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eee:
PHILADELPHIA ~
THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
oh
PRESS OF
THE NEW ERA PRINTING COMPANY
LANCASTER, PA.
CONTENTS:
Place and Personal Names of the Gosiute Indians of Utah. By
eae! VV CH AMBERIOUN 5. 5. accidlemignae clade odie Sie aise e-~ sieie's
ation: in, North Carolina. By Bagm KR. Meyy:...........
The Formation of Coal Beds. IV. By Joun J. STEVENSON..
The Fluting and Pitting of Granites in the Tropics. By J. C.
LS UEACINGNIST A eS J aOR en) re
On the Prospect of Obtaining Radial Velocities by Means of the
Objective Prism. By FRANK SCHLESINGER, M.A., Ph.D.....
The Historical Value of the Patriarchal Narratives. By GEORGE
JAAS SIBVASRENG AE Poe oe Sg PR OP Pens St a
The Determination of Uranium and Vanadium in the Carnotite
Ores of Colorado and Utah. By Anprew A. BiarrR........
Suetonius and His Biographies. By JoHN C. ROLFE.........
The Control of Typhoid Fever by Vaccination. By MazycK
VE DRUG eas esa PINTER Ds Rae 2 Nd a
The Treaty Obligations of the United States Relating to the
Panama Canal -“By CHARLEMAGNE “VQWER 0.00... 55. 0%
A Counsel of Perfection: A Plan for an Automatic Collection
and Distribution of a State Tax for Higher Education. By
SAG ants SENN AIRENESN oo Sacer. yore et aeueReR ae econ Soe! ieis. waist wi stan Ore
Climatic Areas of the United States as Related to Plant Growth.
EVE URTON DNV ARD ILIVENGSTON sje d/o<< vec 5 vies etnaeles
Some Diffraction Phenomena; Superposed Fringes. By
SP rUABIEE SN, slaR USED we ee er wee terete re leyd'% octyaie nue ioral s elt ees
Matter in its Electrically Explosive State. By Francis E.
JETTED ce ee feng hn cs hehe ene ee
The Alleghenian Divide, and its Influence upon the Freshwater
Pattie, He NOD oh. MORDNAININ 6 5.6! 6 N. Saint-Julien, cited by J. J. Stevenson, “The Coal Basin of Decaze-
ville, France,” Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XX., 1910, p. 272.
®S_ Nikitin, “De Moskou a Koursk,” Guide des excurs. VII., Cong. Géol.
Int 1807, X1IV., p. 5.
7T. W. E. David, Ann. Rep. Dept. of Mines, New South Wales, 1890,
p. 220.
PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC. LII. 208 C, PRINTED MAY 13, 1913.
34 STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. [April 18,
layers of undecomposed Glossopteris leaves, not brittle but retaining
their original substance; soaked in glycerine and water, they can be
unrolled and laid flat. A large number of the specimens were
mounted and placed on view in the museum of the Department of
Mines at Sydney.
Stone coal marks a still greater advance in chemical change.
With rare exceptions, it is laminated, black or grayish black, more or
less lustrous and with a black streak. In nearly all stone coals,
there are alternations of bright and dull laminz, the Glanz- and the
Mattkohle of von Gumbel, which may be extremely thin or several
inches thick. Usually, there is little macroscopic evidence of plant
structure, aside from the mineral charcoal, mother of coal, fusain,
Faserkohle of authors, which resembles charred tissue. This is the
ordinary coal of the Carboniferous and it is present in many localities
of later Cretaceous age. The difficulty encountered in the effort to
define a limit between brown and stone coal is increasingly great, as
the determination is of commercial importance in the western United
States, especially in areas where both types occur in the Mesozoic.
Stone coals have been divided commercially into bituminous and
semi-bituminous on the basis of volatile content, but this does not
suffice for distinction from the brown coals. The latter have been
termed hydrous coals because they contain much water, apparently
combined, and break up rapidly on exposure to the air. But many
so-called anhydrous coals break up with equal readiness on exposure
to dry air. It is quite certain that typical Carboniferous coals have,
for the most part, a definite prismatic cleavage and that many brown
coals lack that feature, while some have it. Many methods of dis-
tinguishing the types have been suggested, but none is satisfactory ;
the exceptions are too numerous to prove the rule. No hard and
fast line between brown and stone coals exists except in generalized
tables; but, as a rule, the older coals are more advanced in chemical
change than those in later deposits.
‘Anthracite resembles stone coal in structure and often in appear-
ance, but it is more brittle and more brilliant. The volatile content
is small, often approaching a trace. Like the stone coal, it often
contains much mineral charcoal, thus showing relationship to the
1913.] STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. 350
other members of the series, since mineral charcoal is a common
constituent of the brown coals as well as of peat.
The series is continuous. By slow destructive distillation under
pressure all can be converted into anthracite. The coal at Decaze-
ville is much given to spontaneous combustion and the operators
suffer great loss not only by destruction of the coal but also by con-
version of much into a dense brilliant anthracite. The change of
brown coal into anthracite by eruptive rocks is a common phenome-
non in both Europe and America, so common that anthracite is
thought by the great majority of students to be a metamorphic coal.
Beside the ordinary coals, which have so many features in com-
mon, there are some which might be termed aberrant forms, the
cannels, bogheads, kerosene shale; these, which have been termed
sapropelic coals, are minutely laminated, brownish black and have a
brownish streak. Ordinarily, they are rich in volatile constituents,
which give much more brilliant flame than those from bituminous
coal. In mode of occurrence and in some structural features they
resemble the organic muds or sapropelites of Potonié, which are
found in many ponds and in lakelets within peat swamps. They,
like the other coals, are composed of changed plant material, but they
frequently contain animal remains.
All coals have more or less inorganic material, the ash or incom-
bustible portion. At times the quantity is insignificant, less than 1
per cent. but it often exceeds that of the combustible matter, in which
case the rock is known not as coal but as carbonaceous or bitumi-
nous shale.
THE EXTENT oF CoAL DEPOSITS.
The areas of individual coal deposits vary from a few square
yards to many hundreds of square miles. Those of very limited
extent are, usually, outlying patches, occupying spaces eroded in
older rocks and they abound in some of the western states, where the
coal rests unconformably on beds of Mississippian or even greater
age. Hall® described several in Iowa, most of which consist of
® James Hall, Rep. Geol. Surv, Iowa, 1858, Vol. I, pp. 121, 124, 126, 130,
131, 133; A. H. Worthen, ibid., pp. 212, 223, 234.
36 STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. [April 18,
impure cannel. Worthen found many. They are from 150 feet to
2 or 3 miles in diameter, contain well-defined underclays with more
or less coal. In one, the coal dips to the center of the little basin; in
another, the coal thickens toward the center; in others, the coal is
irregular, but in all the coal thins out in approaching the border.
At one locality, marine limestone rests directly on the coal. Bain®
has discussed these localized deposits and has explained the concave
upper surface of the coal as due to consolidation of the vegetable
material.
Similar small basins are numerous in Missouri, directly south
from Iowa, and occasionally they are of commercial importance.
Swallow’ says that some contain cannel, others, ordinary coal; but
the noteworthy feature is that in all the deposit is thick. In one he
saw 20 feet of good coal underlying 6 feet of cannel. Meek ex-
amined several in undisturbed Mississippian beds and others which
occupied hollows in Silurian limestones. Impure cannel is the pre-
vailing material but he saw good coal in one basin. Later observers
have gone more into detail. Potter’? described a basin, only 200
yards in diameter, which yielded 22,000 tons of coal; it had two coal
beds, 2 and 16 feet thick. Another, 115 yards in diameter, yielded
3,730 tons; its coal bed, with maximum thickness of 8 feet, thinned
away on the borders. One, examined by Winslow, occupies a hol-
low in the Magnesian (Lower Ordovician) and holds a coal bed,
almost 7 feet thick midway, and roofed with 7 inches of clay, on
which rests fossiliferous calcareous shale. More remarkable pockets
were described by Ball and Smith and were thought by them to
occupy “sink holes.” In one case, the diameter is somewhat more
than 270 feet, while the depth is more than 130. Shale, 38 feet
*H. F. Bain, Iowa Geol. Surv., Vol. VII., 1807, p. 300.
”G. C. Swallow, First and Second Ann. Reps. Geol. Surv. Missouri, 1855,
Part I, pp. 191-193; F. B. Meek, ibid., Part II., pp. 112-114; Reps. Geol. Surv.
Mo., 1855-1871, 1873, pp. 132, 140.
“ W. B. Potter, “ Preliminary Report on Iron Ore and Coal Fields,’ Geol.
Surv. Mo., 1873, pp. 271-274; A. Winslow, “ Preliminary Report on the Coal
Deposits of Missouri,” 1891, pp. 168-171; S. W. Ball and A. F. Smith, “ Geol-
ogy of Miller County,” Bureau of Mines, Vol. I., 1903, pp. 100, 105, 107,
TOS etetiLe
1913.] STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. 37
thick, is at the bottom and on it rests bituminous coal, 32 feet. The
coal in all the pockets is rather impure. Meek thought that the coal
beds had been let down by solution of the underlying limestone, but
studies by later observers make evident that the accumulations were
deposited in preexisting hollows.
Ashley” described a small area occupying a basin of different
type, eroded in the Merom sandstone of Sullivan county, Indiana.
This is in the upper part of the Coal Measures and is regarded by
him as evidence of a land surface. The coal is thickest in the
middle of this basin and thins away in all directions toward the
border. The lower coal beds in Indiana exhibit a tendency to this
‘
basin shape, the thinning of coal toward borders of the “swamps”
being a common feature. But higher in the column, the areas in-
crease and at length the coal beds are practically continuous for long
distances.
The condition, noted by Ashley in Indiana, prevails in the north-
ern part of the Appalachian basin, where extreme irregularity de-
creases after the close of the Pottsville, and the coal becomes reason-
ably continuous in greater areas, so that mining enterprises are
attended by less risk. But the irregularity was very great in the Potts-
ville. Reference has been made in another connection to Roy’s
description of the mode in which the Sharon coal bed occurs, which
confirmed the statements made by Newberry, Read and others in
the Ohio reports. The same features characterize the Beaver beds
in Pennsylvania, of which Ashburner’ says that in the northern
counties of the state they occur in ‘“‘swamps,” “swallows” or
“sumps,” and that they are saucer-shaped; the coal thins to a knife-
edge on the hillocks of sand but is reached again when those have
been pierced. I. C. White** was able to study the vagaries of the
Sharon coal bed in a mine with 10 miles of workings. The coal
rests on I to 2 feet of fireclay, overlying the Sharon sandstone.
"2G. H. Ashley, “The Coal Deposits of Indiana,” 23d Ann. Rep. Geol.
Surv. Ind., 1899, pp. 22-24, 532, 633, 666, 900.
*%C, A. Ashburner, Sec. Geol. Surv. Penn., Rep. R, p. 53; Rep. RR,
Pp. 95, 97.
“JT. C. White, Sec. Geol. Surv. Penn., Rep. QO, pp. 194, 202; Rep. OQ, p.
wor hep, OOO, p. 123.
38 STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. [April 18,
The floor is uneven, characterized by “hills” and “swamps,” the
coal being 4 to 5 feet thick in the latter but thinning away to almost
nothing on the former, which are merely piles of pebble rock, rising
at times with a slope of 15 degrees. The “swamps” are depressions
among the “ hills,’ which White thinks are due to erosion, as the
pebble rock varies from 6 to 25 feet, the least thickness being under
the swamps. This condition occurs less commonly in higher beds,
but it is by no means rare. The Lower Kittanning, in Lawrence
county, rests on an uneven floor of fireclay which has an extreme
thickness of 10 feet. The coal often dips into swamps with increased
thickness at the rate of one foot to the yard; it decreases usually
about one half on the hills. The reports by Chance and W. G. Platt
note similar conditions in other coal beds of the Allegheny; these
are only too familiar in the Conemaugh.
ARE CoAL BEbps CONTINUOUS?
The query at once presents itself, are these petty areas excep-
tional or are they typical? They are from a few yards to several
miles in diameter, and one might expect to find yet larger areas, dis-
tinctly limited. The question is of great economic importance and
the answer is of equal importance in relation to the problem in hand.
Are coal beds continuous or do the names applied to them designate
only horizons, marking periods when accumulation of coal took
place, so to say, contemporaneously at many places and in extensive
areas?
The question has been raised less frequently in Europe than in
the United States because the coalfields are of comparatively small
extent. But in the bituminous region of the Appalachian general-
izations presented long ago still hold in the nomenclature, though
some observers have opposed them strenuously. The early surveys
were made when the region was thinly settled, when mining opera-
tions were unimportant and exposures of coal beds were mostly in
small pits opened for local supply. There were few records of
shafts, there were no records of borings and there were few graded
roads; the section was worked out laboriously from natural ex-
posures and without aid of the instruments now regarded as an
1913.] STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. 39
essential part of the geologist’s equipment. The writer had as his
duty, almost 40 years ago, the work of studying in greater detai!
extensive areas examined 30 years before by pioneer laborers in the
northern part of the Appalachian basin. He has never been able to
restrain the feeling that the work of those early geologists bordered
on the miraculous—the intuition of Hodge, Jackson, Henderson and
J. P. Lesley seems to him almost more than human. Even at the
time of revision by geologists of the Second Geological Survey of
Pennsylvania, the conditions, though better, were poor enough; de-
pendence had still to be placed mostly upon natural sections, for the
great mining industry was still in infancy and deep borings for oil
were unknown. The defective conceptions inherited from the pre-
ceding generation were accepted and continuity of coal beds was
taken as the fact, barren areas being regarded as exceptional. This
belief was strengthened by the known distribution of the Pittsburgh
coal bed, which appeared to have been proved within an area of not
far from 15,000 square miles. But the multitude of shafts, the
vast number of oil-well records, the increased number of natural
exposures due to railway and road construction have provided data
during the last twenty-five years, which compel modification of
opinion.
When I. C. White, after study of oil-well records in West Vir-
ginia, announced that the Pittsburgh coal is wholly absent from
fully one half of the area enclosed within the outcrop, the an-
nouncement was received with surprise. Stevenson, nearly twenty
years earlier, had reached the conclusion that the Allegheny coal
beds, for the most part, were wanting in the interior portion of the
bituminous region, but White’s study of the well records gave the
evidence. There is a continuous area of about 10,000 square miles
in which coal accumulation was very irregular from the end of the
Pottsville to the close of the Carboniferous. But the irregularity is
not confined to the central area; it is characteristic, to a less extent,
of the whole region.
The conception of continuity was a normal conclusion from the
available facts. A coal bed was generally found almost directly
under the Mahoning sandstone, resting on a fireclay which overlay
40 STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. [April 18,
a limestone. Many times an exposure was incomplete, some por-
tion of the little group was concealed but enough was seen to make
recognition definitive. The coal was observed so often that, when its
place was concealed, its presence was assumed. The bed was mined
at that time near Freeport in Pennsylvania and the deposit was
named Upper Freeport. Either coal or very black shale was ex-
posed so often in this position both in Pennsylvania and Ohio that
barren spaces were regarded as due merely to petty local conditions
and the supposedly continuous deposit was called the Upper Free-
port coal bed. In like manner, the other horizons became known as
coal beds and widespread accumulation of coal at each horizon an
accepted fact, without reference to either quantity or quality of the
material.
But detailed study of individual coal beds proves that in all
there was great irregularity. The Pittsburgh, Waynesburg and
Washington, in the upper portion of the series, approach as nearly to
continuity as one may conceive, for they are always present in ex-
posures and records within an area of thousands of square miles;
but the Pittsburgh shows remarkable variations in thickness ; it thins
away to nothing from all sides toward the central part of the area
while at times only its underclay remains to mark the horizon. The
Waynesburg and the Washington horizons are persistent, coal or
black shale being present, but there is often only a trace of coal,
while the variations in structure of the deposit are extreme. Some
Conemaugh coals are practically continuous, according to natural
exposures, in Ohio within an area of not far from 1,000 square
miles, but they are rarely seen in Pennsylvania; others are present
on the east side of the region and rarely appear on the west side.
The Allegheny conditions are similar; one bed attains great com-
mercial importance within an area of perhaps a thousand square
miles in Ohio, but in Pennsylvania and West Virginia, it is only
occasionally important and it is practically wanting in considerable
areas. And the statement is true of other coal horizons. The evi-
dence goes to show that there were periods, longer or shorter,
during which proper conditions existed, so to say, contempora-
neously in many localities but did not exist in very many others. The
1913.] STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. 41
greatest unbroken area, after the close of the Pottsville, in which
coal accumulated, was that at the Pittsburgh horizon, the coal having
been proved up in an area of approximately 8,000 square miles.
Originally it was greater, for erosion has removed much. The
Sewanee coal bed of the New River seems to have a great con-
tinuous area, but the measured sections are somewhat widely sepa-
rated; they suffice to prove identity of horizon, but they do not
justify either assertion or denial of continuity.
Accepting, however, the extreme conceived area for original
extent of the Sewanee or the Pittsburgh, one is compelled to recog-
nize that accumulation of coal was not in process at any time in an
area of more than 30,000 square miles and that it never was in
process simultaneously in all parts of that area; that at most horizons,
conditions were favorable to accumulation in areas of a few square
miles to some hundreds of square miles while in perhaps the greater
part of the regions the conditions were unfavorable. In fine, that
the conditions were very much like those existing to-day. And this
has always been the case. The Triassic coals were formed in
narrow areas; the inconstancy of Upper Cretaceous coals in New
Mexico, Colorado and Utah is proverbial—they are spoken of as
lenticular; Tertiary brown coals exhibit the same features, which
are equally characteristic of Quaternary deposits as well as of peat
accumulations of this period. At all periods, conditions favorable
to accumulation of coal have existed in comparatively small areas,
more or less widely separated. This will be considered in another
connection.
The relation of coal to the immediately adjacent rocks is so inti-
mate that they must be regarded as one: a coal bed consists of the
floor, mur, Liegende; the coal, houille, Kohle; the roof, toit, Han-
gende, each of which must be examined in detail.
THE FLooR OF THE COAL BED.
Miners, long ago, recognized that coal beds ordinarily have a
clay floor or seat, but the fact was announced as generalization first
42 STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. [April 18,
by Mammatt* after his study of the Ashby-de-la-Zouche basin.
Logan"® reached the same conclusion independently, several years
afterward, as the result of studies in south Wales. His statements
led to a comparison of notes and the conditions seemed to be the
same everywhere. ‘The relations of the Illinois coal beds have been
cited as evidence that the condition is by no means general, but the
citation is an error, for Worthen’s'? remarks are so clear that one is
at a loss to comprehend how the error came about. He says
The typical fireclay, the “underclay,” “seat,” or “mur” is rather
fine in grain, somewhat sandy, very light gray to almost black, the
tint depending on presence or absence of vegetable matter. Car-
bonate of iron is almost invariably present, sometimes in very smal!
quantity but many times it is abundant in nodules. Alkalies are
comparatively unimportant, though often present in sufficient
quantity to unfit the material for firebrick. Ordinarily, the rock is
plastic, but occasionally it is hard and non-plastic, a “flint clay.”
This clay seldom shows lamination and on exposure to the air it
breaks up quickly into irregular angular fragments. The remark-
able feature is the presence of Stigmaria, whose rhizomas are often
interlaced in very complex manner. Owing to the abundance of
the plants, the clay is often termed Stigmaria-clay ; but the presence
of that plant is not essential; where Sigillaria and Lepidodendron
are wanting or of rare occurrence, Stigmaria is absent. It has not
been reported from underclays of the Monongahela or higher forma-
tions in the Appalachian basin.
The “coal-seat”’ is not always clay or even impure sandy clay.
*E. Mammatt, “Coal Field of Ashby-de-la-Zouche,” 1834, p. 73.
7 W. E. Logan, “On the Character of the Beds of Clay, Lying Imme-
diately Below the Coal Seams of South Wales,” Proc. Geol. Soc. Lond., Vol.
WNL, {0s 27S, ZO:
™ A, H, Worthen, Geol. Surv. Illinois, Vol. I., 1866, p. 50.
“The coal seams are usually underlaid by a bed of fireclay, which varies
in thickness from a few inches to ten or twelve feet. This was the original
soil on which the vegetation that formed the coal grew, and it is often pene-
trated by the rootlets of the ancient Carboniferous trees, whose trunks and
branches have contributed to form the coal.”
1913.] STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. 43
Hantken'® gives a section at a Hungarian locality showing 8 coal
beds from 0.15 to 3.10 meters thick, of which four have clay and
four have sandstone as the floor. Coal deposits were formed on
clay, shale, sandstone or even limestone, the conditions being ap-
parently the same as those observed in the study of peat accumu-
lations. The Triassic coal of the Richmond area in Virginia was
long supposed to rest on granite. Taylor’® mentioned the recognized
fact that the coals of that area rest directly on granite, though
occasionally a foot or two of shale may intervene. Bosses of
granite rise as eminences and interfere with mining. This opinion
was shared by W. B. Rogers in 1843 and at a later date by Lyell,
who asserted that the lower coal bed is in contact with the funda-
mental granite. The true condition was ascertained by Shaler and
Woodworth,” who showed that the granite contact is due to faulting
and that, normally, there is a notable interval, sometimes 300 feet,
filled with barren rocks. There is no a priort reason, however, why
coal might not accumulate on a granite seat. Chevalier’s descrip-
tion of the peat growth on granite and gneiss in the Niger region
makes this clear enough.
Cores from diamond drilled holes in the anthracite areas of
Pennsylvania indicate in many cases that coal beds of notable im-
portance rest directly on conglomerates or are separated from them
by a mere film of clay. The cores show all gradations in the floor
from fine clay to conglomerate. Similar conditions exist elsewhere.
9997
The hard silicious rock, known as “ Ganister,’’*! is at times in con-
tact with the overlying coal bed in the Yorkshire field. Sections in
other British fields show that a sandy floor is a by no means un-
common feature, though clay is the usual material.
Limestone of marine or freshwater origin is frequently the floor
**M. Hantken, “Die Kohlenfldtze und der Kohlenbergbau in den Landern
der ungarischen Krone,” Budapest, 1878, p. 131.
*R. C. Taylor, “ Memoir of a Section Passing through the Bituminous
Coal Field near Richmond in Virginia,” Trans. Geol. Soc. Penn., Vol. L.,
Part II., 1836, pp. 286, 287.
*”'N, S. Shaler and J. B. Woodworth, “ Geology of the Richmond Basin,
Virginia,” 19th Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Surv., 1899, Pt. II., pp. 424-426, 420, 430.
* A. H. Green, “The Geology of the Yorkshire Coal Field,” 1878, pp. 19, 26.
44 STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. [April 18,
of a coal bed. Several coal beds in the Monongahela and higher
formations within the Appalachian basin rest at times on fresh-
water limestone or calcareous shale; at others clay or shale inter-
venes, so that in different parts of the area the same coal rests on
clay, shale, sandstone or limestone. Two coals of the Conemaugh in
Ohio show similar relations to a marine limestone, sometimes in
contact with it, at others, separated by several feet of shale or other
material.°* C. Robb in 1876 reported 6 inches of limestone directly
under a Canadian coal bed, and J. W. Dawson in 1868 described a
coal bed which overlies a bituminous limestone, containing Naia-
dites and Stigmaria, the latter, in his opinion, being evidently in
place. Not many instances of coal resting directly on marine lime-
stone are recorded from the Appalachian basin, because, with one
exception, the marine limestones are, geographically considered, very
unimportant members of the column. Nor is the occurrence fre-
quent in any field, so far as the writer can discover, though there
are many localities where the interval is not more than a foot.
Worthen states that the Coal 1 of Illinois usually overlies 2 to 3
feet of fireclay, but the fireclay is often absent and the coal rests
directly on the St. Louis limestone. This, however, is not of the
type under consideration, for the case is one of pre-Pennsylvanian
erosion; the Illinois Coal 5 occasionally rests on a nodular lime-
stone and Coal 6 is frequently in contact with the underlying marine
limestone. Ricketts has described a number of coal pockets in
Lower Carboniferous limestone of England but they do not concern
the matter in hand, for they are clearly like the Iowa and Missouri
pockets, in cavities eroded when the limestone was above water.
Crampton,** however, has given notes which do concern the
matter. Presenting the results of studies in East Lothian, Scotland,
he refers to the lowest limestone as essentially a coral reef with an
abundant marine fauna. Portions of the surface were converted
J. J. Stevenson, Sec. Geol, Surv. Penn., Rep. K, 1876, pp. 94, 96, 116, 270,
349; Rep. KK, 1877, pp. 52, 163, 179; “Geology of Ohio,” Vol. III., 1879, pp.
183, 211, 224, 240, 256.
* C. B. Crampton, “The Limestones of Aberlady, Dunbar and St. Monans,”
Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc., Vol. III., 1905, pp. 374-378; “ Fossils and Condi-
tions of Deposits, a Theory of Coal Formation,” ibid., Vol. IX., p. 74.
1913.] STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. 45
into white marl, consisting of pulverized coral. In most places,
where the horizon is exposed, a coal bed is seen overlying this reef
and often in direct contact with the limestone. Great branching
Stigmariae grew upon the rock, following all irregularities of the
surface as they pushed their way through the marl. Limestone
under brown coal is reported from the Tertiary** as well as from the
Quaternary and it occurs frequently under peat deposits of the
Recent period. Evidently, Stigmaria cared less for the soil than for
other conditions, just as do many plants of this day. The relations
of coal to the seat are very like those observed in peat deposits,
where the accumulation may begin on clay, sandstone, limestone or
even on bare consolidated rock, if only the essential condition of
moisture be present. Temperature is not all-important, for peat
accumulates as well in the tropics as in the temperates, wherever
peat-making conditions exist. It fails in the tropics precisely as it
does in the temperates, when the peat-making conditions are absent.
The relations were the same in earlier periods, for Wall and
Sawkins®* report their discovery of 37 coal beds in the Miocene of
Trinidad, of which 5 are workable, with a thickness of 19 feet;
and this coal-bearing formation was followed by them on the main-
land in an area of 36,000 square miles. And the condition still
exists on that mainland. Harrison** says that tropical peat, known
as “pegass,’ occurs behind the fringes of courida and mangrove in
many parts of the low-lying coast lands of British Guiana and that
it is from 1 to Io feet thick, though usually 2 to 4 feet. He pointed
out that, on the pegass land, the alternation of wet and dry seasons
allowed both marsh and ordinary plants to grow and that consider-
able areas were covered with forest of the Aeta palm.
_ Stigmaria is present in a great proportion of the underclays.
The manner of its occurrence has been described on earlier pages
and only passing reference is needed here. Sorby, Platt and Daw-
b)
*C. v. Giimbel, “ Beitrage,” etc., pp. 149-151; O. Heer, cited in “ Forma-
tion of Coal Beds,” these Proceepincs, Vol. L., p. 623.
*G. P. Wall and J. G. Sawkins, “ Report on Geology of Trinidad,” Lon-
don, 1860, pp. 112, 197.
* J. B. Harrison, “ Pegass of British Guiana,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,
Vol. LXIIT., p. 202:
46 STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. [April 18,
kins have testified that, in the cases described by them, the arrange-
ment of the rhizomas proved not only that the plants are in situ
but also that the direction of prevailing winds was the same during
the Carboniferous as now. The immense extent of roots, spread
out in normal attitude, as in the plants described by Adamson, Wil-
liamson, Potonie and others, compels those students to assert that
no conceivable mode of transportation can explain the phenomenon.
The interlacing of the roots, shown by Schmitz, Crampton and many
others, is regarded as affording strong confirmatory evidence of in
situ growth. Many coal beds are divided by clay partings of
variable thickness; Stigmaria, at times, occurs abundantly in such
partings. Robb’s remarkable specimen was rooted in such a lens of
fireclay. But Sigillaria and Lepidodendron, to which Stigmaria
belongs, are not the only coal-making plants; just as peat is com-
posed of many plants or of different assemblages of plants in various
parts of the world, so coal in one area was formed of plants unlike
those in another. There are great coal deposits containing no
Sigillaria or Lepidodendron and consequently the underclay is with-
out Stigmaria.
Occasionally rootlets are found so arranged as to make certain
that the materials had suffered no disturbance. Ward," visiting
the Saint-Etienne coal field after the Geological Congress of 1000,
saw many instances in which the finest fibrils of roots of erect
Calamites passed across the planes of bedding down the con-
glomerate, which formed the original floor; the condition was re-
garded by him as incompatible with the slightest movement.
Bertrand*® observed rootlets im situ in an underclay within the
Grande Couche at Decazeville; and the writer saw threads of coal
descending into an underclay in the upper part of the Campagnac
coal bed of the same basin, which suggested rootlets. Fox-Strang-
ways’ states that he saw rootlets passing downward from the Four-
aT SR UNVials Cle aise Autochthonous or Allochthonous Origin of the Coal
and Coal Plants of Central France,” Science, N. S., Vol. XII., 1900, p. 1005.
*P_ Bertrand, in letter of January 15, 1911.
* C. Fox-Strangways, “Geology of South Leicestershire and South Derby-
shire Coal Field.” Mem. Geol. Surv., 1907, p, 52.
1913-] STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. 47
foot coal into the underclay. D. White, in a letter, says that, during
his studies in Kansas and Missouri during 1912, he failed at only
one mine to find satisfactory evidence of roots im situ in the under-
clay. At one locality in Kansas, the sandy fireclay contains beauti-
fully preserved interlaced vertical roots while at others in both
states absolutely good roots are present.
Bennie and Kidston*®® found spores abundant in underclays, espe-
cially within the first 2 or 3 inches below the coal; they cite two
localities in which the lower part of the thin clay is barren while the
upper portion contains the forms abundantly.
Underclay without coal is by no means rare. Sometimes it
underlies black shale with plants i situ; in some cases it alone marks
the horizon which elsewhere shows a coal bed. In other cases, it is a
“forest bed,’ marking a locality where conditions did not favor
accumulation of plant material or where the coal was removed by
erosion. Dawson has described many of these and Grand’Eury says
that the phenomenon of vegetable soils is as familiar in the Loire
basin as it is in Canada. Strahan*! has given a recent illustration.
In the new South Dock excavation at Cardiff, 11 feet of gravel
underlies 19 feet of brown and blue clay with some sand. In this
gravel were found several upright stumps, about 2 feet high, “ rooted
in a black clay with stems, the roots extending down into the
red marl.”
Boulders have been found in the underclay. Ashley*? states that
the underclay of Coal IV. is soft and fine but, in places, full of
bowlders. This is the only American record, aside from an incidental
note by Gresley, that the writer has discovered, but he has been
assured that waterworn fragments do occur in the underclay. Ap-
parently they are not numerous enough at most places to attract
attention and the occurrence may be regarded as infrequent. Most
probably, the pebbles were laid down on the river plain prior to
* J. Bennie and R. Kidston, “On the Occurrence of Spores in the Car-
boniferous Formation of Scotland,’ Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinb., Vol. IX.,
1888, pp. 102, 103.
314 Strahan, “ Geology of South Wales Coal-Field,” III., 1902, p. 94.
2G. H. Ashley, “ The Coal Deposits of Indiana,” 23d Ann. Rep. Geol.
Surv. Ind., 1899, p. 543.
48 STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. [April 18,
deposition of the clay, which filled the interstices, so that they may
be sought in thin deposits or at the bottom of those which are
thicker.
Underclays are often very light in color and many of them con-
tain little iron and less carbon; but some iron is always present even
in the most refractory. There is similar variation in the content of
alkalies. The absence of iron is believed to be due in chief part to
decaying vegetation. The deep red shales of the Coal Measures con-
tain little organic matter, few traces of plants or animals. That
organic acids, formed during decomposition of vegetable materials,
give somewhat soluble salts with iron has been known for a long
time, as was shown on earlier pages where are recorded the results
obtained by A, A. Julien and others. Miller,?* in describing the
Boulder Clay of Cromarty, Scotland, gave a local illustration. On
the flat moor upland, where the water stagnates over a thin layer of
peaty soil, chance sections exhibit the underlying clay spotted and
streaked with grayish-white patches. There is no difference between
these patches and the red mass in which they occur, all alike con-
sisting of mingled arenaceous and aluminous particles. The stagnant
water above, acidulated by its vegetable solutions, seems to be con-
nected with these appearances. In every case, where a crack gives
access to the oozing moisture, the clay is bleached for several feet
downward to nearly the color of pipe clay. The surface, too, wher-
ever divested of the vegetable soil, presents for yards together the
appearance of sheets of half bleached linen. Dawson** observes that
underclays have the white aspect which one sees in the subsoil of
modern swamps, and he thinks that the cause is the same in both
cases—the removal or transportation of ferruginous coloring matters
by the deoxidizing or dissolving action of organic acids or of
organic materials in decomposition.
Stainier®® has taken exception to this statement of the conditions
and has shown that of 150 specimens of Begian underclays, barely a
33H. Miller, “ The Cruise of the Betsy,” Boston, 1862, p. 357.
#47. W. Dawson, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. X., 1854, p. 14.
% X. Stainier, “ Notes sur la formation des couches de charbon,” Bull.
Soc. Belge Géol., Vol. XXV., 1911, P. V., pp. 73-91.
1913-] STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. 49
dozen failed to become distinctly red on burning. Those which
failed were mostly sandy and two of them were typical “ fire-clays.”
He has found that carbonate of iron frequently occurs as kidneys in
the mur—indeed he regards the presence of such kidneys as in some
way characteristic of the mur. The immediate provocation for
Stainier’s discussion was the statement by Mourlon*® that “the mur
represents the soil on which grew the now buried and metamorphosed
forests of the coal epoch. The forests then as now had the property
of taking away the iron disseminated in the soil.” It is certain that
Mourlon and Dawson, in their generalized statement, have written
with too little reserve, for neither one of them could have intended
to assert that vegetation had removed all iron from the clay. One
reading Dawson’s publications sees at once that he was familiar with
the occurrence of clay ironstone kidneys in underclays. Stainier says
correctly that, if coal be of im situ origin, the iron should be returned
to the soil when the trees die; but it is evident that he reasons from
conditions existing in an upland forest, which are as a rule very
different from those upon which the im situ doctrine insists. Vegeta-
tion undergoing chemical change in swamps does not disappear but
becomes peat; only a very small part of the inorganic matter could
find its way back to the mur; it would remain in the peat. The mur
is merely the soil in which the vegetation began; before long, the
decomposing plant material becomes the soil and all relation to the
mur ceases. The conception that trees cannot thrive in or on peat
is a curious survival, which retains its place in argument although it
is contrary to fact. As has been shown in an earlier part of this
work, the plant. life of swamps is not confined to mosses and humble
plants but it includes large shrubs and great trees. Among the latter
are some of the noblest forms on the American continent, which
certainly thrive as well in swamps as on drier land. Very many
plants cannot live on the acid soil of peat, but there are very many
others which cannot thrive on soil of any other type. As will appear
on a later page, accumulation of peaty matter makes possible only
indirect action on the mur or original soil, and that is due only to the
**M. Mourlon, “ Géologie de la Belgique,” Bruxelles, 1880, Vol. I., p. 121.
PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LII, 208 D, PRINTED MAY 13, 1913.
50 STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. [April 18,
sinking of dissolved humic and other organic acids, which reaching
the bottom may remove iron and alkalies from the clay as they do
from the peat. If the original quantity of iron in the mur was
small, all or practically all might be removed ; but if large, the greater
part would remain. In any event there would be a chemical change
and the color would become lighter, though enough iron might re-
main to become distinct after burning.
The tinting of underclays depends in great measure on the quan-
tity of carbon present. Changes during conversion would remove
some vegetable matter, but not much, for drainage would be
chiefly along the surfaces of roots, which may account for the
lack of a coal crust, so often observed in Stigmaria. The removal
could not be extensive throughout the mass, so that if the original
quantity was considerable, the clay would be blackened.
The suggestion has been made that gray or whitish murs are not
common and that the tint is not original, for, at some distance from
the outcrop, the color is not distinctive. The light-colored English
clays, it is stated, have been exploited only along the outcrop, where
the passage of pluvial waters would be able in time to remove the
coloring substances. How effective this pluvial leaching would be in
material so nearly impervious as consolidated underclays, the writer
cannot determine. On old outcrops of clays and clay shale at road-
sides, he has found little evidence of removal of iron and carbon.
There is usually a fixation of the iron while the bleaching, as a rule,
is insignificant—usually apparent rather than real and due to disinte-
gration or powdering. It may be that the English clays have been
exploited only along the outcrop but the case is different in the
Appalachian basin. The tints are not confined to the outcrop. Clays
have been mined at several localities in Pennsylvania and Maryland
during 30 to 60 years, while in Ohio and West Virginia similar work
has been continuous for 60 to 80 years. Very many of the mines
work up the dip and are “bone dry” with thick cover, at times
hundreds of feet, through which no water passes. Pluvial leaching
has not existed there. The clay in these mines at a few feet from
the outcrop is like that obtained at 1,000 or 2,000 feet farther inside,
with pockets of varying tint and of varying composition—the latter
1913-] STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. 51
often so serious that great care must be taken in selection for the
manufacture of high grade fire-brick. A similar condition was ob-
served in mines working down the dip, the only difference being that
the effects of freezing and thawing were perceptible to a somewhat
greater distance. H. Ries has informed the writer that the effect of
weathering rarely extends beyond 15 feet in a horizontal bed of clay.
The source of the clays is not always clear. It is true that clay
is not always present under coal beds, for those rest indifferently on
clay, limestone, shale sandstone or conglomerate, just as modern
peat bogs do, so that for present purposes the question of source is
of subordinate importance. At the same time, it is not without in-
terest, for in a great proportion of cases, conditions favoring accu-
mulation of coal followed those favoring deposition of clays.
Firket’s** observations have been cited frequently as showing that
atmospheric water can convert shale into plastic clay and in support
of the suggestion that underclays may be due to changes after
deposit. Near Liége a shaft, 30 meters deep, reached an ancient
mine which had been abandoned probably 700 years before. There
the succession, descending, was Psammite, 0.95 m.; Gray plastic
clay, 0.40 m.; Shale, not measured. The clay is very similar to the
refractory clay of Ardenne. The psammite had given way, was
broken and atmospheric water was admitted, which gave to that rock
a brown tint while it changed the upper part of the shale into
refractory clay. At another locality, the psammite in ancient work-
ings had become sandy micaceous clay and the shale had become
converted into black clay. Firket concluded that, under some cir-
cumstances, shale rocks may undergo considerable alteration sur
place. The action of true mineral springs is not required to effect
change of shale into clay, but infiltration of pluvial waters pene-
trating the ground across a small thickness of rocks may have an
influence. It is unnecessary in that case to have the action extend
over a long period in order to change 0.40 meter of shale into plastic
clay, for not more than 700 years had passed since the ancient mines
were abandoned.
7 A, Firket, “Transformation sur place du schiste houiller en argille
plastique,” Ann. Soc. Géol. de Belgique, Vol. I., 1874, pp. 60-63.
52 STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. [April 18,
The observations by Firket are not without interest but, as he
recognized, they have little bearing on the matters at issue here.
Shales ofttimes are merely laminated clays and lose their lamination
when exposed to the atmosphere. There are many roads in the
Appalachian basin which show deep through cuts in argillaceous
shale. Less than a century, frequently much less than half a cen-
tury has passed since the roads were constructed, yet the period has
sufficed for conversion of the outcrops into plastic clay. But that
is not the question. The Lower Kittanning coal rests on a bed of
plastic clay, 10 to 20 feet thick, an excellent potters clay, used in
manufacture of various wares along a line of more than 150 miles in
Pennsylvania, Ohio and West Virginia; a flint clay at the base of the
Allegheny, 5 to 25 feet thick, is utilized at many places along a line
of fully too miles in Maryland and Pennsylvania. No condition
such as that described by Firket seems likely to afford even a sugges-
tion toward explaining the accumulation of such deposits, which,
except as to thickness, are typical. Nor can one find sufficient ex-
planation for the small proportion of iron in activities of plant life,
since those could affect only the superficial portion. The features
seem to be original in the mass and due to the work of atmospheric
agencies prior to deposition. Long exposure of rocks causes deep
distintegration and decomposition, as has been proved by Russell
Crosby and Belt, already cited in another connection. The widely dis-
tributed Kittanning clay followed the Vanport subsidence, which had
been preceded by a long period of quiet or of local elevation, during
which deep valleys were eroded on the west side of Alleghania and,
in an extended area, no new deposits were laid down. When the
disintegrated materials were removed, the finest clays were deposited
by themselves, carrying with them the impalpable humus of the
soils. The strange irregularities, exhibited by beds in the closing
portion of the Beaver, are evidence of a similarly long exposure for
great areas and afford reason for applying the same explanation to
the other great deposit. The condition may have been similar else-
where and may account for clays under coal beds as well as at
horizons where deposition of clay was not followed by conditions
favoring accumulation of coal.
1913.] STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. 53
THE COAL.
The passage from mur to coal is gradual at most localities ; but it
appears to be rather abrupt where the seat is a sandstone or con-
glomerate. This latter statement is made with reservation, as the
writer has had few opportunities to make determination, since coals
with sandstone floors are seldom of economic importance within the
areas which he has studied. No reference to the condition appears
in the literature to which he has had access; but the records of cores
in the anthracite area lend countenance to the suggestion, for in
many cases, a mere film of clay separates the coal from sandstone or
conglomerate and the coal is good to the bottom. At some localities
in the bituminous region, a coal bed is clean apparently to the con-
tact with underclay, but in most cases the bottom coal is so impure
as to be unmarketable. For the most part, one finds a transition
layer, the faux-mur, between coal and clay ; it may be very thin or it
may be several inches thick, and it may consist of inferior coal or of
coaly shale.
In broad areas, where the faux-mur is distinct, there is, neverthe-
less, an abrupt separation of the coal bed from the underlying clay;
but this is not original, it is the result of disturbance. One finds
this condition even in the western part of Pennsylvania and eastern
Ohio, where the rocks vary so little from the original horizontality
that the dips on the sides of the low anticlinals rarely reach half a
degree and often for long distances are much less. Yet even there
one finds that the coal has slipped under the pressure and that the
contact between coal and clay is slickensided. This is the familiar
condition everywhere, so that one seldom is able to determine the
exact relation of coal to mur or the relation between plants of the
mur and those of the coal. But the opportunity fell to the lot of
Grand’Eury**® during his study of the Loire basin. He says that in
coal beds, at their mur and in their more or less shaly partings there
are roots belonging to various species and that many a time he had
C. Grand’Eury, “Du bassin de la Loire,” C. R. VIIIe Cong. Géol. Int.,
1900, pp. 531, 532; ‘Sur les conditions générales et l’unité de formation des
combustibles mineraux de tout age et de toute espéce,’ Comptes Rendus, Vol.
138, 1904, pp. 740-744.
54 STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. [April 18,
seen rhizomas of ferns and creeping roots of Cordaites making part
of the coal, thus binding the beds to the vegetation of the mur—
which, as he says, contradicts one of his former determinations.
The lower portion of the coal in such cases is irregular in structure
but the passage from one grade of coal to the other is gradual and
the coal throughout is composed of the same plants. His belief is
that the running rhizomas at the bottom of the marsh have formed
coal in place, along with the fossil humus, which he regards as for-
mation of peat, by which the rooted plants were killed, the stems and
adventive roots being found in the coal above.
The thickness of a coal bed is from a film to many feet. Definite
coal beds, not more than 6 inches to a foot thick, sometimes mark a
horizon over hundreds or even thousands of square miles. A thick-
ness of more than 8 feet is unusual in the bituminous regions of this
country but very much greater beds are reported from some fields
in Europe. The Grande Couche of les Pegauds in the Commentry
basin attains, according to Fayol, a maximum of 12 meters while the
main bed of the other subbasin reaches, at one place, 20 meters. The
vast deposits at Decazeville are in each case at least 70 feet thick
near that city and apparently about 100 feet at a few miles south.
Dannenberg gives the thickness of one bed in Saarbruck as 5 meters
and of the great bed in the Upper Silesian field as from 10 to 20
meters. The Mammoth bed of the southern anthracite field attains
a maximum of 114 feet at the easterly end, including only 9 feet of
partings. In this case, as also in that of the great Reden bed of
Upper Silesia, the enormous thickness is due to union of several
beds by disappearance of the intervening rocks. Coal in any field
makes up but a small part of the total section. In the middle divi-
sion of the Saarbruck measures, there are said to be 132 coal beds,
in all 32 or 33 meters thick, within a column of 850 meters; in the
bituminous region of Pennsylvania, the column is somewhat more
than 4,000 feet and contains perhaps 30 coal beds with total thick-
ness of 110 feet.
1913-] STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. 55
VARIATIONS IN STRUCTURE.
A coal bed is apt to vary rather abruptly in structure, local condi-
tions having been as efficient during accumulation of coal as they are
now during accumulation of peat. A coal bed may consist of two
or more divisions, the benches or bancs, separated by partings, which
are often more variable in thickness and composition than the coal
itself. In some treatises, these benches are referred to as separate
beds—and with good reason, as will appear after consideration of
the varying character of the partings and the often contrasting com-
position of the coal in successive benches. Occasionally, however,
definite structure persists throughout a considerable area. Thus
the Pittsburgh bed, at the bottom of the Monongahela formation,
shows roof division, overclay, breast-coal, parting, bearing-in-coal,
parting, brick-coal, parting, bottom-coal.
This structure can be recognized in the northern part of the area
along a west-northwest line of not less than 170 miles from the
eastern to the western outcrop in Maryland, Pennsylvania and Ohio,
exposures being practically continuous for 120 miles. It is distinct
in an area on each side of the line not less than 40 miles wide for
much of the distance and much wider on the eastern side. Yet even
this remarkable bed, when traced beyond the limits given, shows that
it too is variable. Bownocker*® has made clear that on the western
side, in Ohio, the structure changes abruptly at a little way south
from the long west-northwest line. The change first appears in
southern Belmont county, where the roof division disappears and the
breast-coal becomes irregular. Within a few miles, the bed consists
of coal, clay, coal, there being no recognizable trace of the upper 6
parts and the clay parting is often a foot thick, whereas in the
typical section the partings are all thin, seldom more than half an
inch. The condition, first observed in southern Belmont county,
prevails southward on the western side for 90 miles. At some
localities, the section resembles that seen farther north but analysis
of the parts shows that they are not the same.
J. A. Bownocker, Geol. Surv. Ohio, 4th Series, Bull. 9, 1908, pp. 10-12.
56 STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. [April 18,
I. C. White*® has given many measurements of the bed showing
that similar changes are found in West Virginia along the eastern
border, beginning at a few miles south from the Pennsylvania border.
The Roof division is wanting almost at once, but that is due to
erosion prior to deposition of the Pittsburgh sandstone, and at times
one finds the bed complete where the roof was spared. At a little
distance southwest, where the sandstone has thinned away, the
changed section is distinct and the bed appears to be merely double.
It is divided by “bone” or clay, I to 15 inches, and the benches vary
greatly in thickness ; at some localities the upper one has almost dis-
appeared while at others the lower is almost wanting; here and there
the bed has a section somewhat like that at the north but comparison
of the parts shows that the resemblance is only apparent. The
writer, nearly 40 years ago, thought that the change was merely
apparent and that he could recognize all elements of the northern
structure to a great distance south from Pennsylvania; but the many
detailed measurements recorded by White make that position no
longer tenable.
Study of measurements along the northern border of the bed prove
a variability which was not considered important by the students
who examined that area. W. G. Platt’s* sections in Indiana county
of Pennsylvania show that in the extreme northern outliers along
the eastern side, the structure is clear, but the lower members are
irregular, becoming indefinite at times, while the Breast-coal in-
creases in importance. Measurements recorded by White and by
Stevenson* in Allegheny and in northern Washington county show
that in the outlying areas at the north, the structure is usually
recognizable but that the bottom and brick are insignificant, the
bearing-in not always distinct, while the breast, though variable, is
the important portion. These changes are wholly in contrast with
those already noted as occurring at the south in both Ohio and West
“T. C. White, Geol. Surv. West Virginia, Vol. II., 1903, pp. 168-190; Vol.
II. a, 1908, pp. 650, 663, 665, and elsewhere.
“W. G. Platt, Sec. Geol: Surv. Penn, Rep. HHHH, 1878, pp. 162-164, 27.
“TI. C. White, Sec. Geol. Surv. Penn., Rep. Q, 1878, pp. 152, 166, 177;
J. J. Stevenson, ibid. Rep. K, 1876, pp. 275, 277, 285; Rep. KK, 1877, pp.
Sige?)
1913.] STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. 57
Virginia and indicate a different history for the bed in the two
regions, showing that coal accumulation persisted for a much longer
period at the north than at the south. The conditions afford no little
justification for the recognition of each bench as an independent bed.
The irregularities of surface indicated by variations in the lower
benches at the north as contrasted with the general regularity of the
breast or upper portion show that in all probability the area of
accumulation increased landward toward the north by advance of
the marsh area. But increasing slate partings of extreme irregu-
larity indicate sufficiently that small streams often flooded the area
with muddy water.
The continuous area of the Pittsburgh coal bed was estimated by
H. D. Rogers*® at 14,000 square miles, the space embraced within
the outcrop. I. C. White,** however, after study of oil-well records
of West Virginia and Ohio discovered that the bed is wanting in a
rudely triangular space within those states and that the available area
is not more than 8,000 square miles. As the coal approaches the
central area of fine sandstones and red muds, the structure becomes
unrecognizable and the bed thins to disappearance. The constancy
of the Pittsburgh coal bed is apparent rather than real.
Abrupt changes in thickness and structure are the rule in all coal
beds. They are not startling in the bituminous region, except to
those who have invested in mines, since the beds rarely exceed 10
feet; but they are very notable in the southern and middle anthracite
fields. At one locality in the former, the Mammoth coal bed has 105
feet of coal in 114 feet of measures; at 8,246 feet toward the east it
has only 42 feet in 49 feet; in both the coal is concentrated, there
being but ten members in each section; but, within a short distance,
one finds 40 feet of coal in 53 feet of measures and the section con-
sists of 43 members.** Variations of this type are reported from all
coal areas in the United States and they are commonplace in Europe.
“H. D. Rogers, “An Inquiry into the Origin of the Appalachian Coal
Strata,” Reps. Amer. Assoc. Geol. and Nat., Boston, 1843, p. 446.
“TC. White, “Stratigraphy of the Bituminous Coal Field in Pennsyl-
vania, Ohio and West Virginia,” U. S. Geol Surv. Bull 65, 1891, p. 64.
*C. A. Ashburner, “The Geology of the Panther Creek Basin,” Sec.
Geol. Surv. Penn., 1883, pp. 96, 98.
58 STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. [April 18,
BIFURCATION OF COAL BEDS.
Parallelism of coal beds seems to be regarded as a fundamental
principle by some of those who have discussed the origin and forma-
tion of coal beds. It has been the subject of many papers in the
United States, based on studies in the Appalachian and Mississippi
coal fields. With one exception, the authors rejected the doctrine
of parallelism, but most of them recognize that, in some extended
areas there is parallelism along definite lines.
The partings between benches of coal beds are usually extremely
variable but in some beds they show amazing persistence. The
bearing-in bench of the Pittsburgh bed is from 3 to 6 inches thick
and is bounded by partings which rarely exceed one half inch; yet
these are present under more than 2,000 square miles, changing little
in thickness or in composition. Ordinarily they consist of mineral
charcoal and almost impalpable inorganic matter, but occasionally
they have so little inorganic material that the coal appears to be con-
tinuous—but the partings are there and the benches retain their
peculiarities. This persistence in character is, however, a strange
exception and in most beds the variation is extreme.
The splitting or division of the Mammoth coal bed in the anthra-
cite area has been proved not only by measured sections and drill
cores but also by continuous workings, which often extend for many
miles. In the northern part of the Eastern Middle, the Mammoth
and the next bed below, the Wharton or Skidmore, are in contact,
but within a short distance the parting has become 114 feet; in
another part of the same field, the interval between the beds increases
from 35 to 200 feet, the workings on each bed being continuous; the
same beds are but 6 feet apart in the southern part of the Western
Middle, but farther south, on the north border of the Southern, the
interval increases gradually to 80 feet. The Mammoth itself divides.
Near Shenandoah in the Western Middle it is a single bed, 40 to 60
feet thick, but within a short distance it is in 2 and then in 3 “ splits”
in a vertical space of 150 to 200 feet. In the Southern, the bed
breaks up, reunites and breaks up again. Sometimes it is a single
bed but within a mile it may be in 2 or 3 splits in a vertical space
1913-] STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. 59
of 175 to 214 feet.*® The extreme variations in interval have been
proved by continuous workings on the several splits. It is impos-
sible to determine the relations of these changes in interval through-
out the area, as erosion has been energetic in that contorted region
and the coal beds remain only in a few deep troughs.
Illustrations are abundant in Europe. De Serres,*’ in his descrip-
tion of the little basin of Graissessac, says that the coal beds present
great regularity as a whole and preserve their parallelism almost
constantly. Nevertheless, one finds remarkable anomalies in some
parts of the basin. Coal beds approach each other in some localities
while in others they are far apart. Ait times the beds present the
appearance of a fan, especially well shown in the mines of one con-
cession; in some of those in another concession, coal beds 3, 5, 6,
are almost united, though in other mines, No. 3 is most frequently at
30 meters from No. 4. When one considers that the whole basin is
less extensive than the “outlying area” of Pittsburgh coal in Somer-
set county of Pennsylvania, he must be interested by de Serres’s
loyalty to the orthodox doctrine amid trying circumstances. Gruner*®
remarks that the parting of the Batardes coal bed is from 50 centi-
meters to 8 meters thick. In the middle portion of the Lower Saint-
Etienne stage, beds 1, 2 and 4 coalesce with 3, which is very thick;
but at times, 4 is separated from 3 by 24 meters of rock. Beds 3 and
4 are frequently united as are also 1 and 2. The area of this stage
is little more than that of a township in one of the western states ;
according to the map, it does not exceed 40 square miles. Fayol*®
has shown that the Grande Couche of Commentry is one bed at the
east side of the sub-basin but on the west side it is represented by 8
beds in a vertical section of more than 200 meters. Boulay and
others have given illustrations from north France.
*“The observations on which these statements are based have been sum-
marized in “Carboniferous of the Appalachian Basin,’ Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer.,
Vol. 17, 1906, pp. 219-221.
*“(M) De Serres, “ Des terrains houillers du département de |’Herault,”
Acad. Sci. Montpelier, Vol. I., 1850, p. 384.
“L. Gruner, “Bassin houiller de la Loire,” Paris, 1882, pp. 212, 220,
228, 226.
ei Payol, ~ Etudes,” etc., p: 22.
60 STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. [April 18,
Dannenberg’ states that the Zach bed of the Zwickau (Saxony)
area is usually from 1 to 4.5 meters thick, but in the western part
of the field it is represented by 2 beds, separated by 8 meters of rock.
At Planitz in the southwest, the Planitzer bed is Io meters thick and
the partings are very thin; but these increase toward the north and
the 3 benches are in a vertical space of about 70 meters. He gives
illustrations of similar type from other coal fields. The familiar
instance is that described by Jukes.°t The Thick bed near Bilston
has about 30 feet of coal in 12 to 14 benches; followed northward,
the benches separate quickly, so that within 5 miles, one finds the
30 feet of coal distributed in a vertical section of 300 feet, the several
benches being independent coal beds separated by shales and sand-
stones. The Bottom and the New Mine beds divide in like manner.
Instances in other British fields have been described by Dugdale,
Howell, Bolton and several other observers.
If one consider coal beds separated by considerable intervals he
finds equally interesting variations. The Upper Freeport and the
Pittsburgh are separated by 350 feet at the western outcrop in Ohio,
but that interval increases gradually toward the east until in Indiana
county of Pennsylvania it is 600 feet. The Pittsburgh and the
Waynesburg are 106 feet apart at the northern outcrop in Pennsyl-
vania, but that interval increases southwardly to more than 400 feet
in northern West Virginia. The increase is regular in the thickness
of intervening intervals between the Pittsburgh and Upper Freeport,
for, throughout, the Ames limestone holds its place approximately
midway between the coal beds; but no such regularity of increase is
shown in the interval between the Pittsburgh and Waynesburg. An
excellent illustration of this irregularity is shown by comparison of
two sections given by W. G. Platt®* from Armstrong county, Penn-
sylvania, which are as follows:
These measurements are about 18 miles apart and the interval
between the Upper Freeport and the Lower Kittanning is practically
“ A Dannenberg, “Geologie der Steinkohlen Lager,” I911, pp. 211, 212.
7. B. Jukes, “The South Staffordshire Coal Field,’ 2d ed., 1859, pp.
18, 19, 25, 26.
"W.G. Platt, Sec, Geol. Surv. Penn., Rep. H5, 1880, pp. 215, 288.
1913.] STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. 61
Upper Freeport coal bed...............06 ssseee ; Y| fo) | 2 6
MMS TAV UREN erlaletsioie selec cess caisicvoneaiccleae'werees 60 fo) 54 fo)
ower Hreeport coal bed ....5...0..-..0-+00s0- I fo) I fo)
POMEL Al ees ecis occescecc-viiss csccricessessassscces 65 fo) 35 fo)
Wpper Kittanning coal bed... o.......50.0 I to 12 fo) I fo)
MTR TAV AUER sires cee o sains seeesnccansoaseeslenssaucilad 45 fe)
Middle Kittanning coal bed.................... 4 | fo) | 117 fo)
Minter alter cei (ccatcat slsenaslavnicewiatensewercce sects 25 to 40 fo)
ower Mkittanning) coal beds. ..).....c.ss0-c0+5= 2 fe) | R fo)
IDEA 64 Jose oa gue eCHD NG GaDOSE Ape enaee BEE ne aadree 33 25
EMADOGE MIMESCONE 6.5565 cae ncaa ciece uae rene sencn
the same in both, while the intervening intervals show notable varia-
tion. If one should group the sections given in Platt’s report he
would find that while the two coal beds preserve an approximate
parallelism, the relations of the intervening beds would be indicated
by lines describing very irregular waves. This portion of the Alle-
gheny formation shows the same approximate regularity and the
associated irregularity in other parts of the region.
The instance recorded by Jukes’* has always been regarded as
exceptionally perplexing. The “Roofs coal” of the Thick bed at
Dudley rests on the bench below or is separated from it by, at most,
2 or 3 feet of clay; but in going toward Bilston, one finds the
interval increasing, 0, 10, 37, 55, 128, 118 and at length, 204 feet
near Bilston—these changes taking place within a mile and a half.
Near Dudley one finds the Brooch coal at 95 feet above the “ Roofs
coal,’ known there as the “ Flying Reed,” and 108 feet above the
Thick. But where the “Flying Reed” is 115 feet above the Thick
it is only 30 feet below the Brooch; so that while the interval
between Thick and Brooch has increased from 108 to 147 feet, that
between Thick and Flying Reed intervening, has increased from o
to 115 feet.
The condition is not confined to the Carboniferous. Lipold®*
found splitting of coal beds by no means unusual in the Triassic.
At one locality, four coal beds were seen. The first and third con-
verge in a westerly direction, the interval decreasing from 72 to 18
J. B. Jukes, “ South Staffordshire Coal Field,” pp. 36-40.
*M. V. Lipold, “ Das Kohlengebiet in der nordostlichen Alpen,” Jahrb.
d. k. k. Geol. Reichsanst., Band 15, 1865, pp. 85, 99-101, 109.
62 STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. [April 18,
feet. The variation in position is in the lower or first bed, the
place of the third remaining apparently unchanged. The third and
fourth, on the contrary, converge toward the east and eventually
unite. Bifurcation was observed in other beds and in some cases
one or more subdivisions thin out to disappearance. The Cre-
taceous coals of the Rocky Mountain region show the same feature.
Some of the features so marked in coal beds are equally char-
acteristic of peat accumulations. The description by Morton®® may
be cited as representative; the area has only a few square miles but
the conditions are those observed on a grander scale in the great
marshes of Holland and Belgium. At one locality Morton saw
Biron Bal rene GENIN Bille scoocecgsessesnecsc0ee 6 O
Wippenmp eaten yaicacpeee ceils cmice reat eet aete rae eer vase 3 6
GiravereStarimMe: xo tar crayseeseieret et oies) Oster hevonne ete rarorey ate 10 (0)
owerspeath tonest sbedtararmer cr char tire wckeytar saree 2 (e)
Boulder clayice cvtecieie tesucka der mcrae asec oes et ciee) ane 2 (0)
The peat and silt were deposited in depressions; they thin out in ap-
proaching the ridges. Sometimes the peat beds unite as they rise
on the slopes and occasionally after uniting they become continuous
with a surface bed which has never been covered. The lower peat
shows many trees in situ. The peat about each tree is somewhat
higher than that in the intervening spaces. The lower silt contains
neither shells nor bones. The upper peat, 1 to 10 feet thick and
at times divided by silt, contains no upright stems but there are
prostrate stems with twigs and leaves as in a forest. The upper silt
is sometimes 20 feet thick, but, there, the upper peat is absent and
the silts are continuous. On earlier pages many citations were
made, recording irregularities in peat deposits, such as variation in
thickness, division or bifurcation of beds, disappearance of “ splits ”
by thinning out, even the phenomenon of the “ Flying Reed.”
RELATIONS OF THE BENCHES IN COAL BEDs.
The total of coal in the separated splits may be greater or less
than that in the undivided bed. The partings in the undivided bed
°° G. H. Morton, “Further Notes on the Stanton, Ince and Frodsham
Marshes,” Proc. Liver. Geol. Soc., Vol. V1., 1880, pp. 50-55.
1913-] STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. 63
may represent, in time-value, the intervening deposits where the
splits are most widely separated—in which case the total thickness
of coal may be approximately the same throughout. When a split
loses thickness away from the place of union, it may be that sub-
sidence began at some distance from that place and was, so to say,
rapid; but where the split thickens, the subsidence was at first ex-
tremely slow, permitting accumulation to continue after it had
ceased beyond the place of union. Some of the splits increase,
others lose in thickness. A study of the benches in each split proves
independent history.
One may not regard a coal bed as a single deposit, the result of
consecutive deposition, broken only by pretty irruptions of clay or
sand. It is the record of accumulation in a given area interrupted
by longer or shorter intervals of no accumulation, which are marked
by the partings. These intervals in one locality may be synchronous
with continued accumulation in another. It is very evident that
this accumulation did not begin simultaneously in all portions of
the area now marked by a coal horizon and it is equally certain that
its termination was not simultaneous throughout. Unquestionably
the opening and closing of the work at any given horizon were
embraced within a definite period, but one must recognize that only
a very small part of the bed may be actually of synchronous origin
throughout. Study of the benches of the Pittsburgh coal bed has
led the writer to conclude that very little coal accumulated in
northern Ohio and much of Pennsylvania until after a notable thick-
ness had accumulated in southern Ohio and in West Virginia. The
diminishing importance of the portion below the Bearing-in coal
seems to indicate a northward advance of coal-forming conditions.
It is equally clear that coal accumulation ceased after the Bearing-
in within most of the southern portion, for the Breast is unimportant
or absent, whereas it continued long time at the north, as appears
from the increasing importance of the Breast in that direction.
Changes of similar kind are shown by the Middle Kittanning or
Hocking Valley coal of Ohio, which has been studied in detail
throughout an area of more than 1,000 square miles, where it has
great economic importance. Enough is known to make clear that,
64 STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. [April 18,
in considering the problem of coal accumulation, one has not to deal
with vast areas, since coal never was accumulating at any one time
throughout a great basin.
RELATION OF CoAL BEDS TO BLACK SHALE.
Coal beds vary in character; frequently coal passes gradually
into black shale containing laminae of bright or dull coal; occa-
sionally, the passage is almost imperceptible to the eye, the increase
in ash causing no marked change in appearance. It is a common
observation that, in the Coal Measures, black shale is almost certain
to be replaced with coal somewhere. At the Uniontown horizon, in
the Monongahela, one finds usually a thinly laminated black shale
containing scales and teeth of small fishes and some laminae of
coal; but at many localities within its area of several thousands of
square miles, this becomes a coal bed which though impure is oi
local importance. Any coal bed is liable to show this change. The
Buck Mountain bed, near the bottom of the Allegheny in the anthra-
cite area, is worthless within a space of many square miles; the
Mammoth bed degenerates westwardly and at times is little better
than carbonaceous shale. Coal beds as they approach the border of
their area are apt to show a greatly increased number of thin part-
ings, usually mud but sometimes sand. Not rarely lenses of sand
are intercalated, which may be of considerable extent. Such
changes seem to indicate proximity to upland, whence streams came
loaded with sediments. They suggest conditions like those which
are seen within five or six miles west from New York, where one
finds many times a small area of clean peat surrounded by impure
material containing layers of mud.
The origin of the black shale is not always clear, but it is a sedi-
ment. The carbonaceous matter, in some cases, came in with the
sediments as plant fragments, but in others it came rather from
animal matter. An illustration of the former condition is found in
the work by Scott,5* who made dredgings in Lakes Ness, Oich and
*T. Scott, “ The Lochs of the Caledonian Valley,” Scot. Geogr. Mag.,
Vol. VIII., 1802, pp. 94, 95.
1913.] STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. 65
Lochy for the Fishery Board of Scotland. In Ness, the dredge was
filled with fine mud containing fragments of peaty matter and pieces
of partially decayed wood. Some exuvie of entomostraca were
present but no living specimens were observed. The same condition
was found in the other lakes where no attempt was made to de-
termine the thickness of the deposit. In these lakes, the water is
free from mud and is dark brown, owing to dissolved organic matter
from peat. The streams descend from the Highlands, but the region
is protected from erosion by a cover of peat, so that only very fine
silt is brought down. The brown waters pass out to the sea and the
dissolved materials are not precipitated in the lakes.
The presence of vegetable remains along with those of marine
animals in many black shales is by no means proof that the water
was shallow nor is the association in any sense evidence that the
water was deep. The observations by Agassiz** have been cited
many times in this connection as though they contain the final argu-
ment. In reference to dredgings in the Caribbean sea he says, that
the contents of some of the trawls would have puzzled a palzontolo-
gist; there were deep water forms of crustaceans, annelids, fishes,
echinoderms and sponges, mingled with mango and orange leaves,
branches of bamboo, nutmegs and land shells, both animal and vege-
table forms being in great profusion; so that it might be difficult to
decide whether one were dealing with a land or a marine fauna.
Such a trawl from a fossil deposit would naturally be explained as
representing a shallow estuary surrounded by forests; yet the depth
may have been 1,500 fathoms. The large quantity of vegetable
matter, thus carried out to sea, seems to have a marked effect in
increasing locally the number of marine forms.
Whether or not any paleontologist would have reached the con-
clusion suggested for him by Agassiz is scarcely open to dispute;
the palzontologist’s answer to the query would be unequivocal and
thoroughly emphatic. Commingling of marine and land elements
occurs in shallow as well as in deep portions of the Caribbean, with
A. Agassiz, “Three Cruises of the Blake,” Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool.,
Wel, a1 V.. ps 201.
PROC. AMER, PHIL. SOC. LII. 208 E, PRINTED MAY 13, I913.
66 STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. [April 18,
the distinction that in the latter there are the forms known to be
characteristic of deep sea zones only. But no such problem as that
imagined by Agassiz presents itself in the Coal Measures—though
there are those who believe the contrary. Respecting the marine
forms of the Coal Measures time one may assert positively nothing
beyond the fact that they are closely related to marine types.
There is no evidence to prove that they preferred deep water but
there is abundant evidence to show that they had no objection to
dwelling in shallow depths; it is sufficiently clear that limestones
carrying the typical forms were deposited at many localities where
every feature indicates shallow water and close proximity to a shore.
This matter has been considered in an earlier part of this work, but
it may be well to present additional notes here.
D. White®® during the summer of 1912 found evidence of pre-
sumably shallow water deposition of some Coal Measures limestones
in Oklahoma; Udden has described a brecciated marine limestone
near Peoria, Illionis. Ashley®® found near Merom in Indiana 2 to 8
feet of conglomerate, consisting of shale, sandstone and coal pebbles,
bedded in calcareous matter and resting on 2 to 4 feet of marine
limestone. This conglomerate underlies the great Merom sandstone.
A stream flowing over the outcrops entered the sea and dropped its
load of coarse material into the unconsolidated upper portion of a
limestone containing Productus and other marine types. As the
conglomerate is coarse, it must have been dropped at once when the
stream entered a body of water. The Ames limestone is impure,
conglomerate but fossiliferous at a locality in Meigs county of Ohio,
as recorded by Condit ; on the extreme western border in Muskingum
county of the same state the Ames is shaly and coarse grained,
showing none of the characteristics observed farther east, but it 1s
fossiliferous; in Carroll, on the northwest border, that limestone
on the extreme outcrop is very impure, coarse grained and very like
sandstone; at a short distance farther east it is more like limestone
but at a mile farther it is earthy and disintegrates on exposure. At
these localities, one is very near the original shore, where the water
Letter of October 25, 1912.
® GH. Ashley, “ Coal Deposits of Indiana,” p. 908.
1913-] STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. 67
was shallow and far from clean, but the characteristic fossils per-
sist to the last exposure of the horizon. Bownocker has noted a
number of localities in Meigs, Gallia and Lawrence counties of Ohio,
all on the western border, where this limestone is impure, argillace-
ous, ferruginous or sandy, yet the fossils persist. I. C. White found
the same conditions along the northern border in Pennsylvania.
