occluded in the precipitated sulphate, or on account of the solubility of the sul- phate itself; but even if the method had been satisfactory, the determinations could not be considered as anything more than crude approximations, because of our uncertainty regarding t la- molecular weight of baric sulphate. These were some of the considerations which prompted the pn ent undertaking. It is not unnatural that the revision should have been begun with the more or less strong belief that the atomic weight of barium could not be far from 137.1; but the pro the work has completely overthrown this belief, and has indicated a much higher value. Balance and Weights. The balance and weights were identical with those used in the latter part of the investigation upon copper,! hence a further de- scription of them is unnecessary. The weights were gently and carefully rubbed, and again standardized with reference to each other; a proceeding which yielded values essentially identical with the two previous standardizations. The first ten-gramme weight was also compared from time to time with the platinum weight which had been carefully standardized in Washington,! in order to test its constancy. TriH' Grammes. Oct. 18, 1891 Ten-gramme weight = 10. 23 May 16, 1892 " " =10.00023 Nov. 1, 1892 " " = L0.00022 Nov. 2, 1892 " " = 10.00020 * Li, Be, F, Mg, Si, V, Cr, Ni, Cu, Se, Y, In, (Ba), La, Ce, Di, An, Tl. Th. Compare L. Meyer and Seubert's " Atomgewichte," p. 165. t These Proceedings, XXVI. 242. PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY The second ten-gramme weight, which was much less used, re- mained quite constant in value. Throughout the present investigation the method of. weighing by tares was universally adopted. A vessel to he weighed was placed upon the left hand scale pan, balanced with common gilded weights, and then replaced by a similar vessel which weighed a few milli- grammes less. The exact amount of this extra tare having been determined wTith the rider, the counterpoise was replaced by the original vessel and the rider removed, in order to determine if the centre point had changed. When only a slight change had taken place, the reading for the counterpoise was compared with the mean of the two readings for the original vessel. In the rare cases when the change exceeded the equivalent of the thirtieth of a milligramme, the vessels were alternately substituted for each other until con- stancy was reached. A substance to be weighed was of course placed in such a tared vessel, and after substitution the deficiency of the counterpoise was made up with standard weights. The dif- ference between the tares on the left hand scale pan indicated the observed weight in air of the substance taken. It was found con- venient to tabulate the results in the following form. Common Weights : Right hand pan. Grammes. Tare: Standard Weights. Left hand pan. Grammes. Cor. to Standard Weights. Milli- grammes. Corrected Standard Weights. Grammes. Correction to Vacuum. Milli- grammes. True Weight of Substance taken. Grammes. Weight of crucible -f- substance Weight of crucible alone 22.0890 20.2797 1.80986 0.00081 —0.05 0.00 1.80981 0.00081 Weight of substance, cryst. baric bromide 1.8093 1.80905 1.80900 +0.30 1.80930 The lowest right hand figure represents the true weight of the substance taken, if the Sartorius ten-gramme weight is taken as the standard. Reduced to the Washington standard the value becomes 1.80934; but this last correction is in no case applied in the work which follows. The method used in the case of hygroscopic substances, and most other precautions, are given at length in the paper already quoted. In weighing a crystallized salt it was usually necessary to weigh the crucible while filled with ordinary moist air, hence the counter- poise crucible was exposed to the same conditions. • OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 7 During the latter part of the investigation the balance was kept in a small room built entirely inside of the main laboratory. The absence of outside windows in the small room caused a notable ab- sence of air currents and rapid changes of temperature, while glass walls supplied plenty of light. It is almost needless to state that, while the weights of the appa- ratus were not reduced to the vacuum standard, — on account of the method of weighing, which rendered such reduction unnecessary, — the weight of every substance used was corrected in the maimer shown above for the difference between the weight of air displaced by it and that displaced by the corresponding brass weights. Where the specific gravity of the substance was not already accurately known, it was carefully determined for this purpose. The Spectroscopic Detection of Calcium and Strontium in the Presence of Barium. In the course of the search for a typical barium salt it became im- portant to determine how small an amount of calcium and strontium could be detected in the presence of large amounts of barium. The most sensitive method is naturally the spectroscopic one, but no literature giving the degree of sensibility seemed to be at hand. The first phase of the problem to be investigated was the deter- mination of the amount of calcium and strontium which could be detected in the absence of barium. Hence a standard solution of calcium and strontium was prepared containing 0.8 milligramme of each metal to the cubic centimetre. This solution was succes- sively diluted and tested by means of a well made single prism spectroscope with an adjustable slit. A drop of the solution was supported upan a coil of wire containing 0.018 cubic centimetre, similar to that suggested by Truchot* and so ably used by Gooch and Hart.f No attempt at quantitative analysis was made, the present problem being merely the determination of the limit oJ visibility. * Compt. Bend., LXXVIII. 1022. t Am. Journ. of Sci., [3.] XLII. 448. The writer is much indebted to this paper for valuable hints. 8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY RESULTS. Dilution. Weight of Ca. and Sr. vaporized. Observations. Solution : Water. 1 : 0 Milligrammes. 0.014 Brilliant. 1 : 5 0.003 u 1 : 10 0.0014 Very plainly visible. 1 : 20 0.0007 tt y alcohol was evaporated to dryness and extracted with alcohol. Calcium was very evident in the extract, but no trace of strontium. The reason for the apparent absence of the latter metal is to be found in the fact that the mother liquor was evaporated to dryness. To prove this, the same amount of materials were fractionally precipi- tated three times, and a very evident strontium spectrum was given by the last mother liquor. In the fifth trial, only oue two-hun- dredth of a milligramme of strontium was used. Upon three frac- tionations no strontium could be detected; but upon dissolving and reprecipitating each of the precipitates once more a faint test for the metal was found in the final mother liquor. This is evi- dently about the limit so far as strontium is concerned. Calcium may be detected when it is present in quantities much less than the two-hundredth of a milligramme, because of the ready solu- bility of its chloride in alcohol. The baric chloride used gave no trace of the calcium or strontium lines after most careful fractionation.* From these experiments it may be concluded that, when a baric salt shows no trace of the allied metals upon the treatment just de- scribed, it does not contain a weighable amount of them. Never- theless, in the work which follows, the purification was usually continued long after the visible traces of strontium and calcium had been eliminated. The Choice of Material. It has been already stated that the most satisfactory determina- tions of the atomic weight of barium have had haric chloride as a starting point. In many respects this substance is well ada for the purpose; but one serious cause of error must be carefully guarded against in the usual method adopted for its analysis. Tie- well known solubility of argentic chloride influences tie' accuracy not only of the weight of chloride obtained, but also of the apparenl end point of the precipitation after the method of Gay Lussac. Long ago Stas f pointed out this cause of error, and carefully de- * A trace of sodium was always found in even the purest specimens. I probable that this trace was derived from the air during the course of fractional treatment necessary to eliminate the barium. t Aronstein's translation of Stas's Memoir, pp. 46, 56, 59, and especially - (Leipzig, 1867). 10 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY scribed his method of procedure, that others might correct his results if they were found to he based upon an incorrect assump- tion. He added an excess of silver to the chloride to be. investi- gated, and then added the standard solution of a chloride until no more cloudiness was observable. Such a method under ordinary circumstances requires from two to eight milligrammes less of sil- ver to correspond with a given weight of chloride than would be required if the solutions were added in the inverse order. A number of years afterward * Stas changed his method of pro- cedure, and selected the point half-way between the two extremes as the true end point of the silver reaction. He gave reasons for this change of view, but wholly ignored his previous results. Com- mentators have laid hardly enough stress upon this important difference between the two series of determinations, although it necessarily involves an error in one series or the other. Working before even the earliest date of Stas's publication upon this subject, the experimenters upon the atomic weight of barium naturally overlooked the whole question. As nearly as may be guessed from their incomplete accounts, they usually selected the end point obtained by gradually adding argentic nitrate to baric chloride; hence their results cannot be compared with either of Stas's series. Much time during the past eighteen months has been spent upon this question. The investigation of baric chloride showed that re- sults for the atomic weight of barium varying from 137.35 to 137.50 might easily be obtained from the purest possible salt, according to tbe interpretation of the data. At last a definite conclusion was reached, and the work is now nearly ready for publication. The necessity for some other basis for the atomic weight of barium early led to the search for a new starting point. In the course of this search, most of the available baric salts were inves- tigated with regard to their adaptability for the present purpose. Baric nitrate holds water with great obstinacy, and no certain point of constant weight could be reached by gradually heating it. Besides, the only two methods available for its analysis are ex- tremely unsatisfactory. The conversion into the chloride is ren- dered very difficult because of the insolubility of both the nitrate and chloride in strong acids. Tbe complete conversion of the * The Memoir was presented in 1876, according to the title page. Mem. de l'Acad. de Belg., Nouv. Sur., XLIII. See also Van der Plaats, Chem. News, LIV. 52, 88. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 11 nitrate into the sulphate is also difficult because of the well known occlusion of one salt by the other. Moreover, supposing the analy- sis by either method to have been satisfactorily performed, the data furnished would give only the worst possible foundation for the calculation of the atomic weight of barium.* Many qualitative and quantitative experiments led to the complete rejection of baric nitrate as>the material for analysis. Baric bromate is very readily prepared in a pure state by a few successive crystallizations, and it was hoped that this salt would furnish especially valuable testimony upon the case. But investi- gation showed that it was impossible to be certain that the crystal- lized salt did not contain an excess of occluded water. Upon the other hand, it is doubtful if all the water of crystallization can be expelled without a slight decomposition of the salt. Since water is the one impurity most to be dreaded in all such work, baric bromate was rejected, except as a means of obtaining the bromide in a pure state. The carbonate was next experimented upon; and while the re- sults were more promising than those from the nitrate and bromate, they were less satisfactory and conclusive than those obtained from baric bromide. The advantages of the use of a bromide for an investigation upon atomic weights are so manifest, and have been so often discussed, as to need no further mention. The current descriptions of the de- liquescence and instability of the baric salt alone postponed th<- consideration of this substance. Investigation showed that mis- leading statements about the salt have found their way into chemical literature. In reality, the substance is as well adapted for accurate work as baric chloride and most other materials upon which we must rely. The Properties of Baric Bromide. Baric bromide crystallizes from aqueous or dilute alcoholic solu- tions in doubly terminated monoclinict prisms, which art- somewhal hygroscopic, but not deliquescent in ordinary weather. The crystallized salt contains two molecules of water, together with the slight excess which is usually to be found in such crj Btals. * See Ostwald, Allgemein. Chem., I. 23. t Werther, Journal fur prakt. Chem., XCI. 107. Also Von Bauer, Panic Journal, LXXX. 230. Rammelsberg states that the salt is isoniorphous with baric chloride (Pogg. Ann., LV. 237). 12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY Below the temperature of 70° in somewhat moist air, or at the ordinary temperature in perfectly dry air, it loses one of these molecules.* The other one is retained until a temperature of from 100° to 130° is reached, according to the hygroscopic condition of the surrounding air. The accuracy of the final result for the atomic weight of course depends upon the complete ahsence of water from the dried salt ; hence an especial series of experiments was made to determine the conditions under which the water was completely expelled. Upon heating to redness, the salt is very slightly decomposed; | hence in all cases where a high heat was used the amount of Daric hydrox- ide and haric carbonate formed were determined by means of very dilute standard hydrobrornic acid, using phenol phthalei'n and methyl orange respectively as the indicators. The accuracy which it is possible to attain in this process was a great surprise. If a very small amount of pure boiled water is used for the solution of the baric bromide, a deficiency of less than a tenth of a milligramme of bromine in five grammes of the salt is detected with the greatest ease. The correction applied to the weight of the baric bromide was of course always the calculated difference between the weights of the bromine and the hydroxyl, or the carbonic acid, which had taken its place. For example, a deficiency of 0.81 milligramme of hydrobrornic acid found by alkalimetry involved a correction of 0.63 milligramme if the alkaline earth had been found in the form of hydroxide, or 0.50 milligramme if it had been found in the form of carbonate. Since baric carbonate is very faintly alkaline to phenol phthalei'n, this correction is not absolutely exact; but its error is an infinitesimal one so far as this work is concerned. It is probable that, if any traces of oxide were formed, they were con- verted into hydroxide or carbonate before the crucible cooled. One experiment showed that 1.6 grammes of baric bromide dried at 136° lost 0.4 milligramme on being heated to dull redness. On another occasion, three grammes of baric bromide which had been dried at 200° to constant weight lost 0.50 milligramme upon heat- * 2.8688 grammes of crystallized baric bromide lost 0.1547 gramme on heating to constant weight at 70-80° ; the residue lost 0.1533 gramme more upon heating to constant weight at 160°. Compare Graham Otto (Michaelis), III. 662. 2.0506 grammes of baric bromide which had been powdered and dried over sulphuric acid to constant weight lost 0.1181 gramme upon drying at 200°. t Schultze, Jour. f. prakt. Chem., [2.] XXI. 407. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 13 ing to dull redness. Alkalimetry indicated that 0.32 milligramme should be added to the last weight as a correction for the bromine lost; hence the corrected loss was 0.00018 gramme, or 0.006 per cent. A third trial gave the corrected loss of 3.5 grammes of baric bromide betweeu 185° and a dull red heat as 0.00027 gramme, or 0.008 per cent. Again, 3.4 grammes of a less purr specimen of the salt lost 1.2 milligrammes between 200° and dull redness, of which loss eight tenths of a milligramme was accounted for by the baric carbonate found in the dissolved residue. In Experiment L9, about 3.5 grammes of the salt dried at 260° lost 0.04 milligramme on heating to 340°, and 0.27 milligramme more upon subjection to a red heat. In order to prove that the method of desiccation over sulphuric acid was sufficient for the purpose in hand, this specimen was again heated to 400°, and cooled in a vacuum over phosphoric oxide. After the admission of dry air the crucible and contents were found to have gained a little less than a twentieth of a milligramme. Since seventeen one-hundredths of a milligramme must be added to the last weight of the salt to correct for the amount of alkali found, it is evident that the salt dried at 340° in the first place could not have retained more than 0.005 per cent of water, which could be expelled at a red heat. The most severe test of the hygroscopic constancy of baric bromide was obtained by fusion. 17.4841 grammes of baric bro- mide which had been thoroughly dried at a dull red heat were fused in a platinum crucible, and were found to have lost 4.1 milli- grammes during the process. 2.25 cubic centimetres of twentieth normal hydrobromic acid were required to render the solution of the clear cake neutral to phenol phthale'in, and 0.10 cubic centi- metre more made it strongly acid to methyl orange. Thi figures involve a correction of 7.0 milligrammes to the second weight of baric bromide, making it 17.4870 grammes. The cess of this weight over the first (17.4841) is completely accounted for by the knowledge that a slight indeterminable correction" should have been applied to the earlier one, owing to its previous loss of bromine. The crucible was found to have lost 0.20 milli- gramme. Again, two grammes and a half of baric bromide heated to con- stant weight at 185° lost 2.11 milligrammes on being Eased in a double crucible. Of this weight all but 0.17 milligramme (0.007 * From 0.010 to 0.03 per cent. 14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY per cent) was accounted for by the amount of alkali found in the dissolved residue (Experiment 13). In Experiment 4, given be- low, the bromide was also fused. Although this sample was not weighed at any lower temperature, it is evident from the amount of silver it required that about the same relation must hold true. It is a necessaiy conclusion from these results that baric bromide loses no more water upon fusion than upon being heated to dull redness without fusion. This constancy of hygroscopic condi- tion gives strong ground for the inference that the ignited salt is wholly free from water, and that the salt dried at 180° contains only about seven thousandths of one per cent of the impurity. Moreover, it is very unlikely that water and baric bromide could remain together at a red heat without mutual decomposition. The question of the absolutely anhydrous condition of most substances must necessarily be a matter of inference, because our methods for the determination of a few tenths of a milligramme of water in the presence of a large amount of other material which may be vola- tilized are not sufficiently accurate to furnish direct evidence upon this point. Our knowledge regarding baric bromide is hence as full as it is possible to obtain. The specific gravity of baric bromide has been determined by Schiff.* According to his results the crystallized salt is 3.69 times heavier than the same volume of water, while the anhydrous salt is 4.23 times heavier. Since it is important in reducing weights to the vacuum standard to know the exact values of these physical constants, new determinations were made. Carefully redistilled dry toluol, in which baric bromide is insoluble, was taken as the liquid to be displaced, and two specific gravity bottles were used. The weight of water filling the first bottle was found upon three trials to be 11.4117, 11.4133, and 11.4120 grammes, these values being corrected to 4° for the expansion of the water, but not cor- rected for the expansion of the glass (24°) nor for the air displaced by the water and weights. An approximate determination of tbe coefficient of expansion of toluol gave the means of reducing all the weighings with that liquid to the same standard of 24°. Three weighings gave results for the weight of toluol filling the bottle to be 9.8357, 9.8356, and 9.8342 grammes; and 4.4262 grammes of large clear crystals of baric bromide were found to displace 1.0141 * Liebig's Annalen, CVII. 59 ; also CVIII. 23. OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 15 and 1.0126 grammes of toluol at 24°. Hence the specific gravity of crystallized baric bromide at 24° compared with water at 4° is 3.852. Xo correction is made for the difference in volume of the weights employed. A sample of baric bromide was dried at 200°, powdered very rapidly, transferred to the specific gravity bottle, and heated for a long time at the softening point of glass. After cooling in a desic- cator the weight of the baric salt was found to be 7.6808 grammes. After filling with dry toluol, removing the atmospheric pressure, and shaking as usual, the gain in weight was 8.3878 grammes, as a mean of two closely agreeing trials. Since the volume of the pycnometer had slightly altered during the heating, the bottle was remeasured and found to contain 11.3338 grammes of water at 4° (not corrected for the expansion of the glass), and 9.7685 grammes of toluol at 24° . These data give a result for the specific gravity of anhydrous baric bromide equal to 4.794. Since the apparatus was not perfect, a new specific gravity boi was prepared, which gave far more concordant results. With this apparatus 5.7271 grammes of baric bromide, dried for a long time at 200°, were found to displace the same volume as 1.1979 grammes of water at 4°. Here again the salt and toluol were at 24°, and the weights were not corrected for the different volumes of the brass. These figures indicate a specific gravity of 4.781, — not very different from the previous result, but very different from the value obtained by Schiff. The value 4.79 is used in all calcula- tions which follow. One hundred parts of water dissolve about one hundred parts of anhydrous baric bromide at ordinary temperatures, and nearly one hundred and fifty parts at the boiling point of water.* The salt was found to be much less soluble in alcohol than one would expect from the literature on the subject. A saturated solution in 87% alcohol contains only about sis per cent of baric bromide at the ordinary temperature. In ab- solute alcohol the salt is even less soluble. These facts had an important bearing on the methods of purification. * See Graham Otto, loc. cit. Also recent experiments here. 16 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY Preparation of Materials. Baric Bromide. — This substance was prepared in five distinct ways, with the intention of determining whether the salt is capable of being obtained in a perfectly typical state. In the first place pure baric carbonate was prepared from pure baric nitrate. To make this latter substance the baric nitrate of commerce ("purissimum "), containing traces of strontium, calci- um, potassium, and sodium, was recrystallized seven times from boiling water by cooling. Baric nitrate is the most convenient starting point for the preparation of a typical barium salt, since its solubility rapidly diminishes with the temperature, and is so much less than that of the calcium and strontium salts. Even after the second recrystallization the alcoholic fractionally precipitated ex- tract of a large amount of the mother liquor, which had been evaporated with excess of pure hydrochloric acid, showed no trace of calcium or strontium bands in the spectroscope. The pure salt, which had been recrystallized seven times, was dissolved in a large platinum vessel in water which had been distilled in a platinum retort, and was treated with an excess of pure ammonia water which had also never come in contact with glass or porcelain. Into this perfectly clear solution was led a current of pure carbon di- oxide, prepared by the action of pure sulphuric acid on sodic hydric carbonate. It was found impossible to free such carbonic acid from a trace of sodium, shown by conducting the gas into a lamp flame, as long as the sodic hydric carbonate was dry. After this last substance had been submerged under two inches of water, the gas evolved was easily obtained in a perfectly pure state by passing it through a sufficient number of washing bottles contain- ing at first a weak solution of sodic hydric carbonate and finally pure water. The pure baric carbonate was washed with hot distilled water until twenty five cubic centimetres of the wash water showed no trace of ammonia upon the addition of ISTessler's reagent. The last washing was with water which had been distilled in platinum. The snow-white preparation was dried and gently ignited over a spirit lamp in a platinum dish. From this baric carbonate three different preparations of baric bromide were made, by dissolving it in two different samples of hydrobromic acid and varying other conditions. The first sample of acid was prepared from perfectly pure bromine. This had been OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 17 made by the distillation of a mixture of potassic permanganate with a dilute solution of an excess of potassic bromide and pure sulphuric acid. Before being converted into hydrobromic acid the bromine was redistilled after solution in potassic bromide and agitation with zincic oxide.* The bromine was in the first place poured into pure baric hydroxide, and, after the separation of the greater part of the baric bromate, was converted into hydrobromic acid by pure sul- phuric acid. The baric hydroxide is easily freed from the usual trace of chlorine by five recrystallizations from hot water; in this case the substance was crystallized nine times. The sulphuric acid had been redistilled three times, the first and last portions being rejected. The dilute hydrobromic acid, containing a small amount of free bromine set free by the remaining baric bromate, was distilled. The colored first portion of the distillate was thrown away, and a portion of the second fraction was analyzed to prove its purity. 1.82471 grammes (in vacuum) of silver, f dissolved with all pos- sible care in the purest nitric acid, yielded 3.17641 grammes (in vacuum) of argentic bromide upon precipitation with a slight ex- cess of the acid. Hence the percentage of silver in the precipitate must have been 57.446, a result which is essentially identical with Stas's result 57.445. In this hydrobromic acid a portion of the pure baric carbonate was dissolved, and the solution was evaporated with a slight excess of baric carbonate to the point of crystallization. The crystals were dried over the water bath and ignited at a dull red heat over a Ber- zelius lamp for half an hour. The filtered solution was allowed to stand until neutral to phenol phthalein, showing that all the small amount of baric hydroxide formed upon heating had been eliminated, and after filtration was evaporated. As before, the mother liquor was rejected; the crystals were washed twice with pure redistilled alcohol and dried in the air. These crystals formed the first preparation, designated I.a, and served for the two preliminary analyses. The second preparation of baric bromide was made Erom a similar specimen of baric carbonate by its solution in hydrobromic acid, prepared essentially in the manner described in the work upon the atomic weight of copper.! To test the purity of this acid L.60376 * Stas, Mem. Acad. Belg., N. S., XL1IL, Part II , p. 38. t See page 22 of this paper. J These Proceeihngs, XXV. 197 VOL. XXVIII. (n. S. XX.) 2 18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY grammes (in vacuum) of silver were dissolved and precipitated by a slight excess of the acid, yielding 2.79184 grammes (in vacuum) of argentic bromide. Hence the percentage of silver in the precip- itate was 57.444 (according to Stas, 57.445). The baric bromide made from this acid was recrystallized, ignited at dull redness, dissolved, allowed to stand exposed to the air, filtered, crystallized, dehydrated, and fused at bright redness by means of an alcohol lamp. Finally, after solution, filtration, slight acidification with hydrobromic acid, and two successive crystallizations, the small amount of substance which remained was used for Analyses 3 and 4 (Preparation No. I.b). The salt contained in the last mother liquor was fused into an absolutely clear limpid liquid, dissolved, faintly acidified, filtered, and recrystallized, the crystals being washed with alcohol, and finally analyzed under the designation No. I.c (Analysis 5). It is needless to say that in all the con- cluding operations platinum vessels and the purest water alone were used. The second general method used in the preparation of baric bromide was based upon the decomposition of baric bromate. This salt was obtained in a very pure state by repeated recrystallization of the bromate remaining from the first preparation of hydrobromic acid by the method described above. In the course of the recrys- tallization it was noted that the glittering hard crystals emit bril- liant flashes of bluish light upon being rubbed between the surfaces of moistened glass apparatus. This phenomenon takes place when there is no conceivable trace of organic matter present, and may be noticed even in the daylight. The substance was gradually raised to a dull red heat by means of a Berzelius lamp, no emission of light being noticed during its decomposition. The resultant baric bromide was dissolved, filtered, crystallized twice, washed with al- cohol, and dried. After fusion over the spirit lamp the substance was redissolved, filtered, acidified with hydrobromic acid, and finally crystallized twice from water. Each yield of crj-stals was washed four times with the purest alcohol. In the first mother liquor a notable trace of sodium was found by the usual spectro- scopic treatment, but no trace of calcium or strontium. The purest crystals were divided by yet another crystallization into three fractions, which we may call II. a, II. b, and II. c. The last was obtained by the evaporation of all the mother liquor decanted from the first two. The third method used for the preparation of baric bromide OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 19 adopted baric nitrate as its starting point. This salt, which had been recrystallized ten times, was dissolved in hot water and treated with the calculated amount of the purest obtainable potas- sic hydrate in a platinum bottle. The resulting baric hydrate was recrystallized ten times from hot water, without being removed from the bottle ; but the spectroscope still showed noticeable traces of potassium upon the usual fractional treatment. The hydroxide was then precipitated three times successively from aqueous solu- tion by means of pure alcohol, the precipitate being washed each time with alcohol, with the aid of the filter pump. Even t In- second, mother liquor showed no trace of potassium to the most careful scrutiny. The pure baric hydrate thus prepared was dissolved in pure water in the platinum bottle, boiled for some time to drive off the alcohol, transferred to a Bohemian flask, and saturated with pure bromine. This substance had been prepared as described on page 17, with the additional treatment of solution in pure calcic bro- mide and several distillations. The mixture of baric bromide and bromate was evaporated, powdered, and gradually raised to fusion in a platinum vessel. The mass was gray before fusion and pale green afterwards. The greenish cake was dissolved in water, filtered, acidified, crystallized, dried and fused; and then this same round of operations -was again repeated. The last pure white cake of baric bromide was dissolved, the solution filtered, and after being very faintly acidified with hydrobromic acid was again crys- tallized. The final crystals were washed four times with alcohol, and allowed to dry in the air. In the table below (page 27) they are designated No. III. (Analyses 10, 11). Since baric hydroxide is so easily recrystallized it was hoped that a pure preparation might be obtained directly in this way from the baryta of commerce. It has been already said that five recrj B- tallizations remove the chlorine; five more remove the last traces oi calcium. When, however, after seventeen recrystallizations, the large amount of strontium present did not seem to be considerably diminished, this method was abandoned as a hopeless one. A long series of qualitative and quantitative experiments apon the fractional precipitation of baric carbonate by the action of small amounts of carbon dioxide upon baryta water showed thai this pro- cess also was utterly unfitted for the complete separation of stron- tium from barium, and accordingly this method was abandoned. The description and data of these experiments would require much 20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY room, and, since the work was not fruitful, they may well be omitted. Because of all these unsatisfactory results the baric hydrate was converted directly into baric bromide and bromate by the addition of pure bromine similar to that used in the preparation of Sample III. The large amount of bromide filtered off from tbe bromate was half crystallized out by boiling down the mother liquor in a platinum dish, treating with alcohol, and cooling. The mother liquor from these crystals contained most of the strontium. The solid was dissolved, boiled down, treated with alcohol and cooled; and the new crystals were washed four times with alcohol. After repeating this round of operations once again, the mother liquor showed no trace of strontium.* The pure crystals yielded a faintly brownish mass upon fusion, and this in turn left a brownish pre- cipitate upon solution. The clear filtered liquid was boiled down and treated with alcohol just as described above. The crystals were again fused, and again subjected to the same succession of opera- tions. For the last time the crystals were raised to a dull red heat by means of a spirit lamp, and the residue was dissolved in the purest water in a platinum dish, allowed to stand exposed to the air until neutral, filtered, recrystallized twice more, and washed with the purest alcohol. The resulting material was designated IV.a (Analyses 13, 14, 15). The last mother liquors were evaporated, and yielded IV. b (Analysis 12). Only about fifteen grammes of such pure material were obtained from a kilogramme of the baric hydroxide which served as the starting point. The earlier mother liquors containing strontium were used for the preparation of pure hydrobromic acid. The fifth method for the preparation of baric bromide was the most complicated of all. A large amount of a solution of baric chloride ("purissimum ") was allowed to stand for eighteen hours after the addition of a little pure baric hydrate and carbonate. To the filtered and slightly acidified liquid was added enough potassic chromate to precipitate about half the barium, the potassic chro- mate having been previously purified by continued shaking with a little baric chloride and hydrochloric acid, and by subsequent filtra- tion. The large mass of baric chromate was washed by decantation * This method of freeing baric from strontic bromide suggests P. E. Brown- ing's work with amyl alcohol, published since the experiment recorded above was completed. (Am. Journ. Sci., [3.] XLIV. 459.) OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 21 with much water until no chlorine was to he found in the nitrate, and was almost wholly decomposed by strong nitric acid. The solution was diluted and shaken with the excess of baric chromate for a long time. Upon the neutralization of the nitric acid in the clear yellow filtrate with pure sodic carbonate, the baric chromate was largely recovered, and after a thorough washing it was again dissolved in nitric acid, and the baric nitrate was repeatedly crystal- lized until it was wholly colorless and neutral. By means of gradually increasing heat baric oxide was formed from this nitrate, the ignition taking place in a platinum crucible, and continuing until long after the frothing had ceased. The crucible itself lost several milligrammes during the process. The brownish residue was dissolved in water, and the clear colorless liquid was filtered from the brown precipitate. The baric hydroxide was neutralized with pure hydrobromic acid,* and the baric bromide was passed many times through the often repeated round of fusion, solution, filtration, and crystallization, until the fused cake was perfectly clear and colorless. After being faintly acidified with hydro- bromic acid, the pure salt was crystallized, washed, and dried as usual. This specimen, which had been growing smaller and smaller in amount during the manifold processes to which it had been subjected, was enough only for one analysis (Xo. 1G) and was designated V. Out of the baric bromate which remained from the fourth prep- aration two other specimens of baric bromide were prepared. The only point in which this preparation differed from the second met In "I was the fact of the strong acidification of the bromide with hydro- bromic acid just before the final series of crystallizations. The crystallization was then continued until the mother liquors proved to be absolutely neutral. The purest crystals were designated VT.a; the mother liquor from them yielded VI. b (Analyses 17, IS, 19 It seemed probable that, if all these preparations gave about the same value for the molecular weight of baric bromide, they would fix this constant with comparative certainty. It is doubtful if the substance can be prepared in a state of absolute purity. Stas found it impossible to prepare any of his haloid salts in such a state, f a small amount of silica always remaining. The attempt was made * This acid was from the same sample as that employed in making specimens I.b and I.e. t See Stas's " Untersuchungen," Aronstein, pp. 269, 279, 340. 22 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY to eliminate the silica from the preparations described above by re- peated ignition and fusion, and the exclusive use of platinum vessels ; but it cannot be proved that the attempt was wholly successful. However, the salt was at least as pure as our usual standards of reference. Silver. — Pure silver was prepared in the first place by the re- duction of pure argentic chloride by pure milk sugar, after the well known method recommended by Stas. A full description of the details is to be found in the account of the analysis of cupric bro- mide;* indeed, some of the silver used in the present work was a portion of one of the large buttons made in 1890. Oi\\y in one particular was the mode of preparation modified : the silver was not heated with fused potassic hydroxide. Two or three buttons of the silver were fused with borax and sodic carbonate on hard-wood charcoal; this treatment made no essential change in its quantita- tive relations. The silver contained no oxygen, and gave very qualitative and quantitative evidence of purity, t All of the silver which has been thus far described was fused in the flame of ordinary illuminating gas. Since a strongly reducing flame was used, it was presumed that no silver sulphide was formed. Nevertheless, it was deemed advisable to prepare a sample of the metal which should be free from even the possibility of reproach. Ordinary hydrogen is apt to be quite as impure as illuminating gas, hence as little adapted for the present purpose. For this reason, pure hydrogen was made from pure hydrochloric acid by the action of zinc which was quite free from arsenic. The gas was driven through water, much potassic hydrate, through a tube containing beads moistened with argentic nitrate, and finally through potassic permanganate, into a gas-holder over water, where it remained for some time. It was burnt in an oxyhydrogen blow- pipe provided with a complete platinum tip, and served for the fusion of the silver used in Experiment 19. For the support of the metal during its fusion a cupel of sugar charcoal had been made from pure sugar by the sole use of an alcohol lamp as the source of heat. The silver itself was made from the pure silver first de- scribed by dissolving it in nitric acid and electrolytically depos- iting it with the aid of two Bunsen cells, J two plates of the same * These Proceedings, XXV. 197, 198. t Ibid. ; also this paper, pages 17, 28, 29. t J. L. Hoskyns Abrahall, Journ. Ch. Soc. Proa, 1892, p. 6G0. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 23 metal serving as electrodes. This method for the preparation of pure silver is a very satisfactory one. Since the silver was allowed to cool in an atmosphere of hydrogen, it could have contained no oxy- gen. The agreement of Experiment 19 with the others is satisfac- tory proof that the amount of sulphur contained in the first samples of silver must have heen infinitesimal, if appreciable at all. Other Materials. — The methods used for the preparation of pure water, pure nitric and sulphuric acids, and pure sodic carbonate, have been discussed at length in a previous paper.* Precautions taken with regard to carbon dioxide, hydrobromic acid, and many other substances, are to be found under earlier heads. Alcohol whs purified for the present investigation by repeated distillation in ap- paratus wholly free from cork or rubber connections. In some cases a platinum still was used. The large mass of platinum used in the first experiments was kindly loaned by Professor Cooke, but subsequently a quantity was purchased especially for the work. The methods used in freeing the surface of these vessels from iron are described in the fourth paper upon the revision of the atomic weight of copper, f The Method of Analysis. Thus far it has been found possible to determine accurately only the ratio of baric bromide to silver and argentic bromide. Un- fortunately no accurate method for the direct determination of the amount of metal present is known to exist; hence a complete analysis is impossible. The usual scheme of operations was very simple. The baric bromide, after having been pulverized in an agate mortar, was heated for a long time at 200-400° ; it was then gradually raised to dull redness, and maintained for some time at that temperature. Repeated heating sometimes caused a very slight loss, due to in- creased decomposition; but more usually the weight remained con- stant. The drying oven was a large porcelain crucible, and at first illuminating gas was used as the source of heat. Afterwards, when a faint trace of cloudiness found in the solution of the baric bromide was traced to the formation of baric sulphate from the sul- phur in the illuminating gas, an alcohol lamp was used exclusively. In Analyses 3, 4, 15, 16, and 17 the amount of this insoluble residue was determined, and appropriate correction was made. In • * These Proceedings, XXVI. 245-249. t Ibid., 249. 24 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY Analyses 6, 7, 9, and 12 the cloudiness of the solution was so slight as to be inessential, while in Analyses 2, 5, 8, 10, 11, 14, 18, and 19 the neutral solution of the baric bromide was abso- lutely clear. The method of weighing was precisely similar to that employed with anhydrous cupric sulphate.* Afterwards the salt was dissolved in the purest boiled water, and the traces of baric hydrate and car- bonate present were determined in the manner which has been already described, f The appropriate correction having been ap- plied to the last weight of the baric bromide, the solution was diluted and transferred to a glass-stoppered Erlenmeyer flask. To this was added about the corresponding amount of accurately weighed silver, which had been dissolved in the purest nitric acid with all possible precautions. $ The argentic nitrate solution had been freed from the lower oxides of nitrogen by long heating at 100° in an inclined flask, and both solutions were quite cold at the moment of precipitation. Daylight was carefully excluded during this operation, as well as during the subsequent ones. After violent shaking, the precipitate was allowed to settle, and the excess of bromine or silver was determined by titration. It is well known that even here there is a slight difference between the end points, although the possible error is very much less than with the chloride. In the table below the mean between the two extremes is recorded; and in general the observations and method of treatment corre- sponded essentially with those since published for the late J. L. Hoskyns Abrahall in the account of his interesting work on the atomic weight of boron, § to which the reader is referred. The end point was always determined by titrating backward and forward until there could be no doubt of its accuracy, a cubic centimetre of each of the solutions employed corresponding to one milligramme of silver. In the final experiments the solutions were weighed as well as measured. For these experiments, a dark room was built, and provided with an arrangement, essentially similar to that de- scribed by Stas, || for condensing a beam of yellow light upon the surface of the liquid in the flask, leaving the precipitate in darkness. In some cases the baric bromide was poured into the argentic * These Proceedings, XXVI. 243, 252. t This paper, page 12. | These Proceedings, XXV. 198. § Edited by T. Ewan and P. J. Hartog, J. Chem. Soc. Proc, 1892, p. 663. || Aronstein's translation, page 45. OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 25 nitrate,* instead of vice versa. This difference of procedure seemed to increase the' distance between the two end points, but not to influence the final averaged result. t In most cases a slight excess of hydrobromic acid was added be- fore filtering, but the amount recorded in the table always repre- sents that which was equivalent to the end point of the reaction. In Experiments 3, 6, 12, 14, and 15, where argentic nitrate was added in excess before filtration, the total amount of silver given in the table signifies the sum of the amount of silver weighed out and that which was added to attain the end point. The extra silver is of course not counted. The agreement of Analyses 14 and 15 with 18 and 19 is sufficient to show the accuracy of both methods. The clear yellow precipitate was washed by decantation until the filtrate became wholly neutral, and was collected and weighed on a Gooch crucible. The first filtrates were always passed through the crucible several times, for fear that a trace of asbestos might have been carried away. One of the absolutely clear filtrates containing a trace of hydrobromic acid gave no sign of a reaction fur silver after evaporation to small bulk. In a number of experiments, modifications in the methods de- scribed above were introduced. The most important change was the one adopted in Analyses 2, 8, 14, and 18. In these four cases the baric bromide was not heated at all, but the crystallized salt was dissolved directly in water, t In order to determine the amount of anhydrous salt which must have been present in these specimens, parallel determinations of the water of crystallization were made with the greatest care upon precisely similar samples. The agree- ment of these results with the others is the best possible proof of the accuracy of the alkalimetric correction applied to those deter- minations in which the substance had been ignited. In Experiments 4 and 13 the baric bromide was fused. In Analyses 6, 14, 15, 18, and 19 the argentic bromide was fused, and the weight of the fused salt is recorded in the final table. In tin' first case the substance had been slightly darkened by exposure to light; hence a little pure bromine vapor was added to the glase tube in which the fusion was conducted, and the bromide gained 0.07 milligramme during the process. The other results are tabulated below. * E. g. Exp. 14, 15, 16. t Compare Stas, Mem. Acad. Belg., XLIII., Introduction. t This procedure was suggested by a part of Marignac's work on the chloride (loc. cit.). 26 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY No. of Analysis. Weight of Argentic Bromide before Fusion. Loss of Argentic Bromide on Fusion. 14 15 18 19 Grammes. 7.17411 4.4583 3.63751 4.37867 Grammes. 0.00018 0.00001 0.00013 0.00000 In Experiment 11 a hard glass tube with small rubber stoppers was employed for the ignition of the baric bromide, but it was attacked by the salt and gained 0.10 milligramme during the heating. This gain corresponds to a loss of about the same weight of bromine, assuming all the barium which combined with the glass to have been converted to the oxide. For this reason the amount of hydro- bromic acid recorded in the seventh column of the final table is about 0.12 cubic centimetre too large. In calculating the corrected weights of baric bromide, silver, and argentic bromide, allowance is made for all these facts. Because of the complication of all these little corrections, the glass tube was abandoned, and the platinum crucible was again used. Data and Kestjlts. The first column of the final Table of Data gives the number of the experiment. The second column contains the weight of the crystallized baric bromide, while the third contains the observed weight of the ignited baric bromide. After this is recorded the number of cubic centimetres of standard hydrobromic acid (of which one litre corresponded to a gramme of silver) required to re- store the small amount of bromine lost during ignition. This quantity is divided into two parts, the .upper one corresponding to baric hydroxide, and the lower to baric carbonate. Multiplying the upper figure in this column by -j^g- milligramme, and the lower figure by -j^ milligramme, and adding the two products to the weight given in column III., we obtain the corrected weight of the baric bromide which is recorded in the fifth column. The sixth column gives the total weight of silver taken; the seventh, the number of cubic centimetres of the same hydrobromic acid necessary to titrate back to the mean end point; and the eighth, the weight OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 27 o^ HH — ^ 3 * s-s,8 a *-. ts cS B3-2 MM a > > >' r-< M M > > > a J3 o 2 3 f S3 a ^ X8l 'is-- - < g «~ a oco a en ao § coco O J3 i 603 S^co s-eM"* *£ ! 2 rt CO «" 3 CO CM ■Z '- O & r-i jq o t- CO CO C-1 O CO OS rH - 1 00 rt -10 M * fl S « a OCMO ■2d C M' 3 SBv. » > ° '3 ° -5 a co o O O i-l CM cf> en CO t"- CI CO o m -f I— OS L— CO CO CI CO cc CO CI CO C-1 rH CM -* t- co CM W ^H CO CO o 1— 1 r* CO CO C5 CO CO CO I- o f-H -» =2 o CO f-H CO o i—l CO r-i o ■* CM at i - ■ -. co I- CO co r- o co co ■* 3 cm' U0 CM o o CO ■ o. CO CO o rH CO 1— I CO O IO ^ 3J CI CI - - C» O O i-H CM CO r-J iO •* cm' :? lO cm' J t-o *- = — 1 H — p 8| '7 J3 i:-o §2 = "h o — O o = r =' S|| Bit a - 3 — r. CO 0) . a - iJ o **. a> TV73 h a a .ih CM i-l CM CM ,oZ .M > m o ^ rH fci *> ^ 2 a •a W.2S O O lO iC3 CM CM CM CM CO rH C CM CO Ci tO CO CM rH CM COClrH-HOCOCM r-i CM rH O o =' © O O O O O O oo r-io CD CO CO U3 CO CM -H« CO O CO -f hU - s CO 1 - / CO CO — CO 01 CO cooooo - :o OHOOO •*. 2 "3 "3 o 3'3 » o 9 H t.33 S h i! sb >-.ca H 93 -— rl — 1 c§>=.H Vr<^I. as |S.| o a a -wis s rj-a— 2 2rtCO a t—o a 355 *- oi co O t— t^ ■- i.O rH rH a CO f: -H o 00 •3 * S o ■ r. r^ □ CO SB CM — »o a so eo -g m CO O I — CO CO CM •» CI •{ O O CO CO CO CO CO r-i CM 8 I - O 2. a S5 •< rH rH lO a a o i.o i- "r iS ■!? >ra I— CO 03 cm co co O rH © co co co . ■ i -. : S ^r— >c - - .w •C § = S* S IS; K - 0 _ c a - ~ i 28 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY of the silver corrected by subtracting from tbe weight given in column VI. tbe amount of silver corresponding to the quantity of acid given in column VII. In the same way, the ninth and tenth columns contain respectively the total and the corrected weight of argentic bromide. Hence the weigbts actually used in the calcula- tion of the results are those recorded in columns V., VIII., and X. The discussion of the results is simplified by reducing all the amounts of baric bromide to the basis of 100.000 parts of silver, and the corresponding quantity, 174.080 parts, of argentic bromide. Tbe water of crystallization is included in the following table only because the calculation of Analyses 2, 8, 14, and 18 depends upon the knowledge of its amount. The great variations noticeable in the results for the water of crystallization are due to the varying circumstances attendant upon the crystallization, to the fineness of the powder, and to the hygroscopic condition of the air at the time of weighing the crystals. Hence for the present purpose it was possible to compare only like samples which had been weighed out under like conditions. Analyses 13 and 15 show that in this way perfect constancy can be reached. This part of the work has of course no other bearing upon the atomic weight of barium. The first two experiments were merely preliminary, and are not included in the final average. Most of the variations evident in the earlier experiments were undoubtedly due to unfavorable con- ditions existing in the Laboratory during the year 1891-92. In the autumn of the latter year the Laboratory was completely and most admirably remodelled, through the kindness of the Corporation of the University, and the last seven experiments were performed under conditions as favorable as could be desired. The presence of any of the most likely metallic impurities — strontium, calcium, potassium, or sodium — would tend to lower the observed values recorded in the third and fourth columns of tbe Table of Results, and hence the atomic weight of barium. Chlorine would lower and iodine would raise the values given in the third column, but neither would have much effect on those given in the fourth column. The best possible proof of the freedom of the prep- arations from these two impurities, as well as of the purity of the silver, is to be found in the series of results giving the per cent of silver in silver bromide, tabulated in the fifth column of tbe Table of Results.* The presence of water in the ignited baric bromide would naturally tend to raise the figures given in both the third * See also these Proceedings, XXV. 212. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 20 TABLE OF RESULTS. Number of Analysis. Salt em- ployed. Parts of Baric Bromide corresponding to 100.000 Parts Silver. Parts of Baric Bromide corresponding to 174.080 Parts Argentic Bromide. Per Cent of Silver in AgBr. w ater of Crys- tallization in Baric Brouii le, 1 2 la La 137.746 137.736 137.783 137.760 57.460 67.455 10.889 3 4 5 Lb Lb Lc 137.732 137.735 137.723 137.739 57.447 6 7 8 9 II.a Il.b Il.b II.c 137.748 137.747 137.740 137.755 137.748 137.747 137.748 67.445 57.448 57.442 10.904 10.910 10 11 III. III. 137.738 137.747 137.752 137.772 57.451 57.455 10.915 10.922 12 IV.b 137.726 13 14 15 IV.a IV.a IV.a 137.750 137.756 137.745 137.754 57.443 57.445 10.878 10.875 16 V. 137.731 10.885 17 18 19 Vl.b Via Vl.a 137.748 137.759 137.745 137.758 57.445 10.953 Aver., omitting Exp. 1 and 2. Average of last seven Exp. I 137.745 I 137.749 137.747 137.751 57.448 57.444 ... 57.445 30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY and fourth columns : the arguments indicating the absence of this insidious impurity were discussed at length in the first part of the paper.* The agreement between the individual results is as close as could reasonably be expected, when one considers the small amounts of material vised in some cases. It may be concluded, then, that a hundred parts of silver correspond to about 137.747 parts of anhy- drous baric bromide, no matter what may be the method used for its preparation. If the salt contains an impurity, it is strangely constant in amount. The Atomic Weight of Barium. From the results which have just been given, the atomic weight of barium is very readily computed. In the following table are given the values corresponding to the three standards at present in use. From the Ratio of Silver to Baric Bromide. If Silver = 107.93, and Bromine = 79.955, Barium = 137.426 If Silver = 107. 66, and Bromine = 79.755, Barium = 137.083 If Silver = 107. 12, (Oxygen = 15.88,) Barium = 136.396 Greatest variations from the mean, •< ' I _ 0.040. From the Ratio of Argentic Bromide to Baric Bromide. If Argentic Bromide = 187.885, Barium = 137.431 If Argentic Bromide = 187.415, Barium = 137. 089 If Argentic Bromide = 186.476, Barium = 136.401 Greatest variation from the mean, ±0.054. It is not very difficult to explain the reason for the difference between this new value, 137.43, and the old one, 137.10. The in- complete knowledge regarding the end point of chlorine reaction in 1858 is probably responsible for a part of the difference, and a portion more may possibly be explained by the impurities which were assumed to be inessential. But it has already been said that a discussion of the results of thirty-five years ago can be of little value. The only true solution of the question is the experimental one. In the near future, I hope to continue the investigation which is herewith commenced, as well as to begin a similar research upon strontium and calcium. Cambridge, December 24, 1892. * This paper, page 12. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 31 II. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE CRYPTOGAMIC LABORATORY OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY. XIX. — ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SPERMOGO- NIUM OF CEOMA NITENS (Schw.). By Herbert Maule Richards. Presented by W. G. Farlow, January 11, 1893. While the mature condition of the spermogonium of Cceoma nitens has heen described and figured in more than one instance, there has heen little written about its development. The general impression seems to have been that the hyphse of the fungus, which ramify through the tissues of the leaf, penetrate the walla of the epidermal cells when spermogonia are about to be produced, and that by subsequent growth the spermogonia are formed in the cavities of the epidermal cells so penetrated.* It is exactly this question as to whether the spermogonium actually arises within, and not perhaps between, the epidermal cells, that is the subject of the following remarks. It is more than a year since Pro- fessor Farlow suggested to me the advisability of settling this disputed point, but until the present spring I did not have a chance of carrying out the suggestion. In the spring of 1891 I collected in the vicinity of Cambridge a considerable amount of material of the spermogonia of Cceoma nitens on Rubus villosus. It was gathered in the latter part of April, and was at that time in very young condition, having scarcel}' begun to show itself on the surface of the leaves. The material was killed in hoi picric acid, and was then successively treated with the usual grades of alcohol, so that it was in good condition for examination. At first, free hand sections were wholly used, but afterwards sections cut in paraffin with a microtome were also employed for confirm- ing certain points that could only be settled by serial sections. * Burrill, in " The Prairie Farmer/' Vol. LVII. p. 702, 1885. 32 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY It will be well before speaking of the spermogonia themselves to give a brief description of the hyphse of the fungus as they appear in the host plant. Before the spermogonia have begun to develop, a section of the affected leaf of the Rubus shows the presence of hyphse, which ramify through its tissues, without, however, pro- ducing any very great distortion in the cells. The hyphse are of a pretty uniform diameter, and, while at first almost simple, later be- come considerably branched. They do not seem to traverse the cells themselves to any great extent, if at all, making their way rather between adjacent cells and in the air spaces of the leaf. They do, however, send into the cells curious haustoria which present a very characteristic appearance (Tigs. 5 and 9) already figured by Newcomb and Galloway.* At the places where these processes pass through the cell walls they are contracted to a very much smaller diameter than the ordinary hyphse, but inside the cavity of the cell they become very much expanded, and often curiously knotted. A few characteristic forms have been figured (Fig. 9, a, b, c). The haustoria were more noticeable in the material which had been collected later in the season than in that gathered before the spermogonia were to be seen. In the region immediately below the epidermis, the hyphse are very much more thickly massed than in other portions of the leaf, having forced their way in between the epidermal cells and the parenchyma beneath. In this locality, and also to some extent elsewhere, it may be demonstrated by proper staining that the hyphse are septate, especially after the formation of the spermogo- nia. In fresh material the contents of the hyphse are largely hya- line, only occasionally showing a finely granular appearance, and many vacuoles are to be seen. As has already been said, the hy- phse themselves do not excite any marked morbid growth in the tissues of the leaf, but in the immediate neighborhood of the spermogonia there is a very considerable distortion. In leaves that are at all badly affected by the fungus, the chlorophyll very generally changes its color, becoming yellowish or brownish, so that the infected portions are very noticeable on the growing plant. In such cases the whole contents of the epidermal cells, as well as the chlorophyll grains, have disintegrated more or less, particularly in the immediate neighborhood of the spermogonia. The first indication of the formation of a spermogonium is seen * Journal of Mycology, Vol. VI. p. 106, PI. VI., 1891. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 33 in the activity of the hyphae which lie immediately below the epi- dermis. Certain of these hyphae are seen to send out processes which grow out towards the surface of the leaf. These outgrowths push their way between the epidermal cells, but do not at this early stage enter them, soon becoming, however, multicellular by the formation of frequent cross septa (Figs. 1, 2). At first the cells which surround the developing spermogouium arc but little affected, the rapidly growing hyphae merely splitting the wall at the middle lamella. The space between the cell walls, thus separated and forced apart, affords a cavity in which the hyphae may grow. The hyphal threads now increase very rapidly in number, both by di- vision and by the sending up of new outgrowths from the hyphae beneath, so that the parted walls of the adjoining epidermal cells are very much pushed outwards to make room for the developing spermogouium (Fig. 3). At the same time, these hyphae, which were at first very irregularly arranged, show a tendency to place themselves in parallel rows, and their contents begin to assume a more granular appearance than those of the ordinary vegetative hyphae. Both of these conditions become more marked as the spermogonium matures. As the spermogonium continues to increase in size, it exerts more and more pressure on the walls of the cells which confine it, and having distended them outwards as far as possible finally ruptures them (Fig. 4, a). The rupture takes place from the atrophy of the walls, which have by this time become very much weakened by pressure. The hyphae are now free to grow into, and eventually fill, the larger space afforded by the union of the cavities of the sur- rounding cells. The remnants of the ruptured walls arc apparently soon absorbed or hidden by the growing hyphae, for in stages of the spermogonium not a great deal more advanced than this they are very hard to distinguish. It is usually a long time, however, be- fore all traces of the separating wall are lost, as will be nut iced in Figure 4, b, for even in this much later stage indications of the wall may still be seen in a slight protuberance, which extends downwards into the cavity of the spermogonium. The tune in the development of the spermogonium at which the rupture takes place is not at all constant; in some cases where the mass of hyphffl was very small, it was seen to have already broken through the walls. After the hyphae have made their way into the larger cavity, their parallel arrangement becomes more conspicuous than before, and as the hyphae continue to multiply in number and increase in si VOL. XXVIII. (n. S. XX.) 3 34 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY morbid growth starts up in the cells surrounding them. The cavity in which the spermogonium is forming enlarges very much as the hyphae continue to grow and fill it. This enlargement takes place chiefly in a vertical direction, although there is a consider- able lateral expansion as well, as the spermogonium rises above the surrounding epidermis. The shape finally assumed is that of an inverted truncated cone, but at times the spermogonia are almost pyriform. No differentiation of the hyphae into anything like a peridium is seen, the cell walls of the host plant remaining as the only covering that the spermogonium has even to maturity. Event- ually the upper wall disappears, being apparently absorbed and finally broken through by the hyphae beneath, which are thus ex- posed to the air. The abnormal growth that affects the cells in which the spermogonium is developing is also taken up by the epi- dermal cells which immediately surround it. These increase some- what in diameter, but chiefly extend themselves in height, and, owing to the excessive development of the top of the spermogonium, are often somewhat bent upon themselves. On one side they cling fast to the spermogonium wall, on the other they are rounded off, rising considerably above the other epidermal cells (Figs. 5, 6). These cells serve the purpose of supporting the spermogonium, the ring of them completely surrounding it, as is shown in the figure of the transverse horizontal section (Fig. 7). Usually a second row of cells, outside of the supporting cells, are also modified to some extent, and serve in turn to support the inner row. In some cases it was observed that a third row of cells was also somewhat dis- torted, and in leaves which were very thickly beset with spermo- gonia scarcely an epidermal cell was not to some extent swollen. The further development of the spermogonium is not of especial interest in this connection. As it matures, it gradually takes on the characteristic orange color of these organs, and the hyphae are seen to become slightly swollen at the tips. From the tips of the hyphae the spermatia are abstricted, to be finally liberated by the breaking away of the enveloping cell wall (Fig. 8). It is not infrequently the case that a large number of spermatia are formed before being set free (Fig. 5). The color of the spermogonium is due, as in other Uredineae, to the bright orange oil-like particles which are found in the hyphae. In addition to the oil globules, the hyphae are filled with finely granular matter which also has an orange tinge. The contents of the surrounding epidermal cells are greatly altered, varying from an orange to a brownish yellow OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 35 color, depending upon their proximity to the spermogonia, and in cases where many spermogonia have developed on a leaf the whole organ takes on a yellowish color. From the observations described above, it seems impossible to consider the cavity in which the spermogonium develops as origi- nating from a single cell, being rather from the junction of several cells. In other words, the spermogonium starts in the first place as an outgrowth betioeen, and not in, the epidermal cells of the host, soon however by pressure breaking through and absorbing the confining walls, and making its way into the cavities of the sur- rounding cells. As the absorption of these walls may take place very early in the development of the spermogonium. before the mass of hyphse has reached any considerable size, one might be easily deceived into thinking that the spermogonium was forming in the cavity of a single epidermal cell, which had been, perhaps, enlarged somewhat by a morbid growth excited by the fungus. It is also possible that one of the haustoria, already referred to, might have been mistaken for the very earliest stage in the growth of a sper- mogonium. The question might arise as to whether the young stages herein described were not in reality tangential sections of much older ones, but in the light of the evidence afforded both by the sequence of stages observed and by carefully cut series of sec- tions it is sufficient to say that such could not have been the case. As regards comparison with other spermogonia, a few words may be of interest. The spermogonium of Cazoma nitens is not, it is true, exactly comparable with the typical flask-shaped form usually found in connection with other Uredinese, as it is much more super- ficial, the growth starting immediately beneath the epidermis and extending outwards towards the surface of the leaf, while in the case of the spermogonium of jEcidium berberi the outer cud of .1. at a, was soldered a copper wire ; to the cuter end of 11 &\ b, was soldered a similar wire. These two wires lead i<> a ballistic gal- vanometer, but at one point the electric circuit was broken, except * A letter received from Mr. Bryan Donkin, Jr., of London, the well known engine builder, after the first account of my experiments was published, -li- me that he had been before me in making experiments in the Bame general man ner, but with small bulb thermometers in mercury cisterns instead of thermo- piles. The Bulletin <1< Sociele" de Mulhouse for 1890 contain- - i mint of his work. My results appear to be not discordant with those which lie obtaii 40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY when, at any desired part of the stroke, it was closed for a short time by the revolving crank of the engine. With this apparatus there should be a current, and therefore an effect upon the gal- vanometer, at closure of the circuit, so long as the two inner ends of the antimony and bismuth bars, which press against the steel, are at a different temperature from the outer ends, which are placed side by side in a pot of melted paraffin or hot oil. But when, on the other hand, there is no effect on the galvanometer at closure, one may, if proper precautions have been taken, conclude that the temperature at that surface of the steel which is touched by the antimony and bismuth, to determine which is the object of the experiment, is the same as that of the heated liquid surrounding the ends a and b, which a thermometer at once makes known. This represents one stage of the investigation, but as I gradually became convinced tbat considerable fluctuations of temperature really occurred at measurable depths of the cylinder wall, I saw that a better considered thermopile than the one at first used was needed. I must discard the steel, the thermal conductivity of which might differ considerably from that of the cast-iron compos- ing the cylinder wall, and must replace the antimony and bismuth by something not very different from cast-iron in thermal conduc- tivity, for it is evident that the temperature existing at any mo- ment at the surface of contact of the iron and the metal outside it may depend greatty upon the conductivity of this second metal. Moreover, this surface of contact should be of considerable breadth, and the contact very perfect; in short, everything should be done to make the surface of contact resemble in all its conditions, as nearly as might be consistently with the object of the experiment, the surface of contact of two strata of iron within the actual cylin- der wall. Accordingly, I made the plug and the cover, which now was fastened by four small steel screws to the inner end of the plug (see Figure 3), from the same bar of cast-iron, — not ordinary cast-iron, which would be too brittle for the thin cover, but cast gun-iron of density 7.18, which I found by experiment to have a thermal conductivity not very different from that of ordinary Southern cast-iron of density 7.06. In place of the antimony and bismuth bars 1 now used a single cylinder of cast nickel of density 8.08, the thermal conductivity of which I have found by experiment to be very nearty the same as that of the cast gun-iron at 115° or 120° Centigrade. The specific heat of nickel is about the same as that of iron. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 41 Notwithstanding the great similarity of cast-iron and cast nickel in many respects, they make a powerful thermo-electric couple, so that nickel appeared to he of all substances the one best fitted for my purpose. The hole bored in the iron to receive the nickel cylinder was about 0.65 cm. in diameter. The cylinder itself was about 0.025 cm. less in diameter, so that when wrapped with a sin- gle layer of ordinary printing paper it would fit rather snugly in the hole. The cast-iron plug with its cap in place was about 2.2 cm. long, and the nickel cylinder projected very slightly beyond the outer end of the plug. The inner end of the iron plug, the inner end of the nickel core, and that surface of the iron cap which was to press against them, were all worked with great care to a plane polished surface. The cap and the nickel core were then soldered together in the following manner. That part of the cap surface which was to meet the nickel was thinly tinned with ordinary solder and then the cap was screwed firmly into place upon the plug. That end of the nickel which was to meet the iron was also tinned, and then this core, wrapped, save at the ends, by a single layer of paper, was thrust into the hole in the plug. The plug with its contents was then heated very hot, and while hot was placed in a vise between blocks of wood, which by the action of the vise pressed the nickel core and the iron cap so close together that the layer of solder left between them was, according to my measurements, less than 0.002 cm. thick. Then, after cooling, the screws holding, the cap in place were drawn out, and cap and core were carefully removed from the plug. The excess of solder which had been pressed from between them, and which had gathered about the base of (lie core, was then carefully turned off in a lathe with a brass tool. The core was then wrapped with fresh paper and put back in place, the cap being carefully screwed on. Red lead was used around the screws holding the cap, but I depended mainly upon the perfec- tion of the contact between cap and [dug to prevenl leakage at this joint.* * In some of the experiments this joint was not perfectly tight, for water was sometimes seen to come out past the core, N, before the plug became ln>t. Generally upon such occasions the leaking appeared to cease when the plug became hot. The fact probably is that the joint continued to leak Blightly, but leaked dry steam, the temperature at the outer end of the plug being about 110° C, and at the inner end considerably higher. Both experiment and reason indicate that the effect of such leakage upon the temperatures observed was slight. 42 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY Three plugs were thus completed, the caps being respectively 0.051 cm., 0.101cm., and 0.203 cm. thick. All the iron parts were from one bar, and all the nickel parts were from one bar. From the nickel core of each plug when in use extended a slender bar of nickel about 15 cm. long, made from the same piece as the core, and from the outer end of the iron plug extended a similar bar of iron made from the same piece as the plug. The bars were not rigidly fastened to the nickel core and the iron plug, but were held by friction in holes bored to receive their ends. The outer ends, i and n, Figure 3, extended through a plug of hard rubber, _P, screwed into the thickened wall, WW, of a vessel containing melted paraffin, and copper wires soldered to these ends led back through the hard-rubber plug toward the galvanometer, which was about 60 rn. distant. To facilitate adjustments the central hole of the hard-rubber plug was made somewhat too large for the nickel con- necting bar reaching through it, and a stuffing-box, b, was depended on to prevent leakage past this bar. The bulb of a thermometer hung near the junctions i and n in the melted paraffin, which was heated by a lamp placed below and was stirred by a mechanism driven by the engine. The key by means of which the electric circuit could be closed for a short part of each stroke required some thought in its evolu- tion, and will be described with detail, although no doubt it might be improved. At one stage in my experiments I tried making contact by means of a fork-shaped spring of brass, which revolved with the engine crank, and at one part of the stroke bestrode a gap in the circuit, rubbing with each prong upon brass. A certain amount of thermo- electric force was to be expected at each of the two rubbing points of contact, but I had hoped that the two forces would counteract each other sufficiently for my purpose. In this I was disappointed, and I afterwards endeavored to avoid rubbing at the point of closure of the circuit. The key finally used was essentially like OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 43 that shown in Figure 4, in which B is a block of hard wood about 14 cm. long on the upper curved edge, 6 cm. thick, and 5 cm. wide. The brass spring 8 fastened to the top of the block is connected l>y means of the wire I with the galvanometer. The brass spring S' also fastened to the top of the block, is connected by means of the wire V with one of the junctions i or n in the pot of melted paraffin. The two springs do not at present touch each other, but will do so at P, as soon as 8' is lifted by the lever LL, which is pivoted ai a, and will be struck at E by the cam K on the engine crank. The lever LL works in a narrow slot sawed in the block II. To prevent short circuiting through the body of the engine this lever I%.4. is tipped with hard rubber where it touches the spring 8'. The electromotive force which one has to deal with in this experi- ment is so small that a mere touch of S' against 8 is n<>l sufficient. Contact must be maintained for a short time, and for this purpose the lever LL is so shaped that the cam K rubs againsl it all the way from E to D, about one sixtieth of a revolution, one sixtieth of a second in my experiments. To prevent illegitimate contacts or illegitimate breaks between 8 and S', each of these strips is controlled by two stiff spiral springs, which are indicated by 0 for S, and by C for S'. The motion of S is. ever, limited by stops, not shown in the figure, placed above and below at the end. The lever LL is made of thin sheet brass in order thai its mo- mentum may not be troublesome, but the part ED, along which contact with K endures, is reinforced by a parrot strip of iron soldered on. A pin, p, keeps LL in contact with S1 when both are at rest, and prevents the lever from dropping so Ear as to bi struck too hard by K. 44 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY To prevent thermo-electric troubles I used continuous wires from this key to the distant room where the astatic galvanometer was placed. This was an instrument of tolerable, but not extraordinary, sensitiveness. Its resistance was probably about five ohms, and the time of a single vibration about six seconds. I have spoken as if the electric circuit were closed at every stroke of the engine by the key just described. In fact, the circuit was closed only when this key and another under the hand of the observer at the galvanometer were in operation simultaneously. Tbe method of procedure did not require measurement of the galvanometer deflec- tions. It merely required the observation of that temperature in the paraffin pot which should make the galvanometer deflections zero. The period of vibration of the needle was so much greater than the time of a stroke of the engine, that, by holding his key down for several strokes in succession, the observer at the galva- nometer could magnify any effect produced upon the instrument, and therefore determine more sharply when the desired condition of no effect was reached. The method of work was somewhat as follows. Everything being in readiness, the observer at the galvanometer would satisfy himself by trial that the closed circuit, with the iron-nickel thermopile omitted, had no perceptible effect upon the galvanometer. He would then signal for the thermopile to be brought into action, and, watching the galvanometer, would determine whether the paraffin was too hot or too cold for equilibrium, and signal the other experimenters accordingly. If it was too cold, finely di- vided paraffin was thrown into the pot, while some of the over- heated liquid was drawn off through a cock at the bottom. The following set of observations was made on April 17, 1801, with the 2 mm. thermopile, contact occurring near the point of cut-off (Figure 5, C). OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. -i:> Time. 3:16 3:21J 3: 22 \ 3:23J 3:24£ 3:26} 3:27 Thermopile out. No certain effect. Thermopile in. Effect uncertain. Scale to right. « tt tt 3 . 30^ 3:31| 3:33} 3:34J 3:35} 3:36 3:36f Effect uncertain. Scale to left. << ■< Scale to right. Effect uncertain. Scale to left. Temp, of Paraffin. o 130.0 130.4 ? 133.0 137.7 133.2 131.4 129.5 T2G.5 125.0 123.6 124.4 126.7 130.6 131.0 129.5 127.5 125.5 This was the first set of observations made after a rather impor- tant change in the apparatus, and shows lack of skill. The next series, made the same day, is somewhat better. The same thermopile was used, hut contact was during the latter part of compression, just before admission of new steam, near the point K in Figure 5. Temp, of Paraffin. iin effect. o 124.1 125.0 124.9 125.0 127.0 126.2 125.2 124.6 124.0 123.5 122.8 122.3 122.0 121.8 vsi:> 124.3 While such observations as those just recorded were being made, one observer was usually engaged in taking indicator diagrams from Time 3:50 Thermopile out. No c 3:52 Effect uncertain. 3:53| II M 3:54 Scale to right. 3:54£ u (( 3:55^ it it 3:56} tt it 3:57} a ti 3:57| it tt 3:58£ tt it 3:59£ Scale to right, sli ghtly. 4:0} ? 4:1 Scale to left. 4:1| K «< 4:21 « a 4:3} a n 4:44. Effect uncertain. 4:6} Scale to right. 46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY Date. Part; of St.rokp Point in Temperature at Depth of X alu ul UUlvuCi Fig. 5. 0.051 cm. 0.101 cm. 0.203 cm. Inches. °C April 17 3.31- 3.94 c . . . . . . 129.5 " 17 14.81-14.97 E . . . . . . 129. « 17 0.22- 0.06 K . . 124.5 " 24 14.84-14.97 E °C. 123.0 " 24* 0.22- 0.06 K 122? " 27 3.31- 3.94 C 133.0 " 27 12.53-12.00 F 119.0 " 27 0.22- 0.06 K 119.5 May 6t 12.53-12.00 F 124.0 8 12.53-12.00 F 124.0 8 1.78- 2.38 B 136.0 8J 7.25- 7.94 D 122.5 " 11 3.31- 3.94 C °C. 135.5 " 11 7.25- 7.94 D 134.0 " H§ 14.81-14.94 E 129? " 15 14.31-14.94 E 128.5 " 18 3.81- 3.94 C . °C 128.0 " 18|| 14.81-14.94 E . . . 126.5? " 18|| 0.22- 0.06 K . . . 123.5? " 18 0.22- 0.06 K . . . 123.0 * In this set of observations a substitute took the place of the usual observer at the galvanometer. t The thermopile leaked badly past the nickel core during this set of obser- vations. It was put in order before the observations of May 8, when it appeared to be perfectly tight. J The temperature of equilibrium appeared to fall in this set of observations from near 123°.5 to near 1219.5. § From a short set of observations in which the temperature was not well controlled. || Nickel connecting bar found apparently loose at connection with core at end of series of observations. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 47 the engine, and noting at frequent intervals the number of strokes per minute. The general type of the diagrams is shown in Figure 5. The maximum pressure during admission was generally near 34 lb. above atmospheric pressure, and cut-off occurred near one quarter stroke. Wishing to have the diagrams affected as little as possible by the action of the governor, I depended largely upon the load, which was a dynamo with closed circuit, to regulate the speed of the engine to sixty strokes per minute. The steam pressure, how- ever, was by no means constant, and the speed sometimes rose or fell two or three strokes from the desired figure. This inconstancy, and the discrepancy of thermometers, one or two of which were broken during the experiments, may help to account for some lack of consistency in the results obtained, which are presented in tabu- lar form on page 46, estimated stem corrections having been applied to the thermometer readings. I have omitted from this table all results of observations made previous to April 17, 1891, for the reason that in tins.' earlier observations the time during which contact lasted was about three times as long as in later ones. Nevertheless, the results obtained with the long time of contact are in general agreement with those obtained later, and as in the table there is no record for the depth 0.101 cm. at that part of the stroke marked by K o\\ the indicator diagram, I shall fill this gap, as well as I can, from a comparison of the earlier observations with the later, which comparison indie the temperature 123°. I shall undertake to show by means of a diagram, Figure 6, the temperature condition of the inner part of the cylinder wall as indicated by my observations at three points of the stroke, C, E, and .ST Distances into the cylinder wall from its inner surface are laid off along the base line of the diagram from right to left. Temperatures in excess of 110°. 5. the temperature of the outer surface of the cylinder wall, are measured upward from this base line. Line K indicates the condition of things jus* before admission of new steam; line C, the condition at or mar the time of cut-off; line E, the condition near the end of the forward stroke. The broken parts of curves are extensions beyond the region of actual observation. It is easy to see that an error of our or two degrees in the observation of temperature at the depth 0.05J cm. would make a great difference in the position of the broken part oi the curve to which this observation belongs, and it is evidenl thai the broken part of curve C cannot be correct, for it indicati the inner surface of the cylinder wall a temperature Borne degi 48 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY lower than that of the steam in the cylinder at this instant, as calculated from the indicator diagram. We cannot suppose this possible, for during the admission of steam this inner surface must have become very nearly as hot as the steam itself, else the interior strata of the iron could not have become heated to the extent ob- served, and the inner surface could not, after being thus heated, cool faster than the steam in front of it and the iron behind it. The same objection cannot be made to curves E and K, yet the broken parts of these curves are open to much doubt, and it is not certain that they should cross each other. A much more accurate determination of temperatures than I have made is needed to draw i*o'C. FifO any one of the three curves with confidence. Moreover, observa- tions at a depth of 3 mm. are desirable, though under the condi- tions of my experiments the fluctuations of temperature at that depth are probably not more than one or two degrees. Disregarding inaccuracies of the diagram, I shall now undertake a rough estimate of the amount of heat contained by the cylinder wall at the instant of complete cut-off, as indicated by the curve C, in excess of the amount which it contained just before admission, as indicated by curve K. The planimeter will show that the average temperature along that part of curve C shown in the dia- gram exceeds the average temperature along that part of K there shown by nearly 12° Centigrade. This is equivalent to a uniform elevation of about 2°. 4 extended to a depth of 1 cm. Taking the OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 49 specific gravity of iron to be 7.2 and the specific heat to he 0.113, we find that through each square centimeter of the inner surface of the cylinder wall exposed to the steam during the whole time of admission, there have entered 2.4 X 7.2 X 0.113 (= 1.95) c. g. s. units of heat. I estimate the surface exposed to steam in cylin- der and port when admission begins, to be 1700 sq. cm. If we estimate the piston face and port surfaces to be only two thirds as effective for condensation as an equal surface of cylinder head, we may reduce this area to about 1400 sq. cm. The movement of the piston during admission exposes about 700 s<[. cm. more of the curved cylinder surface. If we count this as being equiv- alent to 350 sq. cm. exposed during the whole of admission, we have 1400 + 350 (= 1750) sq. cm. as the effective area of the surface upon which condensation occurs during admission. The whole amount of heat absorbed through this surface in this time is, then, 1750 X 1.94 (= approximately 3400) c. g. s. units. This would correspond to the condensation, at 49 lbs. absolute pressure, of 3400 ~- 510 (= approximately 6.7) grams of steam. The weight of steam in the cylinder at the end of the forward stroke was, ac- cording to the indicator, about 13.5 grams. The weight of steam in the cylinder at cut-off was considerably less than this, probably about 10 grams. According to this calculation, then, the amount of steam condensed during admission was about two thirds as much as the amount not condensed, and about one half of the condensed portion was re-evaporated during expansion. The amount re-evaporated during the exhaust was probably much less, for the curves of Figure 6 indicate that much less heat flowed back to the inner surface during exhaust than during expansion, and we know that a very considerable amount of heat passes through the wall. A very rough estimate of water consumption, made May 8th, indicated that about 23.5 grams of water and steam passed through each end of the cylinder at each stroke. The calculations, or con- jectures, just made account for rather less than three fourths of this, but the discussion goes to show that the ebb and flow of heat indicated by these thermo-electric experiments Is of the righi order of magnitude to account for a large part of the cylinder < densation, and to encourage the hope that a careful and extended Bel of such experiments would yield results of great certainty and value. I am not prepared to undertake such a labor at present, bul the thermopiles which I have used in this preliminary investigation VOL. XXVIII. (n. S. XX.) 4 50 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY have now been placed in the bands of two students of mechanical engineering in a well known Professional School, and I look for interesting results from their work. For indispensable assistance in the work which this article de- scribes I am indebted to Messrs. Barron, Curtis, Hale, Kendrick, and Page, members of a class at Harvard College engaged in a study of the steam-engine. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 51 IV. NOTE ON AN APPROXIMATE TRIGONOMETRIC EX- PRESSION FOR THE FLUCTUATIONS OF STEAM TEMPERATURE IN AN ENGINE CYLINDER. By Edwin H. Hall. Presented January 11, 1893. During one of the long interruptions of an experimental inves- tigation of cylinder condensation in steam-engines,* I was moved to attack the problem mathematically, making use of the well known methods of treating heat conduction, which are set forth to advantage in Riemann's Partielle Dlfferentialgleichungen. I car- ried the process far enough to see that the waves of heat produced at the inner surface of the cylinder wall, by the fluctuations of steam temperature during each stroke of the piston, would pene- trate to a considerable depth; but the labor of a complete inves- tigation of the problem by this method seemed likely to be much greater than that required by the experimental method, while the results would necessarily be open to considerable doubt, owing to the assumption that one must make in estimating the temperature of the inner surface of the cylinder wall at any point of the stroke. I therefore returned to my experiments, convinced that experi- ment alone could give the results for which I was striving. Never- theless, it may be of interest to those concerned with problems of heat conduction, theoretical or practical, to see the result of the first mathematical steps, the derivation of an approximate trigono- metric expression for the periodic changes of temperature suffered by the steam during each complete stroke of the piston. The indicator diagram, Figure 1, gave the pressure, and so the temperature, of the steam at every point of the stroke. Assuming the engine piston to have simple harmonic motion, that is, neglect- ing the effect of the vertical movement of the crank pin, I plotted a * See ante, page 37. 52 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY curve, the heavy line of Figure 2, ordinates representing tempera- ture in excess of 100° C, and abscissas representing phases of the *&/> stroke in terms of the angular distance of the crank pin from its zero position, the position occupied at the end of the out stroke. The left end of the base line indicates — n, or — 180°, the beginning of forward stroke ; the middle of the line represents 0° ; the right end represents -\-ir, or +180°, the end of backstroke. Thus the mnc 100'C cycle of a complete forward and back stroke is compassed, and the length of the base line is called 2 tt. My task now was to find a mathematical expression for any ordi- nate, y, of the given curve in terms of the corresponding abscissa, x; that is, to write y = . OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 53 It is well known that for any continuous curve, however irregular, extending from x = — n to x = n, the relation of any y to the corre- sponding x may he written as follows : — y = (f> (x) = % b0 + bx cos x + b2 cos 2 x + . . . -f bm cos m x -f . . . -f «! sin x + «2 sin 2 a; + . . . + am sin m a: -f . . . The length of this series of terms may be, and usually is, infinite, but frequently a comparatively small number of terms will express the required relation with sufficient accuracy, when the values of the coefficients b0, bu au etc. are known. I used eleven terms, six containing b coefficients and five containing a coefficients, and the labor of determining the coefficients was considerable. The general expression for any b coefficient is bm = I I (a) sin m a d a, -It in which expressions a is any variable beginning with the value — 7r, and increasing regularly to +7r, and <£(a) bears to a the same relation that