Hennen® reports that in Harrison county of West Virginia, where
one approaches the southern limit of the Ames limestone, the rock
is an impure limestone, often represented only by dark limy shale
but always containing the same marine fossils. The Conemaugh
formation has other marine limestones which are brecciated at
numerous localities. In some cases the shells are broken as on a
shore.
THE OCCURRENCE OF CANNEL.
The cannels and bogheads differ from true coals not merely in
structure and composition but also in their mode of occurrence.
Cannel is invariably a local deposit, in the extreme sense of the
term, though conditions favoring its formation existed more fre-
quently at some horizons than at others. Many of the small isolated
basins in Iowa, Missouri and even in Pennsylvania contain only
impure cannel, but ordinarily the mineral forms part of a coal bed,
the relation being intimate. Invariably, the deposit is saucer-shaped,
as though occupying a depression in vegetable matter previously
accumulated. White®! has described a cannel of much commercial
importance, though it is confined to only one estate; the mass has a
maximum thickness of 12 feet and thins away to nothing in all
directions. The changes are exhibited in extensive workings. Platt®?
examined, in Armstrong county of Pennsylvania, three disconnected
patches of cannel at the Upper Kittanning horizon. The space be-
tween these is occupied by ordinary coal. In each, the cannel is
from 0 to 8 feet thick; the bottom bench of the coal bed is bitumi-
nous and it is depressed with the thickening cannel, the slope of the
®R. V. Hennen, W. Va. Geol. Surv., County reports, 1912, p. 251.
1. C. White, Sec. Geol. Surv. Penn., Rep. Q, pp. 213, 232, 258, 250, 268.
“W.G. Platt, ibid., Rep. Hs, p. 176.
68 STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. [April 18,
upper surface being from 5 to 22 degrees; but the top bench, also
bituminous, rests on the horizontal surface of the cannel and is regu-
lar throughout, as is also the roof, both showing only the insignificant
dip characterizing the region. In Pennsylvania, one rarely finds
cannel at the bottom of a coal bed, but that condition occurs occa-
sionally in West Virginia and it is not infrequent in Ohio. Some
coals of the Beaver within Ohio and Kentucky have considerable
areas of cannel and are spoken of as cannel beds; but even in those
the features are the same as in others, excepting as to extent. The
story is the same in all areas. Hull has shown that the celebrated
Wigan deposit in Lancashire is saucer-shaped; Green found the
same condition in the Yorkshire deposits; David, Mackenzie and
Wilkinson have recorded many observations showing that the Kero-
sene shale of New South Wales has similar distribution. The phe-
nomena are familiar in modern swamps.
t
DISTRIBUTION OF COAL IN RELATION TO THE ACCOMPANYING ROCKS.
The distribution of coal seems to be related in some way to the
character of the associated rocks. In the southern and middle
anthracite fields, the coal beds are thick at the northeast, where
coarse rocks most abound, and become unimportant at the west,
where coarse rocks are less abundant. In the Pottsville of
those fields, there are thick coals with pebbly rock above and below,
though in most cases there is some shale, often very thin, above or
below the coal. In the bituminous region, coal beds of the Allegheny
and higher formations appear to have accumulated chiefly on the
borders of that region—not as continuous bands, but at definite
horizons. They thin away and the horizons become indefinite as one
approaches the central area, in which fine materials prevail; yet even
there, coal was formed in thin irregular deposits at widely separated
localities; and these petty accumulations seem to be at or near
horizons which are well defined elsewhere. Coal-making conditions
did not exist for any considerable period or in any considerable area
within the region of fine-grained rocks.
~The same relation has been observed in other countries.
1913.] STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. 69
Phillips,** referring to his studies in Yorkshire, states that toward
the southwest the limestones thicken, while sandstones and shales
become thin. The sandstones thicken toward the north, while shales
thicken toward the west, in which direction certain sandstones and
limestones vanish. With those sandstones, the coals also vanish.
Where the sandstones thicken and grow numerous, toward the
north, in which direction the limestones change from an undivided
mass to many members, the coal beds augment in number and
in thickness. A similar condition is apparent in eastern Oklahoma.
Coal beds seem to be wholly wanting in the Mississippi lime-
stones of the Appalachian basin. Their absence from this mass, at
times more than 2,000 feet thick, including the calcareous shales, can
hardly be due to lack of vegetation on the land, for the underlying
Pocono or Logan sandstone and shales show definite coal beds from
central Pennsylvania to Wythe county of Virginia, a distance of not
less than 400 miles ; while the sandy division of the Chester, equiva-
lent to the highest part of the Mississippian, contains thin coal beds
at many places west from the old Cincinnatian land. The writer
has not been able to make sufficient study of conditions elsewhere to
justify him in offering a generalization; but in the Appalachian
basin, every observation indicates that conditions favoring deposi-
tion of marine limestone or of fine detritus in extended areas are
not favorable to the accumulation of coal beds.
MACROSCOPICAL STRUCTURE OF COAL IN BEDs.
The several benches of a coal bed may show marked differences
aside from those already mentioned. The coal from one may be
impure, containing large percentage of ash or sulphur; that from
another may be hard, breaking into more or less regular blocks;
that from a third may be brilliant, tender ; that from a fourth may be
prismatic, the rude prisms or columns being readily separable with
the fingers ; that from a fifth may be a solid coal, yet not hard enough
to bear rough handling; while any one of the five benches may show
saucer-shaped inclusions of cannel. These variations are shown in
“J. Phillips, “A Treatise on Geology,” new ed., London, 1852, Vol. L.,
p. 190.
70 STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. [April 18,
the Pittsburgh coal bed and are illustrative of those shown by nearly
all beds. They are associated with equally marked chemical differ-
ences, which will be considered on a later page.
The coal in all benches has a laminated structure, due perhaps
in some cases to pressure but in others to some other cause. The
writer has traced lamin, which tapered to nothing in each direction
along an entry; whether or not this is characteristic, he cannot say.
Any one who has attempted to determine this matter in a coal mine
must have recognized that the intense application required should be
devoted to something more important. H. D. Rogers concluded that
in pursuing any brilliant layer, not more than one fourth of an inch
thick, one may observe that its superficial extent is too great to per-
mit the supposition that it had been derived from the flattened trunk
or limb of any arborescent plant. It is certain, however, that pres-
sure cannot account for the alternation of brilliant or glance laminz
with those of dull or matt coal, which one finds almost invariably.
Usually these layers are very thin, but in many instances they are
several inches thick. Sometimes this lamination seems to be due to
the presence of mineral charcoal, which covers every surface ob-
tained by splitting, but at others the charcoal is clearly without
influence, for it lies in all directions. This mineral charcoal is a
common constituent of all the fuels from anthracite to peat, but it is
not an essential constituent, for layers of glance several inches thick
have been found without it and Orton™ has described a coal bed of
workable thickness which shows no trace of it.
Fragments of plants, sometimes large, occur in coal. Occasion-
ally they have been converted into fusain but more frequently they
appear as glance coal,—though even these occasionally enclose more
or less of the charcoal. Ordinarily they are flattened, the interior
having disappeared while the cortex remained to be converted into
glance. At times, they are merely impressions on the apparently
structureless mass of coal, recalling the conditions observed in many
peat deposits, where the great bulk of vegetable material has been
changed into the flocky ulmic mass, while enclosed stems of trees,
“E. Orton, “ Mines of Muskingum and Licking Counties,’ Geol. Surv.
Ohio, Vol. V., 1884, p. 881.
1913.] STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. 71
changing more slowly, are still recognizable. These stems are found
in coals of all types and they are associated very commonly with
leaves.
Lesquereux® asserted that Stigmaria occurs as frequently in
American as in European coals. In Greenup county of Kentucky, he
saw a cannel, 4 feet thick, containing such abundance of Flabellaria
and Stigmaria that he believed the coal to be composed of those
plants. In another, he found great numbers of Stigmaria and beau-
tiful impressions of Lepidodendron. Coal beds I. and XII. in
western Kentucky are composed in places of flattened Stigmaria,
Calamites and Sigillaria with, in I., Lepidodendron. The Brecken-
ridge deposit is rich in fine impressions. Long ago, E. B. Andrews,
in writing of the Ohio and Kentucky cannels, said that Stigmaria
seemed to revel in the ooze which became cannel. Orton® says that
the upper or bituminous portion of the Upper Mercer coal bed con-
tains “the most beautiful specimens of Stigmaria; nearly every mine
car contains what would be a prize in a geological museum.” These
retain their lateral appendages. Many incidental, possibly accidental
references are found in other geological reports, but they give no
details. At the same time, they suffice to show that remains of trees
are recognizable in the coal of very many beds and that Stigmaria is
not confined to the lower part of the deposit, but occurs in all por-
tions in bituminous as well as in cannel.
Dawson* examined carefully every coal bed exposed in the long
South Joggins section. Many deposits of inferior coal in Divisions
3 and 4 are composed of recognizable leaves and stems and there are
beds of clean bright coal containing Sigillaria, Cordaites and other
forms. The stems are almost invariably prostrate, but in one coal
bed he saw a coaly stump and an irregular layer of mineral charcoal,
“arising apparently from decay of similar stumps.” In another bed,
composed of prostrate Sigillaria with Cordaites, etc., he found a
* L. Lesquereux, “ Geology of Pennsylvania,” 1858, Vol. II., p. 841; Third
Rep. Geol. Surv. Ky., 1857, pp. 520, 532, 548; Fourth Rep., ibid., 1861, pp. 342,
349, 368, 379, 405, 412.
* EF. Orton, Jr., Ohio Geol. Surv., Vol. V., 1884, p. 850.
“J. W. Dawson, “Acadian Geology,” 2d ed., pp. 150, 162, 168, 171, 173,
174, 190, 438.
72 STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. [April 18,
stump as mineral charcoal, while, in another, a trunk was seen, re-
duced to little more than coaly fragments, surrounded by a broken,
partly crushed cylinder of bark. ‘His study convinced him that the
bark of Sigillaria and allied plants gave the bright coal, while wood
and bast tissues yield mineral charcoal, the dull coal coming from
herbaceous plants and mold.
Goeppert®® found in the coal itself not only the plants which char-
acterize the accompanying shale, but also many other species, espe-
cially of Sigillaria. The coal contains, in areas. studied by him,
Stigmaria, Sigillaria, Caulopteris, Calamites and other types forming
stratified beds, 30 to 40 feet thick. Of the stems, only the rind re-
mains and that is pressed flat. Where the chemical change was long
continued, the features of the rind disappeared and the coal became
structureless ; but he often saw structureless coal pass into that with
well-defined structure. At some localities the coal is composed of
Araucarian stems and Stigmaria, while at others Lepidodendron is
so abundant that one can hardly find a piece not containing that plant,
Grand’Eury® says that Stigmaria is very abundant in the coal of
Rive-de-Gier ; that Cordaites forms the greatest part of the coal in
mines near Saint-Chaumond and in those of the Chazotte; it seems
to be almost the only form in the coal of Tartaras, but is associated
with ferns at Peron Midi and at Gandillon. At some places near
Saint-Etienne, Sigillaria makes up practically whole beds of coal.
Conditions are similar in other parts of Europe. He cites von
Ettinghausen, who states that, at Radnitz, the coal-forming plants
are Sigillaria and Stigmaria, with Lepidodendron and Calamites, but
the latter two as well as the ferns are unimportant. Grand’Eury
found similar conditions at Eschweiler, Wurm, Essen and Saar-
bruck; Geinitz called the Plauen deposit, Calamites coal. But
Grand’Eury emphasizes the fact that a coal bed has not been formed
by any single kind of plant. He remarks that occasional specimens
of stems are found, converted into carbonized wood, showing the
® H. R. Goeppert, “ Prize Essay,” 1848, pp. 60, 70, 72-75; 276, 277008)
Fig. XVI.
© C. Grand’Eury, “Flore carbonifére du Département de la Loire et du
Centre de la France,” Paris, 1877, pp. 153, 168, 212, 213, 259, 396-308.
1913-] STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. 73
cortex and the intra-cortical fusain, which is finer than that from the
wood,
Fayol® learned to distinguish coal made from Calamodendron,
Cordaites or ferns as readily as he could distinguish a piece of
beech from one of fir. He recognized these types first in isolated
laminze, but afterwards in brilliant laminz occurring in the thickest
and purest parts of the Grande Couche. He saw tree trunks in
Commentry, some buried in the lower benches of the coal and others
passing from the coal into the overlying shale. One fourth of one
percent of the trees in the coal are vertical, an equal proportion are
inclined and the others are prostrate. Few trunks in coal are cylin-
drical; where such stems occur, one can prove usually that one of
the extremities is in sandstone.
David," in describing deposits of Kerosene shale, reports that in
one mine at the end of Megalong ridge, the shale contains erect
stems of Vertebraria; in another, prostrate stems; in a third are
flattened stems or “barky casings of plants turned into bituminous
coal, over four inches in width.” David saw many vertical and
prostrate stems of Vertebraria in the Shale at a locality in Cook
county. Wilkinson saw at Joadja creek impressions of Vertebraria
lying horizontally in the Kerosene shale as well as numerous vertical
stems of the same plant, whose lustrous, bright substance is in strik-
ing contrast to the dull luster of the enclosing shale. Nathorst
found stems of Bothrodendron in the Devonian coal of Bear island
and stems are present in many brown coal deposits as well as in the
peats of modern bogs. :
FOREIGN BODIES IN COAL.
The presence of tree stems in coal is normal; but the coal often
contains what may be regarded as foreign bodies.
Nodules of calcareous clay-iron stone are familiar objects in
coal beds as well as in the Coal Measures shales. They are from
mere specks to balls a foot or more in diameter. Occasionally they
H. Fayol, “Etudes,” etc., pp. 135, 196, 198, 206, 207.
7 T. W. E. David, Dept. Mines New South Wales, Rep. for 1890, 221-224;
C. S. Wilkinson, ibid., p. 208.
74 STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. [April 18,
are rudely spherical but for the most part the shale is irregularly oval
and occasionally even plate-like. When enclosed in coal beds, the
laminz are displaced about them as though the final compression
had taken place after formation of the nodule; and this feature is as
characteristic of coals which have not been distorted as of those
which have been folded. The nodules are often fossiliferous, con-
taining marine shells at times but land forms and plants at others—
as those obtained at Mazon creek in Illinois, in which are remains
of many animals as well as plants, all marvelously well preserved.
Such nodules have been found in the Devonian, for Nathorst’? ob-
tained some from shales of that age in Spitzbergen; Lepidodendron
and apparently Bothrodendron were recognized in several of them,
while others contain remains of fishes.
More than 80 years ago, calcareous nodules more or less ferrugi-
nous, occurring in the roof and coal of a thin bed in the Lancashire
coal field, attracted Binney’s attention and were made the subject
of a memoir by Hooker and Binney. Since that time, such nodules
have been discovered in many lands and have been investigated by
students in Europe. In this summary, reference is made only to
some of the later publications.
Coal balls were supposed for a long time to be confined, in Eng-
land, to a single horizon, the thin Lancashire coal bed known as the
Mountain Upper Foot. This, in the Lower Coal Measures, is at a
variable distance above the Ganister coal bed, one of the most per-
724 G. Nathorst, “Zur palaeozoischen Flora der arktisches Zone,” Hand.
K. Svens. Veten-Akad., Band 26, No. 4, 1904, pp. II, 13.
32D. Stur, “Ueber die in Flotzen reiner Steinkohle enthaltenen Stein-
Rundmassen und Torf-Sphaerosiderite,’ Jahrb. d. k. k. Geol. Reichsanst.,
Vol. XXXV., 1885, pp. 628 et seq.; A. Strahan, “ On the Passage of a Seam
of Coal Into a Seam of Dolomite,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. LVII., 1901,
pp. 297-304; H. B. Stocks, “On the Origin of Certain Concretions in the
Lower Coal Measures,” ibid., Vol. LVIII., 1902, pp. 46-58; M. C. Stopes and
D. M. S. Watson, “ On the Present Distribution and Origin of the Calcareous
Concretions in Coal Seams, known as ‘Coal Balls,” Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.,
Ser. B, Vol. 200, 1908, pp. 167-208; W. Gothan und O. Horich, “Ueber
Analoga der Torfdolomite (Coal Balls) des Carbons in der rheinische Braun-
kohle,” Jahrb. k. preuss. Landesanst., Band XXXI., Teil II., ro10, pp. 38-44;
C. Barrois, “ Etude des strates marines du terrain houiller du Nord,” rte Partie,
1912, pp. 4, 9, 38, 62.
1913.] STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. 75
sistent members of the column. The Ganister, when separated by
several yards from the upper Foot, contains no balls; but when the
parting is only a few inches, the balls are in both beds. There is no
regularity in the distribution. The Hard coal bed, near Halifax in
Yorkshire and belonging apparently at the same horizon, also con-
tains similar balls. These concretions have a slickensided surface
and the coal lamine curve around them; occasionally a faulted
specimen is found. In size they vary from an inch to a foot or even
more—one, near Shore, weighs 2 tons and replaces the coal from
roof to floor. These balls in the coal contain plant remains in condi-
tion of remarkable preservation.
The roof shale of this coal bed carries abundant remains of
marine animals along with much fragmentary plant material.
“ Bullions,” ‘ baumpots”’ or “ Goniatite nodules” occur in this shale
and are as characteristic of it as the coal balls areof thecoal. These
roof balls enclose shells with which there are often bits of plants,
rarely well preserved but at times admitting of generic determina-
tion. Spherosiderites, answering to the English roof balls or bul-
lions, have been found within the Nord (France) basin in marine
shales, sometimes resting on thin coals. They, like the English balls,
contain Goniatites, Productus and other forms; but Barrois does
not note the presence of similar concretions in the coal.
Sphaerosiderites were obtained at collieries in the Ostrau coal
field from the roof shale of the Heinrichs and Coaks coal beds; in
each case the shale is marine. The balls from the higher shale are
occasionally fossiliferous but those from the roof of the lower bed
seem to be without fossils. The lower part of this shale, however,
is crowded with small balls of pyrite, many of which are fossil-
iferous, while many shells in this portion have been replaced with
pyrite. The balls, for the most part, are small, very irregular in
form and often are polished, so that they might easily be mistaken
for erratics. Sometimes several are united but ordinarily they are
separate and are scattered throughout the shale. They are encrusted
with powdery matter, one to two millimeters thick, which is re-
moved readily by washing. When exposed to the weather, their
concretionary structure soon becomes apparent.
76 STEVENSON—FORMATION OF COAL BEDS. [April 18,
The Coaks bed contains great numbers of coal balls or plant-
sphaerosiderites ; Stur obtained several hundreds in a large block of
coal shipped to him from the mine. These are especially abundant
in the upper bench and on the west side of the area, where the roof
balls also are most numerous. The remains of plants in the coal
balls are always well-preserved but those in the roof balls are in bad
condition.
The roof balls, according to Stopes and Watson, have from 4 to
6 per cent. of clay, whereas the coal balls have often no more than a
trace. Stur has given two analyses of those from the roof, which
are quite dissimilar:
Carbonatejoh calciimynann eer aie eee 61.43 20.01
Carhbonatevor macnesiumies saeco: 2.86 4.33
Carhonatesoiminonmsse mae Meee tie 16.13 25.09
Carbouate or mianganese: sal seb eee es sion 173)
Sulphidewot stron. ermk cor ener caterers 6.45
Ee a eae Rl hee igre re Ce fs Sa 2.49 2.22
Insoluble anatter Nexto2'
*8 Tbid., No. 108.
= Tbid., No: OF:
1913.] OF THE PATRIARCHAL NARRATIVES. 197
in the cases of Jacob and Joseph, a living person probably existed
far back in history about whose name stories, gathered from various
quarters, afterward clustered.
That such a person may have migrated from Babylonia to Pal-
estine, as the Biblical patriarch is said to have done, is clearly attested
by an interesting little contract from Sippar, which reads as follows :*°
*A wagon *from Mannum-balum-Shamash, ‘son of Shelibia, *Khabilkinum,
‘son of Appanibi °on a lease “for I year “has hired. *As a yearly rental "2/3
of a shekel of silver “he shall pay. *As the first of the rent “1/6 of a shekel
of silver “he has received. “Unto the land of Kittim “he shall not drive it.
(After the names of the witnesses comes the date.) “Month Ulul, day 25th,
*the year the king as a friend protected Erech from the flood of the river.
The date of this interesting document has not been identified
with certainty, but it probably comes from the reign of Shamsuiluna
(2080-2043 B.C.). The country Kittim mentioned in it is the Medi-
terranean coast, which was sometimes so called by the Hebrews (cf.
Isa. 2: 10, and Eze. 27:6). The interesting thing is that intercourse
between the Babylonian city of Sippar and the Mediterranean coast
was so frequent when this contract was made, that a man could not
lease his wagon for a year without running the risk that it might ‘be
driven to the Mediterranean coast lands. It was in a period of such
frequent intercourse that some Joseph-el and Jacob-el migrated from
Babylonia and gave their names to Palestinian cities. And it would
seem that some Babylonian Abraham may have done the same, for
Sheshonk I., of the twenty-second Egyptian dynasty (the Shishak
of the Bible), records as one of the places captured by him in Pal-
estine a place called “The field of Abram.’ This place would
seem to have been in southern Judah. It would seem quite as likely
that a Babylonian Abraham may have given his name to the place in
the same way that a Jacob-el and a Joseph-el did, and that, after
Hebrews had settled in the country, they took his name over, just as
they did the other two, as to suppose that the name Abraham origi-
nated in an epithet of a moon god.
One cannot well refuse to believe that many of the stories con-
® See Beitrage zur Assyriologie, V., p. 488, No. 23; cf. p. 420 ff.
1 See Breasted, “ Ancient Records, Egypt,’ IV., 352, 353.
198 BARTON—THE HISTORICAL VALUE [April 17,
nected with Abraham grew up in Palestine around certain shrines.
They were the instruments by which Israel justified her use of these
shrines. Other stories, like that in Genesis 18, 19, arose as the
explanation of natural phenomena, such as the existence of the
impressive gorge of the Dead Sea, and probably in their earliest
form had no connection with Abraham. One can hardly believe, in
view of all the evidence presented, that Abraham was the real an-
cestor of all the peoples said to be descended from him, any more
than he can believe that all Egyptians were descended from one,
Mizraim, but it is no longer unthinkable that the stories collected
about Abraham have been attached to the name of a real man, who
once migrated from Babylonia.
This paper cannot conclude without some remarks about the
historical character of the fourteenth chapter of Genesis. Critics
agree that it does not belong to either of the four great documents
of the Hexateuch, and a considerable unanimity of critical opinion
has been reached in recent decades, that it is later than all of them,
and that it is a kind of Jewish midrash of a thoroughly unhistorical
character. On the other hand, a large group of conservative
scholars have endeavored to show from Babylonian texts that it is
real history—history the authenticity of which is confirmed by the
monuments. What are the facts as they appear to an unprejudiced
mind? ‘They are as follows:
Hammurapi, the great Babylonian lawgiver, one of the most im-
portant of all the Babylonian kings, reigned from 2123 to 2081
B.C., and claimed sovereignty of Mar-tu, or the Westland, probably
Syria and Palestine. Many scholars have held that Hammurapi was
the same as Amraphel of Gen. 14: 1. The names would exactly
correspond were it not for the / at the end of Amraphel. By no
known philological equivalence does that letter belong there, and if
Hammurapi is intended by Amraphel, Gen. 14 must have been
written so late that the name had become corrupted in a way similar
to the corruption from which good Hebrew names have suffered in
the angelic lists of the Ethiopic Enoch.*?
"See the writer’s article, “Origin of the names of Angels and Demons
in the Extra-Canonical Apocalyptic Literature to 100 A. D.” in Journal Lok
Biblical Literature, XXXI., 156 ff.
1913.] OF THE PATRIARCHAL NARRATIVES. 199
Arioch, king of Elassar (Gen. 14: 1), has been identified with
Rim-Sin, king of Larsa, a contemporary of the latter part of the
reign of Hammurapi. But the fact is the name of Rim-Sin could
not even in Sumerian possibly be read Ari-aku. That of his brother,
Arad-Sin, might be so read, but there is nothing to lead us to sup-
pose that it was, and there is no evidence that either Arad-Sin or
Rim-Sin were ever in friendly alliance with Hammurapi.**
Again, much has been made of the fact that Kudur-Mabug, the
father of Arad-Sin and Rim-Sin, who was the “ Ad-da” or ruler
of Emutbal, a district of western Elam, calls himself “ Ad-da” of
Mar-tu,** which has been supposed to be Palestine. Mar-tu, how-
ever, simply meant the place of sunset, and probably in this inscrip-
tion refers to the western part of Elam.** There is really nothing
whatever to connect Kudur-Mabug with Palestine at all. And even
if there were, his name is not Cherdorlaomar, so that again the in-
scription would be evidence of the lack of information on the part
of the Biblical writer.
Much has been made by Professors Sayce*® and Hommel of four
documents published by Pinches in the Transactions of the Victoria
Institute, XXIX., 82 ff., which, according to Sayce and Pinches, con-
tain the names of Arioch, Cherdorlaomar, and Tidal, the three kings,
who in Gen. 14: I are associated with Amraphel. The documents
are written in Semitic and are from the Persian period, not earlier
than the fourth century B.C.
In reality neither the names Cherdorlaomar nor Arioch appear
in the text. The name read Kudurlakhmal is really Ku-ku-ku-mal
or Ku-dur-ku-mal. The other reading is only obtained by giving to
the sign ku a value, lakh, altogether unattested by the cuneiform
literature. The name read Eri-eaku and identified with Arioch is
spelled in two ways. If read as Sumerian, it might be Eri-eaku.
The text in which it occurs is, however, Semitic, and it is probable
that the name is to be read here in Semitic fashion. So read it
Cf. Journal of Biblical Literature, XXVIII. 158 ff.
*“ Cuneiform Texts,” XXI., 33.
*® See Price, Decennial Publications of the University of Chicago, V.,
167 ff.
*° Cf. PSBA. XXVIII., 203-218, 241-251; XXIX., 7-17. Cf. also King,
“Letters and Inscriptions of Hammurabi,” I., p. li ff.
200 BARTON—PATRIARCHAL NARRATIVES [April 17,
becomes Arad-malkua, or Arad-malaku. Tudkhula, the supposed
Tidal, is not called in the document a king at all. To identify him
with “ Tidal, king of the nations,” is a purely fanciful procedure.
It should be noted that in the documents which record these
names Arad-malaku, the supposed Eri-aku, takes no part in the wars
described ; it is his son, Dursil-ilani (who, by the way, has a good
Semitic name) who is represented as the contemporary of Kuku-
kumal, the supposed Cherdorlaomar. It should be further noted,
that these documents represent a complete conquest of Babylon by
Elam—a conquest so complete that :
“Tn their faithful counsel unto Kukukumal, king of Elam,
They [the gods] established the fixed advance, which to them seemed
good.
“Tn Babylon, the city of the gods, Marduk set his [Kukukumal’s] throne,
All, even the Sodomites of the plundered temples, obey him.
Ravens build their nests; birds dwell [therein] ;
The ravens croak(?), shrieking they hatch their young [in it].
To the dog crunching the bone the Lady ... is favorable.
The snake hisses, the evil one spits poison.”
This quotation from the second of the documents published by
Pinches describes a complete subjugation and desolation of Babylon
by Kukukumal, king of Elam. This definitely excludes the possi-
bility that Kukukumal could have acted in harmony with Hammu-
rapi, as Cherdorlaomar is said to have done. Indeed, it shows that
he was not a contemporary of Hammurapi at all, for during his
powerful reign there was no such conquest of Babylon by Elam.
There were many conquests of Babylonia by the Elamites, and this
must refer to some other period. In the documents themselves there
is evidence that another period is intended, for Babylon is called by
its Cassite name, Kar-duniash, a name that it did not bear until three
or four hundred years after Hammurapi.
If the fourteenth chapter of Genesis was influenced at all by
these documents, it is only another proof that the critics have been
right, and that the chapter is not an authority as history.
Bryn MAwr COLLeEGE,
AD Ril te TOs:
THE DETERMINATION OF URANIUM AND VANADIUM
it, ERE CARNOTITE ORES OF COLORADO
AND UTAH.
By ANDREW A. BLAIR.
(Read April 17, 1913.)
The determination of uranium in ores has become a matter of
importance, due to the discovery of ores containing this element in
Colorado and Utah and the constantly increasing demand for them.
In these ores the uranium is associated with two to four times as
much vanadium and varying amounts of silica, alumina, oxide of
iron, lime and magnesia. They are practically free from phosphoric -
acid and sulphides, and contain very small amounts of metals pre-
cipitated by hydrogen sulphide in an acid solution. The problem
thus is practically the separation of the uranium and vanadium from
the alumina and oxide of iron, and their separation from each other.
The first part of the problem is readily solved by the use of ammo-
nium carbonate, which dissolves the uranium and vanadium and
precipitates the oxide of iron and alumina. The separation of ura-
nium from vanadium is more difficult, owing to the strong affinity
between these elements. The volumetric method seems to offer an
ideal separation as hydrochloric acid reduces the vanadium to the
vanadyl condition without affecting the state of oxidation of the
uranium and subsequent evaporation with sulphuric acid and titra-
tion with permanganate gives an accurate method for the determina-
tion of the vanadium. Subsequent reduction by aluminum reduces
the uranium to UO,, but it also reduces the vanadium theoretically
to the state of V,O,, but upon the removal of the aluminum the
vanadium absorbs oxygen so quickly that the actual state of oxida-
tion is uncertain and the titration becomes unreliable. In Low’s
“Technical Methods of Ore Analysis,” page 204, the method relies
on the precipitation of the vanadium as lead vanadate in the pres-
ence of free acetic acid for its separation from the uranium, and
while with great care this may be accomplished with more or less
201
202 BLAIR—URANIUM AND VANADIUM [April 17,
accuracy it leaves much to be desired in the way of simplicity and
ease of manipulation.
The method given by Carnot for the determination of vanadium
by adding uranyl nitrate and precipitating the ammonium uranyl
vanadate in a solution slightly acid with acetic acid lends itself
admirably to the reverse determination, and in the presence of an
excess of vanadic acid the uranium may be accurately and easily
determined. .
Ammonium uranyl vanadate is a canary yellow flocculent pre-
cipitate resembling sulphide of arsenic. It settles rapidly and is
quite insoluble in a solution faintly acid with acetic acid. It must
be washed with a hot solution containing about 5 c.c. of slightly acid
ammonium acetate to 100 c.c. of water, as it is slightly decomposed
by pure water, passes through the filter and is reprecipitated in the
filtrate. Upon ignition the V,O,, 2U0O,(NH,),O + H.O loses am-
monia and water and becomes V,O,, 2UO,. It burns readily, but
should not be heated above a low red, as it fuses and becomes very
insoluble. Even when not fused it dissolves with difficulty in a large
excess of dilute nitric acid. Fusing the salt does not appear to
change its composition or the degree of oxidation of the uranium as
the weight remains constant. When fused, a little hydrofluoric acid
added to the dilute nitric acid causes it to dissolve more readily.
DETERMINATION OF URANIUM.
Boil two grammes of the finely ground ore with 25 c.c. of strong
nitric acid and 25 c.c. water for half an hour, dilute and filter. Re-
ject the insoluble portion. Neutralize the filtrate with ammonia
and after a precipitate has formed add a strong solution of ammo-
nium carbonate in excess. A large excess of ammonium carbonate
is to be avoided as it dissolves appreciable amounts of both alumina
and oxide of iron. This precipitates the alumina, oxide of iron, etc.,
while the uranium and vanadium are dissolved. The volume of the
solution should be about 250 c.c._ The solution should be warm but
not hot, 40°-50° C. is a good temperature. Stir constantly for
fifteen or twenty minutes and allow the precipitate to settle. Decant
as much as possible of the clear liquid on the filter, and finally pour
*“Traité d’Analyse des Substances Minerales,” Vol. II, p. 7o1.
1913.] IN ORES OF COLORADO AND UTAH. 203
on the precipitate and wash it two or three times with water con-
taining two grammes of ammonium carbonate to the 100 c.c. Evap-
orate the filtrate. Dissolve the precipitate in a small quantity of hot
dilute nitric acid and reprecipitate as before. Filter and add the
filtrate to the first one. Evaporate until the ammonium carbonate
is expelled and acidulate with a few drops of nitric acid. Evaporate
until the volume of the solution is about 200 c.c., transfer to a
400-c.c. beaker, and add ammonia until a precipitate appears. Add
nitric acid drop by drop until the solution clears, then add 10 to 15
c.c. of ammonium acetate, made by adding 30 per cent. acetic acid
to strong ammonia until the liquid is acid to litmus paper. This will
require a little over three volumes of acetic acid to one volume of
ammonia. The precipitate which forms immediately is the ammo-
nium uranyl vanadate V,O,;, 2UO,, (NH,).O + H.O, mentioned by
Carnot. After boiling for a few minutes it settles rapidly, leaving
a clear supernatant liquid. Decant the clear liquid on a filter and
wash twice by decantation with hot water containing 5 c.c. of the
ammonium acetate mentioned above to 100 c.c. of water. Wash the
precipitate onto the filter and wash several times with the same
solution. Dissolve the precipitate adhering to the beaker in hot
dilute nitric acid, pour it on the filter allowing the solution to run
into a small beaker. Wash the filter with dilute nitric acid and hot
water and evaporate the solution to dryness, without heating above
water bath temperature. Dissolve in a little hot dilute nitric acid
and add ammonia until a precipitate forms, then ammonium car-
bonate to dissolve the uranium‘and vanadium and precipitate any
alumina and silica. Allow to stand until the precipitate settles, filter,
wash with ammonium carbonate, acidulate the filtrate with nitric
acid, boil off the carbonic acid and precipitate by ammonia and am-
monium acetate as above. Filter, wash, ignite at a low red heat and
weigh as V,O,, 2UO;, which contains 74.48 per cent of U,QO,.
The success of this method depends on the presence of more than
a sufficient amount of vanadic acid to form a precipitate of the com-
position mentioned, and this is the case with all the ores I have seen
from these localities. It is well, however, to make sure of this and
therefore the filtrate from the first precipitation of ammonium
uranyl vanadate should be acidulated with nitric acid and a few
204 BLAIR—URANIUM AND VANADIUM [April 17,
drops of hydrogen peroxide added. If the liquid becomes brownish
yellow in color it shows an excess of vanadic acid. If it does not
it is better to take a fresh portion and add a solution of vanadic acid
in nitric acid. The amount to be added can be judged by the appear-
ance of the precipitate of ammonium uranyl vanadate formed in the
first instance.
SECOND METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF URANIUM.
In the presence of large amounts of alumina and oxide of iron
an extremely accurate separation of uranium may be made by using
the reaction suggested by Gooch & Havens,? by which aluminum
chloride is precipitated in a crystalline form free from iron in a solu-
tion of equal parts of ether and the strongest hydrochloric acid satu-
rated with hydrochloric acid gas. Havens? has shown that this
method gives a separation of alumina from beryllium, zinc, copper,
mercury and bismuth. I have found that it gives an excellent sepa-
ration from uranium and vanadium and the method as worked out
is as follows:
Treat two grammes of ore as directed in the method described
above for the determination of vanadium and after evaporating the
hydrochloric acid solution to syrupy consistency, transfer it to a
narrow graduated beaker of about 100 c.c. capacity, using concen-
trated hydrochloric acid to wash all the solution from the larger
beaker. The liquid should not exceed 20 c.c. to 25 c.c. in volume.
Cool the liquid to about 15° C., and saturate it at that temperature
with hydrochloric acid gas. The gas may be generated from rock
salt or ammonium chloride in lumps and strong sulphuric acid and
the current of gas should be constant and of considerable volume.
When the gas is no longer absorbed but passes freely through
the liquid in the beaker note the volume and add an equal volume
of ether. Saturation of the liquid generally increases the volume
about one fifth and to obtain a satisfactory separation of alumina
the volume of ether added should equal the volume of the saturated
solution. Continue passing the gas until the solution is again satu-
rated, being careful to keep the temperature of the solution close
* Gooch, “ Methods of Chemical Analysis,” p. 204.
‘Loe. ctt., pp. 216, 217:
1913.] IN ORES OF COLORADO AND UTAH. 205
to 15° C. Hydrous aluminum chloride is precipitated together with
lead chloride, while iron, uranium, vanadium, etc., remain in solu-
tion. Prepare an equal volume of hydrochloric acid and ether satu-
rated as described above at 15° C. to wash the precipitate of alumi-
num chloride.
Filter on a Gooch crucible, allowing the solution to run into a
beaker in a bell-jar and wash with the prepared solution. Heat
the filtrate and washings carefully, evaporate to syrupy consistency
and make an ether separation in the usual way. ‘The ethereal solu-
tion contains the ferric chloride and any molybdenum that may be
in the ore, while the acid solution contains the uranium, vanadium,
lime, etc. Evaporate the solution nearly to dryness, replace the
hydrochloric acid by nitric acid, and evaporate to dryness at water
bath temperature. This oxidizes the vanadium and uranium to the
vanadic and uranic conditions. Add a few drops of nitric acid
and dilute the solution, add ammonia until a permanent precipitate
forms, then excess of ammonium carbonate to dissolve the uranium
and vanadium, and filter to get rid of any small amounts of alumina,
and oxide of iron that may not have been removed by the operations
described above. Determine the uranium as described in the first
method as uranyl vanadate.
DETERMINATION OF VANADIUM.
Boil 2 grammes of the finely ground ore with Io c.c. of nitric
acid and 10 c.c. of water, add hydrochloric acid in excess, evaporate
to dryness, redissolve in hydrochloric acid, dilute and filter. Reject
the insoluble matter. Evaporate the filtrate to syrupy consistency
and make an ether separation to get rid of the iron. Evaporate
the hydrochloric acid solution very low, add 25 c.c. or 30 c.c. hydro-
chloric acid and repeat the evaporation several times to insure the
reduction of the vanadium to vanadyl chloride. Add 5 c.c. strong
sulphuric acid and evaporate until fumes of sulphuric acid are given
off. Cool, dissolve in water, and titrate at a temperature of about
60°-70° C. with permanganate solution in a volume of about 100
c.c. The iron factor of the permanganate multiplied by 1.6342
gives the V,O,, taking vanadium as 51.0.
PHILADELPHIA, April, 1913.
SUBTONIUS AND: HIS; BIOGRAPHIES:
By JOHNTG] ROERE:
(Read April 17, 1013.)
Suetonius’ “Lives of the Cesars” is a work which is less well
known to us than it ought to be. Its frequent citation in historical
writings and in treatises on Roman antiquities might seem to make
this statement a questionable one, but it is justified both by the rarity
of the appearance of the author in our college courses of study, and
by the publication of so few editions of the “ Czesars” or of indi-
vidual lives in English; while no full and satisfactory commentary
exists in any language, so far as I know.
The work has the unusual distinction of three editiones principes,
of which two appeared in Rome in 1470 within a few months, and
one in Venice the year following. Between that date and 1820
more than forty editions were issued, including some reprints, under
the names of such scholars as Erasmus, Stephanus, Casaubon, Bur-
mann and Ernesti. Bentley commenced an epoch-making edition
which was never finished, and between 1606 and 1706 three transla-
tions into English were made.
Since 1820 the publications dealing with the “ Czsars”’ have been
relatively few. In 1858 C. L. Roth issued a text which was the
standard until 1906, when L. Preud’homme published a new recen-
sion, followed the next year by that of M. Ihm. No commentary
on the entire work has been made since that of Baumgarten-Crusius
in 1816, several times reprinted and with some additions by Hase
(Paris, 1826). This is naturally not up to date, besides being far
from complete. ‘In English we have had editions of the “ Julius
and Augustus,’? the “ Augustus,”? and “ Tiberius-Nero,”* and com-
1H. T. Peck, New York, 1893*.
*E. S. Shuckburgh, Cambridge (England), 1806.
$J. B. Pike, Boston, 1903.
206
1913.] ROLFE—SUETONIUS AND HIS BIOGRAPHIES. 207
mentaries on “ Claudius’’* and “ Galba-Vitellius ”® have been pub-
lished abroad. Ihm seems to have had a full commentary in mind,
but the appearance of this, as well as of his new text of the frag-
ments, has been delayed, if not prevented, by his untimely death. A
survey of the philological journals, both in English and in foreign
languages, shows few articles dealing with Suetonius, compared with
the number of those devoted to the text and elucidation of many
other Roman writers.
The neglect of an author once so popular may be attributed in
the main to two causes: first, to a more critical attitude towards the
Roman writers as regards their style and a tendency to restrict the
reading of the modern student to those which are rated as “ clas-
sical’’ in the restricted sense of the term; and secondly, to a more
rigorous standard in historical investigation, which has thrown dis-
credit on Suetonius as a source.
While Suetonius must be condemned on both these counts, there
are reasons which make the relegation of his biographies to com-
parative obscurity unfortunate. They are a mine of information
on public and private antiquities, they are of surpassing interest for
their wealth of anecdote and curious detail, and they are an im-
portant representative of a branch of ancient literature of which
few examples have come down to us.
The vogue of Suetonius in still earlier days than those of the
printed editions is shown by the great number of existing manu-
scripts, which are counted by hundreds. These are all apparently
derived from a single survival, which formed a part of the library at
Fulda in 844, as we know from a letter of Servatus Lupus,® abbot
of Ferrieres, at whose request a copy was sent to France and exten-
sively copied. The original codex Fuldensis has since been lost.
As in the case of Horace, a multiplicity of manuscripts has rather
added to the difficulties of editors than favored their attempts to
establish a standard text. The greater number belong to the four-
teenth and fifteen centuries, and are suspected of containing the cor-
*H. Smilda, Groningen, 1806.
°C. Hofstee, Groningen, 1808.
*L. Traube, Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft fiir altere Deutsche Ge-
schichtskunde, XXVII., pp. 266 ff.; cf. Hermes, XL., p. 170.
208 ROLFE—SUETONIUS AND HIS BIOGRAPHIES. [April 17,
rections and interpolations of the scholars of that period. The
emendation of a text disfigured by lacunz and errors began in fact
at an earlier period and had tended to disguise the readings of the
archetype as early as the twelfth century.
We have a few manuscripts of admitted superiority, the Mem-
mianus of the ninth century, the Gudianus of the twelfth, and Vati-
canus 1904, of about the same date as the latter, but unfortunately
coming to an end in the third chapter of the “ Life of Caligula.” Of
these the first is comparatively free from emendations, but it has
numerous errors and lacune, including the extensive gap at the be-
ginning of the “Life of Julius.” The missing portion of this “Life”
was apparently still in existence in the sixth century, when Johannes
Lydus used a codex’ containing the missing dedication to C. Sep-
ticius Clarus, prefect of the pretorian guard, and hence presumably
the opening chapters of the “Life of Julius.” These must there-
fore have disappeared between the sixth and the ninth centuries.
To the evidence for their existence, which has been questioned by
some, we may add a statement of the commentator Servius®; ‘‘ Sue-
tonius ait in vita Czesaris responsa esse data per totum orbem nasci
invictum imperatorem.” This remark, if we may trust Servius for
its genuineness, must have been made in the missing portion of the
“Life of Julius.’ Moreover, the general plan of the biographies
obliges us to assume a lacuna, and the arguments against it are
wholly unconvincing.
The rest of the manuscripts fall into two classes, each repre-
sented by numerous codices, of which the second contains more
errors and emendations than the first. Individually the manuscripts
are of comparatively little value, but their archetypes, whose read-
dings may be recovered from their agreement, are more important,
especially that of the first class, which seems to be derived from the
same original as the Vaticanus.
There is comparatively little difference of opinion as to the value
and relationship of the earlier manuscripts. Ihmand Preud’homme,
as the result of careful and independent investigations, arrived at
"De Magistr.,” .2).6,\p;-1027 Fuss.
"On Vere, Aan «Wile 7G0:
1913.] ROLFE—SUETONIUS AND HIS BIOGRAPHIES. 209
substantially the same conclusions, and while they differ in their
estimate of the relative importance of some few codices, their texts
show very slight and unimportant variations one from the other.
We might therefore regard the text of Suetonius’ “Czsars”’ as
settled, barring the possibility of the discovery of new material, were
it not for the difference of opinion as to the independent value of
the later manuscripts.
These codices frequently offer readings superior to those of the
earlier ones, but, as has been said, it is suspected that they are the
corrections of scholars of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and
hence of no weight in determining the readings of an archetype.
This conclusion was reached by Roth in 1858, but it has since been
called in question by various scholars.° At present, however, the
weight of evidence is on Roth’s side, since Ihm and Preud’homme
have arrived at the some conclusion through more extensive and
thorough studies’® than have as yet been made public by the sup-
porters of the contrary view. As a matter of fact, except for
greater conservatism in the later editions, which is in accord with
the current conception of textual criticism, and greater reserve in
filling lacune, the texts of Ihm and Preud’homme show remarkably
few deviations from that of Roth, so that any radical changes must
be the result of the demonstration of the independent value of the
later manuscripts or of the discovery of fresh material.
As to Suetonius himself our information is somewhat scanty,
since he is one of many Roman writers who make few allusions to
themselves; in fact the character of his work is not such as to call
for revelations of that kind. What we do know is derived for the
most part from the “Letters” of the younger Pliny, to whom we
®Chr. Modderman, “Lectiones Suetoniane,” Groningen, 1892; H. N.
Veldhuis, “ Annotationes Critice,”’ Leyden, 1897; C. L. Smith, Harvard
Studies in Class. Phil., XII. (1901), pp. 54 ff.; A. A. Howard, id., pp. 261 ff.;
and others.
” Preud’homme, “ Premiére, deuxiéme, troisieme étude sur l’histoire du
texte de Suétone de vita Cesarum,” in the Bulletins de Académie royale de
Belgique, 1902, and Mémoires couronés et autres mémoires publiés par l’Acad-
émie royale de Belgique, LXIII., pp. 1-04; Ihm, Hermes, XXXVIIL., pp.
690 ff. and the introd. to his edition, Leipzig, 1907.
210 ROLFE—SUETONIUS AND HIS BIOGRAPHIES. [April 17,
also owe information about his uncle, the elder Pliny,1! Silius
Italicus,’* Martial,** and other writers of the day. C. Suetonius
Tranquillus, as he himself tells us,1* was the son of Suetonius
Laetus, a Roman knight, who in April of the year 60, as tribune of
the Thirteenth Legion, took part in the battle of Betriacum, where
Otho’s forces were defeated by those of his rival Vitellius. In
other casual allusions of a personal nature, four in number,” Sue-
tonius gives us no additional information of importance, although
they are of some help in drawing conclusions as to the date of his
birth.
His birthplace is unknown. Arguing ex silentio, it is possible
to infer that he was one of the few Roman writers who were born
in the city itself.‘* The dates of his birth and death are also uncer-
tain. The former is assigned by Mommsen* to the year 77; by
Macé with somewhat greater probability to 69.15 To determine the
exact year is impossible, but the facts of his life, so far as we know
them, point to the beginning of the reign of Vespasian. The date
of his death is equally uncertain. Our last reference to him as still
living is in the year 121, but the implication in one of Pliny’s letters’?
that he was slow to publish, taken in connection with the long list of
his writings, would seem to indicate that he must have lived to a
good old age, including a part of the reign of Antoninus Pius.
From another of Pliny’s letters, a reply to a request to have a
suit in which his friend is about to plead postponed in consequence
of an unfavorable dream,?° we learn that Suetonius practised at the
Tit, 54 Vi.) 10 and-2o;
2 T1I., 7.
rg GED Weg
=) (Ohilovoy, 3 i,
* Calig., 19, 2; Domit., 12; Nero, 57, 2; cum post viginti annos (after
Nero’s death), adulescente me, extitisset condicionis incertae qui se Neronem
esse iactaret; Gr. 4.
** The number of these is at most small, and there is no writer of promi-
nence about whom it can be asserted positively; it is probable in the cases
of Cesar, Lucretius and Suetonius; cf. Macé, “Essai sur Suétone,” Paris,
1900, pp. 33 ff.
™ Hermes, Ill., p. 43.
Bue. te} pps B5-tt.
Wes 10),
cai [eee oe
1913.] ROLFE—SUETONIUS AND HIS BIOGRAPHIES. 211
bar, at least for a short time. From a third reference of Pliny”?
Macé and others have assumed that Suetonius was a teacher, and
the former, with the imagination characteristic of French scholar-
‘
“maitre d’école”’ and draws in-
ferences from his profession. But the most natural interpretation
ship, constantly refers to him as a
of dominis scholasticis in the passage in question is “ scholars turned
land-holders,” and there seems to be no evidence whatever that
Suetonius was a schoolmaster.
Pliny’s acquaintance with Suetonius was evidently an intimate
one, since he twice refers to him as contubernalis.** This term, too,
seems to imply that the two men were of approximately the same
age and hence to support the view that Suetonius was born as early
as the year 70. An equality in years is not inconsistent with the
reverence”? which he felt for his distinguished friend, whose posi-
tion was so much higher than his own, and it is in accord with
“ Epist.,” [X., 34, in which Pliny consults Suetonius as to the advisa-
bility of reading his verses in public.
Suetonius held no official position in his earlier years. Through
Pliny’s good offices he secured a military tribunate,?* but soon had
it transferred to a relative, Caesennius Silvanus. The same good
friend secured for him the ius trium liberorum from Trajan,”°
although this privilege was not justified by the number of his off-
spring. That his marriage was unhappy, as well as unfruitful
(parum felix), is a pure inference. Pliny himself was childless,
though he too received the ius trium liberorum from Trajan**; but
the happiness of his wedded life is apparent from several of his
letters.?"
The letters of Pliny which refer to Suetonius cover approxi-
mately the period from 96 to 112. When we next hear of him,”
SR OAs Ai
Al BML TS ik, DS, Ov, ile
*TIL., 8, 1: reverentia quam mihi prestas.
TL. &
*X., 94, 95. The lex Papia Poppza deprived childless men of one half
of the legacies and inheritances left them, which made the ius trium liber-
orum particularly in demand.
36X.., 2.
ATIVE TI) Willen Al, G78 WANIL GS WANDS tito
=~ Sparianius, “Vit. dadr.,” 11; 3.
PROC. AMER. PHIL, SOC., LII. 209 N, PRINTED JUNE 6, 1913.
.
212 ROLFE—SUETONIUS AND HIS BIOGRAPHIES. [April 17,
he is holding the responsible position of secretary under Hadrian
(Ab epistulis, referred to by Spartianus by the later title of epistu-
larum Magister). It is altogether probable that he owed this posi-
tion to the influence of his friend and patron C. Septicius Clarus, to
whom he dedicated the “ Lives of the Cesars,” and that he held it
while Septicius was prefect of the praetorian guard, from 119 to 121.
Spartianus tells us in the same passage that both Suetonius and
Septicius were dismissed by Hadrian, ‘‘ quod apud Sabinam uxorem
iniussu eius familiarius tunc se egerant quam reverentia domus aulicae
postulabat.”” While this statement is far from definite, the words
imiussu eius certainly imply some violation of court etiquette rather
than any more serious misconduct. After this we lose sight of
Suetonius, but it seems probable that he lived in retirement and
devoted himself to study and publication.
Our references give us the impression of a man of quiet, schol-
arly tastes and habits, of no great ambition in other directions, who
enjoyed the friendship of a number of distinguished men and from
his connection with them and his position under Hadrian had the
opportunity of gathering a great amount of information. This is
confirmed by the allusions to his works, which are considerably more
numerous, as well as by his reputation in later times. According
to the fashion of his later years, when the greater part of his books
were published, he seems to have written in Greek as well as Latin,
although the fact that the titles of some of his works are known to
us only in their Greek form is due to the sources in which they have
been preserved. The lexicographer Suidas, of the tenth century,
has given us a catalogue of his writings,”® which has been supple-
mented from other sources,®° while other references throw some
light on the extent and interrelation of some of the books.*t They
are in the general fields of history (biography), antiquities, natural
* S_ uv, TpdyKuddos
Ps. Aur, Vict, °Epit:,” 14>)Servids on on. Vill, 6275 dyduss se
Magistr.,” 3, 64, p. 268 Fuss; Auson., “Ep.,” 19, p. 180 Schenkl; Charisius,
Gen ats) W230; 07k ete:
“Isidore, “De Nat. Rerum,” 38 and 44; Priscian, VIII., 20 and 21,
XVIIL., 140.
1913.] ROLFE—SUETONIUS AND HIS BIOGRAPHIES. 213
history and grammar, and comprise eighteen titles, which are vari-
ously arranged by different scholars.*?
Of all these works only the “Lives of the Czsars’’ has come
down to us practically entire.** We have besides considerable por-
tions of the “De Viris Ilustribus,” biographies of illustrious Ro-
mans in the fields of literature and philology, and numerous detached
fragments from other books, preserved in the form of citations and
excerpts by later writers.
While the historian of Latin literature can hardly class Suetonius
higher than second rate, his influence was greater than that of many
more eminent writers, partly because of his relatively high rank in
the period of his activity, but especially because his “ Lives of the
Cesars” appealed to the spirit of the age. Because of this they
gave a biographical turn to historical writing which endured for cen-
turies. They served as a model for Marius Maximus, who lived
from about 165 to 230, and for the writers of the Augustan History
(“Scriptores Historie Auguste’) of the time of Diocletian and
Constantine, while Tacitus found a follower only in Ammianus Mar-
cellinus (330-400). Their influence extended to the Christian writ-
ers, aS appears from the biography of Ambrosius by his secretary
Paulinus, and even to the Middle Ages, when Einhardus took the
same pattern for his “Life of Charles the Great.” Eutropius,
Aurelius Victor and Orosius drew on him freely and often transcribe
his language so faithfully as to be of some little value in questions of
textual criticism; and he was used as a source by Greek writers
such as Cassius Dio, Lydus, and others.
His other biographies were not neglected: Apuleius made use of
his book ‘On Famous Courtesans,’’ Hieronymus wrote of the “ II-
lustrious Men” of the Church in imitation of Suetonius’ work of
the same title, while the ecclesiastical chronographers, such as Julius
Africanus, drew on his treatise “On the Kings.”
His antiquarian and grammatical works were equally influential.
Tertullian based his “De Spectaculis” on a similar work of Sue-
® See Macé, /. c., p. 355; Schanz, “ Geschichte der r6mischen Litteratur,”
Patt 3, pp» 53) 2.3 ete:
% See page 208, above.
214 ROLFE—SUETONIUS AND HIS BIOGRAPHIES. | [April 17,
tonius, while Censorinus, Solinus, Macrobius, the commentator Ser-
vius, the scholiasts on Horace, Germanicus and Juvenal, the gram-
matical writers, and especially Isidore, the learned bishop of Seville,
excerpted him freely and extensively. In this field, too, his influ-
ence extended to the Greek and Byzantine writers and inspired and
furnished material for numerous works on natural history in the
Middle Ages.
From its title and its general form the “ Lives of the Czsars”’ is
naturally classed as biography, and it is also numbered among our
historical sources. Strictly speaking, however, it is neither history
nor biography. Great historical events are dismissed in a brief
chapter, like Czesar’s Gallic campaigns, or with a casual allusion,
as in the case of the defeat of Varus. Constitutional history re-
ceives relatively greater attention, but this too is subordinated to
the personality of the emperors, about whose qualities and charac-
teristics the minutest and most intimate details are given. Chro-
nology is neglected, except for the dates of birth and death.
But when we examine the “Lives” as biography, we find them
lacking in some of its most essential features. As a matter of fact,
biography as the “faithful portrait of a soul in its adventures
through life’’** has reached its full development in comparatively
modern times, and even now there is not entire agreement as to its
function. The writer in Larousse’s “ Dictionnaire Universelle,” for
example, says:*° “la biographie ne s’occupe que de la vie humaine,
et elle ne l’étudie que dans les actions exterieures des individuels.”
Yet I think that most of us would agree that a biography in the true
sense of the word should be more than a mere catalogue and should
show the development of character as the result of heredity, educa-
tion and environment. Of this there is practically nothing in Sue-
tonius. He rather furnishes us with the raw material for biog-
raphies and his “Lives” differ from the modern conception as
widely as do annals from history.*® It does not occur to him to
make comparisons between the various individuals whom he por-
trays, or to draw the psychological deductions that cannot escape
“Encycl. Brit. sd, Ld. pxo52.
SS Sees, Lips 257.
* See Sempronius Asellio in Gellius, V., 18, 5 ff.
1913.] ROLFE—SUETONIUS AND HIS BIOGRAPHIES. 215
the thoughtful reader. In the “Life of Caligula” he gives us an
appreciative sketch of the noble father Germanicus, leaving the
reader to note the contrast with his unworthy son. He does, it is
true, express the opinion that the latter was sound neither in body
nor mind, but he attributes to this, not his acts of madness and his
change from benevolence to tyranny,-but merely the existence in the
same man of two opposite traits, contempt of the gods and extrava-
gant fear of thunder and lightning.** He has noted this same fear
in Augustus, who had good reason for it in a narrow escape from
death, and in Tiberius; but he has no thought of regarding it as a
family trait: still less as a form of degeneracy or the effect of a
guilty conscience.*®
It is unnecessary to multiply examples of this kind. His method
is sufficiently illustrated by his own remarks.** It consists in gen-
eral in giving an outline of the life of his subject, commonly pre-
ceded by a sketch of the history of his family, and followed by an
enumeration of his deeds in war and in peace and an account of his.
private life and habits. His good and bad qualities are presented in
separate lists, rarely with comment of any kind.*°
The “Lives” differ no less from the original Greek conceptior
of biography than from that of modern times. The former con-
sisted in a description of the ideal Béos, the art of living, as a model
for imitation,** and the type endured for many centuries. In this
aspect biography approaches the domain of philosophy, and Wila-
mowitz finds its beginnings in Plato, although it did not become
common until the Hellenistic period. Our greatest example is of
course the “ Parallel Lives” of Plutarch, who was a young man in
the days of Nero and probably wrote his biographies under the
Flavian emperors, although they were not published until a later
time. Side by side with the philosophical biographies, however,
7 ealig., Si. i.
* Cf. Juvenal, XIII, 223 ff.
*° Aug., 9, 61, 94; Tib., 61; Calig., 22; Nero, 109.
“See, however, Tib., 21; Vesp., 16, 3; Titus, I; 10, 2, etc., and on the last-
named cf. Leo, “ Die griechisch-romische Biographie,” pp. 9 ff.
“See Wilamowitz-Moellendorff in “Kultur der Gegenwart,” I., 8, pp.
116 ff.
216 ROLFE—SUETONIUS AND HIS BIOGRAPHIES. _ [April 17,
though of somewhat later origin, we have the so-called “ gram-
matical” type of the Peripatetics, originally designed as introduc-
tions to works of literature and drawing their material in a great
measure from those works themselves, but afterwards extended to
men eminent in other fields.42 These are of the same general char-
acter as those of Suetonius, and undoubtedly influenced the form of
his “ Lives of Illustrious Men” and of his “ Czsars.”
In considering the indebtedness of works of Roman literature to
Greek models we must make a distinction between form and con-
tents. It is well known that the Romans had made beginnings in
various lines of literary endeavor before their introduction to the
masterpieces of the Greeks, which would have resulted in the devel-
opment of a native literature quite different from that which we may
properly call Graeco-Roman. Although this development was checked,
it is equally well known that from the outset the Roman writers
showed originality in the use of their models, for example, in the
“contamination” of Greek plays and in the early invention of the
fabula pretexta and fabula togata. But the influence of the form
of the Greek writings was powerful from the beginning, and as time
went on, regular rules for the various classes of literary composition
were formulated, from which a rhetorically trained writer seldom
ventured to deviate. This, however, is not necessarily attended with
a lack of originality in the subject matter and its treatment. Horace
b
for instance in his “Odes” followed the general principles and
metrical schemes of Alczeus and Sappho, as he freely admits,** but
as Professor Gildersleeve has graphically expressed it :** “if Alkaios
and the rest of the nine lyric poets were to rise from the dead,
Horace would still be Horace.’ Similarly it does not detract in the
least from the merits of the “ Agricola” as a masterpiece of litera-
ture that its author followed the traditional rules for the compo-
* While it was maintained by Leo that these were composed on a gener-
ally uniform plan, the newly discovered “Life of Euripides” by Satyros
shows a departure from the norm in being cast in the form of a dialogue,
with one principal and two minor interlocutors.
4“ Odes,” III:, 30, 10: Dicar ... Princeps Aeolium carmen ad Italos
Deduxisse modos.
“ Amer. Jour. of Phil., XXXIII., p. 360.
1913.] ROLFE—SUETONIUS AND HIS BIOGRAPHIES. 217
sition of encomiastic biography.*® Therefore the fact that Sue-
“ee
tonius took as his model the “grammatical” biographies of the
Greeks does not mean that the Romans derived the idea of that
branch of literature from across the seas. On the contrary, there
are good reasons for supposing that biography was one of the nu-
merous forms of writing in which a beginning had been made before
the days of Livius Andronicus, and it seems altogether probable that
considerable progress had been made before that time.
At first thought we should not be inclined to look to the Romans
for a form of literature in which the personal element is so strong,
at least in the earlier period of their history. It is a commonplace
of criticism that at the beginning of their national life they were led
by their situation to form a military and political organization in
which the interests of the community were paramount and those of
the individual distinctly subordinate. To this we may attribute the
late and exotic impulse to many forms of creative literature and the
prominence given to military science and to law. MHeine’s witty
characterization of the people as “ eine casuistische Soldateska ” con-
tains as much truth as any generalization epigrammatically ex-
pressed. The Greeks, on the contrary, exalted the individual, and
their greatness in literature and the arts was in marked contrast to
their failure to achieve political unity, and their consequent early
relation to Rome of Grecia capta. That they were so late in devel-
oping a biographical literature is doubtless to be attributed to their
original notion of the moral and didactic function of that class of
' writing and its subordination to other forms of philosophical teach-
ing, and to the relatively restricted nature of the “grammatical”
biography in its earlier stages.
In spite of the suppression of the individual in early Rome, there
were certain customs which favored the production of biographies
of a laudatory character, the purpose of which was in part moral
precept, as with the Greeks, and in part the gratification of national
and family pride. We are told that it was usual at banquets to sing
the praises of illustrious men and their houses. Cicero twice alludes
“ See Hendrickson, “ The Proconsulate of Cn. Julius Agrippa,” Univ. of
Chicago Decenn. Publ., V1., 20 ff.
218 ROLFE—SUETONIUS AND HIS BIOGRAPHIES, [April 17,
to this custom,*® each time giving Cato as his authority. Valerius
tutem alacriorem redderent,” while Varro,** referring to the same
custom, says that the singers were pueri modesti. Horace also
refers to such songs,*® and Macaulay attempted to give an imitation
of them in his “ Lays of Ancient Rome.” Granting him, as we may,
a fair degree of success in reproducing their spirit, although their
form was of course quite different, it is clear that such lays were not
biography, although they contained material for such writings and
two powerful impulses to their composition. The theory of Peri-
zonius, which Macaulay followed, with regard to an early ballad
literature is of course generally given up, but we have no ground
for doubting the testimony of Cato and Varro as to the existence of
the custom referred to.
The Romans possessed a closer model for biographical literature
in the funeral eulogies which were spoken from the rostra by a son
or some other near,relative in honor of distinguished men and
women, and in the eulogies of their ancestors by magistrates on
their entrance to office.°° The former custom must have been a -
very early one, for Livy tells us*! that it was first extended to women
after the capture of Rome by the Gauls, in gratitude for their con-
tribution to the city’s ransom, an indication of the antiquity of the
custom, whatever be the truth of the statement itself. The epitaphs
of the Scipios may be regarded as condensed summaries of such
eulogies, stripped of their minor details. For example:
Cornelius Lucius Scipio Barbatus,
Gnaivod patre prognatus, fortis vir sapiensque,
Quoius forma virtutei parisuma fuit,
Consol, censor, aidilis, quei fuit apud vos.
*«< Tusc. Disp.,” IV., 2, 3: gravissimus auctor in Originibus dixit Cato
morem apud maiores hunc epularum fuisse, ut deinceps qui accubarent caner-
ent ad tibiam clarorum virorum laudes atque virtutes; “ Brut.,” 19, 75.
Maximus‘? adds that their purpose was “quo ad ea imitanda iuven-
SV it. 1:
“In Nonius, s. v. assa (vox).
uc @ deswanlvenslbar2 Suite
For the former see Polybius, VI., 53-54, and for the latter, Suet.
Abily, 6 ae
PUN), (SOsc7
1913.] ROLFE—SUETONIUS AND HIS BIOGRAPHIES. 219
Taurasia, Cisauna, Samnio cepit;
Subigit omne Loucanam opsidesque abdoucit.™
In the eulogies themselves fuller details were given, as we see
from Ceesar’s funeral oration on his aunt Julia, a part of which is
quoted by Suetonius.°* In this oration Cesar undoubtedly had a
political purpose, as Napoleon had in his “ Histoire de Jules César,”
and on other similar occasions, the opportunity was taken to justify
one’s own conduct or that of an ancestor.
That this custom led to the composition of formal biographies
or at least to the publication of the funeral addresses themselves is
a priori probable, and we have a parallel in the development of ora-
tory as a branch of literature. According to Tacitus®* the custom
of publishing accounts of the lives of distinguished men (clarorum
virorum facta moresque posteris tradere) was an ancient one (an-
tiquitus usitatum), and we have references to such works, including
autobiography,°*® at a comparatively early date. The custom nat-
urally was given a fresh impulse by the growth of individualism at
Rome, beginning with the domination of men like Sulla in times
which might well be referred to by Tacitus as ancient, and reaching
a high point with the foundation of the Roman empire.*® To this
period belongs one of our few surviving specimens of ancient biog-
raphy, twenty “Lives”’ from the “De Viris Illustribus” of Cor-
nelius Nepos, published about 44 B.C., which are of quite a different
type than those of Suetonius.*?
It is unnecessary to mention in detail, or to refer to all the biog-
raphies and autobiographies of which we have mention in this epoch
and that of the early Empire.®* While our only other surviving
example is the “ Agricola” of Tacitus, the interest of the Romans
in this form of literature is sufficiently obvious.
peal aa Ths £330:
= Julius, 6; 1.
ne ical
® See West, “ Roman eee De Vinne Press, 1901.
“The same personal element appears in the historical writing of the
period; cf. Leo, /. c., p. 310.
a See:Weo, /) cpp. 103i.
For numerous references, and on autobiography as an original creation
of the Romans, see West, /. c.
220 ROLFE—SUETONIUS AND HIS BIOGRAPHIES. _ [April 17,
Although it may fairly be maintained that biography was original
with the Romans, and although in the nature of the case the ‘‘ Lives ”
of Suetonius are independent so far as their subject matter is con-
cerned, the latter naturally followed the established rhetorical rules
for the composition of such works. Just as Horace adopted the
verse forms of Alcaeus and Sappho, so Suetonius took as his pattern
the biographies of the Greek ‘‘ grammatical” type,®® since his pur-
pose was not eulogy, but an impartial account, according to his own
views of impartiality. Such merits, however, as his work possesses,
and such defects as it labors under, are due to himself and not to
any great extent to his models. That the books, interesting and
valuable as they are, do not take first rank as literature is because
he did not have the pen of a Tacitus; that they are rated no higher
as an historical source is due to his lack of critical judgment.
The style of Suetonius is that of the investigator and scholar,
rather than the man of letters. His purpose is clear statement,
rather than rhetorical adornment or dramatic effect. He had no
leaning towards the style which Seneca had made popular in his
earlier years,’ or that of the archaizers who set the fashion during
his later life.*t His ideas of an appropriate style appear in what he
says of that of Augustus,®* much of which might be applied to his
own writings. As might be expected of a scholar, his choice of
words is accurate and forceful, while his sentences are as a rule
terse and packed with meaning. Now and then he turns out phrases
worthy of Tacitus, but these seem to be due to his subject matter,
like his intensely dramatic passages,®* rather than to any conscious
departure from his usual unadorned, “ businesslike,’ and somewhat
monotonous style.
Suetonius had at his command a wealth of sources of informa-
tion, the greater number of which are lost to us, including historical
works, memoirs, public records and documents, and private corre-
beard re.
® Cf. Calig., 53, 2: Senecam tum maxime placentem; Nero, 52.
* See Seneca, “ Epist.,” 114, 13.
? Aug., 86.
“For example, the death of Julius Cesar (82) and of Domitian (17),
and the last hours of Nero (49).
1913.] ROLFE—SUETONIUS AND HIS BIOGRAPHIES. 221
spondence, published and unpublished. His intimacy with Pliny
gave him access to senatorial opinion, while his position under
Hadrian opened to him the imperial archives, either directly or
through his colleague AD studtis.°* Few men could have had such
opportunities, and he seems to have been as diligent a collector of
material as the elder Pliny.*° While he made little use of the in-
scriptions which are so highly valued in our day,®* this was due to
the abundance of his literary material and to the plan of his work.
He occasionally makes use of them and shows an appreciation of
their value.**
In general his methods are rather those of the scholar and inves-
tigator than of the inquirer and observer. He is a diligent searcher
of records, but rarely records hearsay evidence, gathered from his
grandfather and other men of the earlier time, or the restlts of his
own observation.** As he comes nearer to his own day, when the
former material was more scanty and the opportunities for gathering
information of the latter kind more abundant, his interest visibly
wanes. In the rare cases when he gives us an insight into his
method of handling his material, as in the discussion of the varying
opinions about the birthplace of Caligula,®® he seems to examine it
with care and good judgment, whenever he considered it necessary
to do so; but the plan of his work seldom called for such critical
methods, and it is quite possible that he has given us notice of all
the cases in which he employed them. What he mainly desired was
entertaining anecdotes and personalities, and he drew them indis-
criminately from every quarter, either not realizing, or trusting his
reader to discern that impartial opinions about Augustus were not
to be expected in the letters and speeches of Mark Antony, or that
one historian was not as trustworthy as another.