(x). As every new coefficient requires, in gen- eral, more work for its determination than those preceding, I at- tempted no closer approximation to the actual curve of the steam temperatures than is shown in this diagram. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 55 V. STUDIES ON THE TRANSFORMATIONS OF MOTHS OF THE FAMILY SATURNIID^E. By A. S. Packard, M. D. Presented February 8, 1S93. The larval characters of the members of this interesting group, especially those features which are congenital, tend to show that the family has originated from some spiny group, and most probably, when we take into account the transformations of Aglia tau, from the Cera- tocampiche, although none of the latter spin a cocoon. During the evolution of the group they underwent achauge in shape, from a rather long and slender form to a thick heavy body, with a thin iuteguineut, the result perhaps of an unusually stationary mode of life. The ima- gines also underwent a process of degeneration, as seen in the atrophy, total or partial, of the maxilla?, and in the loss of veins in their very large but weak wings ; though the loss of strength of flight is some- what compensated for by the remarkable development of the olfactory organs, or antenna?. This family also appears to be a closed type ; viz. none of the higher or more specialized Bombyces appear to have descended from it (unless possibly the Cochliopodidae), the type representing a side branch of the Bombycine tree which late in geological history grew apart, and reached a marked degree of modification, resulting in the possession of adaptive characters which were not transmitted to later forms. It seems probable that the type was a Miocene Tertiary one, which has lingered on in Eastern America (North ami South), and in Eastern Asia, as well as in Africa, while it has become Dearly extinct on the Pacific shores of North and South America, ami In Europe. Saturnia {in its restricted sense) the most generalized Genu* <>i its Family. — In the European Saturnia carpini and In allies, and our Pacific coast species, Saturnia mendocino and S. galbina, the larva >>\ the former species having been described by the late Henry Edwards (Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., Dec. 17, 1877), we have perhaps the most generalized and primitive members of the family, in tie' larva of 5Q PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY Satumia carpini, for a specimen of which I am indebted to M. P. Chretien of Paris, the setiferous tubercles are of the same size and shape on the abdominal as on the thoracic segments, there being no differentiation in shape and size or color, such as occurs in all the other genera, except that the second and third thoracic dorsal tuber- cles bear one or two bristles much longer than those on abdominal se^- ments 1 to 7, and about as long as those on the 8th abdominal segment. There are six tubercles on this (8th) segment, being the same number as on the seven segments in front; on segment 9 there are four tuber- cles, and two on the 10th segment, i. e. the suranal plate. The same number of tubercles on the 8th abdominal segment also occurs in Satumia mendocino * of California. Likewise the same number is present in the European S. pyri, judging by the figure and description in Duponchel et Guenee's Iconographie (II., PI. I.), and the state- ment, " On ne compte que quatre tubercules sur le premier anneau, de meme que sur le dernier, tandis que les intermediaires en out chacun six." It is also figured in Hubner's Schmetterlinge. sin -EH yrrr •yrn 3 Figure 1, A, represents a dorsal view of the end of the body of the larva of Satumia carpini ; B, the end of the body of S. pyri, copied from Duponchel. * We copy Mr. Edwards's description of this larva, to show that the same characteristic of six tubercles on all the abdominal segments 1 to 8 occurs in the Pacific coast species of the genus : — "Full grown. Head small, rough, purplish brown, somewhat withdrawn into the second segment. Ground color of the body, pale yellowish green. On the second and anal segments are four tubercles each, bright orange-red, with black hairs springing from them, and on each of the other segments are six similar tubercles, those of the anterior four being the largest. Head and body thickly clothed with whitish hair. Laterally there is a pale yellowish fold above the spiracles, which are orange with a darker ring. Feet and under side purplish brown. Length 2.25 inches. Food plant, Ardistophylus tomentosa." OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 57 Indeed, the extremely generalized form of the larvae of this genus is clearly shown by the fact that in P. cecropia, and all the other more specialized and hence later genera, there are only five tubercles on the 8th abdominal segment, those corresponding to the two middle ones of Saturnia having, probably during embryonic growth, coalesced. The embryos of these moths should therefore be examined shortly be- fore hatching to ascertain whether this be not the fact. Meanwhile it is not unreasonable to suppose that all the more specialized genera must have been derived from a Saturnia-like ancestral form, i. e. a larva of cylindrical shape, with all the tubercles, whether thoracic or abdominal, of the same size, shape, and color on all the segments ; those on the 8th abdominal segment being of the same number (six I as on the segments in front. The single median tubercle on the 8th abdominal segment of the more specialized Saturnian larvae represents the " caudal horn " of Sphinges, Bombyx mori, and the Notodontian genus Pheosia, and is evidently the result of fusion before the end of embryonic life of what were originally two separate tubercles, like the two separate ones of Saturnia. We are thus able to confirm the suggestion of \V. Muller, who first identified the "caudal horn" with the two dorsal tubercles on the 8th abdominal segment of the Saturniidae.* Thus as regards the tubercles the species of Saturnia are on the * W. Muller, Siidamerikanische Nymphalidenraupen, 1886, pp. 249, 250. Muller remarks : — " So erscheint es berechtigt, f iir das Schwanzliorn der Sphingida die gleiche Genese anzunehmen wie fur den unpaaren Dorn der Saturniada auf 11. Beide sind entstanden aus den Stiitzgebilden der beiden Borsten 1 auf Segment 11. . . . Weiter finden sich bei einer Raupe, augensclieinlich den Saturni- den angehorig, in einem friiheren Stadium Sda auf 2, 3, Ds 11 ; mit der nib-li- sten Hautung versebwinden die sammtliehen Dornen. Bei Brohmea led* finden sich im 3. (?) Stadium Ds 11, Sds 2-10, 12, Sst 4-11, von welchen Dor- nen die Ds 11, Sds 2, 3 stark entwickelt, die anderen klein, unscbeinbar Bind Im 1. (?) Stadium sind die Ds 11, Sds 2, 3 wold entwickelt, die anderen Dornen sind kaum nachweisbar. Im letztcn Stadium bleibt nur eine Warze an Stelle des Ds 11 ; es erlialt sich also der Rest von Ds 11, am langsten. " Mir scheinen alle diese Griinde zur Annahme zu drangen, dass das Schwang- born der Spbingiden der Rest einer reiclier entwickelten Bedornung ist, einer Bedornung, die vielleicht mit der heutigen der Saturniden auf gleichen I r sprung zuriickzufuhren ist, so dass das Schwanzliorn der Sphingiden mid der Dsdorn dor Saturniden im vollen Sinn homolog sind." See also E. B. Poulton in Trans. Ent. Soc. London. 1886, p. 302, and in later papers; also A. S. Packard, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. His! , XXV., 1890, pp 99 I" foot-notes 1, 2, 3. Also compare our Figures 3-6, 8 L0 d', and the n to them in the text. Also Grote's N. A. Lepidoptera, Bremen, l-^'>. pp. !'• 58 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY same plane with the embryo, just before exclusion, of the more highly specialized forms of the group Attacinae. The great size of the At- tacinae, particularly Attacus atlas, appears to be a sign of recent specialization, and the small size of Saturnia, aside from its other features, suggests that it is a generalized form, not departing greatly from the normal size of the members of the superfamily Bonibyces. And here an interesting problem in zoogeography occurs. Are the species of Saturnia (in the restricted sense) — three in Europe, and two in the Southwest and Pacific Coast of North America, occurring where the Attacinas do not exist at all, or only rarely — the relics of a Saturnian fauna from which the group Attacinas has been eliminated by geological extinction, as the sequoia, cypress, magnolia, and other Tertiary plants have been rendered extinct in Europe, or may the view be taken that the Attacinae have never had a foothold in Western Eurasia and North America ? Should we use the characters drawn from the number and arrange- ment of the tubercles of the larva in classifying the Saturniidaa, we might divide the family into two groups, as follows : — A. Six tubercles on the 8th abdominal segment ; the tubercles in general over the body all of the same size. Generalized forms. Subfamily 1. Saturniince. B. Five tubercles on the 8th abdominal segment, the median one double ; the tubercles in general more or less differentiated or special- ized in size and color. Specialized forms. Subfamily 2. Attacince. An interesting series of parallelisms may be observed in comparing the early and later stages of the larvae of this family. For example while the late embryos of the Attacinas are perhaps paralleled by the fully grown larva of Saturnia, the fully grown larva of the most or one of the most generalized Attacinre, Platysamia, is on the same plane of specialization as the larva of Callosamia in its third stage. The Life History of Platysamia cecropia (Linn.). From some eggs received from Mr. H. Meeske, of Brooklyn, N. Y., the larva? hatched out at Providence during the night of June 14. Egg. — It is large, flattened, oval-cylindrical. Length 2.b, breadth 2 mm. The shell is dull chalky white, is seen under a triplet to be pitted, but under a half-inch objective the pits are seen to be in close irregular wavy parallel rows, the pits themselves showing a tendency to be grouped into twos or threes. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. .V,l Larva, Stage I. — Length when first hatched (June 15), G to 7 mm. On emerging from the egg the larva is mostly black, the head, body, and hairs are jet-black, but tbe tubercles are pale yellowish green, the hairs or bristles they bear being black; the abdominal legs also are pale, the thoracic ones black ; shortly after emerging the larva turns entirely black. One larva was observed drawing itself slowly out of the hole it had gnawed in the egg, having eaten its way through the egg-shell at 11.30 a. m., June 15. It was 'mostly black, but the pale yellowish green tubercles were flattened down close to the body, and the hairs or setne in each verticil or pencil were united in one pencil- like mass and bent to one side on. the body. The abdominal legs were pale livid, the thoracic ones black. In ten minutes more the tubercles had become erect, higher and longer (probably swelled out by the presence of the blood), and by this time the hairs had assumed their radiate arrangement. In one or two minutes more, viz. from 11 to 12 minutes after ex- tricating itself from the egg, the tubercles had all become of full length, and erect, and the black seta?, or hairs, had now spread out in a ver- ticillate way, as normal. In an hour more the larva had turned per- ceptibly darker, and in three quarters of an hour more it had turned entirely black. The spiracles, however, are yellowish green, and thus are rather conspicuous. The body is stout and thick, the head is as wide as the body. On the prothoracic segment are four dorsal tuber- cles, two on each side of the median line. Along the body are -i\ rows of tubercles, each usually bearing about five radiating setae ; those of the two dorsal series are larger than the subdorsal ones. Tin- tuber- cles are rather short and stout, fleshy; and are one half to two thirds as long as the bristles. The latter are stout, taper to the end, which under a half-inch objective is seen to be blunt, slightly bulbous, and clear, so that these setre are evidently glandular in function ; they are slightly rough with rudimentary spinules. On the 8th abdominal segment, instead of two tubercles, one on each side of the median line, as on abdominal segments 1 to 7, there is a single median tubercle, about twice as large round as those on each side, though no higher, and it is evidently the result of the concrescence in the embryo of two tubercles, such as are to be seen on the segments in front. It is transversely broad at base, and also bears eight or ten nearly twice as many as the homologous tubercles on the other ments. The thoracic feet bear at their tips three lance! shaped flat- tened acute .tenant hairs; while the abdominal legs bear about L6 crotchets. 60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY Figure 2 (Plate I.) represents the last three abdominal segments ; VIII. bearing the median double tubercle d', and IX. the 9th pair (the right subdorsal tubercle on the 9th segment not being drawn) ; X. the suranal plate with its armature, the two lateral tubercles, bearing each six seta?; the tubercles in front usually bear five setae. Figure 3. The double median dorsal tubercle of the 8th abdominal segment, showing a light median furrow, the probable line of union of what in the embryo were originally separate tubercles ; it bears ten setse, arranged in two lateral groups of five each. Stage II. — (Described one or two days after moulting.) Length 14 mm. The head now is quite small, scarcely one half wider than the body ; it is entirely black. The body is dull dusky livid greenish ; the tubercles are somewhat yellowish at base on the conical portion, but the slender chitinons por- tion is shining black, and the radiating bristles are all black ; one or two of them are longer than the column or chitinous portion of the tubercle. Tlie thoracic tubercles are slightly longer than those on the abdominal segments, and the single median one on the 8th abdominal segment is slightly larger than those on the 7th and 9th segments, and is now about twice as thick as those on the side, and bears eight bristles, the lateral ones on the same segment bearing five. The pro- thoracic segment is a little darker than the others ; it bears a chitinous black plate about four times as broad as long, bearing on the front edge four setiferous tubercles of equal size, one at each end, and with two yellow spots. The tubercles in general are now long and slender, with a conical base, the stalk contracted and rather slender in the PLATE I. Armature of Attacixe Caterpillars OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 61 middle, the head enlarged and giving off the four or five bristle8. There are now jive rows of indistinct black spots, along the body, like those so distinct in Saviia cynthia, but they are not distinctly seen; those of the median row are somewhat diamond-shaped. One was observed while moulting, June 23. Length 15 mm., becoming 17 nun. The larva is more like S. cynthia, as directly after moultiug it is yellowish, and the five rows of black spots are now very conspicuous, the median dorsal ones being more or less diamond-shaped ; but the tubercles and spines are all black. The head is black, but pale on the labrum. In this stage, just before moulting, it spins a floor of silk longer than its body, on which to stand, its crotchets being fastened in it during tin- process of exuviation. On June 28, at 9 a. m., one had just moulted, having been seen to draw itself out of the crumpled end of its skin. All the tubercles of the two dorsal rows are amber-yellow, except those on the 2d and 3d thoracic segments, which are a little larger than the others, and deep orange. The four prothoracic and also the two lateral rows are pale greenish, without any flesh tints. At this time both the head and the prothoracic segment are entirely pale greenish yellow, and the body is deep yellow, like that of S. cynthia, with the black spots very conspicuous ; all the spines, however, on all the tubercles are black. The tubercles * are now much stouter than before, but are not yet spotted on the sides with black, as they are later in this stage. Its length soon becomes from 18 to 20 mm. Half an hour later (9.30 a. m.) it had not changed, but by 11 o'clock A. M. the four prothoracic tubercles (rather, however, three, as the inner one on the right side is wanting, another malformation) and the 2d or lower lateral row had turned dark, while the upper lateral row had begun to turn dark at the base. The black patches on the sides of the dorsal tubercles had also begun to appear; also the region at the base of the antennae, as well as the clypeus and labrum, had turned pale. At 12.45 p.m. the black tints became more pronounced. The prothoracic spines had all turned, as well as the two lateral ones, except those on the 6th abdominal segment, which were .-till pale al the end. In the 1st or upper lateral row the tubercles were pale at the end. Of the two dorsal rows, those of the abdomen are lemon- * One tubercle on the left side of the 3d abdominal segment lias DO spines, a malformation never before observed. 62 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY yellow, and dusky at base, the two on the 9th segment being pale sea-green, with a black patch or band on the side extending around behind. The double large median tubercle on the 8th abdominal seg- ment is now lemon-yellow, like those in front, with a large trape- zoidal black patch on the posterior half, which does not reach up as far as the origin of the black spines. The spiracles are ringed with black. By 3 p. m. all the dark j)ortions and markings had become jet- black ; there are now ten black spots on each segment, and the larva had now attained a length of 18 mm. Stage III. — Length 20 mm. The following is the description of this stage when fully completed, and the color of the markings fully, established. The head is black, with the clypeal and labral regions green, while an irregular green band passes back from the labruni above the eyes to the side of the head, the latter being now about two thirds as wide as the body. The larva is cylindrical, the tubercles are high and thick, the longer bristles being as long as the tubercles themselves. All the prothoracic tubercles are black ; the two dorsal ones on each side being united by a black shining bridge at their base. The tubercles of the 2d and 3d thoracic segments are now deep coral-red, with black bristles ; they are larger than the abdominal ones, and are very showy. The two dorsal rows of abdominal tuber- cles are lemon-yellow with black spines, and black at the base behind and on the sides. The single median spine on the 8th segment is nearly twice as thick as the others of the same segment on each side. The two lateral rows of tubercles are black, with the ends of a beautiful pale blue, approaching lapis-lazuli. There are a median and two lateral rows of black spots, situated between the spines ; the median dorsal series consists of two spots, one in front of the other ; while the spiracular series consists of two, one in front, and the other behind, but lower down than the spiracle. In some examples the body is yellowish. The thoracic legs are black ; those of the abdominal region green, but shining black on the outer side ; the anal legs with a shining black patch nearly covering the outside of the leg. In one example the tubercles are aborted on the left side of the 2d and 3d thoracic and the 1st abdominal segments. Stage IV. — July 12, one had just moulted, the end of the body having just been withdrawn from the cast skin at 11.10 A. M. Length 25 mm. The head and prothoracic segment are green, while all the prothoracic tubercles and those of the subdorsal and infraspiracular OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 63 rows are a beautiful pale cobalt-blue. The two dorsal tubercles of the 2d and 3d thoracic segments are deep orange (afterwards becoming coral-red)«; the homologous dorsal abdominal ones, including the sin- gle median one on the 8th segment, are lemon-yellow. The body is tinged with blue, especially on the thoracic segments. The spiracles are white with a fine black circle, and contain a straight linear central mark. All the bristles are still long, radiated, and are black. In this stage the four dorsal tubercles of the 2d and 3d thoracic segments are larger than any others on the body ; and those on the first seven abdominal segments are of nearly uniform size ; the single one on the 8th segment being nearly twice as thick. In this stage the eight to ten black dorsal and lateral spots dwindle in size, becoming less conspicuous ; but the black spots on the side of the head and on the sides of the abdominal lees are large and distinct. Stage V. and lad. — Length 40-45 mm. One which moulted about the 9th of July had a pea-green head and prothoracic segment; the head marked with a roundish black spot on each side, below which is a large black patch bearing the ocelli, and lower down a black spot. The body is pea-green, washed with cobalt-blue along the back, be- ginning with the 2d thoracic and ending with the 8th abdominal segment, and the black spots along the back and sides have disappeared. Of the lowest lateral row of five small tubercles, the three thoracic and those on the first two abdominal segments are black ; those on the third and fifth are blue at the end, but the bristles are black. All the prothoracic, and the two rows of lateral (the subdorsal and infraspi- racular) tubercles are cobalt-blue. The two dorsal tubercles of the 2d and 3d thoracic segments are deep coral-red ; the corresponding ones on abdominal segments 1 to 7, and the single one on the 8th segment, are lemon-yellow. The spiracles are now white with a narrow black ring, but no cen- tral dark line. The thoracic feet are green, but black at the end. The black spots on the sides of the pea-green abdominal feet are n vo obsolete ; the plantae are bluish. July 25-26. Some individuals were observed while moulting into the last stage, their length after exuviation being 47 mm.; they became after feeding still larger. This stage differs from Stage [V. in the tubercles on the first abdominal segments being much larger and more spherical than before, and orange rather than yellow, and thus in size, color, and the spines being more like the four coral-red thoi tubercles than the other dorsal abdominal ones. On the 1st abdominal, as well as the thoracic round-headed tubercles, 64 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY there is a circle of eight black flattened knobs representing the circle of spines above at the end; also the black spines on the median 8th abdominal tubercle are much shorter and stouter than before, as are all the spines on the other tubercles. In all the five larva?, except one, and in those of both stages (IV. and V.) the rows of black intertubercular spots have disappeared, the one retaining them (40 mm. long) having a single row of ten dorsal black rounded spots, two on a segment, along the abdomen.* On the inside of the base of the infraspiracular row of turquoise- blue tubercles is a black spot, wanting on the 3d thoracic, but present on the 2d thoracic tubercle. Recapitulation of the more Salient Ontogenetic Features. A. Congenital Characters. 1. The seta? in Stage I. blunt, slightly bulbous, and glandular. 2. The tubercles are all of the same size. 3. Body in Stage I. dark, almost blackish, green, head jet-black ; tubercles yellowish green. 4. The homologue of the " caudal horn " shows plainly its double origin. 5. The difference between the colors of the larva of the first and last stages very marked. B. Evolution of later Adaptational Features. 1. The thoracic dorsal tubercles in Stage II. and onward are longer than the abdominal ones. 2. Five rows of indistinct black spots along the body in Stage II., not so distinct as in S. cynthia, the body being still dusky green. (These do not originate from lines.) At the end of Stage II. the larva is more like cynthia of the same age, the body being more yellow, and the black spots more distinct. The spots disappear at the end of Stage IV. 3. The thoracic dorsal tubercles deep orange ; their homologues on the abdominal segments amber-yellow. 4. The tubercles at the end of Stage II. and in Stage III. spotted on the sides with black. * This larva wants the right 3d thoracic tubercle, and also the right 2d abdominal one. In another larva of the same stage the right 1st abdominal tubercle is partly atrophied, half the normal size, and with only two or three rudimentary spines. These tubercles and their spines in confinement are apt to be atrophied from disease ; this also occurs in 5. cynthia and T. poli/phemus. , OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 65 5. In Stage III. the dorsal tubercles of 2d and 3d thoracic segments showy coral-red. The subdorsal and infraspiracular tubercles tipped with pale blue; in Stage II. the same tubercles arc almost entirely pale blue. 6. The head becomes green in stage IV., with a black spot on tin- side. 7. The larva is most gaudily colored and conspicuous in the last two stages ; while in S. Cynthia there are not so marked differences be- tween the different stages, though the last is the most variegated owing to the beautiful turquoise-blue trappings. Note on the Freshly Hatched Larva of Platysamia Gloverii. Young Larva, just hatched. — May 15. Just as it slips out of the egg the body and head are jet-black, but the spines are white, though their tips at the origin of the hairs are black. In a few moments, however, the spines turn jet-black ; the hairs arising from them being white. Note on a Young Platysamia Larva from Arizona. I have had an opportunity, given me by Dr. Riley, of examining several freshly hatched larvae from Arizona, in the collection of the U.S. National Museum (No. 3053, box 13.75). They seem to be congeneric with P. cecropia, but differ in the following respects. Head black, body darker, the spines dark towards the end. The spines are of the same general shape, but the trunks are a little shorter and thicker, more stumpy, while the bristles arising from them are a little longer. As Platysamia polyommata Tepper is the only species from " South- ern Arizona," it is perhaps the young of this form, but more likely is P. gloverii, as I possess the mature larva of this specio collected by the Wheeler Survey party on the Sierra Amarilla in New Mei It only differs from another fully fed larva of this species from S:tli Lake City in having all the spines slightly slenderer. The Life History of Callosamia promethea (Drury). The larvfe are at first gregarious, feeding side by side on the under side of the leaf. Egg. — Oval-cylindrical, somewhat flattened: the Burface pure white, somewhat shining. Under a half-inch objective the sli« 11 at firel vol. xxvm. (x. s. xx.) 5 Q6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY seems to be entirely smooth and shining, without any markings, with neither pits nor polygonal areas, but after further observation very faint, irregular, moderately large polygonal areas, with faintly raised edges or boundaries, can be detected. Length 1.8, breadth 1.5 mm. The egg of C. angulifera is the same as C. promethea in shape and color, though mine are slightly smaller, and the polygonal markings appear to be even fainter than in C. promethea. In the Attacina? the eggs present generic, specific, and perhaps vari- etal characters ; this of course depends on the structure of the lining of the oviduct, and it may be asked what natural selection or the in- fluence of external surroundings have to do with the differences in the shape, structure, and markings of eggs. Larva, Stage I. — Described a few hours after hatching. Length 5 mm. The head is wider than the body in the middle, and as wide as the prothoracic segment ; black, with a broad transverse whitish band crossing the clypeus, including the apex and a large portion of the clypeus itself, the labrum and base of the antenna? pale. The thoracic tubercles, at first lemon-yellow, become afterwards dusky greenish, while those of abdominal segments 1 to 7 are lemon-yellow ; all give rise to black bristles, the longer of which are about twice as long as the tubercles themselves, being much longer than in the other Attacinae of the same stage, while the tubercles themselves are smaller in proportion. The thoracic tubercles bear seven or eight, and the abdominal six bristles, one of which is often longer thau the others. The body is lemon-yellow, very conspicuously banded crosswise with black. The prothoracic segment is yellow ; dusky along the front edge ; or yellow with one or several black spots ; on the hinder edge is a broad black transverse band ending on the lowest lateral tubercle, which is yellow, and a little larger than the dorsal ones on the same segment. The front and hinder edges of each succeeding segment of the body are black. The anal legs have a large black spot on each side. The three tenant seta? on the thoracic feet are broad and lancet-shaped, and there are 1G crotchets on the abdominal legs. The single median tubercle on the 8th abdominal segment is evi- dently double in its origin, being twice as broad as long at the base, and there is a median space between the two sets of seta?, there being two tops or crowns, from each of which arise five seta? ; and it is larger than the others, its greatest diameter being the transverse one. This and the two dorsal and lateral tubercles on the 9th and 10th segments (suranal plate) are dusky or blackish green, and are of the same hue as those on the thoracic segments, and they are a little larger than OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 67 those on abdominal segments 1 to 7, those being yellow. All the bristles are jet-black, aud there are none of any other color. They are finely spinulated, the spiuules rather dense; they taper to the acute end, and are clear and probably glandular. It is to be noticed that the body is transversely banded with black ; that the dorsal tuber- cles of the three thoracic aud the last two abdominal segments are already in this stage differentiated in color and size from those of the first seven abdominal segments ; indeed, the larva is much variegated, being showily banded, with great contrasts of color. Mr. Bridgham's specimens of Stage I. were observed on July 15, and were fed on the sassafras and wild cherry. The second stage was drawn on July 23d. Stage II. — Length 10 to 12 mm. The head is not quite so wide as the body behind the middle, being much smaller in proportion to the body than before ; it is black, with a sinuous broad conspicuous whit- ish (not yellow as in Stage I.) band passing across the clypeus, so as to include the apex, and curving down towards the antenna'. The ground color of the body is whitish instead of yellowish, so that the transverse black bands, though narrower, are more conspicuous than before. ( )n the 1st thoracic aud 9th abdominal segments are two dorsal and two lateral black tubercles, one as in Stage I., but on all the other segments except the 10th abdominal the tubercles are now yellowish with black spines; all the tubercles are situated on the white portion of the body, the black bands being situated between them. The single mediau tubercle on the 8th abdominal segment is now yellowish, and distinctly seen to be double, being very broad, and each side provided with a crown of about five spines. There are iive or six spines to cadi tuber cle, and many are black, and much shorter and stouter thou in the pre- vious stage, the outer ones being about as long as the tubercles bearing them are high, the central inner one longer. The round black spot on the side of the anal leg differs from that in Stage I. in being curved, boomerang-shaped. Tne thoracic legs are black, and the abdominal ones pale yellowish. In this stage the dorsal tubercles on the 2d and 3d thoracic segments are of the same size and color as those of ab- dominal segments 1 to 7; the differentiation in size mot color oj ths four thoracic tubercles hewing not get taken place. It is to be observed that in Stage I. the dorsal tubercles on all these thoracic segment* arc black, and the median one on the 8th abdominal segmenl 18 also black. Bridgham's figure and Riley's specimen, from which the foregoing description has been drawn up, agrees with Riley's description. 68 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY Figure 4 (Plate I.) represents a dorsal view of the last four abdom- inal segments (VII.-X.) with the medio-dorsal tubercle (d') on the eighth uromere (VIII.), bearing ten seta?, two of them arising one on each side of the median line ; a, a seta from one of the dorsal tubercles on the 9th segment; b, one from the 7th segment showing the medul- lary fluid supposed to be the poisonous secretion, though there is no secretory cell visible at the origin of the spine ; the spine is dark and rather opaque. Stage III. — (Described from an alcoholic specimen in the author's collection.) Length 15 mm.; width of head 2 mm. The head is marked in general as before, but the hairs are smaller and less numer- ous. The sinuous ivhite band in front is much wider than before, being in front fully three times as wide as the black line connecting the eyes ; the baud being narrower on the sides above the eyes. The head is much narrower than the body, which is now stout and thick. The two transverse black bands or rings on each of the thoracic and ab- dominal segments have now disappeared, only faint traces of them being left here and there, the most persistent traces being a minute linear black spot situated on the side behind the spiracles. The protho- racic tubercles are black, and about half as long and large as the 2d and 3d thoracic dorsal ones, which are whitish, with a black ring at base ; the lateral ones being black-brown. All the dorsal abdominal tubercles are but a little smaller than the thoracic ones, and all, both dorsal and lateral, are black-brown, except the single large dorsal tu- bercle on the 8th segment, which is now very large and fully twice as thick as the largest dorsal ones elsewhere, if not more ; it has four spines on each side, and two central ones. In all the tubercles the spines are now short, and no longer than the thickness of the tuber- cles bearing them. The black curved line on the side of the anal legs is now more curved than before. Stage IV. — (Described from Mi-. Bridgham's colored sketch.) Length 20 mm. The head is now yellow, with two black dots in front, and a narrow black transverse line connecting the eyes and antennae : the head is about two thirds as wide as the body, which is now whit- ish. The tubercles on the prothoracic segment are black, and of the same size as those on the abdominal segments, the latter [dorsal ones) being now about one half as long and large as those on the 2d and 3d thoracic segments ; the single median dorsal one on the 8th segment being a little thicker, and colored sulphur-yellow (Riley), like those on the 2d and 3d thoracic segments. The curved black line is slenderer than in Stage III. All the legs, both thoracic and abdominal, are pale yellowish. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 69 Stage V. and last. — Length 45-50 mm. In its final shape, the body is cylindrical, tapering towards each end, and not so stout and thick as in Platysamia, or Telea, or Actias, or Attacus, and the tubercles are smaller, smoother, and without the conspicuous large spines present in the genera named, while the dorsal abdominal tubercles are Bmaller than in any other genus of AttaciniB known to us. In its larval char- acters the genus is the last and most specialized of a series beginning with Saturnia (S. carpini) and including Platysamia ami Samia. The head is small, being a little less than one half as thick as the body, and now is without any black spots. The black dorsal protho- racic and abdominal tubercles are much shorter than in Stage IV. The dorsal prothoracic ones are mere black spots, not even rising into low warts; the two lateral ones on each side are' much larger than the rudimentary dorsal ones, rising into low conical shining black tuber- cles no higher than wide. The homologous lateral tubercles mi thoracic segments 2 and 3 are larger and more prominent than thu.se on abdominal segments 1 to 7. The rudimentary black dorsal tubercles on abdominal segments 1 to 7 are low rounded conical shining black bosses, which are transversely oval at base, and not so high as wide. The four dorsal 2d and 3d thoracic tubercles, together with the single median one on the 8th abdominal segment, are all of the same size seen sideways, but the last named tubercle seen from in front or behind is thicker, owing to its double origin. The two dorsal ones on the '.Mb abdominal segment are rather high, being long, conical, but no higher than the median single one on the 8th segment. All the legs are yel- lowish; each of the middle abdominal legs with a black dot in the middle of the outer side. Professor Riley has briefly described and in part figured in his Fourth Missouri Report (p. 121) the five stages of this larva; and my ma- terial confirms his description. Mr. Dyar, however, claims that from his observations there are but four stages. For the colors, sine we have not yet seen the living larva, we must quote from Riley, who states that in the fifth stage "the appearance is totally changed ; the body is of a most delicate bluish white, with a faint pruinescence." Further on he says : " As this worm acquires its full growth, the prui- nescence mentioned above disappears, ami it acquires a more greenish cast, except around the base of the tubercles, where there i-, a □ decided blue annulation." In Psyche for .hum. L891, M. Beuten- muller gives a detailed description of six stages, five moult-. Hi- fifth and sixth stages appear to be the same as our fifth. 70 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY The Life History of Callosamia angulifera (Walk.). The larvse hatched on July G and 7 from eggs kindly sent me hy Miss Morton, and fed on the leaves of the tulip tree, Stages II. to IV., are described from Mr. Bridgham's colored figures. Miss Caro- line G. Soule describes the five stages in Psyche, Vol. V. p. 2G0. Egg. — Of the same shape and color as those of C. promethea, though slightly smaller, while the polygonal markings appear to be even fainter than in C. promethea. Freshly hatched Larva. — Length 4 mm. The head is black, with two lunate ochreous yellow spots on the vertex, while in front, on the middle, is a transverse, pale parchment-colored stripe, and in front of this stripe is a transverse clypeal line of the same pale hue. The body is pale ochreous yellow, and the hairs appear to be of the same color ; the two faint transverse lines on each segment being nearly obsolete, so that in some specimens they are not apparent, and the body does not appear to be striped with black, as is so plainly the case in C. promethea. Compared with C. promethea of the same stage, the lame of the present species are rather smaller, and differ decidedly, the body being much paler, and not heavily striped with black, the transverse black bands, so broad and deep black in C. promethea, being much narrower, very much fainter, and often nearly obsolete; also all the tubercles and hairs, except those on the prothoracic and sometimes the 10th abdominal segments are pale yellowish, like the body. The tubercles and seta? on the prothoracic segment are not so dark as in C. promethea. The upper pale stripe on the head is a little narrower than in C. pro- methea. The black stripes on the last three abdominal segments are somewhat heavier than those in front. The tubercles on the 9th ab- dominal segment and the end of the anal or 10th segment may be dusky, while the dark stripes on the segments in front may be entirely wanting. There is little difficulty in separating the larva? of the two species at the first stage. It is noteworthy that the colors of the dorsal tuber- cles are not so much differentiated as in C. prom* thru, or they are in a degenerate stage; the dorsal tubercles of the 2d and 3d and the 1st and 7th to 9th abdominal segments are not dark, as in C. promethea, but like those on segments 2-6. The dorsal tubercles are a little slen- derer, and the seta; or hairs rather longer, than in O. promethea. The tubercles have the same number of seta? as in C. promethea, the single one on the 8th abdominal segment having ten seta', and being distinctly PLATE II 6 * Armature of Attacine Caterpillars. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 71 divided into halves. There is no black patch on the side of the anal legs, it being well marked in C. promethea, and the thoracic feet are considerably paler. This stage was drawn at Providence, July 8; the 2d, July 13; the 3d, July 15; the 4th, July 19; the oth, July 26; the larva becoming fully grown August 1. Figure 5 (Plate II.). The last six abdominal segments (V.-X.) of G. angulifera, which should be compared with the camera drawing of the same parts in C. promethea to show how different the shapes of the tubercles are, the set* also differing in the two species at the same stage. The seta? on the suranal plate have not been drawn. The seta? are transparent. d', homologue of the " caudal .-.pine " of Sphingidae. d, a seta enlarged. Stage II — Length 8 mm. The body is now longer in proportion than before, and the head is now no wider than the body. The head is black, and striped with whitish yellow, the shape and width of the pale stripes nearly as in Stage I. The prothoracic segment has black dorsal tubercles, and the black transverse dorsal band is divided into two patches, situated behind the tubercles. The tubercles are now shorter than before, with shorter bristles, and those on the 2d and 3d thoracic, and the 1st, 8th, and Oth abdominal segments, are slightly, but not very noticeably, larger than before. The larva differs markedly from that of C. promethea of this stage in the faint, narrow transverse stripes, those of C. promethea being still heavy and dark. There is no curved black spot on the side of the anal legs; the thoracic legs are much paler than in C. promethea. The body is greenish yellow, while the ground color of C promethea is more of a whitish hue. Only the two last abdominal tubercles (on 10th segment) are dusky. (The figures of Mr. Bridgham agree with Miss Soule's description.) Stage II. — Length 12 mm. The head now differs in being less black, the pale bands being wider, and there are two white spots on the vertex, one on each side. The body is pale straw yellow, more distinctly banded with black than before, the two heaviest and broad- est bands being on the hinder edges of the prothoracic and the 8th and Oth abdominal segments, while the suranal plate is blacker than before, with a lateral black line. On the other segments, the black bands (two to each segment) are confined to the back, and do no( extend down the sides. All the tubercles from th<' 2d thoracic to and including the 9th abdominal ones are yellowish. At the end of this stage, length IS mm. The body is ratlin- thicker 72 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY than before, and whiter yellow ; the head with more white, especially on the vertex, and the white stripe across the middle is rather wider. The 2d and 3d thoracic, 1st, 8th, and 9th abdominal dorsal tubercles are not distinctly larger than the others, and all are paler. The black stripes are nearly as before, but perhaps not quite^so heavy. The suranal plate is not so black as before, but with two black spots ; and on the side of the anal plate is a black elongated patch. Stage IV. — Length 34-35 mm. The characters of the fully grown larva are now nearly attained. The head is large, three fourths as wide as the body, pale lemon-greenish, with six black dots, two below, and one above. The two dorsal prothoracic tubercles yellowish ; the lateral ones black. The two dorsal tubercles on the 2d and 3d thoracic segments are now high, large, and with ob- solete spines, red, with a black base or ring (Miss Soule says, " black at base, ringed with yellow, orange at tips, smooth "). The single one on the 8th abdominal segment is ringed with black at the base, and beyond yellow ; it is slightly smaller than those on the thoracic seg- ments. All the other dorsal as well as lateral tubercles are now re- duced to low small black rudimentary tubercles. In this stage it differs from that of G. promethea of the same stage in the much shorter black tubercles on the 2d to 7th abdominal segments ; and in the dorsal tubercles on the 2d and 3d thoracic segments being reddish, iustead of yellowish. The curved horseshoe-shaped black line on the side of the anal legs is the same as in G. promethea. The "yellow stigmatal ridge" noticed by Miss Soule is shown in Bridgham's figure. Fidl-grown Larva. — Length 68 mm. On comparing a blown specimen of G. angulifera with one of G. promethea. the former differs in the following particulars. The head is slightly larger, without the two black dots in front and the lateral dot, and without the broad black stripe extending in G. promethea from each side of the base of the labrum upward, and ending on the side of the head below the lateral dot. The four dorsal black spots on the prothoracic segment are wanting in G. angulifera, and the short lateral tubercles are not colored black as in G. promethea, while the tubercles themselves are much smaller and less prominent. The four dorsal tubercles (two on the 2d and two on the 3d thoracic segment) are decidedly smaller and slenderer than in G. promethea ; the tips are black where those of G. promethea are yellow, and the black ring around the base is nar- rower than in G. promethea. The two lateral small black tubercles on each of these segments are wanting, and all traces of them have nearly OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 73 or quite vanished. Of the dorsal ones I can with difficulty, by means of a good lens, find faint traces, they are so nearly effaced.* There are in G. angulifera no black spots on the base of the four pairs of middle abdominal legs, and there is a black ring only on the lower side of the anal legs, as in G. promethea. Thesuranal plate bas two transverse linear black spots on the ends, but none of the other black markings of G. promethea. It wants the pair of triangular black sternal spots situated in front of each pair of thoracic legs of G. pro- methea. The median dorsal horn on the 8th abdominal segment is black at the base and tip. The two dorsal black tubercles on the 'Jth segment, and the lateral ones, are wanting, though they are conspicu- ous in G. promethea. G. angulifera is much duller in color and much less ornamented, with shorter, less conspicuous tubercles, and all, both dorsal and lateral. on abdominal segments 1 to 7 are wanting. It seems to be a form which may be regarded as having originated later than C. promethea. and which has diverged from it, and it seems to be a species which has directly evolved from the stem-form promethea. Recapitulation of the more Salient Ontogenetic Features ok Callosamia. A. Congenital Features. 1. Hatched with heavy black transverse bands on a yellow body, and the head black, banded with yellow; the bristles moderately long; thus the larva is already a rather conspicuous object. 2. The dorsal thoracic tubercles already differentiated in size and color from those on abdominal segments 1 to 7. The differences be- tween the freshly hatched larva and the last stage very marked ; more so than in Platysamia or Samia. B. Evolution of later Adasptational Features. 1. In Stage II. the body becomes paler, and thus the black bands more conspicuous. The 2d and 3d thoracic dorsal tubercles and those on abdominal segments 1 to 8 are now all yellowish, and of the same size. * These tubercles have evidently disappeared owing to di9use. Wlial there is in its habits to bring this about is a matter of conjecture ; tins form is only known to feed on the tulip tree, and this may be a case of arboreal selection ; the change of food plant, together with possibly the abundance of t I, tin- tree having but few species of larvae feeding on it, may have had something to do with the abolition of the tubercles. 74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY 2. Disappearance in Stage III. of the transverse black bands. The abdominal tubercles all become blackish. 3. In Stage IV. the head becomes yellow, being less conspicuously marked, and the dorsal abdominal tubercles are about half as long and large as those on the 2d and 3d thoracic segments. 4. The body becomes in the last stage much smoother than before, the dorsal prothoracic and abdominal tubercles being much shorter than in Stage IV. This reduction of size and inconspicuousness of the dorsal abdominal tubercles is carried out to excess in 0. angulifera, where they become obsolete, and the larva is simply a large green caterpillar with inconspicuous markings, and simply protected by its green color, like the majority of lepidopterous larvae ; not being so strikingly marked as in the fully fed Samia cyrithia. The Life History of Samia cvnthia (Drury). The eggs were received from Mr. H. Meeske. The larva? were at first fed on the leaves of the ailanthus, but wheu transferred to Bruns- wick, Maine, ate freely of the wild plum. The Egg. — Regularly oval-cylindrical, dull chalky white ; the sur- face of the shell finely pitted, but not arranged in wavy rows as in P. cecropia ; the pits under a half-inch objective are near together and slightly polygonal, and their walls project as little bosses on the inside of the shell. Length 2 mm., thickness 1.4 mm. Larva, Stage I. — Hatched June 1 1 . Described one day after hatching. Length 4—5 mm. Head rather large, as wide as the pro- thoracic segment. The body gradually tapers from the head to the tail, and is of a pale greenish yellow, the head dark chestnut, with a pale greenish clypeus and labrum. The prothoracic segment is broad and somewhat flattened above, with a dark chestnut-colored chitinous plate or squarish patch on each side, sometimes appearing as widely separated by a pale greenish yellow clear median dorsal space ; with four dorsal and two lateral black tubercles ; of the dorsal ones the two in the middle are slightly larger than those outside, and larger than the lat- eral one-; ; they are also connected at their base by a slight ridge. All the tubercles are much alike on all the segments, bearing from 5 to 7 seta?, those on abdominal segments 5 to 7 scarcely smaller than those on the thoracic. The hairs or bristles are whitish, or rather colorless, 4 or 5 to 7 on each dorsal tubercle ; they are slender, not stiff or thickened at base, and are spinulated, the spinules short and acute; under a half-inch objective they appear, not bulbous, but tapering, and being transparent may be glandular. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 75 The single median tubercle on the 8th abdominal segment is some- times nearly twice as large as the others on the same segment, and is double, being broader than long, bearing four bristles on each side. There are two setiferous tubercles on the 9th abdominal segment and, as generally in the group, two short but large ones on the Kith, being situated on the front edge of the suranal plate, and bearing each eight bristles. All the tubercles on the body are jet-black. The spiracles are pale, and inconspicuous. The thoracic feet bear three lancet-shaped tenant hairs, but they are a little wider than those of P. cecropia. The abdominal feet bc/ar fourteen crotchets. Before the first moult the larvae increase in size and length (7-8 mm.), becoming much fuller, swollen out with food ; the body, however, is smooth, the segments not being swollen ; it is bright straw-yellow; the spines are not so long as before, and the bristles are considerably shorter. A dorsal row of dark spots is present. Before a change of skin the larva rests immovably for several hours, the membrane in front of the prothoracic segment being swollen be- tween the head and the front edge of the segment, and the head, now appearing to be very small in proportion to the swollen prothoracic segment is held downward, while the thoracic feet are stretched for- ward. In moulting it leaves behind it only a small mass of crumpled skin, as the cuticle is so thin. Figure 6 (Plate II.), a, dorsal tubercle ou 2d thoracic segment; b, the same on the 3d thoracic segment ; c, a subdorsal tubercle of the 7th abdominal segment ; d, a seta ; d', d", ends of two others. All Stage I. Drawn with the camera. Stage II. — One had just moulted, June 17. The body was all yel- low except the dorsal and two lateral rows of black spots between the rows of tubercles, there being two spots in each row on each segment. All the tubercles are now amber-yellow, and the hairs are pale. An individual was noticed to increase in length soon after ecdysis. It was observed at 4.20 p. m. In about twenty minutes or half an hour after moulting, when it is 9 to 10 mm. long, the tubercles on the side, especially those in front, begin to turn dark, the thoracic ones first changing color. In about an hour an obscure broad dusky band cross- nig the head appears; in fifty minutes or an hour, the thoracic legs have turned blackish, and by tins time the creature begins to eat, this species feeding well in confinement. In an hour and a half the lower lateral (infraspiracular) row of tubercles and those on the 10th ab- dominal segment had turned black, but the upper lateral and dorsal ones were still pale. By 6.30 p. &r. the others, both dorsal and lateral, 78 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY had become dark at the tips, but the hairs were still pale. About a day later, i. e. at 5 p. M., the tips of the tubercles only were dark, the bases being still pale yellow as before. This stage differs but little from the first, chiefly in the pale honey- yellowish head ; there are as yet no differences in the size of the dorsal tubercles, though they are in this stage pale yellowish at the base, where before they were black throughout. Stage III. — They moulted again, June 22-23. Length 14-15 mm. The body is of the same yellow hue as before, the tubercles at first being all yellow. The lateral ones are the first to turn dark. The head is pale yellow, concolorous with the body. In the preceding stage, on each abdominal segment there is an up- right faint short blackish stripe behind the spiracle ; in the present stage there is a jet-black stripe, which is somewhat curved or exca- vated on the front edge; there is none on the prothoracic segment, and the stripe is represented on the 2d and 3d thoracic segments by an irregular black rounded dot. At the base of the thoracic legs is a black dot, not present at the base of the abdominal legs. The tuber- cles are nearly of the same shape and relative size as in Stage II., but the six dorsal and four last abdominal (the dorsal ones on 9(h and LQlh segments) are slightly larger than the other abdominal ones, while the spiracles are larger than before and black ; the other black marks are as before. Stage IV. — One moulted again the morning of July 1. Length 15-16 mm., one 20 mm. and eventually becoming 25 mm. When observed an hour or two after casting its skin, the body as before was pale lemon-yellow ; the tubercles of the same color as before, i. e. pale oreenish yellow, except those of the lower lateral row which are black on the trunk, but with the head or end and the spines light greenish yellow. The dorsal and two lateral rows of black spots are as before. The head and upper side of the prothoracic segments are shining honey-yellow, as is also the 9th and 10th abdominal segments, while the body is covered with a whitish mealy bloom. The larvae, which were reared in Brunswick, Maine, from eggs laid in Brooklyn, seem to feed sparingly and to grow slowly, and were fed at first with ailanthus, and afterwards with wild plum. They became before moulting again very white, the bloom being thick and powdery, so that the honey-yellow head and prothoracic plate, with the suranal plate, together with the sides of the anal legs and upper part of the 9th ab- dominal segment, contrast with the color of the body. In this stage the two anterior setiferous ^tubercles on the suranal plate are still we'l developed, as are also their bristles. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 77 Stage V. — Moulted July 15-18. Length 40 mm. It differs from the preceding stage in the rarely beautiful pale turquoise-blue edging on the edge of the suranal plate and anal legs, ami in the pah bluish tint on the ends of all the tubercles, and at the base of the middle abdominal legs. The head is lemon-yellow as before, about one half a^ thick aa tin- body, and is bluish on the region of the eyes. The prothoracic seg- ment is lemon-yellow, edged with pale blue, while the tubercles are of a beautiful pale turquoise tint. The tubercles are still long and slender, those of the thoracic and last two segments scarcely larger than the others. In this genus the tubercles are remarkably long, with short, small, pale radiating bristles, much shorter and slighter than in Platysamia. The suranal plate also in Stage V. bears two low bosses without bristles (only their rudiments), while in P. cecropia these tubercles with their bristles are well developed; it also differs in the black spots of the last stage. Those of the dorsal and subdorsal rows are pale whitish green at base, passing towards the end into pale turquoise-blue. The infra- spiracular row of tubercles are ringed with black at the base. The black spots on the body are as in the previous stages. The thoracic and abdominal legs are lemon-yellow, the latter pale bluish at base and on the planta. The suranal plate and dorsal region of the 9th segment are lemon-yellow, the thickened much swollen edge of the suranal plate is turquoise-blue, including the tubercles, and the edge of the anal legs is of the same tint, the blue suddenly expanding on the lower side above the crotchets. In this stage the body in general is turquoise bluish white, rather than pure white or slightly yellowish white, as in Stage III. August 20th one spun a cocoon, and the others stopped growing, perhaps partly on account of the cooler climate than their parent- had experienced, though the season of 1890 was a warm one for Maine. By the larval characters this Chinese or Eastern Asiatic genus is much more closely allied to Platysamia than to Attacus, though the imago perhaps has more of the habit and general form and appearance of Attacus. It differs from Platysamia in the rather slenderer body, the decidedly longer tubercles, and the slighter, shorter bristles arising from them, and in coloration by the pale lemon-yellow Bkin, with the conspicuous black spots, and the beautiful turquoise-blue markings, as well as the peculiar soft white bloom on the skin. How I'm- tin-, style of ornamentation adapts it to its native Asiatic ! 1 plant 1W do not know. 78 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY Recapitulation of the more Salient Ontogenetic Features. A. Congenital Features. 1. Hatched with large, well developed setiferous tubercles; but the bristles not bulbous in Stage I. 2. The body pale, but the tubercles dark, and besides these inter- tubercular conspicuous black spots are present in Stages I. to V. 3. The hornologue of the "caudal horn" is double, bearing foui bristles on each side. The difference between the larva of the first stage and the last, un- usually slight compared with Platysamia and Callosamia. B. Evolution of later Adaptational Features. 1. The tubercles become pale at tip in Stage III., and those of the two dorsal rows of the thoracic and last two abdominal segments become slightly larger than those of abdominal segments 1 to 7, in Stage III. 2. Differences in coloration appear in Stage IV., the head, protho- racic and last two abdominal segments being honey-yellow, thus con- trasting with the whitish body, with its whitish bloom, which also appears in this stage. 3. Farther changes in color appear in the last stage, the ends of all the tubercles becoming pale bluish, and the edges of the suranal plate and anal legs being a rich turquoise-blue. 4. In the last stage a very slight difference in the size and shape of the thoracic and the last abdominal tubercle. 5. The tubercles on the suranal plate become reduced to low bosses, without bristles. Thus Samia cynthia is a decided step in advance of Platysamia, and appears to be a later formed genus. Comparison between the Larva of Samia and Callosamia. — The fully fed larva of Samia cynthia is in the shape of the head and body, and in the shape of the tubercles with which the latter is armed, more allied to Callosamia than to Attacus, although the imago is perhaps as near the latter genus as to Callosamia. The head of the larva of Samia is almost identical with that of Callosamia. The nearly obsolescent tubercles on the prothoracic segment have about the same degree of degeneration in Samia as in Callosamia, but the former differs in the fact that the lateral tubercles in all three thoracic seg- ments are well developed, and end in a head armed with four spines, as in Platysamia (P. cecropia), while the tubercles are as well de- OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 7'.i veloped on the abdominal segments as on the thoracic. The tho- racic tubercles also are no more differentiated than the abdominal ones. Samia also differs from Callosainia in the twelve rows of black spots along the body. The larva of Samia is thus seen to be intermediate between Platysamia and Callosainia, but the moth is apparently intermediate between Callosainia ( C. angulifera) and Attacus. The head and the shape and size of the body of the larva arc like those of Callosainia, but in its secondary adaptive generic characters it retains a resemblance to Platysamia. In a systematic classifica- tion, then, we had better adopt the imaginal characters rather than the larval, the latter being so much more plastic and more readily influ- enced by changes in the mode of life and by differences in the food. In its earliest larval stages, the insect is certainly more like Platy- samia cecropia than Callosainia, but still even in these stages Samia is more advanced than Platysamia, wdiieh in its earliest larval si especially in the possession of long bristles arising from the short tu- bercles, intergrades with or is closely allied to the fully grown Ian Saturniacarpini ; and in the imaginal characters Platysamia is nearer the ancestral form Saturuia (in the restricted sense) than to any of the other Attack If we do as we should do in locating Samia in its proper taxonomic position, we shall not err greatly in placing Samia much above Cecropia, and on the whole near Attacus. Larva of Attacus sp. (possibly A. splendidus DeB.). The larva of which I give the following description was collected at Socorro, Arizona, September 9, 1874, by Wheeler's Expedition. The single specimen was in alcohol. It is probably about half grown. (Plate II. Figure 7.) Length 25 mm. Head rather large, slightly more than one half wide as the body when it is thickest; it is of a chestnut color, si ith. not hairy. The body is moderately long and quite thick and fleshy, tapering rather rapidly behind. The prothoracic segment is granu- lated above, but with no tubercles; on each side, however, i- a remarkably long fleshy tubercle or process, which hangs down and curls back like a ram's horn, and is finely spinuloses it is al t as long as the segment is thick, and is situated exactly in front of the spiracle of the same segment. On each of the 2d and 3d thoracic segments is a pair of short thick tubercles, those on the 3d a little longer than those on the 2d segment. On each Bide of thi 80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY merits is a long curled tubercle similar to those in front, but only a little more than one half as long ; those on the 3d segment are shorter and thicker at the end, and a little more than one half as long as those on the segment in front. On each of abdominal segments 1 to 9 is a pair of similar tubercles or processes which increase in size and length from segments 4 to 9, those on 7 to 9 being of nearly the same size. On the side of each of abdominal segments 2 to 8, situated far below the spiracles and just above the legs where present, are similar horn-like processes, but which are longer than the dorsal ones on the 2d abdominal segment, whereas on segments 3 to 8 they are about the same size and length. All these processes are provided with short hairs. It is probable that some or all of them are more or less erectile. This species is allied to the larva of Aitacus atlas Linn., as figured by Horsfield and Moore in their Catalogue of Lepidopterous Insects, II., PI. XX. Fig. 2. It differs, however, from the full-grown larva of that Asiatic species in the dorsal abdominal processes being shorter, and the lateral abdominal ones being much longer, especially on seg- ments 4 to 9, while the thoracic ones are longer, especially the first pair next to the head. But the larva is of the same general shape, and undoubtedly is a true Attacus. Attacus appears to be the only genus possessing these remarkably soft, long fleshy processes, which remind us of those of the Cochliopod Phobetron. The Life History of Telea polypiiemus (Cramer). The larva\ usually feeding on the oak, have been found on the chestnut, and in Maine on the beech. Although so often raised, a full life history of this fine insect has not yet, been published. Egg. — Regularly oval-cylindrical, each end alike; flattened at each pole ; surface chalky white, with a very broad, conspicuous dark brown band. Under a lens, the surface of the shell is seen to be finely pitted or granulated ; under a half-inch objective, the surface is seen to be covered with round shallow depressions bordered with a well marked rim ; these orbicular areas do not touch each other, there beinw quite wide spaces between them ; they are arranged obliquely. Length of egg 2.6 mm., breadth 2.2 mm. Larva, Stage I. — Hatched June 12. (Described when 20-24 hours old.) The brood hatches all at once, or nearly so. Length 5 to 6 mm. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 3] The head is large and full, rouuded as usual in the family; as wide as or slightly wider than the body, i. e. the prothoracic nient, not taking into account the lateral tubercles. It is deep bright brick-red; the labrum, antenna1, and jaws yellowish. The body grad- ually tapers backwards from the head. The body is of a soft, pale greenish yellow; the tubercles pal- yellowish, contrasting with the color of the body. The prothoracic segment flares in front, the edge turning up and bearing two large dorsal tubercles which are double. The prothoracic tubercles air very prominent, projecting on each side, and are about twice as large the 2d and 3d thoracic ones, and bear twelve bristles. These tuber- cles and those of the same series on the 9th abdominal segmeut are much larger than the intermediate ones. There is a slight differentia- tion in size and color of the dorsal tubercles, those of the thoracic ami 9th abdominal segments being of the same size, and larger than those on abdominal segments 1 to 7, and also of a deeper yellow shade. The bristles are pale, those on all the thoracic tubercles, dorsal and lateral, a little darker than those on the abdominal segments, and darker at the tips. They are but little longer than the tubercles, ami there are about six on each abdominal tubercle. Under a half-inch objective the bristles are seen to be not only docked at the tip, but the latter i- slightly but distinctly swollen or bulbous, and sometimes containing; an oval mass of the coagulated secretion. The median dorsal tubercle on the 8th abdominal segment is as large as those on the thoracic segments; it is twice as wide a- long at the base, and is more deeply divided than in any other of our Attaci known, very plainly showing its origin from two originally separate dorsal tubercles ; each fork is well developed, being <>nt as /"//_r brill are filled with blood, which distends them. While thus distended, the fluid may ooze out of the ends, and thus they may be called glandular hairs. In i which are full and bulbous at the end, the fluid may be retained through 8l I., and in rare cases through the second or even the third stage. 88 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY The following description is drawn up from individuals which had been hatched for about a week (May 24-26), and were near the end of this stage. The body was larger, fuller, and less tapering pos- teriorly than at first. The head is small, about half as wide as the body, rounded, and at rest can be retracted within the prothoracic seg- ment. There is a transverse dark brown band in front just below the vertex, making two scallops, and ending on the sides ; on each side (below) of the front edge of the clypeus is a dark spot around the base of the antennae, which sometimes sends a short line inwards, as in Mr. Bridgham's figure. The body is thick, full, cylindrical, each segment, except the protho- racic and last two abdominal ones, with six thick, smooth conical tuber- cles, those on the sides above the spiracles smaller than those below, and about one half the size of the dorsal ones, and bearing fewer bristles than the others. Prothoracic segment with only four tubercles, the two dorsal ones low, flattened, and small, with about fourteen radi- ating bristles. The lateral tubercles are like those of the other seg- ments ; the rest of the dorsal tubercles are large, full, nearly touching at their base, and bearing about eight to ten bristles, which are one half to one third longer than the tubercles themselves ; they radiate and are dark purplish, pale at base, those on the back darker than those arising from the lateral tubercles. The Id and 3d thoracic dorsal tubercles are slightly larger than the abdominal ones. Each of the dorsal abdominal tubercles bears about six bristles. The body is delicate pea-green, nearly like the under side of the Carya leaf on which they feed. The tubercles, especially the dorsal ones, are tinged with faint straw or lemon yellow, while the lateral supraspiracular tubercles are greenish, scarcely tinged with yellow. The bristles are longer in proportion to the tubercle than in the larva of C. promethea ; most of them are three times and some four to five times as long as the tubercle. The bristles are sparingly and minutely barbed, tapering acutely, but they are clear, and perhaps glandular. The median dorsal tubercle on the eighth uromere shows traces of its double origin, but they are not so marked as in C. promethea and T. polypliemus, but more so than in Platysamia cecropia. It is much broader than long at base, and on the tip bears five seta? on each side. The ninth uromere bears four tubercles of equal size, which are large and well developed, the lateral ones scarcely smaller than the dorsal ones. The suranal plate is broad and short, more so than in T. pbly- phemus, not tubercled, but bearing two tufts of bristles which are but OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 89 a little shorter than those arising from the lateral tubercles of the of the body. The anal legs are large and squarish, as in the group generally ; all the legs, both thoracic aud abdominal, are pale green. The abdominal legs bear each twenty crotchets. The three tenant hairs of the thoracic feet are rather longer than usual. The spiracles are slightly chitinous, not colored. The shape of the double dorsal tubercle on the 8th abdominal ment is shown at Figure 10, d' ; sd, the subdorsal ones; o, a Beta much enlarged, which, unlike T. polyphemus, is finely and minutely barbed , a', a", ends of other seta?. Stage II — Moulted May 26, in the daytime. Length at firs! 9 mm., afterwards 10 mm. In one larva all the tubercles are of the same yellowish hue ; in the other, those of the 2d and 3d thoi segments are brownish at the tip, thus greatly contrasting with the others. In another larva the median dorsal tubercle on the eighth uromere is also colored in the same way. The head in one i- all green, not yet banded with brown ; but in another the bead i partly banded, i.e. in place of the two-scalloped hand are two separate short scallops. The tubercles are now higher than before, and rough with Blender conical warts which give origin to the seta-. The proth ibercles 90 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY are now longer than before, and all four are deep amber-yellow at the end, the seta? being black ; two out of the five spines of the 2d and 3d thoracic segments are dark brown at and near the ends, and give rise to black bristles, rendering them very conspicuous ; they are a little larger and higher than those on the abdomen, and bear about twice as many bristles ; eight in all, all of which are black, while on the yellow tipped tubercles of the abdominal segments there are about five bristles, one of them minute ; two of the five are black, the others pale. The two lateral rows of tubercles are, as before, with pale bristles. The median dorsal tubercle on the 8th uromere is not quite so dark as those on the 2d and 3d thoracic segments, and some of the latter are scarcely darker than the other abdominal ones. The spira- cles are of the same pale color as before. The suranal plate still bears the two terminal tubercles, as before. The thoracic legs are now darker than before. In this stage the larva? sometimes assume a sphinx-like attitude. Stage III. — Moulted June 1. (I am not sure that it was the same larva ; one moulted May 31. Described three days after moulting.) Length 13 and finally 15 mm. The head is either banded as before, or all green, only the ocelli being black. The body is now thick, though differing very slightly from the preceding stage. The four prothoracic, the two dorsal 2d and 3d thoracic tubercles, and the single median dorsal tubercle on the 8th uromere are either deep crimson red at the end, or much paler, and in the largest one yellowish, the tips of these tubercles varying a good deal in color ; these tubercles are now nearly twice as long and thick as those on abdominal segments 1 to 7 and 9. The tubercles of the two lateral rows are of the same size as before ; those of the upper (supraspiracular) row are still green and small ; those below, situated on the lateral ridge, are salmon-colored, and provided with black setae, like those arising from the dorsal tuber- cles ; near, and on the base of and between the tubercles are white, delicate clavate hairs (glandular?) which are not observable in the preceding stage ; they are mostly confined to the abdominal, few, only one or two, on the thoracic region. The thoracic legs are dark brown, pale at the tip ; the abdominal legs except the anal pair, are green, with a transverse lilac line near the ends ; beyond yellowish, while the plantae are tinged with lilac. There is as yet no lilac tinge on the edge of the suranal plate. Stage IV. — (Belonging to a later different brood ; described July 24.) Length 23 mm. The head now pea-green, not banded in front, nearly as wide as the body ; well rounded, and of the same shape as OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. !«1 in T. polyphemus ; it is of a deeper pea-green than the body, which is in general, especially on the dorsal side, paler than in T. polyphemus. The labrum and jaws are pale. There is a chestnut-colored ocellar patch. The segments are now quite convex, swollen under the base of the tubercles, the 2d and 3d thoracic segments being fuller and more angu- lar than the uromeres ; they are a little more so than in T. polyphemus. The four dorsal tubercles of the 2d and 3d thoracic segments (two each) are larger than the abdominal ones, and are tipped with dark carmine at the end, and each, besides one or two short seta;, bears a long black slender hair, about as long as the body is thick; the con. sponding hairs on the abdominal tubercles being about one third as long. There are four well developed prothoracic tubercles, the dorsal ones larger, more rounded and prominent than in T. polyphemus^ and also bearing besides three or four small, short pale hairs, and a black very long one. The prothoracic tubercles are deep rosy pinky not coral-red. The lateral ones on the same segment are nearly twice as large as those behind in the same series, and all on the body are rosy pink or "crushed strawberry" color. The lateral infraspiracular ridge along the abdominal segments is distinctly lemon-yellow. The spiracles are faint reddish green, quite inconspicuous. The thoracic legs are reddish. The middle abdominal legs are green above, below is a narrow distinct black stripe, the end yellow, while the plants is livid flesh-color ; the anal legs with an anterior oblique yellow band, and a black spot corresponding to the black stripe, with black hairs above, as on the middle legs. The suranal plate is faintly edged with yellow. The larva in this stage differs from T. polyphemus of the same age in the green head, the distinct lateral yellow stripe below the spiracles, which are green, and not readily seen. The six dorsal thoracic tuber- cles are distinctly larger and more prominent than the abdominal ones, and they each bear a single very long slender black hair, besides one or two short ones; this is a good generic character, separating it at once from T. polyphemus, and the suranal plate is not edged with pur- ple, but with faint yellow. When fully fed* its length is 65 mm. Maine Augus! 20. The head is green, of a different hue from the body, more like Paris-green. The body is large, heavy, plump, and thick, much as in T. polypJu and the tubercles are pinkish red, or crushed strawberry. The Buranal * Dyar states that there are but four stages. 92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY plate is edged with yellow in front, but the surface is coarsely granu- lated, and in color dull amber ; there is a similar long narrow patch on the side of the anal legs, bordered above with black and straw- yellow. The spiracles are green with the edge of the linear opening ochreous. The yellow lateral line is obscure. The body is still pro- vided with white hairs, not arising from tubercles. The body is pea-green, dorsally slightly tinged with ruddy. Recapitulation of the more Salient Ontogenetic Features. A. Congenital Features. 1. Seta? tapering to a point, not bulbous, and finely barbed. Stage I. Most of them are three or four times as long as the tubercles. 2. Some larva? in Stage I. with a very broad lateral dark band along the side of the body, some without it ; no transverse stripes pres- ent, but the head in front is twice banded with dark brown. 3. The 2d and 3d dorsal thoracic tubercles differentiated in Stage I., being slightly larger than the abdominal ones. 4. On the suranal plate are two rudimentary tubercles, each bearing a tuft of bristles. 5. The dorsal median tubercle on uromere 8 does not show such marked traces of its double origin as Stage I. of O. promethea, or T. polyphemus, but it is more duplex than in P. cecropia. B. Evolution of later Adaptational Characters. 1. Dorsal tubercles in Stage II. higher than before. 2. The lateral dark band disappears in Stage II. 3. In Stage III. the dorsal thoracic tubercles become nearly twice as long and thick as the abdominal ones. 4. The head is not banded in Stage IV. 5. The tubercles brightest (pink or dark carmine) and most conspicu- ous in the last stage. 6. A distinct infraspiracular yellow line in Stage IV., and the sur- anal plate and anal legs lined with yellow, and the surface of tht- suraual plate and sides of the anal legs amber. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 93 VI. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF THE MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY. XL. —AN INVESTIGATION OF THE EXCURSION OF THE DIAPHRAGM OF A TELEPHONE RECEIVER. By Charles R. Cross and Arthur N. Mansfield. Presented May 24, 1892. In a paper published in these Proceedings,* by Messrs. C. R. Cross and H. E. Hayes, it was shown that with a magneto-telephone receiver the magnitude of the change in the strength of the magnet when a weak current is sent through the coil increases up to a certain limit as the strength of the magnet is increased, and then diminishes, the explanation of this diminution being found in the approach of the diaphragm toward saturation. The effect of varying the thickness ol the diaphragm upon the magnitude of this change was also studied, and it was found that within the limits of the experiments the changed strength of the magnet due to the weak current is greater with thin than with thick diaphragms. From these results it would naturally be inferred (1) that the am- plitude of the vibration of the diaphragm of a telephone receiver would at first increase to a maximum, and then diminish, if the strength of the magnet were continually increased; and (2) that, within such rano-e of thickness of diaphragm as would probably be most Buitable in practice, a thin diaphragm is preferable to a thicker one. The subject has also been studied by Mercadier,t by ascertaining the distance at which the beat of a metronome, when transmitted by telephone, just ceased to be audible under different conditions of the receiver as to the thickness of the diaphragm and Btrength <»f the po- larizing magnet. In Mercadier's experiments the thickness of the diaphragms was varied through a far greater range than in tl * Vol. XXV. p. 233, 1890. t Comptes Rendus, 1889, Vol. CVIII. pp. 735, 797 ; 1891, Vol CXI1 | 94 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY of Cross and Hayes, but their results are in substantial accordance with his for the same conditions of experiment, although the range of thickness in the diaphragms used by them was probably too small to produce the peculiar alternations of effect noticed by the former observer. It seemed to the present writers desirable to verify these conclu- sions by direct observations upon the motion of the diaphragm itself, and the investigations detailed were undertaken with this end in view. We have thus far considered only the first of the two propositions just stated, leaving the second for future study. The experimental work was completed during the spring of 1891. As it is very desirable not to have the free motion of the diaphragm interfered with in any way, we decided to make use of the stroboscopic method of observing its vibrations. The telephone which we employed as a receiver had for its polar- izing magnet a bar of Norway iron three fourths of an inch in diameter, and eight inches long, which was surrounded by a magnetizing coil consisting of 2750 turns of No. 18 (B. & S.) copper wire, whose resistance was approximately eight ohms. The line coil surrounding the end of the core was made of No. 36 (B. & S.) copper wire, and had a resistance of 99.5 ohms. The core was capable of being moved longitudinally by means of a screw, so that the distance of its end from the diaphragm could be adjusted. In all of our experiments the distance between the core and diaphragm was kept at ^ of an inch. The strength of the magnet was varied by means of a resist- ance which altered the current passing through the magnetizing coil. Since it seemed very doubtful whether the excursion of the dia- phragm of the receiver when a current so feeble as that of a telephone was used would be sufficiently great to allow of satisfactory measure- ment, we decided to employ the alternating current from the secondary of a transformer through whose primary was passed the current from an ordinary alternating current dynamo making 128 complete alterna- tions per second. By the introduction of a suitable wire resistance of variable amount into the secondary circuit, the current flowing in it could be reduced to a convenient strength, so that when the magneto- telephone was placed in a derived circuit running from extreme points on this wire the coils were traversed by a current comparable in magnitude with the ordinary telephone current. By operating with a current thus produced, and passing through the coils of the receiver, we hoped to be able to employ a current somewhat, but not very greatly, larger than the ordinary telephone current, so that we might OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. safely assume that the character of the phenomena observed with the former under the different conditions considered would he substantially the same as those occurring with the latter and weaker current The alternating current thus produced, which we will call the "line current," was measured by an electro-dynamometer included in the circuit, and placed between the resistance frame and the telephone coil. This electro-dynamometer was constructed especially for the purpose, and was calibrated iu the ordinary manner, 1>\ passii direct current of known and variable strength through its coils, mal. the usual reversals to eliminate the effect of the earth's magnetism. The intermittent illumination needed for the purposes of our experi- ment was furnished by the sparks produced by a Helmholtz tin fork interrupter, making 128 complete vibrations per se id. At each vibration, when the style broke contact with the mercury in the cup a bright spark was produced. The fork was so placed that this flash should illuminate the field of a microscope placed opposite, and which was focussed upon the end of a style carried by the diaphragm of the receiving telephone. The illumination given by the Bparks, especially when concentrated by a lens, was abundantly sufficient to enable the observer to see the style as a silhouette against a bright field. The telephone was so placed that the vibration of the Btyle was in a horizontal direction. When no current passed through the telephone the style was of course seen continuously, on account of the rapid recurrence of the sparks. If the rate of alternation of the alter- nating current employed is exactly 128 per second, thus coinciding in frequency with the sparks, then when this current is sent through the telephone coil, although the diaphragm will enter into corresponding vibration at the same rate, yet the style carried by it will still seem to be at rest when viewed by the microscope. But it' the rates are not exactly the same, then of course the familiar stroboscopic effect will be produced, afid the style will appear to be in a state of Blow vibration, so that the amplitude of the vibration, if sufficient in amount, can readily be measured by means of a spider-line micrometer. Using an objective having a focal length of half an inch, and an eye-piece of moderate power, and with a very weak magnel in the telephone, we found no difficulty in producing a perfectly measur- able vibration with a current of only 5 milliamperes, while with a current of 29.5 milliamperes the excursion rose to fourteen thou- sandths of a millimeter. On passing a current through the magnetizing coil alone the dia- phragm is of course immediately drawn towards the core b] tain 96 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY fixed amount, depending upon the magnitude of the current. Some measurements were made which show the amount of this deflection with increasing values of the magnetizing current. The results of these are given in Table I. The current is given in milliamperes, the deflection in thousandths of a millimeter. irrent. TABLE I. Deflection. 14 0.0 46 1.7 85 6.7 123 16.7 155 29.2 195 45.9 246 80.8 300 130.1 367 200.0 431 272.8 473 297.0 502 330.0 604 3350 We did not carry the increase of current to a higher value, since the deflection of the diaphragm would have become so great as to carry the style out of the field of view. A comparison of these results — best seen by plotting them as a curve, which we have not thought it necessary to reproduce here — shows that on increasing the magnetizing current the corresponding permanent deflection increases more and more rapidly in proportion up to a value of about ^ of an ampere, after which the deflection is very closely proportional to the current. In studying the effect of different degrees of magnetization of the core of the receiver upon the amplitude of the vibration of the dia- phragm, our mode of procedure was to pass a known direct current through the magnetizing coil, and to vary the alternating line current through the receiving telephone coil, measuring this current by the electro-dynamometer. The extent of the excursion of the diaphragm for each different current was measured by the spider-line micrometer. The deflections given in the tables are each the mean of five readings. The process described was followed for various values of the magnetiz- ing current, with the results shown in Table II. The figures in the first vertical column indicate the serial number of the measurements ; those in the second, the strength of the magnetizing current in milli- amperes, to which the strength of the magnet was found to be propor- OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. '■'7 tional ; the figures in the upper line headed L, the various values of the alternating line current in milliamperes ; and the figures in the columns vertically beneath these last, the corresponding amplitude of vibration of the diaphragm in thousandths of a millimeter. TABLE II. L No. M 50 12.5 210 1 77 4 7 10 14 2 123 8 14 21 27 3 180 12 23 34 13 4 235 17 28 39 47 5 287 23 47 63 81 6 322 37 76 102 127 7 352 44 86 106 130 8 376 31 71 100 120 9 394 20 68 88 113 10 41G 30 60 87 107 11 459 22 40 56 69 12 503 16 30 39 50 13 564 8 17 28 86 14 639 8 12 16 •_'l The results of a portion of the measurements are shown graphically by the curves in Figure 1. Only series 1, 3, 5, 6, 7. 1 1, 1 •">. I I. are reproduced, as a greater number would have been likely to render the diagram confused. The abscissas are excursions of tin- diaphragm in thousandths of a millimeter; the ordinates, the line currents in milli- amperes. The several curves are numbered to correspond with i In- serial numbers in the table. It will be seen from these results, that, as the strength of the m net of the telephone increases, the amplitude of the vibration likewise increases up to a certain limit, and then falls olF. A comparison of them with a curve representing the magnetization of the magni vol. xxvin. (n. s. xx.) 7 98 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY o 5 g Co o OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. '.".I determined by means of a ballistic galvanometer showed that the max- imum motion of the diaphragm with a given value of the alternating line current is reached before the core reaches half- saturation. An inspection of the curves also makes it plain that in general the amplitude of vibration of the diaphragm increases less rapidly than the current actuating the telephone. In the experiments previously described the strength of the magnet was kept constant in each series, and the line current was varied. A series of measurements was also made in which the Btrength of the line current was kept constant, while the strength of the magnetizing current was varied, which shows very clearly the man- ner in which the amplitude of vibration changes with change in the strength of the magnet. Table III. gives the results obtained. The currents and amplitudes are given in terms of the same units as heretofore. TABLE III. Current. Amplitude. 35 ao 76 13.6 149 20.5 208 42.3 256 60.8 273 66.0 302 84.5 321 106.5 352 111.5 378 99.8 398 89.6 480 45.4 560 28.0 671 110 780 8.5 984 4.0 1142 3.0 Beyond the highest value given in the table, 1 1 12 milliamperes, the excursion seemed to remain almost constant, and of too Bmall a magnitude to be measured readily. Figure 2 illustrates graphically the results obtained. The ampli- tudes of vibration are represented by the ordinates <>f this curve, while the abscissas represent, in terms of an arbitrary unit, the Btrength «.f the field at the diaphragm, as obtained from the previously COnstro curve of magnetization already referred to. 100 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY The figures obtained in these measurements lead to precisely the same conclusion as those already dibcussed ; showing that the ampli- tude of the vibration of the diaphragm produced by an alternating line current of a given strength increases up to a certain point, and then decreases to a very low value. The point of maximum amplitude is far below the saturation limit of the magnet. It is evident, then, that 10 1/ u a it is not desirable to use an excessively strong magnet with a magneto- telephone receiver, a result which agrees with the conclusions set forth in both of the papers cited at the beginning of the present article. Our observations were not made with the direct intention of deter- mining the absolute magnitude of the excursion of the telephone dia- phragm, but they may throw some light upon the subject regarding which the figures given by different observers differ widely. Dr. C. J. Blake,* by inscribing the vibration on a plate of smoked glass, obtained a value of 0.02 mm., and by the use of a micrometer screw with galvanic contact a value of 0.0135 mm. Saletf employed an * Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng., 1878, Vol. VII. p. 247. t Comptes Rendus, 1882, Vol. XCV. p. 178. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 101 optical method similar to that employed by Fizeau for measuring the expansion of solids, based upon the variation in position of Newton's rings when these were formed between a light piece of glass carried by the telephone disk and a fixed disk of the same material placed in front of it. The excursion as thus measured was from 0.0002 mm. to 0.0003 mm. Fruhlich* measured the excursion by means of a beam of light reflected from a mirror carried by the diaphragm, the beam being cast upon a screen and its motion measured when the receiver was operated. He gives 0.035 mm. as the value of the amplitude of the motion of the diaphragm. Frankef employed an optical method simi- lar to that used by Salet, making the assumption that the amplitude of the vibration is proportional to the strength of the current, a supposi- tion, however, which our own results, as given in the preceding pages, do not fully bear out; he concludes that the excursion of the diaphragm for a sound which is just audible is less than 1.2 X 10-6 mm. Some of these differences are doubtless due to the different trans- mitters used. Blake employed a box magneto-transmitter, Salel a hand magneto, and Frohlich a microphone. Also it is very possible that in some of the methods there is more or less interference with the free motion of the diaphragm. The following considerations may there- fore be of interest, although they do not lead to absolutely conclusive results. In all of our experiments, the line current had a value considerably in excess of even a strong telephone current. The weakest value of the line current employed was five milliamperes, while even two milli- amperes is a large value for a telephone current produced by a power- ful Running microphone transmitter. Hence the actual values of the excursions measured by us are much larger than those assumed by the diaphragm of the telephone receiver in practice. We haw. how- ever, endeavored to calculate this approximately from the data at hand. It is clear that, if we can obtain the equati f 01 1 in- curves in Figure 1, which corresponds to a strength of field of the mag- nitude employed in the ordinary telephone receiver, we may from ihia obtain the desired result by substituting in this equation the value of the telephone current. A study of the curves shows that they are II approximately parabolas with the equation f = ma", n being gri a than 2, but the values of m and n are different for the differenl cut It was necessary therefore to determine by experiment the Btrength ol * La Lumifcre Electrique, 1887. Vol. XXV. p t Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift, L890, Vol. XI. p. 102 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY the field actually employed in the magneto-receiver. This was done in the following manner. A magneto hand telephone was so placed that it produced a deflection of 45° in the needle of a delicate mag- netometer. The telephone was then replaced hy the magnet and magnetizing coil used in our experimental apparatus, and the current through the coil was varied until a deflection of 45° was produced in the needle. The current producing this effect was found to be 52 milliamperes. A like experiment being performed with a second tele- phone, the value of 62 milliamperes was obtained for the magnetizing current. The latter value was chosen, as it came nearest to a strength of current which we had actually used, viz. 77 milliamperes, the low- est magnetizing current that we had employed. By the use of the logarithmic method the equation of this curve was found to be y2 = 0.305 x3-26, in which y represents the current and x the corresponding amplitude of vibration. Substituting in this equation the value of 2 milliamperes for y, this being the value of a strong telephone current, we obtain the corresponding value of x, which is 2.2 ; that is, the excursion of the diaphragm of a tele- phone receiver with the strength of field corresponding to the curve would be 22 ten-thousandths of a millimeter. But the true excursion is probably somewhat less than this, since the strength of field for which the equation holds is somewhat greater than that employed in the telephone, and for a magnetization of this value the deflection would be larger with the stronger field. It may also be inferred from the preceding results, that so far as sensitiveness is concerned it would be advantageous to employ a stronger magnet in the receiver than is at present used. With the modern microphone transmitter this is not necessary, and upon lines where there is much disturbance it would be harmful, as the proper procedure in such cases is to strengthen the transmitter as much as possible, in which ease the receiver may be less sensitive. But if a less strong transmitter is used, as, for example, a magneto-telephone, and upon lines free from disturbance, increased sensitiveness in the receiver is very desirable. Rogers Laboratory of Physics, May, 1892. OF A HIS AND SCIENCES. 103 VII. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE GRAY HERBARIUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY, NEW SERIES III.* — ADDITIONS TO THE PILENOGAMIC FLORA OF MEXICO, DISCOVERED BY C. G. PRINGLE IN 1891-92. By B. L. Robixsox and II. E. Seaton. Presented January 11, 1893. Thalictrum tomentellum. Polygamo-dioecious: stem striate, fistulous, fiuely and densely pubescent : leaves tripinnate: petioles 1—2 inches long, tomentulose as well as the rachis and petiolules : leaflets suborbicular, subcordate, finely pubescent above, paler and tomentu- lose below, shallowly 3-lobed ; lobes rounded, entire or with ■_>-.'! rounded teeth : inflorescence pyramidal, subnaked: sepals 4-5, ovate- elliptical, 2 lines long : stamens spreading; anthers with rather long setiform tips : fruiting heads nodding on the pedicels; carpels about 10, scarcely stipitate, lanate, rugose-reticulate, hispidulous, very acu- minate, and tipped with a very long filiform finally deciduous style. — Low lands about Lake Patzcuaro, Michoacan, July, 1892 (n. 1143). Differing markedly in its fine soft pubescence from various allied species. Poeygala Michoacana. Perennial, glabrous: stems Beveral, slender, erect, approximate, angulate, simple, or with a few long -len- der erect branches: leaves small, lance-linear, scarcely spreading, sessile, very sharply acuminate, 2-4 lines in length, not exceeding line in breadth: spikes terminal, 1-2 inches long: bracts caducous, awl-shaped, very acute, purple, % line long: flowers small. Bhort- pedicelled, nodding, deflexed m fruit: sepals narrow, appearing acuminate through the infolding of the margins, greenish white with purple midribs, the three smaller acute, the alae pointed bul obtuse, * The two papers published by B L. Robinson in these Proceeding! XXVI. pp. 164-176, and Vol. XXVII pp. 166-186, are regard< « I and II of this series. 104 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY l1 lines long, but L line broad: petals white, not equalling the ala? : capsule orbicular, retuse, slightly margined. — Amongst pines, hills of Patzcuaro, Michoacan, August, 1892 (n. 4151). A species much resembling P. scoparia, HBK., but differing in its narrower and more pointed sepals, and in its orbicular not at all oblong fruit. Abutilon attenuatuji. Branches slender, terete, woody, stel- late-pubescent : leaves lanceolate, attenuate, serrate, shallowly cor- date, 2— 2i inches long, 10-12 lines broad, 3-nerved from the base, green and finely pubescent with simple hairs above, somewhat paler and soft pubescent with stellate hairs beneath : petioles 2-4 lines long : flowers in open terminal subsimple racemes : pedicels spreading, 7-9 lines in length : calyx lobes pubescent, ovate, acuminate, 3 lines long : corolla orange-yellow, once and a half as long as the calyx : capsule hirsute with spreading setaceous tips. — Slopes of mountains near Lake Chapala, Jalisco, November, 1892 (n. 4354). Pavonia melanommata. Two feet or more in height, finely glandular-pubescent : leaves ovate, acuminate, attenuate, crenate, soft pubescent above, velvety and cinereous beneath, 3-4 inches long, half as broad, the radical considerably smaller ; petioles an inch long : pedi- cels f-l£ inches long: involucre of 5 linear bracts distinctly exceeding the calyx ; the latter stellate-pubescent throughout : corolla externally pubescent, 1| inches in diameter, 3-4 times as long as the calyx, pur- plish white with an almost black glabrous centre ; staminal column bearing near the base a number of short dark spatulate appendages (rudimentary stamens ?) : carpels glabrous, at maturity with sharp lateral angles, slightly keeled dorsally. — Volcanic hills, Monte Leon, Michoacan, November, 1892 (n. 4343). Possessing much the habit of P. hirti flora, Benth., but having ovate crenate leaves, corolla smooth at the base within, and staminal appendages. Astragalus Tolucanus. Root stout : stems several, slender, ascending, knotted below, minutely appressed-pubescent : stipules lan- ceolate, ciliate, acute, 2^-4 lines long: leaves 1^-2 inches long; leaf- lets 9-12 pairs, petiolulate, oblong, truncate or retuse, 2L-3^ lines long, glabrous above, appressed-pubescent below especially upon the midrib and near the margin : peduncles not exceeding the leaves : racemes dense, 1-2 or more inches in length : bracts oblanceolate to obovate, acute, pubescent, 2-3 lines long, persistent : pedicels a line in length : calyx light colored but covered with short black hairs ; the teeth nar- rowly lanceolate, attenuate, 1 \ lines long, equalling the tube, densely black hairy : standard obovate, retuse, 5-6 lines long, it and aire blue (in a dried state) and conspicuously striate with white : keel much OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 105 shorter and with a violet tip : pod oblong, smooth, 4 lines in length, -r-, On drier ridges under pines, Nevado de Toluca, 12,000 ft., Sep- tember, 1892 (n. 4238). Near A. Mandoni, Rusby ined., of Bolivia, represented by Bang's no. 1022, but differing in its more slender stems, smaller leaflets, and broader bracts. Stylosanthes dissitifloka. Much branched from near the base, 8-10 inches high, copiously beset with soft brownish setose hairs : sheath of the stipules U lines long, equalling the subulate Beti- form appendages: free portion of the petiole 1-1 . I lines long: leaflets linear lanceolate, sharply acuminate, somewhat narrowed but obtusish at the base, glabrous on both surfaces, strongly ciliate, 4—6 lines long, %-\\ lines broad, veins prominent beneath: flowers scattered, pinkish : stipe of the calyx 1| lines long, divisions of the limb obtuse, ciliate : standard obovate-orbicular, retuse, 3 lines in length : alae obovate with very slender auricles: fruit not seen. — Dry rocky soil, Rio Blanco near Guadalajara, September, 1891 (n. 5172). Cotyledon subrigida. Glabrous, H-2 feet in height: leaves radical, sessile, ovate, acute, 3-4 inches long, two thirds as broad : stem and branches covered with a light bluish bloom : bracts of the Btem 5-10 lines lonsf, of the branches minute: inflorescence about a foot long, with about 8 spreading somewhat rigid racemosely 5-7-flowered branches : flowers large (§ inch), approximate, borne on the upper side of the branches : pedicels a line or two in length : sepals lanceo- late-acuminate, half the length of the petals; the latter lanceolate-acu- minate, acutely keeled, somewhat gibbous at the base, red, internally tinged with yellow: stamens nearly equalling the corolla. — Ledges and cliffs, Tultenango Canon, State of Mexico, October, 1892 (n. 4326). Near C. yibbiflora, Moc. & Sess., but with the branches of the inflorescence shorter and more rigid, leaves shorter, etc. Sedum Pringlei, Wats. var. ? minus. An inch or less in height : inflorescence more dense : antheriferous stamens only 5. — Bare earth, summit of the Nevado de Toluca, September, 189 2 (n. 1240). Per- haps distinct: also near Peyritsch's S. nopiferum, but differing in stamens, etc. CUPHEA (DiplOPTYCTIIa) AVIGERA. A slender annual a fool and a half high : stem slightly scabrous, the middle of each internode glutinous: leaves opposite, membranaceous, nearly Bessile, narrowly lanceolate, lh-2h inches long, tapering almost from the BUDCOrdate base to the acuminate tip, roughened by minute hairs and Bomewhat adhesive: racemes axillary, alternate, loosely 8-5-flowered : bracta linear, much longer than the pedicels: bractlets none : calj I glandular- 106 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY hirsute, 4-5 lines in length, appearing horizontal, the ascending acut- ish spur being more thai) half as long as the proper tube, the latter narrowed upwards: the petals lilac, elliptical, subequal : the dorsal 2 lines, the four ventral 1 h lines long : stamens 11, included : ovules 6. — Moist banks, mountains near Lake Cliapala, Jalisco, November, 1892 (n. 4349). A species well marked by the almost horizontal calyx, which in shape resembles the body of a bird. Cuphea (Leptocaltx) Reipublice. Slender, decumbent, about 3 feet high, somewhat branched : stem slightly scabrous with minute transverse hairs attached in the middle and with a line of much longer hairs : leaves ovate, acuminate, hispid on both surfaces, paler beneath, 1-1 £ inches long, two thirds as broad, abruptly narrowed at the base into a petiole 3-5 lines in length : pedicels interpetiolar, 3 lines long : calyx slender, nearly straight, almost an inch in length : the tube red with a white spot on the ventral surface at the summit, hispidulous, shortly and obtusely spurred : appendages linear oblong, setulose, green, considerably exceeding the lobes : petals deciduous, bright yel- low, all small, the 2 dorsal 1| lines long, the 4 ventral about a line in length: stamens 9, unequ illy exserted : ovules about 12. — Rocky hills near Patzcuaro, Michoacan, October, 1892 (n. 41 12). An attract- ive species, somewhat resembling the commonly cultivated C. platy- centra, the calyx bearing the colors, red, white, and green, of the Mexican flag. Fuchsia Pringlei. Shrub, 2 feet high, with a brown shreddy bark : branches purple, pulverulent : leaves small, ovate-elliptic or lance-elliptic, obtuse, narrowed to a short petiole, somewhat undulate and re volute on the margins, very minutely pubescent above, consider- ably paler and nearly smooth beneath, about 4 lines long, half as broad : flowers 3 lines long, short peduncled, axillary, solitary : peduncles slender, 2 lines in length : calyx segments dark purple, oblong, apicu- late, reflexed, two thirds as long as the free part of the tube : petals obovate, spreading, undulate, about equalling the segments of the calyx : stamens slightly exserted ; style considerably so : fruit globose, 3-4 lines in diameter, black. — Mountains near Patzcuaro, Michoacan, November, 1891, in fruit (n. 5063); barranca near Guadalajara, Jalisco, September, 1891, also in fruit (n. 5002); and under pines, mountains near Patzcuaro, Michoacan, July, 1892 (n. 4140). This species differs from F. minutiflora and F. mixta, Hemsl., in its reflexed calyx segments, its undulate not serrulate leaves, and its relatively longer petals. Cyclanthera Pringlei. Stem slender, nearly smooth, 5-ribbed : OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 107 leaves thin, ovate, undivided or more or less hastately 3-lobed, callous- denticulate, punctate on both surfaces, glabrous below, minutely pu- bescent on the nerves and somewhat scabrous above, 1-2 inches in length, acuminate and mucronate at the apex, deeply cordate at the base with a rounded open biglandular sinus : glands stipitate, minute, \-^ line in diameter, on pedicels of equal length : tendrils slender, simple: racemes 4—5 lines long: staminate flowers yellow, -: line broad, rather single, annular, horizontal: fruit I inch long, 1 lines broad, very oblique and strongly curved, laterally compressed, acutely beaked, armed with a few short weak spines; the convex suture spi- rally revolute in dehiscence. — Rocky hills near Patzctiaro, Michoacan, October, 1892 (n. 4317). Near C. biglandulifera, Cogn. (ex char.), but with more simple tendrils and very much smaller glands. Piqueria laxiflora. A sparingly pubescent annual, H feet high: stem weak, furrowed, branching: leaves thin, lanceolate, nar- rowed to an obtuse point, serrate, 3-nerved, 1|— 2 inches long: peti- oles 3 lines in length: branches slender, terminating in loose pin; with flexuous filiform divisions: bracts minute, linear, 1-1 .V lines long: pedicels filiform, spreading, 3-6 lines in length: heads 4-flow- ered : scales of the involucre 4 (2 narrower), thin, green, slightly fringed above and mucronate: achenes black, 5-angled, 1 line long, narrowed downward. — Cool slopes and ledge3, Canons of mountains near Lake Chapala, Jalisco, November, 1892 (n. 4333). Well char- acterized by its very diffuse inflorescence, which suggests Valeriana sorbifulia and allies. Piqueria Pringlei. Rhizome horizontal, branching, several inches in length : stems subsimple, slender, erect, purplish, 1-1J feet high, with a fine grayish pubescence : leaves broadly ovate, an inch in length, serrate, rather abrupt at the base, pubescent: petioles 8 I lines long : inflorescence a rather dense irregular corymb : heads 2 lines Ions, 4-flowered: scales of the involucre 4, obovate. lacerate above and mucronate at the apex: corolla H lines long: filaments pubescent: achenes glabrous, black, a line in length. — In pine woods, Nevado de Toluca, September, 1892 (n. 4285). Habit of P. pilosa, HBK., but differing in its well developed rhizome, in its leaves more abrupt at the base, and its pubescent filaments. Stevia laxa. — Root of numerous strong fibres : stem erect from a slightly decumbent base, about 2 feet high, purplish, terete, puberu* lent, substriate, simple up to the lax finely glandular inflorescence: leaves rather numerous below, opposite, ovate, acutish, crenate Berrate, 1-1£ inches long, nearly smooth, paler beneath, contracted below into 108 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY petioles of almost equal length : heads rather few, very loosely dis- posed upon slender subdichotomous branches : scales of the involucre lance-linear, acuminate, a little over 2 lines in length, covered with fine dark glandular pubescence : corollas white, externally roughened and with a pubescent limb ; tube exserted : achenes slightly rough- ened, 1£ lines long; pappus lacerate coroniform ; aristae none. — Dry hills near Patzcuaro, Michoacan, November, 1891 (n. 5051). The same as Bourgeau's no. 3331, from Escamella, near Orizaba, October, 1865. Eupatorium Saltivarii, Schultz Bipontinus. Rootstock hori- zontal, branching : stems several, erect, purple, pubescent, glandular above, 1-2 feet high, throwing out several small weak branches near the base : leaves ovate, acute, coarsely serrate, abrupt at the base, pubescent on both surfaces, 1—1^ inches long, more than half as broad: petioles 3-4 lines in length : heads rather few, aggregated in small terminal corymbs, 4 lines high, about 50-flowered : involucral scales subequal in about two series, lanceolate, acute, ciliate, striate, the outer glandular: corolla tubes slender, as long as the ample throat: achenes slender, slightly curved, 1^ lines in length, hispidulous, callous-tipped at the base. This apparently good species of Schultz Bipontinus, founded upon Schaffuer's uo. 298 from the Val de Mexico, October, 1855, seems never to have been described. It has since been collected by Bourgeau in the same place (n. 818), and by Mr. Pringle in pine woods, Nevado de Toluca, State of Mexico, September, 1892 (n. 4286). Brickellia fquarrosa. Stems subsimple, 2 feet or more in height, terete, covered with short dense pubescence, somewhat glandu- lar roughened above, leaves opposite, oblong-lanceolate, obtusish, more or less acute at the base, crenate, l]-2 inches in length, very rough and somewhat rugose above, prominently reticulated, hispid on the veins and black punctate on the surface below : petioles 4 lines long: heads 7 lines long, about 12-flowered, in a subsimple raceme: pedicels an inch long: the outer scales of the involucre shorter, her- baceous, squarrose, glandular ; the inner thin, purplish-striate, acute : corolla lobes minutely callous-tipped: achenes pubescent: pappus ap- pressed-barbellate. — Mountains near Patzcuaro, Michoacan, Decem- ber, 1891 (n. 5054). Sabazia subnuda. Root of many fibres from a short rootstock: stems slender, erect, pubescent, almost naked, bearing one to three large long-peduncled heads : radical leaves ovate-elliptical, obtuse, entire, triply nerved, narrowed to a short broad petiole, ciliate, glabrous OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 109 above, paler aud subglabrous below, 1^-2 inches long; the cauline usually a single pair, reduced to short linear bracts : heads including rays 1 j inches broad: outer bracts of the involucre ovate, commonly purplish, obtusish, 4 lines iu length, the inner somewhat longer, nar- rower and ciliolate: rays purplish white, oblong, conspicuously 3-tOOthed, exceeding half an inch in length, abruptly contracted below into a very slender tube: receptacle elongated: chaff filiform: achenes black, glabrous. — In pine forests, Nevado de Toluca, 12,000 ft., September, 1892 (n. 4226). Verbesina oncophora. Shrub: younger parts gray-tomentu- lose : leaves lance-elliptic, acuminate in each direction, thickish, 3 -7 inches long, finely and rather regularly serrate, scabrous above, tomen- tose and pulverulent beneath with yellowish white hairs ; petioles '.- \ inch long; a small fleshy folded finally deciduous appendage occurring on each side of the base: corymbs compound, many headed : heads 4 lines in diameter : scales of the involucre acute, not at all foliaceous : rays yellow, about 8, exserted 2-3 lines : disk flowers pubescent : achenes rather narrowly winged, 1^ lines long, hispidulous upon the faces. — Sierra de las Cruces, State of Mexico, October, 1802 (n. 4310) ; Bourgeau's 967, Forest of San Nicolas, near Mexico, 1865-G6. Near V. persicifolia, DO, but differing in the greater pubescence and finer serration of the leaves, the presence of the peculiar excrescences on the stem at the base of the petioles, and in the pubescent corollas. Tridax Palmeri, Gray, var. indivisa. Rough pubescent, almost hirsute: leaves ovate, rather irregularly dentate, scabrous, undivided. — Canon ledges, mountains near Lake Chapala, Jalisco, November, 1892 (n. 4332). This plant corresponds except in its pubescence to Parry & Palmer's 489. But both of these specimens differ so conspicuously from the form of the species with divided lea represented by Parry & Palmer's 482}, and 490, and Schaffner's 286, that it seems best to characterize them as a variety. Parry & Palmer's 489 corresponds rather closely with this variety in its foliage, bul is much less pubescent, and in this regard furnishes a transition to tie- smoother forms with undivided leaves, represented by the Other type specimens (Parry & Palmer's 482$ and 496) and by Schaffner's 2 Sciikuhria glomeiiata. Roots fibrous : Btem Bimple, erect, striate, glandular-hirsute, H feet high: the lower leaves opposite, petiolate, minutely resinous-dotted, palmately 3-parted to the base; segments linear or linear-oblong, the middle one sometimes toothed, the lateral ones very deeply bifid : the upper leaves alternate, simplified: heads aggregated at the ends of the branches: pedicels 110 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY short : involucre commonly campanulate rather than turbinate, 2 lines long; bracts about 8, oblanceolate, pubescent, purplish, scarious-mar- gined: rays none: disk flowers white, 10-12: achenes sharply 4- angled, very pubescent : pappus scales 8, suborbicular, narrowed and thickened toward the base. — Rio Hondo, State of Mexico, Sep- tember, 1891 (n. 5006), and from the same locality, September, 1892 (n. 4289). Well characterized by its short-pedicelled, some- what aggregated heads, and subcampanulate involucres. Senecio alienus. Nearly smooth below, minutely glandular above : stem herbaceous, purplish, somewhat striate, with flexuous character suggestive of a climbing habit : leaves long-petioled, shal- lowly 3-lobed, broadly triangular in outline, or by the development of two obtuse angles near the base irregularly pentagonal, finely cuspi- date-dentate, nearly smooth, light colored sometimes purplish beneath, 2^-4 inches in diameter, peltately attached near the subcordate ba<-e ; lobes acute : inflorescence lax, irregularly racemose-paniculate : bracts filiform: the heads developing successively the highest first, 12-15- flowered : buds ovate : involucral bracts purplish, hispidulous and glandular, about 8 in number, linear lanceolate with incurved acute tips : corolla of Eusenecio : anthers sagittate : achenes glabrous, 10- ribbed. — Mountains near Patzcuaro, Michoacan, December, 1891 (n. 5056). In its peculiar inflorescence and successive development of the heads, as well as in its sagittate anthers, this species approaches the East Indian section Synotis. Senecio Jaliscana, Wats. (Proc. Am. Acad., XXVI. 143). Mr. Pringle's later specimens of this species add the following characters. Height 8-10 feet: lower leaves rather deeply cordate, shallowly lobed, 8 inches long, nearly as broad. — Cool wooded canons, moun- tains near Lake Chapala, State of Mexico, November, 1892 (n. 4329). Cacalia plattlepis. Root a cluster of strong fibres : stem her- baceous, woolly at the base, otherwise smooth, sulcate-striate : radical leaves long-petioled, ovate, cordate ; limb coriaceous, smooth, strongly reticulated, pinnately divided, 10-12 inches long, two thirds as broad ; segments irregularly 2-3-parted, the margins callous-denticulate : the cauline leaves much reduced, the upper consisting almost entirely of broad ovate sheathing petioles, toothed near the apex : heads corym- bose, very large, 40-50-flowered, subtended by several laciniately toothed bracts : involucre broadly campanulate ; the scales strongly imbricated in two series, ovate, thickened in the middle, acutish, the margins ciliolate, the tip bearing a tuft of hairs : corolla very slen- der, 6-7 lines long, the tube somewhat exceeding the limb : achenes OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. Ill (immature) 1^-2 lines long, pubescent. — Collected by Dr. Edward Palmer on the Rio Blanco, Jalisco, October, 1KXIJ (n. C89), and by Mr. Pringle on the plains of Guadalajara, November, 1888 (n. 181C). Both of these plants have been referred through some oversight to O. raduUcefulia, HBK., by Drs. Gray and Watson (Proc. Am. Acad.. XXII. 433), and distributed under this name. Tiny must, however, be very distinct from that species, which has, according to the descrip- tion, numerous small 5-flowered heads. C. platylepis evidently stands close to C. cervaricefolius, DC, but is amply distinct in foliage and size of the heads. Cacalia peltigera. Roots several, short, thick and tuberous : stem herbaceous, about 3 feet high, terete, purple, nearly smooth : leaves mostly radical, long-petioled, centrally peltate, orbicular in out- line, 8-12 inches in diameter, pubescent on both surfaces, especially upon the veins, deeply 9-11 -parted with rounded sinuses; the lobes narrow, 2-3-parted ; the divisions attenuate, sharply and irregularly toothed ; the cauline leaves similar but smaller : heads small, 5— 7-flow- ered, in a naked much branched corymb : bracts of the involucre about 5, oblong or oblanceolate, obtusish, 3 lines in length, with narrow scarious margins, and usually bearing at the tip a tuft of very short hairs: corolla 5 lines in length ; the lobes exceeding the tube : acliene- conspicuously striate-sulcate, nearly smooth, 2i lines long. — First collected by Dr. Edward Palmer on the Rio Blanco, .Jalisco, in 1886 (n. 171); then by Mr. Pringle on bluffs of a barranca near Guadala- jara, September, 1891 (n. 5154). The former specimen was referred by Dr. Watson (Proc. Am. Acad.. XX I L 432) to C. Schaffneri, Gray, from which, however, it differs essentially in its short thick roots, centrally peltate leaves with much more attenuate segments, and in its nearly smooth achenes. Cnicus Tolucanus. Radical leaves lance-oblong, acute, about 25-lobed, green and strigose-pubescent above, much paler and some- what arachnoid beneath, 7-10 inches long, 1.1-2 inches broad ; I ovate-oblong, acute, spinulose-dentate. gradually diminished downward: the cauline leaves much reduced, not decurrent : beads nodding, usually solitary at the ends of long slender nearly naked branches, 1 [■-- inches in diameter: outer bracts of the involucre short, narrowly lanceolate, spinulose-dentate, with slender reflexed tips; the inner much loi with dilated purple fimbriate unarmed tips: corollas purplish. 8 i in length, glabrous : filaments puberulent ; tails of the anthers I toothed: achenes compressed, black, Bmooth and Bhining, 2 lines in length. — Wooded canons, Sierra de las Cruces, of Mi August, 1892 (n. 4308). 112 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY Perezia hebeclada, Gray (PI. Wright. I. 127). This rare spe- cies has been rediscovered by Mr. Pringle, and his excellent specimens show the following additional characters. Leaves coriaceous, crowded, strongly reticulate, oblong, sagittate-cordate, abruptly pointed, 4 inches or more in length, nearly half as wide ; the upper gradually dimin- ishing in size, acuminate. — Pedrigal, Valley of Mexico, Federal Dis- trict, December, 1892 (n. 4360). Perezia vernonioides, Gray (Proc. Am. Acad., XXII. 433), founded upon Palmer's no. 745 from Jalisco, proves to be a form of Vernonia serratuluides, HBK. Lobelia picta. Glabrous, 6-8 inches in height : stems slender, decumbent, rooting from the lower joints, simple or with one or two branches from near the base, leafy, minutely angulate through the de- current margins of the leaves : leaves linear, sessile, narrowed to an obtusish point, inconspicuously appressed-serrulate, 1 -veined, thickish, 1 inch in length, i line in width ; a few of the lowest leaves of a very different form, broadly spatulate, obtuse, 3—4 lines long, narrowed to a very slender petiole 6-8 lines in length : inflorescence spicate- racemose, raised on a naked peduncle an inch or more in length ; bracts linear, 1-2 lines long, the lower equalling, the upper exceeding the pedicels : flowers nodding, \ inch in length : calyx tube symmetri- cal, becoming in fruit almost hemispherical, exceeded by the linear acute serrulate teeth : corolla tube not equalling the calyx teeth, lobes lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, acute, 3 lines in length, light blue or white, conspicuously pencilled with dark blue : filaments short, pubes- cent : anthers hispidulous, the two lower slightly smaller, tufted at the apex, the other three with minute setre. — Cold springy meadows, Sierra de las Cruces, October, 1892 (n. 4305). A very attractive species with small but beautifully variegated flowers ; to be distin- guished from L. Orizabce, Mart. & Gal., and L. paucijlora, HBK., by its very short corolla tube, by the hispidulous anthers, etc, ; from L. Irasuensis, Plan. & Oerst., by the symmetrical calyx not acute at the base. ARCTOSTArHYLOS rupestris. A shrub 4-10 feet high with brown shreddy bark : leaves 4-5 inches long, coriaceous, oblong-ellip- tic, acute at both ends, finely serrate with cartilaginous teeth, when young erect, pubescent above, densely ferruginous-tomentose on the under surface, with age reflexed, glabrate above, and becoming less tomentose and tawny beneath, not however glabrate : racemes of the nanicle rather loosely flowered, scarcely at all secund, covered with a tine "rayish pubescence ; bracts crimson, lanceolate, 3 lines long, OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 1 1 3 slightly surpassed by the straight spreading pedicels, corolla white, globose; filaments hairy at the base: fruit not seen. — Dry rocky hills near Patzcuaro, Michoacan, October, 1 S'.»2 (n. 131 Si. Resem- bling A. arguta, Zncc, in the form and indentation of the leaves, but differing in their pubescence and in the inflorescence. Also Dear A. attenuata, Hemsl. (ex char.), but not glandular, and with acute by no means rounded leaves. Gentiana Wrightii, Gray. Mr. Pringle's no. 4237, from mo meadows, Nevado de Toluca, 11,000 ft.. State of Mexico, September, 1892, is apparently a low and considerably branched form < f this species, 4-6 inches in height; while no. 4196, from wet meadows, valley of Toluca, is another form nearer the type. Halenia crassiuscul a. Biennial, glabrous. Blightly fleshy, 2 I inches in height: stem erect, very narrowly 4-winged, much branched . radical leaves oblanceolate, 3-nerved, petiolate, obtuse, including peti- oles an inch in length: cauline leaves 1-3 pairs, narrowly oblanceolate or oblong, obtuse, narrowed at the base : flowers including spur 6 lines long, densely aggregated at the ends of the stems and branches : calyx segments linear-oblong, obtuse, about half the length of the white corolla; spurs slender, spreading, and curved upwards; flowers after anthesis slightly nodding, not at all resupinate : capsules exserted, acute, 4 lines in length. — Bare alpine summits, Nevado de Toluca, 14,000 ft., September, 1892 (u. 4229). Halenia Pringlei. Glabrous : root biennial : stem single, sim- ple or nearly so, slender, erect, a span high : radical have-, narrowly oblanceolate, 1-nerved, attenuate below to a slender petiole; the cau- line 1-2 pairs, short, lance-linear: umbellate cymes usually 3; the lateral from near the middle of the stem, about 3-flowered, the terminal about o-flowered: pedicels 3 lines in length : sepals oblong, acute, half the length of the corolla: corolla white. I lines long; spur slender, deflexed spreading and curved ascending, about equalling the corolla: capsule exserted, acutish. —Springy meadows. Sierra de la- < '■ State of Mexico, August, 1892 (n. 4209). Krtnitzkia linifolia, Gray. Mr. Pringle's no. 1241, from muddy hollows of prairies, Flor de Maria, September. 1892, do approaches this species, and has been provisionally referred to it. It belongs to the imperfectly known group of South American Krynil kias with procumbent subfleshy stems and linear opposite BomewhaJ connate leaves. Rtjsselia subcoriacea. Glabrous: stems somewhat ligni branched, 4-angled : leaves opposite, very short petioled, ovate, iCU vol. xxvin. (y. s. xx.) 114 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY minate, 2^ iuches long, li— If inches broad, subcoriaceous, slightly glossy above, a little paler and with prominent veins beneath, the edges crisp : flowers on short opposite branches ; pedicels about 3 lines long, calyx teeth acuminate ; corolla | inch long, three times the length of the calyx, bright red ; tube cylindrical, densely yellow bearded in the throat ; lobes 4, the three ventral subequal, the dorsal broader emarginate ; filaments bearded below ; the rudiment one third to one half the length of the others : capsule ovate, 4 lines long, the acu- minate valves at last bifid : seeds separated by hairs. — Tamasopo Canon, San Luis Potosi, June, 1891 (n. 5086). This is an anomalous species, sharing almost equally the characters of Pentstemon and Russelia. However, its angled stem, short rudimentary stamen, cylindrical corolla tube, and the capillary structures between the seeds, show apparently a stronger affinity to the latter genus. Castilleia pallida, Kunth. var. ? angustata. A span high : leaves simple, linear: floral bracts lance-linear, acute: flowers pale yellow. — Grassy slopes near Patzcuaro, Michoacan, July, 1892 (n. 4117). Pedicularis eburnata. Rhizome short, knotty : stem erect, hirsute-pubescent, terete, simple, 2-3 feet in height : leaves in out- line lance-oblong, acuminate, 5-6 inches long; rachis pubescent; leaf- lets 16-22 pairs, ovate or lanceolate, acute, cleft into about 7 lobes, green and scarcely pubescent below ; the segments margined with white ivory-like teeth ; petioles of the radical leaves 2-3 inches long, pubescent ; of the upper cauline leaves short or none : spike simple, more than a foot in length ; bracts lance-linear, callous-denticulate with reflexed teeth, acuminate, the lowest surpassing and the others equalling the calyx : calyx 3-4 lines high, ovate, pubescent ; teeth subequal, ciliate or slightly denticulate : galea narrow at the base, en- larged upwards, truncate at apex, considerably exceeding the lip, the latter 4 lines in length, with 3 orbicular crenate lobes ; the middle one slightly smaller than the lateral : capsule smooth, ovate, 2-edged, shortly acuminate, 5 lines long. — Sierra Madre, 9,000 feet, Chihuahua, October, 1887 (n. 1556). Dicliptera rescpinata, Juss. var. orbicularis. Leaves large, ovate, 1L-21 inches long: lateral pedicels very short: involucral bracts larger, thinner, and more deeply cordate than in the typical form, distinctly orbicular, refuse. — Barranca near Guadalajara, October, 1891 (n. 5169). Salvia, clinopodioides, HBK. Specimens corresponding accu- rately to Kunth's description and plate of this noteworthy species have OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 115 been found in sandy fields, hills of Patzcuaro, Michoacan, October, 1892 (n. 4258). They show that the plant is H feet or more in height, and that the roots bear fusiform tubers au inch or two in length. Spiranthes aurantiaca, Benth. & Hook. var. acuminai \. Bracts narrower, acuminate, somewhat exceeding the flowers, the edges involute. Collected by Dr. Palmer in Jalisco. 1886, no. 581, and by Mr. Pringle on foothills of the Sierra Madre, Chihuahua, 1"-." (n. 1509), and again on swells of low meadows, Valley of Toluca, September, 1892 (n. 4280). Dioscorea minima. Glabrous ( $ only seen) : tuber globose, ',- inch in diameter: stem weak, flexuous, 1-3 inclies high, about 2-leaved: leaves ovate, cordate, acuminate, about 9-nerved, 1 inch or less in length, on petioles 3-6 lines long : staminate spikes 2- 1, slender, pedunculate or snbsessile, less than an inch in letgth, rather densely flowered, not manifestly verticillate except below: bractlets linear, two thirds as long as the flowers: divisions of the perianth elliptical, obtuse, 1\ lines in length, white with a green midvein ; stamens 3, a third shorter than the perianth. — Lava beds near Patzcuaro, Mi choacan, July, 1892 (n. 4157). This species is nearly related to D. multinervis, Benth., but differs in the form of the leaves and in the length and color as well as somewhat in the arrangement of the flowers. In the labels of Mr. Pringle's distribution of 1893 the following corrections are to be noted : — 4119, Piqueria Pringlei, Rob. & Sea. 4133, drop mark of interrogation. 4229, read crassiuscula, not crassiciila. 4238, Astragalus Tolucanus, Rob. & Sea. n. sp. 4246, Senecio procumbens, IIBK. 4296, add ex char. 116 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY VIII. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE GRAY HERBARIUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY, NEW SERIES. IV. NEW AND LITTLE KNOWN PLANTS COLLECTED ON MT. ORIZABA IN THE SUMMER OF 1891. By Henry E. Seaton. Presented by B. L. Robinson, January 11, 1893. The descriptions of new species and notes upon a few other plants of interest presented in this paper are based upon a collection made by the author on Mt. Orizaba in July and August, 1891. Mt. Orizaba in the State of Vera Cruz has been visited by a number of collectors, and is among the best known regions in Mexico. This is especially true of its lower slopes in the vicinity of the towns of Cordoba and Orizaba. These regions, where the writer's first collections were also made, are on the southeastern slope of the mountain at altitudes of 2,700 and 4,000 feet. Higher points were successively visited, until the station of Esperanza was reached, on the southern slope of the mountain and at an altitude of 8,000 feet. In this region seven of the new species here described were discovered. The ascent of the peak to an altitude of 14,000 feet was made on the western slope above the town of Chalchicomula. The remaining new species were found between 9,000 and 12,000 feet. Drs. J. M. Coulter and J. N. Rose have been so obliging as to de- termine some of the Umbelliferse, and their descriptions of two new species are herewith given. The notes upon the Grasses are kindly furnished by Prof. F. Lamson-Scribner. Warmest thanks are also due Dr. B, L. Robinson, for his ready assistance in many of the deter- minations. Ranunculus geotdes, HBK. Pine woods, Mt. Orizaba, 11,000 ft., August (no. 179). This species has been somewhat confused with R. Hookeri, Schl., but is distinguished by its more simple habit, smaller and merely 3-lobed or parted radical leaves, and slightly narrower petals. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 117 Theltpodium longifolium, Wats. Rich ravines Mt. Orizaba, 10,000 ft., August (no. 250). The radical leaves are Dot present in the type of this species, aud later specimens in the Gray Herbarium also lack them. The Mt. Orizaba specimens show them to be about an inch long, narrowly spatulate, obtuse, sparingly toothed at the apex, and very hispid with stellately branched hairs. Cerastium okitiialks. Schl. (Linnaja, XII. 209). Pine woi Mt. Orizaba, 13,000 ft., August (no. 236). A very handsome Bpecies, well characterized by its simple stem and large flowers. Cerastium volcanicdm, Schl. (Linmea, XII. 208). Tine fort its, Mt. Orizaba, 11,000 ft., August (no. 213). The specimens referred to this species have the petals but slightly cleft. The species is a prom- inent element of the herbaceous flora at an altitude of 1 1,000 feet. Arenaria serpens, HBK. In pine woods, Mt. Orizaba, 13, I ft., August (no. 234). As defined by Rohrbach (Linnaea, XXXVII. 268), many forms are included under this species. The Mt. Orizaba specimens, which seem best placed here, are closely related to .1. Boarycei, Hemsl., but differ in the spatulate leaves and in the petals only equalling or little exceeding the sepals. Drymaria filiformis. Glabrous throughout, 3-8 inches high : stems erect or spreading from a slender rootstock, much branched, filiform, somewhat rigid : leaves thickish, short-petioled, ovate to lan- ceolate, narrowed at the base, 2-2^, lines in length, reduced to ovate bracts above: stipules setaceous : flowers slender-pedicelled, disposed in a diffuse cyme: sepals ovate, obtuse, herbaceous, scarious-margined, with a dark tip or midnerve, somewhat cariuate, a line long: petals deeply cleft, shorter than the sepals : capsule globose, shortly stipitate, many seeded. — Barren slopes, Mt. Orizaba, 9,000 ft., August mo. 207). Resembling D. anomala, Wats., in habit, foliage, and Bomewhal in the inflorescence, but differing in the slender rootstocks, glabrous obtuse sepals, and much longer-pedicelled flowers at the nodes of tin- branches. Astragalus (Mollissimi) Out/ \ n.r.. Stem decumbent, branched, clothed with a short white tomentum, a foot or less high : l( I including petiole 4-6 inches long; leaflets 11-17 pairs, petiolul oblong-lanceolate, obtuse or acutish, somewhat cuneate at t! lines in length, white sericeous-pubescent : stipules narrowly deltoid, acuminate, 2-2.V lines long: peduncles Bhorter than the leai racemes oblong, H-2£ inches in length: bracts linear-lanceolate, I, lines long, exceeding the pedicels : calyx sericeous-pubescent, 8 1 I in length, the linear acuminate teeth three fourths as Ions 118 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY oblong-campauulate tube : corolla yellow, the keel tipped with violet ; standard obovate, 7-9 Hues long, much exceeding the keel : pods coriaceous, brown, broadly ovate or globose, very obtuse or abruptly pointed, 6-7 lines long, somewhat sulcate on both sutures, pubescent with short white woolly hairs. — Ledges and cliffs, Mt. Orizaba, 9,000 ft., August (no. 262). This species is closely related to A. Humboldtii, Gray, but differs essentially in its obtuse or abruptly pointed subglobose tomentulose pods. Desmodium (Heteroloma) subsessile. Stem herbaceous, trail- ing, branched, somewhat hispid : stipules lanceolate, acuminate, ciliate, 3 lines long: petioles 1-1 ^ lines in length: lateral leaflets elliptic, occasionally with a couple of rounded lateral lobes, the terminal leaflets broadly ovate, rounded or retuse at the apex, rounded at the base, thinly appressed-pubescent on both surfaces, ciliate : racemes terminal and axillary, long-peduncled : bracts ovate, acuminate, cili- ate, soon deciduous : pedicels in pairs, distant, spreading, 6-7 lines long : flowers about 4 lines in length : pods (immature) 5-6-jointed, the margins nearly equally notched; joints orbicular, 1^ lines long, finely uncinate-pubescent. — Wooded hills near Esperanza, 8,000 ft., August (no. 325). Near D. Mexicanum, Wats., but distinguished by its foliage. Phaseolus (Drepanospron) Esperanz^e. Stem procumbent, stout, furrowed, hispidulous with reversed hairs, 3 feet or more in length: leaflets broadly ovate-triangular, lf-2 inches long, three fourths as broad, obtusely and hastately 3-lobed, the lateral leaf- lets often entire or with one large rounded lobe, strigulose above, pubescent on the nerves below ; the lateral lobes rounded, the ter- minal triangular, obtuse, mucronate : racemes loosely many-flowered : bracts persistent, ovate-lanceolate, acute, ciliate, 2 lines long, shorter than the pedicels: calyx pubescent, If lines in length: corolla green- ish yellow, tinged with purple, 6 lines long: pods (immature) villous, slightly curved, | inch long, 2 lines broad. — Wooded hills near Esperanza, 8,000 ft., August (no. 371). Closely related to P. pedi- cellatus, Benth. (ex char.), but differing in the shorter pedicels and pubescent stems and leaves ; also near P. leptostachyus, Benth. (ex char.), which has rhombic-ovate leaflets. Eryngium (Parallelinervia) Seatoni, Coulter & Rose, n. sp. Stem erect, stout, 3-4 feet high : leaves linear, parallel-nerved ; radical leaves 12-15 inches long, 4-5 lines wide, the margin toothed with paired spines, one much longer and about equal to the breadth of leaf; stem leaves all alternate, with marginal spines often in threes and OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 119 fours, clasping at base : heads few, terminal and axillary, shortly pe- dunculate, obloug, 10 lines loug; involucre of 14 or 15 bracts, oblong- linear, sharp pungent, 2 inches or more long, with 3 or b* pairs of spines or the inner ones sometimes entire; bractlets blue, pungent, a little longer than the flowers. — In pine woods, Mt. Orizaba, 12,000 li.. August (no. 197). Near E. protcefloriun, but with more scattered stem leaves, narrower radical leaves, fewer bracts, and bearing Beveral heads. Galeotti's no. 2763, which was found on this mountain at exactly this altitude and referred to E. protaflorum, is iu all probabil- ity the above plant. Auhacacia nudicaulis, Coulter & Rose, n. sp. Acaulescent, glabrous, withsleuder peduncle, 3-12 inches high : leaves 1-7, pinnate : segments linear, entire or the lower ones 3-7-toothed or pinna! itid. the ultimate segment appendiculate : umbel somewhat unequal, 6-12- rayed ; rays 1-2 inches long; pedicels 2-3 lines long: flowers white : fruit ovate, flattened laterally, H lines long: stylopodiuin conical, becoming indexed; styles slender, thickened at tip. — Pine woods, Mt. Orizaba, 12,000 ft., August (no. 199). Gnaphalium Popocatepecianim. Sch. Bip. Sandy plains. Mt. Orizaba, 14,000 ft., August (no. 242). This plant is the same as Schaffner's no. 50, Coulter's 451*, and one collected by Galeotti. Also very near G. Liebmanni, Sch. Bip. (ex char.). Iostephane heterophylla, Bentli. Specimens of this planl collected in moist woods near Esperanza, 8,000 ft., Augusl (no. 366), show the stem to be foliaceous to the summit and the rays dark red. Viguiera pedunculata. Stem erect, about 3 feet high, smooth- ish, branched only at the summit: leaves opposite, distant, petiolate, coriaceous, undulate-serrulate, 3-nerved from the base, somewhat scabrous above, minutely pubescent on the nerves below; lower li deltoid, acute, about 3 inches long. 1 .1-2 inches broad ; the upper ovate, acute, cuneate at the base, ]}-2\ inches in length: peduncles 1 3 at the ends of the branches, 5-1 1 inches Ion-: heads solitary, l^-lf inches in diameter: involucre 4 lines high ; the bracts lance-linear, apiculate, pubescent: rays 12-15, 6-8 lines Ion-, oblong-elliptic, minutely emarginate: bracts of the convex or Bubconical recepl entire, cuspidate, about equalling the disk corollas: acheni ol finely pubescent, U lines in length: pappus awns chaffy dilated at the base, nearly a, long as the achene ; the intermediate pales lacini- ate. — Wooded hills near Esperanza, 8,000 0.. August (no. A species well characterized by its long-pedunculate heads. 120 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY Encelia stricta. Roots fibrous : stem simple, herbaceous, striate, hispidulous, about 2 feet high : leaves opposite below, alternate above, sessile, erect, somewhat appressed to the stem, obloug-ovate, 1-2^ inches long, truncate, rounded or subcordate at the base, acute, appressed pubescent and somewhat scabrous above, finely and rather soft pubescent with whitish hairs beneath, irregularly callous-serrate : heads few, pedunculate, f-li inches broad: bracts of the involucre 2-3 lines high, ovate, acute, densely appressed- pubescent : rays 8-12, oblong-elliptic, entire or minutely 2-3 dentate, 5-7 lines long, golden yellow : achenes oblong-spatulate, 1—1 \ lines in length, slightly emar- ginate : pappus of two delicate awns, half as long as the achene. — Grassy hills near Esperanza, 8,000 ft., August (no. 33l)). Near E. hispida, Hemsl. (ex char.). Galea, multiradiata. Herbaceous, erect or decumbent : stem somewhat branched, hispidulous, \-'2\ feet high: leaves opposite, ses- sile or very short petioled, lanceolate to broadly ovate, rounded or subcordate at the base, acute, serrate with a few callous-tipped teeth, rough pubescent on both surfaces, the veins prominent beneath: heads long-peduncled, 1-3 at the ends of the branches: involucre 3-4 lines high ; its bracts green, ovate, obtuse, glabrous, ciliate, striate, the outer ones a little shorter and thickened at the tip: rays 15-25, ob- long-spatulate, 3-5 lines in length, 2-3-dentate, purplish white, striate : bracts of the receptacle slender, acuminate, shorter than the flowers : achenes black, pubescent, less than a line long, angled, narrowed at the base : pappus paleaa about 20, slender, setaceous, minutely dentate, persistent, considerably longer than the achenes and equalling the corollas. — Wooded slopes, Mt. Orizaba, 10,000 ft., August (no. 167). This species is related to G. elegans, DC, but amply distinguished by its pubescence, more equal involucral bracts, and the number, size, and shape of the rays; also near C. sabazioides, Hemsl. (ex char.), but differing in the leaves and involucre. Tagetes linifolia. Glabrous, about a foot high : stems several from a short rootstock, erect or decumbent, simple or with a few branches from the woody base : leaves opposite, sometimes alternate above, pinnate: leaflets 3-5 pairs, mostly opposite, narrowly linear with attenuate base, very acute or shortly setaceous, entire or serrate at the apex : lateral leaflets 3-6 lines, the terminal about an inch in length : peduncles single, terminating the stems or branches, cylindri- cal, 3-5 inches long: heads solitary: involucre oblong, narrowed at the base, },- inch high, somewhat angled, 5-toothed : ray-; 5, conspicu- ously obcordate, light yellow, 6-8 lines in length : disk flowers 25-40, OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 121 exceeding the involucre: achenes 3-3 J, lines loDg, linear, angled, minutely appressed-pubescent : pappus of the disk achenes of 2 palea- ceous awns equalling the achenes, and 3 much shorter oblong slightly fimbriate palere ; of the ray short paleaceous. — Rocky hills near 1 - peranza, 8,000 ft., August (no. 355). Resembling '/'. pedunculated, Lag., and T. tenuifolia, Caw. in the characters of the flowers, but with narrower leaflets and more simple stems terminated by single peduncles. Senecio Orizabensis, Sch. Bip. Speciraeus collected on sandy plains, Mt. Orizaba, 13,500 ft., August (uo. 219), accord in every way with the description of this species (Hemsl. Biol. Cent. Am. Bot., 11. 244), except in having runcinate radical leaves. Euphorbia ramosa. Suffrutescent, 2-5 inches high : stems decumbent or erect, slender, much branched, pubescent with spri ading hairs: leaves short-petioled, oblique at the base, ovate or Buborbicular, acutish, crenulate or very entire, glabrous above, sparsely hairy be- neath, 2-3 lines long: stipules minute, triangular, lacerate: involucres solitary or somewhat corymbose at the ends of the branches, short- pedicelled, campanulate, glabrous, h line long: glands purple: ap- pendages small, white, entire: styles very short, deeply bifid: capsules glabrous, the valves obtusely angled: seeds ovate, 4-angled, irregularly and trausversely rugose. — Rocky slopes, Mt. Orizaba, 10,000 it- August (no. 495). Coulter's no. 1447 from Real del Mont,' also represents small specimens of this species. It is cited by Hem (Biol. Cent. Am. Bot., III. 00) as E. adenoptera, Bertol., but it is very distinct from that species, which has unequal iuvolucral appends and hirsute capsules. The specimens in the Gray Herbarium w unnamed, but the following characters had been noted u] the sheet by Dr. Engelmann : " Stem and lower side of oblique ovate or orbicu- lar crenulate or entire leaves hairy : stipe 3-angular, ciliate: involucre with small white and wide appendages: styles divided to the middle: capsule obtuse-angled: seeds sharp-angled, dark, cross grooved, 0.5 line." The specimens were mounted on the same sheet with E. pilosula, Engel., and the two are nearly related in their pubescence and flower and fruit characters, but E. pilosula is a much smaller plant with tinctly serrate leaves. The specimens from Mt. Orizaba, varying from 2 to 5 inches in height, differ only from Dr. Coulter's plant in being apparently more erect, and they somewhat resemble in halm E. I len. Torr. & Gray, and smaller forms of E. villifera, Scheele. Arundinella Deppeana, NTees in Bonplandia, [II. 84; Steud. Syn. Gram. 115; Fourn. Mex. PL Enum., Gram. 54. — HMa mar 122 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY the town of Orizaba, 4,000 ft., August (no. 290). Equals no. 1552 of Wright's Cubau Coll., arid Pringle's nos. 2615 and 3133. Not A. Brasiliensis, Raddi, as figured by Trinius (Icon. 266). Hemsley (Biol. Cent. Amer. Bot., 111. 252) unites A. aleutica, Rupr., aud A. latifolia and A. scoparia, Fourn., with A. Deppeana, Nees. Oryzopsis pubiflora (Trin.), Scribner. (Ex descrip. Urachne pubi flora, Trin. & Rupr. Stipac. 21; Nasella pubiflora, Desv. Flor. Chil. 264.) Culms slender, 2 feet high, with an open few-flowered panicle: spikelets 2-2J lines long; empty glumes lanceolate, sub- equal, 3-nerved, with abruptly acuminate hyaline tips ; flowering glume, including the short conical and curved callus, 1^ lines long, obliquely truncate at the broad apex, and pilose all over with ap- pressed hairs : hairs on the callus short and dense : awn about 6 lines long, twice geniculate, minutely ciliate below, scabrous above, readily falling off": anthers bearded at apex. — Hills near Esperanza, 8,000 ft., August (no. 319). Equals no. 2018 of Bang's 1891 collection. Muhlenbergia Seatoni, Scribner, n. sp. Panicle diffuse, the upper branches widely spreading; flowering glume four times as long as the obtuse empty glumes, bifid at apex, the divisions setiform ; awn about three times the length of the flowering glume. Perennial: culms smooth, slender, branching near the base, 8-12 inches high (including the panicle) : leaves linear-filiform, 2-3 inches long; ligule prominent, hyaline : panicle nearly one half the length of the culm, the lower branches ascending, partly included in the upper leaf-sheath; pedicels long and capillary, much exceeding the spike- lets: spikelets about 2 lines long; empty glumes small (\ line), rounded, obtuse, the second a little longer and broader than the first : callus conspicuous, hairy on the anterior side : palea broad, nearly equalling its glume in length : awn about 6 lines long. — Hills near Esperanza, 8,000 ft., August (no. 320). It is allied to M. capillaris, Trin., but quite distinct. Agrostis verticillata, Vill. Delf. 74; Trin. Unif. 195; Trin. Icon. 36. Kunth (Enum. PI. I. 219) refers this to A. stolonifera, L., but there is some confusion in regard to the Linnrean plant. Munro, in his " Catalogue of the Grasses in the Herbarium of Linnasus," says, under A. stolonifera, that " the Herbarium contains one of the forms of A. vulgaris which is called stolonifera, the Florin grass ; another marked stolonifera by Linnaeus is A. verticillata, Vill." — Mt. Ori- zaba, 10,000 ft., August (no. 192). Ca lam agrostis Schiedeana, Steud. Gram. 193. (Ex descrip. Deyeuxia Schiedeana, Rupr. ex Fourn. Mex. PI. Enum., Gram. 105.) OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 123 — Culms 12 to 18 inches high, with long involute erect leaves, and a short lax panicle: spikelets sometimes 2-, very rarely 3-flowered, 3-3 J- lines long; empty glumes lanceolate, acuminate; flowering glume broadly lanceolate, pilose all over, laciniate at apex: awn from near the middle on the back, 2-3 lines long, bent and a little twisted be- low; rudiment nearly half as long as the floret, pilose ; hairs on callus short, one fifth as long as the glume. — Mt. Orizaba, 14,000 t't.» August (no. 227 a). Tjrisetum eloxgatum, Kuuth, Gram. I. 101, Enum. PL I. 296. This appears to be the same as T. interruptum, Buckley, and is probably the T. interruptum of Fournier. — Mt. Orizaba, L 2,000 ft, August (no. 191). Tkiodia avenacea, HBK. Nov. Gen. 156, t. 48. (TJrcikph avenacea, Kth. ; Fourn. Mex. PI. Enum., Gram. 110.) — Mt. Orizaba, 9,000 ft., August (no. 248). Equals Pringle's no. 3930 and Schaff- ner's 1008. Spikelets G-8-flowered, about 4 lines long; empty glumes unequal, the larger second one 2\ lines long; first flowering glume -' lines long, oblong, deeply notched at apex, awned between tin' divis- ions : awn about 1 line long. Eragrostis lugens, Nees. S. Wats, in Proc. Am. Acad. XV III. 182. — Hill near Esperanza, 8,000 ft., August (no. 318). Equals Pringle's no. 472. I have this species from Louisiana, collected in cultivated fields at Lafayette by A. B. Langlois, Sept. 25, 1885. Festuca Tolucf.nsis, HBK. Nov. Gen. I. 153? — Mt. Orizaba, 12,000 ft., August (no. 193). Equals Pringle's no. 5201. This, and also no. 228 of same collection, appear to me to be only varii tii - of Festuca ovina, L. The no. 228 may be Fournier's F. aquipetala. Festuca rubra, L., var. pauciflora, Scribner, n. var. Spike- lets 3-flowered : upper flower imperfect: empty glumes unequal; the lower shorter and narrower: flowering glumes lanceolate, acuminate, submucronately pointed, scabrous on the back. — Mt. Orizaba, 13,< 00 ft., August (no. 227 b). This may be F. WiUdenoviana, Schult., bat it appears to be only a variety of F. rubra, L. Bromus Hookeri, Fourn., var. Schlechtendalii, Fourn. Mex. PI. Enum., Gram. 127. — Mt. Orizaba. 10,000 ft., A.ug isl (no. I Equals Pringle's no. 117:5. This has been referred to B. carin Hook., but upon what authority I do not know. Hool does not appear to be clearly known. 124 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY IX. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE GRAY HERBARIUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY, NEW SERIES. V. — THE NORTH AMERICAN SILENE^E AND POLY CARPED. By B. L. Robinson. Presented April 12, 1893. The following study of the Silenece and Polycarpece is preliminary to treatment of these tribes of the Garyophyllacece in the " Synoptical Flora of North America." The object of the present publication is chiefly to secure aid through criticisms, and to call attention to such species, especially in the genera Silene and Lychnis as are still imper- fectly known, so that if possible more complete material of them may be secured before final revision for the first volume of the Synoptical Flora. Specimens of these groups, especially puzzling forms from the West and Northwest, together with notes concerning any points not properly covered by the following descriptions, will be gratefully received by the author, who here cordially acknowledges the valuable assistance already rendered him in his work by the late Dr. George Vasey and Dr. J. N. Rose, of the Department of Agriculture ; Prof. N. L. Bntton of Columbia College ; Mr. and Mrs. T. S. Brandegee and Miss Alice Eastwood, of the California Academy of Sciences ; Prof. John Macouu, of the Canadian Geological Survey ; Mr John H. Redfield, of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences ; Mr. John Donuell Smith, and others, whose names are mentioned in the text. In the enumeration of synonyms and the citation of literature Dr. Sereno Watson's " Bibliographical Index " has been a most useful guide ; so far as possible, however, all references to literature as well as points of synonymy, from whatever source, have been subjected to careful verification. CARYOPHYLLACE^E, Tribe I. SILENECE. Sepals united into a 4-5-toothed or lobed tube or cup. Petals unguiculate and often scale-bearing at the junction of the blade and claw, borne together with OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. L25 the stamens upon the stipe of the ovary. Stipules none. Flowera usually showy, perfect or not infrequently polygamous. * Calyx subtended by 1-several pairs of bractlets : flowers solitary ot often aggregated in close heads: seeds flattened and attached b] the face embryo nearly straight. 1. Dianthus. Calyx tubular, 5-toothed, finely many-striate. Petals 5, with long claws; the blade entire, emarginate, or several- toothed. Stamens 10. Styles 2. Capsule 1-celled, dehiscent 1 > \ 4 valves. Leaves narrow, often connate by narrow Bcarious mem branes. Flowers commonly showy. 2. Tunica. Calyx turbinate or cylindrical, obtusely toothed, dis- tinctly 5-ribbed, or sometimes 15-ribbed. Petals 5. Stamens 1". Styles 2. Flowers considerably smaller and habit more slender than in Dianthus. * * Calycine bractlets none : seeds laterally attached : embryo curved, -i- Styles 2 : capsule 4-toothed or valved : introduced plants. 3. Gypsophila. Calyx turbinate, tubular or campanulate, 5- toothed, herbaceous only in the middle of the segments, the interme- diate parts being scarious. Petals 5. Stamens 10. Flowers mostly small, paniculate or scattered, rarely aggregated. Capsule rather deeply 4-valved. 4. Saponaria. Calyx tubular or ovcid, 5-toothed, terete with numerous faint veins, or conspicuously 5-angled. Flowers showy. Petals 5. Stamens 10. Capsule dehiscent at the apex by 4 short teeth. ^_ ._ Styles normally 3; capsule opening by 3 or 6 teeth: calyx commonly 10-nerved, rarely a-nerved. 5. Silene. Calyx 5-toothed, campanulate, Bubcylindric <>r turbi- nate, either inflated or becoming distended by the maturing capsule, 10-oc-nerved. Petals usually appendaged at the summit of tin' claw , the blade variously toothed or divided, rarely entire. Stamens 10 Styles 3 (very rarely 4). Stipe of the ovary commonly developed, The capsule 1-celled or somewhat 3-celled at the base. Flowers soli tary, racemose, or cymose-paniculate. h_ _ *- Styles 5 (rarely 4), alternating with the petals when of the same num- ber: calyx teeth short, not foliaceoua 6. Lychnis. Calyx ovoid, obovate, or clavate, 5-toothed L0- nerved, inflated or not. Petals with or without appendages ; the blade entire, emarginate, bifid or variously cleft. Stamens I". Ovary celled, or divided at the base into 5 (rarely 4) partial • dehiscent by as many or twice as many teeth as there are styli 126 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY ,_ .*_ h_ <_ Styles 5, opposite the petals : calyx teeth conspicuously prolonged into foliaceous appendages. 7 Agrostemma. Calyx ovoid, with 10 strong ribs; the elon- gated teeth in our introduced species an inch or more in length, exceeding the 5 large unappendaged petals. Stamens 10. Capsule 1 -celled. Leaves linear. Tribe II. ALSINEiE. Sepals free or nearly so. Petals not distinctly unguiculate, never appendaged. Styles 2-5, distinct to the base. — Including genera 8-14 ; to be published at an early date. Tribe III. POLYCARPEiE. Sepals free or somewhat united at the base. Petals commonly small, not distinctly unguiculate, borne together with the stamens upon an hypogynous or slightly pengynous disk. Style simple below, 3- or more rarely 2-branched above. The stigmas rarely sessile on the ovary. * Petals 2-5-parted. 15 Drymaria. Sepals 5, often scarious-margined. Petals 5. Stamens 3-5, slightly perigynous. Ovary 1-celled, several-many- ovuled. Capsule 3-valved. Flowers small, greenish white. Leaves flat, though often narrow, opposite or pseudoverticellate. Stipules small, free, scarious or bristle-formed, sometimes fugacious. * * Petals entire, denticulate, or none. •*- Cauline leaves numerous, flat, not linear-setaceous. 16. Polycarpon. Sepals 5, more or less carinate, entire, scari- ous-margined. Petals 5, small, shorter than the sepals, sometimes emarginate. Stamens 3-5. Ovary 1-celled. Capsule 3-valved, sev- eral-seeded. Seeds ovoid with the embryo but little curved. *- — Cauline leaves setaceous. 17. Lcefiingia. Sepals* 5, carinate and produced to rather rigid setaceous tips ; the three outer ones commonly bearing a setaceous tooth on each side. Petals 3-5, small or none. Stamens 3(-5 ?). Ovary 1-celled, several-seeded, triangular. Capsule 3-valved. Seeds oblong, attached laterally near the base. Embryo somewhat curved. Cotyledons accumbent. .,_ 4_ 4_ Leaves forming a radical rosette; the cauline minute or obsolete.- basal stipules lacerate. 18. Stipulicida. Sepals 5, distinct, somewhat rigid, obtuse, emarginate, scarious-margined. Petals 5, entire, narrowly oblong, gradually contracted below, hypogynous. Stamens 5. Capsule ovate- globose, 3-valved, many-seeded. OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 127 1. DIANTHUS, L. Pink, Carnation. (A«fc and &vOos, flower of Jove.) — Chiefly natives of S. Europe and X. Africa, deservedly popular in cultivation. — Gen. n. 364; DC. Prodr. i. 355 ; Reichb. Icon. Fl. Germ. vi. t. 248-268 ; Benth. & Hook. Gen. i. 1 1 I. — Sev- eral species tend to escape and have become more or less naturalized. One variety only is indigenous to this continent. * Indigenous in the extreme Northwest. D. alpinus, L. Low cespitose perennial with numerous ascend- ing 1-flowered stems: bracts 2-6, erect or somewhat spreading. — Spec. 412; Regel, Ost-Sib. i. 284.— (Eur., Siberia.) Very variable and according to Regel passing into the following. Var. repens, Regel. Root single, vertical or descending, not repent: stems procumbent, much branched from near the 1 branches simple, ascending, 3-6 inches in height, most often 1-flowered : leaves linear or linear-lanceolate, 8-16 lines long, glabrous, slightly fleshy : involucral scales a single pair, narrowly ovate, acuminate, nearly equalling the calyx, the attenuated tips slightly spreading: calyx somewhat inflated, 6 lines long: corolla purple, about 7 lines broad, glabrous, the obovate blade erose-dentate. — Regel, 1. c. 286. D. repens, Willd. Spec. ii. 681; Cham, et Schlecht. Linna-a, i. 37; Torr. & Gray, Fl. i. 195; Seem. Bot. Herald, 27, t. iv. — Northern and western coast of Alaska. (Siberia.) * * Adventive from Europe and more or less established in various localities in the Eastern and Middle States. -*- Bracelets short, half the length of the calyx : flowers solitary * D. deltoides, L. (Maiden Pink.) Perennial: stems decum- bent, ascending, a foot in height, very leafy below : leaves short, lan- ceolate, a line wide, the lower obtusish, the uppermost acute calyx long, tubular: petals narrow, pink or white. — Spec. 411 ; Eng. Hot. i t. 61 ; Gray's Man. ed. 6, 83. — Occasionally found escaped from gardens, New England to Michigan. — ••- Bractlets narrow, attenuate, equalling or exceeding the calyx: flowers clustered. / D. BARBATUS, L. (SwEET WlLLIAM.) A smooth perelin ia 1 . 1 J feet in height: stems simple, bearing the flowers in dense cymose fas- cicles : leaves lanceolate, large for the genus, 1 \- 3 inches long, a fourth as wide, minutely roughened on the edges : brartlets filiform from B lanceolate base: blade of petals triangular-obovate, toothed, red, purple or white, often variegated in cultivation. — Spec. 109; Reichb. [con. Fl. Germ. vi. t 248. — Long cultivated and occasionally Bpontaneoui about old gardens. 128 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY D. Armeria, L. (Deptford Pink.) Annual, 1-2 feet high, covered with a fine grayish pubescence : stems branching and bearing several 2-4-flowered fascicles : bracts subulate, attenuate, villous ■ flowers scentless : calyx slender, tubular, 7-8 lines long, the teeth very sharp: petals roseate, spotted with white; the blade elliptical, crenate-dentate. — Spec. 410; Pursh, Fl. 314; Bigel. Fl. Bost. 108; Torr. Fl. N. & Mid. St. 447; Torr. & Gray, Fl. i. 195. D. arme- roides, Raf. in Desv. Journ. Bot. 1814, 269 ; Precis des Decouv. 36. Atocion armerioides, Raf. Autikon Bot. 29. D. Carolinianus, Walt. Car. 140, referred here by Sprengel, Syst. ii. 375, was without doubt founded upon error. Torrey & Gray, Fl. i. 676, state that Walter's own specimen was Dodecatheon Meadia. — Fields and pine woods, Eastern States from Maine (Portland Catalogue) to Maryland ; Lansing, Michigan, L. H. Bailey ; fl. June and July. Autumnal flow- ers in October noted by L. F. Ward. *- t- -4- Bractlets broad, scarious, concealing the calyx. D. prolifer, L. Annual, a foot or two in height: stems wiry: leaves narrow, minutely scabrous, acute : heads terminal, 2-several- flowered, enclosed in thin dry ovate obtusish mucronate imbricated bractlets : flowers expanding one at a time, ephemeral : calyx tubular ; the veins faint, collected into five groups : petals small, notched, pink or red. — Spec. 410 ; Eng. Bot. xiv. t. 956. Tunica prolifera, Scop. Fl. Cam. ed. 2, i. 299. — New Jersey, Durand; Eastern Pennsylvania, Smith, Porter ; Suffolk Co., N. Y., Hollick ; fl. all summer. This spe- cies, especially in its calyx, forms a transition to the next geuus. 2. TUNICA, Scop. ( Tunica, a tunic, probably in reference to the close involucre.) Slender wiry-stemmed herbs with small mostly linear leaves. Flowers terminal, solitary or fascicled in small heads. — Fl. Carn. ed. 2, i. 298; Benth. & Hook. Gen. i. 145; Williams, Journ. of Bot. xix. 193 (1890). — Old World plants represented in America by a single species recently introduced. T. saxifraga, Scop. Smooth : stems numerous, slender, branching, curved ascending: leaves small, linear, acute, less than half a line in width : the lower internodes very short: flowers small, numerous, ter- minal, solitary : bractlets 2 pairs, scarious except in the middle, acute, considerably shorter than the calyx : petals notched, pale purple ; the blade a line in length. — Scop. 1. c. i. 300 ; Reichb. Icon. Fl. Germ. vi. t. 246. — Roadsides near Loudon, Ontario, Burgess. (Adventive from Europe.) 3. G-YPSOPHIL.A, L. (yityos, gypsum, and cf>i\eh>, to love, from a supposed preference for soil rich in gypsum.) — Old World OF AIM'S AND SCIENCES. 129 herbs of graceful habit, mostly Datives of Southern Europe and West- ern Asia. Several species are cultivated for ornament ; the following are sparingly naturalized. — Gen. ed. -1, n. 498; DC. Prodr. i. 35] in part; Reichb. 1. c. vi. t. 230-242; Benth. & Hook. Gen. i. 1 16 Williams, Journ. of Bot. xviii. 321. G-. MDRALIS, L. Low, annual, with the habit of Armaria leaves small, linear, acute: flowers scattered in the forks of the branches : pedicels filiform, two or three times as long as the calyx : pet als pink with darker veins, emarginate, 2-3 line-, in length. Amcen. Acad. iii. 24 ; Spec. ed. 3, 583; Fl. Dan. viii. t. 1268.— Ballast and roadsides, New Jersey, Brown; Montague, Mass., Churchill; Weth- ersfield, Conn., Wright; London, Canada, Dearness. Introduced (N. and Mid. Iuirope and Siberia). G-. paniculata, L. 1. c. Perennial, glabrous and somewhat glau- cous, 2 feet or more in height: leaves lanceolate, acute, 1-1 J inches in length : flowers very numerous in a compound panicle Begraents of the calyx with conspicuous white scarious margins: petals scarcely exceeding the sepals: capsule uearly spherical. — Reichb. 1. c. vi. t. 242. — Doubtfully established, Emerson, Manitoba, Fowler. (Ad- ventive from Europe.) 4. SAPONARIA, L. Soapwort. (From sapo, soap ; 8. offi- cinalis having been used as a substitute for soap, the juice being capable of forming a lather.) — A genus of the Old World including plants of diverse habit. Two rather coarse species belonging to different sec- tions of the genus are spontaneous in America. — Gen. n. 365 . DC. Prodr. i. 365 ; Benth. & Hook. Gen. i. 146. 5. Vaccaria, L. A smooth annual with ovate or oblong-lanceo- late, sessile and somewhat connate leaves : flowers in a broad flat corymb: calyx ovoid, with 5 sharp herbaceous angles, the interven- ing parts being white and scarious: corolla rose-colored, destitute of appendages.— Spec. 409; Bot. Mag. t. 2290; Torr. & Gray, fl. i. 195 ; also variously referred by authors to Gypsophila, Lychnis, or more often regarded as an independent genns, Vaccaria. — Railway ballast and cultivated ground, frequent and sometimes troublesome in wheatfields westward, where it bears the name of "cockle." -Inly August. (Introduced from Europe.) S. OFFICINALIS, L. (SOAPWORT, BOUNCING I'.l I. ) IVnimial, smooth, H-2 feet high: leaves ovate-lanceolate, acute, S-ribbed, inches long, narrowed at the base; inflorescence terminal, somewhat pyramidal, the flowers clustered at the ends of short branches : i tubular, terete: petals appendaged at the junction of the claw and the VOL. XXVIII (V S XX I 9 130 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY obovate retuse blade, white or pink, often double. — Spec. 408 ; Eng. Bot. xv. t. 1060; Pursh. Fl. 314; Torr. & Gray, Fl. i. 195. — Road- sides and waste ground, common ; July to the end of October. (Naturalized from Europe.) 5. SILENE, L. Catchflt, Campion. (Name from SeiAip/os, in reference to the viscid excretion of many species, the Greek god having been described as covered with foam ; also derived directly from a-taXov, saliva.) — A large genus of attractive plants inhabiting chiefly the northern temperate parts of the Old World, but also well represented in North America, especially in the Pacific region, where it has lately been necessary to increase considerably the number of species. Although the members of the genus present considerable diversity of habit and floral characters, yet they do not fall into well marked groups and the elaborate subdivision of the genus suggested by Rohr- bach cannot be satisfactorily carried out among our American species. — Gen. n. 372 ; Otth in DC. Prodr. i. 367 ; Torr. & Gray, Fl. i. 189 ; Fenzl in Ledeb. Fl. Ross. i. 303 ; Reichb. Icon. Fl. Germ. vi. t 269- 301 ; Benth. & Hook. Gen. i. 147; Rohrb. Monog. der Gatt. Silene ; Wats. Proc. Am. Acad. x. 340, & Bibl. Index, 106. * Annuals, mostly introduced, -i- Inflorescence simply racemose, or subspicate ; pedicels solitary. S. Gallica, L. Stem hirsute with white jointed hairs : leaves spatulate, obtuse, mucronate, hirsute-pubescent on both sides, 8-18 lines in length : racemes terminal, one-sided, 2-4 inches long : flowers more or less pedicellate : calyx 10-nerved, villous-hirsute, slender and subcylindric in anthesis, becoming in fruit broadly ovoid, wi.th con- tracted orifice and short narrow spreading teeth : petals usually little exceeding the calyx ; the blade obovate, somewhat bifid, toothed or entire. — Spec. 417; Cham. & Schlecht. Linnasa, i. 40 ; Rohrb. 1. c. 96. S. Anglica, L. 1. c. 416. — Apparently of European origin but now cosmopolitan ; locally common on the Pacific slope from British Columbia to Lower California ; occasionally in cultivated fields in the Atlantic States; April-July. The typical form has very short ascend- ing pedicels and white or pink flowers. S. Lusitanica, L. 1. c. 416, is a form with the lower pedicels elongated, equalling or exceeding the calyx, and becoming horizontal in fruit. Tolon, Calif., Brandegee. (Europe.) "Var. qdinquevulnera, Koch. Petals more showy, subentire, deep crimson with a white or pink border. — Synop. Fl. Germ, et Helv. 100. S. quinquevulnera, L. 1. c. 416. — With the typical form. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 131 S. nocturna, L., although credited to this country by Ton. & Gray and by various subsequent authors, is not represented from America iii the leading herbaria of the country. Most if not all of the specin referred here are either S. Gallica or S. noctiflora. — *- Inflorescence dichotomously racemose. - S. DiCHOTOMA, Ehrh. Tall, more or less hirsute and viscid: root annual or biennial: leaves lanceolate or oblanceolate : flowers Bhorfc- pedicelled or subsessile, larger than in the preceding, .', inch in diameter: petals white or roseate, the blade obovate, more or less deeply bifid: calyx cylindric in anthesis, becoming ovate in fruit, the prominent green nerves strictly simple, hirsute. — Beitr. vii. 143. Reichb. 1. c. vi. t. 280. — A European species somewhat intermediate between S. Gallica and S. noctiflora; ballast and waste land, Phil- adelphia, Martindale ; Trenton, Volk ; Texas, Necdley. The form racemosa, Rohrb., S. racemosa, Otth in DC Prodr. i. 384, with more pubescent leaves tending to be clustered about the base has been found by Prof. Greene sparingly introduced in fields about Berkeley, Cal. Fl. Francis, i. 116. -•— -•— -*— Inflorescence cymose or paniculate, not distinctly racemose. ++ Calyx equally and conspicuously 20-25-nerved. , S. multinervia, Wats. Erect, afoot high, pubescent throughout and somewhat viscid-glandular above : leaves narrowly oblong or lin- ear, acute : inflorescence cymose with unequal branches: calyx ovate in fruit, contracted above, 5 lines long : petals small, purplish, unap- pendaged, not exceeding the subulate spreading calyx teeth : capsule narrowly ovate. — Proc. Am. Acad. xxv. 126 ; Zoo, i. 254. — South- ern California, near Jamuel, Orcutt ; island of Santa Cruz, Urn ml, Santa Monico Range, Hasse. This anomalous species is strongly characterized among indigenous Silenes by its many-nerved calyx, which places it in the Mediterranean § Conosilene. The California botanists are inclined to regard it as an introduced plant, and David- son, in Erythea, i. 58, erroneously reduces it to S. conoidea, of th< World, a species which differs in its larger flowers, longer and more attenuate calyx teeth, and long-necked flask-shaped capsuii ^ _* Calyx 10-nerved. = Viscid-pubescent or hirsute. - S. noctiflora, L. A coarse species a foot or two in height with lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate leaves 2-3 imdies long: flowers usually few in loose cymes, fragrant : calyx large, in fruit ovoid, white with green nerves tending to anastomose : the teeth attenuate : petals bifid. — Spec. 419; Eng. Bot. v. t. 291 ; Torr. & Gray, Fl. i. 192 j I 132 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY Man. ed. 6, 85. — Roadsides and cultivated grounds, June to Septem- ber. (Nat. from Eur.) = = Smooth or nearly so, a part of each of the upper internodes glutinous. S. antirrhina, L. (Sleepy or Snapdragon Catchfly.) Stem 6 inches to 3 feet in height : leaves oblong-lanceolate or linear, com- monly acute : flowers rather numerous, small, ephemeral, borne in a compound cyme ; pedicels long, filiform : calyx smooth, green, ovoid in fruit, about 4 lines long, contracted above ; the teeth short : ovary scarcely stiped : petals small, pink or white, more or less emarginate or bifid. — Spec. 419 ; Otth in DC. Prodr. i. 376; Torr. & Gray, PI. i. 191 ; Rohrb. 1. c. 173 ; Mart. Fl. Bras. xiv. 2, t. 66. Saponaria dioica, Cham. & Schlecht. Linnoea, i. 38. — Waste places, common, widely distributed throughout the United States and Canada (also S. Am.) ; very variable in size and foliage. Var. linaria, Wood. " Very slender : leaves all linear except the lowest which are linear-spat ulate ; calyx globular. Ga. and Fla." — Wood, Class-Book, ed. of 1861, 256, & Bot. & Fl. 53 ; Wats. Bibl. Index, 107. - Var. divaricata. Very slender : leaves linear or lance-linear, not exceeding an inch in length: branches filiform divaricate : calyx ovoid, 2-2 L lines long; petals wanting. — Rockford, 111., M. S. Bebb, G. D. Sioezey. S. Armeria, L. Leaves elliptic or ovate-elliptic t flowers borne at the ends of the branches in small close cymes : pedicels short : calyx slender, clavale, 6-8 lines long : ovary long-stiped : petals pink, sub- entire or minutely toothed ; appendages lanceolate acute. — Spec. 420 ; Torr. & Gray, Fl. i. 194; Reichb. 1. c. vi. t. 284. — Occasionally found on roadsides and in fields, having escaped from gardens. * * Perennial, subacaulescent, very low and densely matted. S. acaulis, L. (Moss Campion.) Closely cespitose, an inch or two in height : leaves linear, crowded on the branching rootstocks : flow- ers small, 2-3 lines in diameter, subsessile or raised on naked curved peduncles 2-6 lines long • calyx narrowly campanulate, 2-3 lines long, glabrous; the teeth short, rounded: petals purplish, rarely white, en- tire, retuse or bifid, minutely appendaged. — Spec. ed. 2, 603 ; Reichb. Icon. Fl. Germ. vi. t. 270. Cucubalus acaulis, L. Spec. 415. Lychnis acaulis, Scop. Fl. Cam. ed. 2, i. 306. — An arctic and high alpine species, widely distributed and somewhat variable. Arctic America to the White Mts. ; extending along the Rocky Mts. from Alaska to Arizona, also found in the Cascade Mts. (Eur. and Asia.) A some- OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 138 what caulescent form, with very Blender elongated leaves 1 1 \ inches in length, has been found in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado, .!//>■> Eastwood, and Arizona, Rothrock. It is connected, however, with Un- typical form by gradual transitions. * * * Caulescent perennials, -i- Eastern and Southern species. ++ Calyx inflated, flowers white or pink, scattered or panicled. - S. Cucubalus, YVibel. (Bladder Campion.) Glaucous: Btems ascending, a foot or more in height, leafy below, smooth or somewhat rough-pubescent: leaves opposite, usually lanceolate, acute: bracts much smaller : flowers polygamo-dioecious : calyx campanulate to sub- globose, strongly inflated, glabrous, finely reticulated between the incoo spicuous nerves : petals narrow, 2-cleft, scarcely crowned, w bite it pink. — Prim. Fl. \Yerth. 241 ; Rohrb. 1. c. 84 ; Gray's .Man. ed. 6, 8 1. S. inflata, Smith, Fl. Brit. ii. 467 ; Gray's Man. ed. 5, 89 ; Warming, Bot Foren. Festskr. 1890, 258. Cucubalus Behen, L. Spec. 11 1. — Fields and roadsides, New Brunswick to Illinois. (Nat. from Europe.) S. nivea, Otth. Stem smooth or minutely pubescent above, I feet in height: leaves opposite, lanceolate, attenuate-acuminate, Bmooth or pulverulent-pubescent : flowers rather few, nodding, borne in the forks of the branches: bracts foliar: calyx oblong in antheais, fine pubescent or smooth; nerves inconspicuous, anastomosing, the teeth short, triangular, obtuse: petals cuneate-obovate, bearing two shori blunt appendages. — Otth in DC. Prodr. i. 377; Torr. & Gray, Fl. i. 190; Rohrb. 1. c. 87. S. alba, Muhl. Cat. 45 (nomen subnudum). Cucubalus niveus, Nutt. Gen. i. 287. — Pennsylvania and Wash ton, D. C, to S. Illinois, Iowa, and Minnesota ; rare. S. stellata, Ait. (Starry Cami-ion.; Stems 2-3 feet high : haves in whorls of 4 (the lowest sometimes opposite), ovate-lanceolate, acu- minate, 2-3 inches long, half as broad: flowers in an open panicle: calyx campanulate, 4-5 lines in length; the teeth broad, acuminate petals laciniately cleft, unappendaged. — Kew. ed. 2, iii. * I i Torr. Fl. N. Y. i. 100, t. 1G. Cucubalus stellatus, L. Spec. 114 ; Sims, Bot Ma", t. 1107. — Woodland, frequent, S. New England to Minni southward to Virginia and Texas. *-. .«. Calyx not inflated, distended only by tin- enlarging capsule. = Flowers white or rose colored. S. ovata, Porsh. Pubescent or smooth : stems sev« ral from the same root, 2-4 feet in height ; leaves ovate t<> ovate-lanceolate, attenu- ate-acuminate, 3-5 nerved from the rounded 1.;.-. * »sile, »ul nnate, 3-5 inches lon^ : flowers borne in a narrow terminal leaflet* panicle s 134 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY calyx tubular, 3-4 lines iu length, 10-nerved: petals white, the blade dichotomously cleft into linear segments. — Fl. i. 316 ; Torr. & Grav. Fl. i. 190; Chapm. FL 51. Cucubalus polypetalus, Walt.? Car. 141. — Alluvial woods, uplands, North Carolina to Georgia and Alabama. y S. Baldwinii, Nutt. Villous : stems low, weak, decumbent, throwing out runners : lower leaves spatulate obtuse, with an attenuate base ; the upper oblanceolate or lanceolate, acute : flowers few, very large, \\ inches or more in diameter, pedicellate, aggregated at the ends of the stems: calyx clavate, pubescent, 10 lines in length; the teeth ovate-lanceolate, acuminate : petals white or pink, the large obovate blade fringed, unappendaged. — Gen. i. 288 ; Torr. & Gray, Fl. i. 193; Chapman, Fl. 51. S. fimbriata, Bald, in Ell. Sk. i. 515, not of Sims. Mdandryum Baldwini, Rohrb. 1. c. 231 ; Wats. Bot. King Exp. 431. — Georgia and Florida, March to May. S. nutans, L. Stems slender, a foot or more in height, leaves mostly at the base, spatulate ; the cauline small, lanceolate : flowers in a slender, little branched panicle, nodding, 6-7 lines in diameter : calyx cylindrical in anthesis, not exceeding 5 lines in length : petals white or rose-colored, bifid (rarely 4-fid), segments narrow : capsule large ovate-conical. — Spec. 417 ; Reichb. 1. c. vi. t. 295. — Introduced on Mt. Desert, Miss Minot. (Europe and Siberia.) S. Pennsylvanica, Michx. (Wild Pink.) Viscid-pubescent : stems few or many, 6-9 inches high, from a strong tap-root : leaves mostly at the base, spatulate or oblanceolate, usually acutish at the apex, tapering below to long ciliated petioles ; the two or three pairs of cauline leaves much shorter, lanceolate or narrowly oblong, acute : cymes small, terminal, dense, rarely more open : calyx clavate. purplish ; the teeth short : petals white or pink, appendaged ; the blade obo- vate, erose, 4-6 lines in length: the ovary long-stiped. — Fl. i. 272; Bot. Reg. iii. t. 247 ; Hook. Fl. Bor.-Am. i. 90 ; Gray, Gen. ii. 42, t. 115. S. cheiranthoides, Poir. Diet. vii. 176. S. incamata, Lodd. Cab. t. 41. S. platyjjetala, Otth in DC. Prodr. i. 383. Melandryum Pennsylvanicum, Rohrb. 1. c. 233, & Linnaea, xxxvi. 251. S. Carolini- ana, Walt. Car. 142, with scarlet or crimson petals, and S. rvbicimda, Dietr. Allg. Gartenzeit. iii. 196, with divided petals, are doubtful synonyms. — Open rocky woods, E. New England to S. Carolina and Kentucky. = = Flowers crimson or scarlet, larpe. S. Virginica, L. (Fire Pink, Catciifly.) Viscid-pubescent : stem striate, single, simple, 1-2 feet high : leaves spatulate or oblan- ceolate ; the lower ones narrowed to ciliate -fringed petioles ; the upper OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. L35 lanceolate, sessile: flowers very large, an inch or more in- diameter, loosely cymose ; the central ones commonly nodding or reflexed alter anthesis : calyx clavate or oblong, 8 lines in length, becoming obovate in fruit : petals crimson; the blade broadly lanceolate, 2- (rarely 1-) toothed at the apex. — Spec. 419 in part, not Willd.; Bot. Mag. t. 3342 ; Torr. & Gray, Fl.i. 192 ; Chapm. Fl. 51. S. < 'atesbcei, Walt. Car. 142. S. coccinea, Moench, Meth. Suppl. 30fi. — Common in open woods, on rocky hills, W. New York, S. AY. Ontario (ace. t<> Macoun) to Minnesota (ace. to Upharri), southward to Georgia and Arkansas. S. rotundifolia, Nutt. (Round-leaved Catchflt.) Viscid- pubescent: stems weak, decumbent, branched: leaves rather large, varying from broadly lanceolate to subrotund, rather abruptly pointed ; the lower ones contracted at the base to winged petioles : flowers large, showy, scattered or in loose cymes: calyx tubular, 10-13 lines in length, abrupt at the base, becoming clavate but not obovate in fruit : petals bright scarlet; the blade 8 lines in length, deeply bifid; the lobes more or less toothed : seeds smaller, smoother, and darker col- ored than in the preceding. — Gen. i. 288 ; Otth in D< '. Prodr. i. 383 ; Torr. & Gray, Fl. i. 192. Melandryum rotundifolium, Rohrb. Bionog Sil. 234, & Linnaja, xxxvi. 257; Wats. Bot. King Exp. 431. — S. Ohio (ace. to Nuttall), Kentucky, and Tennessee, June to August. ^ S. regia, Sims. (Royal Catciifly.) Viscid-glandular above, finely pulverulent-pubescent below : stems tall, erect, rather rigid. Bimple or sparingly branched, leafy : leaves ovate, acuminate, 3-7-nerved from the rounded sessile base; the lowest more or less contracted below: flowers showy, in a narrow oblong panicle: calyx cylindrical, 10—12 lines long, becoming somewhat spindle-shaped in fruit: petals spatu- late-lanceolate, subentire, scarlet. — Bot. Map. t. 172 1; Sweet's Brit Fl. Gard. new ser. t. 313; Torr. & Gray. Fl. i. 193T. & Virgin ca, form, Michx. Fl. i. 272. Melandryum regium, A. Br. Flora, 1843, 372;' Rohrb. Linmea, xxxvi. 250.-- Prairies, Ohio to Alabama and westward to Missouri, not abundant. *- h- Rocky Mountain and Pacific species. ♦+ Flowers large, rather few, scattered: calyx cylindrical orclavate inantl 8-12 lines long: corolla (except, in S. Panshii) usually more than 1" lines in breadth; petals 4-*-cleft, very rarely bifid : stems leafy. = Seed-coat more or less roughened but tirm. a. Corolla deep red. S. laciniata, Cav. Finely pubescent: rool narrowly fusiform: stems erect or decumbent, somewhat rigid, knotty below . the branches 136 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY ascending: leaves lanceolate to narrowly linear, scabrous, ciiiolate, narrowed to a sessile base : flowers terminal on the branches : calyx subcylindric or clavate even in fruit, 10 lines in length : petals bright scarlet, 4-cleft or very rarely bifid : capsule oblong scarcely at all ovate, commonly exserted at maturity. — Icon. vi. 44, t. 564; Lindl. Bot. Reg. xvii. t. 1444; Gray, PL Wright, ii. 17; Wats. Proc. Am. Acad. x. 341. S. pulchra, Torr. & Gray, Fl. i. 675 in part. S. speciosa, Paxt. Mag. of Bot. x. 219. S. simulans, Greene, Pitt. i. 63. Lychnis pulchra, Cham. & Schlecht. Linuasa, v. 234. — Central California to New Mexico. (Mex.) y "Var. G-reggii, Wats. Leaves oblong-lanceolate to ovate, other- wise not differing essentially from the type. ■ — Proc. Am. Acad. x. 341, & Bibl. Index, 108. S. Greggii, Gray, PL Wright, ii. 17. Melan- dryum laciniatum, var. Greggii, Rohrb. Monog. Sil. 232. Melandryum Greggii, Rohrb. Linnsea, xxxvi. 256. — New Mexico, Wright, Thur- ber, Matthews ; Arizona, Buckminster, Lemmon. (Mex., Gregg.) S. Californica, Durand. Root simple, strong, penetrating verti- cally to a depth of 2-3 feet : stems several, procumbent or suberect, leafy : leaves lanceolate or ovate elliptic, more or less narrowed to the base, acuminate, rarely obtusish : corolla more than an inch broad ; petals variously cleft, most commonly with two broad lobes flanked by two narrower ones : capsule ovoid, concealed until dehiscence by the rather broad calyx. — PL Pratt. 83 ; Brew. & Wats. Bot. Calif, i. 64. S. pulchra, Torr. & Gray, FL i. 675 in part. *S'. Virginica, Benth. PL Hartw. 299. S. laciniata, var. Californica, Gray, Proc. Bost. Soc. vii. 146; Wats. Proc. Am. Acad. x. 341. S. Tilingi, Regel, Act. Hort. Petrop. i. 99. Melandryum Calif or nicum, Rohrb. Linnaea, xxxvi. 252. — Coast Mts. of Currie Co., Oregon (Howell), southward through N. and Central California to Ft. Tejon (Xanthus), and per- haps farther. Subject to much variation in foliage, the following being perhaps the best marked of the varieties. Var. STlbcordata. Leaves ovate, suborbicular, shortly acuminate, closely sessile by subcordate bases. — Blue Canon, Kellogg (1870), Brandegee (1888). b. Corolla white or nearly so. S. "Wrightii, Gray. Very glutinous : rootstock thick, ligneous : stems several, ascending, a foot or more in length, branching, leafy : leaves lanceolate, acuminate, 1^-2 inches long, sessile ; the lower attenuate below : calyx teeth filiform-attenuate, nearly half as long as the tube : petals white, 4-cleft ; the lobes somewhat toothed : capsule on a stipe of nearly its own length. — PL Wright, ii. 17; Wats. Bibl. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 137 Index, 110. Melandryum Wriglrfii, Rohrb. Liumea, xx.wi. 258; Wats. Bot. King Exp. 431. — Mountain sides near the copper mines, New Mexico, Wright (862). S. Hookeri, Nutt. Covered above with a fine grayish pubesci ni root single, stout: stems several, short, slender, decumbent: leaves oblanceolate, rather numerous and approximate, 2-3 inches in length, acute or obtusish : flowers very large : calyx teeth acute, but nol lili- form : petals 4-cleft, white or pink. — Nutt. in Torr. & Gray, FL i. 1 98 ; Bot. Mag. t. G051 ; FL d. Serres, t. 2093; Wats. Proa Am. Acad. x. 341; Brew. & Wats. I.e. i. G4. S. Bolanderi, Gray, Proc. Am. Acad. vii. 330, & viii. 378 ; Bolander, Cat. 6. Melandryum Hookeri, and M. Bolanderi, Rohrb. 1. c. ; Wats. Bot. King Exp. 131. — Wood- lands, W. Oregon and N. W. California. = = Seed-coat vesicularly roughened, or crested. ' S. Parishii, Wats. Grayish pubescent : root simple, thick, with a branching rootstock : stems several, decumbent, a span long: leaves lanceolate, acuminate, sessile, 1-2 inches long ; the lower oblanceolate : flowers aggregated at the ends of the branches : calyx tubular, narrowed below, an inch long, with narrow subulate teeth 3-4 lines in length: petals narrow, scarcely exserted from the calyx, cleft into 4 or more filiform segments : seeds doubly crested with short vesicular hairs. — Proc. Am. Acad. xvii. 366. — San Bernardino Mts., California, S. B &; W. F. Parish. ** ++ Flowers smaller, not ordinarily exceeding 6-8 lines in diameter. = Flowers borne in the forks of the branches forming a leafy inflorescence: calyx oblong or campanulate: loaves lanceolate or ovate. - S. campanulata, Wats. Finely glandular-pubescent : rootthick, simple: rootstock branching, somewhat woody : stem slender, erect, leafy: leaves sessile, lanceolate : flowers on short deflexed peduncles: calyx green, broadly campanulate, reticulate-veined, toothed nearly to the middle: petals narrow; the limb cleft into 1 or more flesh-colored segments : capsule globular, 3-4 lines in diameter. — Proc. Am. Acad. x. 341; Brew. & Wats. I.e. i. 63. — Mountainous districts ol V California and S. Oregon. Var. (?) Greenei, Wats. bed. More pubescent throughout: leaves ovate: petals greenish white. — Yreka, Calif., Greene, ville and Wolf Creek. Oregon, Howell Brothers; Ashland, I Henderson. Apparently the commoner form. • S. Menziesii, Hook. Finely glandular-pubei leafy, dichotomously branched above, 6 inches to a fool or mon in 138 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY height : leaves ovate-lanceolate, acuminate at each end, thin : flowers very small: calyx obconical, obovate, or oblong, only 2|-4 lines in length : petals white, 2-cleft, commonly but not always unappenclaged : capsule 1^-2 lines in diameter. — Fl. Bor.-Am. i. 90, t. 80 ; Torr. & Gray, Fl. i. 193 & 676; Rohrb. Monog. Sil. 147. S. stellarioides, Nutt. in Torr. & Gray 1. c. i. 193. S. Dorrii, Kellogg, Proc. Calif. Acad. iii. 44, f. 12. — From Colorado to Vancouver Isl., S. California, and New Mexico. = = Flowers few, rather small, white or nearly so, nodding, borne in a lax naked panicle : petals cleft into four or more narrowly linear, almost fili- form segments : styles long-exserted : leaves small, lanceolate, chiefly clustered upon the more or less cespitose base. S. longistylis, Engelm. Hoary-pubescent, minutely glandular above: root single : rootstock branched: stems 2-several, slender, 6-12 inches high, bearing 3-6 loosely paniculate or subracemose heads: leaves linear-lanceolate or oblanceolate, acute : calyx soon becoming ovoid : petals with a spatulate very pubescent, scarcely or not at all auriculate claw ; the blade divided into 4 linear filiform segments ; ap- pendages linear, entire : capsule subsessile : seeds (apparently mature) small, dark red. — Engelm. in herb. Wats. Proc. Am. Acad. xxii. 469. — Scott's Mts.. N. California, Engelmann ; Ashland Butte, S. W. Oregon, Henderson ; specimens collected in Plnmas Co., GaL (Mrs. Austin), and Mariposa Co. (Congdon), probably belong here also. S. Lemmoni, "Wats. Similar in habit: leaves broader, lanceolate, quite smooth or somewhat pubescent and glandular : calyx inclined to be herbaceous, especially the lanceolate acutish teeth, but the veins from the different nerves seldom anastomosing with each other : petals with a rather broad villous auriculate claw ; the four divisions of the blade linear but not filiform : capsule nearly sessile : seeds red, some- what irregular in shape, 1 line in length. — Proc. Am. Acad. x. 342 ; Brew. & Wats. I.e. i. 64. — California, Sierra Co., Lemmon ; Janesville, Brandegee ; Mariposa Co., Congdon ; Coast Mts. north of San Fran- cisco, Rattan. This species is too near the preceding and following, and it is not unlikely that more abundant material may show inter- gradation between them. S. Palmeri, Wats. Similar in habit, more or less pubescent throughout, finely glandular above : leaves oblanceolate : calyx teeth commonly short and blunt, scarcely herbaceous; the base of the calyx often contracted about the short but distinct stipe of the ovary : the petals purplish ; the claw villous, narrowly or broadly spatulate but OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. L39 not auriculate ; the limb deeply 4-cleft ; the segments entire or bifid: seeds large for the genus, tuberculate, ash-colored at maturity. — Proc Am. Acad. xi. 124; Brew. & Wats. 1. e. i. G5. — S. ( lalifornia, < lucamaca ^Its., Palmer ; San Bernardino Mts., Parish ; San Rafael .Mi-., Ford. = = = Inflorescence as in the preceding : petals 2-clefl into linear segments : styles very long, the exserted portion as long as the calyx. ' S. Bridgesii, Rohrb. Pubescent and viscid : stems leafy, usually simple up to the inflorescence, a foot or more in height: leav< - s< ssile, lanceolate, acute, 1^-2 inches long: flowers slender-pedicelled, verti- cillately racemose or somewhat paniculate, nodding: calyx narrowly obloug or clavate in anthesis, broadly obovate in fruit ; the teeth acute ; the principal nerves broad, green ; the commissural much narrower, seldom anastomosing with the others : petals \-'\ inch long, consider- ably exserted, white or purplish : seeds very large, finely tuberculate, red. — App. Ind. Sem. Berol. 18G7, .">, & Alonog. Sil. 201 ; Wats. Proc, Am. Acad. x. 342; Brew. & Wats. 1. c. i. GG. S. incompta, Gray, Proc. Am. Acad. vii. 330= S. Engelmanni, Rohrb. Linnssa, xx.vvi. 2G4, is a form of the same species, differing from the type only in the somewhat broader lobes of the petals and in the obtuse appends Yosemite Valley, Bridges, Gray; Mt. Bullion, Bolander ; Danah, Conqdon. A closely similar if not identical plant has been found l>y Rattan on the Klamath River in N. California. _ _ _ = Flowers scattered, or variously paniculate : styles included or somewhat exserted, but not so long as in the preceding, a. Fruiting calyx ovate, not contracted below, filled and distended by the BUD- sessile capsule. • S. Thurberi, Wats. Densely grayish-pubescent and glandular : stems erect, 2 feet high, somewhat rigid, with ascending branches leaves lanceolate, acute, contracted below, sessile. 2-1 inches Inn- flowers small, rather numerous: calyx cylindric becoming narrowly ovate, green-and-white striped, densely pubescent; the teeth Blender with fimbriate laciniate margin : petals white, little exceeding the ca- lyx; the claw rather broad with upwardly produ 1 auricles; blade bifid with short oblong lobes, each with a small lateral th ; appen- dages oblong, obtuse : capsule narrowly ovoid, jcarcely Btiped : tuberculate and distinctly crested. — Proc. Am. Acs I. K. 8 1 I. S. /,-. taper- ing into winged petioles; the uP1>er ...ore or less reduced: nowen / 140 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY purplish rose-colored, 6-8 Hues broad : calyx becoming ovate in fruit : the teeth lance-linear to filiform, elongated, usually exceeding the mature capsule : petals with a narrow claw destitute of auricles ; the blade obovate, bifid ; the lobes rounded ; the appendages lanceolate, entire : capsule large, ovate. — Proc. Am. Acad. x. 344 ; Brew. & Wats. Bot. Calif, i. 65. — Plumas Co., Calif., Mrs. Ames; Sierra Co., Lemmon; Carson City, Nev., Anderson. The typical form is very viscid glandular and somewhat branched. "Var. subimda. Scarcely viscid : stems subsimple : radical leaves almost smooth, the cauline much reduced. — Near Empire City and at Franktown, Nev., M. E. Jones. b. Capsule distinctly stiped : calyx relatively narrow, cylindric or in fruit cla- vate or obovate and usually rather distinctly contracted about the stipe of the capsule. 1. Petals 4 (-ac)-fid. S. Oregana, Wats. Finely pubescent and very viscid, fetid : stems 1-several, erect, simple up to the racemiform or rather densely cymose- paniculate inflorescence : the lower leaves oblanceolate, narrowed below to long petioles ; the upper leaves lanceolate or lance-linear, sessile : petals white with spatulate claws, glabrous, distinctly auricled at the summit ; the blade 2-3 lines long, variously cleft into 4-6 or more linear segments : the stipe of the ovoid capsule about 2 lines long. — Proc. Am. Acad. x. 343 ; Brew. & Wats. 1. c. i. 65. — Mountains of Oregon, Washington, and Montana, April to August. S. montana, Wats. Finely pubescent : stems erect from a more or less decumbent base, 4-14 inches high : leaves lance-linear or nar- rowly oblanceolate, acuminate, l-2i inches in length ; the cauline 3-4 pairs : inflorescence varying from subspicate to paniculate ; flowers rarely solitary : calyx 6-9 lines in length : petals greenish white to rose-colored, exserted 2-4 lines : ovary long-stiped : capsule acutish. — Proc. Am. Acad. x. 343. — Near Carson City, Nev., Anderson ; Sierra Co., Cal., Lemmon. S. Shockleyi, Wats. 1. c. xxv. 127, from the White Mts., Mono Co., Cal., is apparently only a high-mountain form of the same species. Var. rigidula. Stems simple, a span high, slightly rigid : leaves short, less than an inch in length, thickish and stiff: flowers white, sub- spicate.— Franktown, Nev., M. E. Jones, 1882. S. occidentalis, Wats. Viscid-glandular, 2 feet high : stems one or two from a single strong root, branched above : leaves lanceolate or oblanceolate, 2-3 inches long : flowers in a very loose open panicle : calyx elongated, cylindric becoming clavate in fruit : petals purple, OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 1 H 4-cleft into lanceolate segments ; the blade narrowed gradually into the cuneate claw, the latter devoid of auricles; appendages linear: capi oblong, upon a stipe 2 lines in length. — Proc. Am. Acad. x. 848; Brew. & Wats. I.e. i. 64. — Calif., Bolander, without Bpecial locality; Plumas Co., Calif., Lemmon, Mrs. Austin; Butte Co., Mrs. Bidwell. 2. Petals bifid, each lobe sometimes bearing a very small lateral tooth. S. purpurata, Greene. '• Stems numerous, from Blender running rootstocks, 6-l.s inches high, rather slender : whole plant pubescent and slightly viscid : leaves rather remote, linear-lanceolate, acute, \\ inches long: flowers in terminal and subterminal peduncled <>r Bub- sessile cymes of about 3: calyx purple, rugose-veiny, clavate, not in- flated, \ inch long or more; limb of petals more than hall as long, white or pink, obcordate or bifid, appendaged at base." — This not seen by the author, appears to be near S. Scouleri, Hook. The description is drawn from Pittonia, ii. 229. — Porcupine River, interior of N. Alaska, J. H. Turner. S. verecunda, Wats. Low, G-12 inches in height, finely pul cent below, glandular-viscid above: stems several, leaf) especially I the base: leaves narrowly lanceolate or oblanceolate to linear, acute flowers rather few, mostly terminal or subterminal : the branches the inflorescence erect: calyx soon becoming strongly obovate by the development of the broad ovoid capsule : calyx teeth with membra- nous ciliated margins : petals rose-colored ; the claw glabrous, narrowly auricled ; the blade 2-cleft into short entire oblong segments; appen- dages oblong, blunt and somewhat toothed at the apex. — Proc. Am. Acad. x. 344 ; Brew. & Wats. 1. c. i. 65. aS. Engelmanni, var. Behrii, Rohrb. Linnaea, xxxvi. 264. — Central California near the coast, Mis- sion Dolores, San Francisco. S. Luisana, Wats. Taller, finely pubescent : stems Beveral from a branching caudex, erect, slender, viscid above : leaves narrowly oblan- ceolate to linear, acute, most numerous at the base ; the cauline gradu- ally reduced : flowers borne upon short spreading peduncles: fruiting calyx clavate ; teeth long and narrow, with an incurved membranous ciliated margin : petals white, with narrowly auricled glabroi and 2-cleft blade ; segments linear-oblong, entire or witli a small lit- eral tooth ; appendages lanceolate, often toothed : capsule >\ lind Proc. Am. Acad, xxiii. 261. — California. San Luis Obispo, / G S. A. Lemmon; near Tolon, Brandegee ; mountains Bouth of Tejon, Coville Sf Funston. S. platyota, Wats. Minutely pubescent througl t, glandular above: root thick : stems slender, 1 \ feel high: l< blanceol 142 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY acute, narrowed below to winged ciliated petioles : inflorescence branched ; flowers borne singly, or in the stronger individuals some- what fascicled at the ends of the branches : calyx clavate in fruit, with broad green nerves ; teeth acutish with membranous ciliated margins : mature capsule short, oblong, not exceeding 2 lines in diameter : the petals greenish white or roseate ; claws villous toward the base, with broad entire or toothed auricles above ; the blade bifid ; the short ob- long lobes with or without small lateral teeth ; appendages lance- oblong. — Proc. Am. Acad. xvii. 366. — S. California, Cuyamaca Mts., Palmer, Cleveland; San Bernardino Mts., Lemmon, Parish Bros., Wright. San Jacinto Mts., Parish Bros. (Lower Calif.) A very dwarf specimen apparently of this species from San Bernardino Mts., 11,000 ft. ( W. G. Wright), has purplish petals and a calyx with blunter teeth and less prominent veins. S. Sargentii, Wats. Cespitose, minutely pubescent : stems nu- merous, slender, erect, 6 inches high : leaves linear or nearly so, 1 to nearly 2 inches long, a line or so in breadth ; the radical crowded, covering the rootstock with their slightly enlarged and imbricated bases; the cauline 2-3 pairs : calyx cylindrical, 7 lines long ; teeth short : the petals white or pink ; the claws exserted, with broad laciniately cleft auricles ; the blade short, obovate, bifid ; the segments each bearing a small lateral tooth : capsule well stiped, cylindrical, and very slender, at maturity scarcely more than a line in diameter : seeds tuberculate- crested, smooth on the faces. — Proc. Am. Acad. xiv. 290. — Table Mountain, Monitor Eange, N. Nevada, C. S. Sargent. c. Calyx broader, oblong, campanulate or rarely obovate, rather loosely surround- ing the ovary, sometimes narrowed downward but not distinctly contracted about the carpophore. 1. Petals divided into 4 nearly equal segments : appendages fringe-toothed. S. Bernardina, Wats. Covered with a fine grayish pubescence below, finely glandular above : caudex branching : stems several, slen- der, erect, 8-12 inches high, furrowed, 1-5-flowered : leaves grass-like, narrowly linear, 1-nerved, acute : terminal flower developing first, the lower ones borne upon branches H-2 inches long : buds acute : calyx green-nerved ; the teeth lanceolate acutish, with membranous ciliated margin : petals white with rather short blade ; the claw with broad laciniate auricles ; appendages 4, long ; the inner ones broad and toothed: capsule moderately stiped. — Proc. Am. Acad. xxiv. 82. — On shady slopes, Long Meadow, Tulare Co., Calif., Palmer. OF A UTS AND SCIENCES. 143 2. Petals bifid ; each segment with or without ;i smaller lateral tooth. 1* Low, 3-8 inches in height. S. Grayii, Wats. — Cespitose, minutely pubescent and glandular: rootstock elongated, much branched: stem simple, erect, 4-6 inches high, 1-5-flovvered ; leaves short, oblanceolate or Bpatulate, Blightly fleshy, 4-8 lines in length, the radical numerous, crowded; the cauline aboul 3 pairs: calyx broadly cylindrical- the teeth rounded; petals pink. with blade deeply bifid, and segments each bearing a lateral tooth ; claw narrowly auricled : capsule short ovoid, scarcely stiped. — Proc. Am. Acad. xiv. 291 ; Robinson, Bot. Gaz. xvi. 4 I. t. 6. — Mt. Shasta above the timber line and near snow, Brewer, Hooker • ■/. Pack- ard, Pringle. Specimens collected on Mt. Rainier by /,'. C. Smith, and having somewhat longer leaves, may be doubtfully referred to this species. S. Watsoili. Finely glandular above, minutely pubescent, nearly smooth below: stems many, cespitose from a multicipital caudex, erect, very slender, simple, 4-8 inches in height, bearing 1-.'! | rarely 5 I flowers: leaves linear or very narrowly oblanceolate, acute, dark green; the radical numerous, an inch in length, seldom exceeding a line in breadth : the slender petioles expanding at the base, closely imbricated and connate by scarious membranes : calyx ovate or some- what obovate, 5-6 lines in length, with purple more or less anastomos- ing nerves ; the teeth with membranous margins : petals white or rose-colored: the blade short, a line in length, bifid; each segment usually bearing a short lateral tooth; appendages obtuse: styles ordi- narily 3, rarely 4. — Lycluns Californica, Wats. Proc. Am. Acad. xii. 248. — California, near Ebbett's Pass, Brewer; .Mt. Dana. Bolander ; Sierra and Plumas Cos., Lemmon. As in S. Lyallii, tie- anthers are often infested by Ustilago antherarum, and in consequence enlarge and turn purple. S S. Suksdorfli, Robinson. Low, densely matted, alpine: Btems 2-3 (rarely 4-5) inches high, simple 1-3-flowered, minutely pu cent below, glandular above: stem leaves about 2 pairs, linear, lines long, a line wide; radical leaves numerous, crowded, simi somewhat spatulate : calyx broadly cylindric or campanulate, seldom exceeding 5 lines in length; nerves conspicuous, simple below, a tomosing above: petals white, little exceeding the calyx, ahallowly bifid; lobes entire; appendages oblong, ret use : stipe of capsule lines long. — Bot. Gaz. xvi. 44, t. 6. — California to Washington, Mt. Stanford, Hooker $ Gray; Mt. Paddo, Suksdorf; Mt. Hood Howell; Mt. Stewart, Brandegee ; Mt. Rainier, Piper. 144 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY 2* Taller. S. Lyallii, Wats. Very finely puberulent or quite smooth : stems numerous from a much branched matted base, leafy : leaves thin, nar- rowly oblauceolate, acute, only 1— If inches long, 2 lines broad: inflo- rescence considerably branched in the type : calyx varying with a^e from subturbinate to inflated campanulate, 4 lines long: petals dark purple, bifid with subentire lobes : anthers large, purple. — Proc. Am. Acad. x. 342. — Cascade Mts., Lat. 49°, Lyall ; Sierra Co., Cal., Lemmon ; Summit Camp, Cal., Kellogg. This doubtful species is to be distinguished from some forms of & Douglasii only by its smaller flowers, more leafy habit, and darker petals. All the specimens at hand, including the type, are diseased and apparently sterile, the ova- ries remaining undeveloped, and the anthers having been attacked by a fungus ( Ustilago anther arum), to which their large size and dark color are probably due. S. Douglasii, Hook. Finely pubescent, scarcely viscid : stems very slender, usually decumbent and geniculate at the base : leaves remote, long, linear to narrowly lance-linear, attenuate to each end, spreading, 2-3 lines long, 1-2 lines wide : flowers borne mostly in 3-flowered, long-peduncled cymes : calyx oblong or obovate, rather nar- row at the base ; the ends of the teeth surrounded by an ovate obtuse inflexed membrane : petals white or pink, 2dobed ; segments obtuse ; claw moderately auricled ; appendages oblong, obtuse : capsule nar- rowly cylindrical, 5 lines long; teeth recurved ; stipe 1^ lines long. — Fl. Bor.-Am. i. 88 ; Torr. & Gray, Fl. i. 190; Wats. Bot. King Exp. 36, 431, & Proc. Am. Acad. x. 341 ; Brew. & Wats. Bot. Calif, i. 66. Cucuhalus Douglasii, Eat. Man., ed. 7, 266. — Wahsatch Mts., Utah to Central California, northward to Montana and Brit. Columbia ; June to September. A common and polymorphous species, of which the following are the chief varieties ; all of them tending to intergrade with the type, and separated from it and each other by no constant or important floral character. Var. multicaulis. Grayish-tomentulose and less glandular : the leaves more approximate, narrowly lanceolate or oblong, taper-pointed, erect: stems more rigid. — S. multicaulis, Nutt. in Torr. & Gray, Fl. i. 192. S. Drummondii, var. Torr. & Gray, Fl. i. 675. — "Oregon," Nuttall ; Washington, Yakima Co., Brandegee (655 in part); Klickitat, Howell; Spokane Co., Suhsdorf, Ramm ; N. Idaho, Spalding, Sandberg (342) ; Montana, Scribner, Canby. Var. Macounii. Minutely pubescent, somewhat glandular above : leaves distant, long and narrow, short-pointed, tapering very gradually OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 1 |.~, from near the apex to the hase : calyx oblong, rather short. I -5 lines in length, narrow, teeth purple- tipped : styles in specimens studied 3-4, very rarely 5. — S. multicaulis, Mao m, Cat. Canad. PI. 194. S. Macounii, "Wats. Froc. Am. Acad. xxvi. 124 ; Macoun, 1 » < . t _ (ia/. xvi. 286. — Washington, Lyall, Brandegee (655 in part) ; British Co lumbia, summits of Rocky and Selkirk Mt<., Macoun, Dawson. ■- Var. macrocalyx. Tall, puberulent or nearly Bmooth: leaves narrowly lanceolate or linear, attenuate both ways: calyx long, cylin- drical, 7-8 lines in length. — Humboldt Mts., W. Nevada, Watson; Mt. Adams, Washington, Suksilorf, Howell. Var. viscida. Glandular viscid, especially above : stems erect, rigid, mostly simple from a branched slightly woody base: calyx broadly oblong or almost campanulate, relatively short: leaves nar- rowly lanceolate to linear-oblong, tbickish. — British Columbia, at Kicking Horse Pass, Macoun ; Washington, Yakima Region, Bran- degee; Olympic Mts., Piper. Var. bracliycalyx. Puberulent, not viscid; leaves distant, spreading, narrowly oblanceolate, attenuate : calyx short and broad, campanulate. — Oregon, Multnomah Co., 1877, Howell; also by same collector on Sauvie's Island, 1880. ' Var. monantha. Nearly or quite smooth : stems very slender and weak, rising from a spreading much branched base: leaves thin, lan- ceolate or linear-oblong, and grass-like, narrowed both ways: Sowers solitary, terminal, or 3-5 loosely cymose: calyx oblong-campanulate, inflated. — S. monantha, Wats. Proc. Am. Acad. x. 340 ; Brew. & Wats. 1. c. i. 63. — Cascade Mts., Washington. Harford <$■ Dunn . Webber Lake, Cal., Lemmon ; N. Utah (?), C. C. Parry. S. scaposa. Finely puberulent, somewhat viscid above : stem erect, subsimple, almost naked, 1-H feet high, rather rigid: radical leaves thickish, oblanceolate, acute, 3-nerved, somewhat glaucous, 2 8 inches in length, 3-5 lines broad; cauline leaves reduced to 1 or 2 pairs of distant bracts: inflorescence a narrow rigid panicle: flowers small, erect: calyx oblong or elliptic in outline, with simple green nerves:' petals white, scarcely exceeding the calyx ; the blade Bhort, refuse; the claw with somewhat saccate auricles; appendages diort obtuse: ovary shortly stiped. — Oregon, Blue Mis.. /,'. /'. 1874; Cold Camp (355) and Currant Creek, Thos. Howell, 1885, Maj = = = = = Inflorescence denser, subspicate, or forming an elongated thj stylos included or moderately exserted. S. Hallii, Wats. Stems several, from a Btoul root, simple, densel; glandular-pubescent, G inches to 1 .■ feet high leaves oblai VOL. XXVIII. (N. 8. XX ) 1" 146 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY acute, tapering to the base, the midrib prominent below: flowers verti- cillately spicate, nodding : calyx even in anthesis broad, oblong or campanulate becoming obovate, strongly marked with purple or green nerves ; those at the commissures irregularly anastomosing with the others and frequently double ; the teeth triangular, acute, with mem- branous incurved margins : petals purple, not greatly exceeding the calyx ; the claw very broad, laterally ciliate ; the blade short, bifid ; segments somewhat oblique, often toothed : capsule ovate on a short stipe. — Proc. Am. Acad. xxi. 44G. S. Scouleri of various authors, not of Hooker; thus Gray, Am. Journ. of Sci. ser. 2, xxxiii. 405, & Proc. Philad. Acad. 1863, 58; Porter & Coulter, Fl. of Col. 12; Wats. 1. c. x. 342 in part; Coulter, Man. of Rocky Mountain Pot. 32 in part. — Alpine regions of Colorado, Hall ^ Harbour, Greene, French, Jh-andegee, Patterson ; a doubtful specimen from Arizona, Knowlton. August and September. S. Scouleri, Hook. Pubescent, glandular-viscid above : root stout: stems simple, lj-2^ feet high : leaves narrowly oblanceolate or lance-linear, acuminate, not at all warty : inflorescence 6-8 inches long, verticillately spicate, or the lower flowers borne upon short appressed cvmes: calyx clavate ; nerves definite, but anastomosing above ; teeth short with a broad membranous margin, ciliate: petals white or pur- plish ; the claw with rather narrow, slightly laciniate auricles ; the blade bifid; segments emarginate or toothed; appendages blunt: stipe of capsule 2 lines long. — Fl. Bor.-Am. i. 88 ; Torr. & Gray, Fl. i. 191 ; Rohrb. Monog. Sil. 213. S. Drummondii, Gray, Proc. Am. Acad. viii. 377. Elisanthe Scouleri, Ruprecht, Fl. Cauc. i. 200. — Frequent in mountainous districts of Oregon and Idaho to Vancouver Isl. and " Northwest Coast," Menzies ; Colorado, Brandegee. July and August. S. Pringlei, Wats. Habit, inflorescence, and calyx of the last: leaves very long, usually narrow and attenuate, both surfaces rough- ened, especially in the older leaves, with fine warts : petals purplish, bifid ; segments each bearing a lateral tooth ; auricles rather broad ; appendages saccate : capsule ovate-oblong, well stiped. — Proc. Am. Acad, xxiii. 269. — Mt. Graham, Arizona, Rothrock; New Mexico, Greene. (Chihuahua, Pringle.) S. Spaldingii, Wats. Viscid-tomentose : stems several, knotty, a foot high, very leafy : branches appressed or ascending : leaves lanceolate, sessile, 1^-2 inches long: flowers subspicate or appressed cymose-paniculate : calyx in fruit obconical, more herbaceous than usual in the genus, net-veined nearly to the base ; teeth rather large, triangular-lanceolate, acutish : the petals greenish white, not exceeding OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 147 the calyx ; the claw broadly auricled ; the blade bifid, very short in- deed, scarcely surpassing the four small appeudages : capsule ovate- oblong, moderately stiped. — Proc. Am. Acad. x. 344. — On the Clear Water, Central Idaho, Spalding ; on the Lumnaha, Union Co., Oregon, Cusick. September. 6. LYCHNIS, Touru. Cockle. (Name ancient, from \i. 37. — Peaks of the Uintas, N. Utah, Watson. Additional material of this little known species may perhaps show it to be merely a Southern form of L. affiais. L. montana, Wats. Glandular-pubescent : root thickish, sub- simple : stems erect, 2-4 inches high: leaves linear, 1-1), inches in length: calyx green- or rarely purple-nerved, 5-6 lines long; the teeth short, scarcely acute : petals narrow, about equalling or a line or two exceeding the calyx ; the blade small, bifid ; the claw narrow, \- 1 lines in breadth ; appendages small or absent: filaments naked: capsule sessile or nearly so. — Proc. Am. Acad. xii. 2 17. excl. of 150 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY specimens from the Uintas. L. apetala, Gray, Am. Journ. Sci. ser. 2, xxxviii. 405, & Proc. Acad. Philad. 1863, 58 in part. L. Kingii, var. with naked filaments, Wats. 1. c. 247. — Mountains of Colorado, Parry, Hall fy Harbour, Scovill, Wolf; N. W. Wyoming, Parry. = = Arctic or sub-arctic species, or at least of the far North.' L. affinis, Vahl. Glandular-pubescent, 3-6 inches high : leaves oblanceolate-linear, j|-3 inches in length : calyx ovate-elliptic, usually contracted at the mouth : petals white or pink ; the blade narrow, entire or retuse, narrowed from near the end to the summit of the more or less distinctly auricled claw ; appendages oblong. — Vahl in Fries, Mant. iii. 36 (1842). L. trijlora, Hornem. Fl. Dan. xiii. t. 2173. L. apetala, Hook. f. Arct. PI. 321 in part Melandrium affine, Vahl in Liebm. Fl. Dan. xiv. 5, obs. Wahlbergella affinis, Fries, Summa Scand. 155. Melandryum involucratum, var. affile, Rohrb. Linnsea, xxxvi. 217. — Greenland to N. Alaska, McLenegan, and according to Rohrb. 1. c. southward to Labrador. Warming in Vidensk. Selsk. Forhand. 1886, 129, states that in Norway the flowers are of two kinds, perfect and pistillate, and that the petals in the latter are devoid of appendages and auricles. L. Taylorae. Very slender, 1-1 \ feet high, puberulent, nearly smooth below, glandular above : stem erect, bearing '3-4 pairs of leaves and two or three long slender almost filiform 1-3-flowered branches: leaves thin, lance-linear, acute or attenuate both ways, finely ciliate, and pubescent upon the single nerve beneath, otherwise glabra te, 2-21- inches in length : flowers terminal or subterminal on the branches : calyx ovate, not much inflated, about 4 lines long, in an thesis but 2 lines in diameter, with green nerves interlacing above; the teeth obtuse, with broad green membranous ciliate margins : petals 1^ times the length of the calyx; the blade obcordate, \\ lines long, considerably broader than the slender narrowly auricled claw ; appen- dages lance-oblong. — Peel's River, Mackenzie River delta. Miss E. Taylor, July, 1892. A fragmentary specimen collected on the Kowak River, N. Alaska, by McLenegan, may be doubtfully referred to this species. *+ *-<• +•*■ Calyx large, much inflated, almost globose : flowers commonly pendu- lous in anthesis : seeds margined : stems one-flowered except in var. elatior. L. apetala, L. More or less viscid-pubescent : stems 2-6 inches high : flowers perfect or pistillate, at first pendulous, but becoming erect in fruit : petals in the typical form included ; the blade short, bifid ; the segments rather irregular, sometimes with a small lateral lobe; the claw auricled. — Spec. 437. L. frigida, Schrank, Pfianz. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 151 Lab. 25. L. montana, Wats. Proc. Am. Acad. xii. 247 (so far as the Utah specimens are concerned). Agrostemma apetala, Don, 1. c. i. 416. Melandryum apetalum, Fenzl in Ledeb. Fl. Ross. i. 326 ; Wann- ing, Bot. Foren. Festskr. 1890, 251, f. 25, 26. Wahlbergella apetala, Fries, 1. c. 155. — -A polymorphous species, the forms of which have been elaborated by Kegel in Radde's Reisen in Ost-Sib. i. 325-329. N. Greenland and Grinned Land to Alaska and southward along tin- Rocky Mountains to Montana, Canby, and Uiutas, N. Utah, Watson. Var. glabra, Regel. Glabrous throughout, otherwise as in the type. — Regel, 1. c. 325 & 327. — Rocky Mts. of Brit. Amer., Bour- f/eau; St. Paul's Isl., Alaska, Elliott ; Schmagin Isl., Harrington. The Alaskan form differs from Bourgeau's plant, upon which the variety was founded, in having much larger thinner leaves. Var. elatior, Regel (extended). Pubescent, taller, 6-12 inches in height: stems commonly several-flowered : petals sometimes consid- erably exserted. — Regel, 1. c. 328, including var. macropetala, so far as the American specimens are concerned. — Kodiak Isl. and north- ward in Alaska to Kotzebue Sound, ace. to Regel. * * European species, adventive in the Eastern and Middle States and in Canada : corolla much exserted. ■*- Leaves usually large, cauline, lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate : flowers mostly dioecious : valves of the capsule distinctly 2-toothed. Li. diurna, Sibth. (Red Lychnis. Red Campion.) Calyx oblong, rather short, 4-6 lines long, reddish ; the teeth triangular- lanceolate, acute: corolla red or pink (rarely white), expanding in the morning : capsule large, globose, with a wide mouth ; the teeth recurved. — Fl. Oxon. 145 ; Reichb. 1. c. vi. t. 304. L. dioica, var. «, Linn. Spec. 437 in part, and var. a, rubra, WeigeL, Fl. Pom. -Rug. 85. Melandrium silvestre, Rohl. Deutschl. Fl. ed. 2, ii. 274. M. r>thr>nny Garcke, Fl. Deutschl. ed. 4,55. — Not infrequent in Atlantic States. L. alba, Mill. (Evening Lychnis. White Campion.) Calyx green, longer than in the preceding ; the teeth lance-linear, attenuate : corolla more commonly white, opening in the evening: capsule ovate- conical; the teeth erect or slightly spreading. — Diet. ed. 8 (1768). L. dioica, var. p', Linn. Spec. 437. L. vespertina, Sibth. Fl. Oxen. 146 (1791). Melandryum album, Garcke. 1. c. 55. — Ballast and waste lands, sometimes by roadsides and in cultivated fields, chiefly east ward. i- -i- Leaves narrower: flowers perfect . valves of the capsule •". entire. L. Flos-cuculi, L. (Ragged Robin.) A slender Bmoothish perennial, with a furrowed, sometimes minutely roughened item, I feet high : lower leaves oblanceolate ; the upper lance-linear: calyx 152 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY oblong-ovate, equally 10-ribbed : flowers cyinose-paniculate : petals pink or red, cleft to below the middle into 4 linear acute segments. — Spec. 436. Coronaria Flos-cuculi, A. Br. Flora, 1843, 368. — Moist fields, New Brunswick, New England, and New York. § 2. Viscaria, Rohl. (as genus). Calyx not inflated ; the teeth not twisted : ovary septate at the base : the teeth of the capsule as many as the styles. — Deutschl. Fl. ed. 2, ii. 37 ; Endl. Gen. 073. L. alpina, L. Smooth, biennial or perennial, erect, 2 inches to a foot in height : leaves numerous, clustered at the base, linear or oblong, thickish ; the cauline 2-4 pairs, erect or ascending : flowers small, the densely clustered cymes forming a terminal head : bracts conspicuous, membranaceous, tipped with red : calyx short-campau- ulate or turbinate, membranaceous, scarcely nerved ; the teeth bright red: petals pink, bifid; segments linear. — Spec. 436; Torr. & Gray, Fl. i. 194 ; Reichb. Icon. Fl. Germ. vi. t. 307 ; Wats. 1. c. 246. Lychnis Suecica, Lodd. Cab. 881. — Greenland to Labrador, and Mt. Albert, Quebec, Allen, Macoun. (Europe.) § 3. Agkostemma, Fenzl. (Coronaria § Pseudagrostemma, A. Br.) Calyx teeth filiform, twisted : flowers few, large : petals with conspicuous awl-shaped appendages : teeth of the capsule as many as the styles : plant woolly. — Endl. Gen. 974. L. Coronaria, Desrousseaux. (Mullein Pink.) Covered with dense white wool throughout: stem 1^—3 feet high : leaves oval or oblong : calyx ovoid ; the alternating ribs more prominent ; the teeth small, much shorter than the tube : petals large, crimson. — Desr. in Lam. Diet. iii. 643. Agrostemma Coronaria, L. Spec. 436. Coro- naria tomentosa, A. Br. Flora, 1843, 368. — A handsome plant, tend- ing to escape from cultivation in several localities in New England and the Middle States. (Europe.) 7. AGROSTEMMA, L. Corn Cockle. (Name from &yP 330 X 33-40 fi. Receptacle 35 X 85 fi. Appendage 90 M. On the edge of the elytra of Tropisternus glaber (III).) and 71 nimbatus Say. This species was at first taken for an abnormal form, but sufficient material shows that it is a well marked Bpecies. It occurs near the tip of the elytron, and is with difficulty distinguished from the bristle- like hairs among which it occurs. It is remarkable for the srery -mall number of spores present in the perithecium. 188 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY Ceratomyces rostratus, nov. sp. Reddish brown. Receptacle long, slender, expanding slightly up- wards, consisting of about twelve superposed cells. Perithecium consisting of a clearly distinguished neck and an inflated oval basal por- tion, completely filled with spores and asci, which pushes the appen- dage to one side and continues directly the axis of the receptacle ; the neck very elongate, irregularly cylindrical, its terminal portion at ma- turity abruptly bent upon itself, the recurved portion tapering slightly to the hunched asymmetrical apex : the cell rows made up of seventy cells, more or less. Appendage arising from a broad base flattened at maturity by pressure from the base of the perithecium consisting of about six superposed cells bearing numerous branches which may in turn be several times branched. Spores about 75 X 3.5 yu.. Perithe- cia, basal portion, 110-150 X 65-90 /x ; neck, including recurved por- tion, longest, 1.17 mm. Appendage about 90-100 n long, its longest branches about 200 fi. Receptacle, large, about 260 /x long by 55 /x at the distal end. On the inferior surface of Hydrocombus fmbriatus Melsh, Massa- chusetts, Texas ; Philhydrus cinctus Say, Maine. The most remarkable species of the genus, the enormously elongated neck of the perithecium becoming hooked only in fully mature speci- mens, and serving an evident purpose in the spore dissemination. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES, 189 XI. ON THE VARIATIONS OF THE "HALL EFFECT" IN SEVERAL METALS WITH CHANGES OF TEMPERATURE. By Albert L. Clough and Edwin II. Hall. Presented April 12, 1893. The variation of the so called " Hall effect " with change of tempera- re in the magnetic metal; following estimate was given ture in the magnetic metals has long been known. In 1885 the 1 7 a 1 H 2 U "A fall of 1° C. in temperature causes in the R. P. [rotational power] of Iron a hill of ?,ci approx. Steel, soft, " £ " " tempered, " Cobalt " Nickel " Non-magnetic metals, apparently a small increase."* The evidence in favor of an increase with fall of temperature in non-magnetic metals was very slight. Leduc f has more recently studied the temperature change in bismuth. The Hall effect shows itself in the form of an electromotive force, brought about by magnetic action, at right angles with the lines of How of an electric current. It is evident that under such conditions the equipotential lines are no longer at right angles with the lines of How, as they are when the magnetic force is not operating. This fact gives rise to the terms " rotational power" and "rotational coefficient," which have been used in describing the phenomena under discussion These terms are somewhat ambiguous, for the reason thai they may with as much propriety be used in connection with the rotation of the plane of polarization of light. * E. H. Hall, Anier. Journ. of Sci., February, 1886, p. 13 t La Lumicre Electrique, Vol. XXIX., 1888. 190 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY The existence of a transverse electromotive force under the condi- tions described might be accounted for in either of two general ways : 1st. The combined action of the main electric current and the magnetic force might be supposed to produce in the conductor a state of strain, giving it for the time being properties similar to those possessed by certain crystals, which do not conduct ecpially well in all directions. This might be called the static theory of the phenomenon, and one adopting it would expect the transverse effect to increase or decrease with the electric resistance of the conductor, that is, he would expect to see a fall of temperature accompanied by a diminution of the trans- verse effect, and vice versa. 2d. The transverse electromotive force might be regarded as the result of molecular or cellular motions, prob- ably rotations, set up within the conductor by the magnetic force, and acting upon the main current of electricity in such a manner as to produce a tendency to deflection. This mi .78 7.3 11 1.22 Blast lamp Hempel furnace .58 4.7 12 13 1.91 a .92 4.8 .Made from basic nitrate. Fourth Series. 1.05 Water blast Hempelfurnace .20 1.9 14 1.07 Water blast furnace 30 min. .75 7.0 15 16 1.00 a .71 7.1 1.02 Blast 1.52 14.9 ( CO., = I N2 = 1.3- ;-,:;. s 44.8 17 1.10 Water blast Furnace 2 hr. .35 3.2 I o2 = 1 N2 = 9.1 90.9 Tartly reduced. 18 19 20 120 1.06 .85 3i " 5 " 6 " 1.12 83 .46 9.1 7.8 5.4 18-21 heated in double crucible by water blast in fur nace. Sampli mm el from time to time. 21 22 23 .02 " H " .53 5.8 Layer next the silicate. Upper layer 1.07 > 1.125 I-'liriKir,- >■-', In- ( >xygen flame, 1") min. Tbe same. 1- .48 3.9 4.8 ) ( !Oa = 02 O.fl 16.9 88 1 206 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY No. of Exp. 24 25 20 27 28 Weight of Zincie Oxide. Time and Temperature of Heating. Volume of Gas evolved. Volume of Gas Calc. for 10 gr. of ZuO. Analysis of Gas by Volume. Remarks. grams. 1.03 1.105 Oxy. fl. 15 min. " 30 " c.c. .21 .19 c.c. 2.3 1.7 1 02 = 16.7% ( N.2 = 83.3 Partially reduced and reoxidized. Reduced more than! Ex. 24 and reoxid 1 .72 1.0125 White lieat 20 min. White heat 35 min. .45 4.6 4.4 ) CO, = 0 > 02 = 24% \ N2 = 76 White after igni- tion. it a Fifth Series. 1.05 Water blast i lir. .42 4.0 29 30 1.019 << 1 1 ic 12 37 36 Probably contain- ed nitric acid. 1.34 Bunsen Flame 30 min. .28 2.10 31 32 105 1.0035 Water blast 30 min. Water blast 1 lir. .97 .68 9.2 C.8 33 34 .9765 H hr. .63 6.4 Partially reduced. 1.03 Water blast £hr. .175 1.7 35 1.08 ihr. .35 3.2 Le?s reduced. 30 1.50 20 min. .82 5.46 Possibly reduced in part. 37 1.004 H It- .08 68 38 39 1.018 2 lir. .68 0.7 Prepared from carbonate. 1.00 000 0.00 It is evident that we are dealing here with a phenomenon similar both qualitatively and quantitatively to that observed in the case of copper. Zincie oxide prepared from the nitrate occludes a very ap- preciable quantity of nitrogen and a somewhat variable quantity of oxygen. Continued application of heat tends to drive out both gases, the oxygen being less firmly held than the nitrogen ; but the highest heat which we were able to obtain was insufficient wholly to eliminate either gas. Under like conditions, specimens of zincie oxide made from zincie nitrate which had been obtained in a number of different OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 207 ways appeared to hold approximately the same amounts of gas. It is almost, if not quite, impossible to prepare the oxide in this manner in a state wholly free from solid impurities taken from the containing vessel during the ignition of the purest possible zincic nitrate. The effort was made in the preceding series of analyses to prepare 8am pies which must contain wholly different kinds of impurities. The fact that these different samples contained almost equal amounts of gas shows with reasonable certainty that the impurities are not responsible for the occlusion. It is noticeable that the oxide obtained at a very low temperature, which still contained traces of zincic nitrate, contained little or no occluded gas (Experiments 8 and 30) ; also that six specimens which had been suspected of partial reduction contained much less gas than similar material free from this suspicion (Experiments 17, 24, 25, 34, 35, and 36). Nickelous Oxide. The series of experiments with nickelous oxide led to results not unlike those with zincic oxide. In this case sulphuric acid proved unsatisfactory as a solvent, and hydrochloric acid was adopted. A solution containing about twenty per cent of hydrochloric acid gas was freed from air by continued boiling, rapidly cooled, and run into the tube containing the oxide of nickel. On account of the very slow action of the cold acid the tube was warmed after exhausting the air as usual. The gas set free was measured as before. In order to prove the accuracy of the method a gram of zincic oxide prepared from the carbonate was dissolved in hot hydrochloric acid in precisely a similar way. No trace of gas was evolved during this solution. It was thought unnecessary to make a series of experiments as elaborate as that made with the zincic oxide. Nickelous nit rat. • was evaporated to dryness in porcelain and ignited fifteen minutes in a blast lamp and then a number of hours over a Bunsen burner in the furnace. (Analysis 1, below.) A part of the nickelous oxide remaining was further ignited for two hours in the furnace by means of the water blast. This was used for the second analysis. A portion of the latter was ignited again in the furnace at the highest temperature we could obtain, by the addition of oxygen to the flame for about fifteen minutes, until the bottom of the outer crucible as well as the platinum foil between the two cru- 208 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY cibles was melted away. The arrangement of data in the table is similar to that already described. No. of Exp. Weight of Oxide. Volume of Gas evolved. Volume of Gas calc. for 10 gr. NiO. Analysis of Gas by Volume. 1 2 3 grams. 1.14 .997 1.13 c. c. .469 .34 .35 r „ Per Cent. 4.H . 4 S- — i? ¥S 3.41 O QQ j 02 = 8.8 '■ U \ No = 81.2 Magnesic Oxide. The experiments with the oxide of magnesium led to very unex- pected results, the amount of gas evolved upon the solution of this compound being five to twenty times as much as was obtained from zincic oxide, and over twenty-five times as much as from the oxide of nickel. More difficulty was found in decomposing the nitrate than before, and the remaining oxide was in a much harder and more com- pact'state, and consequently more difficult to pulverize. The process used was similar to that employed in the case of the other oxides. Magnesic nitrate made from pure nitric acid and magnesic carbon- ate of commerce was evaporated to dryness in porcelain. The residue was pulverized in an agate mortar, heated by means of the blast lamp in a covered porcelain crucible, and cooled over calcic chloride. For a parallel experiment, a portion of the original carbonate was con- verted into the oxide by simple ignition, the magnesia formed in this way evolving only an extremely small amount of gas upon solution (Experiment 2 below). A third portion of magnesic nitrate was made from pure magnesium ribbon and pure nitric acid, and the oxide was obtained from this salt by evaporation and ignition in porcelain as usual (Experiment 7). Sulphuric acid was used for the solution of the magnesic oxide, as in the case of zincic and cupric oxides. The following table explains itself. OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 209 Volume No. Weight Temperature Volume of Gas Analysis of Gas. of of Oxide and Time of Gas cade, for Remarks. Exp. used. of Heating. evolved. 10 gr of MgO. 1 grams. .50 Blast lamp, 30 min. 5.45 109. j Oo = 66.6 \ Ns = 3:14 2 about J _() " 1 hr. .05 .5 ( CO., = 5.98 Made from carbon- ate. 3 .50 " ljhr. 5.86 117.2 ' ()., = 53.7 ( Ng = 40.29 Analyses made from one sample 4 .25 " 2£ hr. 2.31 92.4 ( Oo = 47.6 1 N2 = 52.4 ( COo = 2.2 of oxide heated tinder different conditions. 1, 3, 5 .25 " 3£hr. 2.31 92.4 { 02 = 38.9 / N2 = 58.9 & 4 gave tests for nitrates with fer- 6 .25 Oxygen blast, 20 min. 2.04 81.6 l O., = 34.3 \ K = 61 2 (COo= 1.5 rous sulphate ; 5 & 6 did not. 7 .25 Water blast, 11 hr. 2.31 92.4 The amount of gas occluded by magnesic oxide is thus far more than that occluded by the oxides of copper, zinc, and nickel. The quantities of carbon dioxide recorded in the table are undoubtedly far from accurate, since the gas was collected over water. It is interesting to note that the amount of nitrogen evolved by the oxide upon going into solution was slightly increased up to a certain point by the increas- ing time and heat of the ignition, while the amount of oxygen was rapidly diminished. No. of Exp. Volume of Nitrogen found in 1 gram of MgO. No. of Exp. Volume of Oxygen found in 1 gram of MgO. 1 c.c. Gas. 3.6 1 c. Gas. 7.2 3 4.72 o o 6.3 4 4.84 4 4.4 5 5.44 5 3.6 6 5.24 6 2.8 VOL. XXVIII. (N. S. XX.) 14 210 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY The Oxides of Cadmium, Mercury, Lead, and Bismuth. These oxides, the only other suspected ones which could be easily analyzed by the method in hand, all yielded negative results. The oxide of cadmium was distinctly crystalline, and contained only the merest trace of gas. The oxides of mercury, lead, and bismuth ob- tained by the ignition of the corresponding nitrates also appeared to contain no occluded gaseous impurity. Unfortunately, the oxides of antimony, iron, and a number of other metals, are not sufficiently soluble in acids to test with ease their power of occlusion by this method. It seems probable that interesting results might be obtained from them : hence in the near future other methods will be tried here, with the hope of determining if these oxides also occlude gaseous impurity. Theoretical Considerations. From the fact, observed with both copper and zinc, that oxides which still contain a trace of nitrates, as well as those made from the carbonate, retain no imprisoned gas, it is readily inferred that the decomposition of a trace of nitric acid is alone responsible for the impurity. It is natural that this last trace of nitric acid should be confined below the surface, whence the gases resulting from its ulti- mate decomposition would find it hard to escape. On this supposition it is not unnatural that zincic oxide which has been partly reduced, and hence somewhat disintegrated, should contain less occluded gas than that which has not been thus reduced. Moreover, since magnesic nitrate is harder to decompose than the other nitrates, and the oxide is more compact, we should expect to find more gas occluded in this case than in the others. All these inferences agree with the facts. The difference in the rate of expulsion of the oxygen and of the nitro- gen is interesting, and less easy to explain. The negative results observed with a number of metals lead one to conclude that the physical condition of the oxides in these cases was so porous that even the last traces of nitrogen were allowed to escape. Indeed, cupric and zincic oxide made from very finely divided basic nitrates, obtained from aqueous solution, contained much less gas than samples which were obtained in a more compact condition by the direct ignition of the normal nitrate. This fact shows how much depends upon physical conditions. It must be borne in mind that the occlusion of gases noted in this OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 211 paper is a very different phenomenon from the retention of undecom- posed oxides of nitrogen alluded to by Marignac,* Morse and Burton, and others. Nitrogen present in the state of gas could of course -i\ e no test with sulphanilic acid and naphthylamine, or any other test for oxidized nitrogen. It is evident that the phenomenon we are DOW studying, like the other just spoken of, may be a very serious c of error in many of the published determinations of atomic weights; these would hence appear lower than their true value, because of the extra material which is calculated as oxygen. f Before any quantita- tive results obtained in this way can be accepted as authoritative, definite proof must be brought forward of the absence of this source ot error. It is to be hoped that the able experimenters who have recently worked upon zinc, nickel, magnesium, and similar metals, have preserved typical specimens of their final products. If this is the case, nothing could be easier than to determine the amount of occluded gas, if any is present, and to apply the necessary correction. As long ago as 1887 one of us was engaged, through the suggestion of Professor Cooke, upon an investigation of the atomic weight of zinc depending upon the analysis of zincic bromide. The work was dis- continued because of the many publications upon this subject which appeared before it could be completed. Since the results recorded in this paper appear to indicate that the last word has not yet been said upon the subject, the investigation of zincic bromide and chloride is now being continued in this Laboratory. * "II est probable que l'oxyde de zinc et la magnesie ne sont pas les bi oxydes qui retiennent aussi e'nergiquement des composes nitreux, lorsqu'on le9 prepare par la calcination de leura azotates." — Annates de ('hemic et de Phy- sique, Series [6], Vol. I. p. 311, foot-note. t The following are the metals whose atomic weights have been determii by means of the oxide made through action of nitric acid Hydrogen (cupric oxide), Magnesium, Aluminium, Vanadium, Manganese, Nickel, Cobalt, < topper, Zinc, Gallium, Selenium, Tin, Antimony, Tellurium. See Meyer and Seubert, Atomgewichte, pp. 17 to 42. Also Nickel, Kriiss, /. anorg. Chem., II. 285, Zinc, Morse and Burton, Amer. Chem. Journ., X. 311-321. Magnesium, Burton Vorse, Chem. News, LXII. 267. 212 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY XIII. ON REAL ORTHOGONAL SUBSTITUTION. By Henry Taber, Clark University. Presented April 12, 1893. § 1. Real Proper Orthogonal Matrices. 1. In a paper to appear in a forthcoming number of the " Quarterly Journal of Mathematics " I have shown that, if <£ is any real proper orthogonal matrix, then, for a proper choice of the real skew sym- metric matrix 0, we may put = ee, where e9 denotes the exponential series %■—. , which is convergent for any matrix. This theorem was rl published in these Proceedings, Vol. XXVI. It follows immediately from this theorem that any real orthogonal matrix whatever is given by the expression 1 — Y 2 (0 | ■ i , d + yJ ' for a proper choice of the real skew symmetric matrix Y and of the matrix w whose constituents are all zero except those in the principal diagonal which are severally equal to ± 1. The second factor in the above expression is the square of Cayley's expression for an orthogo- nal matrix. If the determinant of the orthogonal matrix is equal to unity, we may put to = 1 ; if the determinant is equal to — 1, and if at the same time unity is a latent root of even multiplicity,* we may put O) = — 1. I shall show in this section that, as a consequence of the exponential representation of real proper orthogonal matrices, any such matrix may be represented by the square of Cayley's expression ; and in § 2 it will be shown that the general theorem given above follows as a consequence of the theorem just stated. * If unity is not a latent root of the orthogonal matrix, its multiplicity is zero. OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 213 2. Let c/> be a real proper orthogonal matrix, then by the theorem above referred to we may put e°, where d is a real skew symmetric matrix. Since 6 is skew symmetric, its latent roots occur in pairs opposite in sign ; that is, if H is a latent root of 6, then — H is also a latent root of 6 having the same multiplicity as H; since 6 is skew sym- metric and real, its latent roots are purely imaginary.* It may be that among the latent roots of 0 are integer multiples of 2 7r V — 1 ; in this case a real skew symmetric matrix $i can always be found of which no integer multiple of 2 tt \/— 1 is a latent root, and such that 4> = ee = A Thus, let the latent roots of 6 be given by the following schedule : Latent root, Multiplicity, Latent root, Multiplicity, 0 m. ±^iV-i i>h ±hV-i m.> ± K V- 1 m„ ±/v+iV-i m M + l ± K V- 1, //( v> in which ?n0 denotes the multiplicity of the latent root h0 = 0, mx de- notes the multiplicity of each of the latent roots ± hx V — 1, etc. Let hu h2, . . • h,j., be integer multiples of 2 it, and hli + 1, . . . hv, any real quantities other than integer multiples of 2 tt. Since 6 is real, its identical ecpuatiou is then, if m0 4 0, F(6) = 0 (0* + V) (02 + K) • • • • (#2 + V) = O.f Let x be any scalar, and \et f^x andy*|.2)(x) be defined as follows: Jr k ) \x_K^zrO \x-hr^-i' x = hrv-h Jr() \x + hrV-iJ \x + hrV-iJx = -KV-i, * Proc. Lond. Math. Soc, Vol. XXII. p. 153. t Ibid., p. 462. 214 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY for r = 0, 1, 2, p, .... v. Since yj,1' (x) =€/*jf (#), either of these two functions may be denoted simply by^ (x). We then have /o w +/;11 w +/? («> + • • ■ ./? w +/? w = l. i for /j = 1, 2, and r = 0, 1, 2, .... fi, . ...v, fT (0) . ff (6) = 0, for p, q = 1, 2, and r, s = 0, 1, 2, /x, v, but rfs; and *-/o (*) = /o (tr- * ) = /o(-0) = /oW> *. f? (?) = f? (*. 0) =f?{-0) = /?(*), for /• = 1, 2, 3 . . . . n, v. We also have e = o ./0 («) + *, V^I/i1' 0 - Ai V^/f * + .... + K V~ifl] (0) - hv a/^T/I2' (0) ; therefore, if f{0) denotes any polynomial in powers of 6 or conver- gent power series in 9, /(*) =/o./o0) +ffrV=i)f?W +f(-hV~i)f?(e) + .... +f(k.V=i)f»(Q +f(-KV~i)f;}(0). Thus ^ = e„ = eoyQ ((9) + ^v=iy« ((9) + ,-^v^iyc-, @) + . . . . From the relations given above between the functions with the same subscript it is evident that this matrix is orthogonal. Let now OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 215 el = e-[:2ihv~i{fl\e)-ff{6)) + -ihiv=l(f?{e)-f?{0) ) + .... - 0 (/, (61) +/J> ((?) +/? (0) + . . . . +/« (6) +/* (0)) + a,+1 v^i/;Vi c> - ^^/if+iW + • • • • + K V~\f? (0) - K V=lf? (6). The matrix 6X is then skew symmetric, and its latent roots are 0, ± are Pure'y imaginary scalar multiples of real matrices. We also have <£ = e9 = e9i. If w0 = 0, that is, if zero is not a latent root of 6, we may proceed in a precisely similar way to find the matrix Qx. 3. Siuce no integer multiple of 2 -k \/— 1, other than zero, is a latent root of 6X, hence it follows that no odd multiple of tt V— 1 is a latent root of ~ ; therefore, the matrix ij/ = e" has no latent root equal to — 1. For the latent roots of \j/ are con- tained in the expression en, for H equal successively to the distinct latent roots of $x. We have ^ = \e*) = es = <£. Since 6X is real, ip is real ; and ip is orthogonal, for we have \p . tr. \p = e- . etT- - °i _$ — e-' . e * = 1. 216 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY Since — 1 is not a latent root of \p, U I = i. 0j, ( 0A2 & Or, since e4 is orthogonal, and \e4/ = e2, therefore, •A 2 = 1. Therefore, every real proper orthogonal matrix has among its square roots one or more real proper orthogonal matrices of which — 1 is not a latent root. 4. Since I in which case Y will be real, and we shall have tr Y - - ^^ - y - y - - Y 1 — tr. i// l_^-i ,/, _ 1 1 + tr. x\i ~ 1 + for a proper choice of the skew symmetric matrix Y. § 2. Real Improper Orthogonal Matrices. 5. If $ is a real improper orthogonal matrix of which unity is a latent root of even multiplicity.* it is the negative of a real proper orthogonal matrix ; therefore hv (4) we may put for a proper choice of the real skew symmetric matrix Y. * This includes the case in which unity is not a latent root of tI> ; the multi- plicity of unity is then zero. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 217 6. Let 3> be any real improper orthogonal matrix. Then if w denotes a matrix whose determinant is equal to — 1, and whose con- stituents are all zero except those in the principal diagonal which are severally equal to ± 1, the matrix is a real proper orthogonal matrix. For — $$ = 1. Moreover, |<£| = |o,|.|$| = l. Therefore, we may put * = (t+y)' for a proper choice of the real skew symmetric matrix Y. Whence, since co2 = 1, we derive (I - YV 218 PEOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY Note on Imaginary Orthogonal Matrices. Let cf) be an imaginary proper orthogonal matrix whose distinct latent roots are 1, — 1, g, g~l; and let the rational integral function of (f> of lowest order that vanishes be (<£ - 1)'" (<£ + 1) O - g? (0 - g~'y. Let J^[(^-1)m-(-1-1)m][(^-1)"i-(.y-1)"?[(^-1)"i-(^~1-1)"? [-(-]- 1)-] [- (g- 1)-J» [- (-.y)?i- (- 1 -<7)p] [(*-gO',-(r1-g),y [- (1 - <7)p]m [" (- 1 - #)p] [- (r1 ~ 9)P1P let D be obtained from C by interchanging g and y-1 in the expres- sion for C. Then A + B + C+ D = 1; .42 = A, B'2 = B, C- = 0, D1= B, AB=BA = AC=CA = .... = 0, (that is, all binary products formed from two different letters vanish) ; tr. A = A, tr. B = B, tr. C = D, tr. D = 0. Moreover, (^-l^-MtO, (<£— l)m^4 = 0, f> + 1) 5 = 0, (^-r'^o, y>-9yo= o, (<£ - (T1)"-1 2? * 0, O- r/"1)" 2) = 0. I find that the matrix 2? is separable into a sum of two matrices, 2?! and 2?2, such that B? = 2?x, Bi = B2, tr. 2?2 = Bu BXB2 = B,B, = 0* * The products of Bx and B2 by or into either of the letters A, C, or D also vanisli. Thus, (Bi + B2)A = BA = 0; .-. BXA = B1{B1 + B2)A = 0. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 219 If now lfr = [1 +C1- 1 + C2_12+ ....+ Cml (0_ l)-»-l]J where 1, c,, c2, etc. denote the coefficients of x in the expansion by the binomial theorem of (1 + a:)* ; then —1 will not be a latent root of if/, and we shall have V = <}>, \p . tr.ip = 1. Therefore, proceeding as in (4), it may be shown that we have M >2 * - (^y for a proper choice of the skew symmetric matrix Y. This proof may be extended to any imaginary proper orthogonal matrix for which the nullity of <£ -f 1 is equal to the multiplicity of the latent root — 1. For any matrix whose determinant does not vanish (that is, of which zero is not a latent root), a matrix & can always be found such that $ = e». Let t> be determined by Sylvester's formula as a finite polynomial in powers of <£ ; thus let We then have tr. & =f(tr.tf>) ; whence, if is orthogonal, it follows that & . tr. & = tr. 0- . !>. Let & -- tr. & A & -- tr. & ~2 = e0, -±— = 0; 220 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY from the preceding equation it follows that 0O • o = e . 0O ; therefore = e& = eeo + & = e9o e". Since 0o is symmetric, eeo is symmetric. We have (e0o)2 = e2eo = e» + tr-» = e» . ete-d = . tr. = 1 ; therefore, the first factor in the above expression for 0 is a symmetric square root of unity, that is, is a symmetric orthogonal matrix. Since 0 is skew symmetric, ee is a proper orthogonal matrix. Moreover, ee can be represented by the square of Cayley's expression. For, if no integer multiple of 2 tt V — 1 is a latent root of 0, e^ can be repre- sented by Cayley's expression ; if, on the contrary, there are integer multiples of 2 w V— 1 among the latent roots of 0, a skew symmetric matrix 0lt can always be found of which no integer multiple of 2 tt V — 1 is a latent root, and such that e9 = e0i. Therefore, in either case the theorem is true. May 1, 1893. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 221 Note on Symmetric Orthogonal Matrices. Every symmetric orthogonal matrix is a symmetric square root of unity, and therefore, if 4> is a symmetric orthogonal matrix, an or- thogonal matrix sr can always be found to satisfy the equation in which w is a matrix whose constituents are all zero except those in the principal diagonal which are severally equal to ±1. If ' a matrix similar to w, we may put - = (r+^)w Therefore, •= (i+y)w'-w-w'(i-y) " (\ - YV A + YV \l + Y) W \l - Y> ' August 17, 1893. 222 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY XIV. CONTRIBUTION FROM THE SALISBURY LABORATORY OF THE WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE. ON THE FORMATION OF CHLOR AND BROMBENZOIC ANHYDRIDES. By George D. Moore and Daniel F. O'Regan. Presented June 14, 1893. In a previous paper* entitled " On the Formation of the Anhy- drides of Benzoic and substituted Benzoic Acids," we have shown that by the action of phosphorpentoxide upon benzoic and mono-nitroben- zoic acids in the presence of an excess of benzol at the boiling tem- perature the anhydrides of these acids are produced. Further investigation has shown that the monochlor and monobrombenzoic acids behave in a similar manner. The process by which the chlor and bromanhydrides are prepared is essentially the same as that already described under the nitro com- pounds. The only difference worthy of note consists in using rather a larger quantity of phosphorpentoxide, and in boiling the mixture somewhat longer. Thus, whereas in the case of the nitro anhydrides we employed equal weights of acid and phosphorpentoxide, boiling with benzol for four hours, the halogen compounds require about one fifth excess of phosphorpentoxide and five to six hours boiling. I. Orthocldorbenzoic Anhydride. The orthocldorbenzoic acid necessary for the preparation of this substance was made according to the method described by Anschutz and one of us,f by treating salicylic acid with phosphorpentachloride, and, after rectifying the product in vacuo, decomposing it by distilla- tion at ordinary atmospheric pressure. 10 grams of orthochlorbenzoic acid, prepared in this manner and melting at 137°, were heated with 12 grams of phosphorpentoxide * These Proceedings, XXVII. 93. t Ann. Chem., CCXXXIX. 326. Calculated for CH f^1'01 ^a* 1(2)00 > CH |(2>C0 ^a* \ (1) CI 56.96 2.71 24.07 OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 223 and about 200 c. c. of dry benzol under a reverse condenser for about six hours. The light brown mother liquor was then decanted hot from the insoluble residue, the latter boiled up with fresh benzol, this extract added to the first, and the whole concentrated to a small vol- ume. No precipitate appearing, the concentration was continued until a thick crust was ohtained. This, after crystallization from ligroine, yielded an abundance of fine white needles, which melted at 141° and gave on analysis the following values : — 0.1452 gr. substance gave 0.1425 gr. AgCl. 0.1346 gr. gave 0.2798 gr. CO, and 0.0348 gr. IJ,0. Found. C 56.96 56.70 H 2.71 2.87 CI 24.07 24.28 The orthochlorbenzoic anhydride is very soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, and benzol, less soluble in ligroine. From this last it is precipitated in the form of glittering white needles. Water and alkalies attack it slowly in the cold, more readily on heating. II. Metachlorbenzoic Anhydride. After numerous fruitless attempts to prepare metachlorbenzoic acid from benzoic acid by the method of Hubner and Weiss ; * we had recourse to that of Sandmeyer,t which proved perfectly satisfactory. For the preparation of the acid on a laboratory scale this method leaves little to be desired. 10 grams of the pure acid melting at 153° were boiled up under a reverse condenser with 12 grams of phosphorpentoxide. and an excess of benzol for six hours. The decanted mother liquor, together with benzol washings from the phosphoric residue, were concentrated, and the white crystalline mass which separated out, purified by pressing between filters and recrystallizing from fresh benzol. The substance thus obtained did not show a constant melting point. It was there- fore washed several times with dilute potash, dried, and again crystal- lized. It now melted constant at 89°, and gave on analysis the following : — * Ber. d. eh. G., VI. 175. t Ber. d. ch. G , XVII 1684. 224 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY 0.1900 gr. substance gave 0.1833 gr. AgCl. 0.1944 gr. gave 0.4052 gr. C02 and 0.0497 gr. H20. Calculated for CH J,1)C1 ^H* I (3) CO xO /"• Found. rw ((3) CO C«H* ((1) CI C 56.96 56.84 H 2.71 2.84 CI 24.07 23.85 Metachlorbenzoic anhydride is readily soluble in alcohol, ether, benzol, and chloroform, less easily in ligroine. It crystallizes best from benzol, in the form of yellowish white needles. III. Parachlorbenzoic Anhydride* This substance was prepared from parachlorbenzoic acid, m.pt. 236°, phosphoric anhydride, and benzol, in the same manner as the ortho and meta anhydrides. Like these it is easily soluble in alcohol, ether, benzol, and chloroform, less soluble in petroleum ether. It crystallizes readily from warm benzol in glittering leaflets, which melt at 186°. The analyses gave: — 0.1718 gr. substance gave 0.1648 gr. AgCl. 0.2011 gr. gave 0.4185 gr. C02 and 0.0590 gr. H20. Calculated for CH i^01 ^"4 { t4) CO > rH {(4) CO ^6"4 \ (1) ci Found. 56.96 56.75 271 3.26 24.07 23.71 c H CI Anhydrides of the Monobrombenzoic Acids. The anhydrides of ortho, meta, and parabrombenzoic acids were prepared from the acids in a similar manner. The orthobrombenzoic * The parachlorbenzoic acid used in this experiment, as well as the para- brombenzoic acid, to be mentioned later, were kindly furnished us by Prof. C. L. Jackson of the Harvard College Laboratory, to whom we would here express our warmest thanks for both preparations. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 225 acid employed was obtained from anthranilic acid by means of the Sandmeyer * reaction, which, as in the case of the metachlor acid above mentioned, we found admirably adapted to our purpose. I. Orthobrombt'iizoic Anhydride. Crystallizes from ligroine in fine, white, prismatic needles melting at 141°. Readily soluble iu ether and chloroform, less easily in benzol, alcohol, and ligroine. The analyses gave : — 0.1663 gr. substance gave 0.1615 gr. AgBr. 0.1832 gr. gave 0.2928 gr. C02 and 0.0390 gr. H20. Calculated for CH l(1)Br ^6^4 {(2) CO xO /"• Found. ^a* 1(1) Br C 43.75 43.58 H 2.09 2.36 Br 41.67 41.32 II. Metabrombenzoic Anhydride. Crystallizes from benzol in glittering white leaflets melting at 97° Readily soluble in ether and chloroform, less easily in alcohol, benzol, and ligroine. The analyses gave : — Found. C 43.75 43.50 H 2.09 2.10 Br 41.67 41.55 III. Parabromhenzoic Anhydride. Crystallizes from benzol in thick prisms, from chloroform in Bma tablets. Is decidedly more insoluble in the common organic solvent* than either the ortho or the meta isomer. Melting point 212 to 213 This body has already been described by Jackson and Rolfe ; f we have therefore considered an analysis unnecessary. Calculated for c»u* 1(3) CO > 0H {(3) CO ^n* 1 (1) Br 43.75 2.09 41.67 a 0 * Ber. d. ch. G., XVIII. 1495. t These Proceedings, XXII. 260. VOL. XXVIII. (n. 8. XX.) 15 226 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY XV. CONTRIBUTION FROM THE SALISBURY LABORATORY OF THE WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE. ON THE FORMATION OF SUBSTITUTED BENZOPHENONES. By George D. Moore and Daniel F. O Regan. The preparation of benzophenone by heating benzoic acid, benzol, and phosphorpentoxide in sealed tubes at 180-200° has already been described by Kollarits and Merz.* The same authors f have also shown that benzoic anhydride reacts, under similar conditions, in the same manner as benzoic acid. We have proved t that not only ben- zoic acid, but also the three isomeric mono-nitro, chlor, and brom acids yield anhydrides as the first product of this reaction. In the present paper we will describe the preparation of the nitro, chlor, and brom benzophenones from these anhydrides. I. Action of Phosphorpentoxide upon Orthonitrobenzoic Anhydride in an Excess of Benzol. 10 grams of orthonitrobenzoic anhydride, m.pt. 133°, prepared by boiling a benzol solution of the acid with phosphorpentoxide, were heated in a sealed tube with 15 grams phosphoric anhydride and 25-30 c.c. pure dry benzol at 150° for about four hours. A slight reaction takes place in the cold, as evidenced by the rapid blackening of the solid constituents of the mixture, although the benzol remains uncolored. After heating, the dark-colored mother liquor was decanted from the black residue, decolorized by means of bone-black, and concentrated until, on cooling, crystals were deposited. These, after washing with pure benzol and drying between filters, showed a melting point of 132-133°. The body is therefore the unaltered anhydride. The black residue was a hard, vitreous mass, which clung so tena- ciously to the tube that it was necessary to crush the latter completely * Zeitschr. fur Chemie, 1871, p. 705. Ber. d. ch. G., V. 447. t Loc. cit. % These Proceedings, XXVII. 93. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 227 in order to separate them. The fragments were then pulverized in a mortar, extracted with dilute potash, washed clean, and boiled up with 150-200 c.c. of absolute alcohol under a reverse cooler. This alcoholic liquor gave, after treatment with bone-black and concentrat- ing, a crystalline precipitate, which we purified with considerable difficulty as the quantity was exceedingly small. We finally suc- ceeded in getting a sufficient amount of it of constant melting point (104-105°) for an analysis. 0.1010 gr. substance gave 0.2537 gr. C02 and 0.0392 gr. H20. Calculated for p „ I(1)N02 Found. L«U< j (2) C0C6H6. C 68.72 68.50 H 3.97 4.31 The yield is so small that we could not obtain a sufficient quantity to enable us to examine its properties as fully as we could wish. All attempts to increase the yield by varying the proportions, temperature, time of heating, etc., were without effect. Benzol takes up little or nothing from the raw product, and the same may be said of the other common solvents with the exception of boiling absolute alcohol. Di- lute alkalies extract more or less orthonitrobeuzoic acid. The con- centrated alcoholic solution remains clear for several days, then manifests a slight turbidity, and finally deposits microscopic crystals. In several instances we have succeeded in obtaining only a thick syrup which could not be made to crystallize. From the analysis of the substance and the method of its prepara- tion we conclude that it is the orthonitrobenzophenone described by Geigy and Konigs,* and interpret its formation by the following reactions : — C6H4| (1) N02 (2) CO /u + i6h6 - Wi4 1 £2) COCGH5 c „ ( (2) CO 4- C H 1 W N°2 °6H4j(l) N02 + L/°H4t (2) coon CH ((l)NO, Ue"4 { (2) CO > + 2C6H6 = 2C6H4{$^6H6+ !!,(> CH i(2>C0 U"4((l) N02 * Ber d. ch. G., XVTfl. 2403. 228 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY The first of these reactions may account for the free acid which is obtained, as above mentioned, by the action of dilute alkalies on the raw product. Unchanged anhydride would, however, give the same result, and it is quite possible that appreciable quantities thereof may easily have been retained in the black residue after its treatment with benzol, owing to its gummy vitreous nature. II. Action of Phosphorpentoxide upon Metanitrobenzoic Anhydride in an Excess of Benzol. 6 grams of metanitrobenzoic anhydride, m.pt. 161°, prepared by boiling a benzol solution of the acid with phosphorpentoxide, were heated in a sealed tube with 5 grams phosphoric anhydride, and 25-30 c.c. pure dry benzol for about four hours at 190-2003. After the reaction was completed, the contents of the tube consisted of a hard black vitreous residue, and a brownish supernatant liquid. This last was poured off, the residue washed several times with clean benzol, and the washings added to the decanted portion. The liquid was then purified by means of bone-black, and, after concentration, threw down a precipitate of fine white needles which, by their melfr- ing point, 161°, and ready solubility in alkalies, were easily identified as metanitrobenzoic anhydride. The black vitreous residue from the benzol mother liquor was pulverized, freed from benzol as completely as possible by pressing between filters, and then extracted, first with potash to remove pos- sible traces of acid and anhydride, then by repeated boiling with absolute alcohol. The dark red alcoholic extract gave, after treat- ment with bone-black and concentrating, a deposit of dark brown prismatic crystals, melting at 89°. By repeated crystallization from absolute alcohol these were finally obtained pure in the form of gray- ish white scales or leaflets, melting at 94-95°. The analyses gave the following values : — & 0.2086 gr. substance gave 0.5248 gr. C02 and 0.0809 gr. H20. 0.2044 gr. substance gave 10.4 c.c. nitrogen gas at 10°. 4 and 757.3 mm. Calculated for ^a* \ (3) COC6H5. Found. c 68.72 68.60 H 3.97 4.30 N 6.17 6.06 OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 229 The substance is obviously metanitrobenzophenone, and its formation may be ascribed to reactions analogous to those above given for the corresponding ortho compound. The yield is much better than in the case of the ortho body, and its purification is a comparatively simple operation. It is insoluble in water, easily soluble in hot alcohol, ben- zol, and chloroform. Ether also dissolves it readily. Absolute alcohol is the best medium for its crystallization. III. Action of Phosphorpentoxide upon Paranitrobenzoic Anhydride in an Excess of Benzol. 4.5 grams paranitrobenzoic anhydride, m.pt. 184°, prepared from the acid and phosphoric anhydride, were heated in a scaled tube with 5 grams phosphorpentoxide and 30-35 c.c. pure dry benzol at 190-2(JOJ for about four hours. As with the ortho and meta anhydrides, the product of the reaction consisted of two portions, a solid black deposit, and a more or less dark-colored supernatant liquid. The latter gave, after purification and concentration, a precipitate of anhydride, easily identified by its crystal form and melting point. The residue was worked up in the same manner as described under the ortho aud meta compounds. The chief product consisted of yellow- ish white scales melting at 137-138°, and, as the analyses prove, is paranitrobenzophenone. 0.2408 gr. gave 0.6081 gr. C02 and 0.0902 gr. H20. 0.1944 gr. gave 10.2 c.c. nitrogen at 16°. 4 and 749.3 mm. Calculated for C 28 7 Series XXVI. Line Current = 2.25 milliamperes. Magnetizing Current. Excursion. 61 69 51 48 Magnetizing Current. Bxcnrslon 39 22 28 12 246 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY Table VIII. shows the manner in which the mean position of the diaphragm varies when the magnetizing current is increased. There is no current flowing through the line coil. The distance of the dia- phragm from the core with no magnetizing current flowing was T£F inch. TABLE VIII. Series XXVII. ing Current. Deflection. Magnetizing Current. Deflection 0 0 50 286 14 12 61 546 28 48 72 1020 39 145 Rogers Laboratory of Physics, June, 1892. OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 24* XVII. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE CHEMICAL LABORATORY OF HARVARD COLLEGE. ON THE CUPRIAMMONIUM DOUBLE SALTS. By Theodork William Richards and Hubert Grovek Shaw. Presented May 10, 1893. In the course of an extended investigation upon the ammoniacal compounds of copper, undertaken with the hope of obtaining more light upon the vexed question of their structure, a new class of inter- esting compounds was discovered. The preliminary notice of th Be compounds was published about a year ago;* but since that time sev- eral new ones have been added to the list. It is the object of this paper more fully to describe all of these substances, so far as they have been studied. The generic feature of the new class is the fact that two different acids — a halogen and an organic acid radical — are united at the same time to the ordinary cupriammonium group. Below are tabu- lated the formulae of the compounds, the preparation, properties, and analyses of which are described in the work which follows : — (1.) Cu(NH3)2BrC2II;A- (2.) Cu(NH8)8ClC2H802 . H20. (3.) [Cu(NH8)2ClC2H802]2 . 3 NH4C2H30, + 7 II,<>. (4.) Cu(NM3)2BrCH02. Besides these compounds two others, which appeared as by-produi I of the investigation, are worthy of description : — (5.) CuCl2 . 2 NH4C2H8Oa. (6.) 3CuBr2 . 10 NIL. * Theodore W. Richards, Berichte der deutech. chem. I Since the publication of this paper, F. Foerste has announced the discovery <>i cupriammonium acetate (Ber. d. c!i. (Jes., IW2, XXV. :;lb 248 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY 1. Cupriammonium Acetobromide, Cu(NH3)2BrC2H302. This compound is formed with great ease whenever cupric bromide is treated with alcohol and saturated ammonia water, and the mixture is nearly neutralized with strong acetic acid. For example, tive grams of cupric bromide were shaken with ten cubic centimeters of alcohol and the like volume of saturated ammonia water, until all of the copper was converted into cupriammonium bromide. The bright blue pre- cipitate was then immediately dissolved in sixty or seventy cubic centimeters additional of alcohol, and sixteen cubic centimeters of strong acetic acid. Upon cooling the solution, and allowing it slowly to evaporate in the air, large brilliant deep-blue crystals, which appar- ently belong to the monoclinic system, slowly separated.* The same substance may be obtained in a similar manner from cupric acetate and amnionic bromide, after treating with ammonia and afterwards with acetic acid. The new compound is only very slightly soluble in pure alcohol, and is decomposed at once by water into impure cupric hydroxide, am- nionic acetate and amnionic bromide. The cupric hydroxide contains large amounts of basic cupric bromide and acetate. The only satisfactory solvent for it seems to be a strong aqueous solution of amnionic acetate and bromide, containing more or less alcohol. By this singular mixture the compound is not decomposed, even at 70° or 80° C. Acids of course at once decompose and dis- solve cupriammonium acetobromide, and alkalies upon boiling set free ammonia and precipitate cupric oxide as usual. The crystals are fairly permanent in the air ; they are singularly brittle and rather light, possessing a specific gravity of 2.134. In the analysis of the compound, copper was determined electro- lytically after evaporation with sulphuric and nitric acids ; and the bromine and ammonia were determined as usual. The accurate de- termination of the acetic acid was a much harder task. Distillation with phosphoric acid, according to the method recommended by Frese- nius,f is not very satisfactory because of the great expenditure of time which it requires, and the fact that traces of hydrobromic and phos- phoric acids are always found in the distillate. Usually the two acids were precipitated together from the neutralized distillate, and the * T. W. Richards, Ber. d. ch. Ges., 1890, p. 3791. t Zeit. fur Analytische Cliem., V. 315, and XIV. 172. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 240 result was calculated as argentic bromide; but in some cases they were determined separately. The presence of phosphoric acid in the dis- tillate is especially unfortunate, because of the uncertainty which it introduces in the end point of the alkalimetric reaction. On the other hand, quantitative combustion after the usual method, and calculation of the acetic acid from the carbon dioxide formed, is not easy because of the presence of the large amount of bromine. Analyses of Cu(NH8)2BrC2H802. I. 0.0685 gr. of the substance yielded 0.01865 gr. of copper upon electrolysis. II. 0.1446 gr. of the substance distilled with caustic potash required 12.16 c.c. of a decinormal acid solution for neutralization. III. 0.08485 gr. of the substance yielded 0.06705 gr. of argentic bromide. IV. 0.3173 gr. of the substance yielded 0.2518 gr. of argentic bromide. V. The distillate from a mixture of phosphoric acid and 0.2311 gr. of the substance required 10.11 c.c. of decinormal alkali for neutralization. Approximately corrected for the alkalimetric equivalent of the argentic phosphate and bromide obtained from the distillate this amount becomes 9.90 c.c. Many other analyses were made of subsequent preparations, in order to be sure of the identity of the crystals prepared in different ways. It is considered unnecessary to publish these, since they agreed 6B£ tially with those given above. No. Copper. Ammonia. Bromine. C ii . I. 27.23 II. 14.35 III. 33.63 IV. 33 78 V. ■J.", 27 Average, 27.2:3 14.::.-. :;::.70 26.27 250 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY Average Results. Calculated for Cu(NIl3),prC2H302. Found. Copper 26.87 27.23 Ammonia 14.42 14.35 Bromine 33.79 33.70 Acetic Acid 24.92 25.27 100.00 100.35 2. Amnion - Cupriammon ium Acetochloride, Cu(NH3)3ClC2H302 . H20. Almost any mixture which brings together in concentrated solution copper, chlorine, much acetic acid, and an excess of ammonia yields ammon-cupriammonium acetochloride upon the addition of alcohol. The substance consists of brilliant blue scales, having a pearly lustre. These crystals lose ammonia and water slowly upon exposure to the air, with marked alteration of color; they are decomposed by water, a small amount of the copper going into solution. For analysis the crystals were pressed between filter paper as rapidly as possible. A bromine compound similar in every respect to this one has been pre- pared, and will form the subject of a future communication. Analyses of Ammon-Cupriammonium Acetochloride. I. 0.2524 gr. of the substance yielded on electrolysis 0.0698 gr. of copper. II. 0.2273 gr. of the substance yielded 0.0634 gr. of copper. III. 0.2875 gr. of the substance yielded 0.0808 gr. of copper. IV. 0.1337 gr. of the substance required on distillation 17.37 c.c. of decinormal acid to neutralize the ammonia vo'atilized. V. 0.1554 gr. of the substance required in the same way 20.17 c.c. of acid. VI. 0.0979 gr. of the substance required 12.56 c.c. of decinormal acid. VII. 0.2708 gr. of substance yielded 0.1701 gr. of argentic chloride. VIII. 0.2696 gr. of substance yielded 0.1700 gr. of argentic chloride. IX. 0.1926 gr. of the substance yielded upon distillation with phos- phoric acid a distillate requiring 8.94 c.c. of decinormal baric hydroxide for neutralization with phenol phthalein. This liquid yielded 0.0116 gr. of argentic chloride, containing traces of argentic phosphate, which amount is equivalent to about 0.81 c.c. of decinormal acid. Hence the acetic acid in the distillate must have required 8.13 c.c. of the alkaline solution. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. l'.-.l X. 0.2215 gr. of substance required upon distillation 10.38 c.c. of baric hydrate, of which 0.6G were required to neutralize the hydrochloric acid corresponding to 0.0096 gr. of argentic chloride obtained from the neutralized distillate (10.38 — 0.66 = 9.72). No. Copper. Ammonia. Chlorine. C n 0 I. 27.65 / II. 27.89 III. 28.17 IV. 22.16 V. 22.11 VI. 21.89 VII. 15.56 VIII i 15.59 IX. 24.91 X. 25 90 Average, 27.90 22.00 15.57 25.40 The averaged results are given below. Calculated for Cu(MI ,ClCtHsOg. ILO. Found. Copper 27.'. IS 27.90 Ammonia 22.53 22.06 Chlorine 15.60 15.57 Acetic Acid 25.97 25.10 Water (by difference) 7.92 9.07 L 00.00 100.00 3. Complex * Oupriammonium Aceiochlmiih , [Cu(NH8)2ClC2H802]2 . 3 NH4C2H802 + 7 H20. The complex cupriammoniuro acetochloride ie obtained under condi- tions which would have been expected to produce the Bimple compound * " Complex " is used here in default of a word more capable of describing the complexity of the compound. It is not intended to tarry with a any tech- 252 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY enclosed in the brackets above. This simple compound, probably owing to its great solubility, we have been unable as yet to isolate. Whenever cupric chloride is treated with a great excess of concen- trated ammonia water, the excess cautiously neutralized with glacial acetic acid, and the whole treated with alcohol and allowed to evapo- rate, great crystals of the complicated compound containing three mole- cules of amnionic acetate and probably seven of water to every two of cupriammonium acetochloride always separate out. The addition of somewhat more acetic acid in this case constitutes the sole difference between the methods of preparing this compound and the preceding. In the former case an excess of ammonia was required. The crystals of the complex salt are of a most brilliant blue with a tinge of violet, and may be obtaiued of almost any size. They dis- solve in very small amounts of water without apparent decomposition, but larger amounts of water decompose them. The new compound readily loses water and ammonic acetate in the air, and is converted into a pale green powder, which remains to be investigated. Over caustic potash in a desiccator, on the contrary, it is soon converted into a pale violet powder with a very sudden loss of weight. After the sudden decrease has stopped a slower decrease continues, without change of color, and the composition of the powder constantly ap- proaches that of the simple cupriammouium acetochloride. Its complete conversion into this compound we have not yet been able to accomplish ; and regarding the exact nature of the compounds which are marked by the irregular decrease in weight we have as yet nothing to say. For analysis the crystals were pressed between filter paper. The possible causes of error from decomposition on the one hand, and the adhesion of mother liquor on the other, were guarded against as much as possible. Nevertheless these causes of error are undoubt- edly responsible for the not unreasonable variations noticeable in the analytical results ; for the three specimens of crystals analyzed were undoubtedly identical. Analyses of Complex Cupriammonium Acetochloride. I. 0.2404 gr. of the substance yielded on electrolysis 0.0411 gr. of copper. II. 0.2446 gr. of the substance yielded on electrolysis 0.0419 gr. of copper. nical meaning with regard to the structure of the molecule. Indeed, the names of all the compounds described in this paper are far from satisfactory to us ; they would be thrown out very gladly if hetter ones could be found. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 253 III. 0.2772 gr. of the substance yielded on electrolysis 0.0476 gr. of copper. IV. 0.1418 gr. of the substance yielded on distillation enough am- monia to neutralize 13.25 c.c. of decinormal acid. V. 0.1403 gr. of the substance required on distillation 13.24 c.c. of decinormal acid. VI. 0.1895 gr. of the substance required on distillation 17.71) c.c. of decinormal acid. VII. 0.1472 gr. of the substanee required on distillation 14.1!) c.c. of decinormal acid. VIII. 0.2319 gr. of the substance yielded 0.0895 gr. of argentic chloride. IX. 0.2244 gr. of the substance yielded 0.0870 gr. of argentic chloride. X. 0.1679 gr. of the substance gave on combustion 0.0998 gr. of carbon dioxide. No. Copper. Ammonia. Chlorine. c no. I. 17.10 II. 17.13 III. 1717 IV. 15.95 v- 16.11 VI. 16.03 VII. 16.46 VIII. 9.54 IX. 9.59 X. 3!).'.'-. Average 17.13 16.16 9.57 89.96 A fourth sample, which had a similar appearance, was found to con- tain 17.61 per cent of copper and 9.94 of chlorine This bad proba- bly begun to lose water and amnionic acetate. A finely powdered specimen kept for eleven months over sodic hydrate was found to con- 254 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY tain 25.8 per cent of copper and 14.35 of chlorine. Since the theoreti- cal percentages corresponding to Cu(NH)2ClC2H302 are respectively 33.08 and 18.45, it is clear that the excess of amnionic acetate had not been wholly decomposed during the long exposure. Further experi- ments in this direction will be made in the near future. Results. Calculated for Cu2(NH3)4Cl2(C2B302)6(NH1)si II20 Found. Copper 17.12 17.13 Chlorine 9.55 9.57 Ammonia 16.08 16.16 C2H302 39.73 39.95 4. Cupriammonium Formibromide, Cu(NH3)2BrCH02. Cupriammonium formibromide is made after a method essentially similar to that employed in making the corresponding compound of acetic acid. The salt is more difficult to obtain in a pure state ; but any reasonably concentrated solution containing bromine, copper, much formic acid, and ammonia in very slight excess, will deposit the deep "robin's egg" blue crystals of the desired salt upon the addition of alcohol. The possibility of the formation of basic salts of copper is diminished if the excess of ammonia is added after the addition of the alcohol. The salt possesses no unexpected properties, except that the color of the short needles is much less brilliant and crude than that of cupriammonium acetobromide. A similar compound containing chlorine instead of bromine has been prepared, and analyzed with results which were sufficiently accurate to show the identity of the compound ; but it was thought desirable to study more carefully the conditions necessary for its preparation in a pure state before publishing the results. Moreover, a more complex formibromide of most interesting aspect and composition has been made. This substance also awaits further study. Analyses of Cupriammonium Formibromide. I. 0.2192 gr. of the substance gave on electrolysis 0.0621 gr. of copper. II. 0.2164 gr. of the substance yielded on electrolysis 0.0618 gr. of copper. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 255 III. 0.1386 gr. of the substance yielded a distillate of ammonia which required for neutralization 1 2.32 c.c. of decinormal acid. IV. Similarly 0.1180 gr. of the substance required 10.46 c.c. of decinormal acid. V. 0.151)9 gr. of the substance gave 0.1371 gr. of argentic bromide VI. 0.2414gr. of the substance gave 0.20G3 gr. of argentic bromide. VII. 0.1678 gr. of the substance gave 0.1429 gr. of argentic bromide. VIII. 0.2062 gr. of the substance yielded on combustion 0.0103 gr. of carbon dioxide. IX. 0.2435 gr. of the substance yielded on combustion 0.0469 gr. of carbon dioxide. No. Copper. Ammonia Bromine Formic Acid, Clio,. I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. 28.30 28. 5G 15.17 15.13 36.49 36.37 30.24 19.93 19.70 Average, 28.43 15.15 36.37 19.80 These analyses were made from several different samples (especially V., VI., and VII., which were all different), and hence they prove the definiteness of the compound. The averaged results are given below. i'. .mi i 28.43 15.15 86.87 19.80 99.75 Calculated for eu(NH3),I5rCII02. Copper 28.56 Ammonia 15.33 Bromine 35.90 CH02 20.21 luo.ix; 256 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY 5. Cupric Amnionic Acetochloride, CuCl2 . 2 NH4C2H302. Upon several occasions during the investigation just described, when concentrated solutions of approximately equivalent amounts of cupric chloride and ammonic acetate had been allowed to evaporate together, especially with addition of alcohol, bright green almost cubical crystals separated. These crystals were sometimes found to be mixed with small amounts of ammonic chloride, and sometimes almost pure. The substance is a double salt, and not a cupriammonium compound ; hence it dissolves in water without apparent decomposition. The purest crystals gave the following analytical results. Analyses of Cupric Ammonic Acetochloride. I. 0.3132 gr. of the substance gave 0.0G89 gr. of copper. II. 0.2649 gr. of the substance gave 0.0585 gr. of copper. III. 0.1180 gr. of the substance gave 0.1181 gr. of argentic chloride. IV. 0.2091 gr. of the substance gave 0.2150 gr. of argentic chloride. V. 0.2121 gr. of the substance yielded enough ammonia to require 14.47 c.c. of decinormal acid. VI. 0.2158 gr. of the substance required 14.20 c.c. of acid. VII. 0.1930 gr. of the substance required 13.83 c.c. of acid. VIII. 0.2648 gr. of the substance gave 0.1633 gr. of carbon dioxide. No. Copper. Chlorine. Ammonium. C,H302. I. 22.00 II. 22.09 III. 24.75 IV. 25.35 V. 12.34 VI. 11.88 (?) VII. 12.98 VIII. 41.35 Average, 22.05 25.05 12.40 41.35 OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 267 Calculated for CmNH^Clj'CjHjOife. Found. Copper 22.03 22.05 Chlorine 24.56 25.05 Ammonium 12.52 12.40 Acetic Acid 40.89 41.35 100.00 L 00.85 6. Tetrammon- Tricupriammonium Bromitl>\ 3 Cu(NH8)2Br2 . 4 NH3. Long ago Rammelsberg* described two compounds of ammonia and cupric bromide, to one of which, consisting of dark green crystals, he ascribed the formula CuBi\2 . 3 NHa ; and to the other, consisting of a bright blue powder, he ascribed the formula CuBr2 . 5 NIC. Recent investigation t has shown that the latter of the two substances mast have been in reality CuBr2 . 6NH3. which had lost some of its very loosely combined ammonia by exposure to the air. The same investi- gation brought to light an olive-green substance having the formula Cu(NH8)2Br2. Repeated attempts were made at the same time to obtain Rammels- berg's first substance. The product of these trials invariably consisted of deep indigo, almost black crystals, which contained noticeably more ammonia than the amount required by Rammelsberg's formula. These deep blue crystals are best obtained by adding very cautiously strong hydrobromic acid to a mixture of cupric bromide, alcohol, and just enough aqua ammonia to keep all the copper in solution. Qpon the addition of enough acid to neutralize the ammonia, the crystals — which are almost insoluble in alcohol — begin to form. Upon exposure to the air in a moist state these crystals lose am- monia rather rapidly; but when dry they are much more Btable. Gentle heat (1G0°) readily converts them completely into the olive- green Cu(NH8)2Br2, which still retains the crystalline form of the more complex salt. It is not impossible that Rammelsberg's green crystals consisted originally of the indigo-colored substance, which had lost superficially a little of its ammonia. Tetrammon-tricupriammonium bromide is decomposed by water, a noticeable amount of copper going into solution in the form of a sol- * Pops- Annalen, LV. 246. t T. W. Richards, Her. d. ch. Ges., 1890, p. 8790. vol.. XXVIII. [v. B. XX.) 17 258 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY uble compound containing proportionally more ammonia than the original substance. The reaction which takes place may possibly be represented somewhat as follows : — Cu3(NH3)10Br6 + 4 II20 = [Cu(NH3)6Br2 + 4 NH4Br + Aq\ + 2 Cu(OH)a. The amount of water present undoubtedly determines to a large extent the exact nature of the cupriammonium compound which re- mains undecomposed. A great number of analyses of the indigo salt were made ; partly because of the unusual nature of the formula which they indicated ; and partly because the crystals, constantly appearing under many varying conditions in the work which has just been described, needed identification. Analyses of Cu3(NH3)10Br6. I. 0.4730 gr. of the substance yielded 0.1075 gr. of copper. II. 0.4540 gr. of the substance yielded 0.1033 gr. of copper. III. 0.2G14 gr. of the substance yielded 0.0594 gr. of copper. IV. 0.4269 gr. of the substance yielded 0.5721 gr. of argentic bromide. V. 0.4084 gr. of the substance yielded 0.5476 gr. of argentic bromide. VI. 0.2884 gr. of the substance yielded 0.3861 gr. of argentic bromide. VII. 0.1776 gr. of the substance yielded an amount of ammonia requiring 20.67 c.c. of deciuormal acid for neutralization. VIII. 0.1245 gr. of the substance required 14.77 c.c. of the same acid. IX. 0.1099 gr. of the substance required 12.71 c.c. of the same acid. X. 0.1288 gr. of the substance required 15.20 c.c. of the same acid. XI. 0.1175 gr. of the substance required 13.85 c.c. of the same acid. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 259 No. Copper. Bromine. Ammonia. I. 22.7:'. II. 22.75 III. 22.72 IV. 57.03 V. 57.06 VI. 56.97 1 VII. 19.86 VIII. 20.25 IX. 19.74 X. 20.14 XI. 20.19 Average, 22.73 57.02 20.06 Result. Calculated for c alculated for CuBr.,3 NH3. (C aBr,)3(NH3)10. Found. Copper 23.15 22.68 22.7:; Bromine 58.21 57.03 57.02 Ammonia 18. 04 20.29 2().'.). si It is evident that this paper is merely an introduction to the possi- bilities in the direction indicated. Not oidy have other compound the same acids been already discovered, but many other acids, notably bydriodic, lactic, sulphocyanic, etc., show that they are capable of forming similar compounds. Moreover, the substituted ammonias may apparently take the place of the simple substance in mosl of the 1 1- pounds. A few of these preparations are to be seen in the University exhibit at the World's Columbian Exhibition. The study of all these interesting substances will be continued in the immediate future al t liir- Laboratory. 260 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY XVIII. NOTES ON THE OXIDES CONTAINED IN CERITE, SAMARSKTTE, GADOLINITE. AND FERGUSONITE. By Wolcott Gibbs, M. D., Rumford Professor (Emeritus) in Harvard University. Presented June 14, 1893. In the present paper I have brought forward a number of observa- tions and analyses which I hope will be of service to those who are engaged in the study of the rarer earths. The subject is one of such extreme difficulty, that even the results of an imperfect study may have value. For the material which I have employed I have been chiefly indebted to Dr. Waldron Shapleigh, Chemist to the Welsbach Incandescent Light Company, by whom I have been liberally supplied with various preparations in a state of considerable purity. I have also to make my acknowledgments to Professor Everhart, from whom I have received a considerable quantity of gadolinite from the well known locality in Llano County, Texas. The material given me by Dr. Shapleigh con- sisted in part of beautiful crystalline double nitrates of the earths and ammonium, and in part of crude oxides. The double nitrates contained only the earths present in cerite, and for the most part only Ce203, Ln203, Ps203, and Nd203, with very small relative quantities of Y203, and traces only of other earths. In converting the crude oxides into sulphates it is best to sift the fine powder slowly upon the surface of cold dilute sulphuric acid. The sulphates are then formed at once as fine crystalline powders free from hard lumps. Another method sometimes applicable with advantage consists in mixing the oxides with an excess of ammonic sulphate, and then igniting slowly in por- celain crucibles, which are to be heated in a muffle to low redness until vapors are no longer given off. The sulphates then present a beautiful snow-white soft crystalline powder, and readily form saturated solutions with cold water. In all work with the rare earths, oxalates from their insolubility play a very important part. They may, as all chem- ists know, be readily converted into sulphates by treatment with sul- OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 261 phuric acid and careful expulsion of the excess of this last hy heat I have found it more convenient to mix the oxalate Ultimately with an excess of amnionic sulphate and heat carefully in a muffle, as in the last case. The resulting sulphates are perfectly soluble without pink- ing together if sifted upon the surface of cold water. They are also perfectly neutral. The oxalates may also be converted into chlorides by mixing them intimately with amnionic chloride and igniting the mixture in a muffle very gently. Determinations of mean atomic mass are now always employed in the study of the mixtures of oxides which present themselves in the attempt to effect separations. Very accurate results are obtained by the usual method of converting a weighed quantity of oxides into the equivalent weight of sulphates by treatment with sulphuric acid and subsequent careful ignition. Probably this could be done more conveniently, and in less time, by igniting the oxides in porcelain crucibles in a muffle, after mixing carefully with amnionic sulphate, but upon this point I have made no quantitative experiments. In all my work I have employed the analysis of the oxalates convenient and accurate. It is, however, necessary to insist upon several points of detail. In the first place I remark that the prepara- tion of perfectly homogeneous mixtures of the oxalates requires much care. It is best to precipitate by a hot dilute solution of oxalic acid added slowly in small but distinct excess to a hot dilute solution of the mixed chlorides or nitrates. The precipitated oxalates are then to be thoroughly washed by decantation with hot distilled water. This requires in general a large quantity of water, and must be continued unLil the washings contain no trace of oxalic acid and give no cloudiness with ammonia. Auer von Welsbach's process, which consists in adding a very dilute solution of the nitrates (or chlorides) to a hot dilute solution of oxalic acid, gives the oxalates in a state of \cv\ line >ul>- division and perfectly free from hard masses. The mixed washings on saturation with ammonia sometimes give a precipitate of oxalate s, though in small quantity. These oxalates may be washed and mixed with the main portion. The mass is to be dried upon a water-bath, and then thoroughly mixed in a dry mortar. Only in this manner is it possible to obtain a mass of oxalates sufficiently bomogeni to yield corresponding results when differenl portions are analyzed. The determination of the mean atomic mass in the oxalates prepared as above involves only the determination of the percentag ■> oxide R20, and of C?Og, the water present being "f course without influence. Here I may remark that, as has doubtless been observed by other 262 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY chemists, the last portions of water require a very high temperature for expulsion. The details of the method which I employ are as fol- lows. From 0.5 gr. to 1 gr. of the oxalate is to be gently heated until the greater part of the water and carbonic dioxide have been driven off, and then at a full red heat for fifteen to twenty minutes with a blast lamp to a constant weight. During ignition the cruci- ble is best placed at an angle, and partly uncovered to permit free access of air. The mixed oxides do not retain a weighable amount of carbonic dioxide. To determine C203, from 0.3 gr. to 0.4 gr. of the oxalate are to be weighed into a 250 c.c. flask ; 20 c.c. of water and 30 c.c. of dilute sulphuric acid, 1 : 6 by volume, are then to be added and the flask is to be gently heated upon a sand-bath until the solution is complete, when the hot liquid is to be titrated with carefully stan- dardized permanganate. The following analyses will show the corre- spondence between the results obtained by the above described method and those obtained by the sulphate process. In an oxalate from a perfectly colorless nitrate of lanthanum and ammonium sent me by Dr. Shapleigh, — (1) 0.3344 gr. gave 0.1009 gr. C203 = 30.15 per cent. (2) 0.3274 gr. " 0.09895 gr. " =30.07 (3) 0.3726 gr. " 0.1120 gr. " =30.08 (4) 0.3485 gr. " 0.1050 gr. " =30.11 (5) 0.5931 gr. " 0.2706 gr. R203 = 45.61 (6) 0.5977 gr. " 0.2728 gr. " = 45.64 The means are 30.10 per cent C203, and 45.625 per cent R203. The mean atomic mass calculated from the above is 130.70. Dr. Shapleigh found by the sulphate method 139.75, 139.72, 139.67, mean 139.71. The necessity of thoroughly mixing the oxalates will appear from the following analyses made with oxalates simply washed and dried : — (7) 0.3549 gr. gave 0.1274 gr. C203 = 35.88 per cent. (8) 0.3697 gr. " 0.1316 gr. " =35.59 (9) 0.3807 gr. " 0.1382 gr. " = 36.29 (10) 0.6550 gr. " 0.2869 gr. R203 = 43.79 (11) 0.6125 gr. " 0.2699 gr. " =44.07 " The same oxalates carefully mixed in a mortar were also analyzed for comparison : — OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 263 (12) 0.3357 gr. gave 0.1213 gr. C203 = 36.16 per cent. (13) 0.3856 gr. " 0.1393 gr. " =36.13 (14) 0.G538 gr. " 0.2906 gr. R,s08 = 44.45 " (15) 0.7074 gr. " 0.3145 gr. " = 44.46 " The analyses leave no doubt whatever as to the necessity of carefully mixing the precipitated oxalates. They also show that in determina- tions of atomic mass by the sulphate method both oxalates and oxides should be well ground up to secure homogeneity. It has been shown that the oxalate and sulphate methods executed with proper care give equally accurate results. Each has its advantages, and in this respi Cl there is but little choice. As the study of the rarer earths as now conducted usually depends more or less upon the properties of the double salts which they form with potassic and sodic sulphates, it may be well to call attention to facts not, I believe, noticed in printed papers, though doubtless recognized. The first is that the earths in the double sulphates may be converted directly into oxalates by boiling the sulphates with chlorhydric and oxalic acids, and then diluting with much water. The second fact is that oxalates obtained in this way. as from any alkaline solutions, should always be converted into oxides by ignition. These should then be dissolved in chlorhydric acid, again precipitated by oxalic acid, and the oxalates thoroughly washed. In determining atomic masses by either the sulphate or oxalate method, the assumption is tacitly made that all the oxides taken for analysis are of the type R203. This is not true when cerium is pres- ent, as in that case a portion at least of this metal is present as Ce02 after ignition. Higher oxides than R203 are also present to some extent, at least when praseodymia and neodymia are mixed with ceria, or even when this last oxide is not present. Ceric oxide is not reduced by a full red heat to cerous oxide, or even by a cur- rent of hydrogen, at least in a crucible. The error committed is not. however, large when we consider the cerium as CeJ). instead of Ce204. and is still less in the cases of the other oxides. When great accuracy is necessary, it may be well to remove the four cerite oxide, by means of potassic or sodic sulphate before determining the atomic mass. In a number of analyses I determined the percentage of oxide, by simply igniting the oxalate with a weighed quantity of pure sodic tungstate. This method gives very accurate results, but, as pure sodic tungstate must always be specially prepared in the labora- tory, is not to be greatly recommended. Ceric oxide is not reduced 264 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY to cerous oxide by heating with the tungstate to a red heat for some time. I may here state that a test for ceria more delicate than that which I gave many years since (Pb02 and N03H) is obtained by employing the oxide of bismuth, Bi204, in place of plumbic oxide. With these preliminaries I proceed to special methods of separating the mixed oxides. A series of experiments was first made to determine to what extent differentiation is effected by successive partial precipita- tions by oxalic acid. The method is of course not new, but, so far as I know, it has not been tested by quantitative analyses, and no attempt has been made to determine the rate of change. The material used in this case was a mixture of sulphates, the sulphate of neodymium being present in largest quantity. Thoric and other oxides in less quantity were also present. The material was obtained from Dr. Shapleigh in the form of oxides. After careful purification the atomic mass of the oxides was first determined : — (16) 0.5622 gr. gave 0.1715 gr. C203 = 30.50 per cent. (17) 0.4782 gr. " 0.1458 gr. >' =30.50 " (18) 0.4355 gr. " 0.1326 gr. " = 30.47 " (19) 0.6100 gr. " 0.2778 gr. R203 = 45.55 " (20) 0.6001 gr. " 0.3141 gr. " =45.50 The analyses give as the .atomic mass 137.25. A portion of the oxides was then converted into sulphate-, and the number of cubic centimeters of a solution of oxalic acid required for complete precipi- tation, determined by experiment with a sufficiently close approxima- tion. A solution of the sulphates having a very fine rose-red color was then precipitated in five successive additions of equal volumes of a solution of oxalic acid. After each addition of the acid the resulting oxalate was filtered off and washed. The washings were then added to the filtrate. It will be seen that in this way the bulk of the solu- tion increased before each precipitation after the first. The results are as follows : — I. (21) 0.3126 gr. gave 0.0941 gr. C203 = 30.52 per cent. (22) 0.3410 gr. " 0.1042 gr. " =30.54 (23) 0.5773 gr. " 0.2820 gr. R203 = 48.8 1 " (24) 0.5856 gr. " 0.2s.-,.') gr. " = 48.75 " Atomic mass 148.60. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 265 II. (25) 0.3563 gr. gave 0.1114 gr. C208 = 31.26 per cent. (26) 0.3500 gr. « 0.1091 gr. " =31.20 (27) 0.6848 gr. « 0.3317 gr. R203 = 48. 1 :i (28) 0.6664 gr. " 0.3223 gr. " =48.37 Atomic mass 143. '■•■'>. III. (29) 0.3500 gr. gave 0.1113 gr. C208 = 31.78 (30) 0.3127 gr. " 0.09936 gr. " =31.77 « (31) 0.6859 gr. " 0.3345 gr. R208 = 48.75 » (32) 0.7087 gr. " 0.3447 gr. '• =48.65 Atomic mass 141.55. IV. (33) 0.3350 gr. gave 0.1042 gr. C208 = 31.12 (34) 0.3410 gr. " 0.1060 gr. " =31.09 " (35) 0.6369 gr. " 0.2958 gr. 1L03 = 46. 1 1 (36) 0.6468 gr. « 0.3004 gr. " =46.45 « Atomic mass 137.25. V. (37) 0.2042 gr. gave 0.06864 gr. C203 = 33.62 « (38) 0.2031 gr. " 0.06828 gr. " = 33.62 " (39) 0.3045 gr. " 0.1409 gr. R203 = 46.26 (40) 0.3400 gr. "0.1569 gr. " =46.14 " Atomic mass 124.40. The filtrate from the last portion of oxalates contained only traces of earths. The analyses show that the earths with the highest atomic masses are precipitated first by oxalic acid. The average rate of de- crease of mean atomic mass is five units for each operation, but the rate is by no means uniform. The results prove that precipitated oxa- lates must be very carefully mixed mechanically before analysis when more than one earth is present. The analyses also show that four fifths of the earths might have been precipitated at once by oxalic acid if the object had been to obtain yttria with the least outlay of time and labor, the atomic mass of the last fifth being 124.40. Oxychlorides. — When the chlorides of the metals belonging to the cerium and yttrium groups, or, more generally stated, of the m< yielding the rarer earths, are carefully heated, oxychlorides are formed in greater or less proportion mixed with undecomposed chlorides. We may distinguish these as acid and basic chlorides. Water dissolves out the former very readily, and leaves nearly or quite colorless basic chlorides, which are, relatively at least, insoluble. I find that in this way the earths present an- separated into two groups, and thai by repeating the operation upon each group a second differentiation ifl 266 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY effected in each case. The process appears to deserve attention, and to compare very favorably with separation by means of basic nitrates. The details of this method are as follows. The mixed oxides in as pure a state as possible are to be dissolved in a small excess of pure chlorhydric acid; the solution is then to be evaporated at first on a water-bath, and then on a sand-bath, until a thick syrup is obtained. This is to be transferred to a porcelain cru- cible, which is then to be heated gently in a muffle. The heat should not be allowed to exceed low redness. Much chlorhydric acid is given off during the heating, and a white mass remains which consists in part of a mixture of oxychlorides, and in part of unaltered chlorides. The mass is then to be treated with hot water in rather small portions at a time, the solution being poured off before each new addition. When the washing is nearly complete, the solution becomes turbid. The white insoluble mass and supernatant liquid are then to be evap- orated to dryness, or to a thick syrup, after the addition of enough chlorhydric acid to effect complete solution. The liquid poured off and containing the soluble chlorides is also to be evaporated to dryness, but without addition of chlorhydric acid. We have then two separate portions, of which one, A, contains the soluble or relatively acid chlorides, and the other, B, the neutralized oxychlorides. Each of these portions is to be treated in the muffle as in the first case. In this manner two new basic chlorides, B2 and B3, and two new acid chlo- rides, A2 and A3, are obtained. The same processes are to be repeated as long as the material lasts. The atomic mass of the oxides taken must first be determined, and afterward the atomic masses of the portions A1} A2, A3, etc., and B1} B2, B3, etc. This enables us to determine the rate of change in the atomic masses produced by the successive operations. Of course it is only necessary to take a small portion of each product Al5 Bj, etc., for the determination of the atomic mass. The whole process will perhaps be rendered more clear by means of a diagram, and in illustration I shall select the re- sults of actual work in a particular case. The starting point in this case was a mixture of oxides from Texas gadolinite having the atomic mass 107.5. The data are as follows : — (41) 0.3577 gr. gave 0.1357 gr. C203 = 37.91 per cent. (42) 0.324G gr. " 0.1228 gr. " = 37. SI (43) 0.3999 gr. " 0.1515 gr. " = 37.86 " (44) 0.0113 gr. " 0.2814 gr. R203 = 46.04 (45) O.G670 gr. " 0.3064 gr. " = 45.94 " (46) 0.6303 gr. " 0.2892 gr. " = 45.88 " Atomic mass 107.5. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 207 Bj Left. Atomic mass 110.8. (47) 0.6836 gr. gave 0.3289 gi\ R203 = 48.11 per cent. (48) 0.2344 gr. " 0.0904 gr. C208 = 38.57 Aj Right. Atomic mass 94.7">. (49) 1.2740 gr. gave 0.4976 gr. R203 = 39.65 per cent (50) 0.2998 gr. <> 0.1065 gr. C203 = 35... 1 B2 Left. Atomic mass 117.4. (51) 0.4327 gr. gave 0.2157 gr. R203 = 49.84 per cent, (52) 0.2860 gr. « 0.1089 gr. C203 = 38.07 A2 Left. Atomic mass 98.35. (53) 0.7897 gr. gave 0.3714 gr. R20:i = 47.03 per cent. (54) 0.3772 gr. " 0.1566 gr. C203 = 41.52 B3 Left. Atomic rnas* 122. (55) 0.5910 gr. gave 0.2803 gr. R203 = 47.43 per cent. (56) 0.2023 gr. " 0.0710 gr. C203 - 35.09 A3 Left. Atomic mass 102.8. (57) 0.4472 gr. gave 0.2137 gr. R203 = 47.78 per cent. (58) 0.3067 gr. « 0.1248 gr. C203 = 40.70 Ax Right. Atomic mass 94.75. (59) 1.2740 gr. gave 0.4976 gr. R203 = 39.05 per cent. (60) 0.2998 gr. " 0.1065 gr. C203 = 35.51 A2 Right. Atomic mass 91 65. (61) 1.0032 gr. gave 0.3948 gr. R2Os = 39.37 per cent. (62) 0.5057 gr. " 0.1856 gr. C208 = 36.77 B« Rh'ht Atomic mass 98.6. (63) 0.7353 gr. gave 0.3291 gr. R203 = 4J.7."> per cent. (64) 0.3343 gr. « 0.1318 gr. C203 = 39.43 A3 Right. Atomic mass 89.5. (65) 0.4864 gr. gave 0.2146 gr. H,03 = 44.12 per cent. (66) 0.2212 gr. " 0.0929 gr. C203 = 42.00 I'. Right. Atomic mass 92.35. (67) 0.5183 gr. gave 0.2238 gr. R,0, = ,:''-17 l"'r rrUt- (68) 0.2080 gr- " 0.0884 gr. (3,0, = 40.07 268 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY The following diagram enables us to take in all the results at a "•lance. Left. 107.05 Right. 110.8 94.75 Bx Ax 117.4 98.35 91.65 98.6 B2 A2 A, B, 122 102.8 89.5 92.35 B3 A 3 A3 B; . It must be noted that in the above and on the diagram, B1( B2, B3, etc. denote basic or oxychlorides ; Ai, A2, A3, etc., neutral or rela- tively acid chlorides. The analyses were not pursued further because the material taken was exhausted by the separations accomplished. The examination of the results obtained in this particular case by the basic chloride process leads to interesting conclusions. In the first place, it will be remarked that the atomic masses of the insoluble basic chlorides increase with each successive separation into basic and acid chlorides, while the neutral or relatively acid chlorides give di- minishing atomic masses. In the cases of these last, three successive operations give a nearly pure yttria, with atomic mass 89.5. The rate of increase of the atomic masses of the successive portions B1? B2, B3, is about 5.3 units for each operation. The rate of decrease of the portions Ax, A2, A3, is about 2.6 units for each operation. It is not to be expected that perfectly uniform results will be obtained even when the process is applied to the same mixture of oxides, be- cause the amount of separation into basic and acid chlorides by each operation must depend very much upon the temperature of the muffle and the length of time during which the heat is applied. In the sec- ond place, it must be noted that, while a very nearly pure yttria is obtained in three operations, this does not represent the whole quan- tity of the earth in the compound. It will also be seen that a decided advantage must be secured by making mixtures of the products hav- OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. . 269 ing nearly the same atomic masses, and then applying the method of separation to these. Other applications of the method give, as I will now show, substan- tially similar results. The next substance examined was a mixture of oxides received from Dr. Shapleigh. and obtained from residual mother liquors of cerite and monazite salts. The oxide was dissolved in chlor- hydric acid, and purified by a current of sulphydric acid. Of the mixed oxalates, — (69) 0.5622 gr. gave 0.1715 gr. C203 = 30.50 per cent. (70) 0.4782 gr. " 0.1458 gr. " =30.50 (71) 0.4355 gr. « 0.1326 gr. " =30.17 " (72) 0.6100 gr. « 0.2778 gr. R2Os = 45.55 « (73) 0.6904 gr. " 0.3141 gr. " =45.50 « Atomic mass 137.25. I also determined the mean atomic mass after separating the cerite earths by means of sodic sulphate in the usual manner. Of course some yttria went down with the double sulphates. (74) 0.2440 gr. gave 0.0946 gr. C208 = 38.77 per cent. (75) 0.2438 gr. " 0.0946 gr. " = 38.80 (76) 0.4597 gr. " 0.2146 gr. R203 = 46.68 (77) 0.3570 gr. " 0.1668 gr. « =46.72 " Atomic mass 106.05. The oxides with atomic mass 106.05 were then treated by the oxy- chloride process. Portion Bt Left. (78) 0.4027 gr. gave 0.1505 gr. C208 = 37.38 per cent. (79) 0.5204 gr. " 0.1943 gr. " =37.35 (80) 0.6947 gr. " 0.3250 gr. R203 = 46.78 (81) 0.9233 gr. " 0.4323 gr. « =46.82 Atomic mass 11 1.3. Portion B2 Left. (82) 0.4127 gr. gave 0.1464 gr. C203 = 35. 19 per cent. (83) 0.3215 gr. " 0.1142 gr. " =35.51 (84) 0.5885 gr. " 0.2668 gr. R203 = 45.33 (85) 0.6205 gr. " 0.2814 gr. " =45.35 Atomic mass 113.95. a a 270 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY Portion A], Right. (8G) 0.4332 gr. gave 0.1630 gr. C203 = 37.63 per cent. (87) 0.3239 gr. " 0.1217 gr. " = 37.57 (88) 0.6813 gr. " 0.3062 gr. R203 = 44.94 " (89) 0.6749 gr. " 0.3035 gr. " = 44.95 " Atomic mass 105.1. Portion A2 Right. (90) 0.3317 gr. gave 0.1161 gr. C203 = 35.02 per cent. (91) 0.3216 gr. " 0.1126 gr. « =35.00 " (92) 0.6800 gr. " 0.2823 gr. R203 = 41.52 (93) 0.6529 gr. « 0.2709 gr. " = 41.50 Atomic mass 104.05. B2 Right. (94) 0.3785 gr. gave 0.1314 gr. C203 = 34.73 per cent. (95) 0.2882 gr. « 0.0999 gr. " = 34.68 (96) 0.6187 gr. " 0.2676 gr. R203 = 43.25 (97) 0.6421 gr. " 0.2770 gr. " =43.24 Atomic mass 110.45. A2 Left. (98) 0.3458 gr. gave 0.1290 gr. C203 = 37.31 per cent. (99) 0.4089 gr. " 0.1523 gr. " = 37.24 (100) 0.6892 gr. " 0.3062 gr. R203 = 44.43 (101) 0.5986 gr. " 0.2660 gr. " =44.44 Atomic mass 104.75. A3 Right. (102) 0.3002 gr. gave 0.1162 gr. C203 = 38.73 per cent. (103) 0.3251 gr. " 0.1260 gr. " =38.77 " (104) 0.6667 gr. " 0.3031 gr. R203 = 45.44 " (105) 0.7642 gr. " 0.3478 gr. " =45.51 " Atomic mass 102.75. (106) A2, B3 Right. (107) 0.3426 gr. gave 0.1307 gr. C203 = 38.16 per cent. (108) 0.3401 gr. « 0.1298 gr. " =38.18 " (109) 0.8197 gr. « 0.3728 gr. R203 = 45.46 " (110) 0.7623 gr. " 0.3467 gr. " =45.47 " Atomic mass 104.65. if u OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 271 These determinations exhausted the material employed. The fol- lowing diagram brings together all the results. 111.3 11395 B, Left. RCla 1U0.U5 Right. 104.05 102.75 A, 105.1 104.65 A2B3 [10.46 B, The diagram in the case of the oxides from cerite and monazite shows very clearly that, as with the oxides from gadolinite, the atomic masses B1? B2, B3 increase, while those of Au A2, A8 diminish, but at a different rate, perhaps, as already remarked, because the conditions were not precisely the same. It seems very desirable that similar experiments should be made with the basic nitrate process, which has been so much used, so as to determine which method gives results that converge most rapidly toward the atomic masses of pure oxides. Only in this manner can the relative values of the two methods be determined. I consider it probable that further ex- perience with the oxychloride process will lead to a very material shortening of the process. I have employed for the mosl pari porce- lain crucibles holding about 130 c.c, but with larger muffles it would be easy to work up a kilogram of oxides at each operation. Also much is to be expected from a judicious mixture of the d fferenl pro- ducts on the right and left having nearly the same atomic ma All points fairly considered, I am I believe justified in offering the oxy- chloride process as worthy of further trial. It appeared possible that basic bromides might be more advantageous than basic chlorides as means of differentiation, but the experiments made were not conclusive on this point. Observing the formation of beautiful well defined crvstals when the oxides from gadolinite and the cerite and monazite residues were dissolved m chlorhydric or 272 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY bromhydric acid, and the solutions evaporated to a syrupy con- sistence, I examined two cases. The perfectly colorless and easily soluble crystals obtained from gadolinite earths free from cerite earths by chlorhydric acid after two successive crystallizations were analyzed. (111) 0.3248 gr. gave 0.1293 gr. C203 = 39.82 per cent. (112) 0.3000 gr. " 0.1450 gr. R203 = 48.34 " The atomic mass is 107.10 so that the crystalline chlorides contained the earths in the same proportion in which they were obtained from gadolinite after separation of the cerite earths. Precisely the same result was obtained with crystallized bromides prepared by dissolving the crude oxides from the cerite and monazite residues in bromhydric acid and evaporating. The beautiful colorless crystals were not quite free from the mother liquor. Of these crystals, (113) 0.3418 gr. gave 0.1064 gr. C203 = 31.11 per cent. (114) 0.4266 gr. " 0.1325 gr. " =31.07 " (115) 0.6110 gr. " 0.2879 gr. R203 = 47.13 " (116) 0.6896 gr. " 0.3293 gr. " =47.02 " The atomic mass is 139.55, which is nearly the same as that ob- tained from the oxides directly. 137.25. The mother liquor from the crystals was also analyzed. (117) 0.3750 gr. gave 0.1171 gr. C203 = 31.25 per cent. (118) 0.3237 gr. " 0.1015 gr. " =31.37 " (119) 0.6752 gr. « 0.3180 gr. R203 = 47.10 « (120) 0.8150 gr. " 0.3837 gr. " =47.08 " The atomic mass corresponding is 138.45. From the above it appears that little, if anything, is gained by crystallization of the chlorides and bromides, at least in the cases cited. The fact, that potassic and sodic sulphates which do not give pre- cipitates of double, sulphates in cold saturated solutions of certain earths often give crystalline precipitates on boiling, has doubtless been observed. I do not find, however, that such observations have been noted in published papers. The following analyses will serve to show that valuable results may sometimes at least be obtained by this process. OF ARTS ^ND SCIENCES. 273 A quantity of oxides from Samarskite, sent me by Dr. Shapleigh, was dissolved in chlorhydric acid, and precipitated cold by an excess of po- tassic sulphate. After filtering off the double sulphates, sodic sulphate was added and the solution boiled. An abundant white crystalline Ball was obtained. After washing with a little boiling water the double salt was dissolved in chlorhydric acid, and oxalic acid added after large dilution. The oxalates were converted into oxides and these redissolved in chlorhydric acid and again precipitated with oxalic acid. The oxalates were then analyzed. (121) 0.2853 gr. gave 0.1217 gr. R203. (122) 0.3889 gr. " 0.1660 gr. " (123) 0.5558 gr. " 0.2256 gr. C208. Atomic mass 89.55, which does not sensibly differ from the received atomic mass of yttrium. From this it appears that yttria was sepa- rated in quantity by one operation after the separation of the cerite oxides. Application of the Cobaltamines to the Separation of the Oxides. — Many experiments were made to determine whether the sulphates of organic alkaloids would form double salts with the sulphates of the rare earths which could be made available for separations. These did not lead to satisfactory results, though double salts were formed in some cases. It then occurred to me that the sulphates and other salts of various cobaltamines. on account of their disposition to form highly crystalline compounds, might be employed with advantage. Following are the results of this investigation. A solution of sulphate of luteocobalt precipitates completely from their cold solutions as neutral sulphates the four cerite earths now known, namely, the oxides of cerium, lanthanum, praseodymium, and neodymium. The double sulphates are beautifully crystalline, have an orange-red color, and are very slightly soluble in cold water, but prac- tically at least insoluble in boiling water. They are soluble in acids, and sometimes crystallize from weak acid solutions. All these com- pounds appear to have the same constitution, which is thai of 1 1 1 « - -all- discovered many years since by myself, and analyzed in my laboratory by C. H. Wiug.* I find, however, that the constitution of both the luteo- and roseo-salts may be much more accurately repres< Dted by the formula- : * American Journal of Science and Art, XLIX. [2 vol. xxvm (n s. xx J 18 274 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY I. 2{Co2(NH3)12(S04)3 + Ce2(S04)3} + 3 aq. II. 2{Co2(NH3)12(S04)3} + 3{Ce(S04)2} + 3 aq. III. 2{Co2(NH3)10(SO4)3 + Ce2(S04)3^ + 9 aq. IV. 2{Co2(NH3)10(SO4)3 +3{Ce(S04)2} +9aq. Mr. W. J. Karslake has arrived independently at the same for- mulas, and has calculated the percentages as required by them. For Formula I. 24NH3 4 Co 4 Ce 12 S04 3 H20 408 236 560 1152 54 2410 For Formula II. 24 NH3 408 4 Co 236 3 Ce 420 12 S04 1152 3H20 54 2270 For Formula III. 20 NH3 340 4 Co 236 3 Ce 420 12 S04 1152 9 H20 162 2310 For Formula IV. 20 NH3 4 Co 4 Ce 12 S04 9H20 Calculated. Fouud. 16.93 16.75 (loss) 9.79 9.31 23.24 24.10 47.80 47.77 2.24 2.07 100.00 Calculated. Found. 17.97 17.73 (loss) 10.40 10.80 10.74 10.44 18.57 16.90 17.27 17.54 50.75 51.80 51.83 52.22 2.37 2.47 2.21 2.39 100.00 Calculated. Found. 14.72 14.24 (loss) 10.22 10.39 9.60 18.18 18.18 19.36 49.86 49.73 49.97 7.02 7.00 7.31 100.00 Calculated. Found. 13.88 15.13 (loss) 9.64 9.90 22.85 20.99 47.02 47.23 6.61 6.75 100.00 The analyses are those of Wing. Recent determinations of the molecular masses of the cobaltamines have shown that the chlorides, OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 275 for example, of roseocobalt and luteocobalt are represented respect- ively by the formulas Co(NH3)5Cl3 and Co(NH8),Cl8. I have kept the old formulas only to permit an easy comparison with those given by Wing, and the matter is not one of consequence in this place. It may also be remarked that, as cerium is at present the only one of the group which forms a well defined oxide higher than U < I . the two formulas II. and IV. cannot be generalized by substituting the symbols of other elements for that of cerium. I have en- deavored, however, to prepare such compounds by adding a solution of Le2(S04)3 to one containing the sulphates of oxides other than the cerite oxides, and then adding some oxidizing agent, as for instance potassic permanganate, chlorine, or bromine. No decisive results were obtained. It is at least probable that all the earths the sul- phates of which in cold solutions give only slightly soluble double sulphates with potassic and sodic sulphates will also give insoluble double sulphates with sulphate of luteocobalt. These earths are, so far as now known, Ce203, La203, Nd203, Ps203, Sm203, Sc203, while the following give soluble double sulphates: Er203, Y203, Yb203, and Tb203. The four cerite oxides cited are not the only ones which give insoluble crystalline precipitates with sulphate of luteo- cobalt in the cold, but I am not at present able to give more accurate information on this point. On the other hand, we meet in the case of luteocobalt sulphate with some of the relations which present them- selves when the alkaline sulphates are employed. Thus sulphate of yttria is not precipitated by sulphate of luteocobalt when alone, but when mixed with the sulphates of the cerite group more or less of a double sulphate of luteocobalt and yttria is always thrown down, and the same appears to be true for tlie sulphates of some other eartlis. In such cases the mixed sulphates of earths and luteocobalt should !"• gently heated in a muffle until the cobaltamine is completely decom posed and the excess of sulphuric acid is expelled. The residual sul- phates of cobalt and the earths should then be dissolved in cold water, filtered, and again precipitated by sulphate of luteocobalt. allow ing the mixture to stand twenty-four hours. The supernatant liquid appears then to contain all but the four cerite earths. This point is, however, not yet sufficiently proved, and I reserve it for further investigation. The solution from which the double sulphates of the cerite earths and luteocobalt have been separated by decantation or filtration usn ally gives a more or less abundant crystalline precipitate on boiling. The filtrate from this again '/\\f< a precipitate with ammonia. The above stated facts are precisely those which we meet with in employ ing 276 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY the alkaline sulphates in place of the sulphate of luteocobalt. I have also employed the sulphato-chloride of luteocobalt, Lc^SO^C^, as a precipitant, and find that double salts are sometimes formed which are much more insoluble than those obtained with the sulphate, excepting only in the cases of the four cerite earths. These contain chlorine as well as sulphuric oxide, and they are sometimes at least formed when sulphate of luteocobalt is added to a solution containing the chlorides of metals of the cerium and yttrium groups. Sulphate of roseocobalt gives in general the same result as sulphate of luteocobalt, only the salts formed in this case are more soluble in both cold and hot water. Experiments with the sulphates of xanthocobalt and croceocobalt have not yet led to valuable results. Certain sulphates of the earths appear to give with sulphate of luteocobalt only hydroxides of the metals, R(OH)3. In this case it seems more probable that a true double sulphate is at first formed and then decomposed, sulphuric acid beinj{ set free. The following results may be of interest in this connection. A portion of earths from Fergusonite sent me by Dr. Shapleigh was converted into sulphates; the cerite earths had been separated by sodic sulphate, and the solution of the earths gave no further precipitate with this. A solution of sulphate of luteocobalt gave no precipitate with this solution in the cold, but on boiling a very abundant crystalline precipitate, insoluble or very slightly soluble in boiling water. The filtrate from these crystals gave only a small precipitate with ammonia, so that the luteocobalt salt must have contained almost all the earths other than the cerite earths. These are known to consist chiefly of yttna. The crystalline precipitate obtained as above by boiling, and insoluble in boiling water, dissolved completely in a large quantity of cold water. The nitrates of roseocobalt and luteocobalt give, m many cases at least, finely crystalline precipitates with the nitrates of the earths. In certain cases, white gelatinous precipitates of hy- droxides are formed at the same time probably as in the case of the sulphates above cited, in consequence of the formation of double nitrates and their subsequent decomposition into free acid and hy- droxide. This makes a new mode of differentiation which may prove to be of use, and to which I shall return hereafter. As an instance I may <;ite the case of the neutral nitrates of the gadoliuite earths, from which the cerite earths have been separated by sodic sulphate. A strong solution of these nitrates gives with nitrate of roseocobalt, Rc(N08)8, in a short time a bright orange highly crystalline and a dirty white gelatinous precipitate. Both contain earths. The same is OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. ^77 true for neutral nitrates from Samarskite, and from the cerite and monazite residues already mentioned. The nitrate of roseocobalt must be in excess. I have already stated that the action of the sulphates of roseocobalt and luteocobalt upon the sulphatea of the earths closely resembles that of the alkaline sulphates. The advantage of using the cobaltamines consists, in part, in the fact that the douhle sul- phates of these and the earths are highly crystalline and exceptionally well defined, and that they are in some cases at least very much less soluble than the alkaline double sulphates. The chief disadvantage is that the cobaltamines must be specially prepared for use, and that the most valuable of them — the sulphate of luteocobalt — is not easy to prepare in quantity and in a state of purity. Professor Morris Loeb has however found that sulphate of roseocobalt may be converted into sulphate of luteocobalt by heating with strong ammonia water under pressure, as for instance in sealed tubes ; and as the sulphate of roseo- cobalt is easily prepared, this process is perhaps the best. A solution of sulphate of luteocobalt gives a very insoluble yellow crystalline precipitate with sulphate of thoria, Th(S04)2. It gives also slightly soluble precipitates with uranic sulphate, D02S04, and with a solution of ferric alum which has undergone dissociation by solution. This last precipitate appears to have the formula Fe20 . (S04)2 + Lc2(S04)3. It is my hope to be able to return to the subject in greater He tail. Relations of the Oxides to Lactic Acid. — A portion of the oxides obtained from Samarskite by Dr. Shapleigh after the cerite oxides bad been separated by sodic sulphate was boiled with pure lactic acid, and gave an amethyst-red solution. On standing, this solution gave two kinds of crystals, which were very distinct and well defined. These were beautiful red flat prisms, and distinct bright yellow granular crys- tals. The quantity was too small to permit a more thorough exam- ination, and I did not obtain the same result a Becond time with other Samarskite oxides. In one experiment, however, the solution of the oxides was deep orange, and after a time deposited crystals with a fine orange color. The lactates of the cerite earths and of the Samarskite earths which have not been treated with potassic or sodic Bulphate give beautiful white feathery crystals, which dissolve with difficulty in hot water. Relations of Mercurous Nitrate and Mercuric Oxide to < 'eriti Earths. — A solution of mercurous nitrate gives in general no precipitate with neutral nitrates of the cerite earths. In one experiment, however, in 278 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY which I employed nitrates from a commercial oxalate, added a solution of mercurous nitrate, and then boiled with free mercuric oxide, the color of the oxide changed to a grayish tint. After filtering and washing, the filtrate was found to contain abundance of didymiurn (Nd and Ps). The precipitate after washing with boiling water was heated to redness in a platinum crucible, when a clear yellow powder remained. This dissolved in dilute nitric acid to a colorless liquid, which gave no didymiurn bands with the spectroscope. On adding water to the nitric aci of Class III. Barrett Wendell, ) Rumford Committee. Wolcott Gibbs, Benjamin O. Peirce, John Trowbridge, Edward C. Pickering, Erasmus D. Leavitt, Charles R. Cross, Amos E. Dolbear. Member of the Committee of Finance. Augustus Lowell. The President appointed the following Standing Com- mittees : — Committee of Publication. Charles L. Jackson, William G. Farlow, Horace E. Scudder. Auditing Committee. Henry G. Denny, John C. Ropes. 292 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY The following papers were presented : — On the Matrical Equation 12 <£ = fl'. By Henry Taber. On the so called Hall Effect in several Metals at widely varying Temperatures. By A. L. Clough and E. H. Hall. On the Thermal Conductivity of Cast Iron and of Cast Nickel. By E. H. Hall. A letter was read from the General Committee of the World's Congress Auxiliary on Mathematics and Astronomy, calling the attention of the Academy to its printed prelimi- nary address. Eight hundred and fifty-third Meeting. October 12, 1892. — Stated Meeting. The President in the chair. In the absence of the Recording Secretary, Major W. R. Livermore was elected Secretary pro tempore. The Corresponding Secretary read letters from Messrs. J. Bartlett, Bennett, Bowditch, Chamberlain, Higginson, Hudson, Lowell, Moore, Robinson, and Smith, accepting Fellowship ; from Messrs. Barnard, Comstock, Keeler, McClintock, Pyn- chon, Selwyn, Trelease, and Vasey, acknowledging election as Associate Fellows ; and from Messrs Gylden, Huggins, Sorby, Strasburger, and Vogel, acknowledging election as Foreign Honorary Members. The President announced the decease of James Bicheno Francis and John Greenleaf Whittier, Fellows ; and of Sir William Bowman and Lord Tennyson, Foreign Honorary Members. On motion, it was Voted, To meet on adjournment on the second Wednesday in November. The following papers were presented: — On Turmerol. By Charles L. Jackson. On Alaska. By Josiah P. Cooke. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. _'t;'' Eight hundred and fifty-fourth Meeting. November 9, 1892. — Adjourned Stated Meeting. The President in the chair. The Corresponding Secretary announced the death of Pro- fessor Giovanni Flechia, Vice-President of the Royal Acad- emy of Science at Turin; also, that of Commander Antonio Todardo, Director of the Royal Botanic Garden at Palermo. He read a letter inviting members of the Academy to attend the sevent}'-fifth anniversary of the Natural History Society of Osterland, at Altenburg, and one from Baron von Mueller, acknowledging his election as Foreign Honorary Member. The Recording Secretary proposed an amendment of the first section of Chapter VIII. of the Statutes, and, on his motion, it was Voted, That this recommendation be referred to a commit- tee, with instructions to report at the next stated meeting. The President appointed the Recording Secretary, Dr. Folsom, and Major Livermore members of this committee. The following papers were presented : — Characteristics of the Mycological Flora of North America. By William G. Farlow. Mechanical Models of Electro-magnetic Phenomena. By Amos E. Dolbear. The following papers were presented by title : — On certain Products of the Dry Distillation of Wood : Methylfurfurol and Methylpyromucic Acid. By Henry B. Hill and Walter L. Jennings. On Certain Derivatives of Pyromucamide. By Charles E. Saunders. On Trianilidodinitrobenzol and some related Compounds. By C. Loring Jackson and H. N. Herman. On the Tropica] Faunal Element of our Southern Nfym- phalime systematically treated. By Samuel II. Scudder. 294 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY Sight hundred and fifty-fifth Meeting. January 11, 1893. — Stated Meeting. The President in the chair. The committee appointed to consider the proposed amend- ment of the Statutes reported favorably and it was accordingly Voted, To amend Section 1 of Chapter VIII. of the Statutes by substituting the word " second " for the words " day next preceding the last." The section thus amended reads as follows : — " 1. There shall be annually four stated meetings of the Academy; namely, on the second Wednesday in May (the Annnal Meeting), on the second Wednesday in October, on the second Wednesday in Jan- uary, and on the second Wednesday in March ; to be held in the Hall of the Academy, in Boston. At these meetings only, or at meetings adjourned from these and regularly notified, shall appropriations of money he made, or alterations of the statutes or standing votes of the Academy be effected." The President addressed the Academy as follows : — I have to report to the Academy the death of three of our members. Professor Eben Norton Horsford died of heart disease at his resi- dence in Cambridge on Sunday, the first day of the new year. He was born at Moscow, Livingston County, New York, on July 27, 1818, and was therefore in the seventy-fifth year of his age, As a boy, he enjoyed the advantages of good school education, and graduated from the Rensselaer Institute in 1837. Subsequently he taught for four years in the Albany Female Academy, and lectured on chemistry in Newark College, Delaware. Thus acquiring a strong interest in chemical science, he sought eagerly the remarkable advantages then offered for the study of this subject at Liebig's famous laboratory at Giessen, in Germany. Here, under the direction of Liebig, he car- ried out successfully and published an important investigation on gly- cocoll, and during two years was associated with such men as Hofmann, Wurtz, Williamson, and Frankland, who afterwards became chiefs amon studied civil engineering with Professor Ilayward at Harvard Uni- versity. For many years he pursued the profession of civil engineer at York Mills, Maine; he also practised his profession at Lawrence, Mass., and he had charge of a mill at Ipswicb, Mass. Hie interest in scientific work was recognized by Professor Bache during the period in which he was Superintendent of the United Stales Coast Survey, and Mr. Batchelder was employed, together with J. E. Hilcard and Joseph Saxton, on elaborate observations to te>t base- line apparatus. During his connection with the Coast Survey, Mr. VOL. sxviii. (n. s. xx.) 20 300 JOHN MONTGOMERY BATCH ELDER. Batchelder made many experimental inquiries, among which were the following : — On the compressibility of rubber. Expansion and contraction of highly calendered paper. On the compressibility of sea wafer and some other liquids by pressure, and on the effects of temperature in compression in relation to Saxton's sounding instru- ments. On the use of vulcanized india-rubber in a compression sounding apparatus. On Leonard's dynamometric log for determin- ing the speed of vessels and of currents of water. On the manufac- ture of braided sounding-line of hemp, saturated with india-rubber. On Saxton's pressure apparatus, and the effect of temperature and rate of cooling when encased in wood. Ou the effect of inclination on the compensating base apparatus. In the Coast Survey Report of 1858 it is stated that he prepared ice charts, showing the boundaries of ice during certain years in the harbors of Gloucester, Salem, Marblehead, and New Haven. Pro- fessor Bache, in his correspondence with Mr. Batchelder, often ex- presses very high appreciation of his work and of his abilities. In 1858 Mr. Batchelder was detailed from the Coast Survey to assist Dr. B. A. Gould in the Dudley Observatory at Albany. His work there, we learn from a letter of Dr. Gould, was " to bring the calculating machine into shape, and also to aid in arranging the tele- graphic connections and apparatus." The calculating machine was Scheutz's tabulating engine, and Mr. Batchelder mastered its intri- cacies and put it in successful operation. The writer of this notice, while a student, well remembers that Mr. Batchelder was pointed out to him as the only man in the country who could work a wonderful calculating machine at Albany. Mr. Batchelder's mind was essentially scientific ; and no one can examine the note-books of observations which he has left without being impressed by his keen interest in the phenomena of nature. Nothing seemed to escape his attention, from the fluctuations of tem- perature in a well to the quivering of the aurora borealis. In a long series of observations on the temperature of the Saco River, made in 1838, he notes : "I have observed that in extreme cold weather the vapor from the falls has a very sensible effect upon the temperature of the atmosphere, — the mercury commonly standing four or five de- grees higher within a few rods of the river than it does at the distance of one fourth of a mile." While at Saco he watched lamprey eels building a dam in the stream, and in an article, carefully descriptive, says : " I noticed in many instances that the heavier stones were lifted by two eels, working alongside of each other, and carried to their JOHN MONTGOMERY BATCHELDER. 307 proper places in the structure. Half-bricks weighing two pounds were thus transferred, and many of the stones were of much greater weight." A friend of Mr. Batchelder, a distinguished engineer, to whom these observations on eels were communicated, said in reply : " I have been recently studying cosmic and synthetic philosophy, and looking back, not to final causes exactly where we run plump against the wall, but at any rate some way back, for previous causes and modes of action. Now, I want to know who began, who laid out the work, and acted as boss in the case you describe. From an ex-dam builder." We repeat this bit of humor to show a peculiar and taking quality of Mr. Batchelder's mind. No matter how dry or technical the busi- ness was in which he engaged, he never failed to evoke a sense of hu- mor in those about him. His kindly manner and gentle raillery gave every one an opportunity to effervesce ; and no one enjoyed a good laugh more than he who had made the occasion for it. The play of humor in the letters of Professor Benjamin Peirce to Mr. Batchelder, and in the replies of the latter, show this genial receptivity in a marked degree. Professor Peirce's correspondence with Mr. Batch- elder extended over many years; and we find the mathematician presenting his theories of tidal action and of cosmical phenomena to the inventor, and the inventor in turn writing of the mechanical appliances which interested his mind so greatly. Thus Professor Peirce, in a letter written in 1855, says : " I highly approve of your dynamometer log, and think it will be of undoubted value. Let me suggest to you to lay it before Bache as soon as possible, for he will find it of the greatest use in the determination of the velocity of currents, and has been seeking this very thing in a totally different way." In a letter to Professor Joseph Henry, Mr. Batchelder says : " I do not remember any published records of the increase of the tempera- ture of the earth caused by falls of snow and the consequent decrease of radiation. Can you inform me whether such observations have been made? Enclosed is a sheet showing results of observations in my well (at Cambridge, near the Agassiz Museum) during the years 1868, 1869, 1870, and part of 1871 ; also a rough sketch of the position of the well. Please notice the sudden fall of one degree dining the first week in September, 1868, and the sudden rise in the same week in 1870. The observations would have been continued had not the well become dry in consequence of the construction of a deep Bewer in the street. If vou think that notes of this kind will he of value, I should 308 JOHN MONTGOMERY BATCH ELDER. like suggestions from you in relation to the proper mode of making tliem. I suppose the depth should not be great, — say five to ten feet. I propose to drive in the same cellar an iron tube, and allow the thermometer to remain within a few inches of the bottom. The temperature of the surface of the ground should also be recorded. . . . The cost of the apparatus would be about twenty-five dollars, and I should make no charge as observer." Mr. Batchelder was a contemporary of Agassiz, Wyman, Bond, Gibbs, and Gould, and walked with the men who have contributed so much to make Cambridge a university centre, and aided them often by his practical science. No man ever had greater appreciation of intellectual qualities than he had, and he was always on the lookout for some mechanical paradox to present to his friend, Professor Peirce, or some peculiar fact in natural history to be elucidated by Agassiz or Wyman. Joined to this reverence for pure science was a marked talent for invention. Before 1853 he invented independently the Bunsen burner, which is so indispensable in all laboratories, and which is used so extensively in the arts. His apparatus for deep-sea soundings is still used in the United States Navy, and is highly ap- proved by the British Admiralty. A short while before his death, Mr. Batchelder received from an officer in the English Navy a highly complimentary notice of the performance of his apparatus. His tide- meter for soundings at a distance from the shore has been used by the United States Coast Survey in various places. During the block- ade in 1862-63 it was used in eight fathoms of water off Hilton Head, and was instrumental in securing the safety of government vessels. We find among his papers many memoranda in regard to submarine signals, and when he was over seventy years of age he actively carried out experiments on transmitting signals under water by employing water as the medium of propagation of sound instead of the air. By means of the sound of escaping steam he succeeded in transmitting sound over a mile under water. His ultimate object was to give mariners some method of ascertaining the proximity of ships in a fog. The subject of electricity was always a fascinating one to him. In connection with Moses G. Farmer he invented the compound tele- graph wire, which consists of a steel core and a sheath of copper. The steel wire was for strength, and the copper covering for electrical conductivity. The inventors made many experiments to coat the steel wire successfully with copper, and finally succeeded. Early realizing the importance, not only of providing telegraphs with a strong wire of good conductibility, but also with an insulator, Mr. Batchelder in- JOHN MONTGOMERY BATCHELDER. 309 vented a vulcanite insulator for stringing telegraph wires on poles or other supports. This insulator was used on the telegraph between Boston and Portland in 1853, and between San Francisco and Sacra- mento in 1854. His electro-magnetic watch-clock is now in use in various places, — notably in safety deposit vaults. The Batchelder dynamometer for the measurement of power was one of the earliest forms of practical dynamometers, and was of very ingenious construc- tion. It was well adapted for the measurement of the power con- sumed in various forms of mill machinery Among Mr. Batckelder's other inventions are the following : — Vulcanite plate electric machine. Pressure sounding machine. Tide gauge hydrometer. Cards for the blind. Card catalogues for libraries. Porcelain and iron insulator. Instrument for drawing curves. Railway station and starting signal. Iridium surface copper plates. The first plate of large size, 21 X 16 inches, was exposed twenty-seven years without wax or other prepa- ration, and was found still brilliant and uninjured. Hygrometer for regulating moisture in closed apartments and in greenhouses. Oat basket for horses. To keep the feed at a uniform level, to pre- vent waste, and to allow the horse to breathe freely. One cannot read the above list without being impressed by the re- markable activity of Mr. Batchelder's mind. His note-books teem with suggestions, and even in his eightieth year he made memoranda and suir^estions for future work. The writer of this notice remembers to have received at the same time two letters: one from Mr. Batch- elder, then in his eightieth year, in which he asks if it is pos-ible to make a magnet six feet long; and another from Moses G. Farmer, who had been many years stricken with paralysis, and had to be wheeled about in a chair, in which keen interest was expressed in regard to the oscillatory nature of electrical discharges. Tims two life- long friends rose superior to the ills of old age, and manifested a calm cheerfulness and scientific philosophy of life. No one could meel Mr. Batchelder in the closing years of his busy life without gaining a conviction that there was something undying in the spirit that could so cheerfully meet the growing infirmities of age. When his last ill ness was unmistakably upon him, he took the writer im<> the cellar, — 310 HENRY INGERSOLL BOWDITCH. picking his steps painfully down the stairway, and saying humorously, " Slow but sure," — m order to show an apparatus fur testing the daily variations of the magnetic compass. Mr. Batchelder was elected a Fellow of the Academy in 1866. lie was also a member of the Boston Society of Natural History, of the Boston Society of Arts, of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, of the American Institute of New York, and of the Natural History Society of Portland, Maine. 1893. John Trowbridge. HENRY INGERSOLL BOWDITCH. Dr. Henry Ingersoll Bowditch died on January 14, 1892, after a life of unusually varied interests and activities, in the eighty-fourth year of his age. His illness, although not disabling until the last year or two of his life, had been long and distressing, and, with the added infirmities of age, the years of waiting became weary, especially after the death, in December, 1890, of his beloved companion for more than half a century. But he did not lose his cheerfulness or his courage. His generous thoughtfulness of others and his fine serenity of mind remained to the last. As he read or quoted a favorite passage from the " De Senectute," the old fire flashed from his eyes almost undimmed. To those whose privilege it was to be near him the example of his death will always be an inspiring memory. Dr. Bowditch was born in Salem, Massachusetts, on August 9, 1808. His father, Nathaniel Bowditch, the eminent mathematician, was a man of sterling virtues, whose own early struggles for an education had impressed upon him the value of self-discipline and the vanity of such accomplishments as music, for instance, which he regarded as worse than useless in building up character. He had not, however, the Puritanic or the Calvinistic austerity so common in New England in his day. He believed in young people having a good time in a healthy, sturdy sort of way. Few sons could say as much as Dr. Bowditch said with a good deal of fervor, that the only mistake which his father had made for him, in his estimation, was his attitude to- wards music. Dr. Bowditch's mother was Mary Ingersoll, the beauty of whose life was reflected in her influence upon her home and her children. Under such parental guidance, and with the companionship of three brothers and two sisters very like him in possessing an inher- itance of individuality and force, and all united in a strong bond of family affection, his child life was ideal. HENRY 1NGERS0LL BOWDITCH. 311 He attended the Salem schools uutil the age of fifteen, and then the Latin School in Boston, his father having removed to that city in L823 to become Actuary of the Massachusetts Hospital Life Insurance Com- pany. No especial interest was awakened in Dr. Bowditch at school, and there is nothing noteworthy to be said of him there, except that he showed the faithfulness to Ins duties inculcated by his parents' precepts and example. He used to say that he was not then fond of books, but he gained more than respectable rank. At the exercises of the Green Street School in Salem, in 1822, he was assigned a Latin dia- logue. He was generous, sympathetic, truthful, manly, thoroughly a boy, and always ready for fun or for the front of one of the fights then not uncommon between the boys of the opposing sections of the town. In view of some supposed family tendencies to pulmonary disease, his father, with a knowledge of Nature's laws unusual at that time, and with a practical sagacity which marked his whole career, insisted upon an open-air life, from which he and his children gained sound minds in healthy bodies. The simple living, the early love of nature, the habits of industry and self-denial, so common to the New England life of that time, developed in Dr. Bowditch a thoughtfulness, self-reli- ance, independence of mind, and vigor of action, which have become more rare with the increase of wealth and luxury. He entered Harvard as a Sophomore, and graduated in 1828, taking the degree of A. M. later. He had an alert, receptive mind, and was a faithful student, but there was little in his college life to arouse his enthusiasm. He took part in a Latin dialogue at the Junior Exhibi- tion, and had a Conference at Commencement. He was known as being of a rather retiring disposition, a warm-hearted good fellow, in- dustrious, straightforward, impulsive, pugnacious if his ideas of truth or right were assailed, but not obstinate. He was ardent, of quick sensibilities, respected, and always to be depended upon. He had not then the spirit of the reformer. The years of study for his degree in the profession of his deliberate choice, including a service as house physician at the Massachusetts General Hospital from 1830 to 1831, proved an incentive to his besl efforts, and he worked with persistence and devotion. He though! himself favored in having been under the influence of the brilliant intellect of Jacob Bigelow, and the painstaking practical wisdom of James Jackson. The scientific exactness of the one attracted him, as did the conscientious sense of duty of the other. John Ware's quiet, judicial mind made less impression upon him. These three men did much to shape his medical character, so to speak. He pre- 312 HENRY INGERSOLL BOWDITCH. served full notes of their lectures, and often referred to the habit thus formed as having been of immense value to him in the exact knowledge of his patients which his records of their cases gave him. Dr. Bowditch chose medicine rather than surgery, because its problems interested him more, and because he had a great repugnance to using the surgeon's knife, When he went to Paris to continue his medical studies, in 1832, his character and training had prepared him for the precise methods of observation, and the faithful record and accurate analysis of facts, as the true basis of medical knowledge and practice, in which Louis, one of the first to protest against the medical dogmatism of the day, was then indoctrinating his pupils, — " My beloved master in medicine," he said of him, " whose noble example will always lead every honest scholar to a reverent regard for scientific truth, whose works have been to me a stimulus to patient labors in my profession, and whose friend- ship was to me a lifelong delight.'' He received his degree of M. D. in 1833, and joined the Massachusetts Medical Society in 1835. While in Europe, another marked influence upon his character came from his study of French life, in which he found much to admire. Through his father's translation of the "Mecanique Celeste," he be- came acquainted with the Laplace family and others, who made a deep impression upon the young American. But, of course, there was already in him that which responded readily to the suggestion from their example of courteous consideration to every one. As he ex- pressed it, the Frenchman said with a polite gesture, " You are as good as 1 " ; but the American, " you, I am as good as you are." This lesson he never forgot. His attentive and respectful consideration for the opinions of others, no matter how immature or inadequate, has been an encouragement to many a young doctor, for which he ever held Dr. Bowditch in grateful remembrance. His poorest patients received the same polite attention and thorough examination as the most distinguished. They were all fellow beings needing help, and he regarded it as his solemn duty, as well as his pleasure, to give them his best. Whether they paid his full fee, or a half or a quarter or a twentieth, or nothing, he rendered the service cheerfully. When he declined to accept any part or all of his fee, it was with such delicacy of feeling that the most sensitive woman could only gratefully receive his gift. After establishing himself in Boston, in 1834, and while waiting for practice, he devoted much time to benevolent work and took great pleasure in helping those who needed encouragement or assistance, — HENRY INGERSOLL BOWD1TCH. 313 interests which he kept up to the last. He was associated with his classmate, Charles F. Barnard, in the Warren Street Chapel for the education and elevation of the children of the poor, and was superin- tendent of its Sunday school. Quite late in his life the boys and girls used to come to his office on Saturday afternoons with their little earnings for the savings-bank books which he kept for them. The Unitarian religion then awakening in New England, and its Leader, Chanuing, deeply interested him. But he soon outgrew even their limitations, to know no religious creed except that winch was common to all who strove to lead pure and noble lives, whether Catholic, Protestant, or Agnostic. While investigating the Lymnaea his micro- scope was his "noblest cathedral for the highest religious thought," he said. In 1835, he met one of the great turning points of his lite in having by chance been an eyewitness of the famous Garrison mob, during which the young Antislavery agitator was lodged in the Leverett Street jail in Boston, for security from the mob, "composed of gentlemen of property and standing," as it was designated by one of the leading newspapers the next day (October 22). Boiling with indignation Dr. Bowditch determined to devote his " whole heart to the abolition of that monster slavery. But," he adds in his diary, "even Anti- slavery has never taken me away from constant labor for the eleva- tion of medicine." When he became an Abolitionist, chinch, state, the Constitution and laws of the country, old friendships, and social ties were against him. lie was mocked, sneered at, passed on the street without recognition by his father's old friends ; but his courage never faltered, his faith in humanity and the final triumph of his cause never failed. Without even any feeling of bitterness for Buch opponents, he labored steadily on, with pistol in one hand carrying the runaway .-lave in his chaise to a place of safety ; working for the fugitive slave Latimer, arrested and returned from Boston in 1842; asitatins the " Great Massachusetts Petition." as a result of which a law was passed forbidding the use of our Slate jails to detain fugitive slaves, and prohibiting our State officers from helping to return them ; a member of the Vigilance Committee in 1846 and in 1850; b< tary of the Faneuil Hall Committee in L846, which appealed to public opinion in Massachusetts on the encroachments of the slave power; and a co-worker with Parker and Phillips and Garrison m arous- ing the conscience of the nation. Boston was then a Bmall city, and its "society" was rigid and autocratic. The conservatn pari of the community, accused too by the Abolitionists of being Bubservient to the 314 HENRY INGERSOLL BOWDITCH. South, was shocked by what it regarded as revolutionary, lawless, and not respectable methods of agitating a reform that was generally desired by the North ; aud its ostracism, for the time, of such men as Dr. Bow- ditch, Charles Sumner, and Edmund Quincy, " learned in those arts that make a gentleman," as Lowell said of him, is evidence of the intensity of its opposition and of the courage needed to face it. When an escaped slave, Anthony Burns, was given up to his master in May, 1854, and taken in fetters down Court and State Streets with •' an overwhelming force of soldiers," State and national, Dr. Bovvditch dashed past the police on guard, under the rope stretched across Tremont Street, through the cordon line, at the head of a crowd of excited citizens, down to the wharf, where a devoted band of Aboli- tionists stood in horror to see the tug bearing the returned slave steam away to the United States cutter, which carried back to slavery the negro who had been given up to his former master by the United States judge in Massachusetts. In describing this scene, Dr. Bowditch showed all the fire and pathos of the orator. One could feel the death- like silence that came over that little group, willing to be called fanatics aud radicals aud iconoclasts, but determined not to abate in the least their fight against a great national crime. Then and there, with a contempt for legalities and an utter disregard of conventional public opinion, they vowed that such a disgrace should never again happen to the soil of Massachusetts. At Dr. Bowditch's instigation they formed the Anti-man-hunting League, a secret oath-bound club, with twenty-four lodges in as many towns, and four hundred and sixty-nine members armed with billies and trained by frequent drills for capturing and carrying off to one of their places for concealment any slaveholder who should come to the State to hunt and reclaim a runaway slave. Dr. Bowditch was the secretary, and their records were kept in cipher. " Wrong-headed and absurd as the plan may seem to many, if not all, 'reasonable' persons," he said, '; I am proud to remember that I was among the first of those who advocated physical resistance to slavery as we saw it in the North." Less than a decade later he saw Colonel Shaw march down Court Street at the head of his negro regiment ; he lived to see slavery abol- ished, peace and industry established in the South, and himself honored at the North with Phillips and Garrison, and loved by his Southern associates. He had been a hard hitter in the fight. When once asked his political opinio ^d while on the "sacred soil of Virginia" serving as a volunteer, in answer to the call for aid for the wounded after the second battle of Bull Run, he said, " Wendell Phillips is a proslavery HENRY INGERSOLL BOWDITCH. 315 man compared with me." In 1842 he wrote a remarkable letter to a Southern physician requesting a consultation, in which he declined to have "commercial relations for pecuniary proiit with slaveholders." As soon as the struggle was over, the same impassioned lover of hu- manity, he bent his energies to the restoration of good feeling between the North and the South, a work in which he had an opportunity to do excellent service at the annual meetings of the American .Medical Association, which brought together physicians and Burgeons from all sections of the country. In his home he received men who bad owned slaves with the delightful hospitality of warm friendship. Throughout his life, Dr. Bowditch referred to his antislavery work with thankfulness that he was permitted to contribute his part to such a crisis of the country's history, and with gratitude for its influence in arousing his public spirit, in forming his character, and in shaping his life-work. He entered into his professional duties with the same ardor. He was, upon his return from Europe in 1834, admitted into the lead- ing medical society in the city, the Boston Society for Medical Improver meut. The following year he and Professor John Ware organized a Society for Medical Observation, the other members of which were students, which was discontinued in 1838. A few years later, with a tew other physicians, he formed private medical classes, in which, in addi- tion to his other duties, he demonstrated autopsies at the Massachusetts General Hospital. It is superfluous to say that, with these opportuni- ties as a teacher, he labored strenuously in extending Louis's methods of careful study, close, exact observation, and rigid inductive reason- ing. His early medical publications, from 183G to 1838, showed also the bent of his energies, being translations from Louis, and in defence or in praise of his work in the study of disease. Before he received any appointment at the hospital, he was a frequent visitor in the wards, and the value of his examinations of the patients by percussion and auscultation, then new in Boston, is testified to by Dr. Morrill Wyman, who was, in 1836, house physiciau there. In 1838, Dr. Bowditch married Olivia Yardley, of London, whose acquaintance, made in Paris, he regarded as the great blessing of his life. Her character was a beautiful complement of his. and her steady, cheerful influence was often a wholesome guide to his impulsiveness. He was in that respect like his friend Wendell Phillips, who even said that he owed his whole career to his wife. He became admitting physician. 1888 to I 845, and later, 1846 to 1804, visiting physician at the Massachusetts General Hospital: die first visiting physician at the Carney Hospital, L863j visiting physi- 316 HENRY INGERSOLL BOWDITCH. cian at the Boston City Hospital, 1868 to 1871 ; consulting physician to the Massachusetts General, City, Carney, and New England hospi- tals. He was Professor of Clinical Medicine in the Harvard Medical School from 1859 to 1867. He was elected President of the American Medical Association in 1876. In addition to his Fellowship in the Academy, he was a member of the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, of the American Public Health Association, of the American Academy of Medicine, of the Paris Obstetrical Society, of the Paris Society of Public Hygiene, of the Boston Society of Natural History, of the leading medical societies in Boston, and honorary mem- ber of the Royal Italian Society of Hygiene, of the Association of American Physicians, of the New York Academy of Medicine, of the Philadelphia College of Physicians, and of the New York, Rhode Island, and Connecticut State Medical Societies. When he was appointed admitting physician, negroes were not re- ceived as patients in the hospital. He offered a test case of pneumo- nia, resigned his position when his negro patient was not admitted, and carried his point, his resignation not being accepted. He never was one who " fears his fate too much." His loyalty to his profession, his unfailing fidelity to his duties as hospital physician, his full and painstaking visits, thoroughly examin- ing every organ as well as scrutinizing most minutely every symptom in his patients, and his kindly, sympathetic, courteous devotion to them personally, have been reflected in the professional lives and characters of his pupils throughout the land. As Professor, he taught his students to be honorable, honest, uncompromisingly truthful, courageous, care- ful, thorough investigators, and, whatever they did, never to forfeit their own self-respect. He insisted, too, that they should treat their patients personally fully as much as their diseases, and to use hope, faith, and enthusiasm as an important part of their materia medica. This service they returned with a love and respect that is accorded to few teachers. His colleagues, many of whom were younger men with fewer demands upon them, admired the lavish expenditure of time which he gave to others and to his hospital work. Few men of estab- lished reputation would spend hours, as he often did, to see an inter- esting case with a dispensary physician in the slums, or to help with his advice. In 1846 he was the leading one of eight physicians* to found the * Henry I. Bowdkch, Charles E. Buckingham, George Derby, John D. Fisher, Samuel Kneeland, Jr., Fitch E. Oliver, William H. Thayer, and John B. Walker. HENRY INGERSOLL BOWDITCH. 317 Boston Society for Medical Observation, and the meetings for organiza- tion were held at his house. The object of the society was the reading of original papers, and such unsparing criticism that at least one mem- ber resigned because he could not stand it. It was after the plan of the Society for Medical Observation in Paris, of which Louis was Pres- ident, " to make its members good observers of disease, to collect and arrange accurately recorded facts in furtherance of the cause of medi- cal science, aud to publish from time to time the results of the exami- nation of such facts." In the Boylston Medical School,* where he taught auscultation and percussion from 1852 to 1855, the instruction was so excellent that the school was in danger of becoming an impor- tant rival to the Harvard Medical School, and ceased to exist by being to a great extent absorbed in it. In his private office Dr. Bowditch was always to his assistants the same high-minded friend as to his pu- pils in the Medical School, ever trying to help them, especially those most needing assistance of any kind. He taught them not only how to diagnosticate diseases, but also, incidentally by his example, how to talk to and treat people, although he lacked to a fault the faculty of adapting himself or his advice to the individuality of his patients. He was so firm in his own strength that he was not always patient with weak people, or with the weaknesses of strong people. He was too honest and direct to study their whims and peculiarities of temper or temperament as a means of increasing his practice. The privilege of being with him as assistant was eagerly sought for by medical students. He was essentially a physician and a teacher of medicine. His call- ing, which he regarded as the noblest work that man might do, was so deeply impressed upon his whole being that it could not be wholly lost sight of even in his character as a public-spirited citizen or as a zealous and intense reformer. One can hardly place a limit to his interests, or measure which was larger, his great heart or his active brain. Few physicians have lived whom so many have delighted to call their friend. He showed the same large sympathy as in his pro- fession while he was one of the Directors of the Boston Co-operative Building Association for improving the dwellings of the poor, and the same spirit of helpfulness in passing evenings at the notorious old tene- ment called the " Crystal Palace," to teach the rudiments of what later developed into greater proportions as our system of industrial * The Faculty of the School consisted of John Bacon, Jr., Charles E Buck- ingham, Henry G. Clark, Edward H.Clarke, John C Dalton, Jr., George II Gay, and Henry W. Williams. Several of these men became ProfessoM In the Harvard Medical School. 318 HENRY INGERSOLL BOWDITCH. education. His simple character was in singular contrast to his complex life. He had for somo time been physician to the St. Vincent Orphan Asylum, which was under the charge of " that most remarkable wo- man," as he called his friend the Sister Superior Anne Alexis, when she undertook to establish a general hospital under the control of a Catholic sisterhood. She naturally went to Dr. Bowditch, who said of her, " We were like brother and sister," for help in organizing the medical staff. To his cordial aid, to his willingness to endure much from inexperience on the one hand and from religious prejudice on the other, and to his patience in bearing the annoyances connected with founding such a charity from small beginnings, with too lit- tle money, the Carney Hospital, now after thirty years large and prosperous, owes an inestimable debt of gratitude. He was made President of the medical staff of the hospital as soon as it was opened. In 1848, at the age of forty, Dr. Bowditch was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. For full forty years he attended the meetings most zealously, listening with keen enjoy- ment to men the list of whose names includes Wyman, Gray, Agassiz, Peirce, Gibbs, and Rogers. His communications were three : on the Lymnaja, in 1848 ; on the Results of Investigations as to the Preser- vation of the Teeth, in 1849; and on Pulmonary Consumption, as influ- enced by certain Climatic Conditions, in 1870. Of the paper covering his four years' investigations on the Lymurea, the manuscript of which fills 117 folio pages, closely written, with copious illustrations, he said: " Soon after showing the paper to Agassiz, I was chosen into the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, with, as I have reason to believe, Agassiz as one of my sponsors. The Professor commended the paper and said to me, ' You show us the development of the snail after leaving the ovary of its parent. To make the cycle complete, you should now show us the gradual development of the ovum in the ovary of the adult.' Accordingly I tore one or two of the living snails to see the ovary in situ. But I soon found vivisection, even of this humble creature, very distasteful and painful to me, and, as I did not think that any beneficial result would come from the work, I let the ' cycle ' remain incomplete." In 1852, through an injury in an obstetric operation followed by a long illness with septic infection, a finger of his right hand was permanently disabled. He then gave up midwifery and general family practice, devoting himself more especially to thoracic diseases, HENRY INGERSOLL BOWDITCH. 319 in which he was soon regarded as the leading specialist in New England, with only one rival in this country, Dr. Austin Flint of New York. His consultations, however, to a great extent covered the whole ranjje of internal medicine. In 1879, when seventy-one years old, he fell in stepping from a horse car to an icy street and separated the tendon from the patella. The injury, the shock, and the six weeks of enforced rest in bed in a constrained position were a terrible strain, the effects of which so incessantly active and sensitive a temperament as his could not but feel. He was slow in regaining his old vigor, and thereafter always had a slight physical disability of gait which gave him an appearance of infirmity of age that was not altogether real, and which the alert- ness of his mind quickly disproved. In the mean time epileptiform attacks, naturally of a distressing nature, which seemed to be the result of this fall, appeared and recurred, sometimes at such long intervals that it was thought they had ceased, and again with dis- couraging frequency. Few even of those who knew him well can conceive how great this trial was, or what fortitude he showed in meeting it. All the faith and hope and strength and courage in his nature came out only the stronger. As he became more calmly contemplative, there were fewer of his vigorous explosions of feeling and splendid outbursts of impulsive enthusiasm, while the interests of his life remained as active as ever. The more frequent vacations which he found that he needed gave him his long-coveted leisure to indulge his love of nature and of reading, and especially of music, of which he was devotedly fond all through his life, and to be more with his family. He continued his assiduous attendance at medical society meetings until the impaired hearing of eighty years com- pelled him reluctantly to give them up, and still later he occasionally saw patients in consultation. It has been suggested that it may have been because he was so busy that he never used tobacco, but it is more consistent with his character that he should have abstained from its use for the same reason that he took wine only with the greatest moderation. After he had become of the first eminence in his branch of the medical profession, and his reputation had extended throughout this country and Europe, he still kept in close touch, through the Thurs- day Club and constant attendance on scientific and medical Bociety meetings, with the spirit of progress in all branches of knowledge, Whatever interested humanity interested him. He gave hie assist- ance freely to all movements to elevate mankind, regardless of race 320 HENRY INGERSOLL BOWDITCH. or creed. When his fame was at its zenith, probably even his own family did not learn, when his quick eye of sympathy had seen so many ways to help, that after a long day's work he had given away far more than the amount of his fees, so little did his right hand know what his left hand was doing. He gave himself freely and gladly with his gift. How many soldiers' widows went from his office without being allowed to pay any fee for his advice ! It is true that his generosity was imposed upon, but his almost instinctive rec- ognition of what was base, and his contempt for it, often saved him from impostors. To his professional associates he was an inspiration ; to the younger men his unfailing kindness of heart and generosity gave strength and courage ; the example of his life raised them to a higher plane of living. To one who had sought advice from many older physicians, and had heard how to get practice and fame and wealth, Dr. Bow- ditch's words were : " Never do anything which will make you think afterwards that you have been a sneak." Even before the surgeons, in 1850, he successfully operated for em- pyema, and in later years he fairly lost patience with them for being so slow to take up laparotomy for abdominal and pelvic tumors and abscesses. To one surgeon whom he considered one of* the boldest. but who was not willing to open' a perinephritic abscess, he proposed, in 1871, himself to push in the scalpel where the surgeon pointed out the proper spot. In sanitary science, too, he led the way. With the eloquence of sincerity, showing to a committee of the Legislature his chart indicating the prevalence of pulmonary consumption in Massa- chusetts, he explained to them the law which he discovered of its relation to soil moisture, giving them in detail the results of his pains- taking investigations upon the relation of soil moisture to pulmonary consumption, as embodied in the annual address to the Massachusetts Medical Society, which he delivered in 1862. In indicating to the Legislature how much could be and had been done, by regarding this law, to save human life, he chiefly persuaded them to create the first State Board of Health in this country, an example which thirty States have followed. When the board was appointed, in 1869, Dr. Bowditch was easily first in the estimation of the medical profession and the community for the arduous and responsible duties of its Presi- dent, a position which he retained, at great sacrifice of his time and professional income, until 1879. When the powerful interests attacked by the board in the cause of the public health resisted, and the poli- ticians threatened, and other members of the board hesitated, ardent HENRY INGERSOLL BOWDITCH. 321 and impulsive, he pushed on until the point was gained. His very im- patience was often a virtue, and a power for good. If his enthusiasm carried him too fast or too far, he was ready to modify his course. If in his vehement indignation and scathing rebuke of anything which he considered mean or unworthy he had seemed to wrong any one, he was quick with generous redress. His apologies for his own haste were as frank as his magnanimity was noble. His simplicity and ear- nestness were so transparent, that, as one of the members of the board said, there could be no real dissension in a board of which he was the chairman; and his sense of humor, love of fun. and quick intuition helped him out of many difficult places. He liberally contributed san- itary papers to the reports of the board. Every subject considered by them bore the marks of his conscientious study. After the political timidity excited by a Butler campaign had swamped the board in a Board of Health, Lunacy, and Charity, in 1ST'.), he felt obliged to re- sign his membership in it, "as a protest" against the "grotesque alli- ance," as soon as a sufficient experience of the new board had failed to change his opinion of the folly of it all. He still labored for the repeal of the obnoxious law, as he had worked to prevent its enact- ment, and he did much, not only for the restoration of the old State Board of Health, but for placing it upon a higher plane of usefulness than ever before. This he accomplished by appealing to and arousing public sentiment, in the intelligence and honesty of which he never lost faith. When the yellow-fever epidemic of 1878 aroused the nation to the need of a National Board of Health, the chairmanship seemed the op- portunity of Dr. Bowditch's life. No one else had the personal quali- ties and the reputation to fill the place. Unfortunately, the state of his health prevented his accepting it, or indeed of serving as a num- ber of the board for more than a year ; and there followed its melan- choly wreck, which so many thought that he might have averted if he had been chairman. He was one of the earliest advocates of specialties in medicine in this country, freely asking the advice of men much younger than him- self, and treating with respect the sincere opinions of the least experi- enced, if given, as he gave his opinions, without assumption. lie was one of the first to believe in women as physicians, am! thought it hut justice to them, as well as good policy for the community, to give to them the same advantages of study as to men. More than ninety thousand manuscript pages of records of cases of private patients, ten printed papers, and sixty-six pamphlets printed vol. xxvin. (x. s. xx) 21 322 HENRY INGERSOLL BOWDITCH. in twenty-nine journals or society transactions, with numberless short articles on various subjects, attest the industry of his life. His letters and notes and diaries are full of his work, with scarcely a mention of his honors. He was so generous in the appreciation of what others had done that he was constantly giving them praise which really be- longed to himself. His epoch-making work in medicine was his thora- centesis, his first operation with the Wymau aspirator having been done in 1850, some time after Dr. Morrill Wyman's " brilliant oper- ation." He always gave Dr. Wyman the credit of having discovered the means of accomplishing this object, for which he had himself long sought. But he recognized its value at once, and made such frequent use of it as to demonstrate its merit fully, and to compel its adoption. His publications upon this subject probably extended his reputation more among physicians than any other of his writings. Dr. Bowditch revisited Europe in 1859, 1867, and 1870. He en- joyed these vacations with boyish intensity, entering into the pleas- ures afforded by leisure, art, science, literature, music, reviving his old college love of the classics, renewing former friendships, and forming new ties. In the earlier of these visits he introduced thoracentesis for pleural effusions with such earnestness that it was first taken up by Budd of London and Gairdner of Glasgow, and then became generally adopted in Great Britain, and later upon the continent of Europe. Precisely as in this country, its merit was for a long time doubted, and it was regarded as being too full of risk, until Dr. Bow- ditch's large experience, and his reiterated papers and reports of his results from it, forced a recognition of its value upon the medical pro- fession. In his last visit he gained the admiring friendship of Simon and Buchanan, and made the work of our State Board of Health known and respected in England. Dr. Bowditch's greatest title to honor from his professional asso- ciates was his character. An earnest searcher after truth, he stimu- lated and encouraged good work in others. Eager to keep abreast of all the advances in medical science, and to further its progress, he sought out the workers among the younger men, to learn from them, and to inspire them with courage to go on with their work. Honest, fearless, outspoken, he made friends of his enemies by the simplicity, purity, sincerity, and unselfishness of his purpose. He compelled an admiration of the right and a hatred of wrong. At the meetings of the American Medical Association, at which he was constant in attendance so long as his health permitted, men from Maine to Cali- fornia caught the spirit of his enthusiasm ; they felt the stimulus of HENRY INGERSOLL BOWDITCH. 