The result is that none of the Cesars cuts a very heroic figure
“See Macé, /. c., p. 110 f.
pelle Epist.; LET. 5: 17%
* See Dennison, “ The Epigraphic Sources of Suetonius,” Amer. Jour. of
Arch., sec. ser., II., pp. 20 ff.
“See Aug., 7; Tib., 5; Calig., 23; Claud., 41; and for a full discussion
of the subject, Dennison, /. c.
* See the references in note I5.
> Calig:, 8.
222 ROLFE—SUETONIUS AND HIS BIOGRAPHIES. [April 17,
in his pages. The great Julius appears as an unscrupulous poli-
tician, who aimed at supreme power from his earliest years and
regarded any means of attaining it as justifiable.*° He was ready
to join in any attempt at revolution which seemed to promise suc-
cess."* In spite of his moderate use of his victory and his many
plans for the welfare of the state, Suetonius apparently believes that
he deserved the fate which overtook him."? For Augustus and Titus
he has an evident admiration, yet his method does not allow him to
pass over the former’s cold-blooded cruelty** and calculating seduc-
tion,’* and the latter’s violence, debauchery and shameless avarice.”
In fact, his conscientiousness leads him even to record charges which
he himself rejects.** Onthe other hand, he scrupulously recounts the
good deeds and qualities of Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, and Domitian,
although it is evident enough that his general opinion of those emper-
orsis far from favorable. Vespasian fares best, for he is charged only
with penuriousness, and even this Suetonius is inclined to justify on
the ground of necessity.’ Perhaps the most dramatic career of the
whole series is that of the hard-headed, humorous Sabine, roused
to seek political preferment only by his mother’s taunts,*® and retain-
ing his simple habits and good common sense even after becoming
ruler of the state. He bitterly offended Nero by going to sleep or
leaving the theater while the emperor was singing,’® was pelted with
turnips at Hadrumetum,*® and daubed with mud by order of Caligula
for neglecting his duty of keeping the streets clean,*? a fitting punish-
® Julius, 30, 5.
Mullis, : 35) 5, S19, 01
Julius, 76, I: pregravant tamen cetera facta dictaque eius, ut et abusus
dominatione et iure exsus existimetur.
@Aug.; 13, 27.
Aug. 60, 1.
*® Titus 7: constabat in cognitionibus patris nundinari premiarique solitum.
as Claudius. 15:
TENeESpealOwss
™ Viesp. 2, 2:
™ Vesp:, 4,4:
* Vesp., 4, 3; Suetonius’s naive sentence is worthy of a full quotation:
exim sortitus Africam integerrime nec sine magna dignatione administravit,
nisi quod Hadrumeti seditione quadam rapa in eum iacta sunt.
Se ViESD ENS se
1913-] ROLFE—SUETONIUS AND HIS BIOGRAPHIES. * 223
ment for the offense and one of the flashes of genius of the madman
who called Livia. a ‘“ Ulysses in petticoats ’’** and dubbed Seneca’s
style “sand without lime.’’** While Vespasian lurked in retirement,
fearful of Nero’s vengeance for a lack of appreciation of his his-
trionic talents, opportunity found him in the form of the war in
Judzea, which called for an energetic and able leader, such as Ves-
pasian had shown himself under Claudius in Britain, and at the
same time one whose humble origin made it safe to trust him with
a great army. On becoming emperor he acquired the prestige and
sanctity which were lacking in a parvenue prince by performing
miracles,** but how little his head was turned is shown by the last
joke of the inveterate humorist, uttered on his death-bed, ‘‘ Woe’s
me! methinks I’m turning into a god.’’** Finally we have the fine
picture of the sturdy old man struggling to rise and meet death on
his feet, as an emperor should,*° and dying in the arms of his
attendants.
Although Suetonius doubtless intended his method to be strictly
impartial, and though it would have been more nearly so in the hands
of a more critical writer, it does not in reality give us a fair estimate
of the emperors. To realize this we have only to imagine the biog-
‘ raphy of some prominent man of our own day, made up of praise
and censure drawn indiscriminately from the organs of his own
party and those of. the opposition, and presented with little or no
comment. So far from accepting his statements at their face value,
the critical reader will hardly regard the judgment recently expressed
by Professor Botsford as too severe:** “in the case of an author
like Suetonius the student of history may begin his examination by
rejecting, at least provisionally, everything that could not have been
known to the public at the time of its alleged happening or that is
not vouched for by trustworthy documents. This process of sift-
ing will leave a substratum of facts.-on which the investigator may
e Galige “23, 2:
Calta. s 54 U2.
mV ESD 5° 7112:
= Vesp., 23, 4.
* Vesp., 24.
* Amer. Jour. of Phil., XXXIV., p. 88.
224 ROLFE—SUETONIUS AND HIS BIOGRAPHIES. [April 17,
proceed according to his judgment to build his historical edifice.”
It is one of the weaknesses of Ferrero’s interesting and suggestive
work, that he now accepts the testimony of Suetonius and now re-
jects it as mere gossip, according to its relation to his own theories.
One cannot but wonder somewhat at the freedom with which
a member of the imperial household** ventured to speak of the em-
perors of the past. It must be remembered, however, that Hadrian
had no family connection with the men of whom Suetonius writes,
and that the failings and vices of his predecessors made the virtues
of the reigning prince more conspicuous. But consistently with the
general plan of the work, we find no trace of that contrast of the
evil days of the past with the happy present which appears in the
third chapter of the “ Agricola.”’ We have only the very moderate
remark at the end of the “ Life of Domitian,’ where after speaking
of the dream from which that emperor inferred a happier condition
of the state after his death, Suetonius says: “ sicut sane breve evenit,
abstinentia et moderatione insequentium principum.”
Suetonius has been stigmatized as a scandal-monger and a man
of prurient mind. The former charge seems not to be justified.
He did, it is true, collect all the damning details which seemed to
him interesting, but even in the case of emperors like Caligula and
Nero he is equally conscientious in assembling all that can be said
in their favor. The so-called scandal-mongery is, in fact, a feature
of the development of realism in the writings of the imperial period®®
and of an interest in all the details of the private life of promi-
nent men.
The second charge is based in part on the accounts of the sexual
habits of the emperors, and in part on the fact that he wrote a work
“On Famous Courtesans.” The latter argument may be dismissed
as unconvincing, since the work has not come down to us and we
have no means of knowing how the subject was treated. The
former no more convicts him of pruriency than the amusing stories
and witticisms which he has diligently collected justify us in credit-
ing him with a sense of humor, in spite of numerous indications to
* The “ Cesars” was published while Suetonius was Hadrian’s secretary,
apparently in 120.
* See H. T. Peck, “Julius and Augustus,” introd., pp. v ff.
1913.] ROLFE—SUETONIUS AND HIS BIOGRAPHIES. 225
the contrary.®° In reality these details are presented with the same
judicial coldness which is characteristic of his work in general, and
he cannot be called obscene in the sense in which we may apply that
term to Martial and Juvenal, for example. His discussion of such
matters is undeniably plain and frank, but it must be remembered
that the ancient conception of pudicitia was very different from the
modern one.®? Moreover the feeling which to-day leaves certain of
his chapters in the original Latin or expresses them in veiled lan-
guage is of comparatively recent date. Holland, for instance, in
1606 found no embarrassment in translating Suetonius into the
frankest English and dedicating his book “To the Right Honorable
and Vertuous Ladie Harington.”’
While it is obvious that we must regard the “Lives of the
Czsars”’ more or less in the light of a work of fiction, it deserves
to be read as our best and most characteristic specimen of Roman
biography, albeit with an open mind and in a spirit of scholarly
scepticism.
” This subject will be discussed at another time.
* See Julius, 40, 1.
THE CONTROL OF TYPHOID FEVER BY VACCINAGION:
By MAZYCK P. RAVENEL, M.D.
(Read April 18, 1913.)
The discovery of the prevention of disease by the use of atten-
uated cultures of bacteria is due to Pasteur, who, in 1879, discov-
ered that when a chicken was inoculated with a weakened culture of
the chicken cholera bacillus it became sick but soon recovered and
thereafter could resist injections with the virulent germ without
injury. Following Pasteur’s suggestion, those methods by which
we protect against disease through the use of attenuated cultures
are spoken of as “vaccination,” and the materials ‘“ vaccines,” in
honor of Sir Edward Jenner, who discovered vaccination against
small-pox. Pasteur’s later success in immunizing animals against
anthrax by similar methods led to experiments on laboratory animals
looking toward immunization against typhoid fever.
In 1896, Doctor (now Sir) Almroth E. Wright inoculated two
men with killed cultures of the typhoid germ. Pfeiffer and Kolle
in the same year immunized two men and made a subsequent study
of the changes produced in the blood. In 1897, Dr. Wright pub-
lished the results of his inoculations made on eighteen men, which
convinced him that the method was a practical one in the prevention
of the disease. Dr. Wright soon after tried it in the British army
in India, but the outbreak of the Boer War gave him his first oppor-
tunity to carry it out on a large scale. The results were hard to
collect accurately and opinions differed greatly as to the ultimate
success of the method. Dr. Wright, however, believed that the inci-
dence of the disease was diminished about one half, and that the
mortality was favorably influenced to even greater extent.
We now understand some of the reasons for the varying effect
of the vaccine. At that time the cultures were heated to a tempera-
ture of 60° C. in order to destroy their vitality. It has since been
226
1913.] TYPHOID FEVER BY VACCINATION. 227
shown that this amount of heat injures or destroys to a great extent
the power of the germs to produce a good response in the formation
of those substances on which the body depends for its protection.
At the present time the cultures are killed by heating to 53° C.
It was tried next on a large scale in the German Colonial army
during the Hereros campaign of 1904-07. The reports of this ex-
pedition show that the percentage of typhoid fever among the unin-
oculated was almost Io per cent., whereas among the vaccinated it
was only a trifle over 5 per cent. Further than this, the figures show
that 76.01 per cent. of the inoculated who contracted the disease had
mild or moderately severe cases, with the fatal cases numbering 6.47
per cent., whereas only 61 per cent. of the uninoculated had light or
moderately severe cases, while the mortality reached 12.80 per cent.
It was further shown that among the vaccinated 60 per cent. of the
fatal cases occurred in those who had received only one dose of vac-
cine, 33 per cent. in those who had received two doses, and only 84
per cent. in men who had received the three inoculations (Russell).
The value of the method has been made the subject of study by
a number of commissions appointed by various governments all of
which have made favorable reports. After careful consideration,
anti-typhoid vaccine was introduced in the United States army as a
voluntary measure in 1909. The favorable eesults were so striking
that in 1911 it was made compulsory for all officers and enlisted
men under the age of forty-five years. The most striking example
of its efficacy is afforded by a comparative study of two bodies of
soldiers, approximately equal in numbers, living under similar con-
ditions during the same. period of the year, and in much the same
climate, one stationed at Jacksonville, Fla., in 1898; the other at
San Antonio, Tex., during the maneuvers of 1911. At Jacksonville
there were 10,759 men, with 2,693 cases of illness known, or believed
to be, typhoid fever, and 248 deaths. At San Antonio there were
12,801 soldiers with only one case of typhoid fever, which resulted
in recovery. During the same time there occurred in the city of
San Antonio forty-nine cases of typhoid fever with nineteen deaths,
showing that the infection was prevalent in that community and
demonstrating that the difference in the incidence of typhoid fever
PROC. AMER, PHIL, SOC., LII. 209 0, PRINTED JUNE 7, 1913.
228 RAVENEL—THE CONTROL OF [April 18,
was almost certainly due in large part to vaccination. As the troops
had considerable freedom in visiting the city, this conclusion is
rendered all the more certain.
PREPARATION OF THE VACCINE.
The method of preparation varies slightly in different labora-
tories, but the following is probably most often followed.
Pure cultures of the typhoid bacillus are grown on slanted agar,
preferably in flat bottles, which give a large surface for culture. At
the end of forty-eight hours the bacilli are scraped off and suspended
in normal salt solution. The suspension is then heated for one hour
to a temperature of 53° C., preferably in a water bath, after which
it is standardized by comparing it with normal blood. Equal parts
of normal human blood and the suspension of bacteria are mixed,
and oftentimes diluted in order to facilitate counting. Spreads from
the mixture are made on slides, stained, and a large number of fields
(usually one hundred) examined, and both red blood cells and bac-
teria are counted. The average number of blood cells per field and
the average number of bacteria per field are then compared. The
normal blood count is taken at five million red cells for each cubic
millimeter. Knowing this, it is easy to determine the number of
germs per cubic centimeter. The vaccine is then diluted with normal
salt solution until the mixture contains one thousand million bacilli
per cubic centimeter. If it is to be sent out to physicians in general
practice, it is better also to make a further dilution of the suspen-
sion to five hundred million per cubic centimeter for the first injec-
tion so that the size of the dose may be kept uniform while the num-
ber of bacteria contained in the dose is varied. The vaccine may be
preserved for considerable lengths of time by the addition of one
fourth per cent. of lysol, or carbolic acid. When kept in a cool and
dark place its properties are maintained uninjured for at least three
months.
It is also advised that the material should not be used until it is
three weeks old, as freshly prepared vaccine apparently is more apt
to give severe local reactions than that which is older.
1913.] _ TYPHOID FEVER BY VACCINATION. 229
POLYVALENT VACCINE.
At the present time many laboratories are using what is called
polyvalent vaccine; that is, one made of a number of pure cultures
derived from different sources, mixed together in approximately
equal proportions. Thus, in preparing vaccine for the immuniza-
tion of the French soldiers in Morocco cultures were obtained from
cases of typhoid fever occurring in that country. Some bacteriolo-
gists also add to the vaccine cultures of the para-typhoids, A and B.
At the Laboratory of Hygiene of the University of Wisconsin it is
our invariable practice to prepare polyvalent vaccine.
Vincent, who has prepared most of the vaccine used in the French
army, uses twelve different strains. After full growth has been ob-
tained, the bacteria are autolized in salt solution with frequent shak-
ing, and killed by being subjected to the action of sulphuric ether.
DOSAGE.
In America the dose universally employed is that advised by the
army. Three doses are given ten days apart. The first dose con-
sists of five hundred million bacteria, the second and third one thou-
sand million each. The injections are made preferably in the upper
arm about the insertion of the deltoid muscle, and are given under
the skin and not into the muscles. The skin is sterilized with iodine,
and the sterile needle is thrust through the area thus prepared. It
is customary to vaccinate about four o’clock in the afternoon so that
any reaction which takes place will occur during the night and be
practically over with by the next day.
The use of alcohol in any form is prohibited, as even moderate
amounts seem to increase the severity of both local and general
symptoms.
No special precautions are necessary and the vaccine does not
usually interfere with the ordinary vocations of life. Occasionally
slight chilliness and even rigors may occur combined with headache,
general malaise, and sometimes distinct nausea. Locally, there is
an area of redness and tenderness, the worst of which is over with
within twenty-four hours. Suppuration never occurs.
The vaccine is well borne by women and children, but the dose
Y
230 RAVENEL—THE CONTROL OF [April 18,
for children should be smaller than that given to adults in propor-
tion to their weight, the dose given being that proportion of the adult
dose which the weight of the child bears to the average adult weight,
namely, one hundrd and fifty pounds.
Major Russell reports that of three hundred and fifty-nine chil-
dren vaccinated in no case had any bad effects been observed, and
no case of typhoid fever had occurred amongst them up to the time
of his report. In approximately one hundred and twenty-nine thou-
sands injections in adults there were only six tenths of one per cent.
of severe reactions. Of these, three tenths of one per cent. followed
the first injection.
The vaccine should not be given to anyone running a tem-
perature. Vincent has shown that in persons suffering from malaria
the occurrence of a paroxysm is oftentimes precipitated by the giving
of a dose of vaccine. In the enormous practice in the United States
army the only serious result which has been observed occurred in a
man suffering from an unrecognized incipient tuberculosis. The
rule, therefore, is to be sure that the person about to be inoculated
has a normal temperature.
GENERAL APPLICATION OF THE METHOD.
It is evident that the use of vaccine is particularly applicable to
armies or other large gatherings of men who are apt to be in tem-
porary quarters deprived of the usual sanitary arrangements for the
disposal of sewage. However, the use of the vaccine has a very
much wider range than this, being of great value in the suppression
of local epidemics. A typical case of its use under these circum-
stances will be mentioned.
A water borne epidemic occurred in Avignon, France, a town
with a population of 49,000, in 1912. Six hundred and forty-four
cases with sixty-four deaths were reported, but it is certain that the
total number of cases reached 1,500. The garrison of the town con-
sisted of 2,053 men. Of these, 1,366 were vaccinated; 687 not
vaccinated. Among the unvaccinated there occurred 159 cases of
typhoid fever with 21 deaths; while not a single case occurred
amongst those who had been vaccinated. All lived under the same
1913.] TYPHOID FEVER BY VACCINATION. 231
conditions, drank the same water, ate the same food, and did the
same work.
In the State of Wsiconsin, the bacteriologist of the State Labo-
ratory of Hygiene has administered the vaccine in two outbreaks,
one occurring in a county hospital, and the other in a small village.
At the institution one hundred and six persons were vaccinated.
One case of typhoid fever occurred amongst those who received the
vaccine, but within such a short time that it was evident that the
person had been infected before vaccination was practiced. The
case was atypical and of the mildest type, resulting in recovery,
showing that the vaccine exercises a favorable effect when given
during the period of incubation. During an epidemic in the town of
Warrens, Wis., one hundred and sixteen persons were vaccinated.
The epidemic ceased at once, and since that time only one case of
typhoid fever has been reported among the vaccinated.
The method is of the greatest use in institutions, especially hos-
pitals. It has long been known that nurses were more liable to
typhoid fever than other people, as the result of direct exposure.
Dr. Spooner began the inoculation of nurses in the Massachusetts
General Hospital, and reported that for the first time in the history
of the institution no nurses had suffered from typhoid fever during
the year. The practice has, since October, 1912, been extended
by him to twenty-three hospitals in Massachusetts. In all, 1,361
individuals have been treated. In the same hospitals there have
been six hundred and seventy-four persons exposed but not vacci-
nated. Among the vaccinated there have been three cases of typhoid
and para-typhotd fever. Among the uninoculated there have been
seventeen cases of typhoid and para-typhoid fever. It is evident
that a large amount of protection was furnished by the inoculation
among those especially exposed to the disease.
In the State of Wisconsin we advise that whenever a case of
typhoid fever occurs in a family the other members of the family
shall receive the protective inoculations. It is impossible to give
exact figures of the results, but several very striking instances have
been reported to us.
232 RAVENEL—THE CONTROL OF [April 18,
In Watertown vaccination was advised for the husband of a
woman suffering from typhoid, and two trained nurses who were
in attendance. One of the nurses refused to be vaccinated, saying
that she was immune. About three weeks after leaving the case she
went down with a severe case of typhoid fever, and was ill for sev-
eral weeks. The husband and other nurse remained well.
The vaccination has been carried out also to a large extent in the
National Guard of Wisconsin. This is still on a voluntary basis.
In 1912 a large number of troops submitted to the inoculations, but
many refused them. Some of those who declined were taken sick
with typhoid fever soon after reaching home. We have not been
able to trace any case among those who received the full vaccination.
Another condition in which the use of anti-typhoid vaccine is
likely to prove of great service is in the treatment of typhoid bacillus
carriers. During the last few years many cases have come to light
in which individuals have been carrying the typhoid fever germ, and
have been discharging it from their bodies for longer or shorter
‘
periods of time; such persons are known as “carriers.” The most
b)
noted of these cases, “Typhoid Mary” in New York, is well known
to the general public. Another striking example came to light on
the steamship Acme sailing from San Francisco. So many cases of
typhoid fever occurred among the sailors on this vessel that she
obtained a bad name as the “ fever ship,’ and it was difficult to
secure good crews. The treatment of such cases has been a puzzle
to the medical profession, and it seemed impossible to keep these
persons in hospitals or under quarantine indefinitely. It has been
found, however, in a number of cases such as those reported by
Brem, and by Currie and McKeon, that the bacilli rapidly disap-
peared from the discharges of the body after administration of a
vaccine made from the particular strain of typhoid germs recovered
from the patient—what is known as an autogenous vaccine.
There are nineteen cases of carriers recorded in literature that
have been treated with typhoid vaccine. Fourteen of these were
successful; five were failures, though two of the latter were helped
for a time.
1913.] TYPHOID FEVER BY VACCINATION. 233
In conclusion, I think we are justified in saying that in anti-
typhoid vaccination we have an efficient method for the control of
the disease under many and varying circumstances. It can never,
however, take the place of sanitation, the proper disposal of sewage,
and provision of safe water supplies.
WIsconsIn STATE LaporaTory oF HYGIENE,
Manpison, Wis., April, 1913.
tHE TREATY OBLIGATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES
RELATING TO THE PANAMA CANAL.
By CHARLEMAGNE TOWER.
(Read April 17, 1913.)
I beg leave to call to the attention of the society a subject which
has been considerably discussed of late, in Congress and throughout
the country, and cannot be considered in any sense to be new; but,
in spite of this fact,and of a certain familiarity which it has acquired
in men’s minds from frequent mention, I am inclined to the thought
that it can scarcely be too plainly or too forcibly brought before the
sober consideration of the American people,—the international obli-
gations undertaken by the United States in the treaties relating to
the Panama Canal.
The subject of a canal across the narrow strip of land that joins
the two continents is one, indeed, that is nearly contemporaneous
with the discovery of America; for its advantages made themselves
evident even to the earliest explorers and navigators, who, upon
returning to Spain, in 1528—more than 150 years before William
Penn entered the Delaware,—presented to the Emperor Charles V.
a plan for the opening of a waterway through the Isthmus of Pan-
ama; a project that never was lost sight of and which acquired
greater importance to us, both from our political and commercial
point of view, after our separation from Great Britain and the estab-
lishment of our independent nationality.
In 1826, Mr. Clay, then Secretary of State, wrote, in connection
with a Congress at Panama:
“A cut or canal for purposes of navigation somewhere through the isth-
mus that connects the two Americas, to unite the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans,
will form a proper subject of consideration. That vast object, if it should
be ever accomplished, will be interesting, in a greater or less degree, to all
parts of the world.”
234
1913-] TOWER—TREATY OBLIGATIONS. 235
We were not in a position at that time to think of undertaking
such a work ourselves, though our government was alive to the
opportunity and wished to participate in the advantages that would
arise from a canal; and Mr. Clay added:
“Tf the work should ever be executed so as to admit of the passage of
sea-vessels from ocean to ocean, the benefit of it ought not to be exclusively
appropriated to any one nation, but should be extended to all parts of the
globe upon the payment of a just compensation or reasonable tolls.”
The progress of events and the growth of our importance as a
nation enlarged the interest of the people of the United States in the
passage through the isthmus, which was taken up in the House of
Representatives in compliance with a memorial from the merchants
of New York and Philadelphia in 1839. A resolution was adopted
by the House that the President should be requested:
“To consider the expediency of opening or continuing negotiations with
the governments of other nations, and particularly with those the territorial
jurisdiction of which comprehends the Isthmus of Panama, for the purpose
of ascertaining the practicability of affecting a communication between the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, by the construction of a ship canal across the
isthmus, and of securing forever the free and equal right of navigating such
Canal to all nations.”
A treaty was entered into, seven years later, in 1846, between
the United States and the Republic of New Granada, which was the
first effective step taken by our government in the direction of the
actual transit across the isthmus and of our participation in its con-
struction and maintenance of way. This was a treaty of peace,
amity, navigation and commerce with New Granada, and was con-
tinued in operation by the Republic of Columbia into which that
state was subsequently transformed, and it is to this agreement,
entered into by us during the administration of President Polk,
through an immense amount of negotiation and correspondence that
has taken place since between ourselves and other governments, par-
ticularly those of the Central and South American republics as well
as Great Britain and France, that may be traced the origin of the
interests and claims under which the United States have constructed
the canal and are in control of the territory of the canal zone on
the isthmus to-day. The treaty extended to the citizens of the
236 TOWER—TREATY OBLIGATIONS [April 17,
United States all the privileges and immunities of commerce and
navigation in the ports of New Granada that are enjoyed by’the
Granadian citizens themselves, and the government of New Granada
guaranteed to the United States, “that the right of way or transit
across the Isthmus of Panama upon any modes of communication
that now exist or that may be hereafter constructed, shall be open
and free to the Government and citizens of the United States.” In
return for these favors the United States guaranteed: “ positively
and efficaciously, to New Granada, the perfect neutrality of the
isthmus, with the view that the free transit from the one to the
other sea may not be interrupted in any future time while this treaty
exists’; and, in consequence, the United States guaranteed, “in the
same manner, the rights of sovereignty and property which New
Granada has and possesses over the said territory.”
Therefore we had acquired a controlling influence at Panama
which enabled us to play so prominent a part that we might begin to
make effective plans for the construction of a canal; whether we
should decide to build it ourselves, or whether the work should be
done by others, it was quite certain that no canal could be made
without our consent. We had secured the constant enjoyment to
ourselves of the commercial privileges enjoyed by the inhabitants
of New Granada, and as New Granada was a weak power we made
the stipulation in return for the favors that she had shown to us
that the United States government with its superior strength would
protect New Granada in her rights of ownership on the Isthmus of
Panama and would guarantee that she should always maintain her
sovereignty over that territory. We failed afterwards to carry out
our agreement in this respect; and the protest of Colombia, taken
upon its merits as a matter of international law, is very serious,—but
that belongs to another subject.
_ Our attitude was made plain at that time by the message with
which the President submitted this treaty to the Senate, in 1847, for
its approval and ratification, in which he announced formally the
policy of the United States to develop the communication through
the isthmus for the benefit of the commerce of the world at large.
Mr. Polk declared that the treaty did not “ constitute an alliance
1913.] OF THE UNITED STATES: 237
for any political object, but for a purely commercial purpose, in
which all the navigating nations of the world have a common
interest.”’
“The ultimate object is to secure to all nations the free and equal right
of passage over the isthmus. If the United States should first become a
party to this guaranty, it cannot be doubted that similar guarantees will be
given to New Granada by Great Britain and France.”
If the proposition should be rejected by the Senate, the President
said, ““ we may deprive the United States of the just influence which
its acceptance might secure to them, and confer the glory and benefits
of being the first among the nations in concluding such an arrange-
ment upon the government either of Great Britain or France.”
But, at the time that this treaty was made, Great Britain claimed
dominion in certain parts of Central America over which she exerted
authority and of which she was in actual possession; these were the
territory extending along the coast of “Guatemala, called Belize or
British Honduras, including an island called Ruatan and other Bay
Islands, and she asserted a protectorate over a long stretch of Nica-
raugua inhabited by the Mosquito Indians, called the Mosquito
Coast. She had a more direct claim upon and closer personal rela-
tion with the people of Central America than we had,—her occupa-
tion of British Honduras dating back at least to a treaty which she
made with Spain in 1786.
In pursuance of our policy, however, of creating a neutral terri-
tory at the isthmus, and of preventing the establishment there by
any single foreign nation of exclusive control, we propdsed, in 1850,
that Great Britain should unite her interests with ours in order that
not only the canal should be built upon fair and equitable terms,
“but that its construction should inure to the benefit of all nations
and should offer equal opportunity to the commerce of the world;
and for this purpose we invited Great Britain, and she consented, to
enter into a convention with us with the intention of setting forth
_ and fixing the views and intentions of both governments, with refer-
ence to any means of communication by ship canal which may be
constructed between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans by way of the
river San Juan de Nicaragua, to any port or place on the Pacific
238 TOWER—TREATY OBLIGATIONS [April 17,
Ocean.” This was the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, which was signed
at Washington on the nineteenth of A’pril, 1850, by Mr. John M.
Clayton, then Secretary of State, and Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer,
British Minister to the United States. By it:
“The Governments of the United States and Great Britain declare that
neither the one nor the other will ever obtain or maintain for itself any
exclusive control over the ship Canal, will not fortify, or colonize, or exercise
any dominion over Nicaragua, Costa Rica, the Mosquito Coast, or any part
of Central America; also, that neither Great Britain nor the United States
will take advantage of any intimacy or alliance that it may have with
any government through whose territory the Canal shall pass, for the pur-
pose of acquiring or holding any rights or advantages in regard to commerce
or navigation through the Canal which shall not be offered on the same
terms to the Citizens or subjects of the other.”
The treaty having thus provided for the joint action of Great
Britain and the United States, and having agreed that the two gov-
ernments should give their support and encouragement to any per-
sons or company who might first offer to begin the canal with the
necessary concessions and capital, the two contracting nations in-
cluded in it the following statement:
“The Governments of the United States and Great Britain having not
only desired, in entering into this Convention, to accomplish a particular
object, but also to establish a general principle, they hereby agree to extend
their protection, by treaty stipulations, to any other practicable communica-
tions, whether by canal or railway, across the isthmus which connects North
and South America, and especially to the interoceanic communications, should
the same prove to be practicable, which are now proposed to be established
by the way of Tehuantepec or Panama” ;—it being understood—“ that the
parties constructing or owning the same shall impose no other charges or
conditions of traffic thereupon than the aforesaid Governments shall approve
of,—and that the same canals or railways, being open to the citizens and
subjects of the United States and Great Britain on equal terms, shall also be
open on like terms to the citizens and subjects of every other State which
is willing to grant thereto such protection as the United States and Great
Britain engage to afford.”
Thus, the Clayton-Bulwer treaty became the foundation for the
understanding between the United States and Great Britain and pro-
vided for an absolute equality between them in regard, not only to
the protection which they united to give to any interoceanic commu-
nication that should be established, but also formally declared that
1913.1] OF THE UNITED STATES. 239
both governments should approve of any charges or conditions of
traffic—that is to say, tolls——which might be imposed, and that no
such tolls should be imposed, in fact, which had not the approval
and consent of both governments.
The United States government considered that it had entered
into an agreement that was both just and equitable toward both par-
ties, as a definition of the rights and duties of each and a basis upon
which the isthmian canal should be built as a benefit to the commerce
of the world.
And further, we not only held ourselves to be bound by the stipu-
lations of this agreement, but we called upon Great Britain to sus-
tain her part of it by a very strict interpretation of the law, quite
beyond what the British Cabinet had expected in entering into the
engagement, and a good deal more than it was willing at first to
concede ; for we contended that by the provisions of the treaty both
nations had promised not: “to make use of any protection or alliance
which either has or may have with any state or people for the pur-
pose of fortifying or colonizing Nicaragua, Costa Rica, the Mosquito
Coast, or any part of Central America, or of assuming or exercising
dominion over the same.’ And we called upon the British govern-
ment, under this provision, not only not to extend its political influ-
ence in Central America but also to give up such claims as it might
already have acquired in British Honduras, the Mosquito Coast and
the islands of the sea.
This was not at all what Great Britain had understood to be her
position under the treaty, and Lord Clarendon declared, (1854) that
the contracting parties did not intend to include within its action
“either the British settlement in Honduras nor the islands known
as its dependencies,” that whatever claims or influence Great Britain
may have had there previously should remain undisturbed,—that
the only question which might arise in regard to this was one relat-
ing to the boundary line of Honduras,—as to what was British
Honduras and what was not.
“To this settlement and these islands the treaty we negotiated was not
intended by either of us to apply,—and the British government is more
warranted in this conclusion from the fact that the United States sent a
240 TOWER—TREATY OBLIGATIONS [April 17,
Consul to the settlement, in 1847, which Consul had received his exequatur
from the British government which was a recognition of the British claim.
“But, on our side,’ Mr. Marcy, Secretary of State, declared in answer
to this, (1856), “Great Britain had not any rightful possessions in Central
America, and at the same time, if she had any, she was bound by the ex-
press tenor and true construction of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty to avacuate
them, so as to stand on precisely the same footing in that respect as the
United States.”
This defines our position in regard to the affairs of the isthmus;
it insists that Great Britain shall place herself upon an exact equality
with us; that she must give up any claims or privileges in which
we did not share, in order that we may be precisely alike; but it
marks also our obligation toward Great Britain,—for whilst we
insisted that she should be on an equal footing with us, we promised
that we should be upon an equal footing with her. We won our
case and England, giving up the Mosquito Coast and the islands,
came ultimately to our understanding, because of the Clayton-
Bulwer Treaty;—but the provision of the treaty was that:
neither the United States nor Great Britain should exert any influ-
ence that either may possess, “ for the purpose of acquiring directly
or indirectly, for the citizens of the one any rights or advantages in
regard to Commerce or navigation through the said Canal which
shall not be offered on the same terms to the citizens or subjects of
the other.”
General Cass said, (1858) :
“What the United States want in Central America, next to the happiness
of its people, is the security and neutrality of the inter-oceanic routes which
lead through it. If the principles and policy of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty
are carried into effect, this object is accomplished.”
It is to be observed that there are two distinct points of agree-
ment which are set forth in this Treaty as well as in all of the
voluminous correspondence that had taken place in regard to it,—
which points of agreement have never been lost sight of as the
basis of the negotiations relating to the Canal across the isthmus;
namely the neutrality of the canal itself and the absolute equality
between the United States and Great Britain in connection with it.
We demanded it from the start and Great Britain has acceeded to
1913.] OF THE UNITED STATES: 241
our demand with that principle in view, which has never been
changed.
She was willing to join with us in building the canal, or she was
willing that we should build it alone. And when after a good many .
years of delay we announced to her that we were in a position to
undertake the work, and we made suggestions to her looking to that
result, she agreed to make a new treaty with us, to supersede the old
one, in order that the intended benefits might be secured and the
work should progress.
The new treaty was signed in November, 1901, by Mr. John Hay,
Secretary of State, and Lord Pauncefote, the British Ambassador,
whence it has since become widely known as the “ Hay-Pauncefote
Treaty.”
By this contract the two powers
“Being desirous to facilitate the construction of a ship-canal to connect
the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, by whatever route may be considered ex-
pedient, and to that end to remove any objection which may arise out of the
Convention of the nineteenth April, 1850, commonly called the Clayton-
Bulwer Treaty, to the construction of such canal under the auspices of the
Government of the United States, without impairing the ‘general principle’
of neutralization established in Article VIII. of that Convention, agreed that:
The present Treaty shall supersede that of April 19, 1850. That the canal
may be constructed under the auspices of the Government of the United
States,—and that, subject to the provisions of the present Treaty, the United
States shall enjoy all the rights incident to its construction, as well as the
exclusive right of providing for the regulation and management of the canal.
And, in order to make plain the understanding between ourselves and the
British Government with whom we were dealing, we made this specific stip-
ulation: (Article III.).
“The United States adopts, as the basis of the neutralization of such
ship-canal, the Rules, substantially as embodied in the Convention of Con-
stantinople (28 October, 1888), for the free navigation of the Suez Canal,
that is to say:
“y. The Canal shall be free and open to the vessels of commerce and of
war of all nations observing these Rules, on terms of entire equality, so that
there shall be no discrimination against any such nation, or its citizens or
subjects, in respect of the conditions or charges of traffic, or otherwise.”
This is not an obscure subject. It is a treaty into which the
United States entered openly and freely with Great Britain,—a treaty
based upon all that had gone before, both in our correspondence and
242 TOWER—TREATY OBLIGATIONS. [April 17,
our engagements under which Great Britain placed herself and her
interests upon an equality with us and with our interests in Central
America. The situation is one that we have created for ourselves.
It is not a question as to whether we made a good bargain or a
bad one, but it is a matter of the greatest importance to the American
people that the Government of this country shall fulfill its engage-
ments and carry out always and in every particular its international
obligations.
PHILADELPHIA,
April 17, 1913.
A COUNSEL OF PERFECTION: A PLAN FOR AN AUTO-
Matic COLLECTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF A
SLATE TAX FOR HIGHER. EDUCATION,
By J. G. ROSENGARTEN.
(Read April 17, 1973.)
The example of the western state universities suggests a similar
organization for other states. Here in Pennsylvania the Univer-
sity, dating from 1740, when under the inspiration of Whitefield, the
plan of a school was first mooted, has outgrown its modest endow-
ments. Biennially it goes to the legislature to ask help to carry on
its work. In the interval it appeals to its alumni and friends for
help to meet its pressing needs, higher salaries, a larger teaching
force, and more buildings and appliances for its multifarious edu-
cational needs.
What is true of the University of Pennsylvania is true of all
other universities and colleges of Pennsylvania, and of the East and
South, and no matter how large their endowments and income, each
and all require more money to keep pace with the growing expenses
of higher education in the modern university.
It needs no apology to broach the matter here, for Franklin
founded both the American Philosophical Society and the Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania. In fact after the Revolution the charter of
his College of Philadelphia was taken away, and a Charter given to
the University of the State of Pennsylvania, and the constitution
affirmed the duty of the state to help it. Later the charter of the
college was restored, and still later the college and the university
were united in the University of Pennsylvania, and it has grown to
its present great estate under that charter and that name.
From time to time the state has aided it, and private munificence
has enabled it to provide the splendid buildings in which it is now
housed, with College and Law and Medical Departments, and to
243
244 ROSENGARTEN—A COUNSEL OF PERFECTION. [April 17,
maintain the Towne Engineering School, and the Wharton School
of Finance and Economy, and the Zoological and Dental and Veter-
inary Schools, and a long list of endowed Professorships and Fel-
lowships and Scholarships and prizes. With all these, and the other
resources of the university, there is still an annual deficit which
must be met. To do so would require an additional endowment
sufficient to provide an income of half a million dollars to meet the
needs of the university. How to provide this is a question that taxes
the university authorities and exacts time, thought and anxiety of
provost, trustees, faculty and alumni, when they ought to be free to
give attention to the work of instruction and to raising the standard
of education in all its departments.
Illinois, Indiana, lowa, Montana, Wisconsin, are among the west-
ern states which have state universities. In their state constitutions
provision is made for an automatic assignment of a small part of
the state taxes for their support. Thus all appeal to the state legis-
lature for support is made unnecessary. In Wisconsin, and in many
other universities, colleges, etc., the United States Land Grant is
made part of the endowment of the state university, and for agri-
cultural and technical schools. Iowa has recently put all its educa-
tional institutions under a single governing board. All the western
universities have out of the increasing wealth and revenues of their
states provided incomes growing in proportion to their needs, and
their activities keep pace with them. University extension lectures
carry their teachers to every part of their state, and every branch
of education is fostered under intelligent guidance, with university
men spreading the influence for higher and better education.
A constitutional convention is soon to be called in Pennsylvania.
There a plan should be formulated, submitted and discussed for a
reorganization that may strengthen institutions of higher education
in Pennsylvania. The plan and method of securing automatically
a portion of the state revenue for the purpose of education are now
in force in twenty one states, so that there is little novelty in the
idea, for it has been in practical operation in all of them, with vari-
ous differences, and yet almost uniformly successful results. Only
recently, in acknowledging a paper on German Universities, that
1913.] ROSENGARTEN—A COUNSEL OF PERFECTION. 245
Nestor of both American and German universities, the Hon. Andrew
D. White, of Cornell, wrote:
“Tt is doing a duty to the country to call attention to the evils caused
by the scattering of resources among so large a number of institutions bear-
ing the name of ‘ University.’
“The worst affliction of our whole existing system is the fact that such
a multitude of institutions which ought to be called ‘ Colleges’ are pretending
to do University work, while they are in no condition to do the duties worthy
of that name.
“What the country needs is a concentration upon a smaller number of
Universities, with a large number,—no matter how large indeed,—discharg-
ing a function akin to that of the ‘Gymnasia’ in Germany, which might very
honorably be called ‘Colleges. An example of a better practice may be
found in some parts of New England, where institutions,.some of which
were up to a recent time called ‘ Universities,’ have become frankly ‘ Col-
leges.’
“We are about to have Universities which will give us high rank
throughout the World, and among them especially the State Universities of
the West, as well as some that have been established upon large foundations.
in the eastern part of our country.
“As to the Western State Universities, their progress is simply amazing~
There has been developed an honorable pride in them by their respective
states, and this has been deepened by a very honorable rivalry between
sundry commonwealths, as for example Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota,
which has resulted in a magnificent fruitage.
“While the standard of scholarship is kept deplorably low in some of
the smaller Universities, it has been steadily rising in many of the better
endowed institutions. The increase of lectures by distinguished foreign pro-
fessors at various American Universities of the better sort, will be productive
of great good. Cornell, for example, is about to have an extended course
of lectures on American History, by a renowned Oxford Professor upon
the Goldwin Smith Foundation. Who would not gladly exchange our scat-
tered flock of Universities and Colleges, running up into the hundreds, for
the twenty two Universities of Germany ?”
There too the important cities of Hamburg and Frankfurt are
about to coordinate all their existing institutions of science, art and
literature, into great metropolitan universities, retaining all the use-
ful elements of successful and thorough education and training, and
elevating the standard of work.
Against the twenty-four universities, and nine technical schools,
of Germany, the last report of the Commissioner of Education of
the United States reported nearly five hundred universities and
246 ROSENGARTEN—A COUNSEL OF PERFECTION. [April 17,
colleges for men, and one hundred and thirty for women, and over
one hundred and fifty technical schools, nearly one hundred law
schools, and proportionately numerous medical, dental, pharmaceu-
tical, and other allied’ special schools. With this enormous dis-
parity in numbers, it is easy to see why the German schools and
universities do their work thoroughly and well.
The state regulations and examinations for the bar and for
medicine and various other professions and employments, show the
need felt for something more than the diploma of university, college
or technical school.
A state university, representing, in its government, all the insti-
tutions of instruction in education, in all its varieties, general and
technical, would give strength to each and all of the schools affiliated
with it, and its degrees, awarded on their recommendation, would
be greatly enhanced in value.
The first step in Pennsylvania would be to take advantage of
the proposed constitutional convention, and introduce into the new
state constitution,
First—Provisions for an automatic appropriation of part of
the revenue of the state, to higher education, to be distributed in
the maintenance of a University of the State of Pennsylvania, and
allied colleges and technical schools, thus going back to the wise pro-
vision of the Constitution of 1779.
Second.—Legislative power to strengthen and increase the power
of the College and University Council, with the Governor, the Sup-
erintendent of Public Instruction, the Attorney General, State Offi-
cers, ex officio, and the presidents of the University of Pennsylvania,
Pittsburgh, Lehigh, Bucknell, and of Washington, Jefferson, State,
Franklin & Marshall and other colleges and other institutions, the
members.
Third —To give that board power to distribute the state educa-
tional fund among the state universities, colleges, technical schools
and other institutions of learning, science and art, on such terms as
to numbers of teachers and students, standards, and other conditions
as may be prescribed by the college and university council.
Fourth—To make all universities, colleges, technical schools and
1913.) ROSENGARTEN—A COUNSEL OF PERFECTION. 247
institutions for higher education, branches of the university of the
state, retaining their names, organization, endowments, etc., but
requiring annual returns of all the details of numbers, income, work,
etc., on a uniform basis, with provision for inspection, audit, exam-
ination, so thorough that the highest standard of efficiency may be
secured and maintained, under the penalty of losing any claim to
the income from the state education fund; the council to have the
right and privilege of approving and recommending the degrees in
course conferred by the university and other universities and colleges
of the state, with power to revoke or modify charters of any affiliated
institution for cause.
Fifth—The college and university council to have power to con-
solidate existing institutions working in one district or multiplying
the work that could be better done by one strong institution, thus
giving to the state one or more medical, legal, technical or other
schools, in lieu of an unnecessarily large number of small schools,
weakened by competition, lessening standards, and not really serv-
ing the state, owing to insufficient means and inefficient methods.
Sixth.—Uniting with the state university, libraries, university
extension work, scientific and art and technical schools and museums,
in such a way that all unnecessary duplication may be prevented, and
higher education ensured through uniform grants from the state
educational fund.
Seventh—tThe college and university council to have the inspec-
tion of the normal schools, in such a way as to unite in close se-
quence the methods of education, from the public and private
schools, the normal schools, etc., through the colleges and technical
schools and up to the university.
Twenty states have made provision in their constitutions for
automatic collection and distribution of a small part of the revenue
of the State to aid in the work of education of its people, and Penn-
sylvania should make similar provision in its new constitution. It
would increase the efficiency of its institutions of learning, relieve the
legislature of a task which is no part of its proper duty, free the
trustees and officers and faculties of our universities and colleges
from the necessity of going to the legislature and the governor of
248 ROSENGARTEN—A COUNSEL OF PERFECTION. [April 17,
the commonwealth, give them a right to a part of the state revenue
thus set apart for education, elevate the standards and enhance their
efficiency, by allying them with the University of the State of Penn-
sylvania, and give their degrees a position recognized through the
state and beyond it.
This may be a counsel of perfection, but none the less well worth
discussion and careful consideration by the American Philosophical
Society, true to its purpose of promoting useful knowledge. What
can be more useful than to know how best to bring to bear on edu-
cation the means and methods of securing that which is best fitted
to prepare men and women to be good citizens, to teach them all that
is necessary, to secure them the best schools for every profession
and occupation, and to reform existing institutions of learning, so
that they may do the greatest good to the largest number ?
Make the state supply from its plethoric treasury, the money
required for higher education, as it does for secondary and elemen-
tary schools, and then the distribution may be safely put into the
hands of the state’s college and university council, composed of
state officers and the representatives of the universities and col-
leges and technical schools. Among them will be found men who
will see that the state’s money is well spent, with a proper distribu-
tion between buildings and maintenance, salaries and expenses inci-
dental to instruction.
The state will supply through its e.-officio members and its
trained inspectors due protection against undue expenditure of any
kind.
The state college and university council may properly insist that
wherever money is given for any special purpose, it shall be enough
to provide for future maintenance, and not be, as it too often is the
case today, a burden on income. There are plenty of reforms in-
cidental to a reorganization of our institutions of learning, that will
need the careful consideration of the state college and university
council. A few years will serve to show how unnecessary dupli-
cation of work can be prevented, how neighboring colleges can be
united into one strong college, how technical and professional schools
can be strengthened by reducing their number, and increasing their
1913.] ROSENGARTEN—A COUNSEL OF PERFECTION. 249
efficiency, how an exchange of professors may be systematized to the
advantage of teachers and students, and how the standard of educa-
tion may be raised.
Much will be done by the teachers themselves, and there can be
no better inspiration to improve methods than to draw from the
great body of men trained in the work of education, the results of
their experience. Of course there will be impracticable suggestions
and unworkable plans proposed, but those will all be submitted to the
trained and experienced members of the State college and university
council, and after full discussion, their judgment will choose the
good and reject the bad. Plans and methods of teaching will be
entrusted to experienced teachers, and the profession will rise in dig-
nity and importance, as the work shows the good results of their
experience, knowledge and ability. All this and much else can be
accomplished if the new constitution of Pennsylvania makes the
business of education a matter of state support and state government.
Andrew D. White, that Nestor of Higher Education in this
country, first president of Cornell University, and always its in-
spiration, read a paper on “ Advanced Education,” before the Na-
tional Education Association at Detroit, in 1874. Urgent arguments
are brought forward for a reorganization of American universities
and colleges and technical schools as part of the work of the state.
Dr. White urges the necessity of careful public provision by the peo-
ple for their own system of advanced instruction as the only re-
publican and democratic method. Public provision, he said, is alone
worthy of our dignity as citizens. It will stimulate private gifts
and free them from the dogmas of living donors and dead testators.
The nucleus of Cornell University was the national land grant,
which has been supplemented by an increasing flow of private gifts
to the endowment.
The state of Michigan made the national land grant the founda-
tion of its great university, and has added to it from time to time
with the best results. It has thus strengthened the whole system of
public education throughout the state. The national grant and the
state grant together have thus been united to make a great university,
and provide the endowment of advanced instruction, and to coordi-
250 ROSENGARTEN—A COUNSEL OF PERFECTION. [April 17,
nate education from the primary school to the highest technical and
scientific and classical and collegiate and professional training.
Such an example and that of twenty other States all point to
the best way of meeting the general demand for a more regular
and thorough public provision for advanced education, not through
appeals to legislatures, to be subject to all the risks of overtaxed
public bodies, but by a constitutional provision for a fixed, though
small, percentage of the income of the State to be set apart for
higher education and for all branches of education that ought to be
maintained at the public expense, to be expended through the college
and university council, made up of state officials and representa-
tives of universities and colleges and institutions of advanced scien-
tific and technical education. Established by law in 1895, it only
needs increased power to do its best work.
Well directed public bounty, as President White says, stimulates
private bounty. (Generous men and women, seeing that the cur-
rent needs of such institutions were provided by state revenue, would
gladly give freely and largely for such special additions as may
appeal to them. The alumni of universities will find new inspira-
tion for their activity in giving, advising, and encouraging the
growth and prosperity and advancement of their alma mater.
Thus, nation, state, alumni and individual grants and gifts would
be united to strengthen state institutions and enable them to give
the highest literary, scientific and industrial instruction.
The same trend of educated opinion is found in other publication
of the highest authority. In the 44th annual report of the Smith-
sonian Institute, that for 1889, Professor Herbert B. Adams’s paper
on the state and higher education gives the strongest facts and
arguments in support of state aid. He points out that in colonial
days Maryland began her educational history by paying a tobacco
tax for the support of William and Mary College in Virginia. Ver-
mont appropriated a township of land for Dartmouth College in New
Hampshire. New Haven sent corn to the support of Harvard. In
later times Michigan gave to the university one twentieth of a mill
tax on every dollar of taxable property: Wisconsin one eighth of a
mill; Nebraska three eighths of a mill; California one tenth of a
1913.] ROSENGARTEN—A COUNSEL OF PERFECTION. 251
mill; and now the same rule holds in so many states that it may be
described as the normal basis for state aid to higher education.
In the proceedings of the National Education Association there
are abundant evidences that the leading and recognized authorities
on education in this country take the same view.
In the report for 1900, President Swain, then of Indiana Univer-
sity, now of Swarthmore, gave a sketch of the history of the pro-
motion of higher education by the state from early times until the
present. He gives forty-five as the number of colleges and univer-
sities supported by the state, and points to seven representative state
universities—California, Illinois, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota,
Nebraska, Wisconsin.
President Beardshear of lowa State College of Agriculture, said
there were 64 colleges or departments inaugurated by the Act of
Congress of 1862, making land grants for the establishment of
schools for mechanical and agricultural instruction.
Again at the National Education Association meeting of July,
1901, President Jesse of the State University of Wisconsin, read a
paper on the “Function of the State University.” He points out
the opportunities for collaboration with state boards, bureaus and
commissions, with a view to serious study of social and economic
conditions.
Today and in and by our own university much is done for the
state and the city, but as a matter of grace; make it the university
of the state, and state and city would ask for help as a matter of
right. Social and economical and legal problems would be attacked
and solved. By cooperation with boards of education and state and
local superintendents, the.university would help to build up schools,
from primary to normal, by trained inspectors, skilled examiners,
lecturers, practical teachers. Colleges and higher technical schools
should be brought into union with the university, all working towards
the common end and aim, the best education of the largest number.
The university of the state should be in close touch with all the
state boards, bureaus and commissions, the geological survey, the
bureaus of health, education, forestry, mines, industries, all the
innumerable functions and activities of the state. The university
should help in the preparation of laws governing taxation, every
252 ROSENGARTEN—A COUNSEL OF PERFECTION. [April 17,
day growing more complex, and in every form of economic instruc-
tion, for the benefit of the state in its legislation, and of the plain
people. In Pennsylvania, mining, metallurgy, manufacturing, for-
estry, light, heat and power, are among the living issues that require
sound legislation and to prepare it should be one of the functions of
the university of the state.
The United States Bureau of Education publishes annually a
Bulletin of Statistics of State Universities. These include a direc-
tory of state universities and other state-aided institutions of higher
education, noting specially those endowed by the federal government
under the Morrill Land Grant Acts. These numbered 87, besides 16
agricultural and mechanical colleges for colored students, in the list
for the year ended June 30, 1912. There are tables showing the
teaching force, the student enrollment, the property and income of
the 87 state universities and state-aided institutions.
State universities and state-aided institutions of higher education
included in this list, corrected by figures of Professor Maphis’ Re-
port, are as follows:
Income from
Mill Tax.
NGIZOna eee ee pees e613) Shot anil 32,000
Galifornia eee ao 22-5 LOOK fr armiull 750,000
CONGREAGO scancoscccgonn0e 3/5 of a mill 223,000
OTS ets sel tetera 3 mills
indiana sacar 1/10 of a mill 173,000
MOWiar ec ithe ee cmere wens 1/8 of a mill
Keenttichcysicte secre ecicie 1/2 of a mill 47,000
pee 3/8 of a mill 650,000
IMichicanteeeeeererecer | ei ern
Minileso taser ieee 23/100 of a mill 260,000
iINebraska sear I mill tax rate 411,000
INievadaginnee etoeeca oe 1/2 mill tax rate
ING IMINO Godusaccccse 65/100 mill tax rate
North Dakotameeeceeerce J WS ox fate
{ 33/100 mill tax rate
( ( 17/2000 mill tax rate ) 2,000
OhiOyae ce sare ahiae4 ~ 107/2000 mill tax rate540.000 360,000
( 17/2000 mill tax rate \ 88,000
TREXASM cee ee ee 1-3/4 p. c. gross revenue of state
LOG gee omiee octane eee 7.94 p. c. of 4-1/2 mills on the dollar
Wahi ® ac, Sorys aeeerasteetoctaies 18.04 p. c. of 4-1/2 mills on the dollar
WAS COnSITIE eee eee 3/8 mill tax rate 664,000
Wyoming, 7.6 oes se ee 1/2 mill tax rate 24,000
1913.] ROSENGARTEN—A COUNSEL OF PERFECTION. * 253
President James of Illinois State University says the legislature
of Illinois at its last session (1912) passed a law providing that a
tax of one mill for every dollar of assessed valuation should be
levied for the support of the university. This will give about two
and a quarter million dollars per year, available July 1,1913. Owing
to the provision in the constitution of Illinois that the legislature
may not make appropriations for longer than two years, the legisla-
ture must appropriate at each session the money represented by this
mill tax and labeled for the support of the University of Illinois.
Michigan and Wisconsin provide for the levying of a certain
so-called mill tax, three eighths or four fifths of a mill, the proceeds
of which are turned over to the board of trustees of the beneficiary
institution.
The statistics of state universities and other institutions of higher
education partially supported by the state for the year ended June
30, 1912 (Bulletin, 1912, No. 33), give a great many details, among
them a table of property and income of state universities and other
state-aided institutions, showing that there were paid—
By the United
By the State, States.
RomthesOniversity, ot Calitomnia. = ...0.42- 1,124,500 80,000
To the University of Indiana ............ 1,918,900 79,038
To the University of Minnesota ......... 2,314,713 80,000
To the University of Missouri .......... 610,003 76,875
To the University of Nebraska .......... 651,318 80,000
Go the University ot Cormelly ....4..... 4 478,000 72,000
Ohio University )
Ohio @hio’ State University \--.-..-. 5. 1,131,778 50,000
Miami University \
To the Universty of Wisconsin .......... 1,552,398 80,000
The same table gives the receipts from the mill tax and other
sources of some of the states, as follows:
Caloradae (A -institUtiOns isa vane sien We eae ee ek ok ee 406,053
licens CON aTESEILULEIONGS ol s-dicieyaieia's cielo oe abla aekeremom oe ete 250,504
Jowa GSEINTSTIECEIONS'). witasiseksiriscr ee rte ae kee 407,200
Rie tote (een AIS CLEMONS J iarc/asao cyclen’ cosa ine eremive aiiarers wraistones 032,867
IMSITITTES@ Comme NE oie iether eters te eid ee Ee 689,521
RN GGA Som tine emer e Moen s Saists, Sega aaes ey oh ures 374,163
Ohio (AAG TTT NG) Ske Soeotis ORBIT Ancrored oa GA Onn ad pce 480,828
SoutitenGarolitvayercseryre ts c,sctoc ct snicte lak ees oer eae eters T14,113
254 ROSENGARTEN—A COUNSEL OF PERFECTION. [April 17,
LG cel « ee a SRE Ne RRP eager RIOT OO tie DMR ele re 2 6 150,000
WASCOMSIN, Io unenche sat. n cha eiclcoteee eiree abe Suauak es Leas epee 1,103,029
Wily OTE SS cro Beretta i ke eee en As EOP ON 84,000
The same table gives among the many private benefactions to
those state-aided universities:
GAMO ITA aes be Bates ts ee a eS Tees IE 566,000
INI Vici cen Sse ety Neier card. potion MeL See sa Me Th We 150,000
GorpnellWeeme Cee sli iiasanes = loko ep el ate kein iat aes aye.oi'y se sreste 1,307,111
The records of these 87 state-aided institutions confirm the belief:
that private benefactions will continue to supplement in generous
measure the state-aided institutions just as these show by their re-
sults that they are entitled to individual as well as state help.
Pennsylvania expended in 1912 for—
Hepantiientvexpenses acne ce sec ae eee $ 4,072,538.34
ISS GOAMGS Oi GOWSAUINEGME Sooccconcsccadocoaceoneoesnoer 5,390,798.00
(GomMISSIOmSioe ee ye he ee eee se vere 407,900.00
Stategins tititionsin ctactr yi Jc eel eee ee eee 3,342,348.33
Penitentianes and Tefonmatonies 20... -ce. se eee 544,378.69
SOM GUS WAS BUTIOINS Gb osonccadcooaccboeoansosooanc 685,750.00
Educationalmeaes. sr tae hee eee ice nie cera ae iCe: 8,737,600.00
EROS pitas pate neers cearucts wie ers ety tesnns ced Rene eee ane eects 2,683,650.00
Homes and other charitable institutions ........:..... 368,300.00
Mis cella US Ss ryevehc acter c oe ote oso ye recA reo 1,059, 500.00
If the appropriations for education were made by the college and
university council and those for forestry, mining, etc., by boards or
commissions on which were the best experts from the universities
and colleges and technical schools and museums, men of scientific
attainments, the result would be economy in cost and increased effi-
ciency.
It ought not to be difficult to fix a mill tax for higher education
and to devise a plan by which it should be automatically collected
and set apart and distributed by the college and university council
in such a way as to do the greatest good to the greatest numbers, and
at the same time invite a continuance and increase of the indi-
vidual munificence so characteristic of Pennsylvania.
A bill was presented to the Legislature of Pennsylvania in March
1913.] ROSENGARTEN—A COUNSEL OF PERFECTION. 255
for an automatic distribution of the aid which the state accords to
hospitals and charitable institutions ; if passed, it would eliminate the
methods characteristic of the distribution of state funds by the legis-
lature for purely public charities.
Another bill provides jor a charities bureau in the Department
of the Auditor General to carry on the duties imposed on the Audi-
tor General and the State Board of Charities.
The purpose of these bills is to make automatic distribution of
state revenue to and among hospitals and charities doing the work
for the people of the state, on the basis of services rendered, and a
method of full returns of receipts and expenditures, with power by
inspection to correct extravagance, and to compel economy in ex-
penses of maintenance, and to prevent unnecessary duplication of
institutions, but to require of them steady improvement and constant
advance in methods and results.
The growing interest and general demand for the mill tax for
the support of higher education are shown in recent reports, that
for Virginia by Professor Charles D. Maphis, of the University of
Virginia; that for Texas by Professor Arthur Lefevre, of the Uni-
versity of Texas, and that for Ohio by President Alston Ellis, of
Ohio University. That for Virginia is the report made by a com-
mission to devise a systematic method to meet the demands of higher
educational institutions, to prevent educational duplication and con-
sequent financial waste, and to devise stable and systematic methods
for the maintenance, management and expansion of these institu-
tions. The report recommends for Virginia one medical school, one
polytechnic school, and one university, and a permanent education
commission with power to codperate with the governing bodies of
all institutions of higher education in Virginia through repre-
sentatives.
Professor Maphis has collected and printed the opinions of rep-
resentatives of the universities of California, Wisconsin, North Da-
kota, Minnesota, Kentucky, Michigan, Iowa, Illinois, and of the
experts of the Carnegie Institute for the Advancement of Education,
of New York, and of the Bureau of Education of Washington.
Based on these and other evidence, Virginia is advised to adopt
256 ROSENGARTEN—A COUNSEL OF PERFECTION. [April 17,
a mill tax for higher education and with and through it to reorganize
its institutions of higher education so that they may grow with the
growth of the state and with its income and make return in increased
work for the state and its people.
In the college and university council of Pennsylvania the state
has a capital piece of machinery for the distribution of the proceeds
of a state mill tax for higher education. In that council there are
the representatives of the state, the governor, the attorney general,
and the superintendent of public instruction,.and of the universities,
Pennsylvania, Pittsburgh, Lehigh and Bucknell, and of the colleges,
Washington-Jefferson, State, Franklin & Marshall, and an eminent
citizen representing the Catholic institutions of higher education.
With such men that council could be safely entrusted with power
to make a distribution of any sum raised by a mill tax, so that it can
be distributed to the greatest advantage of all the institutions of
higher education in Pennsylvania.
The last report of the Superintendent of Education gives a list
of six universities, twenty-nine colleges, four law schools, four
dental schools, three pharmacy schools, thirteen normal schools and
seven technical schools in Pennsylvania.
The state has created many examining boards for law, medi-
cine, pharmacy, dentistry, veterinary candidates, osteopathy, account-
ants, and boards for the geological and topographic survey, vaccina-
tion, health, mining, etc., and all of them might well be affiliated with
the college and university council, which could designate university
and college experts to carry on the work.
CLIMATIC AREAS OF THE UNITED STATES: AS
RELATED: TO:,PLANT GROW TH
(Plates IX, X, and XI.)
By BURTON EDWARD LIVINGSTON.
(Read April 18, 1913.)
Introduction.
The climatic factors which generally determine whether a given
kind of plant may or may not live in a certain locality are to be
divided into two groups. The first group comprises those factors
which tend to increase or to decrease the moisture content of the
plant body. They may be termed the moisture conditions of the
environment. The second group includes the climatic factors which
tend to raise or to lower the temperature of the plant. These are
the temperature conditions. A third group of climatic factors in-
cludes those tending to increase or decrease the insolation of the
plant and hence to promote or retard photosynthesis in green tissues,
by which carbon dioxid and water are decomposed with the formation
of molecular oxygen and carbohydrate. With these light conditions,
however, climatic plant geography has as yet but little to do and
this group will not receive attention in the discussions which follow.
Before plant geography can pass beyond its qualitatively descrip-
tive phase, the moisture and temperature relations that obtain be-
tween plants and their surroundings must be subjected to examina-
tion much more quantitative than has heretofore been attempted.
As in other similar instances, definite knowledge of this complex
set of relations can be reached only through measurements of the
things that are to be related. It thus appears that, for those chap-
ters of plant geography and of scientific agriculture which have to
do with climatic conditions, it will presently be found requisite to
2 Botanical contribution from the Johns Hopkins University, No. 32.
257
258 LIVINGSTON—CLIMATIC AREAS [April 18,
measure both the plants dealt with and their environmental condi-
tions. Since both plants and their surroundings are always chang-
ing, it is essential that our measurements take the form of summa-
tions or integrations. It is therefore first incumbent upon us to find
means of integrating or summing the various fluctuating conditions,
within and without the plant body, that determine the development
of the organism and that decide whether it can exist at all in any
given set of surroundings.
Measurement and summation of conditions within the plant.
Our very meager knowledge of plant dynamics would render
quite hopeless, for the present, any attempt to integrate the qualities,
intensities and durations of physiological processes, were it not for
the fact that the plant itself furnishes at any instant a very clear and
uneqttivocal summation of the effects of all the processes which have
gone on in its body during its previous developmental history. This
fact furnishes the criterion by which comparisons have usually been
made between the growth processes of different kinds of living
things. The amount of growth accomplished during a given time
period may be determined by weighing the crop or some portion of
it, a method commonly in use in agricultural studies. Another
method, employed mainly by phenologists, has been to determine the
length of time which may elapse during certain developmental
phases of the organism. Thus may be determined the length of the
time period that intervenes between seed germination or the first
swelling of lead buds, and flower production or the ripening of fruits.
Still more simple and more easily applied is the method which merely
determines whether or not given plant forms are able to carry out
their life cycles under the environmental conditions of certain locali-
ties. For the positive answer to this question mere observation fre-
quently suffices, for its negative answer, experimentation, or at least
instrumentation, is necessary. If a plant form is observed as thriv-
ing year after year and generation after generation in a certain
locality, it is, as has been mentioned elsewhere, no less than redun-
dant to point out this as an “adaptation”; but if the given form is
not to be observed in this locality, the most direct and final way to
1913.J OF THE UNITED STATES. 259
determine whether or not it can thrive there, is actually to make the
experimental test.
Frequently a simple inspection of the plant dealt with, or the
approximate measurement of certain of its characteristics, may
suffice for an indication of its ability to withstand the water-with-
holding or water-extracting power of the environment. Thus, it has
long been appreciated that the ability of a plant to thrive under arid
conditions is often indicated by its observable physical structure.
The power of anorganism to withhold moisture from an arid environ-
ment seems to be closely, and usually directly, connected with struc-
tural characters which can be recognized at sight, and, on the basis
of this principle, ecologists have classified plants into xerophytes,
mesophytes and the like. Of course this classification must be sub-
jected to a much more definitely quantitative treatment than the one
now generally employed, that of mere observation and personal judg-
ment, before ecology can begin to partake of the characters of an
exact science. Forsucharesurvey of the moisture-retaining powers
of plants we have now at least two practicable and fairly quantitative
methods" besides the directly experimental one of trying various
plant forms under various climatic complexes. This is not the
place to enter into a consideration of these methods, but it should
be emphasized that it now appears to be possible, within a single
period of twenty-four hours, to determine with considerable accu-
racy the position of almost any plant individual in what might be
termed an absolute scale of xerophytism, as far as the water-with-
holding power of its aerial parts is concerned.
For the study of the effects of temperature conditions within the
plant, no means is yet available excepting that of direct experiment.
In one way the problem here met with is simplified by the well-known
fact that plant temperatures practically always follow very closely
the temperatures of the surroundings. In attempts to determine the
relations between temperature and the various plant processes, it is
therefore only necessary to know the effective temperature condi-
* Livingston, B. E., “ The Resistance Offered by Leaves to Transpira-
tional Water Loss,” Plant World, 16: 1-35, 1913. Also references there
given.
PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LII, 209 Q. PRINTED JUNE I7, I9QI3.
260 LIVINGSTON—CLIMATIC AREAS [April 18,
tions of the environment and it is seldom requisite to study the tem-
perature of the plant body separately.
The ability of a plant to withstand unfavorable temperature con-
ditions, quite unlike its ability to withstand adverse conditions of the
moisture relation, is not at all indicated by structural characteristics.
It is absolutely impossible by mere observation or by any morpho-
logical study of a plant, to find a basis even for a rational guess as
to the temperature conditions to which the organism may be fitted.
Furthermore, no method but that of direct experimentation has been
devised, and none seems likely to be forthcoming, by which plants
may be studied with regard to their temperature requirements, and
the appreciation and interpretation: of direct experiment is here so
extremely complex that scarcely any attempt has thus far been made
in this direction. The result is, that, while we are well aware that
temperature conditions are fully as important as those of moisture,
in determining plant development and distribution, yet we are with-
out any really quantitative knowledge of the heat relation.
Before such quantitative knowledge can be attained it will be
necessary that there be made available somewhere a laboratory so
equipped that all of the main conditions of plant growth may be con-
trolled and altered at the will of the experimenter. The need of
such a laboratory has been emphasized by A. de Candolle and again
by Abbe,’ who also quotes de Candolle, but, so far as I am aware,
no serious attempt has ever yet been made to procure facilities for
adequate experimental study of the range of conditions which vari-
ous plant forms may be able to withstand. The value of such a
laboratory to scientific agriculture cannot be overestimated.
For both the temperature and moisture limits of plant activities,
a kind of rough and qualitative experimentation has studied the
growth of the same variety of plant in different localities or of dif-
ferent varieties in the same locality, and has drawn volumes of vague
and more or less discordant conclusions without adequate measure-
ment either of the plants employed or of the climatic conditions to
which they have been subjected. This sort of experimentation is
* Abbe C., First report on the relations between climates and crops.
U. S. Dept. Agric. Weather Bureau Bulletin 36, 1905. See especially p. 23.
1913.] OF THE UNITED STATES: 261
very common to-day, especially among agricultural institutions, and
considerable practical information is no doubt resulting therefrom.
In this agricultural work, however, as also in the observational
studies upon natural vegetation, with which plant ecologists are so
generally engaged, the physiological characters of plants are deter-
mined almost solely with reference to the locations at which they
grow. Thus, seedsmen, to describe the physiological properties of
the plants with which they deal, must name the regions in which
these plants succeed. ‘A greatly approved variety among the truck
‘
gardeners of Long Island,” “one of the most successful earlies
throughout the South.’”’—so run such trade descriptions.
Measurement and summation of environmental conditions.
When we describe the physiological capabilities of a given strain
or species by stating the geographical region in which it thrives, we
are of course employing the environmental conditions as a unit for
measuring and defining the internal ones. Valuable as this sort of
definition undoubtedly is, it falls far short of perfection, even for
practical purposes. The climatic conditions of any locality vary
from day to day throughout the year and their annual march is never
the same for different years. An agricultural plant that proves very
successful for one season in a certain place may be a complete failure
for the following year. It is clear, therefore, that we must seek
methods for describing climatic conditions, other than their simple
reference to certain geographical regions. If such methods can be
devised, even though we may have no better ways of characterizing
our plants than are already at hand, it should become possible to
compare the environmental conditions of different regions, and plant
geography, as well as scientific agriculture, should be greatly
advanced.
METHODS AND DATA.
Turning now to the consideration of the methods which are at
hand for comparing climates, we are struck with an amusing fact;
the most intelligible and most widely used way to do this is to char-
acterize the climatic conditions of any region in terms of the kinds
262 LIVINGSTON—CLIMATIC AREAS [April 18,
of plants and animals which thrive there. The sage-brush is a plant
with physiological characters such that it thrives best ‘in the tem-
perate arid regions of North America, and the climate of these
regions is such as to render sage-brush the dominant and character-
istic form of plant life. So we reason in a circle and arrive nowhere.
There are, however, instrumental methods more ideal, if not
more satisfactory, by which climates may be compared. Thus the
averages or means of temperature, precipitation, humidity, etc., of
the meteorologists and climatologists, give numerical data which are,
in a way, descriptive. It appears, indeed, that means or averages
of the climatic data which have been and are being accumulated
throughout the world should furnish a numerical basis for distin-
guishing between different climatic areas, and this basis has of
course been employed by climatologists for many years. Ecologists
and agriculturists have frequently made use of such climatic means
and have so described the climates with which they have had to deal.
But if you will look over any of the recent ecological papers you
will find that the definition of climates has not gone very far.
Usually a section of such a paper is devoted to the characterization
of the climates of the areas considered, but the quantitative part of
this section is little more than a mass of unrelated figures; out of
these the author himself seems to make no serious attempt to draw
generalizations that may be related to the corresponding vegetational
areas.
We are thus confronted with a state of affairs which is far from
satisfactory. The weather services of the world are expending vast
amounts of wealth and energy in accumulating, year by year, obser-
vational statistics bearing upon the various climatic areas. These
statistics are largely used for weather prediction and for the pur-
poses of theoretical meteorology. It seems that quantitative climatic
descriptions must lie hidden somehow in these enormous masses of
figures, but the plant geographer, whether agriculturist or ecologist,
has thus far been able to derive therefrom but a very small amount
of applicable information.
It seems to me that the reason for this state of affairs is a double
one: first, the climatological observations of our weather services
1913.] OF THE UNITED STATES; 263
have been planned and are carried out mainly not for the study of
climate as it may influence plant growth but for the study of meteor-
ology and climatology and for weather prediction; second, the
methods now employed for handling the observational data after
they have been obtained are not well suited to the study of the cli-
matic relations of plants. To make these propositions clear, we may
consider the work of the United States Weather Bureau, this work
being familiar to all of us and having a direct bearing upon the prob-
lems of plant distribution as I have been led to attack them. AIl-
though the Weather Bureau is officially a part of the national De-
partment of Agriculture, being one of the largest bureaus of that
department, its main activities have neven been primarily directed
towards the relation between agriculture and climatology. Weather
prediction and weather history seem to have been almost the sole
scientific aims of the organization up to the present time. The stu-
dent of plant activities will find no fault with these aims, but he may
wonder how it has come about that an agricultural bureau has so
thoroughly ignored what we must regard as by far the most impor-
tant relation which exists between human welfare and climate; that
is, the relation between plant growth and the climatic features of
plant surroundings.
As to the making of climatic observations, it is clear that observa-
tories in the rural districts are the only ones whose records are prop-
erly available for our present purposes. It is a curious fact which
speaks for the political or commercial rather than scientific nature
of our Bureau’s organization, that the best equipped observatories
in this country are generally located in large cities, and usually high
in the air. As the population of the United States has increased
you may note a somewhat parallel increase in the average distance
of the climatic observatories from the ground. This of course ought
not to be. If political and commercial interests demand observa-
tories in the urban districts the records from these should be treated
only as special studies of special conditions. It is interesting to
note that the charts of Day’s* recent bulletin upon frost data have
* Day, P. C., “ Frost Data of the United States,” etc, U. S. Dept. Agric.
Weather Bureau Bulletin V, rortr.
264 LIVINGSTON—CLIMATIC AREAS [April 18,
been compiled, as the author states, wholly from the observations
of rural stations. The requisite stations must be, however, in the
open country, and not even in small towns.
Furthermore, the geographical distribution of Weather Bureau
stations in the United States is anything but rational. Being located
mainly in large cities, these stations cluster thickly east of the Mis-
sissippi River and are widely separated in the western half of the
country. Such an arrangement has, no doubt, its political, com-
mercial, financial and historical reasons; nevertheless, it is scien-
tifically quite the opposite of rational, for climatic gradients are
gentle in the east and very abrupt in the west.
For the purposes of the student of vegetational-climatic relations,
the actual observations might be greatly improved. As far as the
temperature conditions are concerned, the observational methods are
fairly well worked out for the present. In the future we shall need
a thermo-integrator, the indications of which may bear some at least
empirical relation to plant growth, but such instruments remain to
be devised. As has been pointed out, the moisture conditions of
the environment affect the activities of a plant through their influ-
ence toward increasing or decreasing its water content. Now, most
plants—and ail agricultural plants—derive water mainly from the
soil and lose it mainly to the air. It is thus clear that, with proper
consideration of soil conditions, the data of precipitation should
furnish us with a valuable criterion for comparing climatic areas.
Precipitation is easily measured and our information in this connec-
tion is fairly satisfactory. For the other factor of the moisture rela-
tion of plants, however, namely the power of the aerial surroundings
to extract water from the plant, the climatic data which have been
accumulated in this country furnish practically no information.
The available measurements and averages bearing on this point are
those of relative humidity (a somewhat artificial abstraction), pres-
sure of water vapor, wind velocity, temperature and sunshine inten-
sity. While the present method of measuring rainfall is self-
integrating and leaves little to be desired in the way of improve-
ment, the methods employed in measuring the water-extracting fac-
tors just mentioned all involve artificial manipulations before any
1913.] OF THE UNITED STATES. 265
climatic characteristics can be derived therefrom. Indeed, the sun-
shine data furnished by the weather observatories is not even quanti-
tative in any adequate sense.
In the face of these difficulties ecology has been forced to turn
entirely away from the available meteorological data. It is appar-
ent at once that the water-extracting power of the aerial environ-
ment is effective through the evaporating power of the air and the
intensity of sunlight. The sunlight factor appears frequently to be
of comparatively little importance in the climatic moisture relation,
though its effects in removing water from moist objects such as plants
can now be measured and automatically integrated with considerable
readiness. The evaporating power of the air (a complex of the
effects of vapor pressure and wind movement) appears, on the other
hand, to be generally of prime importance. This fact has long been
recognized and meteorologists outside of the United States have
accumulated a vast amount of information upon evaporation as a
climatic factor.° Meeting with difficulties in the standardization of
atmometers, many workers have turned their attention to attempts
to derive a formula by which evaporation might be computed from
the meteorological factors usually measured. An enormous amount
of work has been done in this line, but the results are of little value
for climatological purposes. At the same time various students of
climatology and of plant activities have devised numerous forms of
atmometers, for measuring and automatically integrating the evapo-
rating power of the air directly. Since the latter is a very complex
factor, it comes about that data from different kinds of instruments
cannot be readily reduced to a common standard, so that there has
been some hesitation in making evaporation measurements a general
feature of climatological work. It is nevertheless true that, for our
present purposes at least, all that is required is that some one form
“Livingston, B. E., “A Radio-atmometer for Measuring Light Intensi-
ties,” Plant World, 14: 96-90, 1911; “Light Intensity and Transpiration,”
Bot. Gaz., 52: 418-438, IgII.
°In this connection see Livingston, Grace J., “An Annotated Bibliog-
raphy of Evaporation,” Mo. Weather Rev., 36: 181-6, 301-6, 375-81, 1908;
37: 68-72, 103-0, 157-60, 193-9, 248-52, 1909. Also reprinted and repaged
I-I21, 1909. The subject has very recently attracted much more attention
than formerly, especially from agriculturalists and ecologists.
266 LIVINGSTON—CLIMATIC AREAS [April 18,
of atmometer be generally adopted, and many weather services are
at present furnishing data upon evaporation as well as upon the
other climatic factors more commonly recorded. On account of
various difficulties arising from the use of a free water surface for
measuring evaporation, the most valuable instruments now available
determine the evaporation rates from the surface of an imbibed
solid, such as bibulous paper or porous porcelain. For plant ecology
the porous cup atmometer® appears to be the most satisfactory of
these instruments, and it seems to be rapidly rising in the esteem
of agriculturists and others who are interested in this line of study.
This instrument has the advantage, for our purpose, that its evapo-
rating surface is so exposed as to be fairly comparable to the evapo-
rating surfaces of plants.
The only systematic information which the United States Weather
Bureau has furnished upon the geographical distribution of evapo-
ration intensities is comprised in the report of Russell’s’ studies.
This author employed Piche atmometers at nineteen stations and
derived a formula from the results thus obtained, by which the
monthly evaporation rates for many other stations were derived.
His operations extended over a single year, from July, 1887, to
June, 1888, and a very valuable chart of evaporation in the United
States resulted therefrom.
During the summers of 1907 and 1908 I carried out a compara-
tive study of evaporation intensities throughout the United States,
under the auspices of the Department of Botanical Research of the
Carnegie Institution, using the standardized porous cup atmometer.
*On the porous clay atmometer, see:
Babinet, J., ‘““ Note sur un atmidoscope,” Compt. Rend., 27: 529-30, 1848.
Marié-Davy, H., “ Atmidométre a vase poreaux de Babinet,’ Nouv. Met.,
2: 253-4, 1869; Mitscherlich, Alfred, “ Ein Verdunstungsmesser,” Landw.
Versuchsstat., 60: 63-72, 1904; also 61: 320, 1904; Livingston, B. E., “ The
Relation of Desert Plants to Soil Moisture and to Evaporation,’ Carnegie
Inst. Wash. Publ. 50, Washington, 1906; ‘““A Simple Atmometer,” Science,
N. S., 28: 319-20, 1908; “A Rotating Table for Standardizing Porous Cup
Atmometers,” Plant World, 15: 157-62, 1912; also other literature there
referred to.
* Russell, Thomas, “ Depth of Evaporation in the United States,” Mo.
Weather Rev., 16: 235-9, 1888.
1913.] OF THE UNITED STATES. 267
The results of these studies have been published* and furnish, for
fifteen weeks only, the second chart of evaporation which has ever
been prepared for this country. It is interesting to note that a fifth
of a century elapsed between these two studies, and that nothing
further has yet been attempted.
Judging from the results already obtained, it appears that the
simple measurement and automatic summation of the evaporating
power of the air for the various climatic areas furnishes as satis-
factory a measure of the water-extracting power of the environment
as the student of plant relations can hope for from a single condition,
and the future development of this branch of science will depend
largely upon whether or not comparative evaporation records may
become available.
TREATMENT OF OBSERVATIONAL DATA,
The frostless season.—In the preceding paragraphs have been
considered the most requisite methods for obtaining climatic obser-
vations. We shall now turn our attention to the application of these
observations after they have been obtained. It is the custom of
meteorologists to derive from the actual observations, daily means,
monthly means and annual means, and to give most attention to the
latter. Now, for the purposes of vegetational-climatic investiga-
tions, it appears that none of these means offers much assistance.
In the determination of plant activities, at least in the majority of
cases, the controlling climatic factors are primarily effective only
during the growing season, and I am convinced that this season
should form the basis of a large part of the manipulation of climatic
records, which which we are here interested. As an approximation
of the vegetational growing season, for general use throughout our
country, it seems most promising to adopt the length of the frostless
season, the number of days intervening between the average dates
of the last killing frost in spring and the first in autumn. That other
duration factors will be required in many cases is not to be doubted,
* Livingston, B. E., “ A Study of the Relation between Summer Evapora-
tion Intensity and Centers of Plant Distribution in the United States,” Plant
World, 14: 205-22, I9QII.
268 LIVINGSTON—CLIMATIC AREAS [April 18,
but this appears to be far more broadly applicable than any other.
The actual data of mean length of the frostless season in the United
States have never been published, but Day’s chart (already referred
to) presents a general view of the range in length of this period
which this country affords. Data corresponding to those from which
Day’s chart of the frostless season was compiled have been deduced
from the average dates of last and first killing frosts as given in the
106 Sumaries by Sections? published by the Weather Bureau.
These deduced data have been used in deriving the other climatic
indices considered below.
Temperature integration.—The mean length of the frostless sea-
son is of course primarily a temperature condition, but it tells us
nothing of the normal temperatures which may prevail within the
period designated, only that killing frosts do not normally occur.
In order to be able to relate the temperatures of the frostless season
to plant activities it is thus obvious that we shall need to sum or
integrate the temperatures over the period of active growth. As
has been said, the mature plant itself is to be regarded as a summa-
tion of all of the accelerations and retardations which have occurred
during its life, so that our integration of temperatures should at-
tempt to consider these, not merely as they affect our thermometers,
but rather as they affect plants. This 1s, however, practically im-
possible until we have at our disposal a much larger fund of infor-
mation concerning the general relation of plant activities to tempera-
ture, and such information is not apt to be forthcoming until such
time as the laboratory for controlled conditions, mentioned above,
may become a fact instead of a mere dream. Various procedures of
temperature integration have been devised by different writers and
appear to be more or less valuable in this connection, but the physio-
logical basis for such procedures remains still to be established.
Under the circumstances, it seems best here to give attention to but
a single one. This is the method of direct summation of the daily
normal means throughout the period in question.
°“ Summary of the Climatological Data of the United States, by Sec-
tions,” U. S. Department of Agriculture Weather Bureau. No date. The
106 pamphlets appear to have been prepared about 1909-10. The data ex-
tend for the most part through 1908 or 1900.
1913.) OF THE UNITED STATES: 269
Bigelow” has given us the daily normal temperatures throughout
the year for 177 stations well distributed over the country. This
excellent piece of work has laid the foundation for many kinds of
climatological study that would otherwise be impossible. The data
are generally based on an observation period of about thirty years
and may be regarded as quite as reliable as any other data that we
now have. In summing the daily normal temepratures for the days
within the average frostless season, for each one of the numerous
stations, some temperature must be assumed as a starting point. I
have taken 32° F. The results of such summations may be termed
average or normal temperature summations, above 32° F., for the
frostless season at the various stations.
The method here used is somewhat similar to that employed by
Merriam™ in his well-known study of the temperature relation in
the United States. This author did not use the average length of
the frostless season, however, and his manipulations differed from
my own in other details. The general method of summations is not
at all new, having been long employed by phenologists.
When we plot the temperature summation indices upon a map
and draw isoclimatic lines in the usual way, there results a chart
which presents the country divided into zones or bands. Such a
chart is shown by the dotted lines of plates IX., X.,and XI. Without
entering into details, it is at once seen that the temperature summa-
tion zones cross the continent in a generally west-east direction, being
southwardly displaced in the regions of the two mountain systems
and also to some extent along the Pacific seaboard. Practically all
of the area of the United States is characterized, according to this
chart, by normal temperature summation indices ranging from 3,000
to 13,000. The southern half of the Florida peninsula exhibits stil]
higher indices.
Integrations of the moisture relation. 1. General considera-
tions.—While temperature furnishes us a single means of studying
* Bigelow, F. H., “The Daily Normal Temperature and Daily Normal
Precipitation of the United States,” U. S. Dept. Agric. Weather Bureau
Bulletin R, 1908.
“Merriam, C. H., “Laws of Temperature Control of the Geographic
Distribution of Animals and Plants,” Nat. Geog. Mag., 6: 229-38, 1804.
270 LIVINGSTON—CLIMATIC AREAS [April 18,
both the tendency of the plant to gain heat and its tendency to lose
heat, we find no such simple climatic factor to use in studying the
conditions which tend to add water to the plant or to remove it.
As has previously been mentioned, the ordinary plant derives most
of its moisture supply from the soil and loses water to the air. The
possible rate of moisture supply to growing plants is thus determined
by the resistance of the soil to the movement of moisture into plant
roots. While the physical properties of the soil play an important
part in this connection and while these vary from place to place, the
amount of water present in the soil is also of primary importance.
This depends, for any particular soil and in the majority of cases,
upon precipitation, and the measurement of this climatic factor
furnishes us, as is commonly recognized, with a criterion of consid-
erable value in the comparison of climatic areas. While the distri-
bution of rainfall throughout the period of the plant’s activities is
fully as important as its amount, I shall give attention in this paper
only to the latter.
It has already been emphasized that the evaporating power of the
air is the main climatic feature in the control of water loss from
plants, as from other moist objects. If we add to this the water-
extracting or desiccating power of the sunshine we have an exceed-
ingly satisfactory measure of the water requirements of plants, for
most of the water absorbed by ordinary plants is lost by transpira-
tion. Here also I shall consider only the question of the mean
evaporating power of the air throughout the period of the frostless
season.
If we assume for the moment that soils are all alike in their
physical properties, and if the moisture supply of plants be propor-
tional to precipitation while the water loss is proportional to the
evaporating power of the air, some relation obtaining between these
two factors should be a direct measure of the vegetational water
relation. Unfortunately for our study, the assumptions above made,
especially the one regarding the physical properties of soils,are very
far from true; yet certain physical types of soil are found in every
one of the climatic areas which we are apt to encounter, and for
any such type the relation just referred to should be of great value.
1913.] OF THE UNITED STATES: 271
Thus, heavy clays occur commonly throughout the United States
and the moisture relation of plants growing thereon may be approxi-
mately proportional to the relation of precipitation to evaporation.
A similar proposition may hold for sandy soils. It is, however, to
be noted that a sandy soil and a clay soil under the same climatic
conditions ought not to be expected to possess the same power oi
supplying moisture to plants.
The relation of precipitation to evaporation was first emphasized
as a climatic factor influencing vegetational distribution in the United
States by Transeau,’? who constructed a very interesting and valuable
chart of the eastern portion of our country on the basis of the ratio
of mean annual precipitation to the annual evaporation obtained by
Russell for a single year. Another, and in some ways more satis-
factory relation between rainfall and evaporation is the difference
between these factors, precipitation minus evaporation. I have
tested this as extensively as our extremely meager data on evapora-
tion will allow. In the present paper attention will be confined to
this index of difference for the frostless season.
We now turn our attention to three examples of the quantitative
study of the moisture relations of the United States, resulting in the
means of precipitation, of evaporation and of the difference between
these two for the frostless season.
2. Amount of precipitation during the frostless season.—Bige-
low has given us, by means of very ingenious and elaborate methods,
a table showing the daily normal precipitation for each of 177 sta-
tions in the United States, and it is upon this valuable work that I
have based all of my quantitative studies of rainfall. In the present
instance, wherein the normal distribution of precipitation during the
year will receive no attention, I have merely determined the average
normal daily precipitation at each station throughout the frostless
season. This gives a precipitation index which is at once seen to be
definitely related to plant activities. Stations with high precipita-
tion indices are situated in the humid regions, those with low indices
are in the arid regions.
“Transeau, E. N., “Forests of Eastern America,” Amer. Nat., 39:
875-08, 1905; “Climatic Centers and Centers of Plant Distributicn,’ Mich.
Acad. Sci. 7th Ann. Rept., 1905.
LIVINGSTON—CLIMATIC AREAS [April 18,
bo
~J
te
When these indices are placed upon a map and isoclimatic lines
are drawn in the usual way, we have the chart which is shown in
full lines in plate [X.1% The data are in terms of hundredths of an
inch per day and their range of magnitude is from less than two
to over sixteen hundredths. This is not a proper place for detailed
discussion, but it is at once obvious that the precipitation lines of
this chart tend strongly to take a north-south direction, thus crossing
our isothermal lines and dividing the country into irregular climatic
areas each of which might be defined by the use of these two systems
of lines. As has been stated, the data from which both temperature
and precipitation charts have been constructed are relatively very
satisfactory, and it may be surmised that the combination chart here
presented is fairly reliable as a general picture of the climatic condi-
tions of the country as measured according to the method here set
forth.
3. Amount of evaporation during the frostless season.—Russell’s
data on evaporation in the United States are for but a single year,
and that not a calendar one. The probability of error introduced
by assuming these data to be normal is very great, yet, as has been
emphasized, these are the cnly data yet available, and we must either
employ them or follow the custom of our Weather Bureau and
ignore the important subject of direct evaporation measurements
entirely. More to illustrate the value of evaporation records than
with any thought that the details of the present study may be free
from large error, I present here the results of an approximate deter-
mination of the mean depth of daily evaporation for the frostless
season. It is to be noted that the data for the earlier months of the
frostless season are from the summer of 1888, while those for the
later months are from that of 1887, an unsatisfactory state of affairs
made necessary by the exigencies of Russell’s study.
Russell’s published data are given by months, and, since the
“It is to be remarked that this and the two following charts attempt no
more than an approximation to normal conditions. The lines are so placed,
however, as to represent the data as these have been obtained. Where no
stations are present topography has been used as an indication of the prob-
able position of the lines. All of the data here employed will be published
elsewhere.
PROCEEDINGS Am. PHiLos. Soc. VOL. LII. No. 209 PLATE IX
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PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILOS. Soc. VOL. LII.
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PLATE X. Chart showing climatic mosaic, as in plate IX, but the isoclimatic lines of temperature (broken) are here combined with a
system of lines (full) representing evaporation indices (in hundredths of an inch per day) for the mean frostless season.
sVACES
MAF
18, 1913.
JUNE
PRINTED
AMER. PHILOS, SOC. LII, 209 R.
PROC,
PLATE Xl
No. 209
PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILOS. Soc. VoL. LII.
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PLATE XI. Chart showing climatic mosaic, as in plates IX and X, but the isoclimatic lines of temperature (broken) are here
combined with a system of lines (full) representing the differences between precipitation and evaporation indices (in hundredths of an
inch per day) for the mean frostless season. Stations having two indices equal are on the zero lines. Plus areas have higher precipi-
tation than evaporation indices, minus ones have lower.
1913-] OF THE UNITED STATES. 273
normal frostless season rarely begins or ends with a month, it has
been generally necessary to interpolate values for fractions of a
month at the beginning and end of each season. The evaporation
indices obtained are in terms of mean daily loss in depth from a
small pan of water, in hundredths of an inch. When these indices
of daily evaporation are plotted on the map and the isoatmic lines
are drawn, there results the chart which appears in full lines in plate
X. Here, as in the case of the precipitation chart, we observe a
marked tendency of the lines to take a north-south trend and thus to
cut the temperature lines so as to make of the country a climatic
mosaic somewhat similar to that presented by the preceding chart.
The range of daily evaporation appears here to be from less than
ten to more than thirty-two hundredths of an inch.
4. Moisture excess or deficit during the frostless season.—Deter-
mining, for each station considered, the difference between the in-
dices of precipitation and of evaporation, it is found that these
differences are approximately zero for some stations and are either
positive or negative for others. If the differences thus obtained are
placed upon a map it is possible to draw isoclimatic lines again divid-
ing the country into areas (full lines, plate XI.). As has been
mentioned, these areas or zones may be tentatively taken to be char-
acterized by the conditions of the plant water relation. The dataare
again in terms of hundredths of an inch per day, during the frostless
season. They range from a negative value of 30 to a positive one
of more than 5. Almost the entire country is seen to have a
moisture deficit (7. e., evaporation is greater than precipitation, as
here measured). Only the extreme northwest, a small area in Mis-
souri, and a narrow zone near the eastern half of our northern
boundary, continued southward along the Atlantic seaboard and
westward along the margin of the Gulf of Mexico as far as Texas,
exhibit a moisture excess. Of course the highest deficits occur in
the most arid areas. These lines of moisture excess or deficit are
seen also generally to possess a north-south trend. Here again the
country is subdivided into areas by the crossing of temperature and
moisture lines and the various areas are susceptible of definition by
means of these lines. The unsatisfactory condition of the evapora-
274 LIVINGSTON—CLIMATIC AREAS [April 18,
tion data upon which the present study has necessarily been based
renders this chart of doubtful accuracy as a picture of normal con-
ditions, but it serves its purpose admirably, of illustrating something
of what may be possible in the way of quantitative vegetational
climatology, whenever the attention of climatologists may be seri-
ously attracted to this aspect of the application of their science.
THE RELATION OF VEGETATION TO CLIMATE,
In order to study vegetational distribution as this is related to
such climatic areas as have been brought out on the charts here pre-
sented, it is of course necessary to have recourse to corresponding
charts showing the distribution of natural or cultivated plants. It
would be beyond the scope of the present paper to attempt to show
by examples how the area occupied by any plant may thus be climat-
ically characterized, and such examples will not be brought forward
here. It may be repeated, however, that the obvious and visible
characters of the great vegetational types (such as those of conifer
and deciduous forest, grassland and desert), while exhibiting an
unequivocal relation to moisture conditions, still bear no relation to
conditions of temperature. Only when the thus far practically in-
sensible physiological characters of plants may be considered will it
become possible to relate their distribution to temperature conditions.
The student of the climatic relations of plants must bear in mind
the extremely complex nature.of the conditional complex which must
determine plant distribution. Aside from climatic conditions, the
nature of the soil usually plays an important part, as has been em-
phasized. Furthermore, numerous mechanical and other factors:
may have determined, in the past, whether or not a given plant form
may ever have reached a specified locality. Because of this historic
factor in plant geography, the climatic and soil conditions cannot be
taken as limiting distribution unless we are certain that the plants
thus limited have been tried throughout the region under discussion.
After they have been tried the historic factor vanishes from our con-
sideration. Nevertheless, without recourse to this removal of the
historic factor from the argument, it is still quite possible and logic-
1913.] OF THE UNITED STATES: 275
ally sound to study the relations which obtain between vegetational
areas and climatic areas. This sort of relation is truly only a spatial
one, however, and must not be assumed to be causal. The proba-
bility that such a relation is a causal one is of course increased as it
is found to hold in a large number of cases. With agricultural plants
the historic factor need not be considered; the actual experimental
test as to whether a given form will thrive in a given area is some-
what readily made and the results are clear enough.
Jouns Hopkins UNIVveRsITY,
April 18, 1913.
SOME DIFFRACTION PHENOMENA; SUPERPOSED
PRINGESS
By CHARLES TE BRUSH,
(Read April 19, T0T3.)
Fresnel observed that diffraction fringes, outside the shadow, are
not affected by the thickness or shape of the diffracting edge so long
as the latter is smooth and straight; and cited, as an instance, the
back and edge of a razor, which gave identical fringes under the
conditions of his experiment. Presumably he observed the fringes
as developed several decimeters, or even meters, from the diffract-
ing edge in the usual way.
I have found, however, that when the fringes are observed within
a millimeter or two of the diffracting edge, by means of a microscope,
they are very greatly influenced in brightness and sharpness by the
contour of the edge.
In most of my experiments I have used cylindrical edges in order
that their shape and curvature might-be accurately known. I have
used fine wires grading up from 0.02 of a millimeter in diameter to
fine needles, thence to medium and large needles, and small, medium
and large brass rods and tubes, always with a smooth surface. The
fine wires and needles were screened on one side to confine diffrac-
tion to the other side only.
In the diagram of my apparatus A represents the source of light,
which conveniently may be a short section of a tungsten lamp fila-
ment; B is a spectrometer slit parallel with the lamp filament and
very nearly closed. C is the diffracting screen located 15 or 20 cm.
from the slit, with its edge adjusted parallel with the slit by turning
the stage of the microscope D. D is a microscope provided with a
5.0 or 2.5 cm. objective and a strong eyepiece giving a magnifying
* Presented in preliminary form before The American Asociation for the
Advancement of Science, December 30, 1912.
276
1913.] BRUSH—SOME DIFFRACTION PHENOMENA. 277
power of 100 to 200 diameters. The focal plane of the objective is
usually adjusted near the diffracting edge as indicated by the dotted
line, and it must be borne in mind that this is where the fringes
ake SCN:
, Ha
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ty t
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i |
thy '
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ti ant
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From £ to F a series of cylindrical edges of progressively in-
creasing radii is indicated. , however, is a sharp razor blade, and
the fringes projected by its edge are shown, greatly magnified, at K.
They are weak, few in number and hazy in outline; but these con-
ditions are not due to any irregularity of the edge. When a fine
wire is used the fringes are distinctly better. Every time the radius
of the cylindrical edge is doubled, the fringes are unmistakably
brighter and sharper. L indicates the fringes produced by the cylin-
278 BRUSH—SOME DIFFRACTION PHENOMENA. | [April 19,
der F, of 22 mm. radius. They are very bright and sharp, and nearly
free from color. From 12 to 15 may be seen. The curved plate G,
of many cm. radius, gives fringes perceptibly brighter than F.
When the radius of the cylindrical edge is rather less than one
millimeter, all fringes disappear if the focal plane is advanced suffi-
ciently to coincide with the median plane of the edge, as would be
expected. But when the radius is a millimeter or more, sharp, nar-
row fringes may be seen with the focal plane in this position, and
these fringes grow broader and more numerous as the radius of the
diffracting edge is increased. Evidently they are formed by ele-
ments of the cylindrical edge lving beyond (toward the light) the
element in the median plane. If, now, the focal plane of the micro-
scope is slowly advanced toward the light, these fringes slowly re-
treat behind the edge without greatly changing their spacing. They
remain visible for some distance behind the edge because the angular
aperture of the microscope objective enables the observer to see
around and beyond the edge to some extent. Upon reversing the
movement of the focal plane the fringes move laterally from behind
the edge until the median plane is reached, when the lateral move-
ment stops abruptly and the fringe pattern simply broadens out as
the retreat of the focal plane continues.
I am led to the belief that the very greatly enhanced brightness
of the fringes produced by the diffracting edge of large radius as
compared with the razor edge, is due to the superposition of a
number of diffraction fringe patterns which are almost, but not
quite, in register. This view is supported by experiments illustrated
in diagrams N and O.
N shows a razor blade greatly enlarged. It makes not the slight-
est difference in the fringes whether the blade is in the full line
position shown, or in either of the dotted line. positions, the essential
condition being that the light undergoing diffraction shall not strike
the beveled side of the blade.
At O two razor blades are shown clamped together with their
edges as close as possible (about 0.2 mm.), and as nearly as possible
in the same plane. The combination is adapted to be rotated slightly
about the line of one of the edges as an axis by means of a tangent
1913.] BRUSH—SOME DIFFRACTION PHENOMENA. 279
screw, so that the edge nearer the light may be withdrawn very
slightly below the plane of the incident beam which strikes the other
edge. When this adjustment is just right the brightness of the one-
blade fringes is approximately doubled, clearly indicating that two
superposed fringe-patterns are formed. It appears that twice as
many elements of each wave front are affected.
We may regard the cylindrical diffracting surfaces as consisting
of a great many parallel elements, each acting as a diffracting edge
and producing its own fringe pattern which is superposed on those
of the other elements. This superposition of fringes is not apparent
when they are viewed in the usual way, 7. e., in a plane far removed
from the diffracting edge, because nearly all of the patterns have
their origins so far behind (toward the light) the tangent element of
the edge that they are hidden by it. The method of viewing the
fringes herein described, however, enables the observer to see these
hidden fringe patterns, as already pointed out.
Measurements, the details of which need not be gone into, show
that in the case of the cylinder F, of 22 mm. radius, the width of
the strip of surface involved in producing the best and brightest
fringe pattern is about 1.5 mm., though 0.9 mm. gives all but the
extreme lines. Smoking the surface of the cylinder makes very little
difference in the brightness of the fringes, and the slight loss ob-
served is accounted for by the roughening of the surface.
Careful eyepiece micrometer measurements of the spacing of the
fringes formed by the razor edge F, and a cylinder of small radius
agree perfectly with the theoretical spacing of diffraction fringes.
But with the large cylinder F (and still more so with the curved
surface G) the spaces diminish less rapidly toward the outer margin
of the pattern and the outer fringes lose their sharpness, because
the many superposed fringe patterns which form the composite pat-
tern observed are not quite in register; so that beyond 12 or 15
fringes many maxima and minima so far coincide that no more lines
are seen.
The reason why the numerous patterns are not perfectly in reg-
ister becomes clear when we consider that they have their origins
at different distances from the focal plane of the microscope, and
280 BRUSH—SOME DIFFRACTION PHENOMENA. [April x9,
hence are seen spread to different extents. This discrepancy is par-
tially offset by the lateral displacements of the origins due to the
curvature of the diffracting surface, and the net result is that the
composite pattern seen is brightest and sharpest in a few fringes
only, the position of which may be shifted to some extent by shifting
the focal plane.
Diagram H shows the end of a glass plate with optically plane
polished upper surface 12 mm. wide, bounded by straight edges. It
may be regarded as a portion of a cylinder of infinite radius, con-
stituting one end of a series of curved diffracting surfaces of which
the razor edge EF is the other limit. The plate is adapted to be
slightly rocked by tangent-screw mechanism so that its face may be
adjusted very nearly parallel with the incident light.
When thus adjusted Lloyd’s so-called “ single-mirror interfer-
ence fringes” are brilliantly shown, and the focal plane of the micro-
scope may be moved through a wide range over the face of the
mirror without disturbing the fringes in any way, proving that they
have their origin on the surface of the mirror or plate, and not at
its edges. The first one or two dark bands are very black and sharp,
and the others show more and more color, until the fifth and beyond
are all color. Only seven or eight fringes can be seen, and their
spacing is sensibly uniform, as with ordinary interference fringes.
I shall now endeavor to show that these so-called “ single-mirror
interference fringes”’ are not due to interference of light reflected
at grazing incidence with contiguous rays not reflected, as commonly
supposed, but are superposed diffraction fringes like those already
described.
Considered from this point of view, the origins of the many
superposed fringe patterns all lie in the same plane and very nearly
in the line of sight, and hence, owing to unequal spreading of the
several patterns as already explained, some maxima begin to overlap
some minima not far from the major edge of the composite pattern.
Therefore few fringes are seen, and most of them are colored.
The extreme blackness of the dark bands forcibly suggests super-
position of many minima. If the very small angle between the face
of the mirror and the incident beam of light is gradually increased
1913.] BRUSH—SOME DIFFRACTION: PHENOMENA. 281
by slowly turning the tangent screw, the fringes move closer together
and lose their uniform spacing and most of their color, while the
sharpest and blackest bands move further out in the pattern.
The width of the mirror, in the line of sight, may be reduced to
2 mm. without affecting the fringes in any respect; but with con-
tinued further reduction the fringes progressively lose their color,
increase in number, and assume the characteristic spacing of diffrac-
tion fringes strongly reinforced by superposition of patterns, when
the width is only a fraction of a millimeter.
These phenomena are beautifully shown by means of the device
illustrated in diagram P. The plane glass mirror is here shown
both in plan and elevation and enlarged to the scale of the razor
blades N and RF. It is in the form of a thin wedge about 12 mm.
long and 3 mm. wide at the base, giving a triangular face. The line
of sight is indicated by the dotted line.
Having adjusted the face of the mirror so as to produce the
Lloyd fringes, and with the near edge of the mirror in the focal
plane so as to prevent any edge effect, the mirror is very slowly
moved on the microscope stage across the line of sight toward the
point, without change of angle with the incident light. During this
movement all the last described effects are developed. I may add
that smoking the face of mirror H or P does not materially affect
the brilliancy of the fringes.
. In view of the facts cited it seems clear that the so-called “ single-
mirror interference fringes” of Lloyd are superposed diffraction
fringes, and are not due to reflection. But to remove all doubt the
device shown in diagram R was constructed.
This consists of 24 paper-thin razor blades clamped together and
forming a bundle about 4 mm. thick. It is essential that all the
edges be accurately brought to the same plane. But inasmuch as
the edges of the blades are not perfectly straight, this condition can
be realized only in two lines across the edge of the bundle. To effect
this adjustment, the edges of the blades, very loosely clamped to-
gether, were allowed to rest by gravity against two parallel straight
glass rods about half the length of the blades apart, and then cau-
tiously clamped tight. Great care was taken to avoid injury to the
282 BRUSH—SOME DIFFRACTION PHENOMENA. | [April 19,
edges where they touched the rods, because it is only in these lines
of contact, or very near them, that the effects to be described are
produced. The glass rods were then removed and the bundle of
blades was mounted and used in the same manner as the two-blade
system O already described.
With this device, which precludes reflection, all the effects de-
scribed in connection with the mirror H may be reproduced, differ-
ing only, and differing but little, in brilliancy. As only about half
of all the edges (2 mm. across the edge of the bundle) are effective
at any one time in producing visible fringes, it seems remarkable
that the latter are so brilliant. But we must bear in mind that, say,
twelve superposed fringe patterns will concentrate nearly all the
light into the bright bands, leaving the dark bands nearly black;
so that the contrasts should be nearly as strong as those produced
by the far greater. number of superposed patterns given by the
AME LO nea
The device FR shows also something more of interest. Owing to
the limited number of patterns formed, failure in registry may be
seen at some points as division of a normal black band into two
narrower dark lines which merge when the tangent screw is slightly
turned, or the focal plane slightly moved ; and this phenomenon may
be shifted to different parts of the composite pattern by continuing
either or both of these adjustments. Thus relative shifting of vari-
ous fringe patterns, each more or less reinforced, is made obvious.
Pevbei IN TTS BLECTRICALLY (EXPLOSIVE. STATE.
By FRANCIS: BE. NIP
(Read April 19, 1913.)
In 1815 Singer published in the Philosophical Magazine’ an ac-
count of experiments made in Holland by De Nelis, and repeated
by him, which illustrated what he called the explosive effects of elec-
tricity. At that time the one-fluid theory was generally held by
those familiar with electrical phenomena. It was, however, their
belief that the electrical discharge came from the positive terminal.
Singer made use of a battery of jars having an external tin-foil
area of 75 square feet. The positive terminal of this battery was
separated from a terminal leading to a wire of lead having a diame-
ter of o.o1 inch. This lead wire was within a small metal cylinder
formed by boring a hole into a metal rod. One end of the wire
was in contact with the bottom of the bore, the other being attached
to a copper wire through which the discharge was sent to the lead
wire. This leading in wire was surrounded by wax, and the lead
wire was surrounded by oil. The lead wire was exploded by each
discharge. The metal cylinder was stronger than any gun-barrel.
It, however, was shattered by the explosive effects, the leading in
wire was blown out and the liquid was sometimes thrown to the
height of fifty feet when the metal cylinder did not burst.
At the present time it seems evident that, in these experiments,
the lead wire was being suddenly drained of its negative corpuscles.
What may properly be called a rarefaction wave was sent along the
wire. When in this condition each atom of lead repels every other
atom. The lead becomes explosive. There are heat effects in-
volved also, which assist in the separation of the atoms, but which
alone do not seem to be capable of accounting for the results.
It seemed to the present writer that it might be of interest to
*Phil. Mag., Vol. 46, p. 161.
283
284 NIPHER—MATTER IN ITS [April 19,
determine whether the explosive effects would be the same when
the negative discharge was sent through the wire as when the posi-
tive terminal was used. In the former case a compression wave is
sent through the corpuscular nebula within the wire. The repulsion
effects are impressed upon the oil surrounding the wire. In the
latter case the nature of the action seems to be essentially different,
as has been pointed out above.
The wire was placed within a glass tube as shown in the adjoin-
ing figure. Theinternal diameter of various samples varied between
one and two millimeters. The length of the tube was 10 cm. The
ends of the tube were provided with copper leading-in wires fitting
more or less closely the bore of the tube and to which the fine wire
was attached, as shown in the adjoining figure. The walls of the
tube were from one to two millimeters in thickness. The space
within the tube around the wire was completely filled with coal-oil,
all air being excluded. The ends of the tube and the leading-in
wires were sealed with sealing wax, which held the leading wires in
place and secured these wires and the glass tube to supporting
blocks of hard rubber.
The source of electricity was an influence machine, provided
with a condenser consisting of twenty sheets of glass 66 cm. square,
each plate having a tin-foil coating 30 cm. square. ‘These plate con-
densers were connected in multiple, the tin-foil area being about 20
square feet on each side. A pivotally mounted ground contact
could be connected to either terminal of the machine. By means of
a similar contact rod either terminal could be. connected with one
of a set of discharge rods, provided with an adjustable spark gap
between the knobs. The other discharge rod was connected with
the water-pipe system of ithe building by means of two No. 8 copper
wires in multiple. The apparatus shown in the figure was in this
ground line. The ground for the machine was in the yard outside
1913.] ELECTRICALLY EXPLOSIVE STATE. 285
of the building. The results were the same when the two grounds
were thus independent as when they were united.
The wire to be exploded, contained within the glass tube of the
figure, was a quarter ampere fuse wire, having a diameter of 0.115
mm. A small copper wire having a diameter of 0.105 mm, was also
used with similar results.
A single discharge from either the positive or the negative side
of the condenser caused the tube of glass to be shattered into frag-
ments so minute that their impact upon the face of the observer
when standing six or eight feet distant, produced no harmful effect.
On several occasions, when the discharge came before it was ex-
pected, their impact upon the eyes was also harmless.
The small glass tube shown in the figure was enclosed in a larger
tube having an internal diameter of about half an inch. This tube
was also enclosed in a strip of cardboard. In this way the dust into
which the inner tube was converted could be collected. It could
only be recognized as glass on examination with a pocket lens.
The effect of the explosion upon the outer tube, the ends of which
were open, was found to be in all cases more marked when the com-
pression or negative discharge was sent through the wire than when
the discharge rods and wire were connected with the positive term-
inal. In some cases the rarefaction wave would produce no appar-
ent effect upon the outer tube, while the negative or compression
wave would crack it or shatter it into three or four fragments.
In order to make comparative tests, the apparatus shown in the
figure was constructed in pairs, the two tubes being cut from adjoin-
ing parts of the same glass tube. This was also done with the larger
tubes which were placed between the supporting blocks and sur-
rounded the small tube shown in the figure. In some cases two
fuse wires or one fuse wire and one copper wire were placed in
parallel within the tube. In this way the explosive effects were
somewhat varied. In all cases the greater effects of the compression
discharge were so marked that there appears to be no doubt of the
result.
In order to compare the heat effects of an ordinary direct cur-
rent, the wire was, by a switch connection, subjected to the current
286 NIPHER—MATTER IN ITS EXPLOSIVE STATE. [April 1.
from a separately excited 250-volt dynamo. The expansion effects
then resulted in forcing the oil out through the sealing wax at the
ends of the glass tube. No explosive effects were produced. The
same experiment was repeated by switching the lead wire into a
ground line attached to a city power plant, the impressed potential
. being 600 volts. The results were exactly the same as in the pre-
vious case, so far as explosive effects were concerned. The wire
was fused and partly converted into a fine powder.
MA AGELLANIC PREMIUM
Ie cekss SAE av Yomos te chien Si nha oF Lonpon
aos ; IQT3
= DECEMBER, 1913
“. 5 IT Wl AWARD rs
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“ys ei simon OF THE BEST DISCOVERY, OR MOST USEFUL INVENTION, RF-
Reo _ LATING TO NAVIGATION, ASTRONOMY, OR NATURAL PHILOSOPHY (MERE
au NATURAL HISTORY ONLY EXCEPTED) UNDER THE FOLLOWING CONDITIONS +
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Ps | or other charges, his discovery, invention or improvement, addressed to the
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vat yo . A full account of the crowned subject shall be published by the Society,
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6, The premium shall consist of an oval plate of ‘solid standard gold of the
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To SNe ‘SHCRETARIES OF THE
‘ ‘AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
No. 103 Souta Fists Sema’
Paes PHILADELPHIA, U. S.A
Sey os :
“ CO NI Gy eu SS Co Nb)
= eS
He O
This is a depauperated lower Allegheny fauna, with the addition
of a few species (nos. 6, 11, 12) which are characteristic for smaller
streams.
In the upper part of Crooked Creek, in Indiana Co., there are:
List No. 7b.
. Fusconaia undata rubiginosa (Lea)
. Symphynota costata (Raf.)
. Anodonta grandis Say
. Strophitus edentulus (Sav)
WwW DN
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE.’ 299
5. Obovaria circulus lens (Lea)
6. Lampsilis luteola (Lam.)
This part of the creek is a very small stream. Of the six species
found here, three are also in the uppermost Allegheny and in Little
Mahoning, while three (nos. I, 3, 5) are absent in them. Anodonta
grandis is a small-creek-form elsewhere, but Fusconaia undata ru-
biginosa and Obovaria circulus lens are peculiar to this creek, and
although they are also small-creek-forms, they are not known to
advance so far up toward the divide in other rivers. Of course, we
should bear in mind that other tributaries of the Allegheny in this
section, the fauna of which has been destroyed, might have con-
tained these species.
The full and typical Kiskiminetas-Conemaugh fauna is irrepa-
rably lost to us on account of pollution of the waters. However, a
few remnants have been preserved. Nothing is known from the
Kiskiminetas proper. In the Conemaugh River at New Florence,
Westmoreland Co., I found the dead shells of the following forms:
. Pleurobema obliquum coccineum (Conr.)
. Pleurobema clava (Lam.)
. Elliptio dilatatus (Raf.)
. Ptychobranchus phaseolus (Hildr.)
. Nephronaias ligamentina (Lam.)
. Eurynia recta (Lam.)
. Lampsilis ovata ventricosa ( Barn.)
. Lampsilis multiradiata (Lea)
ON AM PW ND H
These are all found in the Allegheny above Oil City, but it is
hardly probable that this list contains more than half of the species
originally present in the Conemaugh.
From small tributaries in Westmoreland and Indiana Cos., I was
able to secure four species:
Elliptio dilatatus (Raf.)—Yellow Creek, Indiana Co.
Symphynota costata (Raf.)—Two Lick Creek, Indiana Co.
Anodonta grandis Say—Beaver Run, Westmoreland Co.
Strophitus edentulus (Say)—Yellow Creek and Blacklegs
Creek, Indiana Co., and Beaver Run, Westmoreland Co.
300 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
Also this fauna is fragmentary, since these streams are partially
polluted. But there are two tributaries of the Kiskiminetas system,
in the mountains, between Chestnut Ridge, Laurel Hill Ridge, and
Allegheny Front, which have furnished what appears as complete
faunas. Loyalhanna River, near Ligonier, Westmoreland Co.,
contains :
List No. 8.
Pleurobema obliquum coccineum (Conr.)
Pleurobema clava (Lam.)
Elliptio dilatatus (Raf.)
Symphynota costata (Raf.)
. Alasmudonta marginata (Say)
. Strophitus edentulus (Say)
. Ptychobranchus phaseolus (Hildr.)
. Lampsilis ovata ventricosa (Barn. )
9g. Lampsilis multiradiata (Lea)
OI AN RW DH
Also Anodonta grandis Say should be mentioned, but this has
been found only in ponds cut off from the river. Of Nephronaias
ligamentina (Lam.) a single individual has been found many years
ago, but recent investigations have failed to bring it to light again.
Seven of these species have occurred in the other lists of the
tributaries of the Allegheny, while two are new (nos. 2 and 9).
In Quemahoning Creek, in Somerset Co., I collected:
List No. 9.
Elliptio dilatatus (Raf.)
. Symphynota costata ( Raf.)
Alasmidonta marginata (Say)
. Strophitus edentulus (Say)
Ptychobranchus phaseolus (Hildr.)
Lampsilis ovata ventricosa ( Barn.)
7. Lampsilis multiradiata (Lea)
An hw H
All these are also found in the Loyalhanna, but two of the latter
(nos. I and 2) are lacking.
The streams belonging to the Allegheny, discussed so far, form
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 301
a unit, as will become evident by comparison with the next group
(upper Monongahela drainage). This is the most easterly advanced
part of the Allegheny drainage. For this reason it will be advan-
tageous to give the full list of all species which advance here farthest
toward the Alleghenian divide.
Combined Lists: 6, 7b, 8, 9.
1. Fusconaia undata rubiginosa (Lea)
2. Pleurobema obliquum coccineum (Conr.)
3. Pleurobema clava (Lam.)
4. Elliptio dilatatus (Raf.)
5. Symphynota compressa Lea
6. Symphynota costata (Raf.)
7. Anodonta grandis Say
8. Alasmidonta marginata (Say)
g. Strophitus edentulus (Say)
10. Ptychobranchus phaseolus (Hildr.)
11. Obovaria circulus lens (Lea)
12. Lampsilis luteola (Lam. )
13. Lampsilis ovata ventricosa ( Barn.)
14. Lampsilis multiradiata (Lea)
This is a comparatively rich fauna. Although not all of these
14 species are found in every one of these streams, the average
number is about 7 or 8. Some of the species (Symphynota costata,
Stroplitus edentulus) are found in all of these creeks, and five spe-
cies are in most of them (Pleurobema obliquum coccineum, Ellip-
tio dilatatus, Alasmidonta marginata, Ptychobranchus phaseolus,
Lampsilis ovata ventricosa).
Looking over the Allegheny River fauna, we see that the Ohio
fauna, well and richly represented in the Ohio below Pittsburgh by
37 forms, depauperates in the Allegheny. Although a few species
are added toward the headwaters, the general tendency is that one
species after the other disappears in the upstream direction. But
one feature of this should be emphasized: the decrease in the number
of forms is gradual, no sudden deterioration of the fauna being
302 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
observed at any point. In the uppermost headwaters there is yet a
comparatively rich fauna of together 14 species.
We shall see that in other parts of the western drainage this con-
dition is not found, and our rather detailed account of the Allegheny
fauna has been given with the chief purpose of bringing out the
above fact.
IV. MoNONGAHELA RIVER AND TRIBUTARIES.
We have seen above (list no. 3) that the Monongahela just above
Pittsburgh had surely 28 species, but possibly 33. Farther up no
Najades are known and the fauna is destroyed, for the water is
everywhere badly polluted. But above Clarksburg, Harrison Co.,
W. Va., conditions are good again in West Fork River. This is a
Plateau stream, not rough, but rather sluggish, and the proper en-
vironment for shell-life seems to be present. The Carnegie Museum
possesses material collected by the writer at Lynch Mines, Harrison
Co., at Lightburn and Weston, Lewis Co., and some additional forms
collected by J. P. Graham at West Milford, Harrison Co., W. Va.
This gives us a good, and, as I believe, a rather complete idea of
this fauna.
In the following list those forms found at the uppermost point
in this river (Weston) are marked with a *. (None is peculiar to
this locality.)
List No. ro.
1. Fusconaia subrotunda (Lea)
*2. Crenodonta plicata undulata (Barn.)
3. Quadrula tuberculata ( Barn.)
4. Quadrula metanevra wardi (Lea)
5. Quadrula cylindrica (Say)
6. Rotundaria tuberculata (Raf.)
*7. Pleurobema obliquum coccineum (Conr.)
*8. Pleurobema clava (Lam.)
*9. Elliptio dilatatus (Raf.)
*1o. Symphynota costata (Raf.)
11. Hemilastena ambigua (Say)
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 303
*12. Anodonta grandis Say
*13. Alasmidonta marginata (Say)
*t4, Strophitus edentulus (Say)
15. Ptychobranchus phaseolus (Hildr.)
*16. Obovaria circulus lens (Lea)
*17. Eurynia fabalis (Lea)
*18. Eurynia iris (Lea)
*19. Lampsilis luteola (Lam.)
*20. Lampsilis ovata ventricosa ( Barn.)
*21. Lampsilis multiradiata (Lea)
22. Truncilla triquetra Raf.
23. Truncilla perplexa rangiana (Lea)
This is a fauna very similar to that farther below, but somewhat
depauperated. It is remarkable that this fauna goes far up, and
that there are yet 14 species at the uppermost locality (Weston),
where the river is merely a creek. Also here the rule holds good,
that the typical Ohio fauna decreases in richness in an upstream
direction, and that this decrease is gradual, not sudden.
In sharp contrast to this are the eastern tributaries of the Monon-
gahela, which come down from the mountains. The first of them
is the Youghiogheny River. The fauna of the lower parts of this
river is entirely lost on account of pollution. Between Connelsville
and Confluence, Fayette Co., Pa., the river runs through a canyon,
is very rough, forming falls (largest at Ohiopyle). Above Con-
fluence it is less rapid, and flows in a broad valley, offering condi-
tions favorable to Najades; but only a single species is found here:
Strophitus edentulus (Say).
The next of the mountain streams is Cheat River. Also this
river runs through a long canyon, and above this canyon there are
no Najades in it. But below the canyon the fauna is rich. In the
following list, the species marked * are found also at Mont Chateau,
°T collected above Parsons, Tucker Co., W. Va., in Shavers Fork. Below
Parsons the river is badly polluted, and also Dry Fork is polluted through
Blackwater River. I have been told that there used to be some shells in the
Cheat, below Parsons, but we have no means of ascertaining what species
they were.
PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LII, 210 B. PRINTED JULY II, I913.
304 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
W. Va., immediately below the canyon, the others are from Cheat
Haven in Pennsylvania, about eight miles farther below.
List NoatT:
1. Fusconaia subrotunda (Lea)
2. Crenodonta plicata undulata ( Barn.)
3. Quadrula pustulosa (Lea)
4. Rotundaria tuberculata ( Raf.)
5. Pleurobema clava (Lam.)
6. Elliptio dilatatus (Raf.)
7. Symphynota costata (Raf.)
*8. Alasmidonta marginata (Say)
g. Strophitus edentulus (Say )
*10, Ptychobranchus phaseolus (Hildr.)
11. Nephronaias ligamentina (Lam.)
12. Eurynia iris (Lea)
*13. Eurynia recta (Lam.)
*14. Lampsilis ovata ventricosa (Barn. )
*15. Lampsilis multiradiata (Lea)
The eight species found near Mont Chateau are not in the main
channel of the river, but in small side branches, which are more or
less protected. In the main channel the bottom consists of large
boulders and rocks, not firmly packed, but loose and easily movable,
chiefly at flood stage. Moving and shifting bottom prevents perma-
nent settlement of Najades. At Cheat Haven conditions are more
favorable, and here we have a rich fauna, agreeing well with that
of the lower Monongahela, but of course somewhat depauperated
corresponding to the smaller size of the river.
Tygart Valley River, which joins West Fork River at Fairmont,
to form the Monongahela, has the same character as the Cheat.
There is a more slowly running upper part, above Elkins, Randolph
Co., W. Va., a rather long canyon, down to Grafton, and a less
rough portion below this. In the canyon a tributary flows into it,
Buckhannon River, which again is running more slowly in its upper
part.
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 305
In the lower Tygart, the fauna has been destroyed by pollution.
The upper part, above Elkins, contains only two species:
Symphynota costata (Raf.)
Strophitus edentulus (Say)
The upper part of the Buckhannon drainage has one species:
Strophitus edentulus (Say)
I found this not in the river itself, which is dammed and has
slack water, but in a small tributary, French Creek, at Hampton,
Upshur Co., W. Va.
Thus, in these mountain streams tributary to the upper Monon-
gahela, we meet with conditions entirely different from those in the
upper Allegheny and its tributaries: the rich Ohio fauna, only
slightly depauperated, goes up to a certain point, up to the lower end
of a canyon, which represents an extremely rough part of these
rivers. This is best observed in the case of the Cheat (list no. 11),
while in the others pollution has destroyed the original conditions.
But we may easily imagine what these were when we look at the
fauna of the plateau stream, West Fork River (see list 10). At
the lower end of the canyon the fauna suddenly stops, and above the
canyon, in the high valleys, where the rivers are more quiet, very
few species, one or two, are found, if such are present at all. It
should be noted that one species, Strophitus edentulus, is found in
all three rivers, which have shells, but that Symphynota costata is
only in the Tygart.
Thus the canyon apparently forms here a natural barrier.
V. FAUNA OF THE KANAWHA RIVER.
Farther to the south we have the Kanawha drainage in West
Virginia. The fauna of the Kanawha itself is unknown, for this
river is much polluted, and has been transformed into a series of
pools by dams, conditions unfavorable for Najad-life.
However, there are two tributaries in the plateau-region, which
contain shells. The first is E/k River. Here I collected repeatedly
and was able to secure. the following species. Those marked * are
from the uppermost station, at Sutton, Braxton Co., W. Va.
306
ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE.
List No. 12.
. Fusconaia subrotunda leucogona Ort.
. Fusconaia undata trigona (Lea)
. Crenodonta plicata undulata (Barn.)
. Quadrula pustulosa (Lea)
. Quadrula tuberculata ( Barn.)
. Rotundaria tuberculata (Raf.)
. Pleurobema clava (Lam.)
. Elliptio crassidens (Lam.)
. Elliptio dilatatus (Raf.)
. Symphynota costata (Raf.)
. Alasmidonta marginata (Say)
. Strophitus edentulus (Say)
. Ptychobranchus phaseolus (Hildr.)
. Obovaria circulus (Lea)
. Nephronaias ligamentina (Lam.)
E10:
. Eurynia fabalis (Lea)
. Eurynia iris (Lea)
. Eurynia recta (Lam.)
. Lampsilis ovata (Say)
. Lampsilis ovata ventricosa ( Barn.)
. Lampsilis multiradiata (Lea)
Proptera alata (Say)
[April 18,
This fauna is of typical upper Ohio character (compare lists 2
and 3). With one exception (Fusconaia subrotunda leucogona)
every form is also found in western Pennsylvania, and this one is
only the local representative of Fusconaia subrotunda.
Yet this
fauna has a somewhat peculiar “‘facies” in so far as it contains
several forms, which elsewhere prefer larger rivers (Fusconaia
undata trigona, Elliptio crassidens, Obovaria circulus, Proptera
alata).
In addition I collected some shells in Coal River, at Sproul,
Kanawha Co., W. Va.
Tus
Zi
Fusconaia undata rubiginosa (Lea)
Crenodonta plicata undulata ( Barn.)
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 307
. Strophitus edentulus (Say)
. Obovaria circulus lens (Lea)
. Lampsilis luteola (Lam.)
. Lampsilis multiradiata (Lea)
Om & Ww
And the Carnegie Museum possesses, from Little Coal River,
from the Hartman collection:
7. Quadrula pustulosa (Lea)
8. Quadrula metanevra wardi (Lea)
9. Pleurobema obliquum coccineum (Conr.)
This would add 5 forms (nos. 1, 4, 5, 8, 9), so that 27 forms are
known from the lower Kanawha drainage, which are practically all
typical upper Ohio forms.
Going up the Kanawha, we find that this river, as New River,
comes through a canyon out of the mountains. This canyon is ex-
tremely rough, containing several falls (Kanawha falls at lower
end of canyon, and New Richmond falls, eight miles below Hinton.
Good photographs of New River scenery have been published by
Campbell and Mendenhall, 1896). In the region of Hinton, Sum-
mers Co., W. Va., the river is somewhat less rough. Here I col-
lected, at the confluence of New River and Greenbrier River, the
following species:
Last Nos 73.
1. Quadrula tuberculata ( Barn.)
2. Rotundaria tuberculata (Raf.)
3. Elliptio dilatatus (Raf.)
4. Symphynota tappaniana (Lea)
To these, probably, Alasmidonta marginata (Say) should be
added, for it is found farther up in the New River drainage, and
thus we would have five species here, four of which are found in
the lower Kanawha drainage, while one (Symphynota tappaniana)
is entirely new, and found nowhere else in the whole upper Ohio
drainage. In fact, this is a species known hitherto only from the
Atlantic watershed.
Farther up I collected in the Greenbrier River at Ronceverte,
Greenbrier Co., W. Va.; in New River at Pearisburg, Giles Co., Va.;
308 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
and in Reed Creek, Wytheville, Wythe Co., Va. Three species only
are present here:
EES IN as, ee
1. Elliptio dilatatus ( Raf.)
. Symphynota tappaniana (Lea)
3. Alasmidonta marginata (Say)
iS)
At Pearisburg I did not find no. 3, but at the other localities all
three were present. In addition, Elliptio dilatatus has been reported
by Call (785, p. 30) from Bluestone River (tributary to New River,
emptying into it just above Hinton).*
These conditions correspond closely to what we have observed
in the case of the mountain streams tributary to the Monongahela.
There is a rough part in the river in the shape of a canyon. Below
the canyon the fauna is rich, above it is extremely poor. In the
present case two species (Quadrula tuberculata and Rotundaria
tuberculata) have gone up through the lower part of the canyon, but
they were unable to go farther, and the uppermost parts of the New
River system, where conditions undoubtedly are favorable for
Najades, contain only three species, two of which belong to the
Ohio fauna, while the third is a complete stranger. With the ex-
ception of this case, which will be further discussed below, the
whole Kanawha fauna, including that of New River, is undistin-
guishable from the general upper Ohio fauna. But it should be
noted that the species found in the headwaters of the Kanawha are
different from those found in the headwaters of the mountain tribu-
taries of the Monongahela.
VI. Bic SANDY AND LICKING RIVERS.
South of the headwaters of New River, in the Greater Allegheny
Valley, we strike the headwaters of the Tennessee drainage, Holston,
* Bluestone River is now badly polluted. I have seen it in its upper part,
at Rock, Mercer Co., W. Va: Call (ibid., p. 55) already gives Rotundaria
tuberculata (as Unio verrucosus Barn.) from New River, Virginia: but
according to my investigations, this is only in the New River in West Virginia
(at Hinton). Call also says Bluestone River, Virginia, but only the extreme
headwaters are in Virginia, the rest in West Virginia.
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 309
Clinch and Powell Rivers. However, to the west of these, on the
Allegheny Plateau, there are other rivers, tributary to the Ohio, the
fauna of which was hitherto entirely unknown. Since a quite dif-
ferent fauna turns up in the Tennessee, it would be surely interest-
ing to know something about these intermediate western rivers, and
for this reason I made several trips into this region, and was able
to collect the following data, first for the Levisa Fork of Big Sandy
River, at Prestonsburg, Floyd Co., Ky.
1. Fusconaa subrotunda (Lea)
Crenodonta plicata undulata (Barn.)
Quadrula pustulosa (Lea)
. Quadrula tuberculata ( Barn.)
. Elliptio crassidens (Lam.)
Symphynota costata (Raf.)
. Obovaria circulus lens (Lea)
Nephronaas ligamentina (Lam.)
iS)
0 ON Aun Aw
. Amygdalonaias elegans (Lea)
10. Proptera alata (Say)
11. Eurynia recta (Lam.)
12. Lampsilis ovata ventricosa ( Barn.)
In the Licking River, at Farmer, Rowan Co., Ky., I found:
Crenodonta plicata undulata (Barn.)
Quadrula pustulosa (Lea)
Quadrula tuberculata ( Barn.)
Pleurobema obliquum coccineum (Conr.)
Elliptio dilatatus (Raf.)
Symphynota costata (Raf.)
Anodonta grandis Say
. Strophitus edentulus (Say)
. Ptychobranchus phaseolus (Hildr.)
10. Obovaria circulus lens (Lea)
11. Nephronaias ligamentina (Lam.)
12. Proptera alata (Say)
13. Lampsilis luteola (Lam.)
14. Lampsilis ovata ventricosa ( Barn.)
BeOS ON iS eee te
310 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
In a tributary of the Licking, Fleming Creek at Pleasant Valley,
Nicholas Co., Ky., I found, aside from Anodonta grandis and Lamp-
silis luteola:
15. Anodontoides ferussacianus (Lea)
Although these two lists give by no means the complete faunas
of these rivers, they show clearly that they are practically identical
with the upper Ohio drainage in West Virginia and western Penn-
sylvania. All these species have occurred in our previous lists, with
one exception, the very last one, Anodontoides ferussacianus. This
is a western and northern species. Of the characteristic Tennessee
(and Cumberland) drainage fauna not a trace is seen in these rivers.
It is unknown at present whether there is a point in the upper
parts of these rivers, where the fauna stops suddenly in an upstream
direction. My chief object in introducing here the faunas of these
rivers is to show that they cannot be separated from the general
Ohio fauna.
VII. FAUNA OF UppPpER TENNESSEE RIVER.
We come now to the Tennessee River. It is well known that
this system contains an extremely rich fauna, with a large number
of peculiar types. It is not my object to go into detail here, and I
only want to bring out the contrast of this fauna to that of the upper
Ohio in general, and especially to that of upper New River. With
this in view, I collected (September, 1912) in the uppermost parts
of Holston and Clinch Rivers in Virginia. Of course, my collec-
tions are by no means complete, as is clearly shown by a comparison
with the list published for Holston River by Lewis (’71), which,-
however, needs revision. But what I have found is sufficient for
the present purpose.
PAst Now:
Middle and North Fork Holston, in Smyth Co.
(Those marked * only in Middle Fork.)
1. Fusconaia sp.?
2. Pleurobema (possibly 2 species )
3. Pleurobema fassinans (Lea)
1913.]
ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE.
. Symphynota costata (Raf.)
. Alasmidonta minor (Lea)
. Alasmidonta fabula (Lea)
. Alasmidonta marginata (Say)
. Strophitus edentulus (Say)
. Ptychobranchus subtentus (Say)
. Nephronaias perdix (Lea)
. Nephronaias copei (Lea)
. Medionidus conradicus (Lea)
. Eurynia nebulosa (Conr.)
. Eurynia dispansa (Lea)
. Eurynia vanuxemensis (Lea)
. Lampsilis ovata ventricosa ( Barn.)
. Lampsilis multiradiata (Lea)
Clinch, in Tazewell Co.
. Fusconaia bursa-pastoris (Wright)
. Fusconaia sp.? |
. Quadrula cylindrica strigillata (Wright)
. Plewrobema (probably 2 species)
. Elliptio dilatatus (Raf.)
. Symphynota holstonia (Lea)
. Symphynota costata (Raf.)
. Alasmidonta minor (Lea)
. Alasmidonta marginata ( Say.)
. Strophitus edentulus (Say)
. Ptychobranchus subtentus (Say)
. Medionidus conradicus (Lea)
. Eurynia perpurpurea (Lea)
. Eurynia nebulosa (Conr.)
. Eurynia planicostata (Lea)
. Lampsilis ovata ventricosa ( Barn.)
. Lampsilis multiradiata (Lea)
. Truncilla haysiana (Lea)
10.
Truncilla capsaeformis (Lea)
311
These are altogether about 26 species, of which only 6 have
occurred in our previous lists (Elliptio dilatatus, Symphynota cos-
312 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
tata, Alasmidonta marginata, Strophitus edentulus, Lampsilis ovata
ventricosa, Lampsilis multiradiata). All others (about 20) are not
found in the upper Ohio drainage; some have representative forms
there (Fusconaia bursa-pastoris, Quadrula cylindrica strigillata,
Eurynia nebulosa, Truncilla capsaeformis); but others are types,
which are not at all represented there (Pleurobema fassinans, Alas-
midonta minor and fabula, the genus Medionidus, Eurynia perpur-
purea and vanusxemensis, Truncilla haysiana are the most important
ones).
It should be noted especially that the New River species, Elliptio
dilatatus and Alasmidonta marginata, which are found in the Ten-
nessee drainage, are not represented by identical forms. Elliptio
dilatatus of upper New River is a dwarf race, while the Clinch type
is large and normal. The Clinch and Holston type of Alasmidonta
marginata is peculiar by its extremely bright color markings.
The contrast between these rivers is thus clearly established, and
becomes even more striking, when we consider the fact that in gen-
eral physiographic characters these rivers are very similar to each
other, and further, that the Holston and Clinch, where I collected
in them, are much smaller, mere creeks, compared, for instance, with
New River at Pearisburg.
SUMMARY OF FACTS CONCERNING THE WESTERN FAUNA.
To express it in a few words, the chief features of the western
fauna are: a uniform fauna goes from Licking River up through
the whole upper Ohio drainage into the headwaters of the Allegheny,
but in the mountain streams tributary to the Monongahela and
Kanawha a sudden depauperation 1s observed and farther above
very few species are present. The fauna of the upper Tennessee
is related to the Ohio fauna, but has many peculiar elements. As
a whole, the Ohio fauna is to be regarded as a somewhat depau-
perated Tennessee fauna; this is not so evident from the lists given
above, but is a well-known fact, for which we do not need to furnish
here particular proof.
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 313
B, ATLANTIC SIDE,
Besides the writer’s own imvestigations, the following publica-
tions have been used for compilation of the faunistic lists :
For Delaware, Susquehanna, and Potomac rivers: Gabb, 1861 ;
Hartman and Michener, 1874; Pilsbry, 1894; Schick, 1895; Caffrey,
IQII.
For James River: Conrad, 1846.
Since the Atlantic side does not form a single drainage system,
but consists of a number of rivers running independently to the sea,
we must discuss these rivers separately.
I. THe FAUNA OF THE DELAWARE RIVER.
This is the most northern system in the region discussed here.
The following Najades are known to exist here:
List No, 57.
1. Margaritana margaritifera (L.)
2. Elliptio complanatus (Dillw.)
3. Elliptio fisherianus (Lea)
4. Symphynota tappaniana (Lea)
5. Anodonta cataracta Say
6. Anodonta implicata Say
7. Alasmidonta heterodon (Lea)
8. Alasmidonta undulata (Say)
g. Alasmidonta varicosa (Lam.)
10. Strophitus undulatus (Say)
11. Strophitus edentulus (Say)
12. Eurynia nasuta (Say)
13. Lampsilis radiata (Gmel.)
14. Lampsilis cariosa (Say)
15. Lampsilis ochracea (Say)
It is to be remarked that no. 3, no. 10 and no. 15 are found ex-
clusively in the tidewater region of the lower Delaware and Schuyl-
kill, and that no. 3 is at the best extremely rare (only once reported),
and that no. 10 is altogether a doubtful form. No. I is very local
(uppermost Schuylkill).
314 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
All the others go up beyond tidewaters, and are found in the
Delaware River or its tributaries on the Piedmont Plateau. The
Allegheny Valley and its eastern boundary being obscured in this
region, it practically is connected with the Piedmont Plateau. The
Delaware River proper extends soon into the Glacial area, but there
are tributaries outside of it west (northwest) of the Blue Mountain
(Kittatinny Mountain), belonging to Lehigh River. The Lehigh
itself is polluted; but I have collected in this region the following
species (Princess Cr. and Meniolagomeka Cr., at Kunkletown and
Smith Gap, Monroe Co.; Mahoning Cr., Leheighton, Carbon Co.;
and Lizard Cr., Mantz, Schuylkill Co.).