323 his eager search for the truth; they were so filled with admiration of his noble life that they went back to their work with a higher sense of personal duty and professional obligation. Not the least of his ser- vices to his profession was his condemnation of a narrow medical eti- quette, and his untiring insistanee that the interests of the patient should be the physician's first and most sacred obligation, lie knew, of course, that he lost consultations thereby, just as he lost patients, by always refusing to compromise his self-respect. Hut he was can- did and generous to his colleagues, ready to be convinced if his way were not the best, and quite willing to allow a wide latitude for differences of opinion. He did more than any other man of his gen- eration to lift the medical profession above the imputation of being merely a trade, because he more than any other could divest himself of his personality, and look at his patient from the point of view of the patient's interest. The conduct of his life was above the thought of any gain to his personal reputation. In No. 46 of the Bibliographical Contributions published by Mr. Justin ^Yinsor, the distinguished Librarian of Harvard University, comprising the work of the Class of 1828, of which Dr. Bowditch was Class Secretary after the death of his classmate Barnard, there is a list of one hundred and sixty-six titles of Dr. Bowditch'a writings since his graduation in medicine. This list, compiled by him in the last years of his life, when his health no longer permitted active work, includes a very great variety of subjects, a few of which are in manu- script, or consist mainly of collections of cuttings from newspapers, etc. Those of permanent professional interest are on pulmonary consump- tion, reports of medical cases, on thoracentesis for pleural effusion, and on matters of public health, including his Centennial Address de livered at the Medical Congress in Philadelphia in 1876. This address was. by vote of the Congress, sent to the Governors of all our State> and Territories, to be transmitted to all the Legislatures and to all the Sanitary Boards and State Medical Societies in the United States and Canada. Throughout these writings, most of then, prepared in ,,.1<1 moments snatched from a busy life, one sees the quick res, 3e to every fine sentiment, the "greater force from a certain inspiration which compels me to art and to Bpeak." During our civil war, Dr. Bowditch was an untiring worker in numberless ways. As enrolling surgeon his examinations of recruits thorough, made in a kind and tender way. with an affectionate were ■5"> " God bless you ! " as his parting word, given with the Bame intense earnestness as he marked with nitric acid a D on the back ol a de- 324 HENRY INGERSOLL BOWDITCH. serter from the Union army. To him more than to any other single individual was due the persistent effort which, strange to say, was necessary in order to compel Congress to pass the law creating an efficient ambulance service in the army. The ardor of the patriot accepted the loss of the son bearing his grandfather's name, killed while leading a squadron of cavalry at Kelly's Ford ; but to the father's love it was a lifelong grief, how deep few only could know. Of Dr. Bowditch's home life, one of his friends writes, " I think of his home as more filled with love than any other home I ever knew." It was so full of the spirit of generous and charming hospi- tality as to make it one " which all who were privileged to enter it must ever remember with admiring and grateful love." In one re- spect Dr. Bowditch possessed a remarkably judicial mind, in that he clearly recognized his own defects. Indeed, he was not only always modest and free from self-assertion, but he was his own severest critic, even where others saw only cause for praise. He was charitable in his estimate of everybody but himself. When he erred in judgment, he did so from spontaneous self-forgetfulness born of a righteous im- pulse. He was so genuine and so human that " his very faults were endearing." The perspective of years will be needed to estimate justly Dr. Bow- ditch's life and work. He did not possess the striking originality, the uuiformly calm judgment, the brilliant intellectual genius, the keen therapeutic insight, or the rigid presence of mind and patient self- control, of one or another of his contemporaries. But he had a kind of wisdom, a directness of intuition, foresight, breadth of view, and largeness of nature, with absolute independence, uncompromising hon- esty, energy, enthusiasm, and marvellous industry, joined to the genius for investigation and to the scientific and humane spirit, that place him as the great man of the medical profession of New England in his day, as he was, at the height of his reputation, our most eminent physician. The following memorandum of Dr. Bowditch's " life-work," abbre- viated from Mr. Winsor's Bibliographical Contributions, although pre- pared by himself for his class-book, is not absolutely complete ; but probably the omissions are not many, except possibly of letters and short articles for newspapers, etc. His comments on one title after another are characteristic, and full of interest, but too long to be reproduced here. HENRY INGERSOLL BOWDITCH. 32.*) Translation of Louis on Typhoid Fever. 2 vols. Translation of Louis on Phthisis. (Cowan's, amended.) 1 vol. Reminiscences of Dr. Jackson, Jr., and of Charles C. Emerson (my classmates). Translation of Maunoir on Cataract. Translation of Louis's " Proper Method of Examining a Patient." Medical Records of every Patient treated from 1839 till 1887 Remarks on Dr. Martyn Paine's unjust Criticism of Louis and of his " Numerical Method." Rejoinder to Martyn Paiue. Life of Nathaniel Bowditch, LL.D. , for children, prepared at the ropiest of Hon. Horace Mann. Short Sentences on Auscultation. Dr. Ricaud, Correspondence with, declining to have Commercial Rela- tions for Pecuniary Profit with Slaveholders. The Latimer Case. Trichina spiralis. Lymnsea. A League for Freedom. History of the Establishment of the Boston Society for Medical Obser- vation. The Young Stethoscopist. A small Pocket " Vade Mecum " for Students and Practitioners. With Plates. Introductory Lecture to a Course of Clinical Lectures at the Massachu- setts General Hospital. Umbilical Hemorrhage in New-born Children. Malignant Disease cured by a Bread and Milk Diet. Preface to Ancient Fortification in Ohio, witli a Plan by Winthrop Sar- gent in 1787. Memoir of Amos Twitchell, M. D., with an Appendix containing his Addresses. Thoracentesis in Pleural Effusions. — Separate print, New York. — Separate print, Boston. — Twelve Years' Experience. — Before N York Academy of Medicine. — Letters to Dr. Clifford. — Letters t<> Dr. Holiday. Cincinnati. — Remarks, Surg. Section Am. Med. Assoc. — Dangers, etc. Two Fatal Cases of Pleurisy. Would not Thoracentesis have saved 1. Value of Antiseptics in Empyema. Case "1" Dilated Bronchi. Autopsy. Report of a Committee of the Suffolk District- Medical Society on [l mittent Fever in Chelsea. A Treatise on Diaphragmatic Hernia. Anti-man-hunting League (cujuspars fui) Records, eto. Cases of an Anomalous Development of Tubercles at tic Ba 6 "f the Lung resembling Pneumonia. Separately printed. 326 HENRY INGERSOLL BOWDITCH. Canoe Trip down the Penobscot from the Headwaters to Bangor. Journey to and Residence at the Isles of Shoals. Raw Pork as an Aliment. Separate print. Life and Character of James Deane. An Address (Aug 4) at Greenfield. Circular to the Patrons of the Bowditch Library, with the Documents on the Occasion of its being presented to the Public Library of the City of Boston. Signed by Dr. Bowditch, with the other sons of Nathan- iel Bowditch, LL D. Burns Centennial. Speech. Published in the Proceedings of the Com- mittee Double Aortic Aneurism; a Cause of Lung Disease. Peculiar Aneurism of the Left Ventricle of the Heart. Case. Songs of the People during the War of the Rebellion. Memorials of Massachusetts Soldiers, etc., who fell during the Rebellion. Journey to Mount Desert, Me. Topographical Distribution and Local Origin of Consumption in Massa- chusetts. In Medical Communications of Mass. Med. Soc; and sepa- rately printed. Report to William J. Dale, Surgeon-General, Massachusetts. Letter to Governor Andrew on the Hospitals in and around Washington, D. C. Seven Pamphlets on the Urgent Need of an Ambulance Corps of Men trained to take Care of our Wounded Soldiers. Sketch of the Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch, LL. D., made at the Dedication of the Bowditch School. Journey to the Saranac Lakes. Apology for the Medical Profession as a Means of developing the whole Nature of Man (as a Physical, Intellectual, Moral, and Religious Being). Address to the Students of the Harvard Medical School, and published at their Request. With Additional Remarks on a Topic of Importance at the present Hour. A Brief Plea for an Ambulance System for the Army of the United States, as drawn from the Extra Sufferings of the late Lieutenant Bowditch and a Wounded Comrade. The Ambulance System. Is Consumption ever Contagious? A Paper prepared for the Boston Society for Medical Observation. Reception by the Teachers and Pupils of Notre Dame Academy. Journey to and Residence among the Saranac Lakes. Memorials of Lieut. Nathaniel Bowditch, A. A. G. of First Cavalry Brigade, Second Division, Army of the Potomac, killed while leading a Charge at Kelly's Ford. Privately printed, 50 copies. Memoir of the same, with many Illustrations, Photographs, etc. Four Volumes of Letters to and from Lieut. Nathaniel Bowditch and others, received after his fall. My Journals of Visits "to the Front " and to Battlefields, etc. HENRY INGERSOLL BOWDITCH. 327 Review of Dr Horace Green's Work on Consumption. Topical Applica- tions to the Throat. Report on the Boston Public Library by the Examining Committee. Aortic Aneurism. Treatment, Rest, Venesection, Diet. American Medical Association at Cincinnati. Paris Abattoir : Hippophagic Banquet. Journal : Visit to Europe. Hippophagy. Cases of Perinephritic Abscess and its Treatment. Read before the Bos- ton Society for Medical Observation Consumption in New England and elsewhere; or Soil Moisture one of its chief Causes. Down the St. Lawrence and up the Saguenay. Report of the Committee on Climatology and Epidemics in Massacbusi Consumption in America. Remarks at the First Meeting of the State Board of Health of Massa- chusetts. Just Claims of Morton as Discoverer of Etherization. Appeal made by the Carney Hospital. Medical Testimony and Experts. A Report to the Suffolk District Medi- cal Society. Visit to Europe. (H. I. and O B.) Perinephritic Abscess ; Lung Disease and Pleurisy. Letter from the Chairman of the State Board of Health concerning Houses for the People, Convalescent Homes, and the Sewage Ques- tions. Letter to the London Medical Times and Gazette, Criticisms of Oppolzer and Niemeyer's Inefficient Treatment of Perinephritic Abscess. Thoracentesis and its General Results during Twenty Years of Profes- sional Life. Remarks made at a Meeting of the New York Acad- emy of Medicine, April 7, 1870. Published by Order of the Academy. Papers, annually, in Reports of Board of Health, 1st to 7th inclusive. (V'ule below.) Intemperance. Circular to the U. S. Consuls in Foreign Countries. Analysis of Returns, and Deduction of a Cosmic Law. Night Stroll in London and Boston. Peabody Buildings for the Poor. Miss Hill. Sewage, etc. Ruskin's Organized Work. Convalescent Somes: Earth (Insets. Capital and Philanthropy in London. Miss Coutt-. Venesection: its Abuse formerly, its Neglect at the Present Day. Intemperance in New England. How shall we treat it? The Data froin Official Police Reports. Brief Memoirs of Louis and some of his Contemporaries in the Parisian School of Medicine of Forty Years ago (with Manuscript Letters Erom 328 HENRY INGERSOLL BOWDITCH. Mad. Louis, Sir Thomas Watson, etc.). Read before and published by the Boston Society of Medical Observation. Analysis of a Correspondence on some of the Causes of Consumption. Intemperance as governed by Cosmic and Social Law. How can we become a Temperate People? Analysis of the Correspondence on the Use and Abuse of Intoxicating Drinks throughout the Globe; or, Intemperance as seen in the Light of Cosmic Law. (With an Appendix.) Coggia's Comet: Observations on, while at Chateaugay. Third Annual Report of the Boston Co-operative Building Company. (In part by Dr. Bowditch.) Preventive Medicine and the Physician of the Future. Separate print. State Medicine and Public Hygiene. An Address before the American Medical Association. Separate print. Memorial of Dr. George Derby. Read before the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Report on the Sanitary Condition of the State Prison at Charlestown. (Signed by H. I. Bowditch, Richard Frothingham, and C. F. Folsom.) Electrolysis in Thoracic Aneurism. Read at a meeting of the Suffolk District Medical Society. Epidemic among Horses, showing well the Evils of bad Hygienic Influence. Journey to and Residence at Chateaugay Lake. Inebriate Asylums or Hospitals. Sanitary Hints. From the Seventh Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Health. Typhoid Fever, etc. Closing Remarks at the Meeting of the American Medical Association. Public Hygiene in America. Centennial Address before an International Medical Congress at Washington, I). C. Prefatory Remarks to the American Edition of Simon's " Filth Diseases." Public Hygiene in America, being the Centennial Discourse delivered before the International Medical Congress, Philadelphia, September, 1876, with Extracts from Correspondence from the several States ; together with a Digest of American Sanitary Law by Henry G. Pickering, Esq. Memoir of K. D. P. (Katharine Day Putnam), the Young Lady to whom Lieut. Nathaniel Bowditch was engaged, and Illustrations by Friendly Artistic Hands. 2 vols. 4to. Emjiyema, Treatment of, in a Letter to Dr. Holiday. President's Address before the American Medical Association at its Meet- ing in Chicago. Journal of Journey to and Doings there. Memorial Tribute to Dr. L. P. Yandell, of Louisville, Ky. Journal of the Meeting of the American Medical Association. Remarks at the Opening of the Boston Medical Library. Epidemic of Diphtheria at Ferrisburg, Vt. Journey to Chateaugay and Mount Washington. HENRY INGERSOLL BOWDITCH. 329 Remarks on the Death of Dr. John B. S. Jackson. Cholera in New York, as described by Dr. Jacob Bigelow. Prevention of Consumption. A Series of Articles in the "Youth's Companion." Sanitary Organization of Nations. A Paper read before the Boston So- ciety for Medical Improvement, with a Preface addressed '• To all Cit- izens of Massachusetts who desire that sanitary work may not tail of its highest fulfilment in future years in this Commonwealth." Laparotomy. Its great Future. The Three Climates of New England; viz. the Oceanic, the Shore, and the Inland. The Garrison Mob. My Letter to Dr. Porcher, of Charleston, S. C, on the Advantages to Mankind of Establishments of Boards of Health by various States. The Temperance Alliance and Dr. Bowditch. Medical Education of Women: the present hostile Position of the Har- vard Medical School and of the Massachusetts Medical Society. What Remedies therefor can be suggested ? Dr. Elliott of New Orleans proves that the Truth of the Law of Soil Moisture (1862), as discovered by myself and by Dr. Buchanan three years afterwards in England, holds good at New Orleans. Venesection, its (occasionally) great Value. Remarks on Dr. Dunn's Case. Letter to the Sanitarian : Views on National and State Sanitation. Moral Education in Schools; in a Letter to a Teacher, Mr. Fisher of Brooklyn, N. Y., who had asked me to give an opinion on the question. Two Fatal Cases of Pleuritic Effusion. Would not Thoracentesis have saved Life? Defence of the National Board of Health from an Insinuation by the Edi- tor of the Boston Daily Advertiser, that, as the Board has been accused of doing little, it had then an opportunity to study Cholera in Mexico. Brief Remarks made at a Political Primary Meeting on the Duty <>f e Citizen to attend and take part in such Meetings, and of voting afterwards. Circular signed, with others, by me, urging the Colored People nol to vote for General Butler, on the ground that he would be faithless i" them, Garibaldi. A Letter from the Central Committee of the League of Italian Societies for Cremation, urging that the remains of the hero -hould be disinterred and cremated, according to the terms of hi- will. The Ethical Results of Darwinism. An Essay presented at the Liberal Union Club. " Survival of the Fittest." " Natural Selection." Woman Suffrage. Remarks before a Committee of the Legislature. 330 HENRY INGERSOLL BOWDITCH. A long Letter to Mr. William H. Thayer on Dr. Beard's assertion that the moral qualities degenerate in old age as the physical and intel- lectual faculties do. Tobacco. Evils from the Use of it. A most fruitful source of fees, however, to me it has been during all my professional life. Discus- sion on Dr. Otis's Paper. A Letter in Commemoration of Dr. Calvin Ellis. Memorials of Dr. Calvin Ellis. The Aspirator in Pleural Effusions. Reply to Dr. Ferguson, of Troy, that the operation " had done more harm than good" in its various applications to different parts of the body. Letter to Dr. T. W. Richardson of New Orleans. Invitation from the College of Physicians of Philadelphia to attend its Conversazione, and my reply, in which, owing to ill-health, I declined. Medical Codes : An Address prepared for the New York State Medical Society. Treatment of Pulmonary Diseases by means of " Pneumatic Differen- tiation," by Vincent Y. Bowditch, with Remarks by myself. Correspondence with Governor Robinson and Hon. F. O. Prince (Candi- dates for the Governorship), asking them whether if chosen they would advocate a separate and independent Board of Health instead of the combination then existing under the Title of "Board of Health, Lu- nacy, and Charity." "Garrison Mob." Semi-centennial Celebration by the Garrison Lyceum. Pierpont's (Rev. John) Centennial Birthday. Dr. Bartol, "Unitarian Review." My Reminiscences. The International Medical Congress for 1887. "Did Ralph Waldo Emerson sympathize with the Abolitionists?" Let- ters from T. W. Higginson, H. I. B., Rev. S. May, Jr. Garrison's Reviewers (T. W. Higginson, Leonard Woolsey Bacon, W. J. Potter) and my Estimate of them and of the great Liberator. Austin Flint, Senior. Funeral at New York. Reflections on the Evils produced upon his Fine Nature by the Code Excitement. Nathaniel Bowditch, Life of, as published in Horace Mann's Common School Journal, and at his request, after hearing my Address to the Children of the Warren Street Chapel on the Sunday after Father's Death. Correspondence with Dr. W. W. Potter of Buffalo on his Invitation to attend a Meeting of the New York State Medical Society. Correspondence (February) with Dr. Collins about going to Providence to attend the Meeting of the Rhode Island Medical Society. First Copy of my Address before the Rhode Island Medical Society, by Request of the President, on the Topic, " Our Past, Present, and Future Treatment of Homoeopathy, Eclecticism, and kindred Delusions." PHILLIPS BROOKS. 331 Modern Thoracentesis and Thoracotomy: a Paper prepared for Pepper's "System of Medicine," and from which Dr. Donaldson has made Co- pious extracts in the preparation of his Article on " Affections of the Pleura," now to be found in the above work by Dr. Pepper. Ambroise Pare. Has the Boston Society for Medical Improvement an authentic Portrait of this great Surgeon ? The Past, Present, and Future Treatment of Homoeopathy. An Addi June 10, 18S6, before the Rhode Island Medical Society. Reprinted from the Transactions of the Society. Open Air Travel as a Curer and Preventive of Consumption, as seen in the History of a New England Family. Reprinted from the Transac- tions of the American Climatological Association. 1893. Ciiakles F. Folsom. PHILLIPS BROOKS. Descended on his mother's side from a long line of New England worthies, many of them ministers of the Gospel, Phillips Brooks was, by virtue of heredity, a scholar and a thinker. The Boston Latin School fitted him for college, Harvard graduated him with hon- ors in 1855, and the Theological Seminary at Alexandria, Virginia, subsequently gave him his training in divinity. After a brief pas- torate at the Church of the Advent in Philadelphia, he was placed over the important parish of Holy Trinity in the same city. Here he became famous as a preacher, and when, in 18G8, he accepted an iuvitation to Trinity Church, Boston, his reputation was already a national one. Scarcely had he become wonted to his new cure, when the church in which his pulpit stood was burned to the ground, — a calamity which could scarcely be reckoned wholly such, since it resulted in giving to one of the best architects the country has ever had the opportunity of his lifetime, and to the foremost of contem- porary preachers the scope and play to which his extraordinary powers entitled him. After having held his Boston rectorship with ever increasing accept- ance for more than twenty years, Dr. Brooks became, in 1891, Bishop of the Diocese of Massachusetts, but had continued in office Bcarcely a twelvemonth when he died. Upon the characteristics of Phillips Brooks as preacher and pastor, the writer of this notice would have no occasion to dwell, even if estimates of the man and his work were less numerous than they are. Perhaps in the case of no oilier Ameri- can, unless indeed that of some military or political favorite, has the 332 PHILLIPS BROOKS. popular demand for eulogy been more insistent. The Librarian of Harvard College reports the receipt of some twenty-five printed dis- courses commemorative of him. If to these were to be added the almost countless tributes scattered through the columns of newspapers and the pages of periodicals, both at home and abroad, the aggregate of spoken and written appreciation would be seen to be enormous. It will therefore better serve the present purpose if the account be taken chiefly of the attitude held by Dr. Brooks towards the particular interests of which the American Academy and other kindred associations are representative. How did this theologian (for theo- logian in a true sense he was, though preacher first of all) regard natural science, more especially in its bearing upon religion ? Briefly characterized, his attitude towards the scientific movement of the day was one of confident friendliness. While others were discussing possible treaty relations between science and faith, he always seemed to speak and act as if peace were already declared, or rather had never been broken. An ardent theist, and for that reason an assured optimist, he found it impossible to regard with sus- picious dread any tidings of discovery that were evidently authentic. For new treasure, whencesoever brought, space must be found, he argued, and if the present receptacles seemed inadecpiate, he was for enlarging them. He was impatient of labored attempts accurately to dovetail the postulates of theology with present day theories, cosmic, anthropological, or what not, convinced as he was of the transitory character of all such well meant adjustments. Even the analogies which some popularizers of science are fond of tracing between the natural and the spiritual worlds seemed to possess slight interest for him, and in so far as in his preaching he drew at all upon the resources of " the unseen universe," it was for purposes rather of illustration than of argument that he did so. "I have so many hundred sermons," he was once heard to exclaim, naming a large number, " and I thank God that not one of them deals with the relations of science and religion." That this reticence was in any measure due to intellectual timidity, no one who had the privilege of knowing Phillips Brooks can for a moment suppose. That it was a wise kind of silence, most of those who are deeply conversant with the conditions of the question will acknowledge. 1893. W. R. Huntington. JAMES BICHENO FRANCIS. 333 JAMES BICHENO FRANCIS. James Bicheno Francis was born at Southleigh, Oxfordshire, England, May 18, 1815. He was sent to school at an early age, but when his father was elected Superintendent of Construction of the Porth Cawl South Wales Harbor Works, the lad, anxious for practical work, applied for the position of, and became an assistant to, the engineer. Later he was employed in the construction of the Great Western Canal in Derbyshire. The works of inland navigation, the improvement of harbors, and the construction of canals, afforded the great opening at that time for engineers. But as a means of transport the canal could only be availed of when a sufficient water supply could be secured, and the speed of transit was not equal to the growing demands of manufac- turers and commerce. It was evident from the experience of coal railways, which had been in use for a century, that this system of transport, in its general application throughout a country, was supe- rior to that of canals. With confidence in this decision, enterprising men had undertaken the construction of railways in this country as well as abroad. Cable traction and the locomotive had been used for some time on coal roads, but their success on long routes had not been established. When the Liverpool and Manchester Railway was undertaken, and till nearly complete, the motor power had not been settled. At last the board of directors decided to refer the matter to a commission of engineers, who reported favorably on the adoption of the locomotive, and drew up a specification for its construction. The report was adopted by the directors, and a prize of £500 was offered for a loco- motive to be tested on the railway, complying with the terms of the specification. The results of the trial of the competitive locomotive-, which took place in October, 1829, settled the motor power for railways, and gave an additional impulse to their construction and extension in this country. Of the practical knowledge of the laying onl of railroads and their construction little was of course known anywhi re, and especially here. Graduates and students of West Point were detailed, or re- signed from the army, to accept positions on railroad- ; canal engi- neers of more or less experience and surveyors were drawn from their works at home and abroad, — among other-, young Francis, who 331 JAMES BICHENO FRANCIS. landed in New York City, April 15, 1833, consigned with letters of introduction to Phelps, Dodge, & Co. Confident in himself, he sought Mr. George W. Whistler, then in charge of the construction of the Stoniugtou Railroad, who was so favorably impressed by the appearance of the youth that he sent him at once to Mr. James P. Kirkwood, the resident engineer. When Mr. Whistler, the following year, was called to Lowell by the Pro- prietors of the Locks and Canals on Merrimac River as their engineer, strongly confirmed in his estimation of the capacity and intelligence of Mr. Francis, he offered him the position of his assistant and that of surveyor of the company. English locomotives had already been imported and set up by this company ; but it was decided to build locomotives larger and of a new type, and for the designing of these especially Mr. Whistler had been called to Lowell. Under his charge successful locomotives were built for the Western and Providence Railroads, and in Mr. Francis he found an able assistant. In 1837 Mr. Whistler resigned his position as engineer, and was succeeded by Mr. Francis, who married Miss Sarah Browuell, and settled permanently at Lowell. He had already found that, in his anxiety to get early into practical work, his school life was incomplete, and that he needed a more ex- tended mathematical education, and undertook to obtain this by his own study, with the result that in this branch his education was be- yond any college requirements of the time. As engineer of the company he finished the Boott Canal, and the Boott and the Massachusetts Mills, which completed the laying out as contemplated by the original proprietors. The Boston Manufacturing Company at Waltham supplied stock- holders and mechanics, machinery and mills, for the enterprise at Lowell. There were improvements and extensions, but the type was preserved. Continued success made the management conservative, and it was not till about 1841, after the death of most of the earlier direc- tors of the corporations, that it was thought necessary to investigate what had been done outside by manufacturers in this country and abroad, and a radical change in spinning machinery was adopted ; more space was required per pound of product, the canals were of too small capacity, and more economy in the use of water was now of importance. The water-wheels of the best patterns of the times, and giving a large percentage of effect on the single fall, were becoming old and worn, and not adapted to the change expected to be made in the canals. JAMES BICHENO FRANCIS. 335 It was at this time Mr. Francis came in full charge as engineer, and he was the right man for the time and place; eminently conserv- ative, he made up his mind only by thorough study of the conditions and requirements of the subject. He hunted up the records of the Merrimac River, its high and low water marks, investigated the facilities for storage by reservoirs and Hashing, and the condition of the canals, to determine the then avail- able flow, and how much would be obtained by careful watching to prevent loss of head and waste of water. He tested the water-wheels in use, and collected all data pertinent to the improvement of the water power. In 1845 the Locks and Canals Company sold their machine shop and most of their real estate to outside parties ; the balance of the real estate, with the canals and franchise, were transferred to the different manufacturing companies, who became proprietors and mem- bers of the corporation under its old title, with interests in proportion to the number of mill powers originally purchased by them. Although Mr. Francis had but little to do with the running of the machine shop and the construction of machinery, yet with the advice in new constructions and care and division of a large real estate, a great deal of his time was taken up. With the change incident to the sale, he became agent also of the company, and had opportunity and greater support in carrying out changes for the improvement of the water power which had long been recognized as of vital importance. The interest of the new proprietors of the old company was now essentially a Lowell interest, and a mutual one, to secure as large and as permanent a water power as possible. Mr. Francis, by his experi- ence and studies, was well posted in the potentialities of the Merrimac River at Lowell. He was personally acquainted and intimate with the board of directors, who had implicit confidence in his integrity and capacity. Although Mr. Francis well knew what would be required for the improvements of the water power, and wliat in the end would be his complete design, yet in his recommendations he was economical and progressive, following out the line he had laid out, and securing those advantages which were first needed and most readily obtainable. In 1846, the Locks and Canals Company together with the Essex Company at Lawrence organized the Lake Company, and Becured the control of the outlet of Lake Winnipiseogee, with other ponds and lakes in the vicinity. The object of the purchase was to improve the storage capacity of the lake by raising the water iu it, and by pro- 336 JAMES BICHENO FRANCIS. viding suitable sluiceways for drawing the water out in dry seasons, to be used for power at Lowell and Lawrence when the Merrimac River was low. This advantage was secured in part at once, and appliances were soon constructed for regulation, by which the water could be retained or supplied at need. This arrangement was continued till 1889, when the Lake Com- pany was transferred to a syndicate of New Hampshire manufacturers, who naturally were more in accord with their own Legislature, with relief from taxation of the Massachusetts proprietors and little change in the conservative use of the water ; whilst now slight irregularities of flow could be readily met by the improved means of pondage and distribution of water at Lowell and Lawrence. Under the new proprietorship of the Locks and Canals Company it was necessary that all the mills should, as near as possible, have the proportion of water to which they were entitled. To effect this Mr. Francis designed and constructed the Northern Canal, a very large and independent feeder, with branches to all the other canals. This work was begun and finished with thoroughness and economy, and still remains, with its massive walls and gates, its ample dimen- sions and permanency of construction, as a worthy monument to its engineer. As it was of great advantage to be able to shut and open the head gates with but little manual labor, this was effected by a turbine wheel moving nuts on vertical screws attached to the gates. With the construction of the fire service reservoir, ample power was readily available from the mains for hydraulic lifts, which are now applied to other head gates. The head gates of the old canal consisted of the usual slide gates and a lock for the purpose of navigation. From the records of high water of the last century, Mr. Francis was satisfied that the coping of thes"e locks was not high enough to restrain a like freshet, and that it would flow over, destroy the work, and sweep out the business part of the city of Lowell. He therefore raised the walls of the lock, and constructed grooves in them from its floor to a height well above the freshet mark, and in the grooves he hung a solid timber portcullis or slide gate not interfering with navigation. Two years after its com- pletion (1850) Mr. Francis's expected freshet came, the flood was fast approaching the danger height at the coping, the iron strap was cut, and the gate fell ; and although the water continued to rise even above the old mark, the city of Lowell was safe. The gate has now been raised and set again. JAMES BICHEXO FRANCIS. 337 Although Mr. Francis recognized the possibility of such a freshet, and made his designs and personally carried them out to prevent disaster, it was not then considered necessary by most of the citizens; yet it was his nature not to undertake any risks ; he studied up will the problem presented and omitted no known factors in the solution. The repairs, renewal, and maintenance of the canals, and the pre- vention of water waste, was a constant source of care. A new dam was built on the site of the old one, rights of higher flashing secured and consequent pondage, and a portion of Hunt's Fall was removed for the increase of the fall and the relief of the mills on the river's level. With the organization of a mutual fire insurance by the mill- owners Mr. Francis became its head, to build a fire-service reservoir with the full plant. Turbines, engines, and pumps, mains and hy- drants, and the mill appliances of pipes, valves, sprinklers were con- structed and placed under his direction and inspection, and maintained under his rules and regulations ; and so well were these kept that the loss by fire was less than one tenth of one per cent. For the preservation of the bridges and other wooden structures, of which there were many belonging to the company, he introduced the Kyanizing and Burnettizing processes, which are still continued for the use of the Lowell companies and others, and form a profitable industry. In 1844, Mr. Uriah A. Boyden constructed his first turbine for the Appleton Company, which proved successful. Mr. Francis assisted at the test, as he did also at that of two other wheels for the same com- pany in 1848, when the maximum effect was determined and paid for at the rate of 88 per cent of the water expended. Mr. Boyden con- tinued to build wheels, testing the same often witli Mr. Francis's assistance and always with his cognizance of the changes of construc- tion and results. Impressed with the great advantage of the adoption of this wheel at Lowell, at his recommendation the manufacturing companies purchased of Mr. Boyden the rights to his improvements relating to turbines and other hydraulic motors. After that, it devolved on Mi-. Francis to design and superintend the construction of such turbines as might be wanted for their mills. To this work he brought his accustomed industry, assisted by Mr. Boyden's drawings, but more by his own comparison and analysis of the most successful designs. This analysis of the working of turbines was continued by testing them as they were applied to the different mills to determine the quantities of water used, the percentage of effect obtained, and the vol. xxvni. (n. s. xx.) 22 838 JAMES BICHENO FRANCIS. forms of construction most durable and convenient of application. Records of all the data necessary for this were carefully taken and kept, and selections made from them by Mr. Francis, and published in 1855 under the title of " Lowell Hydraulic Experiments." In addi- tion to the turbines there were some records of experiments on the flow of water through rectangular channels, which was important to the different manufacturing establishments to enable them to secure their respective rights. It was necessary that the gaugings should be frequent, that they should involve no stoppage of any works, nor impairment of the power, and that it should be made under the normal conditions of working. This was so secured by rectangular channels and the use of deep tube floats. The practical application of the system and the results, together with soirte experiments on submerged orifices and diverging tubes, were given in a second edition of the "Hydraulic Experiments," pub- lished in 18G8. By this work the reputation of Mr. Francis was extended beyond this country. Here he was well known not only as an engineer of the most important water power in the United States, to the success of which he had contributed so much, but by his extensive consulting and expert practice, (which continued to increase till his health was im- paired,) and his many contributions to the Journal of the Franklin Institute, the Transactions of the Society of Civil Engineers, and pub- lished reports. Mr. Francis was a man of method, and studied care- fully not only matters of engineering, but all the numerous subjects on which he was consulted outside of his profession. Of most of these, the data obtained are preserved with his calculations ; and so varied and important are they that it has been thought expedient to file and index them, which has been done by his son and successor, Colonel James Francis, and they are now kept in the office of the Proprietors of Locks and Canals, open to all who have an interest in these subjects. His friend, the eminent engineer Uriah A. Boyden, appointed Mr. Francis and Hon. William G. Russell trustees of his estate, inventoried at $180,000, for the establishment and maintenance of a mountain peak observatory or to aid in the same. In investigating observatories Mr. Francis visited the principal ones in the United States, taking them in the line of what he called his vacations, and with but little charge to the estate. Through economies of administration the trus- tees turned over to Harvard College $232,500, to be used by the JAMES BICHENO FRANCIS. 339 Cambridge Observatory for the establishment of an observatory at Arequipa, Peru. It was Mr. Francis's fortune to be known and appreciated ; lie was one of the earliest members of the American Society of Civil Engineers, its President, and an Honorary Member ; President of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers; member of the American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia, of the Boston Society of Natural History, of the Winchester Historical Society, of the Arkwright Club, of the Trinity Historical Society, Dallas, Texas, and of the American So- ciety of Irrigation Engineers, of Salt Lake City, Utah. He received the honorary degree of Master of Arts from Dartmouth College in 1851, and from Harvard College in 1858. He was a member of the Corporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ; President of the Stony Brook Railroad for twenty years; Director of the Kail- road Bank for thirty-two years, and of the Lowell Gas Light Com- pany for forty-three years. Mr. Francis, was elected a Fellow of this Academy on the 13th of November, 1844, and served as a member of the Rumford Committee from 18G8 to 1878. He contributed to the sixth volume of our Proceedings an important paper, "On the Strength of Cast-iron Pillars," afterwards reprinted and published as a separate volume by D. Van Nostrand. Never desirous of political office, as a matter of duty he served one term in the Legislature, longer in the City Government and on the School Committee, as a Director of the City Library, and as Commis- sioner for the erection of the new City Hall. Mr. Francis resigned the office of agent and engineer of the Proprie- tors of Locks and Canals on Merrimac River, January 1, IK*-'!, and was appointed consulting engineer, which position he held at the time of his death, September 18, 1892. Although affected for some time with a complaint dangerous to any man of his years, he continued almost to the day of his death his interest in his usual pursuits, and died, leaving a widow, four children, and grandchildren. Mr. Francis, in the many positions to which he was called with varied duties, showed himself an admirable executive and administra- tive officer, and in his published works anil reports a close and careful investigator, suggestive in his methods, and of good judgment Often chosen from his- established integrity referee and commissioner, not otdy in the line of his profession, but outside, his decisions were \\ ithoul bias. As leading hydraulic expert of this country and often retained in suits, he never considered himself the attorney of his client, hut 340 EBEN NORTON HORSFORD. gave his evidence honorably, agreeably to the facts and scientific precedents. In this his example is worthy of imitation, and suggestive as to whether it would not be an improvement in the present prac- tice if like men should be retained by the court rather than by the contestants. In private life Mr. Francis was honest, sympathetic, neighborly, not hasty in forming or giving opinions, but always consistent and decided, liberal, a good citizen and Christian gentleman, contributing largely to the honor and welfare of the city, whose memory will be long and gratefully preserved by its inhabitants. 1893. W. E. Worthen. EBEN NORTON HORSFORD. Eben Norton Horsford was born on July 27, 1818, at Moscow, Livingston County, New York. His father, Jerediah Horsford, sprung from an old New England stock, came from Charlotte, Ver- mont, and settled at Moscow as a missionary to the Seneca Indians. His mother, whose maiden name was Charity Maria Norton, came from Goshen, Connecticut, and traced her descent from Thomas Norton of Guildford and John Mason, the famous captain in the Pequot war. She was a woman of strong intellectual tastes, and remarkable for her public spirit, shown by the fact that, after reading her books, she made of them a sort of free circulating library for the benefit of her neighbors in what was then a wild and primitive region. Amid such surroundings at home it was not strange that the boy grew up with strong scholarly tastes, and was known to his playmates as a marvel of general information. It is interesting to note that a favorite amusement was collecting the fossils which abounded on his father's farm, as this recreation of his boyhood undoubtedly turned his thoughts toward the natural sciences, to which so large a part of his manhood was devoted, while at the same time his early association with the Seneca Indians, who flocked to his father's house in large numbers, familiarized him with Indian words and pronunciation, and thus paved the way for the philological and archaeological studies of his older years. In his education away from home, the most important influence was Mrs. Jared Wilson, the wife of the teacher of the Livingston County School, where he passed the years from thirteen to sixteen, his earlier education having taken place in the schools of the district. EBEN NORTON HORSFORD. 3 i I Mrs. Wilson was a remarkable woman, and did much toward building up Ills character on the broad foundations laid by his mother. From the Livingston County School he went to the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute of Troy. New York, from which he graduated as a civil engineer in LS37. While studying at the Rensselaer Institute he spent his vacations in earning money toward his support, at first by teaching at Leroy, and later by work on the surveys lor the New York and Erie, and the Rochester and Auburn Railroads. After his graduation he obtained for a time congenial employraeni on the Geological Survey of the State of New York, under Professor James Hall, and in 1840 was appointed Professor of Mathematics and Natural Sciences in the Albany Female Academy, a position which he held for four years. During this time he took up the study of Daguerre's photographic process with Morse, the inventor of the telegraph, and this work attracted the attention of the scientific world to him, and led to his delivering a course of lectures on chemistry at Newark College in Delaware in 1843, and another in 1844, after he had left the Albany Academy. This period at Albany was of greal importance in the formation of his character; Hall and Morse fostered his taste for scientific research and impressed upon him careful and accurate methods of work; the Reverend Dr. William Sprague bad a strong influence on his general development; and at the. Female Acadeniv he met Mary L'Hommedieu Gardiner, who afterward (in 1847) became his wife. So far as his future was concerned, the most important resull of his growing reputation was an invitation from Professor ^ ebster to visit him in Cambridge, when he urged Horsford to go abroad and study, — advice which was followed in December, 1844. Arrived in Germany he turned hid steps toward Giessen, at that time the goal of all chemical students, where Liebig had recently introduced the modern method of teaching chemistry in the laboratory. Here he spent two happy profitable years in the society of such men as Hof- mann (whose desk was next his), Williamson. Fresenius, Will, ami many others who afterward became famous in the Bcience, — a chemi- cal family over which Liebig exercised a fatherly care. At the end of this time Liebig, with whom he was a great favorite, urged him to take the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. This he refused to do, because he was living on borrowed money, and thought it not right to involve himself further in debt, even l.y the slight amount of the fee for the decree. Liebig induced the University to offer to remit the fee, a great honor when the tenacity with which Universities 342 EBEN NORTON HORSFORD. cling to their fees is remembered ; but Horsford, from honorable though exaggerated scruples, refused to accept this favor, and returned to America, without a degree it is true, but with his mind broadened by contact with such different surroundings and intercourse with men of the first intellectual ability, his chemical knowledge pushed even to organic chemistry, at that time the very frontier of the science, and bearing as proofs of his acquisitions a paper on glycocoll and a strong recommendation from Liebig. These at once caused his election, at the instance of Professor Webster, to the " Rumford Professorship of the Application of Science to the Useful Arts " in Harvard University, and his first duty in this position was to organize the laboratory of the newly founded Lawrence Scientific School after the plan of that at Giessen. He addressed himself to this task with the energy which was so large a part of his character ; the laboratory opened most successfully, and flourished under his management for sixteen years, during which time many chemists of distinction were educated there. As a teacher he was remarkably clear and suggestive, and with his sanguine, enthusiastic temperament was always urging his students along the new lines of work which he had proposed to them. Among the papers published by him at this period of his life only a few of the most striking can be mentioned. Such are an extended research on the action of mercury on various metals, a theoretical paper on the relation between the properties of the metals of the alkaline earths and their atomic weights, and, more important than these, some other discoveries, which are at the same time more char- acteristic of the man because they were undertaken to benefit mankind directly, rather than to throw light on the more abstruse portions of the science. One of these was a paper on the action of water on lead pipes, which contained some of the results of an exhaustive in- vestigation into the best material for the water-pipes of Boston at the time of the introduction of Cochituate water. This work occupied him for many years, but, as he considered it a public service, he re- fused the very ample compensation offered him by the city of Boston, although at the time decidedly in need of money. The city accord- ingly presented him with a handsome service of plate. The other inventions of this class do not appear in the list of his scientific papers, but include his most valuable work. Such are his fundamental im- provements in the art of making cider, at that time a large industry in New England, and the invention of condensed milk. The latter he worked out for use in Dr. Kane's Arctic Expedition, and afterward gave the process to one of his assistants named Hoffmann, who sold EBEN NORTON HORSFORD. 343 it to Borden, so that Horsford himself got no advantage from it ; but his merit as the inventor of this most important preparation was rec- ognized at the Vienna Exhibition of 1873 by a diploma of honor. Another of these important inventions was the pho.sphatic yra>t powder, the object of winch was to return to the: bread the phosphates lost in bolting the flour, and which, as is well known, form such an essential constituent of the food of animals. In 1856 he undertook the manufacture of this yeast-powder, founding the Rumford Chemi cal Works for this purpose, and after he had secured his rights by a lawsuit which dragged along during seven wearisome years, and over- come the great difficulties inseparable from the establishment of a new process on a commercial scale, he made it a great success, which was enhanced later by the use of the acid portion of the yeast-powder as a medicine and beverage under the name of acid phosphate. It is pleasant to see that this work, which was undertaken primarily for the good of mankind by improving the quality of our principal food, should have brought him such a substantial reward. The demands of this business, however, became so great, that, in 18G3, he was obliged to resign the Rumford Professorship to devote himself entirely to its management. After his retirement from his professorship he contin- ued to live in Cambridge until his death, as it had become endeared to him by his long residence and the brilliant society in which it then rejoiced. In addition to the useful inventions already mentioned, several other pieces of public service date from the period of his professor- ship, especially during the war. He was devotedly patriotic, a> was to be expected from the son of a woman whose house was one of the stations on the "Underground Railroad" for the escape of fugitive slaves, and rendered great service by contriving a plan for the de- fence of Boston Harbor, having been appointed on a commission for this purpose by Governor Andrew, and by devising a marvellously compact and light marching ration of compie—ed beef and parched wheat grits, of which half a million were prepared by the government at the instance of General (Irani. A description of this ration was published in pamphlet form. In 1847 he married Mary L'llommedieu Gardiner, who died in 1855; and in 1857 he married her Bister, Phoebe Dayton Gardiner, who survives him. These ladies were the daughters of the Hon. Samuel Smith Gardiner, of Shelter Mand, New Fork, and after Ins death Professor Horsford and his family came into exclusive po sion of his very large estate there by the purchase of the interest of 34:4 EBEN NORTON HORSFORD. the other heirs. After this he usually spent his summers on Shelter Island, and these were the parts of the year which he enjoyed most; the scenery of the island is beautiful aud restful, the climate delicious, and the old manor-house, with the estate, which has been in the fam- ily from the time of the Indians, full of most interesting associations. He soon became interested in studying the antiquities of the place and the family, and erected monuments to the Quakers who were sheltered here from Puritan persecution. Afterward these antiqua- rian studies took a broader field from a chance reference let fall by one of his guests to the legendary Norumbega, and furnished him with an engrossing and congenial occupation for the later years of his life. The results of his researches were published in a series of costly monographs, illustrated with heliotypes and reproductions of ancient maps, of which he accumulated an almost unrivalled collec- tion. The following are the most important of his discoveries in this field : the identification of Salem as the place of the landfall of John Cabot; the discovery of the fort of Norumbega on the Charles River, and of the city of the same name in Watertown, Massachu- setts, including the finding of many curious remains.; the Norsemen in America, and the identification of the site of the house of Leif Erikson in Cambridge by the determination of the approximate lati- tude, and the recognition of the topographic features described in the saga, confirmed later by the discovery of hearths and other portions of an ancient house; finally, the origiu of the name America, which, as well as many other names in this country, he derived from Eric, the father of Leif. These conclusions of his met with much opposi- tion, as was to be expected, but they brought him an invitation to take part in the scientific proceedings of the Society of Americanisti in Spain in commemoration of the discovery of America by Columbus, to which he responded by the paper on the name of America men- tioned above, and also led to his creation by the King of Denmark a Knijiht Commander of the third grade of the Order of Dannebrof in October, 1892, an honor which has found few parallels in America. Among his services to archaeological and philological science should not be forgotten his publication of the Dictionary of the Iroquois and Algonquin Languages, written by Zeisberger, and for many years pre- served in manuscript in the Library of Harvard College. In 1873 he revisited Europe as United States Commissioner to the Vienna Exhibition, where he occupied a commanding position on the jury for food products. He afterward published the results of some EBEN NORTON HORSFORD. 345 of his observations made at this time in an able pamphlet on Vienna Bread. One of the great pleasures of this visit to Europe consisted in renewing the old friendships formed in Giessen ; but the best of these was not to be renewed, as Liebig, his chemical father, died while be was on his voyage from America. In 1880 he again crossed the ocean, this time to visit Norway, and again in L890, when he took a course of the waters at Carlsbad. lu the meau time he had not ne- glected the Western Hemisphere, as he made two journeys to Califor- nia, in the second one visiting Mexico also, and in 1887 took a voyage to Demerara and the Windward Islands. In 187G he served as a juror at the Centennial Exhibition in Phila- delphia, and he was twice, with an interval of thirty years between the appoiutmeuts, an Examiner of the Mint. He was elected a Resi- dent Fellow of our Academy on May 25, 1847. He delivered numerous popular lectures, among others the first course at the Lowell Institute ; and of his addresses should be espe- cially mentioned that at the Morse Memorial in 1872, afterward pub- lished in pamphlet form, and the oration at the unveiling of the statue of Leif Erikson in Boston in 1887. The wealth which came to him as a result of his ability in manu- facturing chemistry was freely used in charity, both public and pri- vate. Of Wellesley College he was a frequent and libera] benefactor, showing in his gifts a wisdom which does not always distinguish those who give money to colleges. First among these should be placed his endowment of the library, providing for its administration, as well as more than doubling the number of books. Among these additions should be especially mentioned the valuable Powell collection on comparative philology. The Professors also are indebted to him for the establishment of a year of rest in every seven, and the foundation of a pension fund. Among bis other gifts are a fund .for scientific apparatus, an electric light plant, and an ozone apparatus for purify ing the air of the halls, which has proved very successful in this, so far as I am aware, its first use on a large scale. These, however, form but a small part of what he gave the College, since he waa con- tinually on the watch to satisfy its needs as they arose, not onlj to add to its efficiency, but to promote the health and comfort of both professors and students; and quite as valuable as his gifts in money was the sympathetic interest with which, as President of the Board of Visitors from its foundation, he watched over the interests of the Col- lege, and fostered its growth. This useful and happy life came to an end, January 1. 1898, when, 346 WILLIAM RAYMOND LEE. after only little more than twelve hours of sickness, he died of heart disease. His most prominent personal characteristic was a genial gayety, which, with his cordial, exuberant hospitality, was simply the over- flowing of his large, warm heart; this endeared him to his hosts of friends, among whom were numbered many of the brilliant poets and scientific men who adorned Cambridge during the time of his service as Rumford Professor, and such others as Ole Bull, Ericsson, and Henry. It also manifested itself in the affectionate care with which he treated the operatives of the Rumford Chemical Works, more as if they were his children than his paid laborers. Nowhere were these beautiful traits in his character more delightfully manifested than in his beloved Sylvester Manor at Shelter Island, where he was in his element, dwelling on the familiar but ever fresh beauties of the scenery, showing his visitors the latest improvements, or delighting them with learned and interesting accounts of the antiquities of the island, or his own more extended archaeological researches. In these researches he showed the singular ingenuity of mind, the dogged per- sistency in clinging to a problem until he had mastered its minutest details, the unconquerable enthusiasm, and the honesty of purpose which were his leading characteristics, and to which his great success in the worlds of science and business was due. In reviewing his life, his successes, great as they were, are not the most striking things. These are rather his extraordinary public spirit and his high sense of honor ; and it is pleasant to realize that he achieved to a remarkable degree the main object in his career, both as a scientific man and as a citizen, — the help and improvement of his fellow creatures. 1893. Charles L. Jackson. WILLIAM RAYMOND LEE. Colonel William Raymond Lee, whose death on the 2Gth of December, 1891, attracted considerable attention at the time, belonged to the Marblehead or Revolutionary Lees. His grand- father, whose name he bore, was in the Revolutionary War the colonel of a Marblehead regiment. From him Colonel Lee derived his right to membership in the Cincinnati. Another ancestor, Jeremiah Lee, was prominent in many ways in the Revolutionary struggle. William Raymond Lee was born in 1807. He was educated at West Point, where he was a member of the class of 1829. He WILLIAM RAYMOND LEE. 347 remained there for nearly the prescribed term, but left before receiving his commission. He followed the calling of a civil engineer, and was for many years the Superintendent of the Boston and Providence Railroad. On the breaking out of the Civil War, Lee promptly offered his services to Governor Andrew. He had never been in the arm}-, but he had had a military education; ami although he was far beyond the usual age for active duty in the field, he gal- lantly took his place as colonel of a regiment. This regiment, the Twentieth Massachusetts, was his creation. He selected the field and staff officers, and most of those of the line. He gave it its standard of military duty. He inspired his command with his own high spirit of devotion and steadfastness. "Well did the regiment repay him by its magnificent behavior on many a bloody field. Colonel Lee was taken prisoner at the unfortunate affair of Ball's Bluff, and was one of the hostages selected by the Con- federate government to receive the treatment which was awarded to Confederate privateersmen by the mistaken policy pursued by Federal authorities at the outset of the war. His sufferings were severe, and for a time even endangered his life. Fortunately, this exceptional treatment did not last long, and early in 18G2 he was exchanged. He led his regiment throughout the Peninsular campaign; he was at Yorktown, Pair Oaks, Savage's Station, Glendale, and Malvern Hill. Then the Army of the Potomac was removed from the Peninsula. In the bloody hat tie of Antietam, the regiment, still under Lee, suffered heavy loss, but fully sustained its reputation. But the strain of field service proved too much for its commanding officer. Few men at tie- age of fifty-five can long continue to hear the hardships and labors inseparable from active service in the line. After a vain struggle with increasing infirmity, Colonel Lee was obliged to resign. His military life was brief, but distinguished. It was al eminently useful. His spirit of unreserved devol ion to the cause, his noble example in bravely and uncomplainingly enduring all the hardships of a soldier'.-, Life, his strict,, high standard of mili- tary honor and duty, inspired his regiment with the like high principles and sentiments; while his great kindliness of heart, his unselfishness, and his uniform considtrateness for the rights and feelings of his officers and men made him beloved and re- 348 LEWIS MILLS NORTON. spected by his entire command. For his gallant and meritorious services he received the brevet rank of Brigadier General of Vol- unteers. After the war he lived in comparative retirement. His infirmities increased ; he was not able to play any part in active life. But he was not forgotten. His neighbors and friends con- tinued to seek his counsel. The officers of his old regiment sought him out, and on every fitting occasion evinced the regard and honor in which they held him. It was a touching sight to see at his funeral some fifty or more of the enlisted men of the Twentieth, veterans of Ball's Bluff, Antietam, Fredericksburg, Gettysburg, and the Wilderness, mustering, with their badges of mourning, to pay to their gallant leader the last tribute of respect and affection. But not only will his memory be cherished by those who knew him ; his place among the Massachusetts colonels will always be a high one. The service he rendered to the State in the crisis of the Civil War will always be fully and grate- fully remembered. Colonel Lee was married in 1842 to Helen Maria Amory, daughter of the late Thomas Amory, Esq., of Boxbury. She sur- vived him about two years. His eldest son, Arthur Tracy Lee, was educated at West Point, and died in 1870, a Lieutenant in the Fifth Artillery. Another son, Robert Ives Lee, and a daughter, Elizabeth Amory, the wife of Colonel 0. H. Ernst of the Army, survive him. 1893. John C. Ropes. LEWIS MILLS NORTON. Dr. Lewis Mills Norton, a Resident Fellow of this Academy and a member of the Council of the American Chemical Society, died, after a short illness, on April 26, 1893. He was born in Athol, Massachusetts, December 26, 1855, and was the only son of the Rev. John Foote Norton and Ann Maria Mann. His early youth was spent in Athol, Wellesley, and Natick, Massachusetts, and in Fitz- william and Keene, New Hampshire. He was an earnest student of chemistry at the Institute of Tech- nology for three years, from 1872 to 1875, when he was appointed Assistant in Analytical Chemistry, in which capacity he served for two years. In May, 1877, h#went to Europe, and continued his chemical studies at Berlin, Paris, and Gottingen until August, 1879, and LEWIS MILLS NORTON. 349 received his degree of Doctor of Philosophy from the University of Gottingen. On his return to this country he entered the Amoskeag Manufac- turing Company of Manchester, New Hampshire, as chemist, where he gained valuable practical experience which strongly influenced his subsequent career as a teacher of industrial chemistry. In 1881 he returned to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology as Instructor in General Chemistry. In 1883 he was appointed Assist- ant Professor in Organic Chemistry, and in 1885, Associate Professor in Organic and Industrial Chemistry. The combined duties of these two growing departments proved too much for one man to carry, and Dr. Norton gave up the systematic instruction in organic chemistry at the end of the Institute year in 1891, and after that time devoted his entire thought and strength to the subject of industrial chemistry, in which he was deepty interested. In 1888, the Faculty of the Institute of Technology, upon the scheme presented by Dr. Norton, founded the course in chemical engineering. That a course of study was needed which should add to a thorough training in mechanical engineering a thorough knowl- edge of general, theoretical, and applied chemistry was at once evi- dent by the number of students of fine scholarship who entered the new course. Under Dr. Norton's fostering care the course in chemical engineering increased in numbers and efficiency. He gave it his 1" st thought and effort, and happily saw before his death the course estab- lished on a firm foundation. The professional papers contributed by Dr. Norton to various scien- tific and technical journals were very numerous, and include a wide range of subjects. The following list contains his more important papers : — 1878. (With J. F. Elliott.) Ueber die Einwirkung von Schwefelam- monium auf Pikramid. Bter. d. chem. Gesell., 1878, p. 327. 1878. (With A. Michael.) Ueber die Einwirkung des I hlorjods auf Aromatische Amine, [bid., p. 1<>7. 1879. Cclier die Einwirkung von Chlorjod auf die Amine der I'. reihe. (Inaugural Dissertation.) Pamph, 8vo, pp. ■'<>■ G tingen. 1879. (With A. Michael.) On the Action of [odine Monochloride upon Aromatic Amines. Am. Chem. Jour., I. 255 -i>7 1880. (With same.) On a- and j3-Monobromcrotonic Acids Ibid., " II. 11-19. 1881. (With ('. O. Prescott.) Continuous Etherification. Ibid., VI. 241-246. 350 LEWIS MILLS NORTON. 1884. (With W. R. Nichols.) Laboratory Experiments in General Chemistry, compiled for the Use of Students of the Massachu- setts Institute of Technology. Pamph. 12mo, pp. 58 and viii. Boston, 1884, 1885, 1886, 1887. 1885. Coal Tar, and the Colors derived from it. Proc. Soc. Arts, M. I. T., 1884-85, pp. 29-33. 1885. Minor (Chemical) Investigations. Am. Chem. Jour., VII. 114- 120. 1885. (With A. W. Allen.) Ueber die Einwirkung der verdiinnten Salpetersaure auf die Anilide. Ber. d. chem. Gesell., XVIII. 1995-1999. 1886. (With C. W. Andrews.) The Action of Heat on Liquid Paraffins. Am. Chem. Jour., VIII. 1-9. 1886. (With A. A. Noyes.) On the Action of Heat upon Ethylene. Ibid., VIII. 362. 1887. (With H. J. Williams.) On the Action of Bromine on Isobutyl- ene. Ibid., IX. 87. 1887. (With C. B. Kendall.) Preparation of Alizarine Assistant and its Action in Turkey-Red Dyeing. Textile Record, 1887, p. 227. 1887. (With W. D. Livermore.) Ueber die Einwirkung von verdunnter Salpetersaure auf Substituirte Amidoverbindungen. Ber. d. chem. Gesell., XX. 2268. 1887. (With H. A- Richardson.) Ueber Leinolsaure. Ibid., XX. 2735. 1887-88. The Dyeing of Cotton Yarn. Textile Record. A Series of Articles from June, 1887, to March, 1888. 1888. (With H. A. Richardson.) On the Fatty Acids of the Drying Oils. Am. Chem. Jour., X. 57. 1888. Character and Effect of Illuminants present in Coal Gas. Tech- nology Quarterly, II. 30. 1888. Natural Gas. Proc. Soc. Arts, M. I. T., 1887-88, p. 74. 1888. Bleaching. A Series of Articles in the Textile Record, beginning May, 1888. 1888. (With A. A. Xoyes) Note on the Butines. Am. Chem. Jour., X. 430. 1889. The Composition of Boston Gas. Am. Gas Light Jour., L. 303. 1889. Cutch and its Uses in Textile Coloring. Textile Record, 1889, pp. 31. 66. 1890. (With Herbert C. Tuttle.) Lactic Acids and Lactates in Textile Coloring. Technology Quarterly, III. 287, 1S90. Carbonization of Wool. Textile Record, XL 64, 96. 1891. Notes upon the Estimation of Chlorine in Electrolyzed Solutions. Technology Quarterly, IV. 361. Dr. Norton's influence on high scholarship at the Institute of Tech- nology was felt in all departments of chemistry. The book of experi- ments in general chemistry, which he compiled in connection with the ANDREW PRESTON PEABODY. 351 late Professor Nichols, has been a most valued aid to instruction at the Institute, and has been largely used at other schools. In organic chemistry his instruction was on a high plane, yet he never lost sight of the importance, in a school of this character, of insisting on the industrial application of scientific research. But it was in the teaching of industrial processes where he espe- cially excelled. His lectures were listened to with eagerness by his pupils, who recognized the master who could deal with equal facility with the scientific basis of a process and with its economic merits. His range of subjects in industrial chemistry was very wide. Not only were the textile industries — bleaching, dyeing, printing, pig- ments, etc. — thoroughly taught, but the great industries of the world in their manifold variety received from him exhaustive treatment. His intimate acquaintance with the manufactures and manufacturers in New England kept him in close touch with the progress of all its industries. Dr. Norton's career as a chemist and teacher is remarkable for the amount and variety of good work which he accomplished in his short span of life, which had not reached twoscore years at his death. The Institute of Technology, with which his life was so largely identified, lost in his death not only one of its most valued teachers, but one of the most useful members of its Faculty. His judgment, both in mat- ters of the general policy of the Institute and of the minute details of organization, was always highly prized by his associates. His personal character was singularly simple, direct, and truthful, and he was unselfishly devoted to his family, his friends, and his students. In 1883 Dr. Norton married Alice Peloubet, who survives him, with five children. 1893. T. M. Drown. ANDREW PRESTON PEABODY. Dr. Peabodt was chosen into the Academy* at the close of a period when there had been quite a keen discussion as to the defini tion of the word "Sciences" in its title. The word Science and kindred words have certainly varied in their meaning more than once in the last two or three centuries. Forty or fifty years ago their wa« a division in the Academy as to whether it could be properly * He was elected a Resident Fellow in 1861, and was Vice-President from 1888 to 1892. 352 ANDREW PRESTON PEABODY. that there is a science of ethics or morals. His election may be counted as one evidence in many that the Academy of that day was ready to accept the wider definition. For while he was an accurate mathematician who had pushed far his studies in the mathematics, and had proved himself a skilful and successful teacher, it was not as a mathematician that he was chosen into the Academy. The Academy could not have chosen any man in America whose election would more distinctly represent to our whole community its respect for the science of morals. In his work in literature, or in the pulpit, or as a Professor at Harvard, he would have wished to be recognized as one who believed that ethics is the first science which it behooves men to study. And he would have been glad, in whatever way, to have it understood that his business in life, first and last, was, by whatever effort, to make men better than he found them. He was born in Beverly, Massachusetts, on the 19 th of March, 1811. He entered Harvard College younger than any one else has entered it in this century, and graduated with high honor in the Class of 1826. He then became a tutor of mathematics, occupying a part of his time in studies which should prepare him for the Christian ministry. In 1833 he was ordained at Portsmouth, N. H., as col- league of Dr. Nathan Parker. He survived Dr. Parker, and re- mained at Portsmouth until 1860, when he returned to the Univer- sity, to become Preacher to the University and Plummer Professor. He filled the active duties of this place until 1881, and was then named Emeritus Professor. He resided at Cambridge until his death, strong and well, and constantly called upon for public service in various capacities. When this took place, — the result, as it seemed, of an unfortunate fall, — he seemed as ready for duty as ever, and whoever dealt with him found it impossible to believe that he was so old a man. In this long career he was never satisfied with performing what would be technically called the duties of his profession. One of his axioms, which he laid down in quite early life in an address to the divinity students at Cambridge, was this: "Every man should have a vocation and an avocation." His vocation was that of a faithful working minister of a very large congregation. He would choose one and another avocation from time to time, and fulfil all its obligations with vigor and the success which waits on vigor. While he was yet at Portsmouth, he assumed, with a confidence which the event justified, the editorial charge of the North Ameri- ANDREW PRESTON I'EABODY. D'u] can Review, succeeding Dr. John Gorham Palfrey in that office. His direction of the Review was always fresh, and it was kept well up to the literary requisitions of the time. He enlisted a large num- ber of writers who had not worked for it before, and the volumes published under his direction will be found to take a courageous and generous view of public exigency. The years from 1830 to 18.30 would generally be spoken of in New Euglaud history as the epoch in which the system of lyceum lectures was developing, and perhaps when it reached its culmination of use- fulness. In the early days of such courses of lectures, public-spirited men undertook them, with a direct view, in which experience con- firmed their foresight, of lifting up the level of popular education. Those were not the days of large " honorariums " for such service; they were days in which public speakers carried their best wares, and were thankful if a fit audience met them. Among the young men who devoted themselves heartily to the work of thus building up the lecture system, Dr. Peabody was foremost, aud in after life he would frequently receive his reward when he found that some of his hearers of those days remembered counsels or information which he had then given. In later life, he delivered several of the courses of the Lowell Institute. Of these courses of lectures, one was printed in the year 1844, under the title, " Lectures on Christian Doctrine." In his transfer to the University, he still had the vocation of a cler- gyman, and he had more than one avocation. He was the Preacher to the University, with the distinct understanding, under the very terms of the Plummer trust, that he was to be the counsellor and adviser of the undergraduates in any of their difficulties, spiritual, intellectual, and even physical. His devotion to this part of his task was such t li.it the young men, particularly those from distant points, came to regard his house as a place where they might come for any counsel which they needed. He was himself proud of this confidence, and he never lost it, even after he retired from the nominal duties of his professor- ship. During this j>eriod he became an active member of the Acad- emy, and his presence at our meetings will be gratefully remembered, as is his presence at the meeting of many other societies instituted for the best purposes of education or other philanthropy. A valuable collection has been published of the baccalaureate ser- mons which, in more than twenty years, he addressed t«> a> many classes as they graduated. Here is quite a well adjusted statement of the science of life. In no instance, among them all. did he satisfy himself with discussing, however brilliantly or carefully, what may vol. xxvni. (n. s. xx.) 23 354 ANDREW PRESTON PEABODY. be called the matter-of-course or commonplace conditions of the oc- casion. These are not simply earnest addresses to young men who are his friends, to consider in general how great the change is from a college where they have studied to a world in which they must act. It will rather be found that he always puts himself in the place of some thoughtful, conscientious, eager young fellow in the Senior Class, who has faced some critical question among the infinite prob- lems. He puts himself fairly in that man's place, asks that critical question aloud, and addresses himself to the answer. He does not attempt to conceal the difficulty by any blur of rhetoric. He owns that it is difficult. He states it carefully and clearly. And then he compels every man who hears him to help him out, as they work out the solution. What you are sure of is that, for after life, there is one position in the essentials of morals which in that day's farewell has been diligently considered. To have done that, if a man never did anything more, twenty times, for twenty classes, would be an achieve- ment of which any man might be proud. It is to be hoped that some Harvard man really interested in the history of America in the last half-century, will give us a monograph on the advance made in American life, as it can be shown — indeed, as it was largely led — by the pulpit of Harvard College between the days of Dr. Kirkland, in 1810, and the end of Dr. Peabody's active career. His own connection with Cambridge covers that period. He would have said, and the men of his time would say, that that was the moment when the College changed from a high school, and what we should call a poor high school at that, to a University. It will prove, when such a monograph is written, that the change can be traced all along in the words spoken from time to time in the College pulpit. To name Dr. Kirkland himself, both the Wares, Dr. Palfrey, Dr. Walker, among men who are dead, and Dr. Peabody in his longer line of service, is to name a line of leaders of men, all of whom were in touch with their times. In those sermons, so far as they can now be read, there will be found no cloister habit of counting jots and tittles. In the series of their instructions to three generations of men, may be found much of the inspiration under which these generations acted. Mr. Ralph Waldo Emerson said, in an address which I heard on a critical occasion, that he owed more to Harvard College from what he heard in the College Chapel than to any of her other instructions in his academic life. Dr. Peabody was a fit successor in such work to James Walker, for so long a time an honored member of the Academy. It was not ANDREW PRESTON PEABODY. 355 in one sermon or in two that he taught his lessons. The undergrad- uates who heard him month after month knew that he bad a plan of life. They knew what that plan was. They knew that it was cot a plan for ten years or for seventy ; it was the plan for the life of an immortal. It was not a plan for a lonely life, but for a life all wrought in with the life of the universe. It was the plan of a man who says " Our Father " when he prays, who knows wliat it is to be a son of God, who is engaged in his Father's affairs, who goea and comes on his Father's errands, creates as God creates, and enters into his Father's joys. As has been intimated, Dr. Peabody was an omnivorous reader, and he was what the world now calls an all-round reader. I doubt if he ever read anything merely because other people read it, or from that vague and misleading notion that one must keep up with the times. He was never afraid of being behind the times. When he assumed the charge of the North American, he was very eager that it should not be guilty of mutual admiration, — an offence which it had been fairly accused of. When he gave up that journal, after five or six years' service, I said to him that he had given it up when he had "just begun to fight,'' when he was most fit for the business. "On the other hand," he said, "by the time a man has been an editor five years he should leave the helm. For by that time he has a circle of friends working with him, to whom he is under obliga- tions. It becomes inevitable that he and his journal will want to be good to them, and their work will be spoken of as more impor- tant and permanent than it really is." He was a counsellor and director in a hundred philanthropic tTUE Charity, education, peace, temperance, — whatever goes to happy homes and manly manhood, — for every movement or organization which in- volved these, he came to be regarded as of course an adviser and Leader. Men of wealth were glad to take his counsel as to their use of it; and how glad he was when he could bring together here, face to face perhaps, the youngster who came eager for what Harvard could give, and the Maecenas as glad that the boy should drink at her fountain. Such activities brought him in touch with active men in all religious communions. " The doing the things which the Lord -aid," the Christian spirit in which such men worked together, — made men prize him for what he was. People who are fond of method, and of stating in written language the results of the great movements of society, are always asking that the Christian Church shall devise some 356 ' GEORGE CHEYNE SHATTUCK. symbol of its union which shall show that it is not divided at heart. The real symbol of its union is the willingness of its members to unite heartily in work for the upbuilding of the world, or for bring- ing in the kingdom of God. Quite indifferent to verbal statements with regard to unity, quite indifferent to forms of organization, Dr. Peabody, in the catholic and generous vigor by which he joined in every enterprise which seemed to him an enterprise of real philan- thropy, was an evidence to all Christians of every communion that what is called the unity of Christianity is in no danger. No man in the circle of the Christian churches of New England, of whatever name or of whatever ritual, was so loved and honored by the men of all names and all rituals as was he. 1893. Edward Everett Hale. GEORGE CHEYNE SHATTUCK. George Cheyne Shattuck was born in Boston, July 22, 1813. His parents were George C. and Eliza Cbeever (Davis) Shattuck, both of New England parentage for many generations. The better part of his early education was at Bound Hill, Northamp- ton, under the influence of Joseph G. Cogswell, whom he always held in veneration. He was of the Class of 1831 in Harvard College, and afterwards studied in the Law School for one year, and in the Medical School for three years, taking his degree in 1835. His studies for his profession were continued in New England, London, and Paris, where he had the great advantage of Baron Louis as a teacher. Beturning to Boston, he began practice with his father, then one of the eminent physicians of that city. He married Miss Anne H. Brune, sister of his class- mate, Erederic W. Brune, of Baltimore, and from that time to his death resided in Boston, with occasional tours abroad. He became a visiting physician of the Massachusetts General Hos- pital in 1849, and served in that office for thirty-six years. He was a Professor in the Harvard Medical School from 1857 to 1874, and the Dean of the School for five years. He was Presi- dent of the Massachusetts Medical Society from 1872 to 1874. These were his professional honors. Deeply attached to the Protestant Episcopal Church, he gave himself largely to its ser- vice in many diocesan boards and societies, and in the General Conventions and the Theological Seminary of that communion. His most conspicuous and lasting act in this relation was the JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. 357 foundation of St. Paul's School in Concord, N. H. To this he gave an estate which had been his summer home for several years, making frequent gifts at later times to the amount of about one hundred thousand dollars. He was greatly revered as the founder of this school, and almost equally in his after years as a devoted layman of his Church thoughout the country. He died in Boston, after a protracted illness, March 22, L893, leav- ing a widow, a married daughter, and two sons in his own profession. This is a very bare outline of a highly serviceable and honora- ble career. A noble character was at the heart of it. He was simple, sincere, bountiful, thoughtful for others, ami disinter- ested to an exceptional degree. His friends were very many, and the objects of his kindness and practical helpfulness were legion. His home was full of hospitality, and all about it lay the walks in which he served and loved his fellow men. 1893. Samuel Eliot. JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. John Greexleaf Whittier was born in Haverhill, Massachu- setts, on December 17, 1807. His ancestors, in every line of the soundest Yankee stock, had resided from the earliest times in Essex County, or in the older regions of New Hampshire. The house in which he was born had been built by his emigranl ancestor, Thomas Whittier, who died at the age of seventy-six, in 1696, after above fifty years' residence in New England. In 1694, Joseph Whittier, son of the emigrant, and great-grand- father of the poet, had married the daughter of a well known Quaker. Probably from this time the immediate family of tin- poet had belonged to the Religious Society of Friends. In all other respects, their condition had been that of substantial New England farmers. Amid the extreme diversity of religious views that marks our own time, and the efforts now so general among the New Eng- land elergy to emphasize the few things that religious people believe in common, and to neglect the many concerning which they radically differ, we are apt to think of religious divergences as verbal or formal. In general, I think, we are right. Modern Yankees, at all events, are not profound theologians. They are disposed either to take religion as they timl it, or else, without 358 JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. much ado, to select in place of their ancestral faith some creed or form of worship which they find socially or aesthetically more congenial. Sectarian differences nowadays certainly do not dis- play themselves in obvious differences of character; and with people of ordinary parts, I take it, this has generally been the case at all times. With really serious natures the case is dif- ferent. Those few people in any generation who seem instinct- ively aware of the tremendous seriousness of religion — the people whose presence in this world was perhaps the real basis of the Calvinistic doctrine of Election — are inevitably affected, often permanently, by the religious doctrine that surrounds their early years. Whatever else Whittier was, he was a profoundly religious man, who could not help taking life in earnest. To understand him at all, then, we must know something of the peculiar religious views which he never relinquished. The Friends in New England, writes a gentleman who is now an earnest member of the Religious Society in question, "were Orthodox, in that they believed in God as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit; in Christ as truly one with the Father, yet also very man, and in the efficacy of His atonement for the for- giveness of sins. But the term 'Orthodox ' in New England is usually taken to mean the tenets of the Westminster Confes- sion. Whittier was trained to regard the extreme views of this Confession with aversion. He drank in the truth of the uni- versal love of God to all men in Christian, Jewish, or Pagan lands; that God so loved the world that He sent His Son; that Christ died for all men, and His atonement availed for all who in every land accepted the light with which He enlightened their minds and consciences, and who, listening to His still small voice in the soul, turned in any true sense towards God, away from evil, and to the right and loving. Whittier thus drank in a spirit of universal love, a sense of oneness with all men, that fitted him to espouse and advocate the cause of the ignorant, the weak, the outcast, — the slave, the Indian, the heathen. It gave him sympathy with all loving saintly souls like Fenelon, Guion, and other Roman Catholics of like spirit, and nerved his manly indignant scorn of hard and cruel men that professed the name of 'Christian.' Whittier was trained to have a great reverence for the Bible. . . . He had read much in the journals of Friends. He had steeped his mind with their thoughts, and loved them because they were so saintly and yet so humbly unconscious of it. JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. o.V.I "The title 'Quaker Poet ' is a true one, not simply because he ■was a Friend by membership, but because he was permeated by the spirit of Quaker Christianity. It is true that Whittier was much broadened by association with men like Emerson, Long- fellow, and others, Garrison especially; but he was to the end a Friend in his religion." The letter from which I have quoted was addressed to a kins- woman of Whittier's and of my own, who lias kindly sent me some notes of her recollection of Friends. Though some yi younger than he, she was trained under similar influences. Her recollections, then, we may guess in some degree to have blended with his. "During the early part of this century," she writes me, "1 think the Society of Friends throughout the rural districts of New England retained in a great measure the stern, rigid sim- plicity and exclusiveness which characterized the religious peo- ple of the old Puritan days. They were thoroughly Orthodox,* and gave little heed to the Unitarian controversy anion- others. . . . Friends then had not, 1 think, all the aggressive fervor of the earlier days. There was a degree of lukewarmness; but they had among them many ministers,! untrained in the learn- ing of the world, but full of spiritual life, who labored not only among Friends, but wherever they felt themselves called. "The discipline of the Society was rigidly observed by most. Queries were answered quarterly, and looked alter by appointed committee. I will give some of those queries, as they un- doubtedly exerted some influence over the children, who often listened to them : — "Are meetings for worship duly attended? hour X observed? Are they preserved from sleeping or other unbecoming behavior-.' "Are the Holy Scriptures frequently read? "Do [Friends] avoid spirituous liquors excepl for medicine? "Do they avoid unnecessary frequenting of taverns or other places of public resort? "Are the poor looked after, and assisted in Buch business as they are capable of? * I. c. Trinitarian Christians, but not Calrinists See the preceding letter t Among the Friends in general, men and women may alike be minisl but a minister may not receive a salary J I. e. If no one feels called to -peak, do they regularly wait tor at least OHfi hour in silence ? 360 JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. "Are [Friends] careful to inspect their affairs, punctual in promises? "Do they live within the bounds of their income? "Do they deal with offenders in the spirit of meekness? etc., etc. "The children of Friends were early taught that there was a still small voice given them by their Heavenly Father, which would tell them when they were doing wrong.* "In most cases they were taken regularly to meetings for wor- ship,— often to those for discipline, — where they had to sit still on hard benches. They had no Sabbath schools, but in almost all families on First Day afternoon the children were required to listen to readings in the Holy Scriptures, and they were gen- erally well informed in all Bible history. When Whittier was a little boy he once remarked he thought David could not have been a Friend, as he was a man of war. " Music and dancing were not indulged in. Novels were for- bidden. But they all the more enjoyed Milton, Young, Cowper, and histories when obtainable. It seems Whittier had none of these, at which I marvel, as his grandmother, who lived with them, was a Greenleaf, and they were literary people." Without actually quoting these notes so kindly sent me, I could not have reproduced the effect they make on one who carefully reads them. To restate in one's own words the ear- nest faith they so tenderly express seems unsympathetic. But in more worldly phrase than theirs, what Whittier was taught and believed seems to have been this : — To all human beings God has given an inner light; to all He speaks with a still small voice. Follow the light, obey the voice, and all will be well. Evil-doers are they who neglect the light and the voice. Now the light and the voice are God's, so to all men who will attend they must ultimately show the same truth. If the voice call us to correct others, then, or the light shine upon manifest evil, it is God's will that we smite error, if so may be by revealing truth. If those who err be Friends, our duty bids us expostu- late with them; and if they be obdurate, to present them for dis- cipline, which may result in their exclusion from our Beligious Society. And the still small voice really warns everybody that * This doctrine of universal conscience seems the fundamental one of the Society of Friends. JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. 361 certain lines of conduct are essentially bad, — among which are the drinking of spirits, the frequenting of taverns, indulgence in gaming, the use of oaths, and the enslavement of any human being. In this firm faith, fortified from Scripture, that everybody really knows right from wrong, that many common lines of con- duct are indubitably wrong, and that whoever follow such lines of conduct do so from wilful neglect of the inner light and the still small voice divinely vouchsafed them, Whittier was trained and lived. To this faith, involving the essential equal- ity of all mankind, and the deliberate ungodliness of whoever by word or deed fails to recognize this equality, may be traced, I think, many of the peculiar characteristics that make him, even to those who mistrust the reforms in which he so passion- ately engaged himself, perhaps the least irritating of reformers. And not only was he trained from infancy in this faith, of which reform is the only logical expression in action; but his life from beginning to end was singularly remote from that heart-breaking experience of actual fact, in crowded and growing communities, which goes so far nowadays to disprove, for whoever will frankly recognize what is before him, the essential vitality of those parts of human nature which are best. A barefoot boy to look at, an unswerving believer at heart in the inner light of the Friends, and by nature one of those calmly passionate Yankees who cannot help taking life in ear- nest, he grew up in days when the New England country was still pure in the possession of an unmixed race whose power of self-government has never been surpassed. His "Snow-Bound " relates his own memories of childhood; some of the sketches preserved in his prose works,* add pleasant touches to the letter known pictures in his verses. He always had a hankering for literature. A strolling Scotch vagrant, hospitably treated to cheese and cider, sang him in payment some songs of Burns. At fourteen, he laid hands on a copy of Burns's Poems. These seem to have started him at writing. At seventeen he had writ- ten a poem on the "Exile's Departure" from the "shores Hibernia,"t which, in 1826, found its way into print in the New- * Notably, "Yankee Gypsies," and "Magicians and Witch Folk." Prose Works, Vol. I. pp. 826, 399. t Poetical Works, Vol. IV. p. 333. 