. Elliptio complanatus (Dillw.)
. Anodonta cataracta Say
. Alasmidonta heterodon (Lea)
. Alasmidonta undulata (Say)
. Alasmidonta varicosa (Lam.)
. Strophitus edentulus (Say)
Om BW ND
Possibly the list is not quite complete (Symphynota tappaniana
might be here). But I never found all of these species associated
at a single locality, and it should be stated right here that it is a
general rule that on the Atlantic side certain species are of rather
erratic distribution, being sometimes missing at certain localities for
no apparent reasons, while at others they may be abundant.
With the exception of Margaritana margaritifera, probably all
of the Delaware River species (14) were once found in the lower
part of Schuylkill River. Although the fauna of this river has been |
studied for nearly one hundred years, reliable information about the
details of the distribution of the shells are not at hand. At the
present time this river is so polluted that the fauna is extinct, only
in the Schuylkill canal is a rather rich remnant of at least 8 species
(nos. 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13 of list no.-17). Thus we cannot form
an idea of how far the species advanced upstream and shall never
know this.
In the headwaters of the Little Schuylkill River, in Schuylkill
Co., northwest of Blue Mountain, a very peculiar species turns up,
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 315
Margaritana margaritifera, and still exists there, and I have col-
lected it repeatedly in 1909 and 1910. But it has become very rare,
and is restricted to some small, clear, and cold mountain runs, in
which no other Najades are found. This species stands by itself,
and, as we shall see below, needs special discussion.
IJ. THE FAUNA OF THE SUSQUEHANNA RIVER.
The following is a list of the species, positively known to occur
in the Susquehanna drainage :°
List No. 18.
. Elliptio complanatus (Dillw.)
. Symphynota tappaniana (Lea)
. Anodonta cataracta Say
. Alasmidonta undulata (Say)
. Alasmidonta marginata susquehannae Ortm.
Alasmidonta varicosa (Lam.)
. Strophitus edentulus (Say)
. Lampsilis radiata (Gmel.)
9g. Lampsilis cariosa (Say)
ON Am BW ND H
The lower Susquehanna, in Maryland, is unknown. Possibly,
the lowland and tidewater species, Elliptio fisherianus and Lamp-
silis ochracea, might be found there. And further, Alasmidonta
heterodon has not been taken in the Susquehanna drainage, although
it is present to the north and south of it. Even adding these three
species, the fauna of the Susquehanna falls short of that of the
Delaware by three species; four seem to be absent (Margaritana
margaritifera, Anodonta implicata, Strophitus undulatus, Eurynia
nasuta), while Alasmidonta marginata susquehannae is added. The
first two species surely reach their southern boundary in the Dela-
ware drainage, while the doubtful Strophitus undulatus seems to be
° Anodontoides ferussacianus (Lea) has been reported from the head-
waters of the Susquehanna in New York state. It is not found in Pennsyl-
vania, and the New York record should be confirmed; but even when correct,
this may be neglected, for this species surely does not belong to the original
fauna of this system, but is a postglacial immigrant.
316 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
local, and Eurynia nasuta has been reported farther south on the
Coastal Plain (as far as North Carolina by Simpson; from James
River by Conrad, ’36; from the lower Potomac by Dewey, ’56; and
Marshall, ’95). But these localities should be confirmed, since this
species has been frequently confounded with Elliptio productus and
fisherianus. According to Rhoads (04), it is also in Sussex and
Kent Cos., in Delaware.
The Susquehanna drainage extends not only into the Allegheny
Valley and into the mountains, but clear through the mountains, and
encroaches upon the Allegheny plateau. All of the species men-
tioned above go up into this region, but two of them have only a
limited distribution, and seem to be restricted to the larger rivers.
These are Lampsilis radiata and L. cariosa. Both of them go in the
North Branch to the New York state line. In the Juniata is only
L. cariosa (up to Huntingdon, Huntingdon Co.), and in the West
Branch both go up at least to Williamsport, Lycoming Co. In the
real headwaters there are only seven species, and they are not always
associated at a particular locality (generally there are only from
three to six together).
One locality is of special interest: this is Cush Cushion Creek,
in Greene Twp., Indiana Co. This is the most western point to
which the Susquehanna fauna advances, and the following species
are here:
1. Elliptio complanatus (Dillw.)
2. Symphynota tappaniana (Lea)
3. Alasmidonta varicosa (Lam.)
. Strophitus edentulus (Say)
aS
Not very far from here, in Chest Creek, Patton, Cambria Co.,
I found:
1. Elliptio complanatus (Dillw.)
. Symphynota tappaniana (Lea)
3. Alasmidonta undulata (Say)
4. Strophitus edentulus (Say)
Ny
Also Anodonta cataracta Say has been found in this region, in
Beaver Dam Creek, Flinton, Cambria Co. Thus there would be six
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 317
species in this uppermost part of the drainage of West Branch.
Alasmidonta marginata susquehannae has not been found here.
The seven species of the upper Susquehanna drainage are the
same as those of the Delaware, with the exceptions that in the
former Margaritana and Alasmidonta heterodon are missing, while
in their place Symphynota tappaniana and Alasmidonta marginata
susquehannae turn up. ‘Thus there are five species common to both
drainages.
Further investigations may change this slightly. But this seems
to be assured, that although similar faunas exist in both rivers, the
Susquehanna falls short by several species of the Delaware, and
that the lack is made good only in part by the presence of a local
form, Alasmidonta marginata susquehannae.
III. THe FAuNA oF THE PoToMAC RIVER.
The following species are positively known to exist in the
Potomac drainage:
List No. Io.
Elliptio complanatus (Dillw.)
Elliptio productus (Conr.)
Symphynota tappaniana (Lea)
Anodonta cataracta Say
Alasmidonta undulata (Say)
Alasmidonta varicosa (Lam.)
Strophitus edentulus (Say)
Lampsilis radiata (Gmel.)
Lampsilis ovata cohongoronta Ortm.
Lampsilis cariosa (Say)
11. Lampsilis ochracea (Say)
SO OOS GON ee oe
—
©
In addition, there might be, in the lower Potomac, Elliptio fish-
erianus (Lea) and Eurynia nasuta (Say) ; these have been frequently
confounded, but forms like them are positively known to occur in
the Potomac at Washington. Possibly both of them are there.
Further, there might be, in the tributaries on the Piedmont Plateau,
Alasmidonta heterodon (Lea), which is found both to the north and
south of the Potomac drainage.
318 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
No. 9, Lampsilis ovata cohongoronta, should be disregarded, and
dropped from the list of the original fauna of the Potomac, for it
probably is a modern introduction from the west (Ortmann, 1912)).
Thus, including the doubtful forms, there would be 13 species
belonging to the Potomac drainage. This is two less than in the
Delaware; while three of the latter are missing here (Margaritana
margaritifera, Anodonta implicata, Strophitus undulatus), one other
is added, Elliptio productus. ‘This latter case is important, because
we positively know that this species is a southern form, which
reaches its most northern range in the Potomac.
Aside from Elliptio fisherianus and Eurynia nasuta, which, when
present, are found only in the lower Potomac, three others, Lamp-
silis radiata, cariosa, and ochracea, are restricted to the lower parts
of the drainage, below the gap in the Blue Ridge at Harper’s Ferry.
Above and to the west of this point, that is to say, in the Allegheny
Valley and the Allegheny Mountains, only the following species are
present (of course, disregarding the introduced no. 9) :
1. Elliptio complanatus (Dillw.)
2. Elliptio productus (Conr.)
3. Symphynota iappaniana (Lea)
4. Anodonta cataracta Say
5. Alasmidonta undulata (Say)
6. Alasmidonta varicosa (Lam.)
7. Strophitus edentulus (Say)
Also here, seven species ascend into the headwaters, and among
them there are again the same five (Elliptio complanatus, Anodonta
cataracta, Alasmidonta undulata, Alasmidonta varicosa, Strophitus
edentulus) which we have seen to be common to the headwaters of
the Delaware and Susquehanna. An additional one, Symphynota
tappaniana, is also found in the Susquehanna, while Elliptio pro-
ductus is a new element in this fauna.
I do not think it necessary to give further particulars. But
again it should be noted, that the distribution of these species is
rather erratic, and that they generally are not all found associated.
Elliptio productus has not been found yet in the region of the Alle-
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 319
gheny Valley (Antietam and Conodoguinet creeks in Maryland and
Pennsylvania, Shenandoah River in the Virginias), but it is rather
frequent in the Potomac and its tributaries in West Virginia, Mary-
land and Pennsylvania in the region of the Allegheny Mountains.
IV. THe FAuNA OF RAPPAHANNOCK RIVER.
The Rappahannock is a Piedmont Plateau stream, and is entirely
east of the Blue Ridge. I collected near the headwaters about Rem-
ington, Fauquier Co., and Culpepper and Rapidan, Culpepper Co.,
Va. The following is the list:
List No. 20.
. Elliptio complanatus (Dillw.)
. Elliptio productus (Conr.)
. Elliptio lanceolatus (Lea)
. Symphynota tappaniana (Lea)
. Alasmidonta heterodon (Lea)
. Alasmidonta undulata (Say)
7. Strophitus edentulus (Say)
Ow BW bd
I give this list only for comparison; probably it is not quite com-
plete. The interesting points are, that Alasmidonta heterodon turns
up here again, and that there is here a new, southern form, which
does not go farther north (Elliptio lanceolatus).
V. THE FAUNA OF THE UPPER JAMES RIVER.
I did not do any collecting in James River east of Blue Ridge,
and although a few records are at hand from the lower James, it
is impossible to give a complete list. West of Blue Ridge, the fauna
of North River (called Calf Pasture River in its upper part) has
been studied many years ago by Conrad (1846). I place his list by
the side of the forms collected by myself in this region:
list No. 2.
Conrad’s list: Species collected by myself:
Unio subplanus Conr. =1. Lexingtonia subplana ( Contr.)
Unio purpureus Say = 2. Elliptio complanatus (Dillw.)
PROC. AMER. PHIL, SOC., LII. 210 C, PRINTED JULY ITI, I913.
320 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
OD a
Unio lanceolatus Lea, probably = 3. Elliptio productus (Conr.)
4. Symphynota tappaniana (Lea)
Unio collinus Conr. = 5. Alasmidonta collina (Conr.)
Alasmodon undulata Say = 6. Alasmidonta undulata (Say)
7. Strophitus edentulus (Say)
Unio constrictus Conr. =8. Eurynia constricta (Conr.)
Alasmodon marginata Say
Anodon cataracta Say
Anodon marginata? Say
I did not find U. lanceolatus, but in its place Ell. productus is
very abundant, so that, I believe, Conrad confused these two species.
Anodonta marginata is given by him as doubtful, and we may rest
assured that this (northern) species is not found here. But it is
quite possible that Alasmodon marginata (now Alasmidonta vari-
cosa) and Anodonta cataracta are here, and I do not hesitate to add
these to my list. My list has two species, not mentioned by Conrad.
Thus we would have ten species in the upper James drainage. The
five species common to the headwaters of the more northern Atlantic
streams are again here, there is one species (Symphynota tappan-
iana) known from upper Susquehanna and Potomac, one species
(Ell. productus), known from upper Potomac, and three species,
which turn up here for the first time:
Lexingtonia subplana
Alasmidonta collina
Eurynia constricta
These additional elements are undoubtedly more southern types,
which reach here their most northern station.
VI. THE Fauna OF THE UPPER ROANOKE RIVER.
Only the uppermost Roanoke is known to me. It drains a rela-
tively small portion of the Allegheny Valley, chiefly in Roanoke and
Montgomery Cos., Va., and has the following, poor fauna:
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 321
List No. 22.
1. Elliptio complanatus (Dillw.)
. Strophitus edentulus (Say)
3. Eurynia constricta (Conr.)
is)
These species are all found in the upper James, and one of them
(no. 3) clearly shows the affinity with that system. This is undoubt-
edly a depauperated fauna, corresponding to the small size of the
streams. Possibly the record is not complete. Below Roanoke, the
river is polluted, but east of the Blue Ridge there are surely addi-
tional species in this system.
SUMMARY OF FACTS CONCERNING THE EASTERN FAUNA.
Full list of all species known to exist on the Atlantic slope (in
the region investigated) :
iList No. 23:
Margaritana inargaritifera (L.)
Lexingtonia subplana (Conr.)
Elliptio complanatus (Dillw.)
Elliptio fisherianus (Lea)
Elliptio productus (Conr.)
. Elliptio lanceolatus (Lea)
. Symphynota tappaniana (Lea)
. Anodonta cataracta Say
Anodonta implicata Say
Alasmidonta collina (Conr.)
. Alasmidonta heterodon (Lea)
Alasmidonta undulata (Say)
. Alasmidonta marginata susquehannae (Ortm.)
. Alasmidonta varicosa (Lam.)
. Strophitus undulatus (Say)
16. Strophitus edentulus (Say)
. Eurynia constricta (Conr.)
. Eurynia nasuta (Say)
. Lampsilis radiata (Gmel.)
Lampsilis cariosa (Say)
. Lampsilis ochracea (Say)
SOO Oe eae
Se SF SF FS aS
mR WN HO
bo bw 4S Ff eR
HOO ON
322 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
Lampsilis ovata cohongoronta Ortm. has been dropped as not
indigenous on the Atlantic slope.
The following facts are observed:
1. Probably seven species of these have a rather general distri-
bution. In five of them this is perfectly clear (nos. 3, 8, 12, 14, 16),
but probably also nos. 7 and 11 fall under these; they only may
have been overlooked in certain regions.
2. There are six forms, which apparently have a more northern
range, disappearing toward the south, nos. I, 9, 18, 19, 20, 21. The
last four have the peculiarity in common that toward the south they
become more or less restricted to the coastal plain.
3. On the other hand, there are six forms, which have their
center more toward the south and disappear toward the north.
These are. the nos; 2, 4; 5, 6, 10, and) 17. :
4. Of the two remaining forms, no. 13 is a local form of the
Susquehanna drainage, while no. 15 is altogether doubtful, but may
be a local (tidewater) form of no. 16.
Compared with the western fauna of 47 species (list no. 1), the
Atlantic fauna is decidedly poor (less than half the number of spe-
cies). But in the Ohio we notice a general and marked decrease of
species in the headwaters, so that there are only fourteen species
in the headwaters of the Allegheny River. In the eastern drainage
systems, there is also a slight decrease toward the headwater, but
this is much less in proportion, and in the mountain region we have
yet thirteen species (nos. 1,2, 3,5, 7; 8, 10, 11,.12, 13, 14,96, 2 r
Thus we may say, that, disregarding a few species restricted to the
lowlands and the larger rivers, the fauna of the Atlantic streams
remains, in each river system, rather uniform up to the headwaters,
decreasing hardly in the number of species.
Further, in the region of the headwaters of the Monongahela
and Kanawha, the conditions are actually reversed. Here only very
few species (not more than three) are found in the western streams,
while the eastern streams (Potomac; James) have decidedly more,
the James, for instance, at least eight, possibly ten. Thus the At-
lantic fauna is here richer than the western.
But the Tennessee fauna (list no. 16) again holds its own, and
the Atlantic fauna falls by far short of it.
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 323
CHAPTER 2.
SYSTEMATIC AFFINITIES OF THE NAJADES OF THE INTERIOR BASIN
AND OF THE ATLANTIC SLOPE.
In order to understand the mutual relations of the western and
eastern faunas, which, as we have seen, are at present rather sharply
distinguished, it is necessary to consider the systematic affinities of
the forms belonging to either.
Up to a comparatively recent time the natural system of the
Najades was extremely obscure. However, the great synopsis of
Simpson (1900a) has paved the way for a proper understanding of
the relationship of our Najades, and the more recent papers of the
. present writer (chiefly 1912a) have furnished what is believed to be
the natural system, expressing, as far as possible, the genetic affinities
within this group.
Using this system as a guide, the following remarks are to be
made:
I. The general fauna of the upper Ohio drainage (list no. I, p.
291) contains no less than seventeen genera, which are not found on
the Atlantic side, namely:
Fusconaia Hemuilastena Amygdalonaias
Crenodonta Ptychobranchus Plagiola
Quadrula Obliquaria Paraptera
Rotundaria Cyprogena Proptera
Plethobasus Obovaria Truncilla
Pieurobema Nephronaias
This is entirely sufficient to show the tremendous difference be-
tween the two faunas, and demonstrates clearly that the Allegheny
Mountains formed an important barrier to the eastward distribution
of the bulk of the western fauna. No further discussion of this is
required.
II. The fauna of the headwaters of the Allegheny River (com-
bined lists 6, 7, 8, 9, p. 301) contains five species (out of fourteen)
which are typically western and belong to genera just mentioned:
324 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
Fusconaa undata rubiginosa
Pleurobema obliquum coccineum
Pleurobema clava
Ptychobranchus phaseolus
Obovaria circulus lens
Another one, Symphynota costata, should be added, since,
although the genus is found in the east, the subgenera are different
(Lasmigona and Symphynota).
This shows that although a number of the typical western genera
have gone way up into the headwaters, they have not been able to
cross the divide.
III. On the Atlantic side (see list no. 23) we have two genera
(Margaritana and Lexingtonia), which are not found in the interior
basin. Margaritana has, indeed, a related form (Cumberlandia —
monodonta (Say) ) in the Tennessee and Ohio drainage, but there
is probably no direct genetic connection between them, and the his-
tory of Margaritana, as will be seen below, is a case by itself.
IV. Lexingtonia is possibly related to and descended from cer-
tain interior basin forms (such as Fusconaia and Pleurobema), but
the relationship is remote, and for all practical purposes we may
class it with the cases to be mentioned presently. These are the
following forms (of list no. 23): nos. 3, 4, 5, © (the four species of
Elliptio), and nos. 10, 11, 12 (Alasmidonta collina, heterodon, un-
dulata). All these are forms of the respective genera, which have
no closely allied or representative forms on the western side, although
the genera are represented there.
Attention should be called to the fact that Leringtomia, three
species of Elliptio (fisherianus, productus, lanceolatus) and Alasmi-
donta collina undoubtedly belong to the southern element in the At-
lantic fauna, and that their distribution northward is limited. How-
ever, it is also probable that Elliptio complanatus, Alasmidonta
heterodon and undulata belong to the same class. The first and
third are undoubtedly southern in their affinities, and allied species
are frequent upon the southern portion of the Atlantic slope (in
the Carolinas and Georgia). This is not so clear in the case of
Alasmidonta heterodon. Here it has the appearance, as if the dis-
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 325
tribution might be more northern, but this may be due to defective
knowledge of the facts.
V. Another group of Atlantic species has closely allied species
in the interior basin. No. 17 of the list, Eurynia (Micromya) con-
stricta, has a representative form in the upper Tennessee drainage
(Eurynia (Micromya) vanuxemensis). Six others (nos. 8, 9, 14,
19, 20, 21) have closely related, indeed representative forms, in the
upper Ohio drainage. The relation is as follows:
no. 8 and 9, Anodonta cataracta and implicata, represent the
western Anodonta grandis.
no. 14, Alasmidonta varicosa, represents the western Alasmi-
donta marginata.
no. 19, Lampsilis radiata, represents the western Lampsilis
luteola.
no. 20 and 21, Lampsilis cariosa and ochracea, represent the
western Lampsilis ovata ventricosa (and its allied forms).
It should be noted that just these Atlantic forms are preemi-
nently those which have a more northern range upon the Atlantic side.
VI. Finally, there are four species on the Atlantic side, which are
Specifically identical with western forms. Particulars are as follows:
no, 13, Alasmidonta marginata susquehannae, is a local form of
the Susquehanna drainage, closely resembling the widely dis-
tributed western Alasmidonta marginata.,
no. 7, Symphynota tappaniana, is represented on either side by
an absolutely identical form. But here the distribution is
rather general on the eastern side and local on the western
(New River).
no. 16, Strophitus edentulus, is absolutely identical on either
side, and also widely distributed, east as well as west. But
it should be noted that it is apparently absent in New River.
no. 18, Eurynia nasuta. Here we see that the identical species
is on the Atlantic side and in Lake Erie basin, but not in the
upper Ohio drainage.
We see at once that these cases apparently are not subject to the
same laws, and further below they shall be treated each by itself.
There remains yet one of the Atlantic forms, no. 15, Strophitus
326 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
undulatus. We must dismiss this for the present, for we do not
know much about its taxonomic standing and its distribution. This
may be nothing but a local form of Strophitus edentulus, and.then
it would have to the latter the same relation as Lampsilis ochracea
has to L. cariosa (the former is the tidewater form of the latter).
As a whole, the Atlantic fauna should be regarded as an offshoot
of the fauna of the interior basin, with the exception of Margaritana
margaritifera. It does not possess any very strongly marked types
of its own, but all may be traced back to western types. How-
ever, there are different elements on the Atlantic slope, which ap-
parently reached their present range by different ways, and probably
at different times. The greatest independence is shown among
those which are found in the southern section of the Atlantic slope,
and there is an indication of the development of a secondary center
of dispersal in this region, producing a few characteristic types,
more remote in their affinities from the forms of the interior basin.
The other forms are generally more or less closely connected with
western species, in fact, clearly are representative forms of them.
CHAPTER 3.
DISTRIBUTIONAL FACTS IN OTHER FRESHWATER ANIMALS.
Before we advance further in our attempt to study the mutual
relations of the eastern and western freshwater faunas, it is well to
compare a few other groups with the Najades, in order to ascertain
whether there are parallel cases to those described above.
iL SPHAERIMD AS,
For the identification of my material I am indebted to V. Sterki.
Although I have collected a great many Spheriude from the streams
of Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Virginia, my collections are by
no means complete. Nevertheless, as far as they go, they serve to
confirm the well-known fact, that with regard to these small shells,
the Alleghenian divide does not form an important faunistic bound-
ary. Thus the Spheriide distinctly differ from the Najades, and
undoubtedly must have been subject to other laws.
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 327
It is not necessary to give a detailed account of the single species ;
it suffices to enumerate those species which I have before me from
both sides of the mountains:
Spherium sulcatum (Lam.)
Spherium solidulum (Pr.)
Spherium stamineum (Conr.)
Spherium striatinum (Lam.)
Musculium transversum (Say)
Musculium truncatum (Linsl.)
Pisidium virginicum (Gmel.)
Pisidium compressum Pr.
Of course, these examples will become more numerous when
more exhausting studies have been made.
Altogether, we may safely assume that it is a general rule among
this group, that the distribution is not influenced by the Alleghenian
divide. As we have seen above, this condition is extremely rare
among the Najades. In the present case, the distribution of the
Spheriide seems to have been formed under the influence of one
great general factor, which probably is the faculty of these shells to
cross over divides, presumably by being transported. It is very
pertinent to bring this out here most emphatically, because, as we
have seen, this factor has had very little or no effect among the
Najades, as is shown by the entirely different character of their
distribution.
II. GASTROPODA, FAMILY: PLEUROCERID.
The identifications have been kindly furnished by A. A. Hinkley.
I have a rather satisfactory material of this family, although the
records are not as complete and exhausting as in the Najades.
The whole character of the distribution of these freshwater snails
is like that of the Najades, and, consequently, it is indicated that no
exceptional means of dispersal (transport) have played a part. The
range of the species follows rather closely the river systems, and
the effect of the Alleghenian divide as a barrier is quite evident.
Two facts, however, are to be regretted, first, that in the region
328 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
investigated the number of species is not very great, and second, that
the natural affinities within this family are yet entirely obscure.
Nevertheless, some interesting points are easily observed, as will be
seen from the following account.
A. THE UPPER OHIO DRAINAGE in western Pennsylvania and
West Virginia has the following species:
1. Pleurocera canaliculatum (Say)
2. Pleurocera altipetum Anth.
3. Goniobasis livescens (Mke.)
(incl. var. depygis (Say) )
4. Goniobasis translucens Anth.
5. Anculosa dilatata (Conr.)
It is to be remarked that the two Pleuroceras are restricted to the
larger rivers; no. I is in the Ohio proper at and below Pittsburgh,
and has also been found as far up as the lower Youghiogheny in
Allegheny Co., Pa.; while no. 2 is in the middle Allegheny up to
Venango and Warren Cos. No Pleuroceras have ever been found
in any of the smaller streams.
Gontobasis livescens is in the Beaver drainage, and in that of
French Creek of the Allegheny (also in Lake Erie), and it appears
as if this species should be classed with those Najades which have
been mentioned (on p. 291, footnote 2) to be peculiar to those
drainages. The Goniobasis-species of the Allegheny River, begin-
ning in the Ohio River below Pittsburgh, and going up through
Armstrong, Venango, Forest to Warren Co., is, according to Hink-
ley, G. translucens, and this species is also abundant in the drainages
of Beaver River and French Creek.
Except in the lower Youghiogheny, where (many years ago)
Pleurocera canaliculatum has been found, no species of Pleurocera
or Goniobasis are known from the whole Monongahela drainage.
I have no doubt that some existed once at least in the lower Monon-
gahela, but the pollution of the waters apparently has exterminated
them, and no records have been preserved. The upper Yough-
iogheny, where the water is clear, is entirely without Plewroceride,
and this is positively established, for a search has been made for them.
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 329
This is a fact which should be emphasized, for in the head-
waters of the Monongahela, Anculosa dilatata turns up. This is
found in the lower part of the Cheat at Cheat Haven, Fayette Co.,
Pa., and goes up through the canyon into the headwaters (Shavers
Fork, Parsons, Tucker Co., W. Va.); it is also in Tygart Valley
River, at Elkins, Randolph Co., W. Va., and even in the plateau
stream, West Fork River, at Lynch Mines, Harrison Co., W. Va.
No Anculosas are found in the rest of the upper Ohio drainage
in western Pennsylvania.
Farther south in West Virginia our knowledge probably is frag-
mentary. In the Kanawha drainage, no Pleuroceride are known to
me, except Pleurocera validum Anth. in Elk River; and New River
and Greenbrier rivers, at least from Hinton upward, contain Ancu-
losa dilatata (Conr.). The latter is exceedingly abundant in this
region.
In the Big Sandy, at Prestonsburg, Floyd Co., Ky., I collected
Pleurocera unciale Hald., a species which is also found in Clinch
River. Licking River at Farmer, Rowan Co., Ky., has Pleurocera
cylindraceum Lea.
It appears that there is a certain correlation in the distribution
of the Pleuroceride and the Najades of the upper Ohio drainage, at
least as far as it concerns the genera Pleurocera and Goniobasis. It
is well known that the greatest variety of forms is found in the lower
Ohio and its tributaries, and it is suggested that this fauna has
migrated upstream, and that there is a general decrease in the num-
ber of species in an upstream direction. But the different tributaries
of the upper Ohio seem to have received or have developed different
species. In addition, most of the species do not go very far into the
headwaters, and the smaller streams generally do not contain Pleuro-
cerid@, or only rarely so.°
One very remarkable fact is to be noted. In the headwaters of
the Monongahela, excluding the Youghiogheny, and also in the
headwaters of the Kanawha (New and Greenbrier rivers), Anculosa
* This, however, is different in the Beaver drainage, where species of
Goniobasis are found in small creeks. But the characteristic species, G. lives-
cens, probably did not come up the Ohio, but came “across country” from
the West.
330 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
1s the only genus found, and it is represented in all these streams by
one and the same species, A. dilatata. This genus is not found any-
where else in the whole upper Ohio drainage in West Virginia and
Pennsylvania, but it is represented on the Atlantic side by a closely
allied and widely distributed species. It is perfectly clear that this
case does not submit to the same laws which governed the Najad
fauna and the other Pleuroceride of this region. Further particu-
lars will be given below.
As regards the upper Tennessee fauna (Clinch and Holston
rivers), we have here again a rich development of Pleuroceride, as
is well known. I do not think that my collections represent this
fauna fully, but I have collected the following species:
To fluvialis (Say) (Holston and Clinch)
Pleurocera estabrooki (Lea) (Holston)
Pleurocera knoxense (Lea) (Holston)
Pleurocera unciale Hald. (Clinch, also, as we have
seen, in Big Sandy.)
5. Goniobasis simplex (Say) (Holston and Clinch)
6. Anculosa gibbosa Lea (Holston and Clinch)
tel eee
To is a type entirely peculiar to this region. Except Pl. unciale,
which is also in the Big Sandy, the others have no striking relation-
ship to any of the species mentioned above from the upper Ohio.
The Anculosa may have a somewhat closer genetic relationship with
the Anculosas farther north, in New River, etc., but morphologically
they are distinctly separated.
Thus it is clear that the Pleurocerid-fauna of the upper Ten-
nessee undoubtedly corresponds to the Najad-fauna of this region,
and probably has had a similar history.
B. PLEUROCERIDZ OF THE ATLANTIC SIDE.
The genus Pleurocera is entirely missing on the Atlantic side.
Goniobasis is represented by two species :* G. virginica (Gmel.) and
7 Additional species are found from North Carolina southward. G. nick-
liniana Lea has been reported (Tryon, ’66, p. 31) from Bath Co., Va. (orig-
inal locality: near Hot Springs, drainage of Jackson River). This species is
unknown to me. I collected in Jackson River at Covington, Alleghany Co.,
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 351
G. symmetrica Hald. The former is common all over the Delaware,
Susquehanna, Potomac and James river drainages, and has been
found practically everywhere, possibly with the exception of the
smallest streams in the headwaters. This species has no closely
allied or representative form in the upper Ohio drainage, but if
Tryon’s arrangement of the species (1866, p. 39 f.) is natural, re-
lated forms are found in Tennessee and Alabama. It is unknown
how far this species ranges southward, but according to our present
knowledge, it seems that it belongs rather to that group of fresh-
water forms, which point in their affinities to a center lying on the
southern Atlantic slope.
Specimens of a Goniobasis collected by myself in Mason Creek,
Salem, and Tinker Creek, Roanoke, Roanoke Co., Va. (Roanoke
drainage) have been identified by Hinkley as G. symmetrica, a species
reported (Tryon, ’66, p. 30) from West Virginia, East Tennessee,
South Carolina, North Georgia, and Alabama. But there is much
uncertainty about this, and West Virginia seems to be more than
doubtful. One fact, however, is sure: this species is not found
north of the Roanoke on the Atlantic side. Thus also this appears
as a southern type, and should be classed with the same group as
G. virginica.
In addition there is a species of Anculosa on the Atlantic side:
A. carinata (Brug.). This is absent in the Delaware drainage, but
extremely abundant in the systems of the Susquehanna, Potomac,
James, and Roanoke, and goes far up in the mountain streams.
This species is very closely allied to A. dilatata of New River and
the headwaters of the Monongahela, and undoubtedly stands in
closest genetic relationship to it. In fact, these two species are so
intimately allied on the one hand and are so polymorphous on the
other, that it is extremely hard to distinguish them. It has been
mentioned that they also have an allied but more sharply distin-
guished species in the upper Tennessee (A. gibbosa).
There is no doubt that we have to class this case with those of
the very closely allied or identical species of Najades on either side
less than twenty miles from Hot Springs, but only Anculosa carinata was
there, in various forms, some of which resemble very much Lea’s figure of
G. nickliniana.
332 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
of the divide. The present case most resembles that of Symphynota
tappaniana, where we have a species found both in New River and
on the Atlantic side. Therange of the latter is not entirely identical,
for it is not found in the Monongahela drainage, and goes, on the
Atlantic side, farther north, while A. carinata only reaches the Sus-
quehanna in which it goes up to New York state.
Ill. FAMILY: VIVIPARIDZ; GENUS: CAMPELOMA RAF.
Also in this group we lack a modern revision of the species, and
there is much uncertainty with regard to the geographical distribu-
tion. What I have collected in Pennsylvania, West Virginia and
Virginia apparently falls under three described species: Campeloma
decisum (Say), C. rufum (Hald.), and C. ponderosum (Say), and
with the first one I unite as undistinguishable, what has been called
C. integrum (Say). At any rate, I am not able to distinguish the
common form of the upper Ohio drainage in western Pennsylvania
and West Virginia from the common form of the Atlantic side
(from Delaware to James). The identical form is also in Clinch
River.
C. decisum seems to prefer the larger rivers, but it is not absent
in the headwaters, and I have it from the mountain region on either
side of the divide (Shaver’s Fork, upper Tygart system, Greenbrier,
uppermost tributaries of Allegheny, and many places in the head-
waters of the Potomac and James). Consequently, this would be
again a case where an identical specics is found on either side of the
divide, and where this divide does not form a barrier to the dis-
tribution.
Of the other two species, C. rufum is known to me only from
northwestern Pennsylvania, in the Allegheny and its tributaries
(French Creek) and in the Beaver and Little Beaver drainage. This
looks very much as if it belonged to those forms, which invaded
‘
Pennsylvania from the west, coming “across country.” (After all,
this may be only a local form of C. decisum, with which it is often
found associated. )
I found C. ponderosum only in Elk Creek, West Virginia, and
farther down in the Ohio (Portsmouth, Scioto Co., Ohio). Here it
1913] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 333
is the only Campeloma present, and it should be emphasized that in
the upper Kanawha drainage, in Greenbrier River, not this species,
but C. decisum is found.
C.rufum and ponderosum have no representatives on the Atlantic
side, and clearly belong to the fauna of the upper Ohio River,
although they probably belong to different parts of it.
iV ECArPOD CRUSTACEANS: THE CRAYRISHES OF THE
GENUS CAMBARUS.
The conditions presented by the distribution of the crayfishes
have been discussed by the writer with regard to the state of Penn-
sylvania (Ortmann, 1906). ‘These studies have been continued to-
ward the south, and most of the facts given here for Virginia and
‘West Virginia are new and add considerably to our previous knowl-
edge. Of course, a certain ecological group is to be disregarded
here, the burrowing crayfishes, for they do not live in open water,
rivers or creeks, and do not depend in their distribution on drainage
systems (Cambarus carolinus Er.,C. monongalensis Ortm., C. diogenes
Gir).
A. The following river and creek forms are found on the wWEsT-
ERN SIDE of the mountains.
Cambarus obscurus Hag. This species belongs to the upper Ohio
system, from Moundsville, W. Va., in the Ohio, and from Fishing
and Fish Creek upward. But it should be noted that subsequent
investigations have shown that it goes a little farther down in the
Ohio proper, for it is in the river at St. Mary’s, Pleasants Co., W.
Va. In the Allegheny River this species goes up to the headwaters
(Coudersport, Potter Co., Pa.), and also in the tributaries (Red
Bank, Mahoning, Crooked), except in the Kiskiminetas-Conemaugh,
where it goes only to the mouth of the canyon at Blairsville, while
it goes up into the upper Loyalhanna in Westmoreland Co. Thus
the Conemaugh resembles the conditions seen in the more southern
mountain tributaries of the Monongahela. In the latter this species
goes only to the lower end of the canyons, and is not found in the
upper parts (Youghiogheny, Cheat, Tygart), while in the plateau
stream, West Fork River, it is found nearly to the sources (Weston,
ieewis:Co., We Vas):
334 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
Cambarus propinquus sanborni Fax. As has been shown in my
previous paper, this species takes the place of C. obscurus as the
river-species below the lower boundary of the range of the latter.
In the. Ohio proper, C. propinquus sanborni has been found at
Parkersburg, Wood Co., and at Ravenswood, Jackson Co., W. Va.
It is also present in the tributaries of the Ohio in this region. An
additional locality in the drainage of Middle Island Creek is McKim
Creek, | Union Mulls; Pleasants'/Co,, We Va, Tt “is an ithemdeiile
Kanawha drainage in North Fork Hughes River, Cornwallis, Ritchie
Co., and in the Little Kanawha River, Burnsville, Braxton Co., W.
Va.s From the Kanawha drainage I have it from Elk River, Clay,
Clay Co., and I collected it also in Mud River, Milton, Cabell Co.,
which is in the Guyandot drainage. Although I did not get it in the
Big Sandy, it is surely there, for its type locality (according to
Faxon) is Smoky Creek, Carter Co., Ky. (1 could not locate this
creek, but a place called Smoky Valley is in western Carter Co., and
is in the Tygart Creek drainage; Little Sandy and Tygart Creek fall
into the Ohio below the mouth of the Big Sandy.) Beyond this,
this species disappears, and its place is taken by the next, but I have
ascertained this only in Rowan and Fleming Cos., Ky.
Cambarus rusticus Gir. This is the river-species of Licking
River, which flows into the Ohio below Cincinnati. The old record |
for this species, Cincinnati, would thus be confirmed. I found this
species in Licking River proper at Farmer, Rowan Co., and in the
tributaries, Triplet Creek, Morehead, Rowan Co., and Fleming
Creek, Pleasant Valley, Nicholas Co., Ky.
Cambarus spinosus Bund. ‘This is the representative species of
C. rusticus in the upper Tennessee drainage, and I found it in Clinch
River at Richland and Raven, Tazewell Co., Va. From this center
of distribution it has crossed over into the Gulf and Atlantic drain-
ages in Georgia and South Carolina, but this does not concern us here.
In a general way, these river crayfishes show the same geograph-
ical features as the bulk of the Ohio River shell fauna. The species
* These two localities are interesting, for they approach closely localities
in the West Fork River, at Lynch Mines, Harrison Co., and Weston, Lewis
Co., where C. obscurus is found.
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 335
of the propinquus group (obscurus and propinquus sanborni) have
the same peculiarity as the Najades, in going up, in the rivers, only
to the falls line in the mountain streams of West Virginia and south-
ern Pennsylvania, while in the upper Allegheny they go up nearly
to the sources. The fact that in the Kiskiminetas-Conemaugh they
do not follow the Najades into Somerset Co., and that thus this river
resembles the southern ones; and that then again the upper Loyal-
hanna conforms with the northern streams, is not very astonishing,
for the Kiskiminetas system, being geographically intermediate,
should also be expected to form faunistically a transition.
These crayfishes, however, differ from the Najades, in present-
ing a uniformity of the upper Ohio fauna only in so far as they are
systematically closely allied, belonging all into the same natural
group. But specifically they are quite sharply distinct, and thus
indicate, in their distribution, three faunistically different sections:
the upper Ohio is characterized by C. obscurus, farther down C. pro-
pinquus sanborni takes its place, and finally, beginning with Licking
River, C. rusticus turns up, and this species has a representative also
in the upper Tennessee, C. spinosus.
These conditions are important for the history of the crayfish
fauna of the Ohio basin, and suggest, as I believe, that the Najad
and the crayfish population of this system was not entirely subject
to the same laws.
Cambarus bartoni (Fabr.). This is not a river species, but a
species of the small and smallest creeks, going up to the very springs.
It is found everywhere on the western side of the mountains, for
instance, Blackwater River and Shaver’s Fork, small runs tributary
to Buckhannon River, upper New River drainage (Reed Creek),
and small runs tributary to Clinch River. It is also on the Atlantic
side (see below).
Cambarus longulus Gir. Is found, on the western side, only in
the upper Kanawha drainage, Greenbrier and New Rivers, and also
in the upper Tennessee drainage, Holston and Clinch. It is also on
the Atlantic side (see below).
PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC,, LII. 210 D, PRINTED JULY II, I913.
336 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
B. CRAYFISHES OF THE ATLANTIC SIDE.
Cambarus blandingi (Harl.). This species has not been treated
in my report on the Pennsylvanian crayfishes, but I have discovered
subsequently that it is present in great numbers in the ditches of the
Delaware meadows at League Island, Philadelphia. Its distribution
is from New Jersey to Georgia, and in a slightly different form (var.
acutus Gir.) it extends westward over the Gulf plain to Texas, and
northward into the interior basin. The existence of related species
chiefly upon the Gulf plain (Ortmann, 1905, p. 105) indicates that the
center of this species is in the southeastern United States, and there
is no question that it reached our section (from Virginia northward)
by migration coming from the south. Thus it clearly belongs into
the same group to which those Najades belong, for which we have
located the center of dispersal in the southern parts of the Atlantic
slope.
Cambarus limosus (Raf.) A species confined primarily to the
lowlands and Piedmont region from New Jersey to Virginia, but
which has gone up, in the Susquehanna and Potomac, into the moun-
tains, possibly only secondarily. The facts of the distribution have
been compiled in my former paper (1906, pp. 425 ff.), and the con-
clusion was reached (p. 432) that this is a form belonging to the
northern section of the Atlantic slope, and that its connection with
the western forms allied to it is around the northern end of the
Appalachians. Thus it clearly falls into the same category with
certain Najades mentioned above.
Cambarus obscurus Hag. This western species exists in the
upper Potomac drainage. I have previously (1906) considered this
as an accidental introduction, and more recently (1912), pp. 51-54)
I have parallelized this case with that of Lampsilis ventricosa cohon-
goronta, as due to artificial transplantation. Thus this is not an
original feature of the Potomac drainage, and should be disregarded.
Cambarus acuminatus Fax. A species, known hitherto from the
Atlantic drainage only in North and South Carolina, and also re-
ported from French Broad River in North Carolina, tributary to the
Tennessee. On the Atlantic side, however, this species extends
farther north, and I have found it in Mason Creek, at Salem, and
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 337
in Tinker Creek, at Roanoke, Roanoke Co., Va. (Roanoke drainage),
and in Mountain Run, Culpepper, Culpepper Co., Va. (Rappahan-
nock drainage). Although differing from C. blandingi in not be-
longing to the coastal plain, but rather to the Piedmont plateau, or
even the mountains, the direction of its distribution apparently was
the same, from south to north, and thus it clearly belongs to the
southern element of the Atlantic fauna. In the fact that the same
species is also found in the Tennessee drainage, it resembles to a
degree the case of Eurynia constricta and vanuxemensis among the
Najades. But this may be disregarded for the present, for it does
not concern the region under discussion.
Cambarus bartoni (Fabr.). All over the Atlantic side, also south
of Pennsylvania, and I collected it myself, for instance, at Charlottes-
ville, Albemarle Co., Va., and additional records are to be found in
my former list of localities (1906, pp. 382-384). Here we have a
Species of wide and general distribution both on the western and
eastern side of the mountains, going up into the very headwaters
within the mountains. Thus it is clear that the divide has not acted
as a barrier in this case, which I have explained by the exceptional
means of dispersal possessed by this species in consequence of its
ecological habits. This species is able to cross divides.
Cambarus longulus Gir. We have seen that this is in the upper
Tennessee and the upper Kanawha, on the western side. On the
eastern side it is a common form in the upper James drainage (Jack-
son and North Rivers). It also has been reported from the upper-
most Shenandoah drainage, South River at Waynesboro, Augusta
Ca. Va:
This distribution clearly resembles that of Symphynota tappani-
ana among the Najades, and that of the genus Anculosa among the
Pleuroceride, and there is no question that similar factors have con-
tributed to bring this about, although in each of these cases certain
peculiarities are observed. We shall devote more time to this far-
ther below.
338 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
CHAPTER 4.
SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTIONAL FACTS WHICH CALL FOR AN EXPLA-
TION.
The above is the faunistic material which I have been able to col-
lect. Comparing the facts observed in the different groups of fresh-
water animals discussed, several classes have been brought to our
attention repeatedly, and they may be condensed under the following
generalized heads.
I. WESTERN SIDE.
1. The Allegheman divide actually forms a sharp faunistic bound-
ary for a great number of freshwater creatures. This is most evi-
dent for the forms of the interior basin, which go up to a greater
or lesser distance in the upper Ohio drainage, but do not cross the
divide. To these belongs the bulk of the Najad-fauna; the genus
Pleurocera and the western species of Goniobasis, among the Pleu-
rocerid@; at least one species of Campeloma (C. ponderosum) ; and
the group of Cambarus rusticus and propinquus of the crayfishes
(which are closely allied).
In a general way the interior basin fauna appears as a unit, a
number of species, chiefly Najades, being found uniformly in all
parts of the Ohio drainage, from the upper Tennessee region to the
upper Allegheny River.
2. Nevertheless there are indications of a differentiation into sev-
eral subdivisions, which may be described as follows:
(a) The most sharply differentiated part is the upper Tennessee
region, and to this belongs probably the whole Cumberland-Ten-
nessee drainage. This is clearly seen in the Najades, in the Pleuro-
cerid@, and in the existence of a peculiar species of crayfish, Cam-
barus spinosus, belonging to the rusticus group.
(b) Another part comprises the main fauna of the Ohio, chiefly
of the middle and upper parts, and its tributaries. This fauna shows
preeminently the wniformity mentioned above, and goes from Lick-
ing and Big Sandy rivers in Kentucky to the upper Allegheny, in-
cluding the Kanawha and Monongahela. In the Allegheny this
fauna goes to the headwaters. But in the Kanawha and Monon-
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 339
gahela it goes only up to a point at the lower end of the canyon of
the mountain tributaries. This latter feature is expressed in the
Najades, and also in the genera Pleurocera and Goniobasis in the
Pleuroceride. Also the crayfishes of the propinquus-group (Cam-
barus propinquus sanborni and C. obscurus) show it distinctly.
(c) A third part is the region of the headwaters of the mountain
streams, tributary to Kanawha (New and Greenbrier) and Monon-
gahela (Buckhannon, Tygart, Cheat, Youghiogheny). This fauna
is chiefly characterized by negative features, by the absence of the
typical forms of the upper Ohio (2b). But it also has some positive
characters; for instance, the presence of Symphynota tappaniana in
the upper Kanawha; of Anculosa dilatata in the upper Kanawha,
Tygart, and Cheat; and of Cambarus longulus in the upper Kan-
awha. Of the various streams belonging to this region, each has
some features of its own, and the elements have various relations
to each other. It is very important to notice that most of the forms
found in these streams are represented, on the Atlantic side, by
identical or very closely allied forms (Symphynota tappaniana,
Strophitus edentulus, Anculosa dilatata, Cambarus longulus). Other
elements of this fauna belong to the general Ohio fauna (Symphy-
nota costata, Elliptio dilatatus, Alasmidonta marginata), and just
these have no closely allied forms on the Atlantic side (Alasmidonta
varicosa is indeed allied to A. marginata, but as we shall see, it is
not closely connected with the New River form).
It further should be noted that the New River shows relations
to the upper Tennessee in Cambarus longulus, and possibly also in
Anculosa. Further, the upper Kiskiminetas-Conemaugh drainage
in Pennsylvania shows an intermediate condition between the more
southern mountain streams and the more northern tributaries of the
Allegheny; with regard to the Najades it conforms to the latter,
with regard-to the crayfishes to the former (excepting again the
Loyalhanna).
II. EASTERN SIDE.
1. The fauna of the Atlantic slope shows little evidence that it
ever was an important, independent center of radiation. All forms
belonging to it have more or less close relations to forms of the
340 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
interior basin (except Margaritana). A certain uniformity of this
fauna is also expressed in two ways:
(a) By the uniform and wide distribution of certain species,
indicating the possibility of intermigration between the various river
systems ;
(b) by the fact that the fauna of each river, disregarding a few
lowland species, goes up, in its bulk, into the mountains and ap-
proaches closely the headwaters without appreciable depauperation.
2. There is a differentiation of elements within the Atlantic
fauna, indicating different origin.
(a) A southern element pointing to a secondary center of radia-
tion in the southern parts of the Atlantic slope is distinguishable.
This center itself, however, lies chiefly outside of the region dis-
cussed here. Forms like Lesxingtonia, like those of the Elliptio
complanatus and fisherianus-group, Alasmidonta collina, heterodon,
and undulata, Eurynia constricta, among the Najades, Goniobasis
virginica and symmetrica among the Pleuroceride, Cambarus bland-
ingi and acuminatus, among the crayfishes, belong here. These
forms exhibit morphologically the greatest independence, and are
possibly the oldest element in the Atlantic fauna. In some cases
it is hard or impossible to connect them with types of the interior
basin by more than general relationship.°
(b) In the northern section of the Atlantic slope exists a group
of forms, which are more closely related to species of the interior
basin and often must be regarded as their direct representatives.
These are the Najades enumerated under group V. (p. 325), and the
crayfish, Cambarus limosus. They all have their main range in the
north, and toward the south they disappear sooner or later, and have
no representatives in the south. Very often their southward range
becomes restricted to the coastal plain.
(c) Further, there is a third group among the Atlantic forms.
These are either conspecific with western forms or extremely closely
allied. These are the Najades mentioned under VI. (p. 325), the
emateS
°It might be mentioned here, that these forms probably will be intimately
connected with the Tennessee-Coosa problem, and their number will be greatly
added to, when the fauna of the Carolinas and of Georgia is taken into con-
sideration.
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE 341
Spheriide, the Anculosa dilatata-carinata group of the Pleuroceride,
Campeloma decisum, and the crayfishes, Cambarus bartoni and
longulus (1 disregard, for the present, C. spimosus and C. acumi-
natus, as probably belonging to the Tennessee-Coosa problem, at
any rate to a region lying to the south of the one which interests
us here).
These forms generally go way up into the mountains, and prac-
tically meet there with the western range of the respective forms, so
that the distribution seems almost continuous across the mountains,
and suggests crossing of the divide. |
There is great variety in the details of distribution of these
forms, and two main groups may be distinguished: those with a
more universal range on either side of the mountains, and those with
a more restricted range on one or on both sides.
The above is a sketch of the chief distributional features, and
we see that it is possible to group a number of cases under the same
heads, which means to say that very likely similar causes have acted
to bring about similar distribution. But before we begin the task
to investigate the laws which governed these different types of dis-
tribution, it is necessary to recall to our mind certain fundamental
facts with regard to the physiography of the Alleghenies.
CHAPTER 5.
PHYSIOGRAPHICAL Facts. HIstory OF THE ALLEGHENY Moun-
TAIN REGION.
The origin and the development of the Appalachian or Alle-
ghenian mountain system is rather well worked out (see McGee,
1888, Davis, 1889, Davis, 1891, Willis, 1896, Hayes, 1896, Davis,
1907), and we may assume that its general features are established.
We do not need to go much into detail here, but certain phases in
the mountain forming process should be brought out, which will be
important for our present purpose.
342 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
A. FORMATION OF MOUNTAINS By UPHEAVAL AND EROSION.
Lateral pression in a general direction from northwest to south-
east, in Permian and Postpermian times, formed the ancient and
original Alleghenian system, which consisted of a number of more
or less parallel folds (anticlines and synclines) running in a north-
east-southwest direction. These folds were pressed up against an
old block of Archaic rocks lying to the east of them, the Old Appa-
lachian belt of Davis (1907), now Piedmont plateau. They were
piled up highest in the eastern part, close to the old Archaic rocks,
but also in the southern parts the elevation was originally higher
than in the northern, and in this section not only folds, but also
faults, were formed.
As soon as this mountain system began to develop, erosion set in.
The original drainage features conformed to the original structure ;
the highest elevation being well to the east, the divide was situated
here, close to the old Archaic land, and the old rivers had to follow
the structure of the mountains, running first between the parallel
ridges in consequent, synclinal valleys, and finding their outlets at
certain points in a westerly (northwesterly) direction, toward the
interior basin. On the other side, toward the Atlantic Ocean, there
were shorter streams, originating also on the highest elevation, run-
ning east and southeast, and reaching the sea after having traversed
the belt of Archaic rocks.
The longitudinal streams on the western side of the divide began
to carve out their valleys. But in addition, on top of the anticlines,
anticlinal valleys began to develop, running parallel to the synclinal
valleys, and very soon an important differentiation in the power of
erosion of these streams became evident, which is due to the geo-
logical structure and succession of rocks of the mountains. The
beds which compose them are all archaic and palaeozoic; but while
the uppermost (Carboniferous) consist largely of hard sandstones,
in the lower beds (Devonian and older) softer shales and limestones
prevail. While the oldest rivers were running uniformly over sand-
stones, the anticlinal rivers, and chiefly those running on the highest
elevations, had the best chance to cut first through the sandstones
and reach the softer beds below. After this, these streams working
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 343
in a less resistant material, had the advantage, and thus the anticlinal
valleys were more deeply excavated than the synclinal valleys. This
process advanced farthest in the eastern section of the mountains,
so that what was once the highest elevation became finally a deeply
excavated valley.
This general process was repeatedly interrupted by the fact that
the whole region was reduced to base level. One of these periods
of base level conditions is most important to us, that of Cretaceous
times, when most of the mountain region was a peneplain, little ele-
vated above the sea, but with certain hills (monadnocks) standing
above this level. In Postcretaceous times a reélevation took place,
and the rivers began their work again, according to the same laws,
but with complications due to the base-level period. During the
latter, they had acquired courses across the strike of the mountains,
and these were inherited by the later rivers, and often they were
compelled to cut across hard rocks, thus forming so-called water
gaps, which have no apparent connection with the original geological
structure.
The difference in the erosion has produced a physiographical
differentiation within the whole system. In the western parts, where
the Pre-Carboniferous soft rocks have not been reached, either
synclinal valleys are present, or the drainage system is independent
on the structure, irregular or dendritic. This section has been base-
leveled rather completely in the past, and thus it is of the character
of a plateau, and has been called the Alleghenian Plateau. The
eastern parts, which were originally much higher, have been much
cut into by the anticlinal streams, which have carved out broad lime-
stone valleys, with high ridges of harder rock between them, so that
this region has a more mountainous character, and is known as the
Allegheny Mountains proper. Within these mountains, farthest to
to the east, where there was once the highest elevation, an exception-
ally broad valley has been excavated, called the Great Allegheny
Valley.
Thus we have, going from west to east across the mountains (see
Plate XIT.): (1) The Allegheny Plateau; (2) the Allegheny Moun-
tains, with numerous ridges and valleys, the most eastern valley being
344 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
the Great Allegheny Valley, then follows, east of the mountains, a
much older section of the country ; (3) the Piedmont Plateau, a pene-
plain, the remnant of the Old Appalachian land; and finally toward
the ocean comes an additional physiographic division, (4) the Coastal
Plain, lying between the Piedmont Plateau and the sea, of various
width, which consists of marine deposits of much younger geological
age (Cretaceous and Tertiary) (see McGee, 1888, Powell, 1896,
Davis, 1907).
In the southern Appalachians this division is somewhat modified,
The boundary between 2 and 3 is more developed (Blue Ridge) and
is called the Appalachian Mountains, while no. 2 has more of a
valley character and is called Appalachian Valley. No. 1 is called
Cumberland Plateau (see Hayes, 1899, PI. 1).
The boundary between the Coastal Plain and the Piedmont Pla-
teau is well marked by an escarpment forming a falls line for the
streams traversing the Piedmont Plateau. The Allegheny Moun-
tains, and chiefly the Allegheny Valley, are marked off from the
Piedmont Plateau by the flank of an anticline, consisting largely of
archaic rocks, known in Virginia as Blue Ridge, and continued into
Pennsylvania as South Mountain. But farther north this ridge be-
comes obscure, and Piedmont Plateau and Allegheny Valley are
more or less indistinct. In southern Virginia the Blue Ridge widens
out and becomes a more important member of the system, finally
reaching in North Carolina the highest elevation (see above). The
Great Allegheny Valley is very distinct northwards, in Pennsylvania,
Maryland and northern Virginia, forming a broad and flat limestone
valley, and is sharply differentiated from the more western moun-
tains and valleys. Farther south it merges more or less with the
mountain region, which consists of several broad and flat limestone
valleys, separated by longitudinal ridges formed by monoclinal
harder rocks.
The boundary between the Allegheny Mountains and the Alle-
gheny Plateau is well marked in Pennsylvania and Maryland by the
western flank of an anticline, known as Allegheny Front. Farther
south this may be traced to a certain distance,’° but then, in West
Willis, 1896, p. 186 (also Abbe, 1809, p. 70), use the name Allegheny
Front much farther South, for the escarpment west of Bluestone River: this
1913] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 345
Virginia, the mountain-type of erosion encroaches upon the plateau,
and, for instance, the valley of the upper Tygart and Greenbrier
valley are largely anticlinal valleys of the mountain-type (see Fon-
taine, 1876, p. 9), so that the eastern edge of the Allegheny Plateau
is pushed back westward. In the region between James and New
River and beyond (toward the southwest), conditions become more
complex by the development of faults, and here the eastern edge of
the plateau (Cumberland Plateau) is formed by a tremendous fault,
which brings the Carboniferous down to about the same level with
the Cambrian. (See maps and profiles in Rogers, 1884; also geo-
logical map by Willis, 1912; as to the faulting, see Lesley, 1865;
Stevenson, 1887; Powell, 18096, p. 79.)
B. STREAM CAPTURE.
' There is yet another factor which contributed to make the struc-
ture of the Alleghenies more complex. We have seen that the orig-
inal divide of the waters probably was well to the east, not far from
the old Piedmont land. It is clear that from this divide the way to
sea-level (the Atlantic Ocean) was short and direct, while westward
it was long and devious. This produced a much steeper grade of
the eastern streams, and consequently the eroding power of the latter
must have been much greater than that of the western streams. The
eastern rivers had thus the first chance to saw through the divides
westward. This resulted in the general law that the Atlantic
streams have the tendency to cut into and to encroach upon the
region which originally drained westward. This general law is not
without exceptions, but such are rare.
Also the Atlantic streams have been subject to stream capture be-
tween themselves; Campbell (1896, p. 675) points out the unsym-
metrical development of their basins, with the divides shifting toward
the southwest; the Susquehanna developed at the expense of the
Potomac, the Potomac at the expense of the James, the James at
that of the Roanoke. Similar conditions probably existed on the
western side.
is correct only in so far as this escarpment represents the eastern boundary
of the Allegheny Plateau, but it does not correspond to the same structural
line as the Allegheny Front in Pennsylvania.
346 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
This stream piracy or capture must have gone on all through the
history of the mountains; but the evidence for the older cases is
largely lost on account of the base level conditions prevailing at vari-
ous times. Only more recent (Postcretaceous) cases are more or less
clear. But in a general way the present rivers indicate that stream
capture has been most effective in the northern parts of the Alle-
ghenies, and, toward the south, the various rivers show this phe-
nomenon in a lesser degree. (Davis, 1889; Hayes and Campbell,
1894, p. 102; also Campbell, 1896.) In addition, these processes
were modified by a tilting of the reélevated peneplain in opposite
directions in the north and south (Powell, 1896, p. 79).
C. PRESENT CONDITION OF DRAINAGE. (See Plate XII.)
At the present time we have only in the southern Appalachians
the remnants of the primitive condition of the drainage, streams
running toward the west, with their sources near or in the Blue
Ridge, well to the east. This is the case in the Tennessee and New
River region. New River is a good example of this, and we may
safely regard this river as representing most nearly the original
drainage features (Davis, 1907, p. 732: “‘ There is not another river
in the whole Appalachian region that so well preserves its ancient
course: a)2*
Following the Allegheny Mountains and the Allegheny Valley
northward, we meet streams draining more and more in an easterly
direction, first the Roanoke, then, in succession, the James, Potomac
and Susquehanna, and it is interesting to notice that the first one
> Davis means here by “ancient” preéminently the Pretertiary time.
But probably the present New River is not the oldest line of discharge out
of this region. Using the same methods as used by Davis (1889) for the
construction of the old Anthracite River in Pennsylvania, we would obtain
an old river running West in the depression between two elevations (monad-
nocks), along which now runs the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad (between
Covington and Hinton, see Pl. XII. and profile, Pl. XIV., fig. 2). Probably the
fault on the western side of Peters Mountain also played a part in defining
this oldest line of discharge. The present New River would then be a later
(but probably also Pretertiary) feature, and would have about the same re-
lation to the old river, as the present Susquehanna has to the old Anthracite
River, after its reversion.
1913. ] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 347
occupies only the valley, and very little of the mountains, while every
succeeding one cuts farther back into the mountains (Campbell,
1896, p. 675).
In the region of the uppermost Roanoke there is a good instance
of more recent stream piracy. The headwaters of the North Fork
are running first in a southwesterly direction in a valley, which is
clearly continued toward New River; but just north of Christians-
burg this fork makes a sharp bend, cuts through Paris Mountain,
and flows then eastward and northeastward. It is clear that the
Roanoke has captured here a former tributary of New River (see
Campbell, 1896, p. 674, and our map, Pl. XII., and profile pl. XIV,
fie) )/.
James River has cut much farther into the Allegheny Mountains.
It is doubtful whether the original streams in this region belonged
to New River. According to Hayes and Campbell (1894, p. 110)
no important shifting of divides has taken place in this region during
the Tertiary cycle, although, as we have seen, Campbell (1896)
assumes stream piracy between James and Roanoke. This region
is extremely complex in structure and has little been investigated.
Coming to the Potomac drainage, we observe that this river has
cut clear across the mountains, and has reached, in northeastern West
Virginia and in western Maryland, the western boundary of the
Allegheny Plateau, Allegheny Front, and at one point has even cut
through this and encroached upon the Allegheny Plateau, draining
now a longitudinal synclinal valley. (See our map, Pl. XII., and
profile pl. XIV, fig. 2.) As tothe former drainage in this region very
little is known. But according to Campbell (see above) the Potomac
has robbed, in the region of the mountains, James River, and in one
case, in the Shenandoah Valley, we have instances of more recent
stream piracy during the Tertiary cycle. The Shenandoah is a
rather recent stream, which has captured in succession several older
streams, running originally independently through Blue Ridge east-
ward (see Davis, 1891, p. 576, and Abbe, 1889, p. 68).
The Susquehanna in Pennsylvania has progressed farthest in the
capture of western streams. It has not only cut clear across the
mountains, but also has invaded a large section of the plateau, which
348 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
originally drained to the westward (see Plate XII.) The primitive
drainage features of this region have been worked out by Davis
(1889), and according to him this whole region was once drained
by the ancient Anthracite River, running in a northwesterly direc-
tion through what is now the anthracite basin, its sources being
situated well to the east, in-the Kittatinny highland. The upper
part of this river was first reversed, so that it discharged southeast-
ward (direction of present Schuylkill), and then the Susquehanna
encroached upon this system, becoming finally the master stream in
Central Pennsylvania during Jura-Cretaceous times. The final step
in the development of this drainage was the capturing of the plateau
drainage, but also this falls largely into Pretertiary times. That
the Susquehanna encroached also southwestward upon the drainage
of the Potomac has been mentioned above, and this probably is the
chief change of this system which belongs to the Tertiary time.
D. History oF THE WESTERN DRAINAGE.
At the present time all western streams are finally united into
one great system, that of the Ohio, which finally runs into the Mis-
sisssippi and the Gulf of Mexico. In the past this was different,
and we know now that the present system is of comparatively young
age, that the Ohio is a recent stream, and that the former drainage
features of this region were entirely different. According to the
investigations of a number of writers (for instance, Foshay, 1890;
White, 1896; Leverett, 1902; Tight, 1903), there was'no Preglacial
Ohio River, but in its place there was a system of northward flowing
streams. In the region under consideration two of them are well
established: the Old Monongahela in western Pennsylvania and
northern West Virgina, and the Old Kanawha in West Virginia (the
Big Sandy belonging to the latter). How the conditions were
farther down is somewhat doubtful, but there might have been a
third river of the same general character (Licking-Miami, or Cin-
cinnati River, see below).
The advancing ice of the Glacial period shut off the outlet of
these rivers, dammed them up, converted them into lakes, and finally
the waters were forced to seek another outlet, and the general slope
1913-] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 349
of the country and the direction of the edge of the ice made them
find this outlet in a southwesterly direction, thus connecting the old
Preglacial systems by a new river, which was the beginning of the
present Ohio. The Ohio thus was formed during Glacial times.
The northward flowing Preglacial rivers were connected by a
master stream called Erigan River, running in a direction about par-
allel with the direction of the present St. Lawrence. There is some
dispute as to the direction of this old river (northeast or southwest),
but the evidence preponderates which assigns to it a northeasterly
flow. The present writer has shown also (1906, p. 429) that cer-
tain facts in the distribution of crayfishes point to this conclusion,
that is to say, that this drainage finally was eastward into the At-
lantic Ocean. This question will be discussed farther below.
E. MutTuaL CONNECTION OF THE ATLANTIC STREAMS,
The present Atlantic streams, Delaware, Susquehanna, Potomac,
James, Roanoke, are quite independent from each other, and dis-
charge separately into the sea, so that no direct intercommunication
of their waters seems possible. However, we have seen that their
headwaters interlock closely, and that it is probable that in the past
stream capture has taken place between them in the region of the
Allegheny Mountains (see above the quotation from Campbell, 1896,
p. 675). In their course across the Piedmont Plateau these streams
are at present generally well separated, but farther to the east, where
they enter the region of the Coastal Plain, they reach a physiograph-
ical section of a character which permits frequent interchange of the
waters. In addition, we know that the Coastal Plain extended, at
certain times, farther seaward, and that the present Delaware and
Chesapeake Bays and also the estuaries of the other Atlantic streams
represent drowned river valleys, so that probably in the past this
interchange of the waters took place on a larger scale (see LeConte,
1891 ; Powell, 1896, p. 73; Spencer, 1903; Davis, 1907, p. 717).
Thus the Atlantic streams were not always isolated from each
other, and in the past, as well as in the present, an intercommunica-
tion of their waters was possible, chiefly on the Coastal Plain, which,
of course, also must have permitted an exchange of the faunas.
The importance of this will be understood below.
350 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
CHAPTER 6.
EXPLANATION OF DISTRIBUTIONAL FACTS.
We are now ready to study the faunistic facts with regard to
their genesis, and shall take them up according to the classification
given above (Chapter 4, pp. 338-341).
FAC tie
The fact that the eastern and western faunas are sharply distinct,
and that the Allegheny system actually forms a sharp faunistic bar-
rier of the freshwater faunas, does not need any comment, for moun-
tain ranges generally are most apt to act as divides between rivers
and their faunas unless the elements of these faunas have excep-
tional means of dispersal (by transport). The very fact that the
western forms generally have not crossed the divide, nor have the
eastern forms, indicates that among three of the groups discussed
here (Najades, Pleuroceridz, Crayfishes) no such exceptional means
of dispersal have acted to any considerable degree. However, as
we shall see farther on, there are some exceptions.
One point, however, deserves special mention. There have been
periods of general base-leveling, the last important one belonging to
the Cretaceous time. It is very likely that at this time the barrier
was not so well marked, and that a more general interchange of the
faunas was possible. If any cases in the present distribution are to
be traced back to this time, there are very few of them, and the
majority of the cases, chiefly of the Najades, does not show any
evidence of this. This means to say that probably the bulk of the
Najad-fauna of the Appalachian River systems is not older than the
Cretaceous time, probably largely Postcretaceous.
This is an important conclusion in view of the fact that we know
from fossil remains that Najades existed in North America in
Jurassic time and possibly even earlier. But it should be noted that
these fossils are known practically exclusively from the western
parts of the continent. This, however, cannot be followed up any
farther, since it would lead us too far away fromour present purpose.
While thus the western fauna could not cross the Alleghenian
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 351
barrier, we further have noticed the fact that it forms distinctly a
unit from the upper Allegheny River at least to Licking River in
Kentucky. It is hardly necessary to discuss this, since the present
conditions sufficiently explain this uniformity; all these rivers, run-
ning westward, are united into one master stream, the Ohio. Also
the system of the Tennessee, which has much in common with the
Ohio, finally unites with this river. |
However, when we come to study the origin of this fauna and to
consider the fact that the Ohio drainage in its present form is a
modern feature of our hydrography, we have to ask the question,
what the old conditions were?
There is hardly any doubt that the uniform Najad-fauna of-the
upper Ohio basin is, in its origin, connected with the origin of the
Ohio River, that is to say, that it is not older than the Glacial time,
probably largely Postglacial. The fact brought out above, that from
the upper Allegheny downstream this fauna becomes richer, and
that the number of species increases steadily farther down (from
47 in Pennsylvania to about 60 or more in the vicinity of Cincinnati),
makes it certain that the center of dispersal of this fauna was in the
region of the lower Ohio, probably also including the Tennessee
system, and that this fauna migrated upstream in Glacial and Post-
glacial times as soon as the present Ohio was formed, depauperating
gradually in the direction toward the headwaters.
Pact... 27°(4).
The fauna of the upper Tennessee is very strongly marked.
Nevertheless it shows distinct affinities to the Ohio fauna. We have
studied only a very small part of it, and it is well known that farther
down in the Tennessee and also in the Cumberland River drainage,
this fauna becomes still richer.
Without a closer and more exhausting study of this fauna it is
impossible to express any definite ideas as to the origin of it. Thus
we have to dismiss this topic here and it is sufficient to say that prob-
ably this fauna represents the common ancient stock, and the great
center of radiation, not only of the interior basin fauna, but also of
that of the Atlantic slope and the Gulf region. That the Ohis
PROC. AMER, PHIL. SOC., LII. 210 E, PRINTED JULY II, 1913.
352 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
River fauna probably is a branch of this fauna has been indicated,
and the migration was in this case from the lower Ohio upstream.
The question remains whether the upper Ohio received also elements
from the upper Tennessee by another route, and this question is sug-
gested by the fact that the headwaters of Clinch and Holston rivers
on the one side and those of Big Sandy and New River approach
each other very closely and frequently interlock in the mountains.
It is known (see Campbell, 1896, p. 670) that the headwaters of
the Big Sandy are preparing to capture the headwaters of Clinch
River in Tazewell Co., Va., in a region where the latter river has a
rich and characteristic fauna. The Big Sandy tributaries have
already reached the valley limestone and may have already deflected
some of the smaller tributaries of the Clinch. In the Najad-fauna
of the Big Sandy. (see p. 309) there is no evidence for this. But the
fact that a species of Pleurocera, Pl. unciale, is common to the
Clinch and the Big Sandy, possibly supports this assumption.
There is also little evidence for a communication between the
upper Tennessee and New River except the existence of the Pleu-
rocerid-genus Anculosa in both systems and the presence of an
identical species of crayfish, Cambarus longulus. The two species
of Najades, which are common to both systems, Elliptio dilatatus
and Alasmidonta marginata, are without convincing value, since they
are found all over the interior basin, and of Elliptio dilatatus there
is surely quite a different, dwarfed race in the New River, while the
Clinch contains the normal form. In view of the tremendous con-
trast between the upper Tennessee and the New River faunas, it is
not very likely that there was any extended migration at any time
across this divide, or that there was any important shifting of this
divide. This is in accord with the general history of these streams.
According to Campbell (1894, p. 110), the divide between New and
Holston rivers is a narrow col characteristic for a long-maintained
divide, and Hayes (18096, p. 330) says that the headwaters of the
Tennessee, running generally over softer rocks, had a tendency to
encroach northeastward upon the upper Kanawha system, but that
this tendency was counterbalanced by the fact that New River also
cut its own channel deeply into the (harder) rocks of its own trans-
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 353
verse valley. If there was any stream piracy in the past it would
have been the Tennessee, which had the advantage over the New
River, so that the latter could not receive anything from the former.
This seems to be supported by the general character of the fauna.
The two cases mentioned above (Anculosa and Cambarus longulus )
will be taken up again further below.
Facer 1302,°Cb)k
The main fauna of the Ohio reaches, as we have seen, in the
Kanawha and the mountain tributaries of the Monongahela only
up to the lower end of the falls-line, marked by a canyon. It is clear
that here the upward migration of the Ohio fauna is checked by the
physiographical character of these streams. The upper Allegheny
and its tributaries are Plateau streams, originating upon the Alle-
gheny Plateau at elevations of about 2,000 feet (see pl. XIII, fig. 1),
and the West Fork River of the Monongahela falls into the same class
(see pl. XIII, fig. 2), and in these streams the fauna goes way up.
But in the case of the tributaries of the Monongahela, Youghiogheny,
Cheat, Tygart, and also in New River (including Greenbrier) of the
Kanawha system, the sources are in mountains of 3,000 to over
4,000 feet elevation. These rivers have a very steep grade, and in
a certain region they all run through a more or less well developed
canyon. The lower end of this canyon forms the upper boundary
of the Ohio River fauna in the Youghiogheny at Connelsville, Pa.,
in the Cheat at Mont Chateau, W. Va., in the Tygart at Grafton, W.
Va., in the New River at Kanawha Falls, W. Va.12_ (Compare our
peonles, Ply XL, fie. 2) and Ply X1V.,, fio: 1.)
We have to regard it as an ecological fact among the Najades
(and some other freshwater Mollusks, for instance, the genus Pleu-
rocera), as well as in the river-crayfishes (Ortmann, 1906, p. 412),
that they do not like rough water and unstable, shifting bottom.
The canyons of the falls-line of these rivers are, next to their upper-
“Of course, exceptional cases, where single species have found a way
up and through the canyon, may be disregarded. Such are the cases of Ouad-
rula tuberculata and Rotundaria tuberculata in the New River at Hinton, and
probably also of Symphynota costata in the Tygart at Elkins.
354 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
most headwaters, the roughest parts of them, characterized by firm
bedrock bottom covered with loose stones and boulders, often shift-
ing, chiefly during flood stages. Such conditions are entirely unfa-
vorable to crayfishes and Najades (the latter generally demanding
sand and gravel, which is firmly packed), and thus we have here an
ecological barrier to the upstream migration of the Ohio fauna,
which is absent, for instance, in the upper Allegheny,
The fact that this fauna is here checked by a modern physio-
graphical feature confirms the assumption that the upstream migra-
tion of it falls in a rather recent (Glacial and Postglacial) time.
Excepting these mountain streams just discussed, the uniform
Postglacial upper Ohio fauna comprises all the headwaters of the
Ohio (Allegheny and Monongahela), and further all the tributaries
in West Virginia; also the fauna of the Big Sandy belongs undoubt-
edly here, and we know that this river once was closely connected
with the Old Kanawha River (Tight, 1903), and that its history was
similar to that of the other rivers, which are ancestral to the upper
Ohio system. This is somewhat different in the case of Licking
River in Kentucky. Leverett (1902, p. 109) unites this river with
the Preglacial lower Ohio (and with the Kentucky, Cumberland and
Tennessee rivers). If this is correct, we should expect in this river
the Tennessee-Cumberland fauna; but there is no trace of it here,?°
and the Licking fauna is entirely of the same character as that of
the rest of the upper Ohio, as far as it concerns the Najades. Of
Pleuroceride a new species turns up here, but this material is too
unsatisfactory. But on the other hand a peculiar crayfish is found
in the Licking, Cambarus rusticus, which distinctly points to the
west. But since also Monongahela and Kanawha are characterized
by different (although closely allied) species of crayfishes, Licking
River also in this particular falls in line with these other streams.
The physiographical evidence with regard to the history of Lick-
*See p. 309. The fauna is not completely known, but according to my
collections, only one species turns up, which is absent in other parts of the
upper Ohio drainage discussed here: Anodontoides ferussacianus. All the
rest is typically upper Ohioan. It also should be noted, that one species,
Lampsilis luteola, is present here, which is absent in the Cumberland-Tennes-
see fauna.
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 355
ing River is yet obscure. As we have seen, Leverett unites it with
the Preglacial lower Ohio. But the fauna of the river, especially
of the Najades, strongly points to the fact that Licking River has a
similar history to that of the Kanawha and Monongahela, that is to
say, that it was in Preglacial times a northward flowing stream,
which might have belonged to the old Erigan River (see above, p.
349), and that it had no connection with the lower Ohio and Ten-
nessee-Cumberland. And indeed this is the assumption made by
Tight (1903, see map, pl. 1), who gives to the Licking and Kentucky
rivers (under the name of Cimcinnati River) a northward flow in
Preglacial times.
Thus, in this case, zoogeographical evidence is in favor of Tight’s
assumption, and this is an interesting instance, where zoogeography
contributes to the solution of a physiographical question."
We have repeatedly emphasized, that the upper Ohio fauna is a
unit, and rather uniform all over the terrritory it occupies, with the
only qualification, that it slowly depauperates in an upstream direc-
tion. This is true, in the first line, of the Najgdes, but it may be
correct also for certain Pleuroceride, at least such forms which
follow mainly the large rivers (certain species of Pleurocera, as for
instance, Pl. canaliculatum). But in other groups, some minor dif-
ferences within the upper Ohio fauna are noticed. Some evidence
of this is seen in the Pleuroceridae of the smaller rivers, the Alle-
gheny, Monongahela, Kanawha, Big Sandy and Licking, each of
which has different species of Pleurocera.and Goniobasis (provided
such are present at all). But these conditions require further study,
chiefly with regard to the affinities of these forms. But it is inter-
esting to note, that it seems that the conditions known to exist among
the crayfishes are duplicated here.
In the case of the crayfishes, I have pointed out (1906), that
there are two different species in the upper Ohio drainage, and that
* This should be studied farther, chiefly with regard to the additional
question regarding Kentucky River: If Tight’s and our view is correct, Ken-
tucky River should conform in its fauna to that of Licking River and the
upper Ohio in general; if it belongs, however, to the lower Ohio, it should
contain elements of the Cumberlandian fauna. Unfortunately the Kentucky
fauna is practically unknown.
356 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
their distribution undoubtedly is correlated with the old Preglacial
drainage systems. Cambarus obscurus belongs to the old Monon-
gahela River, while C. propinquus sanborni indicates, in its present
distribution, the old Kanawha River. This theory has been fully
confirmed by my subsequent investigations, which have shown that
C. obscurus actually is the river-species of the Monongahela in West
Virginia, up to the headwaters of the Plateau stream West Fork
River, while to the south of this, in the little Kanawha, Big Kana-
wha, Guyandot, and in the corresponding part of the Ohio proper,
C. propinquus sanborni is found. This latter form probably is
also in the Big Sandy, and a few smaller streams to the west of this
in Kentucky, all belonging to the Old Kanawha of Preglacial times.
The additional information was obtained that in Licking River
another species is found, C. rusticus. This means, that this river
had a more isolated position from the others in Preglacial times,
although belonging probably also to the old Erigan drainage.
While thus the Najad fauna of the upper Ohio follows in its
distribution the modern features of this river, and while we are to
conclude, for this reason, that it is largely Postglacial, the crayfish
fauna indicates Preglacial conditions. And further, it seems that,
among the Pleuroceride, we have both elements represented, but,
unfortunately, the natural affinities of this group are yet too obscure
to permit any final conclusions.
Fact 2s iCe)e
In the headwaters region of the mountain streams tributary to
the Monongahela and Kanawha, above the canyon, there is generally
a section, where these rivers are less rough, and run more quietly
in elevated, often broad valleys (compare profiles, Pl. XIII., fig. 2, pl.
XIV., fig. 1). As has been said, the fauna of these parts is chiefly
characterized by the absence of the common upper Ohio types.
Nevertheless we have a small number of forms here, which are
more or less characteristic.
These forms are not uniformly present in all these rivers, and
their distribution may be tabulated as follows:
1. Monongahela drainage—
1913. ] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 357
a. Youghiogheny: Strophitus edentulus.
b. Cheat: Anculosa dilatata.
c. Tygart: Symphynota costata, Strophitus edentulus, Anculosa
dilatata.
2. Kanawha drainage—
a. Greenbrier: Elliptio dilatatus, Symphynota tappaniana, Alas-
midonta marginata, Anculosa dilatata, Cambarus longulus.
b. New River: The same as in Greenbrier, and in addition (at
Hinton only) : Quadrula tuberculata and Rotundaria tuber-
culata.
Two classes may be distinguished among these: those which have
no relations on the eastern side, and those which are represented
there by identical or very closely related forms. The former are:
Symphynota costata of the Tygart, and Quadrula tuberculata, Ro-
tundaria tuberculata, Elliptio dilatatus, and Alasmidonta marginata
of the upper Kanawha. These are species rather generally distrib-
uted in the upper Ohio region, and they probably belong to this
fauna, representing forms, which for certain special reasons, pos-
sibly by mere chance, were able to ascend somewhat higher in the
mountain streams than the bulk of the Ohio fauna.
The other forms, Symphynota tappaniana, Strophitus edentulus,
and the crayfish Cambarus longulus, are represented on either side
of the divide by the identical species, while in the case of Anculosa
two extremely closely allied species, A. dilatata and carinata, are
found west and east of the divide.
These latter facts are very interesting, and touch upon the ques-
tion, whether and how it was possible that certain forms of fresh-
water life were able to cross the divide. For the present, we shall
only indicate this problem, but we shall take it up again, when we
come to speak of the Atlantic forms, which are more or less nearly
related to western ones (see below, under fact II., 2, c).
It also should be pointed out, that an additional interesting ques-
tion is involved here. We have seen, that the general Najad-fauna
of the Ohio, which goes up to the lower end of the canyons, is of
Postglacial age. This fact suggests, that also the falls line of the
Canyons is comparatively recent, and that it marks a last rejuvena-
358 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
tion of these streams in consequence of a reélevation of the coun-
try. According to Foshay (1890, p. 400) and others, this rejuvena-
tion is of Postglacial age. Thus we might expect to find in these
upper parts of the mountain streams, the remnants of the fauna
which existed in these rivers in Preglacial (Tertiary) times. I have
no doubt, that at least some of these are Tertiary elements, and pos-
sibly just those which are found on either side of the mountains
might belong to them. However, this fauna is too fragmentary,
to be sure about this, and it is quite evident, that also in Tertiary
times not the whole of the fauna of these rivers went up to near
the headwaters. Thus we have to wait till additional evidence with
regard to the Tertiary fauna of the headwaters of the Erigan sys-
tem is forthcoming.*®
Pact slin 1 ‘(ae
It has been seen, that there is a certain amount of uniformity in
the Atlantic fauna, in spite of the fact that the Atlantic river sys-
tems are quite isolated from each other. In fact, most of the At-
lantic species are not restricted to a single drainage, but are found
in several, often practically in all of them. This means, that there
is or there was the possibility of an intercommunication of the
faunas of these rivers, and the question arises, how this was
brought about.
All these rivers, after having traversed the Piedmont Plateau,
run for a greater or lesser distance through the Coastal Plain. This
plain is little elevated above sea-level, and consequently the rivers
are sluggish here; there is considerable deposition of material in this
region, anda great tendency toward a change in the river channels:
the rivers are practically at base-level. It is a general rule, that in
a country approaching base-level, the intercommunication of neigh-
boring rivers is greatly facilitated (see Adams, 1901, p. 842), and
that consequently a wide distribution of the fauna is favored.
* The best evidence would be fossil forms from the high river terraces.
Such do exist, but the remnants are too poorly preserved, to be of any
value. It should also be noticed, that there is a number of species in the
upper Ohio drainage, which distinctly avoid the larger rivers: also these
might be elements of the old Tertiary fauna. It is interesting, that several
species of the present fauna of the mountain streams fall into this class,
namely: Symphynota costata, Alasmidonta marginata, Strophitus edentulus.
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 359
There is no question that this is one of the factors, which has
largely brought about the more or less universal distribution of the
species of the Atlantic slope, and has permitted their spreading from
one river system into others, notwithstanding the contrary opinion
of Johnson (1905), who does not believe that “river captures” are
to be assumed in this region, but that passive transportation accounts
for the universal distribution of certain Najades over the Atlantic
slope. Indeed, it is not river capture in the strict sense, which
caused the present conditions, but what Adams (J. c.) calls “ removal
of barriers” in a country approaching base-level. This is also prac-
tically the opinion of Simpson (1893, p. 354, footnote 2), when he
says, that shells may migrate from river to river “across overflowed
regions near the sea, in times of floods.” (We always must bear
in mind that the migration was by the help of fish, which carried the
larve.)
This lowland zone reaches all the way up the coast to New York
state. But we know, that at certain times it extended even farther
north, when the continent stood at a higher elevation, and when the
coastal plain was wider than at present. We must also consider,
that at other times the coast was more submerged than now, and
that then also the Piedmont Plateau was more or less at base-level,
offering the same conditions favorable to a migration of the fauna.
Moreover, we have seen, that there was stream-capture in the
region of the mountains, and that the northern rivers had a tend-
ency to encroach upon the southern. This should have caused a
migration of southern forms northward in the mountain region, but
not of northern forms southward. There is indeed evidence of it
in the fact, that forms with a northern center of dispersal (those
falling under II., 2, b) availed themselves, in their southern disper-
sal, of the coastal route, for instance, Lampsilis radiata, cariosa,
ochracea and Cambarus limosus, for they become more and more re-~
stricted to the lowlands in the southern parts of their range. On the
other hand, those forms, which have a more general distribution,
also in the mountain region, are chiefly southern in their origin, as
for instance: Elliptio complanatus, Alasmidonta undulata, Gonio-
basis virginica, and these may have availed themselves, in their
360 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
northward dispersal, also of stream piracy in the mountains. Ina
few cases, the latter probably was the prime factor in the dispersal,
chiefly in the case of Anculosa carinata.
Thus there is no difficulty in admitting the possibility of the dis-
persal of the Atlantic fauna over more or less of the whole region.
The facts in the distribution of the Najades, as well as in the Pleu-
roceride, and in the crayfishes support this assumption. But the
other fact, that certain forms of the Atlantic slope did not reach
a universal distribution, and were apparently obstructed in their
dispersal at certain points, needs further discussion. This is a more
difficult problem, but, as far as possible, it will be taken up below.
PACT oi a ax(b)).
Aside from certain species (Najades: Elliptio fisherianus, Ano-
donta cataracta and implicata, Eurynia nasuta, Lampsilis radiata,
cariosa, ochracea, and the crayfish Cambarus blandingi), which are
more or less typically species of the lowlands or the great rivers,
the fauna of the Atlantic streams is rather uniform, in each sys-
tem, from the Piedmont Plateau upward into the mountains, to near
the sources. (See list no. 23 of Najades, and also Goniobasis vir-
ginica, Anculosa carinata, Cambarus limosus.) That is to say, the
fauna does not deteriorate, or very little so, in an upstream direc-
tion. This differs strikingly from the conditions on the western
side, where a gradual decrease of the number of species toward
the sources is the rule, or where we even observe a sudden disap-
pearance of species at certain points in the mountain streams.
The explanation of this fact is found, as I believe, in a general
physiographical character of the Atlantic streams, which is best ex-
pressed by their profile (see our profiles on Pl. XIII., and Pl. XIV.,
fig. 1). We see that the profiles of the Atlantic streams are more
nearly normal (Abbe, 1899, p. 61, fig 3; of course we must dis-
regard the falls line at the eastern edge of the Piedmont Plateau).
This profile indicates comparative stability, with the slope steepest
at the headwaters, decreasing rapidly just below headwaters, and
then gently farther down. These streams are more mature than
those of the western side. On the eastern side, new cycles of ero-
1913] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 361
sion, of rejuvenation, indicated by falls or rapids beginning some-
where in the lower parts, have had time to work back to the head-
waters (the cycle being completed), while on the western side these
cycles, at least some of them, are not quite finished, and are indi-
cated by falls and rapids lying at various distances below the head-
waters (see profiles, Pl. XIII., fig. 2, Pl. XIV., fig. 1).
It does not require any further discussion to see that this dif-
ference of the eastern and western streams is finally to be referred
to the different general slope of the rivers, the former being short
and more direct in their course to the sea, and thus working faster.
The consequence is, that the aquatic life of the lower sections of
the Atlantic streams finds congenial conditions up to near the head-
waters, since the conditions are more nearly uniform all along the
stream. Only close to the headwaters, there is a rather sudden
change, and here the fauna deteriorates also quite suddenly.
acer We 25 scan):
We have seen that a differentiation of elements within the At-
lantic fauna is indicated, and that first of all, a southern element
is clearly distinguishable. A number of Najades belong here, the
snail Goniobasis virginica, and two crayfishes, Cambarus blandingi
and acuminatus (see p. 340).
In all these forms it is evident that they have their center of
radiation somewhere in the southern section of the Atlantic slope
(Carolinas, Georgia), whence they migrated northward (see Simp-
son, 1896), p. 337). But we notice that the different forms have
advanced northward to different points. Some of them spread all
over the Atlantic slope, northward even beyond the section dis-
cussed here; so, for instance, Elliptio complanatus, Alasmidonta
undulata (possibly also Alasmidonta heterodon), which go to New
England; Goniobasis virginica has reached the state of New York,
and Cambarus blandingi (restricted to the lowlands) has reached
middle New Jersey.
Others do not go so far. Elliptio fisherianus, a lowland form,
goes northward to the lower Delaware; Elliptio productus to the
Potomac; Elliptio lanceolatus and Cambarus acuminatus to the
362 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
Rappahannock ; Lexingtonia subplana, Alasmidonta collina, Eurynia
constricta to the James; and Goniobasis symmetrica to the Roanoke.
This peculiar fact, that the southern elements in the Atlantic
fauna have advanced to different distances northward, is hard to
explain. The general tendency to migrate northward is understood
by what has been said under II., 1, a, but the question remains, why
certain forms have been unable to go as far as others.
In part, I believe, this may be explained by the ecological prefer-
ences of the single species, and a comparison of a few of them will
show what I mean. Elliptio complanatus is ubiquitous, and is
able to live under a great variety of environmental conditions. It
consequently had the best chance to spread north, and actually has
the widest range of all. Elliptio fisherianus is a typical lowland
species, and it has used the easy way over the coastal plain, and has
succeeded in going farther north than the two allied species, EF. pro-
ductus and lanceolatus, which, as far as I can judge, are rather up-
land species, which could not avail themselves so much of the op-
portunities offered by the lowlands; they very likely depended more
on stream capture within the mountains, which naturally was a slower
and more difficult way of dispersal. Probably this holds good also
in the cases of Cambarus blandingi and C. acuminatus; the former
is a lowland species and has reached farther north than the latter,
which seems to be an upland species.
This, however, is only a suggestion. Our knowledge of the
actual distribution, and also of the ecological habits of these forms
is not satisfactory enough to draw positive conclusions.
It is also possible, that the special history of these forms, chiefly
with regard to their geological age, plays a part in this, and it might
be that the oldest forms had the best chance to obtain the widest
range. This might be correct in the case of Elliptio complanatus,
while a rather recent type, Eurynia constricta, has stopped rather
far south. But this surely is no general explanation, as is seen in
the case of Lexingtonia subplana, a primitive type, which did not
go farther north than Eurynia constricta.
This question should be taken up in connection with a more
detailed study of the origin and the distribution of the southern At-
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 363
lantic element, and this is a problem correlated with the Tennessee-
Coosa problem, and the connection of the Tennessee fauna with the
southern and southeastern drainage systems of the Appalachians.
It can be solved only after much more extended investigations in the
Gulf and Atlantic streams from Alabama to the Carolinas.
This much is sure, that the existence of this southern element in
the Atlantic fauna is well established. Simpson (1893, p. 355)
already has indicated it clearly, and that it probably is connected with
the fauna of the interior basin around the southern extremity of the
Appalachians (see also Ortmann, 1905, p. 124). This center forms
part of Adams’ (1902 and 1905) great southeastern center, but is
probably a rather sharply separated, and rather old subdivision of
it. It had, with regard to aquatic life, a northward route of dis-
persal, not only in Postglacial, but also in Preglacial times, on the
Atlantic slope. This route has been admitted by Adams (1905) for
land-forms, but has not been mentioned (J. c., p. 63) for aquatic
forms.
BAcr Ms 25 "(bk
Another element of the Atlantic fauna seems to have its center
in the north (from Pennsylvania and New Jersey northward). The
following Najades belong here: Anodonta cataracta, Anodonta im-
plicata, Alasmidonta varicosa, Lampsilis radiata, Lampsilis cariosa,
Lampsilis ochracea,*® and the crayfish: Cambarus limosus. All
these forms have in common, that they are most abundant north-
ward, and advance southward either not at all (Anodonta impli-
cata), or chiefly on the coastal plain. Only Alasmidonta varicosa
seems to be more universal in its distribution on the Atlantic side.
Lampsilis ochracea is a form of the lowlands (estuaries). Lamp-
silis radiata and cariosa, and apparently also Anodonta cataracta
have a rather wide distribution in Pennsylvania, but southward they
seem to occupy only a narrow belt on the coastal plain. The same
is true of Cambarus limosus. However, our knowledge of the dis-
tribution of these forms in the lowlands of Virginia, and southward,
is rather unsatisfactory, but the fact is undeniable that, while these
* Margaritana margaritifera and Eurynia nasuta resemble these to a de-
gree, but, as we shall see below, are peculiar in other respects.
364 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
latter three forms are found in Pennsylvania way up into the moun-
tain region in the Susquehanna, they are missing west of Blue
Ridge in the Potomac,’ James, and Roanoke. This fact, that the
southward range of some of these forms falls largely within the
coastal plain, where there were special advantages for migration, is
corroborative evidence for their northern origin: they were first
and originally present in the northern section of the Atlantic slope,
where they had, in consequence of the longer time elapsed, a better
chance to spread upstream.
I have treated of the origin of the distribution of a member of
this northern fauna, Cambarus limosus, in a former publication
(Ortmann, 1906, p. 428ff.). I have pointed out, that this species
is well marked, but possesses allied forms in the interior basin, and
I have not the slightest doubt that the Najades enumerated above
fall under the same head, and that the origin of their distribution
is to be explained in a similar way. Also these Najades are well
defined species, but possess allied representatives in the interior
basin (see above p. 325).
According to the theory advanced for Cambarus limosus, these
Najades came around the northern end of the Appalachians, in
Preglacial times, by way of the Erigan River, which flew in the gen-
eral direction of the present St. Lawrence. This river received the
ancestral forms of these species from the interior basin (more es-
pecially from the lower Ohio and Tennessee drainage) in some way,
which is at present not fully understood. But there is no serious
obstacle to the assumption of this possibility on account of the prob-
able numerous changes of the drainage in these parts. Having
once reached the Atlantic coastal plain at the mouth of the Erigan
River (region of St. Lawrence Gulf and New Foundland), there
was no barrier to their farther dispersal southward, chiefly since the
coastal plain, as we know, extended at certain times further sea-
ward. This dispersal was first along the coast, but several of these
forms migrated thence upstream in the various rivers of the Atlan-
tic side.
* C. limosus is found here and there in the upper Potomac, but it prob-
ably reached these parts only recently by the aid of the Chesapeake-Ohio
Canal.
1913] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 365
The southward migration was unequal, but the causes of this
are not very clear, but might be compared with the similar phenom-
enon in the case of the southern elements.
When the Glacial period set in, the ice coming from the north
separated the eastern range of these forms from that on the west-
ern side. Habitudinal segregation was thus effected, and this in-
duced differentiation into species. The final consequence is, that the
Atlantic forms developed into well marked species, which have a
rather young age (Glacial), and still are closely allied to correspond-
ing forms in the interior basin. In Postglacial times, after the ice
had disappeared, a reaction, a northward migration set in, and these
species reoccupied a good deal of the territory lost in Glacial times.
In this advance they were accompanied by certain southern types,
which also invaded the glaciated area (Elliptio complanatus, Alas-
midonta undulata).
Thus the origin and the history of this part of the Atlantic fauna
appears rather clear. The most interesting fact is, that the case of
Cambarus limosus has a number of parallel cases among the Na-
jades. This element in the Atlantic Najad-fauna, however, has
been recognized already by Simpson (1896), p. 337), who also
explains its origin by migration around the northern end of the
Appalachians.
Considering the two elements together, the northern and the
southern, and the fact that the species belonging to them migrated
to various extents south or north, we obtain a satisfactory explana-
tion of the fact, mentioned above (p. 315, 318), that the Susquehanna,
and also the Potomac, fall short, in the number of species, of the
rivers both to the north (Delaware) and south (James). Certain
forms of the northern fauna have not gone south beyond the Del-
aware, and certain southern forms have not gone north beyond the
James, and this leaves a balance against the intermediate systems of
the Susquehanna and Potomac. In the Susquehanna, this short-
coming has been in part supplemented by an indigenous form (Alas-
midonta marginata susquehanne), and in the Potomac by a southern
form (Elliptio productus). This peculiar condition is a point which
very strongly speaks for our assumption of two distributional cen-
ters in the Atlantic fauna, a northern and a southern.
366 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
BAG Zac)
There is a third group of forms among the Atlantic fauna, which
have for a common character the fact that they are conspecific or
extremely closely allied to western forms, and which show in their
distribution certain peculiar, but not quite uniform conditions. We
have seen (under I., 2, c, p. 339, 357) that the corresponding western
forms are in part characteristic for the mountain streams tributary
to the Monongahela and Kanawha, so that there is the appearance,
as if certain species had crossed the divide of the Allegheny Moun-
tains. It remains to be investigated, whether such a crossing of the
divide should be admitted, and what the means were, by which this
was accomplished.
Certain cases, however, should be dismissed?® from the beginning,
namely first of all those, where passive migration by transport is
probable or possible. The Sphaeriude belong here, and also Campe-
loma decisum. Here the whole character of the distribution is
such, that it does not appear to follow drainage systems at all, but
goes across country, suggesting exceptional means of dispersal, such
as transportation by birds etc.
In other cases, active migration across divides is possible and
probable: this concerns chiefly, as I have pointed out in a previous
paper (Ortmann, 1906, p. 448), the crayfish Cambarus bartoni.
This species, as well as the Spheriidide and Campeloma decisum,
-has a rather universal distribution east and west of the divide.
And further, I shall disregard here Cambarus spinosus and
acuminatus, as belonging to the southern Appalachians, as far as it
concerns the distribution on both sides of the divide, and also
Eurynia constricta and vanuxemensis fall into the same class.
Thus there remain the following forms to be discussed here.
1. Strophitus edentulus.
2. Alasmidonta marginata and marg. susquehannae.
3. Symphynota tappaniana.
* Two very recent cases, Cambarus obscurus and Lampsilis ventricosa
(cohongoronta), in the upper Potomac must be entirely disregarded, for here
yi
artificial, although accidental and unintentional, transplantation has been
effected by human agency (see Ortmann, I912)).
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 367
4. Anculosa dilatata and carinata.
5. Cambarus longulus.
The peculiarities of distribution in each of these cases have been
shortly characterized above (p. 357) for the western side of the
mountains, and it will be remembered that none of them are fully
alike in all particulars, although resembling each other to a degree.
This is also so on the eastern side. Thus it is best to take them
up one by one.
Strophitus edentulus.
This species has a rather general distribution, but it is peculiar in
so far as it is one of the two species of Najadés which alone are
found in the mountain-tributaries of the Monongahela (Youghio-
gheny and Tygart), while it is missing in the upper Kanawha
region.*® ‘This forbids it to place this species simply with those
which (like the Spherude and Campeloma decisum) have a uni-
versal distribution east and west of the divide. Indeed, the gen-
eral distribution of Strophitus, for instance in Pennsylvania, might
suggest that this form has exceptional means of dispersal, and
might be transported from one drainage into another.*° But its
absence in the New River system speaks against this, for we cannot
imagine that any means (birds for instance), which would have
been able to carry this species across divides, should have carefully
avoided the New River system.
Strophitus edentulus is a form eminently characteristic for small
streams, and is rare or missing in large rivers. In the upper Alle-
“ This negative statement might be doubted. But at the four localities,
where I collected Najades (Ronceverte in Greenbrier River; Hinton and
Pearisburg in New River; Wytheville in Reed Creek), shells were abundant,
and in every case J hunted for this species, examining carefully also dead
shells lying around; but no trace of Strophitus was discovered.
*In order to bring out all facts, which possibly might have a bearing
upon this question, it should be mentioned, that Lefevre and Curtis (Science,
33, 1911, p. 863, and Bull. Bur. Fish., 30 (for 1910). 1912, p. 171) have recently
discovered a remarkable circumstance in the life-history of this species, dif-
ferent from all other known Najades: the larvae (glochidia) of Strophitus
undergo their metamorphosis without a parasitic stage on fishes. For the
present, however, I could not tell how this could favor passive transport of
the young shell. But the fact should be kept in mind.
PROC, AMER. PHIL. SOC., LII. 210 F, PRINTED JULY II, I913.
368 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
gheny drainage it goes way up into the headwaters:*? it is in the
upper Youghiogheny and in the upper Tygart and Buckhannon
rivers. Thus it closely approaches the divide in the whole northern
section of the upper Ohio drainage. On the eastern side, it is also
found close up to the divide in the Susquehanna, Potomac, James,
and Roanoke drainages.?* The eastern and western ranges are
consequently in rather close contact along the northern part of
the Alleghenian divide, from the uppermost Allegheny River to the
region of the headwaters of the Monongahela, Potomac and James.
But the close approach is most marked in central Pennsylvania, in
Cambria, Indiana, and Westmoreland counties. Here this species
is common in all small streams running east and west from the
divide, and, for instance, the locality in Cush-Cushion Creek, be-
longing to the Susquehanna, is not more than twenty or twenty-five
miles from the nearest localities in the Allegheny drainage (Creek-
side, Homer, Goodville).
This is just in the region where the Susquehanna drainage has
largely encroached upon the drainage of the Allegheny River, and
where stream capture has taken place. Although Davis (1880, p.
248) believes that this was accomplished chiefly in Pretertiary times,
there is no objection to the assumption that to a lesser degree this
process continued in the headwaters also during the Tertiary, in fact,
that it is going on at present. If this is admitted, there is no diffi-
culty in imagining that with the waters part of the fauna of the
western streams was taken over into the eastern drainage, and since
Strophitus inhabits these smaller western streams, it might thus have
crossed the divide, in this region, by the help of stream capture.
* Potato Cr., Smethport, McKean Co.; Little Mahoning Cr., Goodville,
Indiana Co.; Crooked Cr., Creekside, Indiana Co.; Yellow Cr., Homer, In-
diana Co.; Blacklegs Cr., Saltsburg, Indiana Co.; Beaver Run, Delmont,
Westmoreland Co.; Loyalhanna Riv., Ligonier, Westmoreland Co.; Quema-
honing Cr., Stanton’s Mill, Somerset Co.; all in Pa.
"For instance: in the system of the Susquehanna: Cush-Cushion Cr.,
Greene Twp., Indiana Co.; Chest Cr., Patton, Cambria Co.; Swartz Run, Ash-
ville, Cambria Co.; Beaver Dam Cr., Flinton, Cambria Co.; Raystown Branch
Juniata Riv., Everett and Mt. Dallas, Bedford Co.; all in Pa.; South Branch
Potomac Riv., Romney, Hampshire Co., W. Va.; James drainage: Calf
Pasture Riv., Goshen, Rockbridge Co., Va.; Roanoke drainage: Mason Cr.,
Salem, Roanoke Co., Va.
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 369
Of course, this presupposes that the original home of this form
was in the interior drainage basin. But I hardly think that this
could have been otherwise, on account of the tremenduous range
of Strophitus edentulus in the west, and we have seen that the
Atlantic slope probably never has been an important center of de-
velopment. Strophitus differs from all the other elements of the
Atlantic fauna (discussed so far) by the fact that the identical
species is found on either side of the mountains. Thus it is improb-
able that it had a similar history to that of the other forms (the
northern and southern elements) of the Atlantic fauna, and we are
forced to assume a special explanation of its distribution. I think,
that the evidence introduced above favors the theory, that it actually
crossed the divide by the help of stream capture, or in other words,
by the shifting of the divide, and that this probably took place in
the region of the headwaters of the West Branch Susquehanna. It
might have happened elsewhere; it might have happened repeatedly :
but the region indicated is the most likely. After having once (or
repeatedly) crossed, this species spread over the Atlantic slope, both
north and south, and occupies now the whole of it, from Virginia to
New England (exact data from Virginia southward are lacking).
This of course, was accomplished by the same means as in the
other members of the Atlantic fauna, and it is not astonishing since
this species is not only upon the Piedmont Plateau, but also on the
Coastal Plain.**
Further details cannot be given, and chiefly it is impossible to fix
the geological time when Strophitus crossed the mountains. As
has been said, possibly this happened repeatedly, presumably in the
Tertiary, and may have happened even later.2* More information
as to its southern range may furnish additional evidence, and con-
firm the view that the crossing of the divide was effected in the
northern section of the Alleghenies, and not in the south. . At pres-
“1 found it in Delaware River, Penns Manor, Bucks Co., Pa. Its dis-
tribution upon the Coastal Plain is yet incompletely known, but it seems to
be represented there at least by a local (or ecological?) form, Strophitus un-
dulatus.
* At present, this species has a continuous range from West to East in
the state of New York, and this, of course, belongs to the Postglacial time.
370 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
ent, the absence of it in the New River system is the most important
fact which speaks for the assumption made above.
Alasmidonta marginata and Alasmidonta marginata susquehanne.
The typical western Alasmidonta marginata has a wide distribu-
tion in the interior basin, and in the Allegheny Mountains it goes
up into the headwaters of the Holston, Clinch, into New River, and
into the uppermost Allegheny River, but it is not found in the head-
waters of the mountain-tributaries of the Monongahela (although
it is immediately below the canyon in the Cheat). In the upper
Allegheny, it goes, like Strophitus, into very small streams,”° and it
is in general a species characteristic. for smaller streams, avoiding
large rivers.
On the Atlantic side, it is represented by two forms. The one
is Alasmidonta varicosa, a closely allied, but nevertheless sharply
distinct species, which has been discussed above (p. 363 f.) together
with those forms constituting the northern element in the Atlantic
fauna, which migrated, in Preglacial times, around the northern end
of the Appalachian chain.
But there is a second representative on the Atlantic side, which
has been hitherto overlooked, and which I have called Alasmidonta
marginata susquehanne, which stands much closer to the western
form, in fact, is very hard to distinguish from it. This form is re-
stricted to the Susquehanna drainage in Pennsylvania and New York,
and it is found frequently associated with A. varicosa, but is always
perfectly distinct from it.
It seems, according to the material at hand, that Alasmidonta
marginata susquehanne has its metropolis in the Juniata River and
the part of the Susquehanna in central Pennsylvania, which is below
the junction of the west and north branches. It has not been
found in the west branch and its tributaries (although Al. varicosa
is there), but we should consider that the fauna of this branch is
poorly known, and that it has been largely destroyed by pollution
from mine waters.
* Allegheny River, Larabee, McKean Co.; Little Mahoning Creek, Good-
ville, Indiana Co.; Loyalhanna River, Ligonier, Westmoreland Co.; Quema-
honing Creek, Stanton’s Mill, Somerset Co.; all in Pa.
1913. ] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 371
In the localization of its eastern range, this form differs from
Strophitus. But just this fact points to a connection across the
divide with the western range of Al. marginata. This comes up, on
the western side, close to the divide, and although the corresponding
form is not known from the West Branch Susquehanna, the dis-
tribution on the eastern side suggests that it must have crossed the
divide in this general region, presumably in consequence of stream
capture. This is the more probable, since the western race of Al.
marginata found in the headwaters of the Allegheny in Indiana,
Westmoreland, and Somerset Cos., in Pa., approaches the Susque-
hanna-form much more closely than the typical marginata, as found,
for instance, in the Beaver drainage.
This leads us to consider this as a parallel case to that of Stroph-
itus edentulus. Alasmidonta marginata crossed the divide by similar
means and in about the same region as Strophitus; but there is the
difference that it did not spread beyond the Susquehanna drainage,
This may be explained by the assumption that this crossing, in the
case of Alasmidonta, falls into a later time.
Of course, this explanation is only tentative, but according to our
present knowledge, it is the only possible one. The fact of the
restriction of Al. marginata susquehanne to the Susquehanna drain-
age is of the greatest weight for our argument, since we cannot
imagine that this form reached its present area by any other way.
Symphynota tappaniana.
Up to shortly ago, this species was known only from the Atlantic
slope, where it has a wide distribution from New England to Vir-
ginia (allied species are in North and South Carolina). On account
of its relation to the western S. compressa, it appeared to fall into
the group which has been designated as the northern element in the
Atlantic fauna (indeed, Simpson, 18960, places it there). But after
I discovered that this species is also found in the western drainage,
but only in the upper Kanawha system (Greenbrier and New
rivers), where it is extremely abundant, in fact the prevailing form
of Najad-life, the history of it must be different.
Its general distribution in the east, and its localization in the
west, might suggest that we have here a case like that of Alasmi-
372 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
donta marginata, but reversed, and that the original range was on the
east side, and that the upper Kanawha received it from the east,
probably by stream capture, since transport over land is not very
likely on account of the improbability that birds (or other crea-
tures) carried this species only into the Kanawha, and refused to
do so into other western streams.*®
But as we have seen above, it is not probable that the upper
Kanawha has captured any streams of the eastern drainage, but
rather the reverse is true (above, p. 346f.). The present course of
New River represents most nearly the ancient drainage features,
while the eastern streams (Roanoke, James and possibly also Po-
tomac) have captured sections of the old New River and Greenbrier
system. New River runs within the mountains on a distinctly
higher level than most of the other streams which have cut much
more deeply into the Cretaceous base-level, and thus had a better
chance to capture parts of New River, than vice versa (see Pl. XIV.,
fie oe) e
This induces us to assume that Symphynota tappaniana origi-
nally was a local form of the New River drainage, developed prob-
ably out of the western S. compressa as an ecological mountain-
form. In this case it is strange that the range of S. compressa does
not come very near to that of S. tappaniana, but this may be due to
a subsequent restriction of the range of S. compressa.**
* There is, however, one fact in favor of this assumption. S. tappaniana
is one of the few cases of hermaphroditism known in Najades. If we grant,
that in rare cases, specimens have been transported, we must admit the pos-
sibility that a new stream might have become stocked with this species, by the
transplantation of a single individual. But then again, we do not know,
whether self-fertilization occurs here. I mention this here, to bring out all
possible arguments.
“The nearest place known to me for S. compressa, is Little Kanawha
River, where it is very rare, and also this locality is isolated. Forms like
S. compressa and tappaniana seem to be absent in the upper Tennessee
drainage, but in the latter is Symphynota holstonia (which is not an Alasmi-
donta), and a very doubtful, incompletely known species, S. quadrata (Lea),
which has a certain external resemblance to S. tappaniana, but may be any-
thing. S. holstonia is surely not closely related to S. tappaniana, for it has no
lateral hinge-teeth. It remains to be seen, whether there are any related
forms in the upper Tennessee, which, when present, might suggest, that New
River received its species from the Tennessee.
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 373
After S. tappaniana had reached the James drainage (it has not
been found in the Roanoke, but only the headwaters of this are
known), it had a chance to spread on the Atlantic side and to attain
its present wide range, exactly as the majority of the Atlantic forms,
favored by the same causes. It always remains a small-creek-form,
but just in these small creeks the best opportunities were given to
cross from one system into the other.
Anculosa dilatata and carinata.
Anculosa carinata is the Atlantic form and is known to me from
the Roanoke to the Susquehanna, where it goes up into New York
state. In this restriction (not being found in the Delaware and be-
yond) it is different from Strophitus and Symphynota tappaniana,
which go to New England. West of the divide we have Anculosa
dilatata, first of all in the same region where Symphynota tappaniana
is found (Greenbrier and New rivers); but in addition it is also
in the upper Monongahela drainage, in Tygart and Cheat rivers;
in the latter it goes down below the canyon, as far as Cheat Haven,
Fayette Co., Pa., and further it is found in West Fork River. Re-
markably enough, it is absolutely absent in the upper Youghiogheny,
although the conditions appear favorable for it.
With exception of these localities in the Monongahela drainage,
the distribution fairly well agrees with that of Symphynota tap-
paniana, and we won’t make a mistake if we advance the same expla-
nation for it: stream capture on the part of certain Atlantic streams
(Roanoke and James), which robbed the water and the fauna of
certain parts of the old New River drainage. Thus only the pres-
ence of this form in the Tygart and Cheat needs explanation; into
West Fork River it undoubtedly got from the Tygart.
The headwaters of these rivers interlock in a very complex way
in Pocahontas and Randolph Cos., W. Va. (see Pl. XII.), and there
is no objection on general principles to assume that there has been
intercommunication of these rivers by stream capture. But condi-
tions are rather obscure in this region and have been so little inves-
tigated from a physiographical standpoint that it is practically im-—
possible to draw any positive conclusions as to the history of the
development of the headwaters of these systems.
374 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
But it is highly interesting to notice that the distribution of Ancu-
losa dilatata in the Greenbrier on one side, and in the Tygart and
Cheat on the other, points to stream capture in this region, and the
theory is suggested that the Monongahela drainage encroached upon
and robbed the Greenbrier drainage. The opposite way is not pos-
sible on account of the limitation of this form northward, and this
also speaks against the possibility of passive transport. If this as-
sumption is correct, it also explains the fact that the Youghiogheny,
which also heads in the same general region, did not receive this
species. The upper Youghiogheny flows in a high synclinal valley,
is more nearly an old consequent river than, for instance, the upper
Cheat, which has cut down way below the level of the upper Yough-
iogheny. ‘Thus it is impossible that the latter ever robbed the Cheat,
capturing its fauna; rather the opposite has happened, and probably
is happening now.
The Atlantic form, Anculosa carinata, after having reached the
Roanoke and James, and after having become established on the
eastern side, had the same tendency to spread as the rest of the
Atlantic forms. But it did not go so far as many others, reaching
only the Susquehanna drainage. In this case northward migration
probably was due to the crossing over divides (by stream capture)
in the mountain region. Anculosa is a shell characteristic for rough
water in mountain streams and goes possibly farther up than any
other of the forms discussed here. In the lowlands, it has never
been found, and it is also less frequent in the Piedmont section of
the streams, although present there. Thus its migration very likely
took place chiefly within the mountains, and I think that its limited
range northward is due to this fact.
The genus Anculosa is represented in the uppermost Tennessee
drainage by the species Anculosa gibbosa, which is to a certain
degree related to the dilatata-carinata-group. In fact, the Tennessee
drainage is the only other region where relations of this are found.
This makes it clear that New River must have received its Anculosa-
stock from the upper Tennessee. It is hard to say how this was
accomplished. We have seen (p. 352 f.) that stream capture was rare
in this region; at any rate, if there was any, it was rather in the
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 375
opposite direction. Nevertheless, there might have been cases where
in the headwater region smaller streams have been deflected from
the Holston or Clinch to the New River, and since Anculosa is an
abundant small-creek-type, it might thus have managed to get across.
But in this case also transportation is to be considered as a possible
means, since many of the headwaters originate in the same longi-
tudinal valleys, and come very close to each other without sharp
barriers between them. But the fact that the species in the two
systems are sharply distinct speaks against this, for if transport
had been possible once, it should have been possible repeatedly,
which would have prevented specific isolation.
Cambarus longulus.
The distribution of this species again agrees, in a general way,
with that of Symphynota tappamiana and of Anculosa, but is rather
more restricted on either side.
It is extremely common in the whole Greenbrier and New River
drainages. It is also found in the upper Tennessee. On the eastern
side it is common in the James drainage, but has not been found in
the Roanoke, and besides, it has been reported from the uppermost
Shenandoah (Waynesboro, Augusta Co., Va.). Farther north, chiefly
in the rest of the Potomac drainage, it is positively absent, and also
on the west side it does not go into the upper Monongahela system
(as Anculosa does).
Its presence in New River and Tennessee in forms which are spe-
cifically identical shows a closer connection of these two faunas
than in any of the previous cases. We have seen that in Cambarus
bartoni, a closely allied species, general distribution is very likely
due to active or passive migration across divides. This might be
true also here. But Cambarus longulus differs from C. bartoni in
its ecological habits, inhabiting preferably larger mountain streams,
and not the smallest headwaters or even springs, as C. bartoni does.
For all practical purposes we may compare C. longulus with Ancu-
losa, and whatever the means were which permitted Anculosa to get
from the Tennessee into the New River, might have worked as well
in the case of this crayfish. Having reached the New and Green-
376 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
brier, it did not go beyond this drainage on the western side and
did not reach upper Tygart and Cheat as Anculosa did. The rea-
sons for this as well as for the fact that it did not become specifically
distinct in New River are unknown for the present, but probably
they are to be found in a difference of the time of migration from
that of Anculosa.
From New River, C. longulus got into James River by the same
means as Symphynota tappamiana and Anculosa, 1. e., by stream
capture. It did not get out of this drainage except at one place, in
the uppermost Shenandoah. This is probably to be connected with
the stream piracy committed by the Shenandoah all along its present
valley (see above, p. 347). Just at Waynesboro there is a wind gap
in the Blue Ridge, Rockfish Gap, which undoubtedly once served as
an outlet for a tributary of the James River (Rockfish Creek or
Mechum River), which was beheaded by the Shenandoah exactly
as was Beaverdam Creek at Snickers Gap (Davis, 1891, p. 576).
The question remains, why C. longulus did not spread over the
rest of the Shenandoah and Potomac drainage. This may be due
to ecological causes. The species may not find farther down in the
Shenandoah a congenial environment. Where I found C. longulus
the water was always rough and full of rocks, and the lower Shen-
andoah, although by no means a sluggish river, has considerable
quiet stretches. I also found this species generally at elevations
higher than the Shenandoah in the average. This would correspond
to a degree to the conditions seen in C. bartoni, which is also a spe-
cies avoiding larger streams and quiet water.
Taking these last three cases together, Symphynota tappaniana,
Anculosa, and Cambarus longulus, it is seen that, although they
differ in particulars, they fall under one general head, and that very
likely similar causes were working to effect their distribution. Dis-
regarding Strophitus and Alasmidonta, which probably crossed the
divide farther north, they are the only cases where freshwater forms
seem to have crossed the Allegheny divide in its central parts, prob-
ably by the help of stream capture.
The total number of such cases is very small compared with the
numerous cases which follow the general rule, that the Allegheny
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 377
Mountains have formed and are forming a sharp barrier between
the western and eastern fauna. But this is exactly what was to be
expected, for the distribution of freshwater animals is primarily
governed by the conformation of the drainage systems and their
boundaries, provided there are no exceptional means of dispersal
which permit a transport or migration over land.
SPECIAL CASES.
So far we have attempted to explain those cases which submitted
to a classification such as has been given above (Chapter 4, pp.
338-341). But perusing the end of Chapter 2 (pp. 324, 325), we see
that not all forms have been treated and that there are among the
Najades at least three others which show special features. These
are: Margaritana margaritifera, Eurynia constricta, Euryma nasuta.
We may pass over Eurynia constricta with a few words. This
species belongs undoubtedly to the southern element in the Atlantic
fauna, and has been treated with it above. The peculiarity in this
case is that it has an extremely closely allied species in the head-
waters of the Holston (and elsewhere in the Tennessee drainage).
It might be possible that here we have evidence of a direct crossing
from the Holston into the Atlantic drainage. But as far as we
know, the two species do not come in close contact with each other
in the region investigated, and if there is any contact it is some-
where else, probably in the southern Appalachians, and this case
thus would belong to the Tennessee-Coosa problem. It should be
added that probably also two crayfishes fall into the same class,
Cambarus acuminatus and C. spinosus.
The other two cases must be treated separately, each forming a
class by itself.
Margaritana margaritifera.
In our region this species is found exclusively in the upper
Schuylkill drainage in Pennsylvania (Schuylkill Co.). This is the
only locality known outside (to the south) of the terminal Moraine.
Farther to the northeast, within the Glacial area, in New York and
New England, and all the way to New Foundland, this species is
rather abundant. In addition, it is found (in a somewhat different
378 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
form) in northwestern North America and in absolutely the same
form in Iceland and parts of Europe and Asia. The distributional
facts have been summarized by Walker (1910), and as to the origin
of the distribution he draws the conclusion (/. ¢., p. 139) that the
presence of this species in northeastern North America is best ex-
plained by the assumption that it immigrated, probably in late
Tertiary times, from Europe by a land-bridge over Iceland and
Greenland.
I accept this fully. Also the idea of Walker, that the Glacial
epoch restricted the range of this species, must be accepted. In
fact, we are to regard the present station in Pennsylvania as the last
remnant of the Glacial refugium of this species, just in front of the
terminal Moraine. Here it survived and the present distribution is
and in this it
8
largely a Postglacial re-occupation of lost territory,”
fully agrees with the other Atlantic forms, chiefly the northern ele-
ment. It differs, however, from the latter in its ecological prefer-
ences: Margaritana is a form of cold water and is averse to limestone.
Thus it is evident that Margaritana is a stranger among the other
Najades of the Atlantic side, in fact, it is an element of the North
American fauna which stands by itself and has been subject to en-
tirely different laws in its distribution. It is true, there is a shell
in the interior basin which 1s allied to it, but only remotely so, be-
longing to another genus: Cumberlandia monodonta (Say). Another
one is Margaritana hembeli (Conrad) from southern Alabama and
Louisiana.?® Both of these do not seem to have any direct genetic
connection with /. margaritifera and are probably relics of a former
more general distribution of this most primitive and archaic group
of Najades, undoubtedly reaching back in their history far beyond
the other Najades and far into Mesozoic times.
Eurynia nasuta.
On the Atlantic side this species is found from the Delaware
*>Tt is doubtful, whether all of the present range was regained from this
Pennsylvanian stock; it is quite possible, that there were other refugia, sit-
uated on the former seaward extension of the present coast. The Pennsyl-
vanian refugium is the only one, which has been positively ascertained.
The so called Margaritana decumbens (Lea) of Alabama is an ex-
tremely doubtful form in every respect (see Walker, /. c., p. 128).
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 379
River estuary northward, and goes probably a little farther south
on the Coastal Plain into Virginia. In this distribution it would
agree very well with the northern stock of the Atlantic fauna. But
it differs from the members belonging to this in that it has no repre-
sentative species in the upper Ohio basin. However, it is found on
the western side of the Alleghenies and is widely distributed in the
lake drainage, chiefly in Lake Erie and the state of Michigan, and
it is absolutely the same form that is found there. The fact is that
these ranges are not disconnected, but appear to be rather continuous
across the state of New York and the known localities follow in
a general way the line of the present Erie canal from Buffalo to the
Hudson River at Albany. This region lies outside the scope of the
present paper, but it should be mentioned here that there are other
western species of Najades which follow the same line of dispersal
eastward from the St. Lawrence drainage to Hudson River. It is
very likely that Eurynia nasuta belongs to this group, and it prob-
ably is the one of them which has reached in modern times the
widest dispersal upon the Atlantic side. Its western origin is con-
firmed by the fact that the only species allied to it, Eurynia sub-
rostrata (Say), is western and is found in the central and western
parts of the interior basin in large, quiet rivers, ponds and lakes,
avoiding rough water and strong current. For this reason, prob-
ably, it is not found in the upper Ohio drainage. This species has
crossed somewhere in the region from northern Illinois to northern
Ohio into the lake drainage, developed there into the species nasuta,
which then spread eastward, following the quiet waters of the lakes
and those of the canal till it reached the estuary of the Hudson.
Thence it had no difficulty to spread farther over the Coastal Plain
and reached across New Jersey®® the lower Delaware, and even be-
yond. Also onthe Atlantic side it preserves its preference for lakes,
estuaries, canals, etc., that is to say, for quiet water.
We thus are to regard Eurynia nasuta as a quite recent immi-
grant in the Atlantic drainage, belonging surely to the Postglacial
time, and this immigration might have been completed even by the
Tt is present, for instance, in the Delaware-Raritan canal at Princeton,
ND J.
380 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
help of the modern, artificial canals. But, of course, it is difficult
to decide positively whether canals have played a necessary part in
this dispersal. This question should be investigated in connection
with the other western forms, which have taken the route of the
Erie canal; but this is not our present object.
The above studies would be more complete if the conclusions
were supported by paleontological evidence; if we had fossil rem-
nants of Najades or other aquatic creatures which would give us
an idea as to the faunas of the two watersheds in the past, chiefly
during Tertiary times. It is very much to be regretted that prac-
tically nothing is known in this line.
There is indeed a famous locality, Fish House, Camden Co.,
New Jersey, opposite Philadelphia, which has yielded fossil Najades,
probably belonging to the Glacial time. These shells have been de-
scribed and discussed by Lea and chiefly by Whitfield (Mon. U. S.
Geol. Surv., 9, 1885), and their geological age has been ascertained
by Woolman (Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. N. J. (for 1896), 1897, p.
201 ff.), Pilsbry (Pr. Ac. Philad., 1896, p. 567) and Simpson (Pr.
U. S. Mus., 1895, p. 338). But for the present time these fossils
are absolutely useless, because western affinities have been main-
tained for these species, which surely do not exist. The species
have been identified mainly from casts, and Lea as well as Whitfield
have indicated, by the names given to them, their supposed affinities
to western species. I have taken the trouble of making plaster
casts of the inside of specimens of the living species with which they
have been correlated, and practically in all cases it became evident
at a glance that there was no similarity at all.
But this should be the subject of a special paper. It suffices here
to make the statement, first, that the number of species described
from this deposit (about a dozen) should be reduced to not more
than three or four, and second, that there is not a single one which
has distinct and unmistakable affinities to any typical western species.
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 381
SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS.
1. I think that the present studies have demonstrated the funda-
mental fact, that certain freshwater animals are apt to furnish im-
portant evidence for past conditions of drainage by thew present
distribution, while others are not. The most important of the
former are the Najades. There are many cases (not only in our
region) where indentical or closely allied species are found in dif-
ferent drainage systems which have at present no direct water con-
nection. Such cases are generally restricted to limited, well-defined
regions.
In our region we have seen that such cases exist in the mountains
in the section which has the upper New River for its center; but
similar instances are known in Pennsylvania, in the headwaters of
the Susquehanna.
This localisation is the most important evidence against the
assumption that passive transport over land has played a part in
these cases: if this was possible at all, or if it was a factor to be
considered, evidence for this should be general. But just where
we might expect that transport should have worked by all means,
there is no evidence whatever for it. This is most especially true
in the case of the divide between the upper Tennessee drainage and
that of New River. If Najades should be able to cross divides by
being transported, it should have happened just here. Also the gen-
eral condition of the eastern and western fauna, its dissimilarity,
shows that Najades were not transported across the mountains.
Very likely the freshwater snails of the family Pleuroceride
submit to the same general law as the Najades and are important for
the study of the old drainage features. But they should be further
studied, chiefly with regard to their actual distribution, their sys-
tematics and relationships. Finally, some crayfishes of the genus
Cambarus are extremely valuable in this respect, but unfortunately
their number is not great.
2. The Allegheny system forms an old and very well-marked
boundary between aquatic animals inhabiting the interior basin and
the Atlantic slope. This barrier may have been rendered insignifi-
382 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
cant at certain times in the past. But beginning with the Post-
cretaceous elevation of the country and the subsequent rejuvenation
of all drainage systems, this barrier has been emphasized again and
persists to the present time.
3. The uniformity of the fauna of the upper Ohio basin is a
character acquired in Postglacial times, and it has been shown that
not only Big Sandy River, but also Licking River, and possibly also
Kentucky River, belong to the upper Ohio basin, and not to the
Cumberland-Tennessee drainage. In this case zodgeographical evi-
dence contributes to the solution of a question which has not been
fully settled by physiographical methods.
4. On the western side we have remnants of an older (Pre-
glacial) faunistic differentiation. The most important division is
the Tennessee-Cumberland fauna, of which, however, only a small
part has been considered in the present paper, and which deserves
more detailed study. Other remnants of what might be Preglacial
faunas are possibly seen in the headwaters of the Monongahela and
Kanawha rivers. But in these cases the physiographical develop-
ment of these parts must be studied more closely before we can
arrive at a final conclusion. :
5. The Atlantic fauna is a distinct fauna and the creation of two
faunal provinces, Mississippian and Atlantic (Simpson, 1900, p.
505), 1s fully justified. Nevertheless, the Atlantic fauna is a sec-
ondary one, derived originally from that of the interior basin, and
its chief character consists in the absence of a great number of types
of the interior basin.
6. Within the Atlantic fauna we have to distinguish two main
elements, a northern and a southern. The northern came from the
interior basin around the northern end of the Alleghenies ; the south-
ern came around the southern end. The former belongs to the Pre-
glacial time, but is not very old, while in the latter there are some
rather ancient elements, going back possibly to the earlier Tertiary,
or even beyond. The southern element probably is closely connected
with the Tennessee-Coosa problem.
7. Along the Atlantic slope we have a dispersal line directed both
north and south, which has been clearly recognized, for land-forms,
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 383
by Adams (1902 and 1905). But this route was available also for
aquatic forms of life and lies probably mainly upon the Coastal
Plain, where barriers are largely removed by base-leveling. To a
smaller degree stream piracy in the uplands may have played a part
in the dispersal of the Atlantic forms.
8. In the mountains we know a few cases which indicate crossing
of the divide, but compared with the mass of the fauna, these cases
are very insignificant. However, they are zodgraphically of the
greatest interest in so far as they indicate probable cases of stream
capture. In order to properly understand these cases, the physiog-
raphy of the region involved should be studied more closely.
g. In addition, we have on the Atlantic side a few cases of ab-
normal distribution for which special explanations have been ad-
vanced. One of them concerns a form, Margaritana margaritifera,
which differs in the origin of its distribution entirely from all North
American Nayjades,*' and which is a stranger in our fauna. The
other case, Eurynia nasuta, possibly is due to Postglacial migration
from the St. Lawrence basin to the Atlantic slope, and may be in
part quite recent.
10. Further investigations should be made primarily in the region
of the southern Atlantic slope and in the southern Appalachians, and
should be connected with the study of the Tennessee-Coosa problem
from the zodgeographical side. In this region there are extremely
interesting conditions, which, however, are very unsatisfactorily
known, and have led Johnson (1905) to the erroneous assumption
that the evidence taken from the Najades is unreliable with regard
to the reconstruction of the old drainage systems.
In addition, other freshwater groups should be studied. In the
present paper the Najades have furnished the chief evidence, but it
has been shown that also certain Gastropods and the Crayfishes are
or might be valuable; but there are surely other groups, chiefly the
Fishes.
** At present, only a land snail, Helix hortensis Muell., falls under the
same head.
PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC. LII. 210 G, PRINTED JULY 18 1913.
384 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
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17th Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. (for 1895-06), part 2, 1806, pp.
479-511.
Conrad, T. A.
1835-38. Monography of the Family Unonide. 1835-1838.
Conrad, T. A.
1846. Notices of Freshwater Shells, etc., of Rockbridge County, Virginia.
Americ. Journ. Sci. (2), 1, 1846, pp. 405-407.
Davis, W. M.
1899. The Rivers and Valleys of Pennsylvania. Nation. Geogr. Magaz., I,
1889, pp. 183-253.
Davis, W. M.
1891. The Geological Dates of Origin of Certain Topographic Forms on
the Atlantic Slope of the United States. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 2,
1891, pp. 545-584.
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 385
Davis, W. M.
1907. The United States of America. Regional Geography. In: Chapter
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Dewey, C.
1856. List of Najades found in Western New York. oth Ann. Rep. Reg.
Univ. N. Y., 1856, pp. 32-38.
Fontaine, see: Maury and Fontaine.
Foshay, P. M.
1890. Preglacial Drainage and Recent Geological History of Western
Pennsylvania. Amer. Journ. Sci. (3), 40, 1890, pp. 397-403.
Gabb, A. F.
1861. List of Mollusks Inhabiting the Neighborhood of Philadelphia. Pr.
Acad. Philad., 1861, pp. 306-310.
Hartman, W. D., and Michener, E.
1874. Conchologia Cestrica. 1874.
Hayes, C. W.
1896. The Southern Appalachians. The Physiography of the United
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Hayes, C. W.
1899. Physiography of the Chattanooga District in Tennessee, Georgia,
and Alabama. 109th Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. (1897-98), part 2,
1899, pp. 1-58.
Hayes, C. W., and Campbell, M. R.
1894. Geomorphology of the Southern Appalachians. Nation. Geogr.
Magaz., 6, 1894, pp. 63-126.
Hoyt, J. C., and Anderson, R. H.
1905. Hydrography of the Susquehanna River Drainage System. U. S.
Geol. Surv.—Wat. Suppl. & Irrig. Paper no. 109, 1905.
Johnson, D. W.
1905. The Distribution of Freshwater Faunas as an Evidence of Drainage
Modifications. Science, 21, April 14, 1905, pp. 588—soz2.
Le Conte, J.
1891. Tertiary and Post-Tertiary Changes of the Atlantic and Pacific
Coasts. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 2, 1891, pp. 223-328.
Lesley, J.
1865. Coal Formation of Southern Virginia. Pr. Amer. Philos. Soc., 9,
1865, pp. 30-38.
Leverett, F.
1902. Glacial Formations and Drainage Features of the Erie and Ohio
Basins. Monogr. U. S. Geol. Surv., 41, 1902, pp. 1-781.
Lewis, J.
1871. On the Shells of the Holston River. Amer. Journ. Conchol., 6, 1871,
pp. 216-210.
Marshall, W. B.
1895. Geographical Distribution of the New York Unionide. 48th Rep.
N. Y. State Mus., 1895, pp. 47-09.
386 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
Maury, M. F., and Fontaine, W. M.
1876. Resources of West Virginia. State Board of Centennial Managers,
1876.
McGee, W J :
1888. Three Formations of the Middle Atlantic Slope. Amer. Journ. Sci.
(3), 35, 1888, pp. 120-143.
Ortmann, A. E.
1905. The Mutual Affinities of the Species of the Genus Cambarus, and
their Dispersal over the United States. Pr. Amer. Philos. Soc., 44,
1905, pp. 92-136.
Ortmann, A. E.
1906. The Crawfishes of the State of Pennsylvania. Mem. Carnegie Mus.,
2, 1906, pp. 343-524.
Ortmann, A. E.
1912a. Notes upon the Families and Genera of the Najades. Ann. Carne-
gie Mus., 8, 1912, pp. 222-365.
Ortmann, A. E.
1912b. Lampsilis ventricosa in the Upper Potomac Drainage. Nautilus, 26,
IQI2, pp. 51-54.
Pilsbry, H. A.
1894. Critical List of Mollusks Collected in the Potomac Valley. Pr.
Acad. Philad., 1894, pp. 11-30.
Powell, J. W.
1896. Physiographic Regions of the United States. The Physiography of
the United States. Nation. Geogr. Soc., 1896, pp. 65-100.
Rhoads, S. N.
1904. A Glimpse at the Shell Fauna of Delaware. Nautilus, 18, 1904, pp.
63-67.
Rogers, W. B.
1884. A Reprint of Annual Reports and other Papers on the Geology of
the Virginias. New York, 1884.
Schick, M.
1895. Mollusk Fauna of Philadelphia and Environs. Nautilus, 8, 1895, pp.
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Simpson, C. T. ,
1893. On the Relationship and Distribution of the North American Union-
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1893, pp. 353-358.
Simpson, C. T.
1896a. On the Mississippi Valley Unionide found in the St. Lawrence and
Atlantic Drainage Areas. Amer. Natural., 30, 1896, pp. 379-384.
Simpson, C. T.
1896b. The Classification and Geographical Distribution of the Pearly
Freshwater Mussels. Pr. U. S. Mus., 18, 1806, pp. 295-343.
Simpson, C. T.
1900a. Synopsis of the Najades or Pearly Freshwater Mussels. . Pr. U. S.
Mus., 22, 1900, pp. 501-1044.
1913-] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 387
Simpson, C. T. :
1g00b. On the Evidence of the Unionide Regarding the Former Courses
of the Tennessee and other Southern Rivers. Science, 12, July 27,
1900, pp. 133-136.
Spencer, J. W.
1903. Submarine Valleys off the American Coast and in the North At-
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1887. A geological Reconnaissance of Bland, Giles, Wythe, and Portion
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U. S. Geological Survey.
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1910. Distribution of Margaritana margaritifera in North America. Pr.
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1904. The Appalachian River versus a Tertiary Trans-Appalachian River
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1896. Origin of the High Terrace Deposits of the Monongahela River.
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Willis, B.
1896. The Northern Appalachians. The Physiography of the United
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1912. Index to the Stratigraphy of North America, Accompanied by a
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71, 1012:
CARNEGIE MUSEUM,
PITTSBURGH, Pa.,
April 18, 1913.
388 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XII.
Map oF THE ALLEGHENY SYSTEM OF VIRGINIA, WEST VIRGINIA, MARYLAND
AND PENNSYLVANIA,
The chief Physiographical Divisions are:
AP: Allegheny Plateau; AM: Allegheny Mountains; AV: Allegheny
valley; PP: Piedmont Plateau; CP: Coastal Plain. They are marked off by
heavy dotted lines. From the upper Clinch River to Covington, on Jackson
River, runs another dotted line, which indicates the chief fault of this region,
discussed in chapter 5, p. 345. The line of heavy dashes represents the
divide between the Interior Basin drainage in the West, and that of the
Atlantic Slope (including the St. Lawrence) in the East and North.
The following abbreviations for rivers and creeks have been used:
Upper Ohio and Allegheny drainage:
All= Allegheny River. Cr = Crooked Creek.
Bu= Beaver River. Fr= French Creek.
Clar = Clarion River. Kis = Kiskiminetas River.
Con= Conemaugh River. Loy = Loyalhanna River.
Mah= Mahoning Creek.
Po = Potato Creek.
Ou = Quemahoning Creek.
RB = Red Bank Creek.
Monongahela drainage:
Bl= Blackwater River. SF = Shavers Fork.
Bu= Buckhannon River. Tyg = Tygart Valley River.
DF= Dry Fork. WF = West Fork River.
Tributaries of Ohio in West Virginia and Kentucky:
F= Fish Creek. L. Fk=Levisa Fork of Big Sandy
River.
Fg = Fishing Creek. L. Kan= Little Kanawha River.
Hg= Hughes River. M. I.=Middle Island Creek.
Delaware drainage:
Leh=Lehigh River. Lig=Lizard Creek. P= Princess Creek.
Susquehanna drainage:
Cc. C. = Cush Cushion Creek. N.B.=North Branch .of Susque-
hanna.
Ch= Chest Creek. Si= Sinnemahoning Creek.
Cl= Clearfield Creek. Sw = Swatara Creek.
Coned = Conedoguinet Creek. Ti= Tioga Creek.
Conew = Conewago Creek. W. B. = West Branch of Susque-
hanna.
1913.] ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. 389
Potomac drainage:
An= Antietam Creek. S. B. = South Branch Potomac
River.
Con = Conococheague Creek. To = Tonoloway Creek.
N. B. = North Branch Potomac W= Wills Creek.
River.
James drainage:
N=North River (headwaters called: Calf Pasture River).
RF = Rockfish Creek. Riv= Rivanna River.
Roanoke drainage:
N. F. = North Fork Roanoke River.
Holston drainage:
Holston= North Fork Holston S. F. = South Fork Holston River.
River.
M. F. = Middle Fork Holston River.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIII.
PROFILES OF RIVERS.
Fic. 1. Profile up from Pittsburgh, Pa., along Allegheny River, Mahon-
ing and Little Mahoning Creeks to Divide, and thence down along Cush
Cushion Creek, West Branch Susquehanna, and Susquehanna River to Havre
de Grace, Md. (sea level).
Between Curvensville and Keating the river has not been accurately sur-
veyed.
Compiled from: U. S. Geol. Surv. Atlas Sheets, and Hoyt and Ander-
son, 1905, pl. 28 and 20.
Fic. 2. Profile from a little above McKeesport, Pa., up the Mononga-
hela and its tributaries (Youghiogheny, Cheat and Shavers Fork, Tygart
Valley River, West Fork River) to the Divide, and thence down the South
and North Branch and the Potomac River, to Washington, D. C.
The sources of Shavers Fork and South Branch Potomac are about
twenty miles apart. On account of the exaggerated vertical scale, the head-
waters of all rivers appear much longer than they actually are.