362 JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. buryport "Free Press," then edited by William Lloyd Garrison. From 1827 to 1892 no year passed without verses which sooner or later came to publication. In 1826, before he was nineteen years old, he was visited while at work in the corn-field by Garrison, the young editor, who had been struck by the merit of his verses. The friendship thus begun proved lifelong. Had anything been needed to enhance the reformatory instincts of a Yankee Quaker, this first literary recognition, chancing to come from the man destined to be the most strenuous reformer of his time, would have been enough. In his twentieth year, Whittier went to the Academy in Haverhill, where he spent two terms, and particularly distin- guished himself in English composition. During a winter vaca- tion he taught a country school. At twenty-one he was already a professional writer for some of the smaller newspapers. At twenty -three he was editor of the " Haverhill Gazette " ; and before he was twenty-four he was made editor of the "New England Weekly Eeview," a paper published at Hartford, Conn. At the end of a year and a half, he resigned this office, on the ground of ill-health, and returned to Massachusetts. Meanwhile he had published a small volume of "New England Legends." At this time, Garrison had just established " The Liberator " in Boston. The movement for the abolition of slavery was fairly begun. Into this movement Whittier threw himself with all his might. For thirty years he constantly advocated it in both prose and verse. He was a member of the Antislavery Convention at Philadelphia, in 1833.* He was attacked by a mob at Haverhill, in 1834; and by a worse one at Concord, New Hampshire, in 1835. In this year he was for one term a member of the General Court. In 1837 he went to New York, as a secre- tary of the National A ntislavery Society. Early in 1838 he was made editor of the " Penny slvania Freeman," a journal devoted to the cause of abolition, published at Philadelphia. In May, 1838, the office of this paper, together with Pennsylvania Hall, just erected for the purpose of providing the Abolitionists with a regular place of meeting, was burned by a mob. In 1840 he resigned his charge of the "Freeman," and rejoined his mother and sister, who had moved to Amesbury, Massachusetts. Here, henceforth, was his legal residence. * See his vivid reminiscences of it, Prose Works, Vol. III. p. 171. JOHN GREENLEAF WIIITTIER. 363 From this time on, his life was remarkably uneventful. Shy in temperament, and generally troubled by that sort of robust poor health which frequently accompanies total abstinence, In- lived secluded in the Yankee country for the better part of fil'ty- two years. He wrote a great deal, but randy, it is said, above half an hour at a time. In 1849 a collection of his poems was published; in 1857 came another, this time from his final publish- ers, Ticknor and Fields. He had now become a recognized liter- ary figure. He was concerned in the starting of "The Atlantic Monthly." The temper of the North was beginning to come over to the side of abolition. In the war, dreadful as such an event was to his religious convictions, he saw the hand of God destroy- ing the great evil of slavery. He had always adhered to that branch of the Antislavery party which believed in opposing the national evil by regular political means. He was an ardent mem- ber of the Kepublican party; and the close of the war, which found his principles victorious, found him in public estimation a great man. In 1871 he was made a Fellow of the American Academy. It is not remembered that he ever attended a meeting. General society, even in its severer forms, he never found congenial. An occasional visit to intimate friends in Boston, and of a summer to the Isle of Shoals, or later to the hill country about Chocorua, were the chief incidents in his life. But he never stopped wilt- ing. His "Birthday Greeting," sent to Dr. Holmes on the 29th of August, 1892, was written only a few weeks before his death. He died, in his eighty-fifth year, at Hampton Falls, New Hamp- shire, on September 7, 1892. During his last years he made a final collection of his writ- ings, with a few brief notes.* It is in seven volumes, four of verse and three of prose. The arrangement is a little confusing. He classified his works under a number of not very definite heads, and under each head printed his material chronologically The first volume, contains "Narrative and Legendary Poeri from 1830 to 1888; the second, "Poems of Nature," from 1830 to 1886, "Poems Subjective ami Reminiscent," from is II bo Ins;, and "Pveligious Poems," from L830 to 1886; the third, "Anti- slavery I'oems," beginning with one to William Lloyd Garrison in 1832, and ending with one to his memory in L879, and "Songs * "The Writings of John Greenleaf Whittier," Riverside PreM, 1 36'4 J°HN GEEENLEAP WHITTIER. of Labor and Reform" from 1838 to 1887; the fourth contains " Personal Poems " from 1834 to 1886, " Occasional Poems " from 1852 to 1888, and reprints of "The Tent on the Beach," origi- nally published in 1867, and of his last volume, "At Sundown," which originally appeared shortly after his death. In an Appen- dix are youthful poems as early as 1825. The prose works are classified in a similarly confusing way. There is a volume of "Tales and Sketches," including his essay in historical fiction, " Margaret Smith's Journal in the Province of Massachusetts Bay, 1678-79"; a volume of "Old Portraits and Modern Sketches," "Personal Sketches and Tributes," and "Historical Papers"; and a volume of papers concerning "The Conflict with Slavery," "Reform and Politics," "The Inner Life," and "Criticism." This bewildering arrangement of the work of sixty-seven years is characteristic. By far the longest article in any of the seven volumes is "Margaret Smith's Journal," which covers one hun- dred and eighty-six pages. By far the greater part of all the work consists of verses or papers which could easily have been written at a short sitting. Uncertain health, the early practice of journalism, and the lack of that higher education which demands prolonged intellectual effort in a single direction, seem to have combined to deprive him of the power of sustained literary labor. As he writes of himself, " His good was mainly an intent, His evil not of forethought done ; The work he wrought was rarely meant, Or finished as begun. " The words he spake, the thoughts he penned, Are mortal as his hand and brain, But. if they served the Master's end, He has not lived in vain! " * That last stanza is unduly modest. There are passages in Whittier's works which have strength and merit of a kind that ought to survive. But of his works as wholes it is true. There is hardly one in which the vital passages are not half buried in irrelevance, redundance, or commonplace. And, as I have said, the very confusion in which he finally presented his writings to * " My Namesake," Poetical Works, Vol. II. pp. 118, 121. JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. 365 posterity is typical of his inability to handle anything on a large scale. To one who amid this confusion sets himself to discover the characteristic traits of the work, the first salient features are not its merits. Whittier was certainly precocious. Certainly, too, the power he displayed in youth did not meet the common fate of precocity. But the change from his earliest work to his latest is surprisingly slight. At seventeen he wrote of the Merrimac : " Oh, lovely the scene, when the gray misty vapor Of morning is lifted from Merrimac's shore; When the firefly, lighting his wild gleaming taper, The dimly seen lowlands comes glimmering o'er ; When on thy calm surface the moonbeam falls brightly. And the dull bird of night is his covert forsaking, When the whippoorwiU's notes from thy margin sound lightly, And break on the sound which thy small waves are making." * At thirty -three he wrote of it again : " But look ! the yellow light no more . Streams down on wave and verdant shore ; And clearly on the calm air swells The twilight voice of distant bells. From Ocean's bosom, white and thin, The mists come slowly rolling in ; Hills, woods, the river's rocky rim, Amidst the sea-like vapor swim, While yonder lonely coast-light, set Within its wave-washed minaret, Half quenched, a beamless star and pale, Shines dimly through its cloudy veil! " f At fifty-nine he wrote of the light-house visible from Hampton Beach : "Just then the ocean seemed To lift a half-faced moon in sight ; And shoreward o'er the waters gleamed, From crest to crest, a line of light. Silently for a space each eye Upon that sudden glory turned: Cool from the land the breeze blew by, The tent-ropes flapped, the long beach churned * Poetical Works, Vol. IV. p. 336. t Poetical Works, Vol. II. p. 12. 366 JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. Its waves to foam ; on either hand Stretched, far as sight, the hills of sand; With bays of marsh, and capes of bush and tree, The wood's black shore-line loomed beyond the meadowy sea." * And as he dealt with Nature here, for above forty years sim- ply looking and telling just what he saw, so he dealt with everything from beginning to end. For sixty-seven years his work retains its chief characteristics, with remarkably slight alteration. The most salient of these characteristics, as I have said, are not the merits. The lines I have cited have an obvious air of commonplace. It is deceptive. As one grows to know them, and the hundreds of others for which I must let them stand, one begins insensibly to realize that the power of selective observa- tion which underlies them is of no common order. But common- place they merely look, and commonplace beyond all doubt are endless passages throughout Whittier's verse. The man lacked the saving grace of humor. In all the seven volumes I have found but one passage that really amused me. This is an account in " Yankee Gypsies " t of how a drunken vagabond broke into the Whittier homestead while the men were away, and made formal love to the dismayed grandmother who was born Greenleaf. In Whittier's verse, this lack of humor is sometimes startling. In a poem t where a Yankee stage-driver describes the profoundly gracious merits of a passenger, who once made him stop while she sketched a panoramic view, occurs this stanza: " ' As good as fair ; it seemed her joy To comfort and to give ; My poor, sick wife and cripple boy Will bless her while they live ! ' The tremor in the driver's tone His manhood did not shame: ' I dare say, sir, you may have known — ' He named a well-known name." And in a poem § commemorating a railway conductor who lost his life in an accident come these passages : * Poetical Works, Vol. IV. p. 281. t Prose Works, Vol. I. p. 339. } " The Hill-Top," Poetical Works, Vol. IV. p. 58. § "Conductor Bradley," Poetical Works, Vol. I. p. 359. JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. 367 "Lo ! the ghastly lips of pain, Dead to all thought save duty's, moved again: ' Put out the signals for the other train ! ' " No nobler utterance since the world began From lips of saint or martyr ever ran, Electric, through the sympathies of man. "Others he saved, himself he could not save. " Nay, the lost life was saved. He is not dead Who in his record still the earth shall tread With God's clear aureole shining round his head." The noble simplicity of the second passage does something to atone for the appalling literalness and the monstrous hyperbole of the first. But one wonders if any other writer of real merit could ever have deliberately reprinted such passages side by side. His lack of humor, then, was serious. So, to a less degree, was his lack of artistic feeling. The remarkably narrow range of his metrical forms, the astonishing errors of his rhymes, are salient and familiar features of his verse. And another defect must have been apparent to whoever has read even the passages that I have already quoted. He had little strength of creative imagination. His poetical figures are almost always both obvious and trite. A lighthouse resembles a minaret; the woods bordering a salt meadow are like the shore bordering the actual sea; a good man, when dead, is provided with an aureole; and so on. The moralizing passages frequent throughout his work display the same weakness. If in his lack of humor he sinks below the commonplace, there is nothing in the technical form of his work, or in the creative power of his imagination, that often rises above it. Yet as one grows to know the work of Whittier, one grows insensibly to feel that essentially it is far from commonplace, that it really deserves the importance accorded to it in contem- porary literature, that no small part of it will probably outlive the age to which it was addressed, and perhaps even the work of any other contemporary American. I have purposely touched on his faults, and put them all together. Not to have recognized them would have been deliberately not to see him as he was. In growing to know his work, these, I think, are what one first 368 JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. remarks. By and by one finds them forgotten in a sense that this poet whom one has grown to know has in him lasting ele- ments for which greatness is perhaps no undue name. Through- out his sixty-seven years of work one feels with growing admiration a constant simplicity of feeling and of phrase, as pure as the country air he loved to breathe. One feels, too, con- stant, unswerving purity of nature, of motive, of life. And if one feel, besides, the limits of thought and of experience that made such purity and simplicity possible throughout eighty-five years of human existence, one is none the sadder for that. What Whittier voiced was a life that could be lived in our own New England through the stormiest years of our Nineteenth Century. Limited though it were, that life throughout, in thought, in feeling, in word, in act, was simple and pure, — commonplace, if you will, in more aspects than one; but in one never common- place, — never for a moment was it ignoble. It has been the fortune of New England, above other parts of our country, to fix the standards and the ideals that have hitherto prevailed throughout the continent of North America. There is courage in the thought that even to our own time New England could bring forth and sustain such noble purity as his. To feel how genuine, how pure, how noble, the man was, with all his limits, we must consider his work in some detail. His own classification of it, as I have said, is confusing. His prose work, once for all, is of little importance. It shows him possessed of a quietly pleasant narrative style, and of a controversial style, of considerable force. But it phrases, I think, little or nothing that is not equally phrased in his more favorite vehicle of verse. I shall discuss, then, chiefly his verse: first that part of it which most reveals himself; then that which deals with his own experience of Nature; then his romantic narratives; and finally the work which he himself deemed chief, — his lifelong advocacy of human freedom. If masterpiece be not an extravagant term for any work of Whittier's, we may perhaps call "Snow-Bound" his master- piece.* At fifty-nine, when almost all of his immediate family were dead, he wrote in tenderly simple verse this account of his earliest memories. "Flemish pictures of old days, " he calls it toward the end. The phrase would be apt, but that it ignores * Poetical Works, Vol. II. pp. 134-159. JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. 369 what seems to me the most notable trait of all. Flemish pic- tures one thinks of as pictures of a peasantry. In "Snow- Bound " we have a country folk very rare in human history. No life could be much simpler, much more remote from luxuri- ous comfort or lazy ease, than the life that is pictured here. But for all their brave rusticity, these sturdy Yankees, toiling in summer on their rocky farms, resting perforce in such winter as buried them in almost Arctic snow-drifts, are no peasants. What makes them what they are is that they are still lords of themselves and of the soil they till. Simple with all the sim- plicity of hereditary farming folk, they are at the same time gentle with the unconscious grace of people who know no earthly superiors. This is the phase of human nature that Whittier knew first and best. This is what he assumed and believed that all mankind might be. And this is the stuff of which any sound democracy must be made. So of this stormy evening he writes : "Shut in from all the world without, We sat the clean-winged hearth about, Content to let the north-wind roar In baffled rage at pane and door, While the red logs before us beat The frost-line back with tropic heat; And ever, when a louder blast Shook beam and rafter as it passed, The merrier up its roaring draught The great throat of the chimney laughed; The house-dog on his paws outspread Laid to the fire his drowsy head, The cat's dark silhouette on the wall A conchant tiger's seemed to fall ; And, for the winter's fireside meet, Between the andirons' straddling feet, The mug of cider * simmered slow, The apples sputtered in a row, And, close at hand, the basket stood With nuts from brown October's wood." This vivid simplicity of description is generally recognized. Less obvious, I think, and less certainly known, is the occasional ultimate simplicity of phrase which makes certain lines of * It has generally been customary in New Enplane!, I think, not to deem cider spirituous. vol. xxvii. (n. 9. xx. ) 24 370 JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. " Snow-Bound " notable. Take this reference to those that are no more: " We turn the pages that they read, Their written words we linger o'er, But in the sun they cast no shade, No voice is heard, no sign is made, No step is on the conscious floor! " Or again, take this couplet about the maiden aunt, so familiar a figure in New England households : " All unprofaned she held apart The virgin fancies of the heart." Or again, these lines for once imaginative : " How many a poor one's blessing went With thee beneath the low green tent Whose curtain never outward swings ! " Or again : " But still I wait with ear and eye For something gone which should be nigh, A loss in all familiar things, In flower that blooms, and bird that sings." Or again still : " And while in life's late afternoon, When cool and long the shadows grow, I walk to meet the night that soon Shall shape and shadoiv overflow, I cannot feel that thou art far." It was from such memories as these, thus remembered, that he went to his work in the world. And the very first poem in his class of "Subjective and Reminiscent" suggests, what rarely appears in his writing, that he had tender memories of a less domestic nature. For these verses, addressed at the age of twenty-three to a lady of Calvinistic tendencies, from whom he seems to have been long parted, contain this passage : " Ere this, thy quiet eye hath smiled My picture of thy youth to see, When, half a woman, half a child, Thy very artlessness beguiled, And folly's self seemed wise in thee." * * " Memories," Poetical Works, Vol. II. p. 96. ' JOHN GREENLFAF WHITTIER. 371 His chief work, as we have seen, he believed to be the work of reform. The personal effects of such work he felt sensibly. At thirty-five, he wrote of himself for a lady's album : " A banished name from Fashion's sphere, A lay unheard of Beauty's ear, Forbid, disowned, — what do they here? " * At forty-five, in lines to his Namesake, t he draws his own portrait : " Some blamed him, some believed him good, The truth lay doubtless 'twixt the two ; He reconciled as best he could Old faith and fancies new. " He loved his friends, forgave his foes; And, if his words were harsh at times, He spared his fellow men, — his blows Fell only on their crimes. " He loved the good and wise, but found His human heart to all akin Who met him on the common ground Of suffering and of sin. " 111 served his tides of feeling strong To turn the common mills of use ; And, over restless wings of song, His birthright garb hung loose! " His eye was beauty's powerless slave, And his the ear which discoi'd pains ; Few guessed beneath his aspect grave What passions strove in chains. " Pie worshipped as his fathers did, And kept the faith of childish days, And, howsoe'er he strayed or slid, He loved the good old ways, — " The simple tastes, the kindly traits, The tranquil air, and gentle speech, The silence of the soul that waits For more than man to teach. * "Ego," Poetical Works, Vol. II. p. 102. t Ibid., Vol. II. p. 116. 372 JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. " And listening, with his forehead bowed, Heard the Divine compassion fill The pauses of the trump and cloud With whispers small and still." However, his actual belief may have been affected by the immense growth of devout free thought about him, he never for a moment faltered in faith that the inner light of the Friends is real. On his sixty-fourth birthday he wrote : " God is, and all is well ! " His light shines on me from above, His low voice speaks within, — The patience of immortal love Outivearying mortal sin." * And again, at seventy-eight : " By all that He requires of me, I know what God himself must be. " No picture to my aid I call, I shape no image in my prayer ; I only know in Him is all Of life, light, beauty, everywhere."! In his last volume are some lines, that must have been written about this time, concerning an outdoor reception, where some young girls had pleased him: " But though I feel, with Solomon, 'T is pleasant to behold the sun, I would not if I could repeat A life which still is good and sweet; I keep in age, as in my prime, A not uncheerful step with time, . . . On easy terms with law and fate, For what must be I calmly wait, And trust the path I cannot see, — That God is good sufficeth me." % With less quotation I could hardly have given the effect of Whittier's personality that emerges from these self-expressive * " My Birthday," Poetical Works, Vol. II. p. 164. t " Revelation," Poetical Works, Vol. II. p. 343. J " An Outdoor Reception," Poetical Works, Vol. IV. p. 297. JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. 373 poems. Superficially commonplace in their simplicity, they really express a character in which the simple virtues of New England are so firmly rooted that by very force of its unassum- ing strength it becomes strongly individual. It is pervaded, however, with true Yankee melancholy, for which, so far as we have yet seen, there was no help but what might be found in fervent religion and its accompanying duties. But Whittier had throughout life another resource. To quote once more from the poem to his Namesake, from which I have already quoted much: " Yet Heaven was kind, and here a bird And there a flower beguiled his way; And, cool, in summer noons, he heard The fountains plash and play. " On all his sad or restless moods The patient peace of Nature stole; The quiet of the fields and woods Sank deep into his soul." In other words, Whittier found in the contemplation of New England landscape the most constant, lasting pleasure of his long life. In his collected works, the poems he classifies as "of Nature " fill only eighty-six pages. In reality, poetry of Nature per- vades his whole work. Under this head, for example, may clearly fall the first lines to the Merrimac which I quoted, and the passage concerning nightfall on Hampton Beach, as well as a great part of "Snow-Bound." Yet all these are classified else- where. So are numberless passages like the following, which is apparently to his mind either narrative or legendary: " Along the roadside, like the flowers of gold The tawny Incas for their gardens wrought, Heavy with sunshine droops the golden-rod, And the red pennons of the cardinal-flowers Hang motionless upon their upright staves. The sky is hot and hazy, and the wind, Wing-weary with its long flight from the south, Unfelt; yet, closely scanned, yon maple leaf With faintest motion, as one stirs in dreams, Confesses it. The locust by the wall Stabs the noon-silence with his sharp alarm. A single hay-cart down the dusty road 374 JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. Creaks slowly, with its driver fast asleep On the load's top. Against the neighboring hill, Huddled along the stone wall"s shady side, The sheep show white, as if a snowdrift still Defied the dog-star. Through the open door A drowsy smell of flowers — gray heliotrope, And white sweet clover, and shy mignonette — Comes faintly in, and silent chorus lends To the pervading symphony of peace." * Everywhere in Whittier's work one may find such pictures. Quite to appreciate them, perhaps, one must know the country they deal with. The regions of New England that Whittier knew have a character peculiarly their own. The rocky coast between Cape Ann and the Piscataqua, broken by long stretches of beach; the marshes, dotted with great stacks of salt hay, stretching back to the woods or the farms of the solid land; the rolling country, with its elms and pines, its gnarled apple orchards, its gray wooden farmhouses ; and almost within sight the lower spurs of the New Hampshire hills, bristling with a stubble of young woods, are unlike any other country I have known. Such subtle impressions as mark the individuality of a region are unmistakable, but almost beyond the power of words to phrase. Perhaps the trait which most distinguishes this country that Whittier so knew and loved is a nearer approach to the suggestion of a romantic past than is common in North America. Ear as the eye can reach or the foot travel, this region has been the home of our own race for above two centuries. It has its own traditions, its own legends. It is humanized in a way almost European. Yet its legends belong to a past not of civilized or mediaeval grandeur, but of savage wildness. And its actual prosperity is past or passing, — but for great factories, swarming with foreign operatives, or for summer visitors, who come 'to idle in regions where the toil of the past generations bred the race that has tamed a savage continent. In these regions, it was Whittier's lot to know the last days of the olden time and the first of the new. He loved the old days for their hardy virtues ; his faith in human nature, always guided by the inner light, allowed him no misgivings for the future. In " Cobbler Keezar's Vision," f the German wizard finds * " Among the Hills," Poetical Works, Vol. I. p. 260. To be sure, this extract is from the Prelude. t Poetical Works, Vol. I. p. 241. JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. 375 the Merrimac of the future, with its scores of mill-wheels aud its white -walled farmhouses and its floating flags of freedom, a lovelier sight than his memories of the vine-clad Rhine, with its clowns and puppets, its flagons and its despotism. Whittier found the Merriinac lovelier himself, — a task in which he was probably helped by the narrow limits of his travels. He loved the Nature about him. He found in it something that constantly rewarded and strengthened his life-long love. Expressing this constant delight in the country that his verses have made peculiarly his own, he accomplished, half unwittingly, the work which I believe will ultimately be thought his best. One may question, if one choose, the merit of his personal and religious poems; one may find his romantic narratives trivial, and his passionate advocacy of reform blind, dangerous, trucu- lent; but one cannot deny that he has seen the landscapes of his own New England with an eye as searching as it was loving, or that he has told us what he saw so simply, so truly, so con- stantly, that, however time and chance may change in years to come the face of the regions he knew so well, the things he saw and loved may be seen and loved throughout time by all pos- terity. The peculiar character of his poetry of Nature is that it is not interpretative, but faithfully representative. The examples of it already quoted are enough to show this trait. There are critics, then, and real lovers of poetry, who find his work harshly literal, unimaginative, prosaic. Such critics, I think, will not let themselves sympathize with the exquisitely sympathetic sense of fact that underlies his utter simplicity. When he tried to interpret, he added nothing to his work. When he was content to tell us what he saw, he showed us con- stantly what many of us should never have seen for ourselves ; and this he showed so truly that, as proves in the centuries true of the art which the centuries pronounce great, each one of us may in turn interpret it anew for himself, just as each may interpret for himself the life that passes before his living eyes. In the constant strength of his instinctive fidelity to Nature, I think Whittier distinguishes himself from almost all other American men of letters. In most of our literature there is a quality of consciousness. Sometimes this takes the form of aggressive cleverness; sometimes it deliberately assumes the traditional dignity of culture; often — and perhaps most charac- teristically — it half consciously, half unwittingly, follows or re- 376 JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. vives tradition. As somebody has extravagantly said, American verse swarms with nightingales, — a bird unknown on this conti- nent. For this state of things there is a reason that these perhaps imaginary nightingales typify. An American would not be a true son of the fathers if he did not instinctively love tradition. The emigrants brought from the Uld World fireside tales of things and folks, of pomps and grandeurs, of comedies and tragedies, that their children could never know in the flesh. And history has moved fast with us, and society has been overturned more than once. And Western children to-day are listening to such stories of New England as Yankee children of the early days heard about Old England itself. This love of tradition, which shows itself perhaps most markedly in the passion for geneal- ogy that permeates New England, is a prime trait of the true Yankee. And Whittier was as true a Yankee as ever lived. His first published volume, we remember, was a volume of "New England Legends." New England legends he continued to write almost all his life; and as his reading extended, he wrote many other legends, too, of regions and races that he had never known in the flesh. Of the latter little need be said. They are not, I think, pro- foundly characteristic. He got them from books, and he put them in other books, where their simple ballad form makes them pleasantly readable. He generally managed to infuse into them a certain amount of blameless moralizing, which does not enhance their stimulating quality. On the whole, one may class them with that great body of innocuous American verse which is permeated with the innocent unreality of conscious culture. The New England legends are of firmer stuff. In his prose works one finds some of the material that goes to make them. "Charms and Fairy Faith," and "Magicians and Witch Folk," * tell of such actual traditions as were kept alive at the snow- bound fireside. "Margaret Smith's Journal," while no perma- nent contribution to historical fiction, is so true a picture of the Seventeenth Century in New England as to prove beyond per- adventure the solidity of Whittier's study in local history. And verses like these show how well he knew the ancestral Puritans : * Prose Works, Vol. I. pp. 385, 399. JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. 377 "With the memory of that morning by the summer sea I blend A wild and wondrous story, by the younger Mather penned, In that quaint Magnolia Christi, with all strange and marvellous things, Heaped up huge and undigested, like the chaos Ovid sings. " Dear to me these far, faint glimpses of the dual life of old, Inward, grand with awe and reverence; outward, mean and coarse and cold ; Gleams of mystic beauty playing over dull and vulgar clay, Golden-threaded fancies weaving in a web of hodden gray."* His romantic and legendary narratives of New England, then, have much of the true flavor of the soil. He seems to have been haunted, however, by a lurking Yankee conscience, that constantly suggested doubts as to whether it is quite right to tell a good story just for its own sake. His introduction to the "Tent on the Beach," f the volume which contained on the whole his most effective narrative poems, is distinctly apologetic. Here, at sixty-six, he writes: " I would not sin, in this half playful strain, — Too light, perhaps, for serious years, though born Of the enforced leisure of slow pain, — Against the pure ideal which has drawn My feet to follow its far-shining gleam. And his narratives of New England tradition generally deal with such phases of it as have perceptible didactic significance. Naturally, he represents the Quakers heroically. A typical stanza is this, from the "King's Missive," t written at seventy- two: " ' Off with the knave's hat! ' An angry hand Smote down the offence ; but the wearer said, With a quiet smile, « By the King's command I bear his message and stand in his stead.' In the Governor's hand a missive he laid With the royal arms on its seal displayed ; And the proud man spake as he glanced thereat, Uncovering, ' Give Mr. Shattuck his hat.' " * "The Garrison of Cape Ann," Poetical Works, Vol. I. p. 166. t Poetical Works, Vol. IV. p. 227. t Ibid., Vol. I. p. 383. We must remember that Quaker principles forbade salutation by uncovering the head. 378 JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. Indubitably didactic in motive, too, are those two narrative poems of his which are apparently most familiar, — " Maud Muller,"* written at forty-six, and "Skipper Ireson's Eide," t written at forty-nine. The merits and the limits of his work in this kind are patent in Maud Muller. The little poem is very simple, and in its conventional sentimentality is very acceptable to the great American public. In its presentation of a Yankee judge in the character of a knightly hero of romance, it is art- lessly consonant with the social ideals of the Yankee country; so, too, in its tacit assumption that the good looks of a barefoot country beauty would really have been more congenial life companions in an eminent legal career than the rich dower and the fashionable tendencies of the lady the Judge ultimately married, — in deference to " his sisters proud and cold, And his mother, vain of her rank and gold." If this sort of thing were canting, it would be abominable. What saves it is that it rings true. The man meant it seriously. We may smile at his simplicity, if we like ; but we can hardly help loving him for it. Indeed, it is almost enough to make us forgive that invidiously dreadful rhyme : " For of all sad words of tongue or pen, The saddest are these: 'It might have been! ' " "Skipper Ireson's Eide," on the other hand, has much of the true ballad quality : " Body of turkey, head of owl, Wings a-droop like a rained-on fowl, Feathered and ruffled in every part, Skipper Ireson stood in the cart. Scores of women, old and young, Strong of muscle, and glib of tongue, Pushed and pulled up the rocky lane, Shouting and singing the shrill refrain: ' Here 's Flud Oirson, fur his horrd horrt, Torr'd an' futherr'd an' corr'd in a corrt By the women o' Morble'ead! ' " Such a subject as that stirred the Yankee Quaker to the depths. A human being, deaf to the still small voice, had acted devil- * Poetical Works, Vol. I. p. 148. t Ibid., p. 174. JOHN GREENLEAF WUITTIER. 379 ishly. The weakest creatures of his seaside home had risen up against him in a body; and, not overstepping the bounds of due punishment, had held him up lastingly to public scorn and detestation. It is perhaps instructive, in connection with such reforming enthusiasm as pervades this spirited ballad, to learn from a note in the final edition, that twenty-two years after the original publication Whittier was creditably informed that Ireson had really been innocent.* Against the skipper's will, it appeared, his refractory crew had compelled him to desert his sinking townsfolk; and then, to screen themselves, they had falsely accused him,- with the direful result commemorated by the poet. His answer to his informant is characteristic: "I have now no doubt that thy version of Skipper Ireson's ride is the correct one. My verse was founded solely on a fragment of rhyme which I heard from one of my early schoolmates, a native of Marblehead. I supposed the story to which it referred dated back at least a century. I knew nothing of the participators, and the narrative of the ballad was pure fancy. I am glad for the sake of truth and justice that the real facts are given in thy book. I certainly would not knowingly do injustice to any one, dead or living." And having thus iutroductively done full jus- tice to the memory of poor Floyd Ireson, he proceeds to reprint his ballad. In touching these narrative and legendary poems of Whittier, I have perhaps allowed myself to lay undue emphasis on phases of them that are not their best. One and all, I think, we may call simple, earnest, artless, and beautifully true to the native traditions and temper of New England. In that very fact, however, which is what I have tried to emphasize, lies their weakness as literature. The temper of "New England is essen- tially serious, always uncomfortable if it cannot defend itself on firm ethical ground. And thoroughly good narrative ought to be as free from obvious ethical admixture as are the exquisitely pure descriptions of New England landscape which, as I have said, seem to me Whittier's most lasting work. At times, these narratives of his blend almost inextricably with his poems of Nature; from the narratives may be selected extracts which in simple descriptive power are as beautiful as anything Whittier ever did. But, in general, the impression thai these narratives * Poetical Works, Vol. I. p. 174. 380 . JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. make is one of saturation with the traditional ethical ideas of New England, curiously combined with that constant reliance on inner inspiration toward the Right which is the fundamental tenet of the Quaker faith. All men are really equal, all ought to be really free ; let them be free, and all they have to do is to follow the inner light. And here these narrative poems touch close, on the other hand, the works which Whittier deemed his best, — his works for reform. A passage like this, which closes "The King's Missive," * might have belonged to either class: " The Puritan spirit, perishing not, To Concord's yeomen the signal sent, And spoke in the voice of- the cannon-shot That severed the chains of a continent. With its gentle message of peace and good-will The thought of the Quaker is living still, And the freedom of soul he prophesied Is gospel and law where the martyrs died." From beginning to end, Whittier was an honest champion of human freedom. We have seen enough of the peculiar religious faith from which he never swerved to understand how inevita- ble such a position must have seemed to him. We have seen enough of his own almost childlike simplicity and honesty of temperament to understand the whole-souled, unhesitating vigor with which he threw himself into the task to which he felt him- self called. To every human being God has given the inner light. Leave human beings free to act, then, as God meant them to act, and God's will shall be done. The voice of the people is literally the voice of God; it is the concrete, numerical expression of the whisperings of the still small voice. Whether the human form to which the voice whispers be European, Asiatic, African, or American makes no manner of difference. Difference of race is merely a variety of complexion. A majority of negroes is as divinely true a force as a majority of Puritan farmers. For are not all alike made in God's image, all alike human, all alike accessible to the inner light and the still small voice which can lead only towards the truth? Admit such premises, — and Whittier never doubted them for a moment, — and there is room for only one conclusion : whatever opposes any form of human freedom is against God's will. Not to pro- * Poetical Works, Vol. I. p. 386. Written at seventy-two. JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. 381 claim this truth, not to assert it in every word and deed, is to be what Whittier could never have been, — a deliberate coward. In the course of his life he advocated more reforms than one. His conduct in regard to the abolition of slavery, however, is typical of his conduct in all. It will serve our purpose to con- sider that alone. Quite to appreciate the courage implied in the public assertion of antislavery opinions sixty years ago demands to-day no small effort of imagination. It was greater than that which would be shown to-day by an ambitious aspirant for public honors, who should honestly and openly question the wisdom of the ultimate abolition of slavery. To-day, such an opinion, which was the dominant opinion in 1830, could result in no worse harm than political ridicule or neglect. It would hardly diminish the number or the cordiality of one's social invita- tions. In 1830 an Abolitionist was held little less than trea- sonable. Social ostracism was almost certainly his due. His very person was not safe from public attack ; and the blind hos- tility of the mob — which for some years to come was far too noisy to detect the whisperings of any still small voice — was confirmed by that profoundly honest belief in the public duty of maintaining existing institutions which has always characterized the better classes in any community of British origin. Perhaps the closest analogy which we can imagine to-day to the Aboli- tionists of 1833 would be a body of earnest, God-fearing men who should be convinced that God bade them cry out against the institution of marriage. In the face of such a state of public opinion as this, Whittier never for a moment faltered. He knew what was right. The one curse spared him was the curse of even momentary doubt. Shy in temperament, loving most of all the simple seclusion of his native county, he never hesitated to speak and to act with all his power for the cause of human freedom. That enfran- chisement, in the broadest sense, could possibly result only in a new phase of evil, he never dreamt to the end. He was a man. Negroes, Indians, Chinamen, Polish Jews, are men too. Let all have equal rights, all an equal voice, all be equal in the sight of man as they are eternally equal in the sight of God. What he actually did, we have seen in our brief record of his life. That brief record has been enough to show that the dreadful fact of slavery was a fact of which he had little direct knowledge. He 382 JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. was at Washington in 1845. Apart from that, his knowledge of actual slaves must have been derived chiefly from fugitives, whose versions of their experience must wholly have confirmed his most extreme views. But what mattered that? When one knows a thing evil, one need not study it in detail to know that right and justice demand its extinction. From such fanatical, heroic logic there is no escape. We have seen, I said, what his actual conduct was. For thirty years and more his words supported, defended, urged on such lines of conduct. Occasion- ally, in his own words, " The cant of party, school, and sect, Provoked at times his houest scorn, And Folly, in its gray respect, He tossed on satire's horn." * But he lacked humor or wit to make his satire really powerful or trenchant. His words that really did their work, the words that still tell the story of the great public movement in which he was a foremost figure, were those simple, passionate utter- ances that came straight from his heart. There is room here to quote only a few. But a very few will suffice, I think, to give some taste of the quality of all. At twenty-six he wrote, for the meeting of the Anti-Slavery Society in New York, a hymn.t Here are a few stanzas: " When from each temple of the free, A nation's song ascends to Heaven, Most Holy Father ! unto thee May not our humble prayer be given? " Thy children all, though hue and form Are varied in Thine own good will With Thy own holy breathings warm, And fashioned in Thine image still. . . . . . . . • " For broken heart, and clouded mind, Whereon no human mercies fall ; O be Thy gracious love inclined, Who, as a Father, pitiest all. "And grant, O Father! that the time Of Earth's deliverance may be near, When every land and tongue and clime The message of Thy love shall hear." * Poetical Works, Vol. II. p. 120. t Ibid., Vol. III. p. 29. JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. 383 At twenty-eight, when resolutions had been adopted in Con- gress, forbidding the postal circulation of anti-slavery literature, he wrote a "Summons " to the North.* Here is a touch of its quality : " Methinks from all her wild, green mountains ; From valleys where her slumbering fathers lie ; From her blue rivers and her welling fountains, And clear, cold sky ; "From her rough coast, and isles, which hungry Ocean Gnaws with his surges; from the fisher's skiff, With white sail swaying to the billows' motion Round rock and cliff; " From the free fireside of her unbought farmer ; From her free laborer at his loom and wheel ; From the brown smith-shop, where, beneath the hammer, Rings the red steel; " From each and all, if God hath not forsaken Our land, and left us to an evil choice, Loud as the summer thunderbolt shall waken A People's voice. " Startling and stern ! the Northern winds shall bear it Over Potomac's to St. Mary's wave ; And buried Freedom shall awake to hear it Within her grave." At thirty-five he wrote the passionate address, " Massachusetts to Virginia," t concerning the seizure in P>oston of one Latimer, a fugitive slave. To appreciate its stirring vigor one should read it all. But here is a bit of it: "From Norfolk's ancient villages, from Plymouth's rocky bound To where Nantucket feels the arms of ocean close her round ; ' From rich and rural Worcester, where through the calm repose Of cultured vales and fringing woods the gentle Nashua fluvvs, To where Wachuset's wintry blasts the mountain larches stir, Swelled up to Heaven the thrilling cry of ' God save Latimer! " And sandy Barnstable rose up, wet with the salt sea spray, And Bristol sent her answering shout down Narragansetl Hay! Along the broad Connecticut obi Hampden felt the thrill. And the cheer of Hampshire's woodmen swept down from Holyoke Hill * Poetical Works, Vol. II. p. 40. t Ibid., Vol. III. p. 80. 384 . JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. " The voice of Massachusetts! of her free sons and daughters, Deep calling unto deep aloud, the sound of many waters! Against the burden of that voice what tyrant power shall stand? No fetters in the Bay State! No slave upon her land! " At forty-nine, when the elections of 1856 had shown the gains of the Free Soil party, he wrote thus : " For God be praised! New England Takes once more her ancient place; Again the Pilgrim's banner Leads the vanguard of the race. • .... a " The Northern hills are blazing, The Northern skies are bright ; The fair young West is turning Her forehead to the light. • . . . • , " Push every outpost nearer, Press hard the hostile towers ! Another Balaklava, And the Malakoff is ours ! " * The tide was turning. Four years later came the war. Here is a bit of his first war poem : " We see not, know not ; all our way Is night, — with Thee alone is day: From out the torrent's troubled drift, Above the storm our prayers we lift, Thy will be done!" • • , • • • • "Strike, Thou the Master, we thy keys, The anthem of the destinies! The minor of Thy loftier strain, Our hearts shall breathe the old refrain, Thy will be done! f " Barbara Frietchie " \ every one knows, — perhaps the most instantly popular ballad of the war. "Laus Deo!"§ in cele- bration of the constitutional abolition of slavery, is not so familiar. Every word of that should be read, too. Here are a few : * " A Son£," Poetical Works, Vol. III. p. 192. t " Thy Will be Done," Poetical Works, Vol. III. p. 217. X Poetical Works, Vol. III. p. 246. § Ibid., p. 254. JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. 385 " It is done ! Clang of bell and roar of gun Send the tidings up and down. How the belfries rock and reel! How the great guns, peal on peal, Fling the joy from town to town! " Did we dare, In our agony of prayer, Ask for more than Me has done? When was ever His right hand Over any time or land Stretched as now beneath the sun? • •■••• " Ring and swing, Bells of joy! On morning's wing Send the song of praise abroad! "With a sound of broken chains, Tell the nations that He reigns Who alone is Lord and God! " These few extracts must suffice to represent the most earnest work he did for above thirty years. They show, I think, the same sincerity, the same simplicity, the same earnestness, that marked his other work. And he knew the rare happiness of complete conquest. Beginning with all the world against him, he found himself for the last twenty years of his life in a world where all were against his foes. In view of this, there are two extracts from his writings, — one in prose and one in verse, — without which, I think, our impression of him would be seriously incomplete. For they show that he possessed the power which is perhaps the ultimate test of manly greatness, — the power of serenely recognizing the worth of men from whom for years he honestly and pas- sionately differed. The first is a letter concerning Edward Everett. " When the grave closed over him who added new lustre to the old and honored name of Quincy, all eyes instinctively turned to Edward Everett as the last of that venerated class of patriotic civilians who, out- living all dissent and jealousy and party prejudice, hold their reputation by the secure tenure of the universal appreciation of its worth as a com- mon treasure of the republic. Tt is not for me to pronounce his eulogy. . . . My secluded country life has afforded me few opportunities of pe?- sonal intercourse with him, while my pronounced radicalism on the great vol. xxviii. (n. s. xx.) 25 386 JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. question which has divided popular feeling rendered our political paths widely divergent. Both of us early saw the danger which threatened the country. . . . But while he believed in the possibility of averting it by concession and compromise, I, on the contrary, as firmly believed that such a course could oidy strengthen and confirm what I regarded as a gigantic conspiracy against the rights and liberties, the union and the life, of the nation. . . . " Recent events have certainly not tended to change this belief on my part ; but in looking over the past, while I see little or nothing to retract in the matter of opinion, I am saddened by the reflection that, through the very intensity of my convictions, I may have done injustice to the motives of those with whom I differed. As respects Edward Everett, it seems to me that only within the last four years I have truly known him." * Fifteen years before lie wrote this letter, he had written con- cerning Webster's Seventh of March Speech the scathing invec- tive which he named " Ichabod " : " So fallen ! so lost ! the light withdrawn "Which once he wore ! The glory from his gray hairs gone Forevermore ! • ••••• " Let not the land once proud of him Insult him now, Nor brand with deeper shame the dim, Dishonored brow. " But let its humbled sons instead, From sea to lake, A long lament, as for the dead, In sadness make. • ••••• " Then pay the reverence of old days To his dead fame; Walk backward, with averted gaze, And hide the shame! " f Fifteen years after Edward Everett's death, and thirty years after this " Ichabod " had seen the light, Whittier wrote of Webster once more. And in his collected works he departs for once from chronology, and puts beside " Ichabod " his final poem on Webster, " The Lost Occasion " : * Prose Works, Vol. II. p. 274 (1865). t Poetical Works, Vol. IV. p. G2. JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. 387 " Thou shouldst have lived to feel below Thy feet Disunion's fierce upthrow; The late-sprung mine that underlaid Thy sad concessions vainly made. Thou shouldst have seen from Sumter's wall The star-flag of the Union fall, And armed rebellion pressing on The broken lines of Washington! No stronger voice than thine had then Called out the utmost might of men To make the Union's charter free, And strengthen law by liberty. • • • ■ • • Wise meu and strong we did not lack; But still, with memory turning back, In the dark hours we thought of thee, And thy lone grave beside the sea. • ••••• But where thy native mountains bare Their foreheads to diviner air, Fit emblem of enduring fame, One lofty summit keeps thy name. For thee the cosmic forces did The rearing of that pyramid, The prescient ages shaping with Fire, flood, and frost thy monolith. Sunrise and sunset lay thereon With hands of light their benison, The stars of midnight pause to set Their jewels in its coronet. And evermore that mountain mass Seems climbing from the shadowy pass To light, as if to manifest Thy nobler self, thy life at best! " * Is it too much to see in these lines, not an assent, but an approach to that view of the Seventh of March Speech which some, of the younger generations, are beginning to take ? that it may have been not what men thought it at the time, — a blind sacrifice of principle to self; but rathei the most nobly patriotic act of a nobly patriotic career, — a deliberate sacrifice of self to the Union which, without such sacrifice, was not yet strong enough to survive ? But this is not the place for political speculation. I have tried to show Whittier as he was, extenuating nothing nor set- * Poetical Works, Vol. IV. p. 63. 388 WILLIAM FERREL. ting down aught in malice; He was, I believe, above most men, one who can stand the test. His faults are patent. One cannot read him long without forgetting them in admiration of his nobly simple merits. I have said that I believe his chance of survival better than that of any other contemporary American man of letters. I trust I have shown why. In the first place, he has recorded in a way as yet unapproached the homely beauties of New England nature. In the second, he accepted with all his heart the traditional democratic principles of equality and freedom which have always animated the people of New England. These principles he uttered in words whose simplicity goes straight to the hearts of the whole American people. Whether these principles be ultimately true or false is no concern of ours here. They are the principles which must prevail if our republic is to live. And in the verses of Whittier they are preserved to guide posterity in the words of one who was incapable of falsehood. 1893. Barrett Wendell. ASSOCIATE FELLOWS. * WILLIAM FERREL. It is particularly fitting that our Proceedings should contain some memorial of William Ferrel, for it was in this community that he first found a broad scientific association, after a boyhood of unrecog- nized genius and a manhood of mental isolation. It was only at the age of forty that he found companionship with men of ability like his own, and then he was so retiring by disposition and habit that he could but slowly embrace the wider opportunities opened to him. A memoir of Ferrel by his associate, Professor Cleveland Abbe, was read before the National Academy in April, 1892, and appended to this appreciative review of his life we find a brief autobiographical sketch prepared a few years before his death, and a list of his pub- lished writings. This memoir may be referred to for fuller informa- tion, as I shall here attempt only to emphasize certain prominent features of his character, and certain of his greater accomplishments. In recalling the work of the four great meteorologists of our coun- try, — Redfield and Loomis, Espy and Ferrel, — the first two of them WILLIAM PERREL. 3S9 are seen to have been characterized by a preference for inductive methods, and the other two by a greater use of deductive methods. I do not mean to imply that any one of these able men was so unbal- anced as to be illogical in his studies, and follow only one method to the exclusion of the other ; but that they had natural leanings one way or the other, as most men have. The greater fund of mate- rial embodied in our modern weather maps was iitly used by Loomis, much in the same manner as Redfield had used the scattered records of storms half a century earlier; the greater accuracy of the results gained by Loomis is a measure of the greater fulness of material for investigation, rather than au indication of a difference between the two men. On the other hand, much as Espy was led to his understanding of storms through a mental invention, a theory, ingeniously based on physical laws, so Ferrel was led to a generalization concerning the circulation of the entire atmosphere from a full appreciation of the laws of motion, rather than from any acuteness of observation. The consequences deduced from his theory far outstripped the knowledge of his time and profoundly affected the further progress of the science. His earlier studies of the tides were carried on in the same way. His work always illustrated the power of the mind to conceive and com- bine relevant facts with a view to explaining them legitimately, yet. with little recourse to direct observation or experiment for himself. It is noticeable in his autobiographical sketch that Ferrel seldom makes mention of observation or experiment as holding a significant part in his early or more mature studies. As a boy be played with geometri- cal problems, spending weeks together over a single one ; the diagrams which he scratched on the barn door with the prong of a pitchfork were only so many convenient records of the conditions of his prob- lems; but he tells nothing of making mechanical toys, which hold so large a place in the youth of experimental philosophers. When only fifteen years old, he struggled over the prediction of eclipses, but the facts he dealt with were supplied chiefly from Fanner's Almanacs ; nor did this study seem to awaken in him a wish for means of investigation with astronomical instruments, but only a keen desire for more books. It is sad to think how limited were his opportunities in his youth. He was born in Bedford (now Fulton) County, Pennsylvania, on Jan- uary 29, 1817. When he was twelve years old, his father moved across the narrow arm of Maryland into Virginia, anil there the. boy went to school two winters, the schoolhouse being a rude log cabin, with oiled paper instead of glass in the windows. His last school teacher took him through arithmetic and the English grammar. lb- was too ditli- 390 WILLIAM FERREL. dent to ask his father for money with which to buy books, — too diffi- dent even to confess his wish for books ; but he worked in harvest time, and earned enough money to buy Park's Arithmetic, in which he learned something of mensuration. He continued to buy all the books he could afford, a very few, and studied them most diligently. In winter evenings he had only firelight to read by, or sometimes a pale tallow candle ; in the summer, he would study while at work in the barn, attacking and solving all the problems that the books supplied. This plain living on his father's farm was not unlike that of thousands of other boys ; but his unquenchable thirst for knowledge carried him out of the narrow surroundings in which his neighbors remained. We must always sympathize with the difficulties under which Ferrel strug- gled in his youth, and at first thought we should wish he might have had an easier life ; but who can say whether the lessons of successful endeavor against all obstacles were not essential for his later develop- ment as an original investigator ? His isolation turned him towards original methods of thought ; and this originality and independence mark all his later work. The few distractions in his early life must have allowed the development of the perseverance with which he worked upon anything that took his attention, never giving it up until he could make some advance in it, or until he satisfied himself that he could not do so. At the age of twenty years, having earned some money by teaching near home, he weut to Marshall College, at Mercersburg, Pennsylvania. On exhausting his funds, he went home again and taught for two years more, then going to Bethany College in Virginia, where he was gradu- ated in 1844. This closed his education as far as instruction from others was concerned, at the age of twenty-seven. For the next four- teen years he taught school, mostly in villages in Missouri, Kentucky, and Tennessee. It must be of these lonesome years that he speaks in the closing paragraph of his autobiography : " Much of my time has been wasted, especially the earlier part of it, because, not having sci- entific books and scientific associations, I had often nothing on hand in which I was specially interested." Yet it was in these lonesome years that Ferrel had the good fortune of finding a copy of Newton's " Principia" in the hands of a village storekeeper in Missouri. While in Kentucky, he sent to Philadelphia for Laplace's " Mecanique Celeste " ; and when in Nashville, he came upon Airy's Essays on the " Figure of the Earth," and on "Tides and Waves." Living alone with these great leaders, he carried their work on further, and made his own impress on the study of the ocean and the atmosphere. WILLIAM FERREL. 391 Not until 1853, when Ferrel was thirty-six years old, does he men- tion any publication of his studies ; but in that year he sent his first scientific article to Gould's " Astronomical Journal," and this marks the beginning of his association with scientific men. Four years later an invitation came through Dr. Gould from Professor Winlock, then Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac, for Ferrel to take part in the computations for that work. A year was needed to close his school connections in Nashville, and in 1858 we see him settled in Cambridge, with time and opportunity to gratify his studious tastes. Our image of him at that time must be clad in simple attire. He brought with him from his isolated life many homely peculiarities. From his awk- ward manner, one could hardly have imagined the mental power that placed him so high above most of his fellows. A gentle diffidence still possessed him, and even several years later his timidity prevented him from reading an important article on the tides before this Academy until he had carried it to several successive meetings. He never pressed forward his views, but let them take such place as their own value should give them. He never sought for office, but was invited to fill responsible positions in the Coast Survey and the Signal Service. In these congenial surroundings, he carried on his earlier studies of the tides and the atmospheric circulation, and thus a well deserved fame gradually grew around him. It is Ferrel's impress on meteorology that strikes me as most extra- ordinary, not only from the explanations that he gave to its facts, but from the new methods that he introduced into its study. Before him no one had made any considerable mathematical analysis of the mo- tions of the atmosphere ; and it was not for a number of years after he had opened this new line of investigation that European masters of mathematics followed him in it. Ferrel began this work at Nashville, where in 1856 he saw a copy of Maury's " Physical Geography of the Sea"; a suggestive work from its collection of facts, but sadly in n. ed of correction for its erroneous theories. As in his other studies, Ferrel did not begin here by observation of the winds, but by searching for a sufficient explanation of the facts observed by others. The story is one that should be familiar in our scientific history, for it illustrates as few others can the real quality of scientific investigation. In Ferrel's hands, meteorology was not simply a routine record of observations, not simply a vague suggestion of theories. The broadest generaliza- tions from world-wide observations were brought into harmony with the universal laws of motion, and as a result Ferrel's theory of the atmospheric circulation left all its predecessors far behind. The more 392 WILLIAM FERREL. general facts concerning the prevailing winds of the world had been accumulated and were presented with much force by Maury ; and at the same time, various theories had grown up to account for the facts. These theories all had two general principles in common ; first, that there must be a convectional circulation between the equator and the poles ; and second, that the motions thus excited must be deflected by the earth's rotation. As commonly stated, it was understood that there must be high pressure at the poles, where the air is cold, just as there is low pressure around the equator where the air is warm ; and as stated by Dove, who at the time of Ferrel's entrance into the science was its leading authority, the currents from the equator to the north pole must flow from the southwest, while the return currents from the north pole to the equator must flow from the northeast. Ferrel per- ceived the essential incompleteness of this view of the subject. He first showed that the prevailing explanation of the effect of the earth's rotation was incomplete, and then, applying this important element in its proper measure, he introduced the idea of a rearrangement of at- mospheric pressures in consequence of convectional motions. This great principle may be followed all through Ferrel's theories of cyclones and tornadoes, as well as through his theory of the circulation of the atmosphere as a whole. Its quantitative introduction into meteorology seems to me to be Ferrel's greatest achievement. Ferrel showed that the convectional interchange between the equa- tor and the poles must resolve itself into two great circumpolar whirls, one in either hemisphere ; that in the greater part of the whirls the currents must move eastward, the trade-wind belts being the only con- siderable regions of westward motion ; that, in consequence of the cir- cumpolar whirls, the expected high polar pressures must be reduced to relatively low pressures, especially in the southern hemisphere, where the disturbing effects of continental interruptions are least; and that the air thus held away from the poles must be found in the tropical belts of high pressure, then coming to be recognized as great atmos- pheric features. It is not too much to say that the introduction of this theory has made a new science of meteorology. Ferrel's mark is permanently imprinted upon it. We are apt, in reviewing a step of advance like this, to imagine that it was made at a single stride ; but such was certainly not the case here. The theory of atmospheric circulation grew slowly in Ferrel's mind, and several years passed before it was fully developed. During its progress, Ferrel's efforts were constantly directed towards quantitative estimates of forces and results. This feature of his work is strikingly FREDERICK AUGUSTUS GENTH. 393 illustrated in his theory of tornadoes, where from beginning to end he follows out a definite sequence of processes, beginning with reasonable conditions as to the distribution of temperature and moisture, and show- ing in the end that these might produce the extraordinary velocities seen in tornado winds. The defiuite quality of this work is mosl re- assuring, in contrast with the vague speculations commonly prevailing about these peculiar storms. After resigning from his professorship in the Signal Service in 1886, Ferrel spent his later years peacefully with his relatives near Kansas City. He died on September 18, 1891, at Mayfield, Kansas, and was there buried. 1893. W. M. Davis. FREDERICK AUGUSTUS GENTH. Frederick Augustus Gentii was born at "Waechtersbach, Hesse Cassel, May 17, 1820. After leaving the Gymnasium at Ilanau, in 1839, he studied at the University of Heidelberg, and afterward under Liebig at Giesseu, then under Bunsen at Marburg. He received his Doctor's degree in 1846, and was then for three years assistant to Bunsen and Privat-Docent. As a student at Heidelberg, he at firsl took up the study of conchology, and published at least one paper on that subject. Later he became interested in what finally proved to be the work of his life, chemical mineralogy; and after his removal to the United States, in 1848, he quickly took a very prominent place among mineralogists. In 184G he first studied the compounds of co- balt with ammonia, and laid the foundation for all which has been done since. In this country he again took up the subject, and with Dr. Wolcott Gibbs made an elaborate investigation, which was published in the "Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge," Vol. IX. After a very active and busy life as an analytical chemist in Philadelphia, he became, In 1872, Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania, which place he held until 1888, when he returned to his work as a chemical expert, still keeping up, however, his active interest in his favorite study, chemical mineralogy, and con- tinuing to publish papers on that subject almost up to the time of his death, the last appearing in January, 1893. The list of Dr. Genth'a published papers is a very long one, and embraces nearly One hundred titles. Among others, it includes Reports on the Mineralogy of Penn- sylvania and North Carolina. Mineralogy owes him the discovery of about twenty new species. His long and useful life terminated on 394 JOHN STRONG NEWBERRY. February 2, 1893. Many learned societies numbered him among their members. He was elected into the National Academy of Sciences in 1872, and was one of the four Honorary Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. He was admitted in 1875 to our own Academy. 1893. Wolcott Gibbs. JOHN STRONG NEWBERRY. John Strong Newberry was descended from several of the noted families of Connecticut. Of these, three, Pitkin, Wolcott, and Newberry, contributed very largely to the conduct of affairs in Colonial times. And there are probably no two families in the United States that have produced as many men of note on the bench, in politics, and in science as have the Pitkin and Wolcott families in the male and female lines of descent. Dr. Newberry's grandfather, General Roger Newberry, son of Captain Roger Newberry and Elizabeth Newberry, daughter of Governor Roger Wolcott, had acquired a tract of several thousand acres in Ohio. His father, Henry, removed to this land in 1824, where he founded the town of Cuyahoga Falls, and was successful in his enterprises. Dr. Newberry was born in Windsor, Connecti- cut, December 22, 1822, and was not two years old at the time of this removal. Professor Newberry was one of the most eminent of the small group of American geologists whose labors span almost the last half of this century, and extend over a wide range in their science. They are — too soon we must say they were — men who, in con- ducting the great geological reconnoissances throughout the un- known West, or in organizing and executing State geological surveys, became broadly educated in the science which they were helping to build up. Some of them were specialists in one or more departments, but all necessarily became general geologists. Dr. Newberry's early life was passed under conditions of afflu- ence and intelligent refinement, leaving him free to follow his intellectual bent. Already as a boy he was deeply interested in natural science, and had become familiar with the plants and animals of his State. In collecting the fossil plants of the coal niims near his home, he laid the foundation of what became later perhaps liis most important specialty. Roth in college and dur- ing 1849 and 1850 in Paris he prepared himself to be a physician, JOHN STRONG NEWBERRY. 395 receiving his degree from Cleveland Medical College in 1848, and followed that profession for a few years. But while in the West- ern Keserve College, where he graduated in 1846, bis natural bent and the influence of Professor Samuel St. John turned him more and more strongly toward geology; and the lectures of Brongniart in Paris had a dominating influence in turning the current of his effort into paleobotany. After four years of practice, he abandoned medicine in 1855, and became the Geologist and Botanist of Lieutenant "Williamson's expedition to Oregon and California. His report concerning this survey was published in Volume VI. of the Pacific Railroad Re- ports. While preparing this Report, in 1856 and 1857, Dr. New- berry was Professor of Chemistry and Natural History in the Columbian College at Washington, D. C. In 1857 he started on the memorable expedition of Lieutenant Ives to explore the Colorado River. This expedition, which occu- pied the winter of 1857-58, was followed in 1859 by that to the San Juan River, in which Dr. Newberry again acted as Geologist. While he was finishing his report on the scientific results of these two fruitful expeditions, the course of political events culminated in the outbreak of the war of the Rebellion. He entered at once into the great work of the Sanitary Commission, for which his medical training and his former position as Assistant Surgeon in the Army rendered him peculiarly qualified. He soon became the Secretary of the Western Department of the Commission. It was mainly to his capacity as an organizer and his general and medi- cal scientific training that this important Department owed its success in promptly extending its immense contributions to the prevention and alleviation of suffering among our armies and their prisoners. In his department money and hospital supplies amount- ing to nearly six millions of dollars were distributed. After the war, Dr. Newberry resumed his scientific work, and was for a time connected, as a geologist, with the Smithsonian Institution. He was chosen as one of the fifty original members when the National Academy of Sciences was established by the government. From 1866 until his death, he filled the Chair of Geology and Palaeontology in the School of Mines. Columbia College. Here he exerted a strong personal influence upon the students, impres- sing upon them a lasting interesl in his science. It would be difficult to overrate the value of this indirect contribution to the development of our mineral industries. 396 JOHN STRONG NEWBERRY. In 1867 he was President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. From 1868 until his death he was Presi- dent of the Lyceum of Natural History, later the New York Acad- emy of Sciences. He was one of the judges at the Centennial Exhibition in 1876. Prom 1880 to 1890 he was President of the Torrey Botanical Club. In 1884 he was appointed one of the Palaeontologists of the United States Geological Survey. In 1887 he was elected an Associate Fellow of our Academy. In 1888 the Murchison Medal was awarded to him by the Geological Society of London, and the following year he was elected First Vice- President of the Geological Society of America. In 1869, Dr. Newberry was appointed State Geologist of Ohio. To this survey he devoted his energies, both as an administrator and in the field. Aside from his own contributions to the strati- graphy of the State, a large part of the scientific value of the volumes consists in his description of the wonderful fossil Devonian and Carboniferous fishes, and the fossil plants. He was one of the most highly esteemed members of the Century Club of New York. He was also a member of the original com- mittee appointed by the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science to call together an International Geological Congress, and he was chosen as President of the Congress for its first meeting in America, at Washington, in 1891. But he was unable either to preside or to be present; the increasing overwork carried on under high pressure for half a century had already ended in paralysis. On December 7, 1892, at New Haven, after nearly two years of illness, he ended a career of great and varied usefulness to his science and to his country. The range covered by his scientific literary activity is shown by the following classification of his publications given by Professor Fairchild.* Geology (General 73 " Economic 38 Palaeontology, Vegetable 43 Animal 25 Botany 7 Zoology 6 Physiography 6 Archaeology 5 Biography 3 Miscellaneous 5 "211 * Transactions of the New York Academy of Science, Vol. XII. p. 159. JOHN STRONG NEWBERRY. 397 Dr. Newberry was pre-eminently the pioneer in the geology of the Far West. Intellectually thoroughly equipped in general geology, in palaeontology, and paleobotany he first of all saw and interpreted the underlying facts in that great synopsis of the history of our continent. The more elaborate later surveys of the Basin of the Colorado should not overshadow the priority of his wonderful descriptions and illustrations of the great Canons, and of his correct interpretation of their mode of formation. His most important contributions to geological literature are in paleobotany and in ichthyic palaeontology. In his description of the fossil plants brought from China by the writer, he was the first to recognize the Jura-Triassic age of an important part of the great coal-producing formation of Asia. His work in paleobotany extended from the Devonian to the Tertiary; and he was the dominant authority as regards the fossil fishes of American palaeozoic and mesozoic times. His more impor- tant and larger works on these subjects are "Fossil Fishes and Fossil Plants of the Triassic Rocks of New Jersey and the Con- necticut Valley"; "The Palaeozoic Fishes of North America," published in 1889 by the United States Geological Survey as Monograph XIV.; and two unpublished memoirs, "The Flora of the Amboy Clays," and "The Later Extinct Flora of North America." His work on the remarkable Devonian Fishes, includ- ing the Dinichthys, is printed in Volumes I. and II. of the Reports of the Ohio Survey. He also wrote the Reports on Fossil Fishes for the Illinois Geological Survey. Dr. Newberry was a geologist in the broadest sense. He kept himself fully abreast with the progress of the science. He was too broadly interested to become really great in any special depart- ment. Had he devoted all his energies to either one of his favorite departments, he could easily have attained the first rank. His death emphasizes the fact that the geologists of this order are passing away, to be replaced by specialists. Such men, who, with- out being specialists, have full general knowledge in all depart- ments,— an education founded upon all the underlying sciences and nurtured by investigation in many directions, — will soon be wanting, to the great loss of the science. Science had for him no dry facts : all were parts of a history. No one could listen to his lectures or to his conversations on geo- logical subjects, without realizing that he had in his mind a picture in which he saw Nature at her work, and plants and animals as 398 WILLIAM PETIT TROWBRIDGE. living entities, in their appropriate environment. While his de- livery in speaking was not free from a certain mannerism, he held his audience and imbued it with the interest which he felt for his subject. He was ever ready to leave his work, to give freely his time to all visitors, and advice to those who sought it; and this trait endears his memory to the many pupils and others who profited by his kindness. He was one of that very small group of American Professors who feel it to be both a duty and a pleasure to maintain a close personal relation with their students, imparting to them an influence that is more far-reaching than their lectures. 1893. Raphael Pumpelly. WILLIAM PETIT TROWBRIDGE. William Petit Trowbridge was born at Strawberry Hill, near Birmingham, Oakland Couuty, Michigan, May 25, 1828. He died suddenly of heart trouble on August 12, 1892. He was married on April 21, 1857, at Savannah, Georgia, to Miss Lucy Parkman. His wife, three sons, and three daughters survive him. He graduated at the head of his class from the United States Mili- tary Academy at West Point in 1848, and during his last year there he acted as Assistant Professor of Chemistry, although he was only nineteen years old. After graduation he became Second Lieutenant of the Engineer Corps, and was ordered to West Point as assistant in the Astronomical Observatory, where he served two years, till 1850. He was then ordered, at his own request, to duty on the Coast Survey, where he remained until 1856, winning his first lieutenancy in 1854. His work on the Coast Survey was as follows. He worked at first upon the triangulation of the coast of Maine, which was placed in his charge in 1852; he also worked along the Appomattox River below Petersburg, and the James River below Richmond, in Virginia, and a part of the time along the Pacific slope; this last occupying him from 1853 to 1856. While in Virginia, he urged the importance of con- structing the Dutch Gap Canal, which was actually accomplished during the civil war. His work on the Pacific slope was tidal and magnetic as well as geodetic, and covered a length of coast of over 1,300 miles. His tidal gauges recorded the earthquake waves emanating from Simoda, Japan, December 23, 1854, two months before information of the oc- WILLIAM PETIT TROWBRIDGE. 399 currence reached this country by steamer. In 1856 he left the Coast Survey, and became Professor of Mathematics in the University of Michigan; but in 1857 he returned to the Coast Survey as Scientific Secretary, residing in Washington, D. C, retaining this position till 1862. Before the civil war he established the first permanent ob- servatory in this country for the automatic registration of magnetic variations at Key West, and also prepared for publication the results of the exploration of the Gulf Stream. At the beginning of the war he was called upon to prepare a minute description of the harbors, inlets, and rivers of the southern coast, from Delaware Bay to Gal- veston ; and also to determine whether Narragansett Bay would be a suitable location for a navy yard station, or not. During the rest of the war he had charge of the branch office of the War Department in New York City, and acted as agent in the supply of material, and as constructor of local fortifications. He built the forts at Willett's Point and on Governor's Island, and made the repairs of Fort Schuyler. From 1865 to 1871 he was Vice-President of the Novelty Iron Works, New York, of which Mr. Horatio Allen was President. The latter had been the first to introduce the locomotive in America, in 1829. He had also designed the early American locomotives run in South Carolina, and the Novelty Works had designed and constructed the first Transatlantic steamers of the Collins line; and during the civil war they had a great deal to do in the construction and alter- ation of vessels and machinery. During his connection with these works he carried out a series of experiments to determine the water consumption per horse power per hour of a series of steam-engines at different points of cut-off. These experiments were among the earliest of their kind, and led the practice of engine builders for years. From 1871 to May, 1877, Mr. Trowbridge was Professor of Dynamic Engineering in the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale Col- lege, where he built up his new department, and planned and con- structed the new Sheffield Hall in which the engineering instruction is given. From 1877 until his death, in 1892, he held the Professorship of Engineering in Columbia College, New York. There were added to the courses as they existed before his incumbency, successively, courses in thermodynamics, dynamics of machinery, and water supply engi- neering, while the engineering courses already existing were enor- mously developed. In this he was aided by Professors F. R. Ilutton and H. S. Monroe. 400 WILLIAM PETIT TROWBRIDGE. While at the Novelty Iron Works he designed a cantilever bridge for the East River at Blackwell's Island, and a company was formed in 1869-70 to carry out the project, but the panic of 1873 put an end to all efforts to build it. While at the Sheffield School, he designed a coil boiler, intended to incorporate the most advanced ideas of forced circulation of water, automatic supply of feed water from a magazine, and self-feeding of fuel. Its manufacture was turned over to a com- pany. He also gave much thought to deep-sea sounding. He was a member of the Century Club; was Adjutant General of Connecticut from 1870 to 1876; commissioner for building a bridge across the Quinnipiac River from 1870 to 1876; commissioner for building the Capitol at Hartford from 1873 to 1878; commissioner for establishing harbor lines at New Haven from 1872 to 1878 ; and he was also one of the three commissioners appointed by Governor Cornell to examine the State Capitol at Albany. He was a member of the New York Academy of Sciences, of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, an Associate Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and also of the National Academy of Sciences. He received the degree of A. M. from Rochester University in 1856, and from Yale in 1870 ; of Ph. D. from Princeton in 1880 ; and that of LL. D. from Trinity in 1882, and from Michigan University in 1887. In 1880 he was at the head of the Department of Power and Machinery for the Tenth Census. The treatise which he published on Heat and Steam is well known among engineers. The following is a list of his works in the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey Reports : — 1851. Triangulation, Maine. 1852. Triangulation, Maine. Triangulation, Appomattox River. 1853. Triangulation, James River. Tides of the Western Coast. 1851. Tidal and Magnetic Observations. Eclipse Observations. 1855. Tidal and Magnetic Observations. Earthquake Waves. Descrip- tion of Bodega Bay. 1856. Tides, Hudson River. 1857. Wind Observations. 1858. Office Work. Law of Descent of Weight in Deep-sea Soundings Comparative Cost and Progress of Geodetic Surveys. Cost and Progress of Coast Survey Work. 1859. Researches. Deep-sea Sounding Apparatus. 1860. Gulf Stream Examinations. Report on Magnetic Station at Key West. 1801. Hydrography, Bristol Bay. Report on Sounding Apparatus. 1874. Magnetic Observations at Key West between 1860 and 1S66. GEORGE VASEY. 401 "While possessing great professional ability, and profound technical knowledge, he was a very genial and also a very conscientious and modest man, and one who won the admiration and regard of all who came in contact with him. In closing, I must make my acknowledgments to Professor F. R. Hutton, who has kindly furnished me with most of the facts from which to compose this short paper. 1893. Gaetano Lanza. GEORGE VASEY. George Vasey, for many years Chief Botanist in the Department of Agriculture, died at his home in Washington, March 4, 1893. His illness was of brief duration, and although he had attained an ad- vanced age, he was until several days before his death exceptionally regular in performing the arduous and time-consuming duties of his position. His work entailed a wide correspondence, and it was thus that many botanists throughout the country and abroad came to ap- preciate his kind assistance. His letters, however, were chiefly of a professional nature, and many of his colleagues knew little or nothing of his personal history. *Born near Scarborough, England, February 28, 1822, he was brought in early childhood by his parents to Western New York, where the family settled at Oriskany, Oneida County, not far from the birthplace of Asa Gray. George Vasey, being oue of a large family in humble circumstances, received only a meagre schooling, and at the age of twelve began work in a store. He early became interested in the plants of the region, and derived his first botanical knowledge of them from Mrs. Lincoln's Botany, a little volume of quaint diction, now almost forgotten. So anxious was he to possess this work, that, not being able to buy it, he copied the text entire. His botanical interest soon attracted the attention of Dr. Knieskern, who brought him to the notice of Professors Torrey and Gray. I lav- ing begun the study of medicine at the age of twenty-one, and having been graduated from the Berkshire Medical Institute at Pittsfield, Massachusetts, in 1846, Dr. Vasey removed in 1848 to Illinois, where he spent eighteen years in the practice of medicine, chiefly at Ringwood and Elgin. Here he had an excellent opportunity to observe the rich prairie vegetation, and made extensive collections, which have a high historic value, since they show the native flora before it had been so greatly impaired and displaced by the present exhaustive cultiva- vol. xxviii. (n. s. xx.) 26 402 GEORGE VASEY. tion of the prairie lands and drainage of the numerous and extensive marshes. During his residence in Illinois, Dr. Vasey was influential in encouraging scientific observation, and in organizing the Illinois Natural History Society, of which he was made first President. He certainly did as much as any one to make Illinois botanically one of the best known States of the Union. In 1868, partly from scientific interests, partly for financial reasons, he accepted the position of Botanist upon Major Powell's Colorado Expedition. Soon after his return to Illinois he was made Curator of the Natural History Museum of the State Normal University. April 1, 1872, he was appointed Chief Botanist of the Department of Agriculture, and Curator of the National Herbarium under the Smith- sonian Institution. At that time the national botanical collections consisted largely of copious but little organized material, which had been brought in by numerous official surveys and exploring expedi- tions. This material was of the highest value, containing hundreds of types ; but the immense labor of sorting and identifying it can only be appreciated by those who have had practical experience in herba- rium work. The present rich and well organized government her- baria form accordingly the best memorial of Dr. Vasey's untiring efforts and wise administration. Not only has he greatly developed these collections and the libraries connected with them, but by secur- ing an able corps of assistants has much increased the importance and value of the regular botanical publications of the government. A complete list of his own numerous and useful contributions to Ameri- can Botany has recently been published,* so that only their general character need here be indicated. His earlier writings were mostly short articles upon various botanical subjects published in the " Amer- ican Entomologist and Botanist," of which he was at one time asso- ciate editor. With his appointment in the Department of Agriculture his facilities for research were much increased, and his publications became more copious and important. Owing to the high agricultural importance of the Grasses, he concentrated his attention more and more upon this group of plants, studying not only their obscure sys- tematic relations, but their economic qualities as well. Most important among his papers upon this Order are his bulletin upon the Agricul- tural Grasses of the United States, published in 1884, and his Illustra- tions of North American Grasses, a part of which was still in press at the time of his death. * Botanical Gazette, XVIII. 176. SIR WILLIAM BOWMAN. 403 Dr. Vasey was twice married, and was exceptionally happy in his domestic life. He leaves a family of six children. His personal manner was singularly gentle, and even his purely professional ac- quaintances early recognized his warmth of heart and kindly disposi- tion. In the autumn before his death he represented the Smithsonian Institution at the International Congress of Botanists in Genoa, where he was made one of the Vice-Presidents. 