Compiled from: U. S. Geol. Surv. Atlas Sheets, and Bolster, 1907, pl. 5
and 6.
390 ORTMANN—THE ALLEGHENIAN DIVIDE. [April 18,
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIV.
PROFILES OF RIVERS AND MOUNTAINS.
Fic. 1. Profile from Charleston, W. Va. up the Kanawha, New and
Greenbrier Rivers, to the Divide, and thence down the Jackson and North
Rivers to Lynchburg, Va., on James River. Also the profile of the upper
Roanoke is given and its location with reference to New River, and the old
abandoned valley connecting the two. The upper parts of New River are only
roughly sketched.
The sources of Greenbrier and Jackson Rivers are about fifteen miles
apart.
Compiled from U. S. Geol. Surv. Atlas Sheets.
Fic. 2. Profile along the crest of the Allegheny Front, and the ranges
farther south (Peters and East River Mountains), which form its continua-
tion. The rivers and creeks at the eastern foot of the mountains are indicated
by dotted lines. In the region of the B. & O. Tunnel exact data are missing.
The two sections of the profile are connected at r—y. The range behind
Dans Mountain is Savage and Backbone Mountain.
Compiled from U. S. Geol. Surv. Atlas Sheets.
Explanation of abbreviations:
Streams:
Cl= South Fork Clinch River. N. Br. = North Branch Potomac.
St= Stony Creek. Ray=Raystown Branch Juniata
Riv.
Du=Dunlap Creek. Dun = Dunning Creek.
N. Fk. S. Br. Pot. = North Fork of Fra. Jun. = Frankstown Branch
South Branch Potomac. Juniata River.
W.G.= Water Gaps (of New River, flowing West, and of Potomac, flowing
East).
Towns: Tunnels:
Cov = Covington, Va. C. & O.=Chesapeake and Ohio
RGR:
Pet= Petersburg, W. Va. B. & O.=Baltimore and Ohio R. R.
Cumb = Cumberland, Md. P. R. R.= Pennsylvania R. R.
Holl = Hollidaysburg, Pa.
It is believed that the depression in the region of the C. & O. Tunnel is a
remnant of the Cretaceous Peneplain.
PLATEEXII
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Tot RELATION BETWEEN THE PHYSICAL STATE OF
BRAIN CELLS AND BRAIN FUNCTIONS,—EXPERI-
MENTAL AND CLINICAL.
By GEO. W. CRILE, M.D.
(Read April 18, 1913.)
The brain in all animals (including man) is but the clearing-
house for reactions to environment,—for animals are essentially
motor or neuro-motor mechanisms, composed of many parts, it is
true, but integrated by the nervous system. Throughout the phylo-
genetic history of the race the stimuli of environment have driven
this mechanism, whose seat of power—the battery—is the brain.
Since all normal life depends upon the response of the brain to
the daily stimuli, we should expect in health as well as in disease to
find modifications of the functions and the physical state of the
component parts of this central battery—the brain cells. Although
we must believe, then, that every reaction to stimuli, however slight,
produces a corresponding change in the brain cells, yet there are
certain normal, that is, non-diseased conditions which produce espe-
cially striking changes. The cell changes due to the emotions, for
example, are so similar, and in extreme conditions approach so
closely to the changes produced by disease, that it is impossible to
say where the normal ceases and the abnormal begins.
In view of the similarity of brain cell changes, it is not strange
that in the clinic as well as in daily life, we are confronted constantly
by outward manifestations so nearly identical that the true under-
lying cause of the condition is too often overlooked or misunder-
stood. In our laboratory experiments and our clinical observations
we have found that exhaustion from intense emotion, from prolonged
physical exertion, from insomnia, from intense fear, certain toxe-
mias, hemorrhage, and the conditions commonly denominated sur-
397
398 CRILE—PHYSICAL STATE OF [April 18,
Area from cerebellum, rabbit, normal.
IDWE; a
1913.] BRAIN CELLS AND BRAIN FUNCTIONS. 399
gical shock, produce similar outward manifestations and identical
brain cell changes.
It is, therefore, the purpose of this paper to present the definite
results of certain laboratory researches which show certain relations
between the alteration in brain functions and alterations in the brain
cells.
FEAR.—Our experiments showed that the brain cell changes due
to fear may be divided into two stages: First, that of hyperchro-
matism—stimulation ; second, that of hypochromatism—exhaustion.
Hyperchromatism was shown only in the presence of the activating
stimuli or within a very short time after they had been received.
This state gradually changed until the period of maximum exhaus-
tion was reached, about six hours later. Then a process of recon-
struction began and continued until the normal state was again
reached.
FaTIGuE.—Fatigue from overexertion produced in the brain cells
like changes to those produced by. fear, these changes being propor-
tional to the amount of exertion. In the extreme stage of exhaus-
tion from this cause we found that the total quantity of Nissl sub-
stance was enormously reduced. If the exertion is too greatly
prolonged, it may take weeks or months for the cells to be restored
to their normal condition. In fact, in exhaustion from the emotions
or from physical work a certain number of brain cells are perma-
nently lost. This probably explains the fact that an athlete or a
race horse trained to the point of highest efficiency can but once in
his life reach his maximum record. Under certain conditions, how-
ever, it may be possible that though some chromatin is forever lost,
the remainder may be so remarkably developed that for a time at
least it will compensate for that which is gone.
HeEMorRHAGE.—The loss of blood from any cause, if sufficient
to reduce the blood pressure, will occasion a change in the brain
cells, provided the period of hypotension lasts more than five min-
utes. This time limit is a safeguard against permanent injury from
the temporary hypotension which causes one to faint. If the hem-
orrhage is long continued and the blood pressure is low, there will
be a permanent loss of some of the brain cells. This is why an indi-
PROC, AMER, PHIL. SOC., LII. 210 H, PRINTED JULY 18, 1913.
400 CRILE—PHYSICAL STATE OF [April 18,
vidual will never again be restored to his original powers after suf-
fering from a prolonged hemorrhage.
Drucs.—According to their effect upon the brain cells, drugs may
be divided into three classes: First, those that stimulate brain cells
to increased activity,—as strychnine; second, those that chemically
Fic. 3. Area from cerebellum, rabbit, 6 hours after fright.
destroy the brain cells;—as alcohol and iodoform; third, those that
suspend the functions of the cells without damaging them,—as
nitrous oxide, ether, morphia. Our experiments showed that brain
cell changes induced by drugs of the first class are precisely the same
as the cycle of changes produced by the emotions and _ physical
1913.] BRAIN CELLS AND BRAIN FUNCTIONS. 401
Fre. 4. Area from cerebellum, delirium tremens.
402 CRILE—PHYSICAL STATE OF [April 18,
activity. We found that strychnia, according to the dosage, caused
convulsions ending in exhaustion and death; excitation followed by
lassitude; stimulation without notable after results; or increased
mental tone. The brain cells accurately displayed these physiologic
alterations in proportional hyperchromatism in the active stages, and
proportional chromatolysis in the stages of reaction. The biologic
and therapeutic application of this proof is as obvious as it is
important.
Alcohol in large and repeated dosage caused marked morphologic
changes in the brain cells which went as far even as destruction of
the cells. Ether, on the other hand, even after five hours of admin-
istration, produced no observable destructive changes in the cells.
The effect of iodoform was peculiarly interesting, as it was the
only drug that produced fever. Its observed effect upon the brain
cells was that of widespread destruction.
INFECTIONS.—In every observation on dogs and on man pyogenic
infections caused definite and demonstrable lesions in certain cells
of the nervous system, the changes in the cortex and the cerebellum
being most marked. For example, in infections the result of bowel
obstruction, in peritonitis, and in osteomyelitis causing death, the
real lesion is in the brain cells. The lassitude, diminished mental
power, excitability, irritability, restlessness, delirium and uncon-
sciousness that may be associated with acute infections, we may rea-
sonably conclude are due to physical changes in the brain cells.
GRAVES’ DiIsEASE.—In Graves’ disease the brain cells showed
marked changes which were apparently the same as those produced
by overwork, by the emotions, and by strychnine. In one advanced
case it was found that the brain had lost permanently a large number
of cells. This is the reason undoubtedly why a severe case of
exophthalmic goitre sustains such a permanent loss of brain power.
INSOMNIA.—The brains of rabbits which had been kept awake
for 100 hours showed precisely the same changes as those shown in
physical fatigue, strychnine poisoning and exhaustion from emo-
tional stimulation. Eight hours of continuous sleep restored all the
cells except those that had been completely exhausted. This will
explain the permanent effect of long-continued insomnia ;—that is,
BRAIN CELLS AND BRAIN FUNCTIONS. 403
1913.]
‘Suluosiod WAOJOpO! ‘wINJeqeta9 WoIf VII “S$ “OLY
404 CRILE—PHYSICAL STATE OF [April 18,
long-continued insomnia permanently destroys a part of the brain
cells just as do too great physical exertion, certain drugs, emotional
strain, exophthalmic goitre or hemorrhage. We found, however,
that if instead of natural sleep the rabbits were placed for the same
number of hours under nitrous oxide anesthesia, not only were
the brain cells prevented from physical deterioration, but that 90
per cent. of them became hyperchromatic. This gives us a possible
clue to the actual chemical effect of sleep. For since nitrous oxide
owes its anesthetic effect to its influence upon oxidation, we may
Fic. 6. Area from cerebellum, woodchuck, hibernating.
infer that sleep also is a question of oxidation of the cell content.
If this is true, then it is probable that inhalation anesthetics exert
their peculiar influence upon that portion of the brain through which
sleep itself is produced. If nitrous oxide anesthesia and sleep are
chemically identical, then we have a further clue to one of the pri-
mary mechanisms of life itself; and as a practical corollary one
might be able to produce artificial sleep very closely resembling
normal sleep, and with this advantage,—that by using an anesthetic
interfering with oxidation the brain cells might be reconstructed
after physical fatigue, after emotional strain, or after the depression
of disease.
In the case of the rabbit in which nitrous oxide was substituted
for sleep the appearance of the brain cells resembled those in but
one other group experimentally examined,—the hibernating wood-
chucks.
1913.] BRAIN CELLS AND BRAIN FUNCTIONS. 405
INSANITY.—Our researches have shown that in the course of a
fatal disease and in fatal exhaustion, however produced, death does
not ensue until there is marked disorganization of the brain tissue.
In the progress of disease or exhaustion one may see in different
patients every outward manifestation of mental deterioration
—manifestations which, in a person who does not show any
other sign of physical disease, mark him as insane. Take, for ex-
ample, the progressive mental state of a brilliant scholar suffering
from typhoid fever. On the first day of the gradual onset of the
disease he would notice that his mental power was below its maxi-
Fic. 7. Area from cerebellum, woodchuck, after fright.
mum efficiency; on the second he would notice a further deteriora-
tion, and so the mental effect of his disease would progress until he
would find it impossible to express a thought or to make a deduction.
No one can be philanthropic with jaundice; no one suffering from
Graves’ disease can be generous; no mental process is possible in
the course of the acute infectious diseases. Just prior to death from
any cause everyone is in a mental state which if it could be continued
would cause that individual to be judged insane. If the delirium
that occurs in the course of certain diseases could be continued the
patient would be judged insane. In severe cases of Graves’ disease
the patient is insane. Individuals may be temporarily insane under
overwhelming emotion. Every clinician has seen great numbers of
406 CRILE—BRAIN CELLS AND FUNCTIONS. [April 18,
cases of insanity as phases of a disease, of an injury, or of an emo-
tion. The stage of excitation in anesthesia is insanity. The only
difference between what is conventionally called insanity and the
fleeting insanity of the sick and the injured is that of time. We may
conclude, therefore, what must be the brain picture of the person
who is permanently insane. This a priori reasoning is all that is
possible, since the study of the brain in the insane has thus far been
wholly on the brains of these who have died of some disease. And
it is impossible to say which changes have been produced by the fatal
disease, and which by the condition producing insanity. The only
logical way of investigating the physical basis of insanity would be
to make use of the very rare opportunity of studying accidental
death in the insane.
Our experiments have proved conclusively that whether we call
a person fatigued or diseased, the brain cells undergo physical de-
terioration, accompanied by loss of mental power. Even to the
minutest detail we can show a direct relationship between the phys-
ical state of the brain cells and the mental power of the individual,—
that is, the physical power of a person goes pari passu with his
mental power. Indeed, it is impossible to conceive how any mental
action, however subtle, can occur without a corresponding change
in the nerve cells. It is possible now to measure only the evidences
of gross and violent mental activity on the brain cells. At some
future time it will doubtless be possible to so refine the technique
that more subtle changes may similarly be measured. Nevertheless,
with the means at our disposal we have shown already that in all
these conditions the cells of the cortex showed the greatest changes ;
and that loss of the higher mental functions accompanied the cell
deterioration.
CLEVELAND, OHIO,
April, 1913.
RADIATED AND RECEIVED ENERGY IN RADIO-
TBLEGRABEY.,
By L; W. AUSTIN.
(Read April 19, 1913.)
Duddell and Taylor! were the first experimenters to attempt to
determine the laws relating currents in the sending and receiving
antennas used in radiotelegraphy. Their first experiments were car-
ried on near London with distances of only a few hundred yards
between the antennas. A little later these experiments were re-
peated on a larger scale on the Irish Sea between a land station and
the steamer Monarch, the experiments in this case being extended
up to about sixty miles. Their work served to show that up to the
distances mentioned the received current fell off directly in propor-
tion to the distance in accordance with the Hertzian equation for the
electric force in the equatorial plane of an oscillator.
The determination of this law at once aroused great hopes in the
minds of all workers in radiotelegraphy for the establishment of
long distance communication. It was well known that with 2 K.W.
and with moderate sized antennas it was quite possible to send mes-
sages over distances of three hundred miles in the daytime. From
this it was easily calculated in accordance with the Duddell and
Taylor law, that it would be necessary to use only 10 K.W. with
antennas 400 feet high to carry on communication up to 3,000 miles.
When the attempt was made, however, it was found that only on
exceptionally favorable nights was any communication at all possible,
even with two or three times the calculated power, and of course
none at all in the daytime. This showed at once that the Duddell
and Taylor law was not applicable at great distances, and it began
to be assumed that for communication over water an absorption
*Duddell and Taylor, Electrician, 55, p. 260, 1905.
407
408 AUSTIN—ENERGY IN RADIOTELEGRA PHY. [April 19,
existed similar to that which had long been recognized in overland
communication.
In 1909/10 the United States Navy carried on experiments be-
tween the high power Fessenden station at Brant Rock and the scout
cruisers Birmingham and Salem.? In these experiments regular day
communication*® was obtained up to 800 miles between the ships, and
about 1,200 miles between the high power station and the ships.
Quantitative experiments on the effect of the height of sending
and receiving antennas were also carried on at this time, which
verified the results of Marconi, Duddell and Taylor, and Pierce.
The results of all this work were finally summarized in the formula
ad
hh _—
(1) Tp = 4.25 ; ? Ine a
y
where J, is the receiving antenna current, 7, the sending antenna
current, i, and h, the heights to the centers of capacity of the two
antennas, A the wave-length, and d the distance; the currents being
measured in amperes and the lengths in kilometers. In this formula
the resistance of the receiving antenna was arbitrarily taken as 25
ohms, that being the resistance of the Brant Rock station under the
conditions of experiment. That the resistance was the same at both
wave-lengths used (1,000 meters and 3,750 meters) was due to the
fact that a series condenser was used in the Brant Rock antenna at
the shorter wave-length. On the ships, however, there was un-
doubtedly a very considerable difference in resistance at the different
wave-lengths. As a matter of fact, we have never had an oppor-
tunity to measure accurately the antenna resistance on these ships.
From measurements on other ships, however, it is estimated that the
antenna resistance at 1,000 meters would be from 15 to 18 ohms,
while at 3,750 meters it would probably be about 35 ohms. No more
quantitative work at long distances was carried on by the Navy De-
partment until the autumn of 1912, although in the meantime a
number of observations were made at moderate distances which all
* Bulletin Bureau of Standards, 7, p. 315, IQII.
* Night signals, while generally stronger than those in the day time, are
freakish and irregular and unfitted for quantitative comparisons.
1913.] AUSTIN—ENERGY IN RADIOTELEGRA PHY. 409
tended to verify the general accuracy of our formula. The new
series of experiments has been made in connection with the high
power naval station at Arlington, Va. This station was equipped
by the National Electric Signaling Co. with a 100-K.W. rotary gap
sending set, and was intended for communication with the Canal
Zone and with the fleet in the North Atlantic Ocean. The original
plan for the antenna as submitted by the National Electric Signaling
Co. showed an umbrella supported by a single tower 600 ft. high.
The experiments at Brant Rock, however, showed the experts of
the Navy Department that an umbrella antenna gave a center of
capacity too low for the most effective working. In fact, compara-
tive results indicated that the effective height was but little if any
higher than the bottom of the umbrella, about 150 ft. in the case of
the Brant Rock tower, although the total height was 420. For this
reason the Arlington station has been supplied with a platform an-
tenna supported by three towers about 400 ft. between centers, one
being 600 ft. high and the other two 450 ft. The antenna has been
put up in sections and consists of two flat top antennas 350 ft. long,
and one 315 ft. long. These are 88 ft. wide with 23 wires each.
The triangular space between the flat tops is filled in with a trian-
gular fan of 25 wires supported independently of the flat top sec-
tions. The vertical portion of the antenna consists of a fan of 23
wires, 88 ft. wide at the top, narrowing to Io ft. at 75 ft. above the
earth, from which point the wires are brought down in a cage of
the Fessenden type. The capacity of this antenna is 0.01 m.f., its
natural period approximately 2,100 meters and its height to the
center of capacity 400 ft. The ground system consists of a radiat-
ing network of wires covering the space between the triangle of
towers and extending to some distance outside. The towers were
built so that they were insulated from the earth with switches by
which they could be connected with the ground net system. With
the towers insulated, the antenna resistance exclusive of the in-
ductance at a wave-length of 4,000 meters is approximately 8 ohms.
Grounding the towers reduces the resistance to 1.8 ohms, and curi-
ously enough, no perceptible difference in capacity is observed, nor
is the natural period changed by more than a few meters. Theo-
410 AUSTIN—ENERGY IN RADIOTELEGRA PHY. [April 19,
retically it is difficult to understand how this great difference in
antenna resistance can be produced without changing the field dis-
tribution so as to vary the capacity and wave-length, but what is
still more remarkable, is that it is found that the ratio between the
current in a receiving antenna a few miles distant and the sending
current at Arlington remains absolutely unchanged whether the
towers are grounded or insulated. But since the sending current
with the towers grounded is approximately 50 per cent. larger than
when the towers are insulated, they are always kept grounded. For
receiving at Arlington there is practically no difference.
Referring again to the formula for the received current
it will be noticed that, if we disregard the absorption term, it bears
a striking resemblance to the Hertzian equation for the amplitude
of the electric force in the equatorial plane of an oscillator.* This
equation in the form given by Zenneck is°*
‘T
(2) Os on 3710, €:G:S:
where E, is the electric amplitude at the distance d, / the length of
the oscillator, and J) the current amplitude in the oscillator, and was
derived for continuous oscillations and for an oscillator consisting
of two large spheres connected by thin wires with a spark gap in the
middle; an arrangement which produces a uniform current distri-
bution throughout the wires. If we substitute the effective values
of the electric field & and current J in the antennas, in place of the
amplitudes, the equation will, of course, remain true. Therefore, if
we are able to determine the length of the Hertzian oscillator which
will be equivalent to a wireless antenna, we have at once a very con-
venient means of calculating the electric field at any distance not
great enough to have the absorption come into play. Theoretical
* This applies strictly only to values of d amounting to a large number
of wave-lengths.
° J. Zenneck, “ Lehrbuch der drahtlosen Telegraphie,” p. 45.
1913. ] AUSTIN—ENERGY IN RADIOTELEGRAPHY. 411
formule for this purpose have been given by Rudenberg,® and at-
tempts have been made to apply them to the case of the scout cruisers
Birmingham and Salem by H. Barckhausen* and myself.
The formule are based on the assumption that if an antenna be
erected on a conducting surface, its field will be the same as that of
an antenna in space of twice the height, the lower portion being
exactly like the real antenna but inverted beneath it; that is, the
length of the equivalent Hertzian oscillator will be twice the height
from the earth to the center of capacity of the antenna. As Ruden-
berg observes, however, the imaginary portion does not contribute
to the energy radiated by the antenna. Then since the energy is
proportional to /, the length of the oscillator, squared
(2h)?
2
C=
OG l=hv2.
Hence to get the length of the equivalent Hertzian oscillator we must
multiply the height to the center of capacity of the antenna by \/2.
In order to determine the theoretical value of the received current
we must determine the electromotive force on the receiving antenna
*R. Rudenberg, Ann. d. Phys., 25, p. 446, 1908.
*H. Barckhausen, Jahrb. d. drahtlosen Telegraphie, V., p. 261, 1912.
§ Journ. Wash. Acad., 1, p. 275, 1911.
412 AUSTIN—ENERGY IN RADIOTELEGRAPHY. [April 19,
by multiplying the effective value of the field E by the height to the
center of capacity of the receiving antenna. If we are dealing with
continuous oscillations, the received current will then be given by
(2) [fet a (undamped oscillations)
where Ft is the high frequency resistance of the receiving system.
In the case of damped oscillations, however, on account of the
form of the wave train of oncoming oscillations and that of the
resulting current train in the antenna, the value of the received cur-
rent J, is equal to
i — ; (damped oscillations)
Ett,
6,
R J 1+ 5:
where 6, and 8, are the decrements of the sending and receiving
antenna systems.
By means of thermoelements in the antennas, measurements of
this kind have been made in several receiving stations in Washington
using the high power station at Arlington and the station at the
Washington Navy Yard for sending.®
The results of the calculated and observed values are given in
Table I. It is seen that the observed values vary between 40 per
TABLE I.
Sendine Stati Rieceivinea Station Dis- Received Current | Obs
ending Station. ecelving ation. ance: Obs. Cal. | Cal.
| | Km. | Amp. | Amp. | %
Arlington
(A = 3900 m.) Bureau of Standards) 7.8 5.8°10 4% 15.1073 39
re Capitol 6.4 | 12.0 | Pfs 45
i | Navy Yard le Ge IP seo | 17.2 60
Navy Yard | | |
(A = 1000 m.) Bureau of Standards| 10.0 4.1 | 4.6 54
e Capitol N DOCu 8-5 | 25.0) 57
*In these experiments the distances between the sending and receiving
stations lay between I.5 and 10 wave-lengths. The greatest possible error due
to the inapplicability of the inverse distance law to these short distances
would be about Io per cent. No evidence of ground absorption at these
distances has been observed.
1913.] AUSTIN—ENERGY IN RADIOTELEGRAPHY. 413
cent. and 60 per cent. of the calculated values; that is, the effective
length of the equivalent Hertzian oscillator is apparently too great.
This may be due either to the shape of the antennas or to the fact
that the earth beneath them is not properly conducting as is assumed
in the derivation of the formula. If the last supposition is true, a
better agreement between the theoretical and observed values ought
to be obtained in the case of ships’ antennas where the ground con-
sists of sea water. Unfortunately, however, in the case of warships
at least, the problem is complicated by the steel masts and rigging
which it is generally supposed tend to absorb a portion of the ra-
diated energy. It is to be hoped that some time in the near future
experiments may be carried out on ships free from these disturbing
influences. It seems very possible that the shape of the antenna
and not the conductivity of the ground is the real cause of the diver-
gence from the theoretical values. In the case of a flat top or um-
brella antenna we have nearly the condition of two plates of a con-
denser in which the distance between the plates is not large compared
with the plate dimensions. Under these circumstances it is certain
that the electric field distribution will not be the same as that due
to one of the spheres of a Hertzian oscillator placed at the center
of capacity of the antenna system. However this may be, the ex-
periments show that the length of the oscillator equivalent to the
antenna of a land station is somewhat less instead of greater than
the height to the center of capacity.
OBSERVATIONS AT GREATER DISTANCES.
In the Brant Rock experiments already mentioned it was found
that for distances of more ‘than 100 miles over sea water a meas-
urable absorption of the radiated energy took place, so that to repre-
sent the received current the full form of equation (1) including
the absorption factor must be used. In the experiments mentioned,
observations were made on the scout cruisers up to about 1,200
miles. The figure (Fig. 2) shows that at a distance of 1,000 miles,
at a wave-length of 1,000 meters, the received current was only one
seventeenth of what would have been received if there had been no
absorption, and since the strength of signal in the telephone is pro-
414 AUSTIN—ENERGY IN RADIOTELEGRA PHY. [April 19,
portional to the square of the received current, the signal was re-
duced to approximately one three-hundredth.
During the months of February and March of this year, the
cruiser Salem was sent on a voyage to Gibraltar for the purpose of
BIRMINGHAM RECEIVED AT BRANT ROCK, JULY, 1910
» TELEPHONE
OBSERVATIONS
N nicht
100 8200 300 400 500 600 700 80Q 900 1000 MILES
carrying out tests with the Arlington station. Successful observa-
tions with the electrolytic detector were made in the daytime up to
1,920 nautical miles, while by other detecting devices not sufficiently
quantitative for measurement purposes, messages were read up to
1913.] AUSTIN—ENERGY IN RADIOTELEGRAPHY. 415
* about 2,100 nautical miles. The results of the measurements are
shown in Fig. 3. The wave-length used by Arlington was 3,900
meters, and the average sending current was 110 amperes. The
effective height of the Arlington antenna was 400 ft., while that of
the Salem was taken as 130 ft., this being the value which was used
in the calculation of the formula of the Brant Rock test. This is
probably somewhat too high but is retained in the present calculation
Seg C CE pat
ies | Beogaaee
Cc
SRO seme ist eis
mR micieher lee
nL MMe er ees ioe
ae Mes Gee on elsisbaleatst kel aka
See eS SSSR SSE See see
HOC INS Seo Sse see eee
RMDP Penistone Cl stele ak We
aoe qeb Case a4 3S SS SS See
mia aslo ial Sinise ee
ep ES
RE MDEESeE nes = 222000 nena eee
DISTANCE, NAUTICAL MILES
lane, St
for purposes of comparison. The curve of the figure is calculated
from Tables XVI. and XVIa. of the article already cited.1° The
observed values of the received currents, as indicated by the crosses
in the figure, were calculated from the audibility measurements made
by the shunted telephone method on the electrolytic detector in
exactly the same way as in the Brant Rock experiments, except that
on account of the increased efficiency of the receiving set, the least
audible antenna current was taken as seven microamperes instead
of ten. The observer was Mr. Lee, who also took the most impor-
* Bulletin Bureau of Standards, 7, p. 315, IQII.
PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LII, 210 I. PRINTED JULY 18, IQI3.
416 AUSTIN—ENERGY IN RADIOTELEGRAPHY. [April 19,
tant observations during the Brant Rock test. Considering the diffi-
culties of taking these measurements, the agreement with the theo-
retical curve is all that could be desired. It is especially to be noted
that the signals became inaudible at almost the exact distance indi-
cated by the formula.
OTHER OBSERVATIONS.
Previous to the cruise of the Salem, a number of observations on
signals from Arlington were made in the daytime at various naval
wireless stations in the United States. The results of these are
shown in Fig. 4, the curve being as before the calculated value of
received current over sea water, and the crosses the observed values
at the various points. It will be noticed that while the observed values
uniformly lie below the calculated values, the differences are not as
great as would perhaps naturally be expected in transmission over-
land. In fact, they are in most cases not much greater than would
be accounted for by the circumstances of observation. The St.
Augustine observations are the only ones which were made by the
calibrated detector and galvanometer method, while those at New-
port, Boston, Guantanamo, Charleston and Key West were taken on
uncalibrated crystal detectors by the shunted telephone method. The
results show that for a wave-length of approximately 4,000 meters
the ground absorption is small, at least for distances less than 1,000
miles. This is a very different result from that obtained with a
1,000 meter wave-length between New York and Washington, where
the received current in the summer time is reduced to 10 per cent.
of the value which it would have over salt water.1? Of course, it
must be considered, in the Arlington experiments just mentioned,
that most of the stations lie on the sea coast so that the waves either
pass during a portion of their course over water or might be con-
ceived to follow along the shore rather than to pass in direct line.
New Orleans is the only station in which the propagation could be
considered to be entirely unaffected by the sea, and in this case the
"For great distances over sea, and distances of more than 100 miles over
land, long waves should be used on account of their decreased absorption;
while for short distances shorter waves are better on account of their more
vigorous radiation.
IN RADIOTELEGRA PHY. 417
1913.] AUSTIN
ana
Heide é
ae
S
eu
er
or
‘
Fic. 4.
received currents lie relatively lower than for most of the other
stations.
COMPARISON OF ARC AND SPARK APPARATUS.
It has long been claimed by advocates of the use of continuous
oscillations in radiotelegraphy that these waves travel over the sur-
418 AUSTIN—ENERGY IN RADIOTELEGRA PHY. [April 19,
face of the earth with a smaller degree of absorption than the dis-
continuous wave trains produced by spark apparatus. In order to
test this point, as well as some others connected with arc transmis-
sion, a 30-K.W. arc operated with 500-volt d.c. current was obtained.
At a wave-length of 4,100 meters this arc produced from 48 to 53
amperes in the Arlington antenna. Comparisons were made of the
received currents from this arc and from the spark set giving 100
to 120 amperes in the antenna. A very careful set of observations
on the two types of radiation was made at St. Augustine, the received
current being measured by the calibrated detector and galvanometer
method. At this distance, 530 nautical miles, no difference in the
absorption could be observed, the received currents being simply
proportional to the radiation currents in the Arlington antenna.
These results were verified by the shunted telephone method, using
the slipping contact detector,’* at New Orleans and Key West, the
latter place being approximately 900 miles from Washington. The
receiving apparatus was then placed on the U. S. S. Arkansas and
taken to Colon, 1,800 nautical miles from Washington. On the
voyage, although the conditions were not favorable for accurate
observations, it appeared that during the daytime the arc signals
gradually approached those of the spark in intensity. During the
two days available for observation at Colon, the are signals only
were heard in the daytime. These observations indicated that at
distances above 1,000 miles the continuous waves show a smaller
degree of absorption than the waves from the spark. It was not
possible, however, to draw this conclusion with certainty, since at
the season of the year in which the observations were taken, excep-
tional days occur which might very conceivably affect the continu-
ous oscillations in a different manner from those of the spark.'®
Further observations were made during the recent voyage of the
Salem already mentioned. Here it was found, in verification of
our former conclusions, that for distances over 1,400 miles the are
as received in the day time on a special receiver was equal to or
™ Journ. Wash. Acad., 1, p. 5, 1911.
“Tt is frequently observed that at night one type of wave is strengthened
more than the other.
1913. ] AUSTIN—ENERGY IN RADIOTELEGRAPHY. 419
somewhat better than the spark, notwithstanding the fact that the
spark radiation current at Arlington was considerably more than
twice as great as the corresponding are current. This normally, if
the absorption had been equal for the two types of radiation, would
have made the spark signals more than four times stronger than the
arc, the amplitude of signal being proportional to the square of the
high frequency current. Regular communication with both are and
spark was continued up to 2,100 miles in the day time. Several times
day signals were heard at greater distances, and in these cases the
arc was uniformly louder. The night signals were heard all the way
to Gibraltar.
U. S. NavaL RapIOTELEGRAPHIC LABORATORY,
April, 1913.
ELIMINATION AND NEUTRALIZATION: OF TO@zae
SOLE SUBSTANCES:
By OSWALD SCHREINER, Pu.D.,
CuieF oF Division oF Sort Fertitiry INVESTIGATIONS, DEPARTMENT
OF AGRICULTURE, WASHINGTON.
(Read April 18, 1913.)
The fact that certain soils are naturally infertile, or if once fertile
are showing a decrease in their productive power, is a subject that
has engaged the attention of many able philosophers and scientists
during the centuries. Some of these have explained the infertility
as being caused by the absence or diminishing quantity of the store
of certain mineral soil components, others have contended that the
plant in its growth excreted waste substances, much as animals do,
and that this toxic material poisoned succeeding crops, especially if
they were of the same kind. The former of these views has led to
the practice of supplying minerals in the form of fertilizers, the
latter view, directly, or indirectly through dire necessity, to diver-
sified farming or crop rotation. Thus both lines of reasoning lead
to important practical results in maintaining and increasing the fer-
tility of our agricultural lands, but neither view can as yet be said
to have passed the controversial stage through which all great truths
must pass.
I do not desire on this occasion to dwell on these two lines of
reasoning but rather to present some new soil facts which would
seem to coordinate the apparently opposite views and to modify both,
so that each becomes at least broad enough to be tolerant of the other.
I refer especially to the accumulating store of information gained
through modern chemical and biological research, as to the nature
of that portion of the soil components, variously designated as
organic matter, soil humus, humic acid, matiere noire, etc., and the
various biochemical changes which are taking place in soils, and
420
1913.] SCHREINER—TOXIC SOIL SUBSTANCES. 421
ever giving rise to new compounds through decomposition or through
synthesis, compounds which have distinct properties to influence
plant growth or other biological activity in soils. With this knowl-
edge comes the broader view that infertility in soils may as well be
due to the presence of organic substances of biological origin inimical
to proper plant development as to the absence of beneficial mineral
elements. The existence of toxic organic compounds in soils has
been amply shown by the researches of the Bureau of Soils into the
nature of soil organic matter in infertile soils, and the properties of
the isolated compounds in respect to their action on plants, so that
the presence of toxic compounds in soils must be considered in con-
nection with future work on the problems presented by infertile soils.
The scope of the investigation has necessarily been broader than
a mere search for toxic substances and has included soil organic
matter in general with the result that many organic compounds, both
harmful and beneficial, have been found in the course of the investi-
gation. With not a single soil compound isolated and identified a
few years ago, those now definitely identified are as follows: Acrylic
acid, adenine, agroceric acid, agrosterol, arginine, choline, creati-
nine, cytosine, dihydroxystearic acid, glycerides, guanine, hentria-
contane, histidine, hypoxanthine, lignoceric acid, lysine, mannite,
monohydroxystearic acid, nucleic acid, oxalic acid, paraffinic acid,
pentosan, pentose, phytosterol, picoline carboxylic acid, resin, resin
acids, resin esters, rhamnose, saccharic acid, salicylic aldehyde, suc-
cinic acid, trimethylamine, trithiobenzaldehyde, xanthine. A glance
at the list will reveal the fact that most chemical classes are repre-
sented: hydrocarbons, acids and hydroxyacids, alcohols, aldehydes,
esters, carbohydrates, hexone bases, purine bases, pyrimidine deriva-
tives, sulphur compounds, etc. Most of them have been derived
by biochemical changes taking place within the soil from the more
complex compounds, from the fats, nucleoproteins, proteins, lecithins,
etc. For instance, we may trace the complex nucleoprotein molecule
through its various decompositions, first into protein and a complex
nucleic acid which can further yield protein and nucleic acid. The
protein resolves itself finally into such compounds as histidine, argi-
nine, lysine, and possibly creatinine, all of which we have found in
422 SCHREINER—TOXIC SOIL SUBSTANCES. [April 18,
soils. The nucleic acid may split off phosphoric acid, or a carbo-
hydrate such as the pentose mentioned above, and one or the other
of the soil compounds, xanthine, hypoxanthine, guanine, adenine, or
cytosine. This illustration serves to make clear the close relation
existing between the biochemical changes which take place in the
soil and those which take place in the animal. Of course the ulti-
mate origin of all these soil compounds are to be found in the plant
and animal debris which finds its way into the soil, through maturing
plant parts, roots, animal excreta, dead animals, or added in agricul-
tural practice in organic fertilizers, such as dried blood, tankage, or
in green crops plowed under. In addition to these sources which are
extraneous to the soil, there is the synthetic action of the micro-
organisms which inhabit the soil, but much further work needs to
be done on these biochemical changes in soils before their entire
course is understood. The forces which are operative we have
already shown to be those of lysis in general, especially hydrolysis,
oxidation, reduction, and catalysis. The life forms which produce
these forces in the soil are the bacteria, molds, protozoa, yeasts, and
the higher plants. All these contribute to the biochemical changes
in soils either through the above forces operative as enzymes, or
through the synthesis of the organic soil constituents from simpler
organic and inorganic material.
After isolation and identification the soil compounds are studied
in respect to their action on growing plants, wheat being usually
used as an indicator. At the same time the action of various fer-
tilizer salts in diminishing or accentuating the action of the soil
compounds on plants is determined. In this manner much informa-
tion concerning the physiological action of the compounds, together
with suggestions for its neutralization or elimination are obtained.
Owing to lack of material not all of the substances isolated have been
studied in this comprehensive way, but sufficient information has.
been obtained to show that among the above enumerated compounds
there are some that are distinctly toxic to plants, others that are dis-
tinctly beneficial and still cthers that are either doubtful or inert in
so far as direct physiological effects are concerned.
Among the substances harmful to plants, picoline carboxylic
1913.] SCHREINER—TOXIC SOIL SUBSTANCES. 423
acid, dihydroxystearic acid, oxalic acid, salicylic aldehyde and va-
nillin as having been found in unproductive soils should receive
special mention. The first of these is only moderately toxic and
has not been exhaustively studied, but is interesting in showing that
nitrogen in such a compound is not only not available to plants, but
that the compound containing it is unfavorable to plant develop-
ment. ‘The dihydroxystearic acid, on the other hand, has been more
thoroughly studied and has been encountered in soils from many
parts of the United States. It is a strong inhibitor of the normal
processes of plant metabolism and destroys almost entirely the
normal oxidizing power of plant roots, thus inhibiting root devel-
opment and the power of absorption of mineral plant foods by the
roots, even if present in the most available forms. Salicylic alde-
hyde is even more toxic than the dihydroxystearic acid and like
salicylic acid it is a strong antiseptic, inhibiting the action of bac-
teria. This salicylic aldehyde was first discovered in a soil from the
historic-Mt. Vernon estate of George Washington, in the rose garden
near the box hedge laid out by our first President. The remarkable
fact in connection with this soil was that it contained a large amount
of mannite, as much as 500 lbs. per acre. Although this is the only
soil in which it has been found, the remarkable part was not in its
being found there, for it can readily be produced by certain soil
fungi, but rather that it should persist in the soil, when it is such
an excellent medium for the development of bacteria. This sugar
alcohol appeared to have no unfavorable effect on plants when it
was tested in our greenhouse, but we were never able to make a good
test because of the fact that the mannite solutions with the added
fertilizer salts were such good media for the development of bac-
teria. The simultaneous presence of the salicylic aldehyde in the
soil, and the fact that the latter was poisonous to higher plants, sug-
gested therefore that the mannite in the soil was protected by the
antiseptic action of the salicylic aldehyde. Experiments confirmed
the antiseptic action of the salicylic aldehyde in preventing the
decomposition of the above mannite solutions and the occurrence of
the large quantity of mannite in this soil seems thereby explained.
This case is particularly interesting as showing that soil compounds
424 SCHREINER—TOXIC SOIL SUBSTANCES. [April 18,
affect the lower life of the soil as well as the higher plant life, and
through these the entire biochemical processes, and furthermore that
even if a compound like mannite be not toxic in itself, its very pres-
ence points to the fact that the soil is functioning abnormally, much
as the presence of sugar or albumen in the urine, in themselves harm-
less, point to the fact that something is decidedly abnormal with the
metabolism of the individual excreting them. The occurrence of
certain compounds in soils likewise becomes a great agent in the
diagnosis of soil troubles. The occurrence of the dihydroxystearic
acid is a not uncertain indication of low and sluggish oxidation in
the soil, whatever may be the cause that has brought this about, be it
poor drainage, acidity, poor physical management of the soil or
other soil abuse.
The poisonous oxalic acid has been encountered in only one in-
stance thus far, and that in a soil containing much calcium carbo-
nate. The amount, however, was so extremely large, nearly four
tons of calcium oxalate per acre, that it is thought to play some part,
even as the insoluble oxalate, in the peculiar failure of apple orchards
in this soil. Experiments in greenhouse and orchard are still under
way to determine these facts and I mention this case here only to
point out the application of this type of investigation to problems
where other means fail to diagnose the trouble. Another applica-
tion of such work is in diagnosing the soil trouble which brings
about the mysterious disease of the orange tree and fruit known as
dieback with which growers have struggled for years with annual
loss of thousands of dollars and which scientists now consider as a
physiological disease, that is, one not caused by any pathological
organisms extraneous to the plant itself. All facts point to the soil
condition as the cause, but so inexplicable has been its behavior in
respect to the soil that all ordinary means of chemical investigation
have failed to lay bare the cause or causes. Typical dieback soils
from Florida are now under investigation in our laboratories at
Washington to determine in them such organic constituents as are
possible by the methods so far developed. This work is meeting
with success and a number of compounds have been isolated and
these will be studied in 1egard to their effect on orange trees in
1913.] SCHREINER—TOXIC SOIL SUBSTANCES. 425
cooperation with Professor Floyd, of the Florida Experiment Sta-
tion, to see whether they are responsible for this disease. Like the
apple orchard experiment this work is still in progress and not suffh-
ciently well advanced to discuss its practical significance but it serves
to show the application of this type of biochemical investigation to
certain great economic problems which confront many agricultural
industries. Another of these harmful soil constituents is the pleas-
ant smelling vanillin, a constituent of the vanilla bean, but also of
many other plants, as shown in this and many other laboratories,
and a compound which is somewhat harmful to wheat seed-
lings in solution cultures, chemically an aldehyde and thus a
reducing agent capable of being oxidized and having its harmful
properties reduced by such oxidizing fertilizers as nitrates. The
properties of vanillin in regard to plant growth and its effect on
root oxidation and the influence of fertilizer salts on its action, were
determined on wheat in our laboratories several years ago in antici-
pation of the day when it would be found as a soil constituent.
What is true in this respect of vanillin is also true of a number of
other compounds but it is also equally true that some of the soil con-
stituents isolated were not even remotely suspected of ever being
found in soils, and in fact some of them have been previously only
known as products of the chemist’s laboratory, for instance, the
saccharic acid, a laboratory oxidation product of sugars, or the tri-
thiobenzaldehyde, previously only known as a sulphur substitution
product of the laboratory.
‘While the subject of my talk limits me chiefly to a discussion of
the soil substances which we have found to be harmful in our experi-
ments, I must not omit in passing to speak of the many beneficial
substances which have been discovered in soils as the result of these
investigations, and which even more than the toxic substances, make
clear the parallelism existing between the biochemistry of the soil
and the biochemistry of the animal, because some of the compounds
involved are absolutely identical. Among this list of beneficial soil
compounds you will recognize common products of animal metabo-
lism and digestive processes such as creatinine, found in the urine;
histidine, arginine, lysine, products of protein digestion; xanthine,
426 SCHREINER—TOXIC SOIL SUBSTANCES. [April 18,
hypoxanthine, products of animal fluids and nuclein degradation ;
and nucleic acid itself. These compounds increase plant growth and
the results obtained would seem to show that the plant can use these
compounds directly in building up the plant proteins and nucleins
without further decomposition to ammonia and production of ni-
trites and nitrates. ;
Nor should I pass over the physiologically doubtful or inert soil
substances without suggesting that these have a potentiality for good
or bad, depending upon future changes brought about by oxidation,
reduction, or other biochemical action resulting in the production of
beneficial or harmful compounds. Nor should I fail to mention that
many of these physiologically inert substances, as, for instance, the
water insoluble resins, have a marked physical effect on the soil,
often coating the soil grains and shielding the soil minerals as well
as other organic substances from the solvent action of the soil
waters, thus effectively interfering with an otherwise normal soil.
In speaking of the elimination and neutralization of toxic soil
substances we must not lose sight of the fact now fairly well demon-
strated by biochemical and biological researches that in every soil
there is a balance of beneficial and harmful factors, soil fertility or
infertility being the resultant of the two groups. As one or the
other group of factors gains the ascendency, the fertility is raised
or lowered, as the case may be. This balance is influenced by cul-
tural treatment, such as draining, plowing, or otherwise working the
soil, by the application of fertilizers, by liming, by the growth of
plants, by crop rotation, etc. All of these factors affect the biology
of the soil, the soil bacteria, the molds, and other microorganisms
and through them the entire biochemical process in soils. Although
the number of toxic soil constituents may be very large and probably
but imperfectly represented by those we have thus far been able to
isolate, it appears nevertheless significant that they are substances
which have resulted from partial oxidation, but in their present form
have reducing properties, and under favorable conditions are subject
to further oxidation. They may be said to have resulted under im-
perfect conditions of oxidation or aeration whether this be the direct
result of poor drainage, of soil acidity, or lack of lime, or poor cul-
1913.] SCHREINER—TOXIC SOIL SUBSTANCES. 427
tivation, or the growth of crops which do not promote deep root
growth or active root oxidation. The studies which we have made
on soils in respect to their ability to oxidize organic substances such
as aloin has shown us that fertile soils are generally good oxidizers
and infertile soils poor oxidizers. In soils that are good oxidizers
the chances of having an undue accumulation or even formation of
toxic substances are at a minimum, whereas in poor soils with low
oxidizing power, with low vitality as it were to properly digest the
organic refuse of previous growth, harmful substances result. The
chief aim in improving unfertile soils should therefore be to build
them up so that they will become good oxidizers and through this
become strong virile soils. In the laboratory and greenhouse we
have been able to observe the disappearance of toxic soil conditions
by thorough aeration and exposure to air, by the action of lime, and
by the influence exerted by fertilizers, especially the oxidizing fer-
tilizers like sodium nitrate, or the catalytic influence of oxidizing
substances like manganese. In the field the most useful agents are
(1) better drainage, which promotes better aeration and increases
the oxidation in the soil; (2) liming, which in addition to neutraliz-
ing acid tendencies, or combining with the substances to form insol-
uble or inert compounds, has also the effect of increasing the oxida-
tion in the soil and in the plant roots as well as to have a physio-
logical effect on the plant cells themselves which makes them more
resistant to poisons in general; (3) crop rotation, which gives to
the soil each year a different kind of organic debris, changing as it
were, the normal food of the soil, from time to time, and further-
more necessitates different cultural methods and different fertiliza-
tion systems, alternating cultivated crops with uncultivated crops,
shallow rooted plants with deep rooted plants, grain crops with root
crops, leguminous with non-leguminous crops, with the result that
the biochemical changes in the soil, the digestion, the oxidation, the
catalysis, of the soil, proceeds in a normal manner, the balance of
soil factors being influenced in a favorable direction and a healthy
normal soil results; and (4) fertilization, which is usually done with
the motive of adding plant food, but which the more modern inves-
tigations in biological and biochemical fields are showing to be an
428 SCHREINER—TOXIC SOIL SUBSTANCES. [April 18,
accessory to proper soil treatment because in addition to supplying
needed plant nutrients they influence the micro6rganic life within
the soil, because they influence the oxidation in the soil, the catalysis
in the soil, the digestive processes in the soil, so that the biochemical
processes are altered, the balance of factors influencing plant growth
is changed, because they influence the oxidation of plant roots, and
because, directly or indirectly, they effect the destruction, the neu-
tralization, or prevent the formation of harmful substances. I have
not considered here the mechanical composition of the soil particles,
the big natural agencies which have operated to form soils, the loca-
tion or topagraphy of the lands and the normal water capacity of
soils, the origin of soils, or their relation to climate and rainfall, all
of which factors influence soil type and contribute to make some
soils naturally more fertile than others, naturally adapted for the
growth, and sometimes the continuous growth of one crop, while
unsuited to another, facts which must receive more and more atten-
tion in the future if we are to get the maximum returns from our
soils. Iam considering only the means which will tend to maintain
or increase the fertility to a status normal to that kind of soil, to
maintain it in a healthful, virile state.
The great question before scientific agriculture is not whether
fertilizers are helpful, no more than modern medical science con-
siders whether foods or medicines are helpful, but rather how can
these be made more efficient, more certain in their action, more spe-
cific in their application to the needs of the soil. Soil students
have in the past century contented themselves practically with a
single factor of soil infertility, a not unimportant factor it must be
admitted, but nevertheless one insufficient to explain all difficulties,
namely, that of plant starvation, the question of lacking plant food.
The studies have centered about the food of the plant while the sur-
roundings, the home of the plant, the soil itself, has been virtually
ignored, or given only minor consideration, except as a storehouse
for plant food. Even in the more scientific work of the past decade
in reference to bacteria, and other biological work, the production of
plant food has been the motive of all study and all discussion is from
the point of view of liberating potash, phosphate, or increasing the
1913.] SCHREINER—TOXIC SOIL SUBSTANCES. 429
quantity of nitrogen for the use of the plant. The biochemistry of
these life forms in the soil, the multitudinous changes which they
work have remained unstudied, only those facts were determined
which influence the amount of the so-called plant food, ignoring even
much material that is more truly plant food than the mineral sub-
stances and inorganic nitrogen compounds studied. In all lines of
human activity the sanitary surroundings, the proper medical treat-
ment and the proper nutrition of animals and of man, are receiving
attention and the proper sanitary condition of the plant’s home, the
soil, will also receive more and more attention to prevent its har-
boring the germs of devastating plant diseases, and such decompo-
sitions or biochemical changes as produce substances inimical to the
health of the plant, killing it or weakening it, so that it falls a ready
prey to pathological organisms. In this campaign for a sanitary
home for the plant, the above factors of better cultivation, better
drainage, judicious liming, crop adaptation or crop rotation, and the
use of fertilizers, will play an important part and as we learn more
of the functions of the latter, their use will become more general
and more specific so that we will be able to tell which will be the
best suited for any particular soil condition or soil trouble, and in
the future these will no doubt be modified and even augmented with
other chemicals to meet special requirements. Some such special
fertilizers are already on the market and more will follow, the only
danger is that the advertising art will outstrip the science, which
should be the basis for such changes.
The use of copper preparations in special orange fertilizers, or
the use of manganese or other catalytic substances to promote oxida-
tion in soils are illustrations of such use. The oxidation by man-
ganese has received special attention in our laboratories and in the
field and the conclusion seems warranted that such catalytic sub-
stances depend upon the form in which they are introduced or pres-
ent in the soil and the form of the organic matter in the soil, which
with the manganese forms activating combinations. In the field
work its action is still uncertain so far as increased oxidation or
increased crop growth is concerned. On poor soils, with acid tend-
encies, the results are doubtful, as will be shown by a forthcoming
430 SCHREINER—TOXIC SOIL SUBSTANCES. [April 18,
bulletin on the field experiments over a period of five years on such
an acid soil. A second period in which the soil will be limed to
produce neutrality is now begun and it will be interesting to learn
how the manganese will behave under this new condition.
That even the ordinary chemicals used in fertilizers, potash, phos-
phates, or nitrates can affect the harmful action of organic sub-
stances has already been incidentally alluded to in the preceding
paragraphs. Our researches have shown that the harmful soil con-
stituents, vanillin and dihydroxystearic acid have their poisonous
effects greatly diminished or even entirely overcome by the addition
of sodium nitrate, whereas their harmful characteristics remain un-
impaired by the addition of phosphates or potash fertilizers. Ni-
trate is an oxidizing substance and we have shown root oxidation
to be increased greatly by its use, whereas both vanillin and dihy-
droxystearic acid decrease root oxidation and are themselves capable
of being oxidized. The effect of nitrate and these two substances
are therefore opposed to each other and thus neutralize each other,
or, what is more probable, neutralize their effects. The substance,
quinone, on the other hand has its poisonous action reduced by potash
salts, not by nitrate nor phosphate. Quinone is an active oxidizing
substance, while potash reduces root oxidation thus again showing
that these two substances antagonize each other in their effects.
The substance cumarin we have found to be very toxic to plants.
This toxicity is not diminished by nitrate nor by potash, as was the
case respectively with the preceding substances, but its action was
most remarkably overcome by the addition of phosphate and it
seemed to make no difference in what form the phosphate was used,
whether it was as a calcium salt or as a sodium salt, or as the mono-
basic, dibasic, or tribasic salt.
I have mentioned these illustrations of specific fertilizer action
to show the possibilities of the future in adapting fertilizer treatment
to meet the specific needs of the soil based upon a perfectly rational
basis of soil treatment to meet the requirements of specific crops or
the requirements of plants suffering from unhealthy, insanitary soil
conditions, which involve the presence of biochemical transforma-
tions resulting in compounds detrimental to the best plant devel-
opment.
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CEOLOGY OF THE REGION ABOUT NATAL,
RIO) GRANDE DO NORTE, BRAZIL.
(PLaTtEs XV.-XXII.)
By OLAF PITT JENKINS.
(Received May 29, 1913.)
INTRODUCTION.
The state of Rio Grande do Norte is one of the smallest in Brazil;
it has an area of 57,485 square kilometers, and lies wholly within
the tropics. The climate, topography and geology of this state
may be taken as a type of the geology of the northeastern coast of
Brazil.
Topographically the region is one of rather low relief, the climate
is semi-arid, and in places the soil is thin. The general geology is
simple, consisting of an old series of crystalline rocks, probably of
Archean age, over and upon which rests a coastal belt of Cretaceous
or Tertiary sediments having a width of about thirty kilometers.
There are some mountains of fair size in the interior, but they are
nearly all of granites or other crystalline rocks. None of these
mountains lie within the area discussed in the present paper.
In 1909 I published in the Bulletin of the Geological Society
of America a paper on the geology of the Northeastern Coast of
PROC, AMER. PHIL. SOC., LII. 211 J, PRINTED SEPT. 16, 1913.
432 JENKINS—GEOLOGY OF THE [May 29,
ad
Brazil that included all that was then known of the geology of the
coast of Rio Grande do Norte from Natal to the southern edge of
the state. That paper contained a sketch map showing the coastal
belt of sedimentary rocks.
The work of Mr. Jenkins, done in 1911, has added much to
our knowledge of the region, especially to the north of Natal, and
it has definitely located the landward margin of the sedimentary
beds.
It has also disclosed an unconformity in the sedimentary beds
that seems likely to clear up the long standing question in regard to
the existence of the break between the Cretaceous and the Tertiary
in this part of South America. Some of my own geological obser-
vations made in 1911 have been incorporated in Mr. Jenkins’ paper,
while specimens of crystalline rocks from near Baixa Verde, exam-
ined microscopically and described by Mr. Jenkins, were collected
by Mr. Earl Leib another member of the expedition.
J. C. BRANNER,
Director of the Stanford Expedition to Brazil.
STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CALIFORNIA,
May 6, 1913.
INTRODUCTORY.
In the summer of 1911 the Stanford Expedition to Brazil made
its headquarters for six weeks at Natal, in the state of Rio Grande
do Norte, 5° 45’ south latitude, 35° 12’ west longitude. During
this time most of the members of the party were engaged in col-
lecting zoological material. Occasional inland trips were made
which gave means for determination of geological data. These trips
were along three lines, each of which went far enough into the
interior, about forty or fifty kilometers from the coast, to reach the
crystalline series of rocks:
1. To the northwest by railroad—“ Estrada de Ferro Central do
Rio Grande do Norte’’—to Taipt and Baixa Verde.
2. To the south and southwest by the “Great Western Railway
of Brazil,’ which extends for many kilometers down the coast.
3. To the west by boat up the Rio Jundiahy to Macahyba.
1913.] REGION ABOUT NATAL, BRAZIL. 433
The ways by rail afforded the gathering of geological data by
notes taken from the car windows, and by material collected at
the various places where the train stopped. At certain points the
party remained for several days and from these points horseback
trips and walks gave data of more detailed character. These side
trips were made around the towns of Taipt, Itapasaroca, Ceara-
- Mirim, and Extremoz.
A horseback trip from Carnahubinha to Macahyba and back
into the interior, followed one of the contacts and gave familiarity
with the general character of the country.
Thus the map was compiled from compass traverses, notebook
sketches, railroad surveys, hydrographic charts, and the map of
the region made by Crandall and Williams to the scale of 1 to
1,000,000.
TopoGRAPHIC RELIEF.
The Coast.
The vast stretches of sand are the most striking feature in the
region about Natal and the northeastern coast of Brazil. The wind
blows constantly up the coast to the northwest, driving the sand
before it, filling up the stream mouths, banking against the low
shrubs, sometimes planted by the people along the coast, forming a
great range of sand-hills parallel to the coast. It is swept back by
diverging currents over the low interior country for many kilometers
covering up the soil and rocks, filling up the broad valleys, and
forming long parallel sand-dunes all pointing to the northwest.
Underlying sandstones outcrop along the coast at various points.
They form generally perpendicular cliffs from a few feet to about
seventy-five feet in height as those of Barreiras do Inferno. These
sandstones contain iron which is concentrated in certain places,
hardening them into limonitic rocks that ring like steel when struck
with the hammer. Sometimes all the pebbles of a portion of a
beach are cemented together in this manner, forming a’ prominent
point along the coast. These low points of dark, red-brown rocks
and parti-colored cliffs of sandstone break the continuity of the
white sand beaches. The wind, sweeping up the coast, banks the
434 JENKINS—GEOLOGY OF THE [May 29,
sand at the points, forming a smooth straight shore line up to the
south side, and leaving a little cove on the north side. Tall cocoanut
palms may grow along the shores of this cove, waving over a tiny
fishing village and a little church. The fishermen can here embark
in their jangadas with greater ease than out on the windy south side
of the point. Usually into such a cove a stream flows, if not, the
people get their water by digging into the sand of the coast and a
bubbling supply of sweet water is easily obtained. Sometimes one
may see fresh water coming up through the sand right where the
waves wash.
The sand is blown into the river mouths and tends to fill up
their south sides, causing the streams to cut into their northern
banks, where the sand is being swept away. Thus many of the
streams turn, just before reaching the sea, and flow northward as
they enter the sea.
Fic. 7. Diagram made from a photograph of the unconformity between the
fossiliferous limestones and the sandstone and clay series as exposed in a quarry
at Jacoca, five kilometers southwest of Ceara-Mirim, Rio Grande do Norte.
red iron-stained rocks so common over the country. On the surface
of the ground are loose boulders of the iron-rock. The bedding
of the sandstone is not very clear, as in most localities, but has
the general appearance of being horizontal.
1913.] REGION ABOUT NATAL, BRAZIL. 441
The relation of the sand-dunes to the sandstone is clearly de-
fined along the sea-cliffs. The older eolian deposits of sand lie
cross-bedded on top of the horizontally bedded sandstone and clay
series. Above these are blown newly formed sand-dunes.
Fic. 8. Diagram of the bluffs at Ponte Negra, Rio Grande do Norte, showing
the old zolian stratification with the newly formed sand-dunes lying on top.
The alluvial deposits are extensive, filling the wide river channels.
DESCRIPTION OF THE FORMATIONS.
The formations are described in this paper in the following
order:
1. The crystalline rocks, probably Archean.
2. The limestones, of late Cretaceous or early Tertiary age.
3. The iron-sandstones and clays, which are later than the
limestones.
4. The alluvial deposits.
5. The sand-dunes. .
The Crystalline Rocks.
The railroad extends twenty-eight kilometers west of Taipt to
Baixa Verde. The-rocks of this region are crystalline, and a study
was made of them here. Beyond Baixa Verde one or two kilo-
meters, new railway cuts expose fresh specimens of these rocks,
showing something of their general relation to each other. This
part of the paper has been taken freely from the notes of Dr. J. C.
Branner and Mr. E. Leib. Slides, made from the rocks collected,
have been studied and the following report is submitted.
442 JENKINS—GEOLOGY OF THE [May 29,
Decomposition has had a marked effect in leveling down this
region, so that the natural exposures are only in the shape of flat
bosses and exfoliated boulders. Mound-shaped hills, as that of
Torreao Peak, which is about seventy meters high, lying three or
four kilometers northwest of Baixa Verde, are composed of granitic
rocks. On their surface are scattered great boulders of exfolia-
tion, while at their base are bare, flat exposures of other crystal-
line rocks, giving to the whole the appearance of glaciation.
In all the railway cuts it was noticed that dikes of granites and
pegmatites cut through micaceous schists. These dikes vary in
width from one to thirty meters, sometimes following the plane of
schistosity and sometimes cutting across it. Often one dike inter-
x
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Fic. 9. Diagram of railway cut near Baixa Verde, Rio Grande do Norte,
showing how the dikes intersect the schists and how the topography is un-
affected by these.
sects another. These dikes and schists do not show in the topog-
raphy; all are eroded and decomposed to the same surface level.
The following are descriptions of the rocks collected.
Quartzitic Arkose.—This specimen was collected near Taipu,
kilometer 53. It outcrops in the region of dikes and schists. The
rock is a medium-grained quartzitic arkose containing some minute
cavities. Under the microscope the grains show that they are irreg-
ular in size and angular to subangular in shape. They are principally
fragments of quartz, plagioclase, microcline, and orthoclase, all
cemented firmly by opal. Chalcedony occurs as a secondary mineral,
filling the minute cavities.
1913.] REGION ABOUT NATAL, BRAZIL. 443
Quarts-Biotite Schist—This was found at kilometer 49.5 near
the place where the railroad crosses the Ceara-Mirim River, not far
from Taipt. The rock is dark-colored, hard, rather fine-grained,
containing quartz and biotite in great abundance. Its general
appearance indicates that it may have been derived from some old
sedimentary series. A slide shows quartz and biotite to be abundant
as cemented grains. The feldspars are cloudy and hard to dis-
tinguish. Magnetite is scattered through the rock. There is some
hornblende and tourmaline present.
Biotite-Schists—In the cuts west of Baixa Verde granites and
pegmatites cut through biotite-schists. Fresh specimens of these
schists have a shiny, black or purple color. When weathered a
little, the schists turn a brownish tint. In one specimen collected at
the sixth cut beyond Baixa Verde, the following minerals appear in
the slide: biotite in great abundance, quartz rather prominent, a
considerable quantity of plagioclase and orthoclase, only scattering
amounts of apatite and magnetite, and some garnet. Another speci-
men of this biotite-schist, which is partly weathered, shows some
sillimanite.
Granite-Aplite—A specimen from a dike cutting through the
biotite-schists in the fifth cut west of Baixa Verde is a medium-
grained, pinkish-white granite-aplite. Quartz grains are distinct.
Muscovite and biotite are easily recognized in the hand specimen.
With the microscope the following minerals were found: orthoclase
and quartz are abundant; plagioclase and microcline are rather
prominent; there is a quantity of titanite; both muscovite and bio-
tite are present ; some garnets and specks of magnetite are scattered
through the rock.
Granite-Pegmatite—Occurring as dikes, breaking through the
biotite-schists, are granite-pegmatites. Some of them are graphic
granites, and in some the quartz is scattered through irregularly.
All of them are a light pinkish, decomposing to an almost whitish
color, the feldspars changing over to sericite. A slide shows the
following minerals: orthoclase, plagioclase, and quartz in abundance;
microcline, rather prominent; biotite in patches; and tourmaline of
a very dark variety. In one pegmatite there occurs a vein of red-
444 JENKINS—GEOLOGY OF THE [May 29,
brown chalcedony. This may indicate that the schists were derived
from old sedimentary rocks.
Granites —The larger dikes which cut through the schists are
usually granites. These rocks are medium-grained with a pinkish-
gray color due to pink color of the feldspars. In one specimen the
following minerals are in the slides: quartz, plagioclase, and ortho-
clase in great abundance; hornblende and magnetite prominent;
titanite, garnet, and pyrite in smaller amounts. Other specimens
from one of the larger dikes show a quantity of microcline and in
addition to the other minerals zircon and apatite. In a specimen
which came from a decomposed portion of the granites, sericite is
prominent. The feldspars decompose leaving the mica flakes and the
quartz grains prominent at the surface.
Log of Well at Baitxa Verde, Rio Grande do Norte.
The following is a log of a well with a six and three-fourths
inch bore taken at Baixa Verde, Rio Grande do Norte, at kilometer
84, elevation 162 meters.
At — meters.
GralSIS tac dare eae eee Ie SAE dt oanton amid ae oluaio data bas 5
Dark Veoranitie: SCHIST? 5st cvo.
‘-
Se eee ee
PROCEEDINGS Am. PHILos. Soc. VoL. LII. No. 211 |
SEG rigN rai RAILROAD
7 = es : AL TO TAIPU’
FS ARS NON ES TIS NTA Ae
nx es
mes 5
Zayyyyon-
ESL AN “iy -
ms Pays ays Se =
xcovated marine shelis As
We, Wumbebas
enepubu"
ees tie SS
aye LOWS HAS
Riva
Masaranduba
77 Fins
Alegre 7
ad See, —23 S&o Gongalo
Berreiros
GEOLOGICAL SKETCH MAP
Or THE
REGION ABOUT NATAL
RIO GRANDE DO NORTE
LE eva te
MILES
KILOMETERS
NAD
LEGEND
Sand dunes
Aluvium (stream and estuarine deposits)
Sandstone and clay(red-iron rock)
Limestone (fossiliferous)
Crystalline rocks
walls
of
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ies
if
ise)! 7)
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ith ies
fiery
GUATEMALA AND THE HIGHEST NATIVE AMERICAN
. CIVILIZATION.
By ELLSWORTH HUNTINGTON.
(Read April 18, 1913.)
By common consent the most backward part of our continent is
Central America. Among the republics of Central America Guate-
mala is considered to hold the lowest place. In Guatemala it is uni-
versally agreed that the province of Peten is the wildest, most un-
civilized and most uninhabitable part. Peten, then, may be regarded
as at the very bottom in the scale of American civilization. Its
native inhabitants are either absolute savages, or semi-barbarians,
densely ignorant and highly inefficient. Nevertheless in the past
this region was the home of the highest civilization that ever de-
veloped in any part of the western hemisphere, a civilization which
was not transitory, but lasted hundreds of years. It seems to have
grown up where we find its traces, since nowhere else do we dis-
cover any premonitions of it. Here the ancient Mayas developed
a unique system of architecture, whose earlier stages appear at
Copan and the ruins of Peten, while its latest and most showy,
although decadent, expression is found in the wonderful ruins of
Yucatan a few hundred miles farther north. In this same part of
Guatemala the Mayas devoloped the art of sculpture to such a point
that their statues, though crude in many ways, represent the features
of the ancient populace so exactly that type after type among the
modern population is easily recognized in the monuments. Here
the Mayas attained such skill in the mechanic arts that great stones
fifteen to thirty feet long, and weighing 20 to 80 tons were trans-
ported from quarries a mile or two away and set up in the midst of
great court-yards or temple areas. The buildings themselves were
elaborately planned and decorated with all manner of carefully
carved designs. All this was done with no tools, so far as can be
467
468 HUNTINGTON—GUATEMALA AND THE [April 18,
ascertained, except obsidian or flint. A greater achievement than
this, however, was the construction of a calendar much more accu-
rate than any known even in Europe until the introduction of the
Gregorian calendar which we now employ. The construction of
such a calendar must have demanded carefully written records for
hundreds of years. This brings us to the greatest of the achieve-
ments of the Mayas. They had developed the art of writing in
hieroglyphics, and apparently their type of hieroglyphics was higher
than that of the Egyptians, for they seem to have been on the point
of using specific symbols not to represent words but sounds, a step
which even the Chinese have not yet taken.
From the point of view of the geographer, and perhaps of the
historian also, the most remarkable feature of the civilization
of the Mayas is that it developed in almost the worst physical
environment to be found in any part of America. It might have
developed in the healthful plateau of Guatemala where cultivation
of the soil is easy, and where the population to-day is dense and
relatively efficient, ‘but instead of this it developed a hundred miles
away in the fever stricken lowlands of Peten, where agriculture is
extremely difficult and the population almost negligible. To-day
for some unexplained reason the distribution of population and still
more of culture in Guatemala is utterly different from what it was
in the past. Perhaps nowhere else in the whole world have less than
2,000 years produced so profound a change, not only in the state of
civilization as compared with other parts of the continent, but in the
relative importance of different portions of the same small country
no larger than the state of New York. The normal decay of races,
the interplay of historic forces, the invasion of barbarians, the
decadence due to luxury, vice and irreligion, the change of the
center of world-power, or some of the other causes usually appealed
to by historians may explain why the Maya civilization arose and
why it fell. We may assume that it arose because it is the nature of
a young and vigorous race to make progress, and that it fell because
it is the nature of an old and exhausted civilization to decay. This,
however, does not touch upon the problem which we propose to
discuss in this paper. To-day the most progressive and energetic
1913.] HIGHEST NATIVE AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 469
people of Guatemala, its densest population, its greatest towns, its
center of wealth, learning and culture, so far as these things exist,
are all located in the relatively open, healthful, easily accessible and
easily tillable highlands; in the past these same things were located
in the most inaccessible, unhealthful, and untillable lowlands. Why
the change?
Before we attempt to answer this question, it will he helpful
to discuss the geographical provinces of Guatemala as they exist
to-day, and as they were seen by the author during a recent visit,
and to compare them with one another. From the point of view of
present habitability Guatemala together with British Honduras,
which is physically part of the same country, may be divided into
three main belts dependent on vegetation,—(1) the Atlantic forest,
(2) the central dry land, and (3) the Pacific forest. Each of
these in turn may be divided into two parts. The plain of British
Honduras in the north to a width of fifty miles, and the mountains
of the southern part of that country and of eastern Guatemala to a
distance of perhaps thirty miles from the coast form the first division
of the Atlantic forest. Showers at all seasons either from the trade
winds in our winter, or from the subequatorial area of low pressure
in summer cause the land to be covered with a dense tropical forest,
and to be infested with malignant types of malarial fevers. Only
on the coast are there any real towns, and they exist chiefly by
grace of the trade winds, which blow freshly from the ocean and
drive away the mosquitoes. Strung along the beach under the
cocoanut palms the low whitewashed houses of these towns make
quite a show from the sea, but back of the first row there is often
nothing but deadly swamp and mosquitoes. In the interior a few
little villages sit in clearings by the brink of the somber rivers, and
wait in sun or rain for precious mahogany logs to be hauled or
floated out of the interior. Save for this, almost no one except an
occasional gatherer of gum inhabits the dense forests. If the coast
towns and the mahogany cutters be excluded the whole region can-
not boast a population of much more than one person to every ten
square miles, while even if the towns and woodcutters be included,
British Honduras with an area of 7,500 square miles has only
470 HUNTINGTON—GUATEMALA AND THE [April 18,
42,000 people, or less than 6 to the square mile. The forests and
fevers now keep mankind away, and apparently much the same was
true in the past, for we find here only a few widely scattered ruins.