1893. B. L. Robinson. FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS. SIR WILLIAM BOWMAN. Sir William Bowman, Baronet, of London, England, Fellow of the Royal Society, — one of the most distinguished of the Foreign Honorary Members of the Academy, — was born at Nantwich, England, in 1816. His father devoted much of his leisure to studies in natural history; and the son inherited this taste, and the habit of minute and careful observation which marked each step of his career, impressing the stamp of exacti- tude upon all his researches and conclusions. While a pupil at the Birmingham Hospital, at seventeen years of age, he wrote several monographs of much merit, one of which, " On Affections of the Larynx," published with colored illustrations, was received writh great favor, and is still regarded as a very valuable produc- tion. His whole life fulfilled its early promise in intelligent and discriminating research; and he well knew how to discern and interpret what was of value as a positive addition to science, and a means for its further advancement . At twenty-three years of age we find him Demonstrator of Anatomy at King's College Hospital in London, where ho devoted himself to minute researches as to the finer structures of the human system, and to histological teaching, especially that kind of histology which is imperatively necessary to the understanding of function. The following year he visited the hospitals of Paris, and of Austria, Germany, and Holland. On his return lie was appointed the Assistant, and became afterwards the successor, of the dis- tinguished investigator, Dr. Todd, with the title of Professor of 404 SIR WILLIAM BOWMAN. Physiology and of General and Morbid Anatomy. Their joint published treatise on Physiology was for a long period the text- book for instruction in that science. Even at this early age, Bowman's enthusiasm, accuracy, and thoroughness had earned for him recognition as a leader in scientific research; and in 1842 he was awarded the high dis- tinction of the gold medal of the Royal Society for his discoveries in science. The next year he read before the British Association at Oxford a paper on " Some Points in the Anatomy of the Eye, chiefly in reference to its Powers of Adjustment." This earliest and supremely important contribution to our knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the ciliary muscle within the eye- ball, which plays so essential a part in the focal adaptation of the eye to various distances, constituting the function of accom- modation, — and, together with his published "Researches on the Structure and Functions of the Eye," added immensely to our resources for the relief of disabilities of the organ of vision, — through which we learn the major part of what goes to make up the sum of human knowledge, and by the help of which we dis- charge most of the duties, and enjoy a large part of the pleasures, of human existence. In 1846 Bowman was appointed Assistant Surgeon, and in 1851 became Surgeon of the Royal Ophthalmic Hospital at Moor- fields, London, and later its Consulting Surgeon. The invention of the ophthalmoscope by Helmholtz, in 1851, opened a new era for ophthalmoscopy. The wonderful dis- closures gained through the aid of this new instrument for illuminating and exploring the interior of the eyeball — in which we may now well say, " There is nothing hid which can- not be revealed " — were early brought to Bowman's notice by Professors Donders and Von Graefe, then on a visit to England; and this trio of ardent devotees of ophthalmological science enthusiastically shared in eager observations and researches as to the normal conditions and morbid changes in the interior structures of the human eye, now for the first time revealed to human view. Another important sequel of this visit was the publication soon afterwards at London, by the Sydenham Society, of Pro- fessor Donders's elaborate, most accurate, and exhaustive treatise "On the Refraction and Accommodation of the Eye," dedicated, SIR WILLIAM BOWMAN. 405 as a well merited tribute, to Bowman, " Whose merits in the advancement of Physiology and Ophthalmology are equally recognized and honored in every country." Bowman's pre-eminent talent was worthily acknowledged in the conferring upon him of the honorary degrees of M. D. and LL. D. by several of the Universities of the United Kingdom, by his election as Fellow and as Vice President of the lloyal Society, by the bestowal of a Baronetcy by the Queen, and by his enrolment as Honorary Fellow by many foreign scientific bodies. Sir James Paget, also one of our Honorary Associates, says of Bowman: "His method of scientific work was not materially changed when he may have seemed to have narrowed his field of study ; — for his practice and all his writings showed, not only that he applied a wide range of general knowledge in the study of his special subject, but he made his special knowledge appli- cable in illustrating general principles. He maintained a high standard of professional conduct, and never swerved from what he believed to be right." Sir William was by no means one of whom it could be said, "Knowledge comes but Wisdom lingers." What he learned, he well knew how to adapt to the best uses. He was no less re- markable for his practical good sense, and his just estimation of other men and of new methods, than he was for his untiring industry and his sagacity in research. And all this was accom- plished amidst the imperious claims of active hospital service and a very extensive private and consulting practice. His rela- tions with other scientific observers striving to do good work, and with those of the profession seeking his counsel in impor- tant cases, were marked by kindly sympathy, encouragement, and help. The laurels he had so nobly won were unostentatiously worn. Letters from him received by me but a short time before bis death mentioned his gradual retirement from active duties, but gave no hint of mental decline, and were full of cheerful remi- niscences. His decease occurred on March L'7, 1892, alter a briei illness from pneumonia, at his country residence, Joldwynds, near Dorking, England. 1893. Hexkv Willaki) Williams. 406 ALPHONSE DE CANDOLLE. ALPHONSE DE CANDOLLE. Alphonse Louis Pierre Pyramus de Candolle, born in Paris, 27 October, 1806, a son of the botanist, Augustin Pyrame de Candolle, was for sixty years a prominent figure in the botanical world, and with hardly any perceptible diminution of his mental powers, having reached an age which made him one of the oldest of living botanists, he died at Geneva, 4 April, 1893, leaving a son to represent the third generation of botanists in this remarkable family. His early life was passed at Montpellier, where his father was Pro- fessor until the family removed to Geneva. In 1825 he began the study of law at Geneva, taking his degree in 1829. From 1831 he assisted his. father in his duties as Professor of Botany, and in 1835 he succeeded him iu that position, which he held until 1850 when he retired to private life, his ample private fortune enabling him to devote himself to botany. In 1832 he was married to Mile. Jeanne Kunkler, who died forty-five years later. The greater part of his married life was passed in Geneva in the winter, and at his country-house in Vallon in the suburbs of that city in the summer ; but during the last few years of his life he did not leave the house on the Cour Saint- Pierre, well known to all botanists as containing the great herbarium founded by his father. One is naturally tempted to compare the botanical work of Alphonse de Candolle with that of his father, under whose guidance he was trained ; but in fact no comparison is possible, for the charac- teristics of their scientific work were very different, and their natural tastes were quite dissimilar. The elder De Candolle was one of the masters of descriptive botany. In 1826 he commenced the publication of the Prodromus, a work planned on a vast scale to include descrip- tions of all known plants, of which seven volumes had already appeared previous to his death, in 1841. Although the name of Alphonse de Candolle was associated with that of his father in the Prodromus, he had no real fondness for descriptive work, being more interested in other botanical subjects. It should not be understood, however, that, even if his tastes were not in this special direction, his descriptive work was not excellent. On the contrary, his first paper, Mono- graphie des Campanulacees, published in 1831, was not only admirable from a taxonomic point of view, but was also valuable for the notes on plant distribution, a subject which he was destined to treat more fully at a later day. On the death of his father, De Candolle took charge ALPHONSE DE CANDOLLE. 407 of the continuation of the Prodromus, until, on the completion of the Dicotyledons in the seventeenth volume, issued in 1873, it was necessarily abandoned, not from indifference on his part, but because, owing to the rapid increase of collections and explorations in recent times, the field had become too great for a single work ou the original plan of the Prodromus. Jn nothing are the moral and intellectual qualities of De Caudolle better seen than in his management of the Prodromus. To a certain extent, sacrificing his individual preferences to a sense of filial duty, he devoted himself to the completion of the great work planned by his father, sparing neither thought nor mouey. Although the working up of the numerous orders was, of necessity, entrusted to specialists, too much cannot be said in praise of his good judgment in supervising the whole and of his constant courtesy towards and just appreciatiou of other botanists, which enabled him to secure the willing aid of experts when necessary. Although the Prodromus, as a distinct work, came to an end with the completion of the seventeenth volume, Alphonse de Candolle, assisted by his son Casimir, began in 1878 a series of Monographic Phanerogamurum , to include some orders not treated in the Prodromus, and revisions of certain of the orders contained in its earlier volumes. The great work of De Candolle was his Geographie Botanique Eaisonnee, which appeared in 1855. In this he displayed at their best the qualities which marked him as a great botanist in a field in which he was not overshadowed by the greater reputation of his father, as had been the case in his earlier writings. It is probable that the writings of Humboldt had first attracted him to the study of the distribution of plants. In the Geographie is clearly seen the legal quality predominating in his mind. This may in part be attributed to his early professional studies but it is not unlikely that it was to a great extent inborn. He brought together an immense number of facts, arranged them with great skill, and reviewed them collectively with a clear, unpartisan criticism worthy of a judge on the bench. He had such a talent for collecting statistics, and using them with discretion, that, had he not been brought up as a botanist, we might almost suppose that he would have been a political economist. In estimating the value of the Geographic we should not forget thai it was published four years before the appearance of Darwin's "Origin of Species." Bearing this in mind, we cannot fail to recognize the great superiority of this work over previous works on distribution. The position assumed by De Candolle in his Geographic can be ex- pressed best in the following condensed translation of his own words : — 408 ALPHONSE DE CANDOLLE. " The principal facts of geology and palaeontology suffice to explain the facts of botanical geography, or at least to indicate the nature of the explanation, which it requires the progress of many sciences to com- plete. The most numerous, the most important, and often the most anomalous facts in the existing distribution of plants, are explained by the operation of causes anterior to those now in operation, or* by the joint operation of these -and of still more ancient causes, some- times of such as are primitive. The geographical and physical operations of our own epoch play but a secondary part. The only phenomena explainable by existing circumstances are : 1st, the limi- tation of species, and consequently of genera and families, in every country where they now appear ; 2d, the distribution of the individuals of a species in the country it inhabits ; 3d, the geographical origin and extension of cultivated species ; 4th, the naturalization of species and the opposite phenomenon of their increasing rarity ; 5th, the disappearance of species contemporaneous with man. . . . " In all this we observe proofs of the greater influence of primitive causes, and of those anterior to our epoch ; but the growing activity of man is daily effacing these, and it is no small advantage of our progressing civilization that it enables us to collect a multitude of facts of which our successors will have no visible and tangible proof." De Caudolle did not make the least pretence of attempting to explain the origin of species, but limited himself to the question of distribution. The causes of the present distribution involve ultimately, of course, the question as to their origin, but the immediate question which De Candolle desired to discuss was siuiply, What are the existing facts regarding distribution, and in what direction do those facts point? The Geographie is a storehouse of facts which is still of very great value to students of distribution, and it is to be regarded as a merit of De Candolle's work that he attempted to point out clearly what could be explained by present conditions, as distinguished from the more extended question of what must necessarily be referred to past ages for solution. He, among other points, insisted that in estimating the effect of climate we must consider, not the mean temperatures, but the mean temperatures during the growing season, or those above the freezing point. The question of the origin of cultivated jdants, which formed a part of the Geographie, was again treated in detail by De Candolle in his Origine des Plantes Cultivees, 1883, a work involving not only great botanical knowledge, but also prolonged archaeological study, and which is regarded by experts as a classic on the subject. The evolutionary writings of Darwin had their effect on the later ALPHONSE DE CANDOLLE. 409 work of De Candolle. In his Histoire des Sciences et des Sarunls he attempted in his favorite statistical manner to trace, if possible, the direct inheritance of talent for scientific studies. Assuming that the leaders of science would naturally be elected members of learned societies, he compared the family names to be found in the lists of members of certain societies, and came to the general conclusion that by inheritance it was not so much marked special talents which were acquired, as what we may call general intellectual force, so that t bi- sons of distinguished men are on the whole as likely to reach distinction in different fields of science from those in which their fathers were distinguished, as they were to attain prominence in the same fields. It has however been objected, with more or less justice, to data from the membership in learned societies, that such membership, although presumably a recognition of ability, is not always so, ami that an allowance must be made for favoritism, and other human failings, from which even members of learned societies are not exempt. The principles which should guide botanists in describing plants, or, if we may be allowed to use the expression, the literary technique of systematic botany, was a subject in which De Candolle was much interested, and what he wrote on this topic was always marked by clearness and suggestiveness. His sound common sense enabled him to distinguish at once what was accurate and practical, from what was vague and visionary. Probably no botanist was ever consulted so frequently as he on the general principles of plant nomenclature, ami none was ever more discreet and urbane in the discussion of this delicate question. His Phytographie, 1880, was an admirable treatise, expounding the general principles and traditions of nomen- clature in a most sensible way, entirely devoid of personal feeling or partisanship, a work most refreshing to read at the present day, when one is surfeited with the multitude of writings on the subject written from a purely theoretical point of view, without regard to practical possibilities, and in a spirit of the most narrow intolerance. De Can- dolle's authority in taxonomical matters was universally recognized, and at the request of the committee of organization of the Inter- national Botanical Congress held at Paris in L867, In- prepared the Lois de I" Nomenclature Botanique which was to serve as a b:i-i> for the discussion on disputed points of nomenclature. Together with the historical introduction and commentary presented to the Congress, they are generally known as De Candolle's Laws, and still serve as the basis for all discussions on nomenclature. He published subse quently other papers discussing some of the disputed points of nomen- 410 ALPHONSE DE CANDOLLE. clature, and in all cases his candid, judicial statement of the questions appears all the more admirable when compared with the ill-natured and personal presentation of objections by some of his opponents. De Caudolle can hardly be said to have been a voluminous writer, although he was a frequent contributor to the different scientific pro- ceedings and journals, especially the Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles of Geneva. His style was easy and fluent, but although, as has been said, his method of study was statistical, his writings are neither dry nor tedious. He did not limit himself by any means to botany, but often discussed social and economical subjects, for, like his father, he considered that a good citizen should not shut himself up in the limits of his scientific studies, but should take an interest in all questions of public interest. One of his most generally interesting works is the volume of Melanges, a series of essays on different subjects. Of his scattered papers, that which was most widely known, especially in English-speaking countries, was La Langue Dominante. In that paper he discussed the adaptabilities of different languages to the needs of modern civilized life, and he advanced the opinion that English, with its comparatively simple declensions and conjugations, with its facility for forming compound words and its abundance of short exclamatory expressions, was likely to become the universal language of the future. This agreeable prophecy, while it naturally found favor among English peoples, was regarded by some others as an expression of what they considered his prejudice for England and the English. That he had a genuine admiration for the English was shown in several ways, but his feeling was not so one-sided as to deserve the name of prejudice. De Candolle was tall in stature, with a prominent nose, and small, rather deep-set eyes. His appearance was strikingly dignified, but it was not a freezing dignity, for his manners were polished and cour- teous, and he had the happy faculty of making all, no matter how different their ages or conditions, feel perfectly at ease in his presence. In conversation he was fluent and interesting, and he possessed that greatest of talents in a good talker, the power of drawing out what was interesting and instructive in others. Probably no botanist of recent times was more widely known personally, or more deservedly respected. Botanists from both hemispheres visited him in the family mansion at Geneva opposite the old cathedral, and he always took pleasure in showing the many treasures of books and plants which had been accumulated by his father and himself. He was untiring in his efforts to supply to correspondents any information in his power, AUGU.-T WILHELM VON BOPMANN. 411 and he made no distinction between contemporary or well known botanists and the young or obscure. Many of the younger generation of botanists remember his kind words of encouragement and sympathy and are grateful for his criticisms, which were always made in a kindly spirit, without cynicism or ill-nature. His long and active life came gradually to a close, without physical suffering or mental decrepi- tude. It was the privilege of the writer to meet him in his library surrounded by his books only a few months before his death, and, although he had become somewhat deaf, it was hard to believe that he was so far up in the eighties, for he showed the same intelligence and the same interest in what was going on in the botanical world as he had shown twenty years before. A list of the botanical writings of Alphonse de Caudolle will be found in the Revue Generate de Botanique, Volume V., pages 200-208. 1893. W. G. Faklow. AUGUST WILHELM VON HOFMANN. August Wilhelm Hofmanx, a Foreign Honorary Member of the Academy, was born in Giessen, April 8, 1818. His child- hood passed quietly in his native place, and in its schools he was fitted for its University, at that time famous for the labora- tory which Liebig had established in the old guard-house, and in which chemistry was first taught by experiment. It is not strange, therefore, that, after paying attention for a short time to other studies, Hofmann was attracted to chemistry and entered the laboratory. Here he soon became one of the most eminent among that company of students, including the picked men from all civilized countries, as his first researches, which related to the identity of aniline obtained from different sources, showed a grasp of the subject, a chemical insight, and a skill in experi- ment remarkable in so young a man. He also had the good fortune in the course of them to discover the chloranilines, the formation of which could not be brought into harmony with the dualistic theory then at the height of its dominion, and this brought his work prominently to the notice of the chemical world. Tn 1810 Liebig took him as his private assistant, when it became his duty to do part of the editorial work on the "Anna- len der Chemie und Pharmacie"; and this early literary train- ing undoubtedly was a principal cause of the ease with which he 412 AUGUST WILHELM VON HOFMANN. handled his pen in later years. He stayed in Giessen until the spring of 1845, and all this time his intimacy with Liebig was growing closer and closer; he worked with him in the labora- tory during the week, and frequently accompanied him on Sunday excursions or vacation journeys. To the end of his life he could not speak with too much affection and gratitude of his great teacher. From Giessen he went to Bonn to lecture on agricultural chemistry, but before the year was out accepted a call to the directorship of the Royal College of Chemistry, which was to be founded in London after the plan of Liebig's laboratory at Giessen ; and in October, 1845, he opened the laboratory of this institution, where he remained for twenty years. There could be no better proof of Hofmann's ability and force of character than his success in this position, the difficulties of which were enormous. It was necessary to establish a labora- tory, and organize a course of chemical instruction, at a time when the details of experimental teaching of chemistry had been only partially worked out, and this was to be done by a German suddenly plunged among Englishmen, with whose national feel- ings he must bring himself into harmony so as to adapt his plans to the environment; and, what was harder still, it was necessary that these plans should satisfy the subscribers on whom the venture rested for support. After the successful launching of the enterprise, during which he invented many of the methods of laboratory teaching since in common use, he was further embarrassed by a loss of interest on the part of these subscribers, whom it was necessary to arouse and recruit by a series of popu- lar lectures, and to conciliate by doing technical work for many of them without charge. At the same time his own means were very slender. I well remember the humor with which he told a story of lighting the gas accidentally with a five-pound note at this period, and feeling an ache in his bones from it for a week. Later, however, thanks principally to his discoveries among the aniline dyes, this evil was remedied, so that he was never again in want of money, and the Royal College of Chemistry, after he had steered it successfully through these troubled waters, was put on a solid basis as a state institution under another name. In addition to the duties already mentioned, he was frequently required to give scientific advice to the government, and served AUGUST WILHELM VON HOFMANN. 413 on the jury at most of the great exhibitions. He was also a prominent member of the London Chemical Society, — Foreign Secretary as early as 1847, and President in 1861 ; in 1856 he was appointed Master of the Mint. With these varied activities and the numerous distractions caused by the brilliant scientific society of London at this time, it is surprising that he should have produced a very large volume of scientific work of the highest quality; but the riddle is solved by his statement that he often worked in the laboratory till two or three o'clock in the morning, and in this way succeeded in getting through an amount of work which would have broken down a man with a less robust constitution. After twenty years of this life, in spite of its pleasures and honors, he began to turn his eyes toward Germany again, and at first intended to go to Bonn, where the laboratory was built under his direction; but before leaving London to take charge of it, his destination was changed by a call to Berlin, where he became Professor in 1865, and at once set to work with his accus- tomed energy to reorganize the chemical department of the university, which had fallen into some disorder, and to build the large laboratory, which was finished in 1869. The site was chosen so that the laboratory could be connected with a house which had been for many years the property of the Prussian Academy, and was used as the dwelling of both its chemist and astronomer, until the astronomer was removed to other quarters shortly before Hofmann's arrival, and the chemist of the Acad- emy left in undisputed possession; to this post Hofmann suc- ceeded in virtue of his appointment as Professor of Chemistry in the Berlin University, and here the last years of his life were passed in happy activity. In term time he gave three lectures a week, each lasting two hours, — a severe tax on the strength of any man, especially in the hot, close weather of a Berlin duly. Then he went into the laboratory and visited his private assistants, of whom he some- times had as many as six, and his advanced students. This filled the morning. The afternoon was devoted to work in liis private laboratory, or a second visit to his students; and in the evening, after supper between half-past eight and ten, he passed a short time with his family, and then at about eleven Bettled down to work in his study till from one to three in the morning. As in London, he added to his regular work a great many other occu- 414 AUGUST WILHELM VON HOFMANN. pations. He was the father of the German Chemical Society, founded in 1867, which under his care has grown to such enor- mous proportions. His services as a juror at the great exhibi- tions were still in frequent demand, and he issued an elaborate report on the chemistry in that of Vienna, which amounted to a full statement of the condition of technical chemistry in the year 1873. In his literary work a large place is filled by his historical accounts of the earlier chemists and the alchemists of Berlin, and also by numerous obituaries of his distinguished contemporaries, many of which toward the end of his life he collected into three large interesting volumes. To these should be added his " Introduction to Modern Chemistry, Experimental and Theoretic," a short text-book brought out at the beginning of his life in Berlin, which gave a remarkably clear account of what were at that time the new theories, illustrated by in- genious and novel lecture experiments. His brilliancy as a lecturer led to his giving many public lectures, notably the Faraday Lecture of the London Chemical Society in 1875, — a life of Liebig, which was afterward published in book form. He did not seek for honors, and frequently expressed the slight value he set upon titles, but they came to him unsought. At the beginning of 1875 he received the honorary title of Privy Councillor (Gelieimratli), and in 1890 he was ennobled. In his vacations he was a great traveller. There was hardly a country of Europe which he had not visited, and in the sum- mer of 1883 he travelled over most of the United States, when his eager interest in all that he saw, and his delighted apprecia- tion of American humor, left pleasant memories to those who were fortunate enough to meet him. The busy life which I have described, continued with only one serious interruption from sickness (in 1878), until he was seventy-four years old, when the end came suddenly on the 5th of May, 1892. He had just begun to lecture again with his accustomed energy, after his return from a short vacation jour- ney, when on coming home from a faculty meeting he began to feel unwell, and in half an hour was dead, — a fortunate end to a happy life. My first sight of Hofmann was characteristic of the man; it was in the chemical lecture-room, just after the academic quar- ter of an hour had ended. He came hurrying in, wearing a white knit scarf about his throat, and a tall hat. With what AUGUST WILHELM VON HOFMANN. 415 seemed to be a single motion, he took them off and laid tliem on the table; then plunged into his lecture, rather quietly at first, but gathering energy as he went on, until he carried all along with him in the rush of his ideas. Not that he talked very fast, but his lecture seemed like a broad rapid stream, flow- ing with irresistible force. When he grew excited, he had a curious gesture, apparently taking the words from his mouth and throwing them at his audience with the whole strength of his body. His style was clear, vivid, and picturesque, his experiments striking and apt, since he had a rare faculty for contriving them, and was usually most successful in carrying them through; but if, as rarely happened, an experiment did not go well, or an assistant was slow in his work, he would fairly dance with impatience. In the laboratory it was much the same. In his tall hat and the invariable knit scarf, he hurried up to a student, and called out almost as soon as he was within hearing, "What have you got to show me to-day? " Then, if the new substance crystal- lized well, — " This is a beautiful substance, a superb substance. We will make a couple of experiments with it." After which came a host of watch-glass experiments, leading deep into the subject, all done with the same dash and enthusiasm. But if the student had not enough clean watch-glasses, or did not answer his questions quickly enough, he in his impatience shook his knees with a peculiar sideways motion, — a most alarming gesture, which also greeted the man who had not looked up all that had been done on his subject, and did not have his knowledge at his fingers' ends. This mode of teaching was terrible for shy, nervous men; but for others it was wonder- fully inspiring, and all his students realized that this impatience was only the overflow of his superabundant energy, and in no way allied to bad temper. He was, in fact, one of the kindest of men, and took the strongest personal interest in his students, adopting their successes or failures in the laboratory as his own; and when they were in misfortune he was always ready with his help, whether in advice, sympathy, or money, as I have the best reason to know. The energy which charaterized his teaching also appeared in his researches. A rough count shows that at least three hun- dred and fifty-eight papers bear his name; but even tliis number does not give a just idea of his productiveness, since probably 416 AUGUST WILHELM VON HOFMANN. as many, or even more, papers were published by his students under their own names, and these in most cases were as much his work, except so far as mere manual labor was concerned, as those included in the number given above. A general direction was given to Hofmann's work by his first research in Liebig's laboratory, which consisted in proving the identity of three substances, — benzidam from nitrobenzol, and aniline and krystalline obtained in different ways from indigo. He also showed that this substance (aniline) was contained in the mixture of bases extracted from coal tar by Runge, and called by him kyanol. This called his attention to the com- pounds of nitrogen, and in this class of bodies his most important discoveries have been made. First among these must be placed his work upon the aniline dyes, on account of the great industry to which it has given birth; for although he had many competi- tors in this field, and was not the first to introduce an aniline color into commerce, his discoveries are so fundamental and various that he can be justly called the father of this industry. This work grew naturally from his first research just mentioned, since rosaniline, the most important of these dyes, is easily made by the oxidation of crude aniline. This substance was first satisfactorily investigated by him, although it had been obtained earlier by others, and he brought our knowledge of it into such a state that it could be manufactured on a commercial scale. From this rosaniline (magenta dye) he soon showed that different colors could be obtained by replacing part of its hydro- gen by other radicals ; and in this way he made violets and blues of a brilliancy unknown before, which, with a vivid green that soon followed, at once came into general use. It may be added, that an investigation made under his direction laid the founda- tions for preparing aniline itself on an industrial scale. This work dates from his London period, and some idea of the excite- ment of that time can be gained from the fact that he reported the results of his analysis of aniline blue to the French Academy by telegraph, probably the only time that a paper has been com- municated in this way. Another discovery of his, although not yet of technical value, is even more important to chemists than the work just men- tioned. This is the method of preparing the amines by the action of ammonia on alkyliodides or bromides, which alone would have been sufficient to make him great, as by it not only AUGUST WILHELM VON HOFMANN. 417 were three of the most important classes of chemical compounds discovered, — the secondary and tertiary amines, and the substi- tuted ammoniums, — but also this discovery had a great, an almost decisive influence on the adoption of the present chemical theories. This was one of his earliest researches, and it is interesting to note that in the later years of his life he added still another way of preparing primary amines to the meagre list of known methods; it was by the action of bromine and water upon the amides, and has rendered these very expensive sub- stances more accessible. Another discovery, the displacement by heat of hydrocarbons from substituted amnionic hydrates, dates also from his later years, and promises to be of the first importance, since it has already done much, and will do more, to solve the perplexing riddle of the constitution of the natural alkaloids. Of his other important discoveries I shall not attempt to speak in detail; they include syntheses of the mustard oils and guani- dine, with the working out of the constitution of these products of life; the migration of alkyl radicals from nitrogen to carbon under the influence of heat, an interesting observation which has been of great value in the color industry; and researches on the isonitriles, cedriret, orthoamidomercaptans, cyanuric acid, the ethylene bases, and many other substances natural and artificial. And here should also be mentioned the new forms of apparatus contrived by him, especially that for determining vapor densi- ties, and the eudiometers and other pieces of lecture apparatus to which I have alluded earlier. In the preceding description of the man and his work I have tried to portray his vigorous, enthusiastic energy, and his ex- ceeding kindliness, which also appeared in his family life, mak- ing him at the same time a most affectionate and ambitious father. His wonderful inventiveness and intellectual power also have been sufficiently shown by the account of his discov- eries, and his great administrative ability by his success in organizing and carrying on the large chemical laboratories of London and Berlin. The picture of Hofmann would be incom- plete, however, without mention of his breadth of character. He always deplored the unfortunate quarrel between German and French chemists, which followed the Franco-Prussian war, and through it all kept up the most friendly relations with the leaders of French chemistry. An even better proof of this vol. xxvin. (v. s. xx.) 27 418 SIR RICHARD OWEN. absence of all littleness in him is found in the fact that he would receive information or take corrections even from his students, saying, "I am willing to learn from any one." He was simple and temperate in his habits of life, and fond of innocent jokes and amusements. He had a remarkable faculty for languages. On one occasion, at an international chemical dinner, he made speeches in five languages, — German, English, French, Italian, and Spanish. In person he was of middle height, with an extraordinary depth of chest, and a figure massive rather than either large or stout. His forehead was high, crowned with waving hair, and in his earlier days he wore a mustache and small pointed beard, afterwards replaced by a full beard. He has left very tender and affectionate memories in the hearts of a multitude of students, who will remember their chemical father as long as they live ; and when all of these are gone, his works will still stand, his enduring monument. 1893. Charles Loring Jackson. SIR RICHARD OWEN. When Sir Richard Owen died, full of years and honors, on December 18, 1892, the last prominent representative of the old school of comparative anatomists passed away. For about fifty-six of his eighty -eight years he was actively devoted to the science which he loved so well and served so truly. Born at Lancaster on July 20, 1804, he took his medical diploma at the Royal College of Surgeons in 1822, and began the prac- tice of medicine. His dissections when a student had at- tracted the notice of Abernethy, who procured for him the work of cataloguing the preparations of the Hunterian Museum in 1828. The consequences of this appointment were momen- tous both for him and for science. It brought him into the intimacy of a relative of John Hunter, Mr. Clift, who was then the chief Curator. Owen married his daughter, and thus natu- rally, as it were, became the follower of the renowned founder of the Museum. Hunter's mantle could not have fallen on worthier shoulders. It is easy to conceive that an office so attractive to an anatomist boded no good to his success as a practitioner. In a few years he withdrew from the profession he had first chosen, to devote himself wholly to science. In SIR RICHARD OWEN. 419 1830 he read a paper on the Ourang before the new committee on science of the Zoological Society, which marked the begin- ning of the scientific activity of that Society. At the age of thirty he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society; and in 1834 he had the signal honor of being chosen the first Hunterian Pro- fessor at the Royal College of Surgeons. He held this position till 1856, when he was appointed Superintendent of the Natural History Department of the British Museum. Here he found himself confronted with the great difficulty which has baffled so many curators before and since, — wan of space. We cannot go into the history of his arduous struggle for what he felt was necessary; suffice it to say, it is largely to him that the collec- tion of Natural History of the British Museum owes its mag- nificent new home at South Kensington. He resigned this position at wellnigh fourscore years, in 1883. Though he retired early from the practice of medicine, he served more than once or twice on boards dealing with sanitary questions. He was on the commission to inquire into the health of towns in 1843 and in 1846. He wrote a special report on the condition of his native town, Lancaster, in 1848. He was on the Board of Health of the metropolis in 1846 and 1848. This is by no means the full list of his services of this nature. When one remembers the vast amount of original research he was always engaged in, his mental activity seems indeed phenomenal. From the beginning of his writing with, if we mistake not, the first instal- ment of the "Catalogue of the Hunterian Museum," in 1830, catalogue, book, and memoir followed one another in constant succession. His writings did not wholly cease even with his final retirement from office. The range of his studies was enor- mous. In 1832 appeared his memoir on the "Pearly Nautilus," and in 188.5 was completed his "History of the British Reptiles," in three volumes. His researches were not confined to origin isms visible to the naked eye. He was the first to put in its proper place the Trichina Spiralis. Among his more important works may be mentioned his "Odontography," "The Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton,"and his "Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates." Wonderful has been the progress in science during the long period of Owen's activity. Perhaps even more wonderful is the entire change of lines of thought and of methods of study since the promulgation of the Darwinian hypothesis. This event 420 ALFRED, LORD TENNYSON. occurred when Owen was passing out of middle age. It is no wonder that he looked at the matter conservatively. In the early days of the theory it was not so clear as now that all evolution is not Darwinism. Many evolutionists would now hesitate to say that he was wrong. The tendency of earlier and cruder evolution was to throw utterly aside all respect for such works as that on the "Archetype." Indeed, the extravagances of visionaries like Oken had paved the way for a reaction. Professor Owen was essentially a devout man. He saw in nature plan and law, and through these the Creator. He wrote as follows in the Preface to his Comparative Anatomy: "In the second aim, the parts and organs, severally the subjects of these chapters, are exemplified by instances selected with a view to guide or help to the power of apprehending the unity which underlies the diversity of animal structures; to show in these structures the evidence of a predetermining Will, producing them in reference to a final purpose ; and to indicate the direc- tion and degrees in which organization, in subserving such Will, rises from the general to the particular." In spite of his single- ness of purpose Owen's strong point was neither in controversy nor in philosophy. He excelled in his powers of observation and in his capacity for work. Theories and systems may rise and fall, but his descriptions of living and extinct forms may remain the standard of instruction for generations. 1893. Thomas Dwight. ALFRED, LORD TENNYSON. Alfred, Lord Tennyson, a Foreign Honorary Member of the Academy in Class III., Section 4, since 1876, died at Aldworth in Surrey on the 6th of October, 1892. Alfred Tennyson was born at Somersby Kectory in Lincoln- shire on the 6th of August, 1809, the son of the Reverend George Clayton Tennyson. He early showed a love of poetry, and when little more than eighteen years old found a publisher for a volume of poems written in connection with his brother. This poetic flight was promptly followed by others, including, in 1829, a college prize poem on the subject of Timbuctoo. These early poems are smooth and pleasant, good-boyish verses, far better than most productions of the kind. In 1830 appeared " Poems, chiefly Lyrical, " — a volume con- ALFRED, LORD TENNYSON*. 421 taining, among other pieces, "Claribel," "Mariana," ''The Deserted House," and "The Sleeping Beanty "; the last of these was afterwards expanded. In the same year Tennyson and his friend Arthur Hallam made an expedition into Spain, curry- ing money and letters written in invisible ink to some Spanish rebels, with whom they were in sympathy. In L832 another volume was published, made up, like its predecessor, of short poems, among which were "The Lady of Shalott," "The Mil- ler's Daughter," "CEnone," "The May Queen," and "The Lotos- Eaters." By these pieces Tennyson established his position as a poet. Indeed, he hardly rose higher in lyric sweetness al any later time than he did»in the exquisite songs "It is the miller's daughter," and "Love that hath us in the net." On the 15th of September, 1833, Arthur Hallam died at Vienna. The grief of the poet for the loss of his friend was very great, and was aggravated by the fact that Hallam was to have married Tennyson's sister. Such sorrows might be thought too sacred to be laid open to the world by auy biographer; and Tennyson has pronounced " Shakespeare's curse on clown and knave Who will not let his ashes rest ! " But he has himself chosen to impart to the public a share in this grief; he has embalmed it in noble verse; and his verse, unlike his ashes, is the property of the world. At the tine' of its occurrence the blow seems to have stunned him. For nearly nine years he published little ; only a few pieces in fugitive publications. In L842, however, a new edition of his poems appeared in two volumes, including all those poems in the pre- vious editions which he cared to retain, and adding many new ones, among which were "Locksley Hull," "St. Simeon Styliti "Lady Clare," "The Two Voices," "The Lord of Burleigh," "Sir Galahad," and " Break, break, break." Five years later came "The Princess," but without its lyrics, which were published with the third edition of the poem in 1850. This latter year was one of great importance in Tenny- son's life. It is marked by the publication of " In Memoriam," by his marriage, and b}' his appointment as poet Laureate. The fine "Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington '" appeared in 1852, to be followed, in 1864, by "The Charge of the Light Brigade," a thousand copies of which were printed on abroad- 422 ALFRED, LORD TENNYSON. side, and distributed to the soldiers before Sebastopol. In 1855 " Maud " was published. In 1859 the first collection of " Idylls of the King " was brought out, — "Enid," " Vivien," "Elaine," and "Guinevere." They had been preceded, many years earlier, by the "Morte d' Arthur," and were followed after an interval of ten years by "The Corning of Arthur," "The Holy Grail," and "Pelleas and Ettare"; then by "The Last Tournament"; and finally, in 1885, by "Balin and Balan." All the Idylls have been arranged to form a sequence. It was not until 1876, when the poet was in his sixty-seventh year, that his first tragedy, "Queen Mary," was presented. It was followed at intervals by other dramas. In 1880, a volume of "Ballads" appeared, including "The Defence of Lucknow," "The Voyage of Maeldune," and many other poems. In 1884 Tennyson was made a peer, with the title of Baron Aldworth and Farringford. The honor was well bestowed. There have been British poets as great as this one whose eleva- tion to the peerage would have been incongruous: imagine a Lord Wordsworth, or a Lord Burns. But Tennyson, through- out his writings, moves with a stately dignity and grace. His verse is sonorous and refined. In spite of a curious fondness for expressing despair, he never tears a passion to tatters. His robes shine with a score of colors ; they are set with a hundred jewels; they flow in liquid lines, and never get out of order. He seldom attempts to wear homespun, and when he does try it on, it does not fit him. Such a poet is well suited to take his recognized place in a great aristocracy. The work of Tennyson divides itself naturally into periods and into forms. The style and substance, nearly uniform throughout, run readily into various moulds. That style, as I have said, is dignified, lofty, and sonorous. From these qualities it seldom departs and never to its advantage. Like many essentially dig- nified men, Alfred Tennyson liked to be playful; but his play- fulness seldom raises a smile to the lips of his readers. When he -is pathetic, we sorrow with him; when he is inclined to jest, we generally wish he would refrain. An exception may perhaps be made in favor of some of the pieces in dialect, where the humor is of the very quietest description. Occasionally, and most in the earlier poems, there are great lapses from good taste; but in his better pieces this is very rare, and, after all, it is only good taste, and not morals or feelings, that suffer. Yet ALFRED, LORD TENNYSON. 423 the shock may be great. The reader is interested; he is moved; the force of poetry has mastered him ; every pore of his mind is open to the magic sunlight. Suddenly he is struck by a chil- ling blast which raises the mental goose-flesh. I will give but one instance of this, for the fault, as I have said, is not com- mon in Tennyson's best pieces; but it is too characteristic to pass entirely unnoticed. Let the reader give up his mind to the first ten lines of the following quotation from the "The Miller's Daughter " : "■©' " But when at last I dared to speak, The lanes, you know, were white with may, Your ripe lips moved not, but your cheek Flashed like the coming of the day; And so it was — half-sly, half-shy, You would, and would not, little one! Although I pleaded tenderly, And you and I were all alone. " And slowly was my mother brought To yield consent to my desire : She wished me happy, but she thought I might have looked a little higher." But such accidents as this are of rare occurrence. Generally the poem will flow on, with an even cadence to the ear and a well ordered sequence to the mind, rising grandly, sinking gracefully, best when most serious and tender. The substance of the poems varies more than the style. It is now religious or philosophical, now patriotic; again it is of love or of nature. It is always pure, generally hopeful and believing. " There lives more faith in honest doubt, Believe me, than in half the creeds," writes Tennyson; and his sympathies are chiefly reserved for those doubts which are full of faith. The son of a clergyman, and born in 1809, — at the height of the reaction against the incredulity of the eighteenth century, — he was a convinced and unwavering Christian; liberal with the liberality of a large mind and especially with the charity of a loving heart; faithful to the faith of his childhood. He is full of hope, too. We feel that his deepest despair is an affair of temper and digestion, that the strong heart of the man and his inmost convictions arc 424 ALFRED, LORD TENNYSON. healthy and sunny. In his worst moods he never sneers — but at a mob, or a Frenchman. His patriotism is intense and unquestioning. Had we to judge from the internal evidence of his poems, we might believe that he had never strayed from English ground. His imagination has never travelled else- where, save for those little excursions with the classic muse which the Cambridge or Oxford man absolutely owes to his schoolmasters. If, in reading him, we are startled by an echo of Dante, or even of Walt Whitman, it is but a faint and distant echo, soon dying away. In England Tennyson was at home, and none of her sons have loved her more nobly. Every flower of the English field, every cloud of the English sky, had its word for him. And like his patriotism is his purity of heart, — a positive quality, elevating the whole nature of the man, the whole work of the poet. There are three distinctly marked periods in Tennyson's poeti- cal life. The first includes his early poems, and ends with the two volumes issued in 1842, at the close of the long time of com- parative silence that followed the death of Arthur Hallam. The poetry of this period is chiefly lyrical, consisting of ballads with a slight thread of narrative running through them, like "The Lady of Shalott," "CEnone," "The May Queen," or "A Dream of Fair Women"; or of songs entirely without story, such as "It is the miller's daughter." Occasionally in this period a hint was given of the forms which the poet's genius was to take in the future. Thus the " Morte d' Arthur " gives promise of the " Idylls " ; " The Two Voices " is a prelude to "In Memoriam." The poetry of this earlier part of the poet's life is often exquisite ; the lyrics are nearly, if not quite, as good as his best. Indeed, "Love that hath us in the net," and "Break, break, break," are among the very best things in that line that he ever accomplished, — among the sweetest songs in the English language. Yet if Alfred Tennyson had died in 1845, he would not have ranked among the greatest of British poets. His place would have been with Campbell and not with Scott, with Moore and not with Byron. He was not destined to leap, like Keats and Shelley, to the first rank while under thirty. It was in the second period of his life, in the strength of his man- hood, that Tennyson achieved the height of his greatness. In the twelve years from 1847 to 1859 appeared " The Princess " and its lyrics, "In Memoriam," and the first collection of ALFRED, LORD TENNYSON. 425 Idylls; and these are the most characteristic and the finest of his poems. It is on them that his reputation must finally rest. In 1859 Tennyson was fifty years old. lie had become a thor- ough master of his art. Many of his best qualities remained to him; he was still the maker of graceful and sonorous verse, but he was not destined to add to his already towering reputation. In his later years he worked faithfully and successfully in his old forms, and tried a new one, the dramatic. He retained much of the vigor and sweetness of his mind; he gave to the English-speaking world much good poetry, and with it very little that his warmest admirers should regret. Of the forms of poetry, that to which Tennyson adhered through life was the lyrical, with a touch of narrative, — from "Mariana in the Moated Grange," at the beginning, to "Charity," at the end of his works. In this line he was very successful, but it is a line which hardly admits the highest poetry. We are all fond of "The May Queen," and "Lady Clare," and "The Beggar Maid," — men of fifty know them by heart; but we do not place them beside "Lycidas," or Portia's speech in court, or Wordsworth's sonnets, or the best passages of "In Memoriam." Yet we are grateful to the poet who gives us so much pure enjoyment. The poems written officially, as laureate, often belong to this category. They are strong and stirring, almost the best that has been done in that manner. The "Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington" is the most poetical, but is too long to catch the popular ear. The "Welcome" to tin- Princess of Wales on her marriage contains lines not easily forgotten : — " Sea-kings' daughter from over the sea, Alexandra! Saxon and Norman and Dane are we, But all of us Danes in our welcome of thee, Alexandra! " "The Charge of the Light Brigade" thunders through tin- head, and will hold a place in the British memory but little below Campbell's "Mariners of England" and Burns's "Scots wha hae." There is another style of lyric in which Tennyson has sur- passed his achievement either in narrative or in official song. The poems written in this style are purely lyrical, appealing to no extraneous emotion, seeking their interest neither in a Btory, nor in a description of scenery, nor in a mood of patriotic 426 ALFRED, LORD TENNYSON. emotion. There are not a dozen of them of the best class in all his works, in spite of the attempts of the poet to add to their number; and, with perhaps two exceptions, they belong to the period of his greatest poetic power. On them his fame as a great lyric poet will chiefly rest. These poems are " Love that hath us in the net," and perhaps, "It is the miller's daughter," written long before the others, "Break, break, break," first pub- lished in 1842, and five or six songs in "The Princess." Let us, for the sake of comparison, recall a lyric poem of either cate- gory, and, first, one deriving a part of its interest from narration and description. We may choose "Sir Launcelot and Queen Guinevere," which is perhaps less familiar than some others, although full of beautiful poetry : " Like souls that balance joy and pain, With tears and smiles from heaven again The maiden Spring upon the plain Came in a sun-lit fall of rain. In crystal vapor everywhere Blue isles of heaven laughed between, And far, in forest deeps unseen, The topmost elm-tree gathered green From draughts of balmy air. " Sometimes the linnet piped his song : Sometimes the throstle whistled strong : Sometimes the sparhawk, wheeled along, Kushed all the groves from fear of wrong : By grassy capes with fuller sound In curves the yellowing river ran, And drooping chestnut-buds began To spread into the perfect fan, Above the teeming ground. " Then, in the boyhood of the year, Sir Launcelot and Queen Guinevere Rode thro' the coverts of the deer, With blissful treble ringing clear. She seemed a part of joyous Spring: A gown of grass-green silk she wore, Buckled with golden clasps before ; A light-green tuft of plumes she bore Closed in a golden ring. " Now on some twisted ivy-net, Now by some tinkling rivulet, ALFRED, LORD TENNYSON. 427 In mosses mixt with violet Her cream-white mule his pastern set: And fleeter now she skimmed the plains Than she whose elfin prancer springs By night to eery warblings, "When all the glimmering moorland rings With jingling bridle-reins. " As she fled fast thro' sun and shade, The happy winds upon her play'd, Blowing the ringlet from the braid: She looked so lovely, as she sway'd The rein with dainty finger-tips, A man had given all other bliss, And all his worldly worth for this, To waste his whole heart in one kiss Upon her perfect lips." Compare with this the Lullaby from "The Princess," which derives no interest from narrative, but appeals simply to the ear and the poetic sense : " Sweet and low, sweet and low, Wind of the western sea, Low, low, breathe and blow, Wind of the western sea! Over the rolling waters go, Come from the dying moon, and blow, Blow him again to me : While my little one, while my pretty one, sleeps. " Sleep and rest, sleep and rest, Father will come to thee soon; Rest, rest, on mother's breast, Father will come to thee soon ; Father will come to his babe in the nest, Silver sails all out of the west Under the silver moon ; Sleep, my little one, sleep, my pretty one, sleep." From the lyrics we pass to an even more important part of Tennyson's work, to what our fathers might have called " Poems of Sentiment and Reflection," to the embodiment of the po social, political, and religious ideas, to his philosophy of Life. Alfred Tennyson was generous in his aspirations for humanity, he was a liberal in the best Bense, a devout Christian, a natural optimist. He believed in progress, with a faith never really 428 ALFRED, LORD TENNYSON. extinguished, although sometimes clouded, and the progress in which he believed was of the true kind. Let us listen to a few lines from " In Memoriam " : " Who loves not Knowledge ? Who shall rail Against her beauty ? May she mix With men and prosper ! Who shall fix Her pillars? Let her work prevail. " A higher hand must make her mild, If all be not in vain ; and guide Her footsteps, moving side by side With wisdom, like the younger child : " For she is earthly of the mind, But wisdom heavenly of the soul. O friend, who earnest to thy goal So early, leaving me behind, " I would the great world grew like thee, Who grewest not alone in power And knowledge, but by year and hour In reverence and in charity." It is the soundness and sweetness of the poet's nature which make the greatness of " In Memoriam, " — a dirge of inordinate length, written in a stanza which is at first a little repellent to the ear. In spite of these drawbacks, it is well to read the whole poem at a sitting, and to mark passages for future reference. For the poem has a unity of design, and carries the reader with the poet through the depths of self-contained and dignified sorrow to the clear heights of consolation which is not forgetfulness. And as Tennyson is hopeful in matters of religious faith, so is he in things social and political. He rails at the crowd, sometimes a little unreasonably, but he trusts to the future of the race. " He seems to hear a Heavenly Friend, And through thick veils to apprehend A labour working to an end." And this faith never left our poet long. It is good to know that after the confusion of " Locksley Hall Sixty Years after " came the serenity of "Akbar's Dream," the consciousness that the light of our century is "dawn, not day." It is not necessary to linger over "The Princess," although there are many charming lines in the poem, beside those of the ALFRED, LORD TENNYSON. 429 lyrics that are set in it. " The Princess " is somewhat marred by the attempt of the poet to be light; "Maud," on the other hand, which contains much exquisite poetry, is injured by its despairing theme. Tennyson loved despair as one loves a for- eign country, without ever being quite at home in it. He was eminently self-commanding, and violent passion has in his mouth a literary sound which is fatal to its appearance of genuineness. Let anybody who would compare the serious optimist and the laughing pessimist read Tennyson's "Locksley Hall," or "Maud" with its artificial darkness, and then turn to the translation which Tennyson's friend Fitzgerald has made of the poem of Omar Khayyam, with its sad humor and stern questioning of Providence. It is neither "Maud" nor "The Princess " which first rises to the mind when Tennyson's longer poems are mentioned. He is perhaps best known as the writer of the "Idylls of the King." The legends of King Arthur had long interested the poet. Among his earlier poems, " The Lady of Shalott," " Sir Galahad," and " Sir Launcelot and Queen Guinevere " had found a place, calling on him for some of his best work. And in the "Morte d' Arthur " he had gone farther, and actually written a part of the great series which was to be one of the principal achievements of his best years. The Idylls, as we now possess them, form a con- tinuous poem, which has for its theme the rise, the adventures, and the fall of Arthur, the mythical King of Britain, and of the knights whom he collected in his order of the Round Table. The interest and the style of the poem are wonderfully sustained, in view of the fact that an interval of more than forty years elapsed between the appearance of the earliest and that of the last writ- ten cantos. The present arrangement of the parts of the poem is not that of their composition; but the story, as completed, inarches firmly and smoothly from the Dedication to Prince Albert and "The Coming of Arthur" at the beginning, to "The Passing of Arthur " and the Ode to the Queen at the close. The stately measure moves steadily along, and scenes of beauty open on every hand. We are in England, but in an England glit- tering with the brilliance of chivalry, and lighted by the glow of fairy-land. Here is no rush, no turmoil, no grime and sweat ; wounds and death are but glorious accidents; even sin has lost its grossness. Adultery is one of the themes of the tale, yet no coarse word is spoken, no low idea suggested; the poet's imagi- 430 ALFEED. LOBD TENNYSON. d pure tliat nothing can be foul in its neighborhood. Tennyson hates unchastity so thoroughly and honestly that he tells of it chastely. Is the poem as great a triumph of art as it is of morals? Yea and no. The Idylls axe very readable, from their scenery and from their smoothness. We are glad to be in an enchanted world. As for the chars, ters, rhey ll" - stnsl ss. The blame- :hur n ms quite real; he is rather a bundle of good qualities than a man of flesh and blood. If we turn from him . ecall another chivalrous saint, one who really walked this earth, — if Joinville tells us of his royal mas" . S int L — we feel that we have a true saint and a living man before us ; that Joinville has really loved his hero and comrade. Did Tennyson really love King Arthur, week-days and all? Lance- lot and Tristram, and the rest, are somewhat shadowy. Queen Guinevere, although often referred to, appears bat little, and generally not to advantage. Enid, that patient Grizzel. charm- ing in her -;hip, hardly obtains in her persecution by her brutal husband the sympathy which she labors so hard to deserve. Vivien is a bad woman, and Tennyson could no more describe a bad woman than Era Angelico could have painted one. Only "Elaine the fair, Elaine the lovable, Elaine the lily maid of Astolat," "vius us with her beauty, and melts us with her hap- I ss love. It :s to her sorrows, and to the repentance of Guinevere, and to the death of Arthur, that the poet's best powers are given. In describing these th- is more than smooth and stately ; it is poetry of a high order. It was not until his seventh decade was well advanced that Tennyson took to writing dramas. The attempt was unfortu- nate. There was nothing dramatic in his genius or in his train- ing. II ras not - r on g in imagination of plot, in conception of character, or in invention of situations. Moreover, a bad tradi- tion of the fcish stage calls for funny scenes in a tragedy, and Tennyson was never so doleful as when he wanted to be funny. The best to be expected in his tragedies was fine lines, and fine lines do occur in them from time to time, although less often than in any other of his poems. TVhat is to be the permanent place of Tennyson in English .' The poet sings first to his own age, he lives with its life, he burns with it- ions, he inl t to itself, and it repays him with enthusiastic affection. Such is the feeling of ALFRED, LORD TENNYSON. 431 men now in middle life for Alfred Tennyson. Later generations have different problems to solve, or have to answer the old rid- dles propounded in new forms. Knowledge, wisdom, and poetry have to he expressed again from time to time to suit new demands. Therefore all poets (unless preserved by some fortu- nate accident, like Milton, the mouthpiece of a great religious party, or Burns, the especial poet of a small and distinct nation) have to go through a time of retirement. We all know that Shakespeare himself was once thought to be a simple-minded and obsolete person. The greatest of his successors could speak patronizingly of his "native wood-notes wild." As the clothes of our fathers seem to us merely ridiculous, while those of the last century appear picturesque, so the poets that delighted our grandfathers are too often foolish and contemptible in our ears, while those of the age of Elizabeth or of Charles charm us by their quaintness. "We reject the affectations of Moore to delight in those of Herbert. From the period of oblivion thus created, the minor poets hardly emerge at all. A page or two in a vol- ume of collected verses, a couple of songs in an anthology, — such are the claims to immortality of Sidney and Wither, of Lovelace and Suckling. The great poets come out with their literary baggage much reduced. From such a time of oblivion Dry den and Pope are just emerging. In its depths are Scott and Byron. To Wordsworth has fallen the singular fortune that his voice has been most clearly recognized by a generation sub- sequent, but not long subsequent, to his own. It may be that he will prove an exception, and that he will live and drop his Idiot Boys, and silly old men, and most of his Prelude and Excursion, keeping his noble sonnets and the best of his lyrics without a dormant time. But Tennyson seems likely to share the common fate, and its coming will probably not be long delayed; for he is a poet of the early part and the middle of this century, whose life was prolonged to extreme old age, but who learned nothing very new after fifty, any more than the rest of us do. What is likely to be his place when, in a future age, the lover of poetry collects on his shelves the besl volumes of English verse? What will the "Abridged Works of Lord Tennyson " contain? A perfect answer to such a question can- not be given, but I think we may approach it. The volume will not be a small one. There will be in it, many ballads ami short pieces, some of them treating of classical subjects, like 432 ALFRED, LORD TENNYSON. "Tithonus" and the "Lotos-Eaters," more with their scene laid on English ground. There will be a few exquisite lyrics. There will be several selections from "In Memoriam," and a passage or two from " Maud. " There will be the " Idylls of the King," a good deal abridged. Of how many great poets of old days is a larger proportion familiar to cultivated people? What, then, is the place of Tennyson? Not with the very few giants whose names we breathe with loving awe, — iEschylus, Dante, Shakespeare ; but with the great English poets who have made our literature the only one to be mentioned beside the Greek, — with Chaucer and Spenser, with Dryden and Pope, with Byron and Scott and Burns and Wordsworth and Shelley. In such glorious company we may believe that Tennyson has his place. 1893. Edward J. Lowell. The Academy has received an accession of twenty-three Resident Fellows, eleven Associate Fellows, and seven Foreign Honorary Members. The Roll of the Academy, corrected to date, includes the names of 191 Fellows, 95 Associate Fellows, and 73 Foreign Honorary Members. May 10, 1893. LIST OF THE FELLOWS AND FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS. (Corrected to October, 1893.) RESIDENT FELLOWS. — 190. (Number limited to two hundred.) Class I. — Mathematical and Physical Sciences. — 69. Section I. —7. Section III. — 40. Mathematics. Benj. A. Gould, Gustavus Hay, Benjamin O. Peirce, John D. Runkle, T. H. Safford, William E. Story, Henry Taber, Cambridge. Boston. Cambridge. Brookline. Williamstown. Worcester. Worcester. Section H — 10. Practical Astronomy and Geodesy. Solon I. Bailey, Cambridge. Seth C Chandler, Cambridge. Alvan G. Clark, Cambridgeport. J. Rayner Edmands, Cambridge. Henry Mitchell, Boston. Edward C. Pickering, Cambridge. John Ritchie, Jr., Boston. Edwin F. Sawyer, Brighton. Arthur Searle, Cambridge. O. C. Wendell, Cambridge. VOL. XXVIII. (N. S. XX.) Physics and Chemistry. A. Graham Bell, Clarence J. Blake, Francis Blake, John II. Blake, Samuel Cabot, Arthur M. Comey, Josiah P. Cooke, Charles R. Cross, Amos E. Dolbear, Thus. M. Drown, Charles W. Eliot, Thomas Gaffield, Wolcott Gibbs, Edwin II. Hall, Henry B. Hill, Silas W. Ilolman, William L. Hooper, Henry M. Howe, ( lharles L. Jackson, William W. Jacques, Alonzo S. Kimball, Washington. Boston. Weston. Boston. Brookline. Somerville Cambridge. Boston. Somerville. Boston. Cambridge. Boston. Newport, R. I. Cambridge. Cambridge. Boston. Somerville. Boston. Cambridge. Newton. Worcester. 28 434 RESIDENT FELLOWS. Leonard P. Kinnicutt. Worcester. William R. Livermore, Boston. Charles F. Mabery, Cleveland. A. A. Michelson, Worcester. George D. Moore, Worcester. Charles E. Munroe, Washington. John U. Xef, Chicago, 111. Robert H. Richards, Boston. Theodore W. Richards, Cambridge. Edward S. Ritchie, Xewton. A. Lawrence Rotch, Boston. Charles R. Sanger, Cambridge. Stephen P. Sharpies, Cambridge. Francis H. Storer, Boston. Elihu Thomson, Lynn. John Trowbridge, Cambridge. Harold Whiting, Cambridge. Charles H. Wing, Edward S. Wood, Ledger, X. C. Cambridge. Section IV. — 12. Technology and Engineering. Eliot C. Clarke, Gaetano Lanza, E. D. Leavitt, Hiram F. ISXills, Cecil H. Peabody, Alfred P. Rockwell, Andrew H. Russell, Peter Schwamb, Charles S. Storrow, George F. Swain, William Watson, Morrill Wyman, Boston. Boston. Cambridgeport. Lawrence. Boston. Boston. Boston. Arlington. Boston. Boston. Boston. Cambridge. Class II. — Natural and Physiological Sciences. — 57. Section I. — 11. Geology, Mineralogy, and Physics of the Globe. Thomas T. Bouve, H. Helm Clayton. Algernon Coolidge, William O. Crosby, William M. Davis. O. W. Huntington, Jules Marcou. William II. Xiles, John E. Pillsbury, Nathaniel S. Shaler, Warren Upham, Section n. Botany. William G. Farlow, ('hai-les E. Faxon, George L. Goodale, H. II. Hunnewell, Benj. L. Robinson. Charles S. Sargent. Arthur B. Seymour. Boston. Milton. Boston. Boston. Cambridge. Cambridge. Cambridge. Cambridge. Boston. Cambridge. Somerville. — 9. Cambridge. Boston. Cambridge. Wrllesley. Cambridge. Brookline. Cambridge. Charles J. Sprague, Roland Thaxter, Boston. Cambridge. Section III. — 19. Zoology and Physiology. Alex. E. R. Agassiz, Cambridge. Robert Amory, Boston. James M. Barnard, Milton. Henry P. Bowditch, Boston. Wm. Brewster, Cambridge. Louis Cabot, Brookline. Harold C. Ernst, Boston. J. Walter Fewkes, Boston. Edw. G. Gardiner, Boston. Samuel Henshaw, Cambridge. Alpheus Hyatt, Cambridge. Theodore Lyman, Brookline. Edward L. Mark, Cambridge. Charles S. Minot, Boston. Edward S. Morse, Salem. James J. Putnam, Boston. Samuel H. Scudder, Cambridge. William T. Scdcrwick. Boston. James I '. White, Boston. RESIDENT FELLOWS. 435 Section IV. — 18. Medicine and Surgery. Samuel L. Abbot, Boston. Edward II. Bradford, Boston. Arthur T. Cabot, Boston. David W. ( heever, Boston. Benjamin E. (Dotting, Roxbury. Frank W. Draper, Boston. Thomas D wight, Boston. Reginald II. Fitz, Charles F. Folaom, Richard 61. Hodgi s, ( Hiver W. Holmes, Frederick I. Knight, Francis Minot, Samuel J. Mixter, Wm. L. Richardson, Henry P. Walcott, John ('. Warren, 1 [enry W. Williams, Boston. Boston. Boston. Boston. 1 '.colon. Boston. Boston. Boston. Cambridge. 1'ioston. Boston. Class III. — Moral and Political Sciences. — G4. Section I. — 10. Philosophy and Jut James B. Ames, Charles C. Everett, Horace Gray, John C. Gray, Nathaniel Holmes, John E. Hudson, John Lowell, Henry W. Paine, Josiah Royce, James B. Thayer, imprudence. Cambridge. Cambridge. Boston. Boston. Cambridge. Boston. Newton. Cambridge. Cambridge. Cambridge. Section II. — 20. Philology and Archaeology. William S. Appleton, Boston. Charles P. Bowditch, Boston. Cambridge. Williamstown. Boston. Boston. Cambridge. Quincy. Lucien Carr, Franklin Carter, Joseph T. Clarke, Henry G. Denny, Epes S. Dixwell, "William Everett, William W. Goodwin, Cambridge Henry W. Haynes, Boston. Bennett II. Nash, Boston. Frederick W. Putnam, Cambridge Edward Robinson, Boston. F. B. Stephenson, Boston. .Joseph II. Thayer, Crawford II. Toy, John W. White, Justin Winsor, John II. Wright, Edward J. Young, ( '.mibridge. Cambridge. ( lambridge. ( lambridge. Cambridge. Waltham. Section III. — -21. Political Economy and History. Charles F. Adams. Etl ward Atkinson, Edmund II. Bennett, Mellen Chamberlain. John Cummings, Andrew M. Davis, Charles F. Dunbar, Samuel Eliot, A. I . < i lell, Jr., Henry C Lodge, Augustus Lowell, Edward J. Lowell, Silas M. Macvane, Francis Parkman, John C. Ropes, Denman W. l: ( harles C. Smith, F. w. Taussig, Henry W. Torrey, Francis A. Walker, Roberl C. Winthrop, Quincy. Boston. Boston. Chelsea. Woburn. Cambridge. ( \i mbridge. Boston. Salem. Nahant. on. Boston. Cambridge. B ton. Boston. Cambrid Bo ton. Cambridge. ( lambridge. Boston. Boston. 436 RESIDENT FELLOWS. Section IV. — 13. Literature and the Fine Arts. Francis Bartlett, John Bartlett, George S. Boutwell, Martin Brimmer, J. Elliot Cabot, Boston. Cambridge. Groton. Boston. Brookline. Francis J. Child, Thos. W. Higginson, S. R. Koehler, Charles G. Loring, Percival Lowell, Charles Eliot Norton, Horace E. Scudder, Barrett Wendell, Cambridge. Cambridge Boston. Boston. Brookline. Cambridge. Cambridge. Boston. ASSOCIATE FELLOWS. 4;JT ASSOCIA T E FELLO W S. — 95. (Number limited to one hundred. Elected as vacancies occur.) Class I. — Mathematical and Physical Sciences. — 36. Section I.— 0. Matin unities. Fabian Franklin, Baltimore. Emory McClintock, New York. Simon Newcomb, Wasbington. H.A.Newton, New Haven. James E. Oliver, Ithaca. X.Y. J. N. Stockwell, Cleveland, Ohio. Section II. — 13. Practical Astronomy and Geodesy. Edward E. Barnard, San Jose, Cal. S. W. Burnham, Chicago. Geo. Davidson, San Francisco. Wm. H. Emory, Washington. Asaph Hall, Washington. George W. Hill, Washington. E. S. Holden, San Jose, Cal. James E. Keeler, Allegany, Pa. Sam. P. Langley, Washington. T. C. Mendenhall, Washington. William A. Rogers, Waterville, Me. George M. Searle, Washington. Chas. A. Young, Princeton, N.J. Si, riOJS 1 1 T. — 1 1. Physics ami < % mistry. Carl Barus, Washington. J. Willard < ribbs, New Haven. Prank A. ( rooch, New Haven. S.W.Johnson, New Haven. M. C. Lea, Philadelphia. J. W. .Mallet, Charlottesville. Ya. A. M. .Mayer, Hoboken, N. J. Edward W. Alorley, Cleveland, O. Ira Remsen, Baltimore. < >gden X. Rood, New Fork. II. A. Rowland, Baltimore. Section IV. — 6. Technology ami Engineering. Henry L. Abbot, New York. Cyrus B. Comstock, Washington. F. It. Huttoh, New fork. Geo. S. Morison, New York. John Newton, New York. William Sellers, Philadelphia. Class II. — Natural and Physiological Sciences. — 30. Section I. — 14. Geology, Mineralogy, and Physics of the Globe. Cleveland Abbe, George J. Brush, James D. Dana, Sir J W. Dawson, G. K. Gilbert, Washington. New Haven. N'ev, Haven. Montreal. Washington. James Hall, Albany, X. Y. V. s. Holmi Charleston, 8.C. ( llarence bine;, x(.w York. Joseph l.e ('mite, Berkeley, « 'aL .1. Peter Lesley, Philadelphia. J. W Powell, Washington. R. Pampelly, Newporl . R. I Alfred R. C. Selwyn, Ottawa Geo. C Swallow, Columbia, M"- 438 ASSOCIATE FELLOWS. Sectiox II. — 3. Botany. A. W. Chapman, Apalachicola, Fla. D. C. Eaton, New Haven. \\'m. Trelease, St. Louis. Section III. — 8. Zoology and Physiology. Joel A. Allen, New York. Win K. Brooks, Baltimore. George B. Goode, Washington. O. C. Marsh, New Haven. H. N. Martin, S. Weir Mitchell, A. S. Packard, A. E. Verrill, Baltimore. Philadelphia. Providence. New Haven Section IV. — 5. Medicine and Surgery. John S. Billings, Washington. Jacob M. Da Costa, Philadelphia. W. A. Hammond, New York. Alfred Stille, Philadelphia. II. C. Wood, Philadelphia. Class III. — Moral and Political Sciences. — 29. Section I. — ! Philosophy and T. M. Cooley, D. R. Goodwin, A. G. Haygood, James McCosh, Charles S. Peirce, Thos. R. Pynchon E. G. Robinson, Jeremiah Smith, Jurisprudence. Ann Arbor, Mich. Philadelphia. Oxford, Ga. Princeton, N.J. New York. , Hartford, Conn Providence. Dover, N. H. Section II. — 7. Philology and Archaeology. A. N. Arnold, Pawtuxet, R.I Timothy Dwight, New Haven. 1). C. Gilnian, A. C. Kendrick, E. E. Salisbury, A. D. White, W. D. Whitney, Baltimore. Rochester, N.Y. New Haven. Ithaca, N.Y. New Haven. Section III. — 8. Political Economy and History. Henry Adams, Geo. P. Fisher, M. F. Force. Henry C. Lea, Edward J. Phelps, W. G. Sumner, J. H. Trumbull, David A. Wells, Washington. New Haven. Cincinnati. Philadelphia. Burlington, Vt. New Haven. Hartford, Conn. Norwich, Conn. Section IV. — 6. Literature and the Fine Arts. James B. Angell, Ann Arbor, Mich L. P. di Cesnola, New York. F. E. Church, New York. R. S. Greenough, Florence. William W. Story, Rome. Wm. R. Ware, New York. FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS. 139 FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS. — 7 (Number limited to seventy-five. Elected as vacancies occur.) Class I. — Mat he mat leal and Physical Sciences. — 26. Section I. — 5. Mill In unities. Francesco Brioschi, Milan. Arthur Cayley, Cambridge. Hugo Gylden, Stockholm. Charles Hermite, Paris. J J. Sylvester, Oxford. Section' II. — 6*. Practical Astronomy and Geodesy. Arthur Auwers, J. II. W. Dollen, H. A. E. A. Faye, William Huggins, Otto Struve, H. C. Vogel, Berlin. Pulkowa. Paris. London. Pulkowa. Potsdam. Section III. — 12. Physics and Chemistry. Adolf Baeyer, Munich. Marcellin Berthelot, Paris. R. Bunsen, II. L. F. Helmholtz, A. K elude, Mendeleeff, Victor Meyer, Marignac, Lord Rayleigh, Sir II. E. Koscoe, Sir G. G. Stokes, Julius Thomseu, Heidelberg. Berlin. Bonn. st. Petersburg. Heidelberg. Geneva. Witham. London. Cambridge. Copenhagen Section IV. — ■'!. Technology and Engineering. Lord Kelvin. F. M. de Lesseps, Maurice Levy, Glasgow. Talis. Talis. Class II. — Natural mid Physiological Sciences. — 20. Section I. — 0. Geology, Mineralogy, and Physics of the Globe. II. Ernst Beyrich, Berlin. Alfred Des Cloizeaux, Paris. A. E. Nordenskibld, Stockholm. C. F. Uauimelsberg, Berlin. Henry C Sorby, Sheffield. Ileinrich Wild, St. Petersburg. Section II.— G. Botany. J. (;. Agardh, Lund. Sir Joseph I >. 1 looker, London. Baron von Mueller, Melbourne. Julius Sachs, Wtirzburg. Marquis de Saporta, Ai\. Eduard Strasbui ger, Bonn. 440 FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS. Section III. — 10. Zoology and Physiology. P. J. Van Beneden, Louvain. Du Bois-Reymond, Berlin. L. Hermann, Konigsberg. Thomas H. Huxley, London. Albrecht Kolliker, Wiirzburg. Laeaze-Duthiers, Paris. Rudolph Leuckart, Leipsic. C. F. W. Ludwig, Leipsic. Louis Pasteur, Paris. J. J. S. Steenstrup, Copenhagen Section IV. — 4. Medicine and Surgery. C. E. Brown- Sequard, Paris. Sir Joseph Lister, London. Sir James Paget, London. Rudolph Virchow, Berlin. Class III. — Moral and Political Sciences. — 20. Section I. — 3. Philosophy and Jurisprudence. James Martineau, London. Henry Sidgwick, Cambridge. Sir James F. Stephen, London. Section II. — 6. Philology and Archaeology. Sir John Evans, Hemel Hempstead. Pascual de Gayangos, Madrid. J. W. A. Kirchhoff, Berlin. G. C. C. Maspero, Paris. Max Miiller, Oxford. Sir H. C. Rawlinson, London. Section III. — 8. Political Economy and History. Due de Broglie, Paris. James Bryce, London. Ernst Curtius,' Berlin. W. Ewart Gladstone, Hawarden. Charles Merivale, Ely. Theodor Mommsen, Berlin. Jules Simon, Paris. Wm. Stubbs, Oxford. Section IV. — 3. Literature and the Fine Arts. Jean Leon Gerome, Paris. John Ruskin, Coniston. Leslie Stephen, London. END E X. Abutilon attenuatum. 104. Acanthomyces, Thaxter, 170. brevipes. 177. f meatus. ': 7 1 hypogse - Lathrobii, longissiraus. 176. Acetobromide, cupriammonium. 2 1 K. Acetochloride, ammon-enpri ammo- nium. - complex cupriammonium. - ~ I cupric amnion ! Acid Molybdates, relations of the Samarskite oxides to, 278. Actias luna. the life history of. recapitulation of the more sa- lient ontogenetic features of, 92. ^Ecidium berberid ' 36. Agrostemma, 12 Githago, 152. Agrostis verticillata. 122 AJsineae, 126. Ammon-cupriaramonium acetochlo- ri'i Amorphomyces, 158. Falagi i floridanus. 159. Anhydride-, brombenzoic. — orfchochlorbenzoic, _ metachl u benz i ■. - parachlorbenzoic 224. of the monobrombenzoic acids, .1 orthobrombenzoic, 225. metabrombenzoic, 225. parabrombenzoic, - Arr* .los rupestris, 112. Ardistophylus torn- Arenaria serpens, 117. Arracacia nudicaulis, i Arundinella Deppeana. 121. Astragalus (MoHissimi) Orizabae, 117. Tolucanus, 104, 115. Attacinae Attacus at! - 6p., larva of; 79. B. Baric Bromide, the analysis of, 1. the proper! 11. preparation of materia! Barium, the atomic the spe u of calcium and strontium in the presence of. 7. Benzol, action of phosphorpentoxide upon orthonitrobenzoic anhy- dride, in an excess of. 22 nation of sub- stituted. 22 ideal li' ' q Montgomery Batchelder, 5. Henry Ingersoll Bowditch, 310. Sir Willi . B ■■ Phillips Brooks, 331. William Fern Bicheij' I Wilhe!!: II fmann, HI. Norton Horsfor .1 : - William Ravi 16. i.. •. - m ;-. - i 1 1 A- :■■ .'. P Alfred. Lord Ten: 442 INDEX. William Petit Trowbridge, 398. George Vasey, 401. John Greenleaf Whittier, 357. Bombyx mori, 57. Brickellia squarrosa, 108. Brohmea ledereri, 57. Brotnbenzoic anhydrides, formation of, 222. Brombenzophenones, 230. Bromide, tetrammou-tricupri ammo- nium, 257. Bromus Hookeri, 123. C. Cacalia peltigera, 111. platylepis, 110. Caeoina nitens, the development of the spermogonium of, 31. Calamagrostis Schiedeana, 122. Calcium, spectroscopic detection of, in the presence of barium, 7. Calea multiradiata, 120. Callosamia angulifera, the life his- tory of, 70. promethea. the life history of, 65. recapitulation of the more sa- lient ontogenetic features of, 73. comparison between the larva of Samia and, 78. Cantharomyces, Thaxter, 161. occidentalis, 161. Caryophyllaceae, 124. Castilleia pallida. 114. Cerastium orithales, 117. volcanicum, 117. Ceratomyces, Thaxter, 185. contortus, 186. filiformis, 187. furcatus, 186. minisculus, 187. rostratus, 188. Cerite, oxides contained in, 260. Cerite earths, relations of mercu- rous nitrate and mercuric oxide to, 277. Chrctomyces, 178. Pinophili, 179. Chlorbenzophenones, 230. Chlorbenzoic anhydrides, formation of, 222. Cnicus Tolucanus, 111. Cold Rolled Steel, "Hall Effect" on, 192. Communications, — Albert L. Clough and Edwin H. Hall, 189. Charles R. Cross and Arthur N. Mansfield, 93. Charles R. Cross and Henry M. Phillips, 234. Wolcott Gibbs, M. I)., 260. Edwin H. Hall, 37, 51. C. Loring Jackson and W. H. Warren, 280. George D. Moore and Daniel F. O'Regan, 222, 226. A. S. Packard, M. U., 55. Herbert Maule Richards, 31. Theodore William Richards, 1. Theodore William Richards and Elliot Folger Rogers, 200. Theodore William Richards and Hubert Grover Shaw, 247. B. L. Robinson, 124. B. L. Robinson and H. E. Sea- ton, 103. Henry E. Seaton, 116. Henry Taber, 212. Roland Thaxter, 156. Complex cupriammonium acetochlo- ride, 251. analyses of, 252. Copper, " Hall Effect" on, 191. Corethromyces, Thaxter, 180. Cryptobii, 181. jacobinus, 181. setigerus, 181. Cotyledon subrigida, 105. Cuphea (Diploptychia) avigera, 105. (Leptocalyx) Reipublicae, 106. Cupriammonium Double Salts, 247. acetobromide, 248. formibromide, 254. Cupric ammonic acetochloride,256. analyses of, 256. Cyclanthera Pringlei, 106. D. Desmodiura (Heteroloma) subses- sile, 118. Dianthus, 127. alpinus, 127. Armeria, 128. barbatus, 127. deltoides,127. prolifer, 128. Dichomyces, 183. furciferus, 184. INDEX. 443 Dicliptera resupinata, 114. Dimorphomyces, 157. denticulatus, 157. Dioscorea minima, 115. Drymaria, 153. effusa, 151. Fendleri, 153. filiformis, 117. holosteoides, 153. sperguloides, 153. tenella, 154. E. Encelia stricta, 120. Eragrostis lugens. 1*23. Eryngium (Parallelinervia) Seatoni, 118. Eupatorium Saltivarii, 108. Euphorbia ramosa. 121. Expansion curve, 38. Fellows, Associate, deceased, — William Ferrel, 388. Frederick Augustus Gentb, 393. John Strong Newberry. 394. William Petit Trowbridge, 398. George Vasey, 401. Fellows, Associate, elected. — Edward Emerson Barnard, 289. William Keith Brooks, 290. Cyrus Ballon Comstock, 289. Fabian Franklin, 289. James Edward Keeler, 289. Emory McClintock, 289- Edward Williams Morley, 289. Thomas Buggies Pynchon, 290. Alfred Kichard Cecil Selwyn, 289. William Trelease, 290. George Vasev, 290. David Ames "Wells, 290. Fellows, Associate, list of, 437. Fellows, Besident, deceased, — John Montgomery Batchelder, 305. Henry Ingersoll Bowditch, 310. Phillips Brooks, 331. _ James Bicheno Francis, 333. Eben Norton Horsford, 340. William Raymond Lee, 346 Lewis Mills Norton, 348. Andrew Preston Peabody, 351. George Cheyne Shattuck, 350. John Greenleaf Wbittier, 357. Fellows, Besident, elected, — Si ilon Irving Bailey, 288. Francis Bartletl . 289. John Bartlett, 289. Edmund Hatch Bennett, 288. Charles Pickering Bowditch, 288. Mellen Chamberlain, 289. Andrew McFarland Davis, 289. Ephraim Emerton, 289. Charles Edward Faxon, 2S8. Thomas Wentworth Higginson, 289. John Elbridge Hudson, 288. Percival Lowell, 289. Silas Marcus Macvane, 289 George Dunning .Moore, 288. Benjamin Lincoln liobinson, 288. Edward Robinson, 288. Arthur Bliss Seymour, 288. Charles Card Smith, 289. Roland Thaxter, 288. Fellows, Besident. list of, 433. Fergusonite, oxides contained in, 260. Festuca rubra, 123. Tolucensis, 123. Flora, Phaenogamic, of Mexico, 103. Foreign Honorary Members, de- ceased, — Sir William Bowman. 103. Alphonse de Candolle, 106. August Wilhelm von Bofmann, 111. Sir Richard Owen, 118. Alfred, Lord Tennyson, 420. Foreign Ilouorai \ Members, elected, — Jolian AugUSl Hugo G\ldi:u, 290. William HugginB, 290. Victor Meyer, 290. Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, 290. Henry Clifton Sorby, : Eduard Strasburger, 290. 1 lermann Carl Vogel, 290. Foreign Honorary Members, list of 439. Formibromide,cupriammonium,254. if, 25 1. Fuchsia Pringlei L08 444 INDEX. G. Gadolinite, oxides contained in, 260. Gases, occlusion of, by the oxides of metals, 200. zincic oxide, 202. nickelous oxide, 207. magnesic oxide, 208. theoretical considerations, 210. Gentiana Wrightii, 113. Gnaphalium Popocatepecianum, 119. Gypsophila, 128. muralis, 129. paniculata, 129. H. Halenia Pringlei, 113. "Hall Effect," variations in several metals with changes of tem- perature, 189. copper, 191. phosphor-bronze, 192. cold rolled steel, 192. nickel, 193. summary, 197. Ilaplomyces, 159. californicus, 159. texanus, 160. virginianus, 160. Heimatomyces borealis, 185. Bidessarius, 185. Idiomyces, 162. Peyritschii, 162. Iostephane heterophylla, 119. K. Krynitzkia linifolia, 113. Laboulbcnia anceps. 176. australiensis, 171. Catoscopi, 164. Clivinse, 169. compressa, 165. Coptoderse, 168. cristata, 174. europrea, 107. filifera, 165. Guerinii, 176. Labbulbenia longicollis, 172. mexicana, 171. minima, 175. morionis, 169. Pachytelis, 173. Panagsei, 170. Pheropsophi, 170. Philonthi, 174. polyphaga, 165. proliferans, 168. Pterostichi, 166. Quedii, 167. subterranea, 163. texana, 172. umbonata, 103. Zanzibarina, 175. Laboulbeniaceae, new species from various localities, 156. Lactic acid, relations of the Sarnar- skite oxides to, 277. Light and heat, investigations on, 37. Lobelia picta, 112. Loeflingia, 154. pusilla, 155. squarrosa, 155. texana, 155. Lychnis, 147. affhiis, 150. alba, 151. alpina, 152. apetala, 150. coronaria, 152. diurna, 151. Drummondii, 117. elata, 148. Flos-cuculi. 151. Kingii, 149. montana, 149. . nuda, 148. Parryi, 148. Taylorse, 150. triflora, 149. M. Magnesic oxide, occlusion of gases by, 208. Mercuric oxide, relations to cerite earths, 277. Mercurous nitrate, relations to ce- rite earths, 277. Monobrombenzoic acids, anhvdrides of, 224. Metabrombenzoic anhydride, 225. INDEX. 445 Metabrombenzophencme, 230. Metachlorbenzoie anhydride, 223. Metachlorbenzopkenone, 23 1 . Metanitrobenzoic anhydride, action of phosphorpentoxide upon, in an excess of benzol, 228. Moths, studies on the transforma- tions of, 55. Muhlenbergia Seatoni, 122. N. Nickel, "Hall Effect" on, 193. Xickelous oxide, occlusion of gases by, 207. Nitric acid, oxidation of turmerol with, 283. O. Officers elected, 291. Ontogenetic features in Saturniidse, recapitulation of the more salient, — Actias, 92. Callosamia, 73. Platysamia, 64. Samia, 78. Telea, 86. Orthobrombenzoic anhydride, 225. Orthochlorbenzoic anhydride, 222. Orthochlorbenzophenone, 231. Orthogonal Matrices, real proper, 212. real improper, 216. imaginary, 218. symmetric, 221. Orthogonal substitution, real, 212. Orthonitrobenzoic Anhydride, ac- tion of phosphorpentoxide upon, in an excess of benzol, 226. Oryzopsis pubiflora, 122. Oxides, contained in Cerite, Sarnar- skite, Gadolinite, and Fergu- sonite, 260. relations to lactic acid, 277. Oxychlorides of cerium metals, 265. Parabrombenzoic anhydride, 225. Parabrombenzophenone, 230. Parachlorbenzoic anhydride, 224. Parachlorbenzophenone, 232. Paranitrobenzoic Anhydride, action of phosphorpentoxide upon, in an excess of benzol, 229. Paronia melanommata, 104. Pedicularis eburnata, 114. Perezia hebeclada, 112. vernonioides, 112. Peyritschiella nigrescens, 1S4. Plifenogamic Flora of Mexico, 103. Phaseolus (Drepanospron) Espe- ranzse, 118. Phospho-molybdates, relations of the Samarskite oxides to, 278. Phosphor-Bronze, " Hall Effect " on, 192. Phosphorpentoxide, action of, upon orthonitrobenzoic anhydride in an excess of benzol, 226. upon metanitrobenzoic anhy- dride, in an excess of benzol, 22S. upon paranitrobenzoic anhy- dride in an excess of benzol. 229. Phospho-tungstates, relations of the Samarskite oxides to, 278. Piqueria laxifiora, 107. Pringlei, 107, 115. Plants, new and little known, col- lected on Mt. Orizaba, 116. Platysamia cecropia, the life history of, 58. Gloverii, freshly hatched larva of, 65. young larva from Arizona, 65. recapitulation of the more sa- lient ontogenetic features of, 64. Polycarpene, North American, 124, 126, 153. Drymaria, 126. 153. Po'lvcarpon, 126, 154. Lo>hingia, 126, 154. Stipulicida, 126, 155. Polycarpon, 154. tetraphyllum, 154. depressum, 151. Polygala Michoacana, 103. Proceedings of meetings, 287. R. Ranunculus geoides, 116. Khadinomyces, 179. 440 INDEX. Rhadinomyces cristatus, 180. pallidus, 180. Russelia subcoriacea, 113. S. Sabazia subnuda, 108. Salts, Cupriammonium Double, 217 Salvia clinopodioides, 114. Samarskite, oxides contained in, 260. Samarskite oxides, relations to Acid Molybdates, and to Phospho- tungstates and Phospho-mo- lybdates, 278. Samia cynthia, the life history of, 74. recapitulation of the more sa- lient ontogenetic features of, 78. comparison between the larva of Callosamia and, 78. Saponaria, 129. vaccaria, 129. officinalis, 129. Saturnia, 55. carpini, 55, 56. galbina, 55. mendocino, 55, 56. pyri, 56. Saturniidaa, studies on the trans- formations of moths of the family, 55. Saturniinse, 58. Schkuhria glomerata, 109. Sedum Pringlei, 105. Senecio alien us, 110. Jaliscana, 110. Orizabensis, 121. procumbens, 115. Silene, 130. acaulis, 132. antirrhina, 132. Armeria, 132. Baldwinii, 134. Bernardina, 142. Bridgesii, 139. Calil'ornica, 136. campanulata, 137. Cucubalus, 133. dichotoma, 131. Douglasii, 144, 115. ' Gall'ica, 130. Grayii, 143. Ilaliii, 145. Hookeri, 137. Silene laciniata, 135. Lemmoni, 138. longistylis, 138. Luisana, 141. Lyallii, 144. Menziesii, 137. Montana, 140. multinervia, 131. nivea, 133. nocti flora, 131. nocturna, 131. occidentalis, 140. Oregona, 140. ovata, 133. Palmed, 138. Parishii, 137. pectinata, 139. Pennsylvanica, 134. platyota, 141. Pringlei, 146. purpurata, 141. regia, 135. rotundifolia; 135. Sargentii, 142. scaposa, 145. Scouleri, 146. Spaldingii, 146. stellata, 133. Suksdorfii, 143. Thurberi, 139. verecunda, 141. Virginica, 134. AYatsoni, 143. Wrightii, 136. Sileneae, North American, 124. 127. Agrostemma, 125, 152. Dianthus, 125, 127. Gypsophila, 125, 128. Lychnis, 125, 147. Saponaria, 125, 129. Silene, 125, 130. Tunica, 125, 128. Silver, pure, preparation of, 22. Spiranthes aurantiaca, 115. Steam, weight of, 38. Steam-Engines, a thermo-electric method of studying cylinder condensation in, 37. Steam temperature, an approximate trigonometric expression for the fluctuations of, in an en- gine cylinder, 51. Stevia laxa, 107. Stipulicida, 155. setacea, 155 INDEX. 117 Strontium, the spectroscopic detec- tion of, in the presence of barium, 7. Stylosauthes dissitiflora, 103. Tagetes linifolia, 1:20. Telea polyphemus, the life history of, 80. recapitulation of the more sa- lient ontogenetic features of, 80. Telephone Receiver, investigation of the excursion of the dia- phragm of a, 93, 234. Teratomyces, 182. mirificus. 182. Tetraninion-Trieupriammonium Bromide, 257. analyses of, 25S. Thalictrum tomentellum, 103. Thelypodium longifolium, 117. Thermo-electric method of stud)-- ing cylinder condensation in steam-engines, 37. Tridax Palmeri, 109 Triodia avenacea, 123. Trisetum elongatum, 123. Tunica, 128. saxifraga, 128. Turmerol, 280. purification and analysis of, 281. properties of, 283. oxidation with nitric acid, 283 V. Verbesina oncophora, 100. Viguiera pedunculata, 111). w. Water, weight of steam and, 38. Z. Zincic Oxide, occlusion of gases by, 202. 2» ^i 'rsOSA 7h >%J _^ % l'y# 3? ^ ^* ^Z r "3 SS> - -^ a>» 7^« ^ ~>^- — v> ^>^*~- «g ■■_••: ^ '- \ :> - sSrr L2 } -2T ■: -^r • w* -*- > ^ =5 o>>^ - -- --" ..-- 'Z'rjr V~>. ' W0>*£ w^^^rn^^ v: *£ '^ ^ ^7 vO> * ■' r ^ --^2, ■■' "O -3^ -; ^ v^< rr* *¥WU ^ ^ -. •• S fe - New York Botanical Garden Librar * ^ 5 jfts^ 3 5185 00257 9140 X ^ ^> >-& ■ jp ■ • ^ > ^> ?. > / o - > >> 3h • sar .>-> 1 >;%' v^? a^ • a» gs 5/ - ^2> -* -4 -' c ? ft ~Z» ^ ^ ' ' < ^ ^ a** 5^ -a : ' ^ 5J; i . j ~~9 li r ■ / t'M) \\ km ■sA ■mi mi