Inland from the coast strip there lies another section of the
Atlantic forest, occupying most of the almost unexplored and semi-
independent Guatemalan province of Peten, and extending south
past the ruins of Quirigua towards those of Copan. In the north
this Peten strip consists of a plain from which rise a few low ridges
running east and west, and having a height of a thousand feet more
or less. In the south it becomes mountainous. The vegetation is
almost as dense as that of the coast strip except that in Peten consider-
able areas of grassy savanna prevail, thin pine forests grow in the
sandy tracts known as “pine ridges,” and on the westward edge and
in other favored spots, among which Flores on L. Peten is the chief,
the forest breaks down into jungle. The savannas appear to be due
either to an excess of water often held near the surface by clayey
hardpan, or to sand. The pine ridges, which are not ridges but
merely slight swellings in the plain, are due to accumulations of
sand. Neither in the past nor at present does it ever appear to have
been possible to cultivate either the savanna or the pine ridges, but
since the introduction of cattle by the Spaniards they have been
utilized somewhat for pasturage. They possess not only the ad-
vantage of being fit for cattle-raising, but of being relatively health-
ful, and of being bordered by narrow strips of jungle wherein
primitive agriculture is possible. The jungle regions on the im-
mediate borders of the Peten strip contain a few villages, among
which Copan is most worthy of mention. Aside from the limited
areas of savannas, pine ridges, and jungle, the country is covered
with forest, and is so feverish and so difficult to cultivate that its
only inhabitants are mahogany cutters, gatherers of chicli gum, or
raisers of bananas for export. All of these occupations, together
with cattle-raising, are due entirely to the influence of modern
European civilization, and had no place in the pre-Columbian period.
The banana plantations have grown up within a few years and are
practically all the work of the United Fruit Company, which employs
four or five thousand people in the valley of the Motagua river.
1913.] HIGHEST NATIVE AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 471
Only some powerful stimulus, like the demand of the United States
for fruit, could cause such plantations to arise. The strictest super-
vision is necessary in order that the bushes may be cut every three
months, for in a year the native vegetation grows ten feet or so,
and if left to itself would soon choke the banana plants. Still more
unremitting vigilance is necessary to keep both the white men and
the natives in health. From the wages of every employee, whether
he receive fifty cents or fifty dollars per day, the Company takes two
per cent. to pay for sanitary measures. Every plantation has its
doctor and dispensary, and natives and foreigners are continually
dosed with quinine. Yet even so, at certain seasons of the year, a
single train may carry a score of staggering fever patients, the
present hospitals are wholly inadequate, and in 1913 the company
was erecting a new hospital at a cost of $125,000. Mr. Victor M.
Cutter, manager of the Guatemala division of the United Fruit
Company, states that about ninety per cent. of the people in his dis-
trict, both natives and whites, suffer from malaria and its sequele.
In spite of all precautions about twenty per cent. have the fever in
a serious form.
In the entire Peten strip of the Atlantic forest, from Copan on
the south up through Quirigua, the lake of Izobal and the province
of Peten, it is probable that the total population does not exceed
20,000 in an area of nearly 15,000 square miles. If the cattle-
raisers, mahogany cutters, gum gatherers, and banana raisers be
excluded, and if we include only the people who procure a living
in ways possible before the coming of the white man, the population
is reduced to probably less than ten per cent. of the figures given, or
only one person for seven square miles. Of course these figures
are a mere approximation; there is no such thing as a census, for
much of the country is still unexplored, and the wild Indian tribes
practically ignore the Guatemalan supremacy. For day after day,
however, the traveler finds no inhabitants, and place after place
which appears on the map as a village proves to have only two or
three houses or to be merely an abandoned hut. Roads and even
trails are almost non-existent, and in most places the machete must
constantly be used to open up a pathway. Mr. Frank Blanceneaux,
472 HUNTINGTON—GUATEMALA AND THE [April 18,
who for six or seven years spent a large part of his time in traveling
through Peten in search of mahogany, probably knows that province
as thoroughly as any one. He thinks that the population does not
exceed 10,000, and that at least 95 per cent. of it consists of cattle
raisers, mahogany cutters and gum gatherers. Nowhere has he seen
a village of more than a hut or two in the genuine forest, and no-
where do people practice any real agriculture in the forest as opposed
to the jungle. South of Peten, along the line of the railroad from
Puerto Barrios to Guatemala, for sixty miles from the Atlantic
coast until one comes to the poor little village of Los Amates, there
would not be a single inhabited place were it not for the railway
itself and the banana plantations of the United Fruit Company. Los
Amates lies on the edge of the forest where it breaks down into
big jungle.
Whatever may be the exact figures as to population it is evident
that heavy rains, dense vegetation, and malignant fevers to-day render
the Peten strip of the Atlantic forest almost uninhabitable. Yet in
the past this was by no means the case. Practically all of the great
Maya ruins outside of Yucatan lie in this strip or in its northern
and northwestern continuation in the Mexican provinces of Chiapas,
Tabasco and Campeche. Copan, one of the most remarkable of the
ancient cities, lies on its edge, although not actually in it; Quirigua
lies within it, although only a few miles from the border; and Seibal,
Tikal, and a score of others as far as Palenque in the north, lie well
within its dense jungle and forests. These places were obviously
towns of importance, such as grow up in interior, agricultural dis-
tricts far from important lines of communication only when there is
a considerable population round about. How dense the former
population may have been we cannot estimate, for the cover of
vegetation is so thick that we have no idea of the exact number of
ruins. It is scarcely an exaggeration, however, to say that for every
family now supported by ordinary agriculture, there was probably a
village or hamlet, in the days of the Mayas, and for every modern
village a city.
Turning now to the relatively dry portion of Guatemala, the
second of our three divisions, we find it divided into arid bush
1913.] HIGHEST NATIVE AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 473
country, lying in low, isolated valleys or basins such as Zacapa, and
highlands where pine or temperate forests prevail. The bush country
is unimportant, being of small area. In some places it is so hot and
dry that cacti and mesquite bushes make it look like the lowlands of
Arizona. It is fairly well inhabited and moderately healthful. The
people are in advance of the poor denizens of the forest zone but
are miserably inefficient, idle, weak-willed, and immoral. The real
strength of Guatemala is in the highlands, where the vegetation takes
on an aspect suggestive of the temperate zone. There, on the
plateau amid pine-clad hills at an altitude of 4,000 to 8,000 feet, all
the large towns are now located. The conditions of health, from
a tropical point of view, are everywhere good. Typhus, dysentery
and other disorders, to be sure, often sweep the country; and faces
pitted by smallpox are frequently seen. These diseases, however,
although causing a high death rate, are temporary. Their ravages
are as nothing compared with those of the deadly malarial fevers
which in the lowland forests return season after season to blight and
destroy the same places and the same people. From the coast up-
ward, according to universal testimony, the health, energy, industry,
and thrift of the native Guatemalans in general show an increase.
It seems a curious reversal of what we are wont to call normal con-
ditions, when one sees rich, fertile plains along the coast almost
uninhabited, then finds the population fairly dense on steeply slop-
ing, stony mountain sides at altitudes of three to five thousand feet,
and finally on the hilly plateau at 8,000 feet sees little thatched
houses clustering thickly everywhere, and every available bit of land
almost as carefully and industriously cultivated as in China. Even
more curious, perhaps, is the fact that here where the population is
now so dense there are relatively few important ruins and none
of the advanced type found in Peten. There is no reason to think
that ruins which once existed have disappeared to any greater
extent than has happened in Egypt, Syria, Greece, Rome, or any
other country where a high civilization in the past has been followed
by a dense population at present. Moreover ruins of a certain kind
are found in considerable numbers, but they are insignificant and
probably of late date compared with those of Peten. The carved
474 HUNTINGTON—GUATEMALA AND THE [April 18,
stones which one sees, for example, at Guarda Viejo near Guate-
mala City are small, crudely executed, and inartistic, utterly different
from the clean-cut, highly complex and truly artistic stela of enorm-
ous size at Quirigua. The plain, almost unadorned structures at
Quiché, the greatest ruins on the plateau, bear to the highly de-
veloped groups of buildings and monuments at Copan about the same
relation that modern Guatemalan churches bear to St. Peter’s at
Rome. In the days of the Mayas the highlands may have been as
densely populated as to-day, although we have no positive proof
of this, but instead of being the center of the life and activity of
the country they were a provincial outpost.
The southwestern side of the high plateau of Guatemala is
bordered by a line of splendid volcanoes at the foot of which towards
the Pacific Ocean there lies a narrow plain. This plain, together
with the lower slopes of the mountains, forms the third of our
three divisions of Guatemala from the point of view of habitability.
From a height of 4,000 feet down to about 500 the slopes of the
mountains and the inner edge of the plain are covered with dense
vegetation. At an altitude of approximately 2,000 to 3,000 feet, the
vegetation attains the dignity of real tropical forest with mahogany
trees, tree ferns and the like, while on either side it assumes the
form of forest-like jungle merging gradually into pine forest toward
the uplands and low jungle and bush toward the coast. All except
the upper mountainous part of the region is malarial and unhealth-
ful; although not so bad as the Atlantic forest because the drainage
is better. The strip of real forest would to-day be practically unin-
habited were it not that the demands of the modern civilized world
have led to the cultivation of coffee, chiefly by German companies
with Indian labor brought from the highlands. Lower down, on
the edge of the plain, there would be a small population even without
the impetus of coffee. A few little towns like Retalhuleu, Santa
Lucia, and Escuintla date back many centuries. They are notori-
ously unhealthful, however; their inhabitants are universally pro-
nounced inefficient and apathetic; and their population of from 2,000
to 10,000 people is only 10-20 per cent. as large as that of corre-
sponding towns on the plateau. Yet, here, curiously enough, we
1913.) HIGHEST NATIVE AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 475
again find abundant traces of an ancient race of relatively high
culture. The ruins are by no means equal to those of the Peten
strip, and there appear to be few hieroglyphics. Nevertheless they
belong to the same civilization although to a later stage subject to
foreign, that is Nahua, influence. At places like Baul and Panta-
leon great blocks of hard basalt have been found carved with scenes
of sacrifice, or chiseled to represent gigantic faces whose peculiar
types of slit nostril, high cheek, or projecting raouth can still be
recognized in individual Indians.
The seaward portion of the Pacific belt needs little further com-
ment. Beginning with jungle where the modern towns and ancient
ruins come to an end, its shoreward portion is covered with dense,
low bushes among which short bamboos are often conspicuous.
Although dry and parched in the winter season, much of it becomes
a vast swamp when the rains swell the mountain streams and cause
them to spread out over its flat expanses. Mosquitoes then abound
causing fevers which are often of the “pernicious”? type accom-
panied by hemorrhages of blood producing immediate death. Prac-
tically the only inhabitants are a few cattle raisers, who are described
as the lowest of the low. In the past, conditions were apparently
no better, for we find no trace of ruins here.
Before we consider the possible causes of the contrast between
the past and present, it will perhaps add to the clarity of our ideas
if our six belts are arranged in tabular form.
It is worth while to emphasize the strange contrast between past
and present. The belts immediately along the Atlantic and Pacific
coasts may be left out of account, since in the past, just as at present,
they appear to have been too forested and too feverish for human
occupation to any great extent. To-day the other four divisions
stand in the following order so far as progress, achievement, and
density of population are concerned; first the highlands, second the
dry valleys, third the coffee belt, fourth the Peten strip. In the past
the ruins tell a very different tale—the Peten strip stood first, then
the coffee belt and the dry valleys, and last of all the highlands, the
reverse of the present order. To-day, in Central America, the phys-
ical conditions under which mankind tends most to increase in
476 HUNTINGTON—GUATEMALA AND THE [April 18,
| Condition Present Condition Abundance and
Nature of Health of Agri- Density of Popu- Condition
| Vegetation. Conditions. | culture. of Pop. lation. of Ruins.
. Atlantic |Dense Very un-|Very dif-) Very Degraded |Very few so far
coast forest healthful) ficult scanty as known but
of fairly high
type
. Peten belt Dense for-|Very un-|Very dif- Very Degraded |Numerous' and
| est with) healthful) ficult scanty indicating the
| some sa- highest native
| vannas | American cul-
| and ture
| jungle |
. Dry Bush or /|Fairly ‘Fairly Moder-___|Low, but| Moderately nu-
valleys low healthful) easy ately well merous and of
jungle dense ahead of| fairly high
Tae type
| | and 6
. Highlands |Pine Healthful Easy | Very By far the Quite numerous,
forest dense best in| but mostly of
| Guate-| rather low
mala type, that is,
provincial or
degenerate
~ Pacific ‘Forest Unhealth- Fairly ‘Rather Low, but|Moderately nu-
coffee | and ful difficult | scanty ahead of} merous and of
belt jungle its Ap Lataliya heal
| and 6 type
. Pacific |Bush Very un-|Difficult |Very Degraded |None so far as
coast healthful scanty known
numbers and to progress in culture appear to be high altitude, good
Altitude in itself, how-
ever, does not appear to be essential, for the low dry plain of
drainage, and a fairly long, dry season.
northern Yucatan seems as well off as the highlands of Guatemala.
Perhaps the exposure of that part of Yucatan to the ocean and to
strong winds from the north produces the same effect as elevation.
Opposed to these favorable conditions stand those which conspire
to hold man back and keep him in a low stage of civilization. Omit-
ting low altitude, which is important merely because of its effect on
other factors, we are confronted by four chief conditions,—first,
the prevalence of fevers; second, the prevalence of great heat and
moisture almost without change from season to season; third, the
difficulty of carrying on permanent, intensive agriculture and fourth,
the relative ease of getting a living in the jungle.
Little by little the world is learning that the most dangerous dis-
eases are not necessarily those which show the highest deathrate.
1913.] HIGHEST NATIVE AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 477
The plagues of the Middle Ages loom large in history, but they did
not do a tithe as much harm as syphilis. Yellow and typhus fevers
may decimate a population, but they are far preferable to the slow,
irresistible ravages of recurrent malarial fevers which rarely seem
to kill, but merely undermine the constitution, leaving both mind and
body inefficient. Tuberculosis, in our own land, is so dreaded that
we wage a crusade against it, but its dangers are probably far less
than those of the insidious colds which year after year attack fully
half of our northern populations, not killing them, not even doing
more than spoil their work for a few days, and yet in the aggregate
causing an incalculable amount of damage and giving an opening for
a large part of our cases of consumption, diphtheria, deafness, and
many other afflictions. Just as we, in our huge folly, long neglected
consumption and still largely neglect the even more insidious ordi-
nary colds, so the man within the tropics often ignores malaria.
Again and again I have talked with people who said there was no
fever in the particular place where they lived or that they had not
had fever, but before the next meal they took a dose of quinine,
and that same night, perhaps, they reeled with a touch of fever or
shivered with a chill. They called it “nothing,” but even quinine did
not prevent them from being weakened by it. Few foreigners,
especially children, can live long in the lowlands under ordinary
conditions without being affected.
As for the natives, it is often stated that they become immune
to fevers, but here is what Sir Ronald Ross, one of the chief
authorities on the subject, has to say:
“These diseases do no affect only immigrant Europeans, they are almost
equally disastrous to the natives, and tend to keep down their numbers to
such a low figure that the survivors can subsist only in a barbaric state. To
believe this one has to see a village in Africa or India full of malaria, kala-
azar, or sleeping sickness, or a town under the pestilence of cholera or plague.
Nothing has been more carefully studied of recent years than the existence
of malaria amongst indigenous populations. It often affects every one of
the children, probably kills a large proportion of the newborn infants, and
renders the survivors ill for years. Here in Europe nearly all our children
suffer from certain diseases—measles, scarlatina, and so on. But these
maladies are short and slight compared with the enduring infection of malaria.
When I was studying malaria in Greece in 1906 I was struck with the impos-
478 HUNTINGTON—GUATEMALA AND THE [April 18,
sibility of conceiving that the people who are now intensely inflicted with
malaria could be like the ancient Greeks who did so much for the world; and
I therefore suggested the hypothesis that malaria could only have entered
Greece at about the time of the great Persian wars—a hypothesis which has
been very carefully studied by Mr. W. H. S. Jones. One can scarcely
imagine that the physically fine race and the magnificent athletes figured in
Greek sculpture could ever have spent a malarious and spleno-megalous
childhood. And conversely, it is difficult to imagine that many of the malari-
ous natives in the tropics will ever rise to any great height of civilization
while that disease endures amongst them. I am aware that Africa has pro-
duced some magnificent races, such as those of the Zulus and the Masai, but
I have heard that the countries inhabited by them are not nearly so disease-
ridden as many of the larger tracts. At all events whatever may be the
effect of a malarious childhood upon the physique of adult life, its effects on
the mental development must certainly be very bad, while the disease always
paralyses the material prosperity of the country where it exists in an
intense form.
“ Consider now the effects of yellow fever, that great disease of tropical
America. The Liverpool School sent four investigators to study it, and all
these four were attacked within a short time. One died, one was extremely
ill, and two suffered severely. The same thing tended to happen to all
visitors in those countries. They were almost certain of being attacked by
yellow fever, and the chances of death were one to four. Tropical America
was therefore scarcely a suitable place for a picnic party! But malaria and
yellow fever are only some of the more important tropical diseases. Perhaps
the greatest enemy of all is dysentery, which in the old days massacred
thousands of white men, and millions of natives in India, America, and all hot
countries, and rendered survivors ill for years. Malaria has always been the
bane of Africa and India; the Bilharzia parasite of Egypt; and we are
acquainted with the ravages of kala-azar and sleeping sickness. Apart from
these more general or fatal maladies, life tends to be rendered unhealthy by
other parasites and by innumerable small maladies, such as dengue and sand-
fly fever, filariasis, tropical skin diseases and other maladies, ... True, we
have many maladies in Europe, but in order to compare the two sets of dis-
eases we should compare the death-rates. Whereas in England it is a long
way below 20 per thousand per annum, throughout the tropics it is nearer 40
per thousand. In India alone malaria kills over a million persons a year, and
dysentery and malaria kills many hundreds of thousands. I have seen places
in which the ordinary death-rate remains at between 50 and 60 per thousand;
others which were so unhealthy that they were being deserted by their
inhabitants; and others, lastly, which were simply uninhabitable. What
would people say if such a state of things were to exist in most villages in
England, Scotland, and Ireland?’
On the whole it seems safe to say that in tropical countries the
1 United Empire, February, 1913, pp. 123-124. Sir Ronald Ross, “ Medical
Science and the Tropics.”
1913.] HIGHEST NATIVE AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 479
density of population and the stage of culture depend to a large
extent upon the amount and kind of fevers. Yet fevers are far
from being the whole story. Few who have ever been in the
torrid zone will deny that under prolonged and unvarying conditions
of heat and dampness both physical and mental energy decline.
One is tempted to sit down idly and rest and enjoy the warm air.
When it is time for a new piece of work one tends to hesitate
and to be uncertain as to just how to begin. Of course there are
exceptions, and of course a long inheritance of activity in cooler
regions will for years largely overcome these tendencies. Neverthe-
less of the scores of northerners, both American and Europeans,
whom I have questioned in the torrid zone there was scarcely one
who did not say that he worked less than at home. At first a con-
siderable number said that they had as much energy as at home,
but then they added that it was not necessary to work so hard, and
moreover that they did not feel like it. Much more striking was
the absolute unanimity with which they said that when they experi-
enced a change of climate, especially if they went from lowlands
to highlands, or still more when they returned to the north, they at
once felt an access of energy which lasted some time after their
return. Toa New Englander accustomed to look upon our southern
states as having a warm, debilitating climate, it is interesting to
hear people in Guatemala speak of being stimulated as soon as they
feel the cool winter air of New Orleans. The natives of the torrid
zone are of course so accustomed to the heat that they enjoy it and
suffer from even a slight degree of cold, but the very fact of being
wonted to the heat seems to carry with it the necessity of working
and thinking slowly. The universality with which this is recog-
nized in Central America is significant. Again and again, when one
asks about labor conditions in specific places, one is told, “Oh yes,
the people there are all right, but you know it’s always hot down
there and they don’t work much.” All this, I know, is perfectly
familiar, but it deserves emphasis because the great ruins are prac-
tically all in the hot country where “they don’t work much.”
In addition to debilitating fevers and an enervating uniformity of
warm, moist atmospheric conditions, tropical countries suffer from
PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LII, 2II M, PRINTED SEPT. 16, IQI3.
480 HUNTINGTON—GUATEMALA AND THE [April 18,
peculiar agricultural conditions. In the great forest such as that of
Peten, where rain falls at all seasons, the making of clearings is
practically impossible. In the dense jungle, such as that at an eleva-
tion of one to two thousand feet in the Pacific coffee belt of Guate-
mala, this is usually but not always possible. It depends on the
length and character of the dry season in February, March, and
April. Two or three weeks of steady sunshine are said to suffice
to prepare the cut bushes and smaller branches of the trees for
burning, but sometimes there is scarcely a rainless week during the
whole year. This happened in 1913. People, who chanced to do
their cutting early, burned their fields and were able to plant a corn
crop, but many cut too late and failed. It is easy to say that every-
one ought to cut and burn early, but in the first place the lethargy
of the torrid zone leads people to put things off till the last moment.
In the second place, if the land is burned over too early, weeds and
bushes will sprout and grow to a height of a foot or two before
it is time to plant the corn. Hence a second clearing will be neces-
sary, and if a second burning is impossible the corn will be at a
disadvantage.
This does not end the difficulties of agriculture in the dense
jungle. Thanks to the abundant vegetation and constant rains or
to the hot sun which causes rapid decomposition, or to some other
unknown cause, many important chemical ingredients are quickly
leached from the soil. Hence while the first corn crop is usually very
abundant, the second, if it follows immediately after the first, is poor,
so poor that it is scarcely worth raising. The regular custom is to
cultivate a given tract one year, let the bushes grow four years, till
they are perhaps fifteen or twenty feet high, and in the fifth year
cut, burn, and plant again. Thus agriculture in the dense jungle
is not only precarious, but it is forced to be extensive and super-
ficial rather than intensive and careful. Therefore it does little to
stimulate progress. In the drier regions, whether high or low, the
soil is not so quickly exhausted, especially if the absence of roots or
other conditions make it possible to turn up new soil by ploughing
or otherwise. The crops are by no means so abundant as in the
wetter places, but the same land can be cultivated year after year
1913.] HIGHEST NATIVE AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 481
with only short periods of rest. The cultivator must work harder
than in the wet places, but his success is less precarious, the efforts
of one year have a direct bearing on succeeding years, and perma-
nent industry in encouraged.
Still another disadvantage of the low, wet regions needs to be
briefly discussed. It is hard for mankind to get a living under any
circumstances in the genuine tropical forest, and he must work at
least moderately for one in the dry parts of tropical lands. In the
big jungle, however, game is abundant, wild fruits ripen at almost all
seasons, a few banana plants, palm trees, and yams will almost
support a family, and if a corn crop is obtained at all, the return is
large in proportion to the labor. Thus, so long as the population is
not too dense, life is easy and there is little stimulus to effort. Under
such conditions the density of population is not likely to increase,
for only by a revolutionary access of skill and industry would it be
possible to change from the easy, hand to mouth life of the present
to the intensive, industrious life which would be necessary in order
to support a dense population.
Thus far we have seen that the distribution of population in
Guatemala to-day is unquestionably very different from what it
was in the past. We have further seen that the physical conditions
which make for density of population and increase of civilization
are distributed in a peculiar fashion. They prevail in the high-
lands where there is no evidence that the civilization of the past was
any higher than that of the present; and do not prevail in the low-
lands where there is the clearest and most abundant evidence of
the prevalence for many centuries of a civilization far in advance of
that of to-day. Moreover the ancient civilization did not come to
the country full-fledged as did that of Spain in later times. It did
not do its finest work at once and then decline as did that of the
Spaniards after they had built their massive old churches. On the
contrary it apparently arose where we find its ruins, and it endured
for centuries before it decayed. The most fundamental fact is not
the great change which has taken place in the character of the Maya
race. Nor is it the fall of Maya civilization, whether from internal
decay or external attack. It is merely the simple fact that the
482 HUNTINGTON—GUATEMALA AND THE [April 18,
highest native American civilization grew up in one of the worst
physical environments of the whole western hemisphere. Close at
hand, in the Guatemalan highlands on one side, and in the dry strip
of northern Yucatan on the other, far more favorable environ-
ments were occupied by closely allied branches of the same race, but
the greatest civilization grew up in the densely forested, highly
feverish, and almost untillable lowlands of Peten and eastern
Guatemala.
The explanation of this peculiar state of affairs appears to lie
in one or all of three things; first, the character of the Maya race;
second, the relative abundance and virulence of various diseases;
and third, the nature of the climate and its effect on forests, dis-
eases, and agriculture. It is possible to adopt the usual unexpressed
assumption of historians and to suppose that the original Mayas
were stronger and more virile than any other race which has
entered the torrid zone, and that because of some unexplained
stimulus whose nature it is hard to surmise they flourished greatly
for many centuries in a habitat in which modern races can barely
subsist. The theory that the Mayas were different from other races
has a good deal to commend it. They certainly were a remarkable
people. The only question is how remarkable. The nearest ana-
logue to their achievements is found in the ruins of Indo-China,
Java, and Ceylon. In none of these cases, however, was the degree
of success anything like so great as among the Mayas. The Asiatic
races appear to have been like the Spaniards, invaders who did not
develop a new civilization but brought their ideas with them from
other places where we can still see remains of the parent culture.
Moreover they did not rise to the height of inventing a method
of writing, and, in Indo-China and Java at least, they appear to have
had the advantage of tools of iron. Nevertheless, when their history
is finally understood, we shall perhaps find that their civilization
and that of the Mayas arose under similar conditions because of
similar causes. This, however, is aside from the question. The
important point is that no matter how capable we suppose the
ancient Cingalese, Indo-Chinese, and Javanese to have been, the
ancient Mayas were far more capable, for not only were the achieve-
1913.] HIGHEST NATIVE AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 483
ments of the Mayas greater than those of the others, but their
opportunities were less. Hence, if we explain the rise of Maya
culture solely on the basis of racial character we are forced to
assume that the ancient Mayas were not only almost immeasurably
in advance of any race that now lives under a similar environment,
but were far more competent than any other race that has ever
lived permanently in any part of the torrid zone. Indeed in their
achievements in overcoming an adverse environment, we are perhaps
obliged to put them on a pinnacle above any other race that has
ever lived.
Without denying that the Mayas were a remarkable people, let
us entertain the further hypothesis that in the days of their great-
ness tropical fevers either had not been introduced into America,
or were by no means so virulent as now. This helps us greatly, for
it relieves us of the necessity of assuming the Mayas to have pos-
sessed a degree of resistance to fevers far in excss of anything
known to-day. There are, however, grave objections to this hypoth-
esis. In the first place it is a pure assumption entirely unsup-
ported by any independent evidence. In the second place, tropical
diseases are numerous, and even malarial fevers are of several
kinds. We may readily suppose that one or two diseases may have
been introduced into Central America between the time of the Maya
civilization and the Spanish Conquest, but in the entire absence of
any evidence it is a rather large assumption to suppose that many
diseases were thus introduced and that they were able to work so
great a revolution. Thirdly, this hypothesis does not explain why
the advancement of civilization went on so rapidly and for so long
in spite of the enervating effects of almost unchanging heat and
dampness. Nor does it explain why the Maya civilization reached
the coast at only one or two spots. So far as topography is con-
cerned there is nothing to prevent this on either coast. Much of
the narrow Pacific plain could be cultivated with ease even though
swamps do cover part of it, and on the Atlantic side the parts of
the forest where there are no ruins seem to be no worse than those
where they exist. The native inhabitants of this region all appear
to have been of Maya stock, even though they may not have be-
484 HUNTINGTON—GUATEMALA AND THE [April 18,
longed to the main branch. Under such circumstances it hardly
seems as if so progressive a civilization could have existed many
centuries without extending its influence to the coast in British
Honduras, unless there had been some preventive such as fever.
The assumption that in Central America tropical diseases were
formerly less abundant or less baneful than now relieves us of the
necessity of supposing that the Mayas, remarkable as they were,
possessed a degree of immunity or resistance to disease far in
excess of that of other races, but it does not relieve us of other
difficulties. Moreover as it now stands it has the weakness of being
a pure assumption with no assignable cause and no independent evi-
dence. In order fully to explain the location of so high a civiliza-
tion in Peten rather than in the highlands of Guatemala it seems
necessary to supplement our assumptions as to the character of the
Mayas and as to the prevalence of disease by the further assumption
of a change of climate. The sort of change which would accom-
plish the required result would demand that at the height of Maya
civilization climatic conditions should have been such that the forests
of Peten would not be so dense as now, and hence that mosquitoes
of the anopheles family would not be so abundant. In other words
it would demand conditions like those which prevail to-day two
hundred and fifty to three hundred miles north of Guatemala in the
northern part of the peninsula of Yucatan. There the climate is
to-day such that low jungle takes the place of dense forests. Mos-
quitoes of the anopheles species are rare. Malaria is comparatively
unimportant. Thanks to these conditions the country is one of the
most prosperous and progressive to be found anywhere within the
tropics at sea-level. These favorable conditions are due to the
fact that although heavy equatorial rains fall in summer and make
the country fruitful, there is a long dry season during the winter
and spring. If such conditions were to spread two hundred or
three hundred miles southward into Peten that region would greatly
change its character. Agriculture would still be subject to some
handicaps, but would be nothing like so difficult and haphazard as
at present. The areas of big jungle where life is excessively easy
so long as the population is scanty, but where intensive agriculture
1913.] HIGHEST NATIVE AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 485
is to-day difficult would be reduced. Debilitating malarial fevers
would prevail but little under such conditions, and the fact that
Peten is a lowland, fertile and easily accessible, would make it a
natural center of civilization. In other words if we adopt a climatic
hypothesis of the kind here outlined, it does not lead us to abandon
our other hypotheses as to the racial character of the Mayas, or as
to the debilitating effects of disease. It simply supplies the ele-
ments which the other hypotheses lack.
The hypothesis of a change of climate in Guatemala by no means
finds its only support in the considerations just set forth. On the
contrary two independent lines of reasoning lead to the same con-
clusion. One of these is the existence of alluvial terraces in close
connection with the ruins of Copan, and the other is the logical
result of the investigation of ruins, lakes, and deserts in Asia, and
of similar phenomena together with the growth of trees in North
America. Both must be dismissed briefly. During the Pumpelly
expedition sent out by the Carnegie Institution of Washington to
Central Asia in 1903, Professor William M. Davis and the writer
investigated a large number of alluvial terraces in mountain valleys
from Persia eastward to Chinese Turkestan. From various lines
of evidence set forth in the report? of that expedition they came to
the conclusion that the terraces must be due to variations of climate.
Otherwise they could scarcely occur with such a wide and regular
distribution, and with such a minute adaptation to every valley no
matter which way it sloped or how large it might be. Further study
in the drier parts of the United States and northern Mexico as well
as in Greece and Turkey seems to confirm this idea. It has been
found, furthermore, that terraces of the same kind and apparently
of the same climatic origin extend down into Southern Mexico and
are well developed in the state of Oaxaca. In Guatemala the
Motagua and other rivers are characterized by similar terraces which
are described in full in the author’s forthcoming volume on the
“Climatic Factor” to be published shortly by the Carnegie Institu-
tion of Washington. It must suffice to say here that the famous
2“ Explorations in Turkestan,” Vol. 1, 1905, Carnegie Institution of
Washington, Publication No. 26.
486 HUNTINGTON—GUATEMALA AND THE [April 18,
ruins of Maya culture lie upon a terrace of exactly this sort, while
below the ruins there lies another similar terrace formed since the
ruins were built. This seems to indicate that since the foundation of
Copan, probably early in the Christian era, there has been a double
climatic change whereby the Copan River, after having filled up
its valley to the level of the upper terrace, was then impelled, first, to
carry away material from the valley bottom, next to deposit new
material, and again to carry it away. In other words the terraces
seem to afford independent evidence that since the building of
Copan the climate of Guatemala has been subject to distinct pul-
sations.
The other line of evidence is so complex that only the results can
here be stated. From a prolonged study of ruins in dry places,
roads and deserts which are now impassable, traces of springs where
no springs now exist, elevated strands of enclosed salt lakes, and
other lines of historic, archeological and physiographic evidences
the writer has been led to believe that in central and western Asia,
Greece, north Africa and perhaps elsewhere climatic pulsations
have taken place during historic times. A study of similar lines of
evidence in the United States under the auspices of the Carnegie
Institution in the years 1910-1912 led to a similar conclusion here.
Finally still another independent line of research was adopted,
namely the measurement of the rate of growth of the giant sequoia
trees of California which grow in a region where the thickness of
the rings depends largely upon the amount of rainfall. This led
to the same conclusion, namely that pulsatory changes of climate
have taken place to a marked degree during the past three thousand
years. The nature of the change has been inferred from various
sources, especially from a comparative study of the meteorological
records during years when the trees of California grew rapidly or
‘ slowly during the last half century. From this it appears that moist
periods in regions like Persia, Greece or Arizona are probably due
to the fact that the cyclonic storms of winter not only move far-
ther south than usual and hence are uncommonly frequent in those
countries but perhaps begin earlier in the fall and last longer in the
spring. This, of course, reduces the length of the dry season in
summer.
1913.] HIGHEST NATIVE AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 487
Farther south in the torrid zone, however, the effect would appear
to be the exact opposite. That is, if the belt of cyclonic storms is
pushed equatorward in winter it would seem to mean that the belt
of sub-tropical high pressure and drought whence the trade winds
take their rise is also pushed equatorward. Thus during the winter
the dry conditions of the semi-arid or desert belt which encircles
the earth at about latitude 25° to 30° would be pushed farther toward
the equator. The result of this would seem to be to force the trade
winds so far south during winter that they would not have their
present effect in causing rainfall throughout practically the whole
winter in Peten. On the contrary, there would be a dry season of
several months duration such as now prevails in Yucatan and in the
Guatemalan Highlands. This would prevent the growth of forests
and cause them to be replaced by jungle or bush. Here again, then,
a third line of evidence appears to point to a pulsatory climatic
change which would produce results in accordance with our first
assumption.
Here we must let the matter rest. The theory of changes of
climate involves so many historic and economic consequences that
it demands most careful consideration. Perhaps it is possible to
explain the peculiar location of the ancient Maya civilization on
some other hypothesis, but thus far no other seems to be supported |
by so much independent evidence. The acceptance of the climatic
theory does not oblige us to change our ideas as to the remarkable
character of the Mayas, or as to the causes of the development of
civilization. It merely provides conditions under which it becomes
probable rather than merely possible that a race might have devel-
oped. In other words it removes the great difficulties of agricul-
ture. It provides a habitat which to a certain extent would be
more free than at present from the debilitating influences of heat
and moisture; and it does away with the conditions that now cause
such terrible fevers. In all these ways, then, while it does not con-
flict with accepted ideas as to the historic development of civiliza-
tion, it removes some of the difficulties in the way of accepting
those ideas.
YALE UNIVERSITY,
New Haven.
THE CORRELATION OF STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.
By STEWART PATON, M.D.
(Read April 18, 1913.)
Catch phrases sometimes creep into scientific literature where
their presence may be as insidiously suggestive of the possession of
imaginary stores of knowledge as they are when employed in the
description of current events. We have for example become so
accustomed to affirming the history of the individual reproduces in
miniature the history of the race that we are often in danger of
assuming a greater degree of familiarity with the details of onto-
genesis than is warranted by a careful survey of the facts. Our
knowledge of the primitive reactions of the higher organisms in
relation to synchronous structural conditions is still so meagre that
it has scarcely risen above the stage of conjecture and cannot be
presented in the form of organized experience. Although it is not
necessary to actually question the validity of a very useful hypothesis,
based upon the similarity of the more striking features in ontogeny
that are paralleled by the chief events of phylogenetic development,
there is nevertheless adequate reason for emphasizing the necessity
not only for more careful study of the correlation of events in the
structural and functional growth of the higher organisms, as funda-
mental to a more comprehensive understanding of the nature of
nervous reactions, but also as a method of determining the factors
of individual behavior.
Efforts have already been made by a few investigators to try and
study the relationships existing between the structural conditions
existing at certain epochs, and the character of the synchronous
responses of the embryo. The observations of Wintrebert, prob-
ably among the first to be recorded in the discussion of these special
problems, were not by any means as extensive or as carefully planned
488
1913.] PATON—NERVOUS SYSTEM. 489
as the work carried on by Coghill, which will unquestionably form
a basis for future studies of importance.t. Some of the results of
my own observations along these lines have been referred to in three
papers.*
Before attempting to continue the description of the details of
my own investigations I wish to call attention to the variety as well
as importance of the problems awaiting solution in this special field
of enquiry. Many problems of phylogeny naturally suggest the
consideration of questions relating to the correlation of structure
and function. We find a parallel for the succession of events in
racial development in the ontogenetic sequence or the life-history
of the individual, in which are revealed a chain of phenomena much
better adapted for detailed study than those occurring in the former
and, what is of still greater importance, is that the latter are to a
certain extent under the control of the investigator. ‘The compara-
tive rapidity with which individuals pass through the various stages
in development is also a factor facilitating enquiry.
What is particularly needed at present is a careful systematic
study of the initial responses in the lives of embryos, representing
several different species of animals, and a record of these phenomena
which is sufficiently detailed to indicate the relationship existing
between the physiological events and the changes taking place within
the nervous system. Unfortunately investigators have long been
hampered by the compelling desire to attempt to solve the problems
relating to the complex nervous system of the adult before consider-
ing the simpler correlations possible in the early life of the embryo.
Among the primitive adjustments of all organisms those for
temperature variations naturally play a very important role, and
this is only what might be inferred when we reflect upon the fact
that the responses of living beings to heat and cold are fundamental
properties of all living matter. The reactions recurring in response
to thermic stimuli, before the development of the nervous system,
present some interesting features. It has long been known that
1J. Comp. Neurol., Vol. 19, 1900.
2 Mittheil. a. d. Zoolog. Station, 2, Neapel, 18 Bd., 2-3 Hft., 1907; J. Comp.
Neurol., Vol. 21, No. 4, August, 1911; J. Experiment. Zool., Vol. 11, No. 4,
Nov., IQII.
490 PATON—CORRELATION OF STRUCTURE [April 18,
living embryos when placed in various solutions respond with great
rapidity to even relatively slight temperature changes occurring in
the surrounding media. In the case of the pulsation of the heart
many investigators, among whom are Snyder, Carlson, v. Tschermak,
and others, determined the temperature coefficient in connection with
the activity of this organ. As far as I have been able to determine
the extreme sensitiveness of the heart as regards rises in tempera-
ture seems to be somewhat greater, or at least the responses are
quicker, at a period when the development of the nervous system
is well advanced than at earlier stages in the life of the embryo; and
I believe the same law holds true with regard to other reactions of
the organism. These facts afford an interesting confirmation of the
results of observations made by A. G. Mayer with a view to deter-
mining the relative importance of the nervous system in the medusa.
Mayer has shown that there is greater sensitivity for heat when the
muscles remain in contact with the sense-organs than when the con-
nections are severed. The general character of the responses of the
embryo in regard to heat, prior to or subsequent to the development
of the nervous system, are in a measure comparable to the variations
of adjustment of jellyfish for similar stimuli when muscles are either
deprived of connection with or allowed to remain in contact with
sense organs. In the vertebrate embryo as well as in the medusa the
extreme delicacy of response is dependent upon the presence of
nerve-elements, and when these have not developed or have been
eliminated by experiment the capacity of adaptation of the organism
is correspondingly lowered. |
The technique used in the experiments is the same in all cases.
The chief precaution necessary is to avoid as far as possible sub-
jecting the embryos to changes in temperature and all rough hand-
ling; so that the results may not be complicated by the introduction
of too many different stimull.
When the eggs are taken out of the incubator they are opened as
quickly as possible, just inside the door of the warm box which
covers the microscope, and the embryos are detached from the egy
and lifted by means of a horn spoon into the dish containing the
solution (NaCl o.9g—CaCl, 0.02—KCl 0.02 —NaHCo, 0.02—
1913.] AND FUNCTION IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 491
glucose I per cent., bouillon 10 per cent.). After a little practice the
operation of removing the embryo from the egg and placing it in the
dish, without either delay or unnecessary shock, may be easily per-
formed. It is obvious that stimuli of a purely mechanical nature up
to a certain degree of intensity seem to be less injurious than those
caused by variations in temperature.
The effect of rapid changes in position upon the action of the
heart during the period represented by embryos of from 12-16
somites is almost a negligible quantity. Embryos that were whisked
rapidly about in a dish by means of a camel’s hair brush showed no
disturbance of cardiac activity ; provided of course that the tempera-
ture of the solution in which they were placed remained constant.
The primitive responses of these organisms show certain inter-
esting features when elicited in response to various chemical sub-
stances used as irritants. In this connection the action of a number
of different substances was observed, while that of two was studied
in detail. The substances selected for more detailed investigation
were strychnia sulphate, an important inorganic nerve stimulant, and
thyroid extract, representing organic substances toxic for nervous
tissues. After it became possible to eliminate the error attributable
to such slight differences in temperature as are apt to occur during
manipulation it was found that these two dissimilar substances were
strikingly alike in their physiological action upon the heart, if used
at a time prior to the development of: the nervous system. Even
when employed in minute quantities the characteristic accelerating
action upon the heart was not observed. As will be noticed in
studying the records in the case in which the smallest doses were
administered the rate of the cardiac pulsations was not disturbed for
some time and only after the elapse of from one to two hours did the
action of the heart begin to show symptoms of sagging. In all cases
an accelerating action seemed to be entirely absent.
Probably the most intimate correlation which we have yet been
able to establish is in connection with the development of the
peripheral nervous system. In the case of such substances as cocaine
and eucaine we have already shown (op. cit.) that there is no inhibi-
tory and reversible action in selachian embryos following ordinary
492 PATON—CORRELATION OF STRUCTURE [April 18,
doses of these drugs until the peripheral nervous system is developed.
We find the action of thyroid extract as well as strychnine is modi-
fied to some extent by the development of the sympathetic nervous
system; an occurrence taking place about the fourth day. We are
not yet prepared to state exactly what the character of this mechanism
is, although for the present we may consider it highly probable that
the increased activity of the heart brought about by moderate doses
of the two substances mentioned is the result of the functional activ-
ity of the sympathetic system. The symptoms of irregularity in the
heart’s activities which develop after a certain period deserve con-
sideration and show a remarkable degree of similarity for both
strychnia, thyroid extract and magnesium chloride. As will be
noticed in chick no. 3 the rapidity of the heart decreased after the
embryo was placed in a solution containing thyroid extract. Sud-
denly, and this seemed to be the characteristic effect of all the
substances used—the organ stops pulsating, remaining motionless
for a period varying, as a rule, from ten to thirty seconds, or even
two minutes. Then it suddenly begins to pulsate again, the rhythm
gradually increasing in strength and rapidity until a point of maxi-
mum intensity is reached and then after one-half or one minute the
cycle ends again. The abrupt manner in which the pulsations cease
and the subsequent incidence of the beats, often after prolonged
intervals of rest, are strikingly similar to the phenomena taking place
when an embryo has been poisoned by an excess of magnesium
chloride. In these early stages of development it is extremely inter-
esting to compare the action upon the heart of three substances,
possessing chemical qualities as different as thyroid extract, mag-
nesium chloride and strychnine sulphate. The characteristic primary
toxic effects as shown in the adult by the rapid rhythm of the heart
do not appear until the period when the nervous system has attained
a relatively high degree of differentiation.
In addition to the substances already mentioned, solutions of
NaOH (1:500) and CH,0OH (1:500-1:1,000) were employed.
No positive results, except a gradual slowing of the heart, were noted
in connection with the former, but the latter seemed to exert a
marked inhibitory action upon the heart; the stronger solutions
1913.]
AND FUNCTION IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.
495
rapidly, and the weaker ones slowly but surely blocking the rhythm.
Solutions of adrenaline (1: 4,000) and epinine (1:2,000) produced
symptoms similar to those following the use of thyroid (1: 10,000).
Some of the details of the experiment are given in the following
records:
cauck Oe Time Here: Solution. Results.
I 13 10.7 A.M 54 Ringer and
(1:500) CH300H
II 66
125 — No heart beats.
2 I5 12.26 P.M. 96 Ringer and Temperature of fluid above
(1:1000) CH300H normal.
.28 69
esir 78
ag 66
-40 78 Rises and falls in heart rate
due to temperature
changes.
45 66
47 75
.50 70 Contraction of heart was
shallow and snappy.
3 13 to.17 A.M 52 |Ringer and Thyroid
(1:10,000) at 10.22
23 48
-30 48
-45 48
II.06 51
.16 48
57 } St
Tsar PM. 54
1.00 44
35 36
2 S161 33 Pulsations very weak but
regular.
4 13 3.50 P.M. Ringer’s solution
alone
-54 26
4.00 42
4.20 42
+57 42
5:35 42
47 42 Heart beating very feebly.
9.30 60
5 I4 4.35 Ringer and Thyroid
(1:15,000)
37 72
5.00 72
-44 60
-53 60
10.00 48 Individual pulsations strong,
but broken by periods of
complete rest.
494 PATON—CORRELATION OF STRUCTURE [April 18,
The special instances which we have cited are a few taken from a
long list of experiments and the results as given may be considered
to be characteristic of all the cases observed. It is quite unneces-
sary to repeat in detail the experiments in which strychnia sulphate
was used as the results for solutions varying in strength from
I:5,000 to 1:10,000 practically corresponded with the records for
thyroid extract.
An extremely interesting field of work lies in the direction of
determining with more exactitude than has yet been done the varying
degrees of responsiveness of the organism to these toxic agents at
different periods in the early development of the embryo. An ex-
ceedingly complicated problem but one of great importance would be
the determination, if possible, of the change in the symptoms as the
embryo develops and the probable progressive increase in the perme-
ability of the cells for the different solutions. This question must
be solved before we can appreciate the character of the changes in
the reactions taking place within the organism when the control of
functions is taken over by the nervous system.
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY,
April 18, 1913.
BOURTHER CONSIDERATIONS ON THE ORIGIN OF THE
HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS AND THE PLATEAU
OF TIBET:
(PLATES XXIJI-XXXIII AND XXVII bis AND XXXI Dis.)
By ie jag, SEE:
(Read April 18, 1913.)
1. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
The four memoirs dealing with the cause of earthquakes, moun-
tain formation and kindred phenomena connected with the physics
of the earth, which the writer had the honor to communicate to
this Society in the years 1906-08, and have published in the Pro-
ceedings, have laid the foundations of a new theory of the physics of
the earth’s crust. The new theory already is widely adopted by the
most eminent investigators, and the purpose of the present paper is
merely to add a final confirmation of some interest.
During the past five years the writer’s attention has been so
fully occupied with the problems of cosmogony that the problems
relating to geogony, or the formation of the earth, have been left
largely in abeyance; and yet some new light has been shed on them,
especially by the researches showing that the lunar craters are due
to impact, and thus in no way similar to terrestrial volcanoes, as was
so long believed.
Quite recently it was thought worth while to reéxamine the
phenomena of the earth’s crust, in the light of the new science of
cosmogony, resulting from the researches of the past five years.
For in studying the problem of the origin of the Himalayas and the
plateau of Tibet some important considerations were brought out
that were not included in my former papers, and thus it seems
advisable to place them on record as confirming and extending my
former investigations.
PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LII. 2II N, PRINTED SEPT. I7, 1913.
496 SEE—ORIGIN OF HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. _ [April 18,
Moreover, the subject of the origin of the Himalayas is attract-
ing attention abroad. Apparently without knowledge of my work*
Colonel Sidney G. Burrard, R.E., F.R.S., surveyor-general of India,
has been devoting considerable attention to the subject in “ Pro-
fessional Paper No. 12, Survey of India,” a summary of which is
given in The Observatory for November, 1912, p. 413:
“Tt may be remembered that several years ago Col. Burrard showed that
there appears to be a subterranean mass of great density lying across India in
mean latitude 23° North. He now shows that the observations indicate the
existence of a line of low density between this subterranean mass and the
Himalayas, and suggests that there was, or is, one long crack in the earth’s
subcrust extending from Sumatra round the Arrakan coast across northern
India, through the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean, traces of which are
seen in the parallel shores of the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf. The
crack has been filled with alluvial deposit across Northern India and in other
places, but the Himalayas remain as the result of the rift in the earth, a
great mass of matter having been pushed northward. It has been supposed
by others that the Himalayan range was formed by the southward advance
of the northern part of the Asiatic continent on to the Indo-African table-
land.”
The idea here developed by Colonel Burrard, including especially
the light material under northern India, and the pushing of the
Himalayas northward, is so very similar to that developed in my
memoirs that it must be regarded as an independent confirmation of
the theory that the mountains are formed by the sea. And as this
conclusion applies to the greatest and most intricate range in the
world, the external relations of which are not entirely simple, I
deem it worthy of attention.
Finally, it may be noted that much interest has been awakened
in this subject in England and other countries of Europe. The
new theory already is widely taught in the schools of Great Britain
and the continent; and in his new work “ The Growth of a Planet”
(The MacMillan Co., New York, 1911), the London geophysicist
Mr. Edwin Sharpe Grew, M.A., concedes that the author’s reason-
ing on the Aleutian Islands is unanswerable, and finally says:
* Since this paper was written Colonel Burrard informs me that to his
regret he had not seen the papers of 1906-8, and seems to regard the new
theory as quite well established.
1913.] SEE—ORIGIN OF HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 497
“Dr. See has arranged his facts with great ingenuity, and the presenta-
tion of his case is the most powerful argument which has ever been ad-
vanced in favor of the view held since the days of Strabo, Aristotle or
Pliny, that the expansive force of steam is the prime cause of volcanic and
seismic disturbances.”
In view of this general interest a few additional considerations
on the origin of the Himalayas may be important. For after care-
ful reflection I regard the Himalayas as the crucial test; and as the
theory is triumphantly verified by a more complete study of this
great range, it must hereafter be regarded as firmly and permanently
established.
2. THE VOLUMES OF THE PLATEAUS OF THE Rocky Mountains,
OF THE ANDES, AND OF THE HIMALAYAS.
In the four memoirs included in the Proceedings of this Society
for 1906-08, the new theory of mountain formation is treated with
considerable detail, but some numerical relations between the
plateaus above mentioned are worthy of more attention than they
have yet received.
The Pacific plateau of North America is of variable width, being
less than 500 miles wide in Mexico, and perhaps 600 miles wide in
Canada, but from 1,000 to 1,500 miles wide in the United States.
Perhaps 750 miles wide would be a good average estimate of the
whole plateau. And the height may be taken as approximately
5,000 feet, or a mile above the sea. These average figures will
satisfactorily represent the Pacific plateau in North America. It is
noticed also in many places that where the plateau is broadest it is of
less average height; but where it is narrower the height is somewhat
increased.
In the Andes the same principles prevail. The plateau is highest
in the region of Lake Titicaca, where the elevation is over 12,600
feet, or 2.5 miles. The width here does not exceed 300 miles.
Further north, near Quito, it narrows up, and is not over half this
width; but in Colombia it again spreads out to a width of 300 or
400 miles, but is only about 6,000 or 8,000 feet in height, scarcely
more than half that along the more southern portion of the Andes.
498 SEE—ORIGIN OF HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. _ [April 18,
It is noticeable that the height decreases from 12,600 feet near
Lake Titicaca, to 11,000 feet in central Peru, and perhaps 10,000
feet at Quito; while south of Titicaca the height does not decrease
appreciably till central Chile is reached, after which it falls steadily
till the continent sinks beneath the sea at Cape Horn.
Now it is remarkable that if we take a typical section of the
highest and broadest part of the Andean plateau, 2.5 miles high by
300 miles wide, the numerical product of width by height in miles
is 750. And the Rocky Mountain plateau, 1 mile high and 750 miles
wide, gives the same product, 750 square miles.
To be sure this product can be varied considerably by taking
different sections of the plateaus of North and South America, but
all in all this average estimate appears to be a fair one. For in the
article “Andes,” in the encyclopedia Britannica, 9th edition, Sir
Archibald Geikie estimates the bulk of the Andes as of the average
width of 100 miles, and height of 13,000 feet. The present estimate
gives greater width but somewhat less height.
On the whole, I am inclined to think that the average sectional
volume of the Andes is somewhat less than that in the Rocky Moun-
tain plateau; for between Colorado and the Pacific coast the width
is about 1,500 miles, and the average height about a mile. The
plateau is much narrower in Canada, and very much narrower in
Mexico, practically disappearing entirely in Central America and
Panama. Thus at one point in the United States the sectional con-
tents may be twice that in the Andes; yet the average sectional
volume for the Pacific plateau of North America is not much
greater than the larger sectional volumes for the plateau of the
Andes.
The significance of this equality in the volumes of the two
plateaus lies in the fact that both are the product of the common
Pacific Ocean, one in the northern, the other in the southern con-
tinent. The new theory does not require that the volumes should
be exactly equal, but it implies that they should be comparable, and
such is the fact in a very striking degree.
Let us now consider the plateau of Tibet, in comparison with
that of the Andes. The height of western Tibet is about 15,000
1913.] SEE—ORIGIN OF HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 499
feet, while eastern Tibet has an elevation of only 11,000 feet. The
breadth also varies from some 200 miles on the West to 500 miles
at the eastern extremity (General Strachey, article ‘“ Himalayas,”
Encyclopedia Britannica, 9th edition).
Accordingly, if we take the wider part of western Tibet as
having a sectional height of 3 miles and a breadth of 250 miles,
the product in miles is 750, exactly the same.as in the Andes and the
Rocky Mountains. Further east in Tibet the width may be 500
miles, and the height about 2 miles, which gives a sectional product
of 1,000. This is larger than the average Andean product adopted
above, and more like that of the Rocky Mountain plateau west of
Colorado.
But the circumstance that the sectional volumes of three great
plateaus in the three leading continents of the globe should all be
so nearly equal is fully as impressive a fact as the related fact that
all of these plateaus should overlook the same great ocean by which
they were elevated.
Altogether the similarity in the volumes of sections of these
three greatest plateaus is so striking as to make it difficult to deny
that it constitutes practically a mathematical demonstration that
these plateaus were uplifted by the Pacific Ocean. The relation-
ships here brought out as to the volumes of these plateaus, in addi-
tion to the situations about the Pacific Ocean could not well be
accounted for by chance, even if we did not know the cause of
mountain formation. But as the cause of mountain formation is
fully understood, the cause which has built the plateaus is also
clearly shown, and it is impossible to consider any other explanation
than that here outlined.
3. GENERAL LAW THAT WHERE A CONTINUOUS PLATEAU INCREASES
IN WIDTH, IT DECREASES IN ELEVATION.
This law doubtless results from the process of uplifting by
which the mountains and plateaus have been raised above the sea.
For example, in case of the continuous plateau crowned with moun-
tain crests which surrounds the Pacific Ocean from Cape Horn to
Alaska, and then extends down the southeastern shores of Asia,
500 SEE—ORIGIN OF HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. [April 18,
runs westward through India, and down the east shore of Africa
to the Cape of Good Hope, it is observed in each of the four con-
tinents traversed that where the plateau is highest it usually narrows
in width, and vice versa.
Thus we have seen that the plateau of the Andes is high in
Chile, Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador, but in Colombia falls to about
half its former level, and expands to about double width. This
expansion of the width of the plateau in Colombia is characteristic
of plateau formation in general. There are slight exceptions to the
rule, but the conformity to it is much more noticeable. For
example, at Titicaca the width is about 250 miles, but some distance
north of this region the Andean Plateau seems to narrow up till the
width scarcely exceeds 150 miles, in Ecuador; but it then spreads
out again as the range enters Colombia.
It is not easy to explain this narrowing of the range, unless the
great width and great height at Titicaca are due to the indentation
of the coast at this point, giving uplifting forces from both direc-
tions, at the same time. This explanation seems to be well founded,
and is confirmed by the corresponding effect north of central India,
where the plateau of Tibet reaches its maximum elevation.
Accordingly, we probably should conclude that the width of the
Andean plateau is normally less than at Lake Titicaca, and that the
width there is due to a combination of forces from the two lines of
coast, meeting at an angle of about 135°. It is therefore a fact in
South America that wherever the plateau is widest, it decreases in
elevation, as in Colombia.
In this problem of uplift, however, something depends on the
depth and width of the adjacent elevating ocean, and thus a certain
amount of variety should result. Since the adjacent sea is not of
uniform effectiveness, we should expect minor deviations from the
law ; but obviously they should not be too pronounced.
In North America, the same general law holds true. Wherever
the plateau is narrow, as in central Mexico, the elevation is great;
but where it is wide, the elevation generally is lower. There are of
course some exceptions to the rule, but it generally holds true.
For example, along the Rocky Mountain range the highest part
1913.] SEE—ORIGIN OF HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 501
of the plateau probably is in Colorado, where the whole Pacific
plateau is widest; but this only indicates that the forces which raised
such high mountains as. Pike’s Peak also raised a high plateau in
the general region, independent of the width of the plateau after-
wards elevated from the sea. And so on generally.
The rule that the plateau decreases in height when it increases in
width, must be understood to apply to a region of not too great
width. For when the width is very great, we have rather a series of
plateaus added together side by side than a single one; and the final
result is a composite effect, one plateau section fitting onto another,
and the whole series of sections running together as an unbroken
embankment of variable height.
In view of these considerations, a plateau so wide as that between
Colorado and California is really a series of plateaus, each of
unusual width at this point, and the whole effect therefore a very
broad compound plateau. The entire Pacific Plateau is the cumula-
tive work of the ocean, done in successive sections ; and as the ocean
is deepest opposite California, the uplift naturally has been greatest
in this part, which also developed the Sierra Nevada Mountains,
and at a still earlier stage the Wasatch range in Utah.
The history of the building of the Pacific plateau from Colorado
to California is too long to be described here, but these hints on
the method by which it was elevated give some idea of the growth
of the continent westward from the ancient border which was east
of the present Rocky Mountain range.
4. THE CAUSE OF THE GREAT HEIGHT OF THE PLATEAUS OF
WESTERN TIBET AND TITICACA.
Since writing the memoirs of 1906-08, I have had occasion to
reéxamine the relationships of the great mountains to the plateaus,
and of the plateaus to the sea, with the result of confirming in the
most conclusive manner the uplift of the plateaus by the ocean. It
is found that the plateau of western Tibet has almost exactly the
relationship to the ancient sea valley formerly covering northern
India, that the plateau of Titicaca now has to the border of the
Pacific Ocean.
502 SEE—ORIGIN OF HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. [April 18,
If we examine a good map of northern India, we shall find not
only that the Indus and Ganges now flow in the ancient sea valley
formerly depressed below the waves, and now elevated less than
1,000 feet above the ocean; but also that this valley made a sharp
bend in north central India. It has the form of the Greek letter
lambda, A, with the Ganges leg of the lambda by far the longest, and
the included angle about 105°.
If the lava expelled from beneath this ancient sea valley came
from two directions, at such an angle, the forces of uplift naturally
would accumulate at the head of the Sea Valley. For they would
come from the southeast and also from the southwest, as well as
from the south; and the result of compounding these forces would
be magnified forces of unusual intensity, directed to the elevation of
the Himalayas of north central India. This is exactly what has
taken place ; and hence we see why the plateau of Tibet is so high in
the western part of that great “roof of the world.”
If now we turn to the region of Lake Titicaca, in South
America, we find an exactly similar relative situation. The coast
from the south and northwest meet at an angle of some 135°; and
the forces producing the uplift have come from the two directions;
and also from the west. The result has been a convergence of the
forces tending to produce an uplift; but as the angle of 135° is less
acute than in northern India, where the angle is 105°, it is not
remarkable that the plateau of Titicaca is less elevated than that of
western Tibet, where the forces converged more powerfully and
were so compounded as to produce the maximum elevation.
It certainly is not accidental that these two highest plateaus of
the world stand in similar centers of converging forces directed
from the ocean; and that the higher plateau of Western Tibet has
the forces converging at the smaller angle of 105°, and therefore
compounding more effectively to produce a greater power of uplift,
for equal energy directed from the side of the sea.
And as the observed phenomena confirm the theory in every de-
tail, one finds it very difficult to believe that any other cause has
shaped these stupendous uplifts of the earth’s crust.
It is also easy to see why the heights of the plateau of Tibet is
1913.] SEE—ORIGIN OF HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 503
less towards the east, where the elevation is only 11,000 feet. For
in the eastern part only a side pressure was available for the uplift,
and the forces of elevation did not converge towards a point, as in
western Tibet and near Lake Titicaca, in Bolivia.
5. SOME PHENOMENA CONNECTED WITH THE GREAT EARTHQUAKE
AT ARICA, AUGUST 13, 1868.
One of the most important means of judging of earthquake
phenomena is the evidence afforded by eye witnesses; and this be-
comes especially valuable when we know the nature of earthquake
processes, because it then becomes possible to see in the descriptions
given by eye-witnesses a certain amount of new meaning.
Accordingly, we add a brief account of the terrible earthquake
at Arica, August 13, 1868, which was a continuation of the move-
ments directly concerned with the uplift of the plateau of Titicaca.
For it was a survival of the ancient movements which brought about
this elevation, and as the region still is near the sea, it is of special
interest, because it bears on the elevation of the plateaus of the
Himalayas, now further inland.
In his “ Light Science for Leisure Hours,” p. 199, the late Pro-
fessor R. A. Proctor describes the havoc wrought by the earthquake
at the neighboring town of Arequipa as follows:
“At five minutes past five (P. M.) an earthquake shock was experienced,
which, though severe, seems to have worked very little mischief. Half a
minute later, however, a terrible noise was heard beneath the earth; a second
shock more violent than the first was felt; and then began a swaying motion,
gradually increasing in intensity. In the course of the first minute this
motion had become so violent that the inhabitants ran in terror out of their
houses into the streets and squares. In the next two minutes the swaying
movement has so increased that the more lightly built houses were cast to
the ground, and the flying people could scarcely keep their feet. ‘And now,’
says Von Tschudi, ‘there followed during two or three minutes a terrible
scene. The swaying motion which had hitherto prevailed changed into fierce
vertical upheaval. The subterranean roaring increased in the most terrify-
ing manner: then were heard the heart-piercing shrieks of the wretched
people, the bursting of walls, the crashing fall of houses and churches, while
over all rolled thick clouds of a yellowish-black dust, which, had they been
poured forth many minutes longer, would have suffocated thousands.’
Although the shocks had lasted but a few minutes, the whole town was
504 SEE—ORIGIN OF HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. _ [April 18,
destroyed. Not one building remained uninjured, and there were few which
did not lie in shapeless heaps of ruins.”
This description was drawn for the phenomena observed at
Arequipa, but that it would serve equally well for Arica is suffi-
ciently indicated by the accompanying photographs of the town as it
was before and after the earthquake. A more terrible record of
desolation could hardly be imagined.
With this brief but striking description of the Jenico we
may now turn to the seismic sea wave at Arica, and here I shall
again quote Proctor’s account, which is based on the elaborate tech-
nical memoir prepared by Professor F. Von Hochstetter in the
Sitzungsberichte of the Vienna Academy of Sciences for 1868,
Vol, EVIM., Abth: Ife Proctot’s account runs thus:
r
“At Arica the sea wave produced even more destructive effects than had
been caused by the earthquake. About twenty minutes-after the first earth-
shock (1. e., 5:25 P.M.) the sea was seen to retire, as if about to leave the shores
wholly dry; but presently its waters returned with tremendous force. A
mighty wave, whose length seemed immeasurable, was seen advancing like a
dark wall upon the unfortunate town, a large part of which was over-
whelmed by it. Two ships, the Peruvian corvette America and the United
States ‘double-ender’ Wateree were carried nearly half a mile to the north of
Arica, beyond the railroad which runs to Tacna, and there left stranded high
and dry. This enormous wave was considered by the English Vice-Consul
at Arica to have been fully fifty feet in height.
At Chala, three such waves swept in after the first shocks of earthquake.
They overflowed nearly the whole of the town, the sea passing more than
half a mile beyond its usual limits.
At Islay and Iquique similar phenomena were manifested. At the
former town the sea flowed in no less than five times, and each time with
greater force. Afterwards the motion gradually diminished, but even an
hour and a half after the commencement of this strange disturbance, the
waves still ran forty feet above the ordinary level. At Iquique, the people
beheld the inrushing wave whilst it was still a great way off. A dark blue
mass of water, some fifty feet in height, was seen sweeping in upon the town
with inconceivable rapidity. An island lying before the harbor was com-
pletely submerged by the great wave, which still came rushing on, black with
the mud and slime it had swept from the sea bottom. Those who witnessed
its progress from the upper balconies of their houses, and presently saw its
black mass close beneath their feet, looked on their safety as a miracle.
Many buildings were indeed washed away, and in the lowlying parts of the
town there was a terrible loss of life. After passing far inland the wave
1913.] SEE—ORIGIN OF HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 505
slowly returned seawards, and strangely enough, the sea, which elsewhere
heaved and tossed for hours after the first great wave had swept over it,
here came soon to rest.
At Callao a yet more singular instance was afforded of the effect which
circumstances may have upon the motion of the sea after a great earthquake
has disturbed it. In former earthquakes Callao has suffered terribly from
the effects of the great sea-wave. In fact, on two occasions the whole town
has been destroyed, and nearly all its inhabitants have been drowned, through
the inrush of precisely such waves as flowed into the ports of Arica and
Chala. But upon this occasion the center of subterranean disturbance must
have been so situated that either the wave was diverted from Callao, or more
probably two waves reached Callao from different sources and at different
times, so that the two undulations partly counteracted each other. Certain
it is that although the water retreated strangely from the coast near Callao,
insomuch that a wide tract of the sea-bottom was uncovered, there was no
inrushing wave comparable with those described above. The sea afterwards
rose and fell in an irregular manner, a circumstance confirming the supposi-
tion that the disturbance was caused by two distinct oscillations. Six hours
after the occurrence of the earth-shock, the double oscillations seem for
awhile to have worked themselves into unison, for at this time three con-
siderable waves rolled in upon the town. But clearly these waves must not
be compared with those which in other instances had made their appearance
within half an hour of the earth-throes. There is little reason to doubt that
if the separate oscillations had reinforced each other earlier, Callao would
have been completely destroyed. As: it was, a considerable amount of mis-
chief was effected; but the motion of the sea presently became irregular
again, and so continued until the morning of August 14, when it began to ebb
with some regularity. But during the 14th there were occasional renewals
of the irregular motion, and several days elapsed before the regular ebb and
flow of the sea were resumed.”
In this excellent account of the great sea wave at Arica, August
13, 1868, Proctor makes no allusion to the U. S. S. Fredonia, which
was lying at anchor with the Wateree; and we add therefore that
the Fredonia is reported to have been capsized as the wave ad-
vanced, and nothing was ever again heard of her, all the officers
and crew having been lost with the wreck of the vessel.
The Wateree was but little injured, and afterwards used as a
hotel. The picture of the stranded Wateree here reproduced was
made by an officer who visited the scene sometime after the dis-
aster. This valuable historic photograph has been preserved by
Mrs. E. V. Cutts, of Mare Island, to whom the author is indebted
for this impressive illustration of the effects of this great sea wave.
506 SEE—ORIGIN OF HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. _ [April 18,
The previous illustrations show the city of Arica before this earth-
quake, and the mere wreckage which remained after the innunda-
tion of the sea.
In an earlier passage than that above cited, Proctor quotes the
description of an eye witness, which tells of the movements of the
ships:
“The agent of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, whose house
had been destroyed by the earth-shock, saw the great sea-wave while he was
flying towards the hills. He writes: ‘While passing towards the hills, with
the earth shaking, a great cry went up to heaven. The sea had retired. On
clearing the town, I looked back and saw that the vessels were being carried
irresistibly seawards. In a few minutes the sea stopped, and then arose a
mighty wave fifty feet high, and came in with a fearful rush, carrying every-
thing before it in terrible majesty. The whole of the shipping came back,
speeding towards inevitable doom. In a few minutes all was completed—
every vessel was either on shore or bottom upwards.’”
6. PRatr’s REASONING ON THE DENSITY OF THE MATTER UNDER
THE OcEAN, PLAINS AND MOUNTAINS, AND ITS APPLICA-
TION TO INDIA AND THE HIMALAYAS,
Pratt’s reasoning in regard to the density of the matter in and
beneath the crust of the earth, and its bearing on the new theory of
earthquakes is described in my paper on “The Cause of Earth-
quakes, Mountain Formation and Kindred Phenomena Connected
with the Physics of the Earth,” published in the Proceedings of this
Society for 1906, pp. 344-346. His main conclusion is stated thus:
“This (deflection of the plumb line) shows that the effect of variations
of density in the crust must be very great in order to bring about this near
compensation. In fact the density of the crust beneath the mountains must
be less than that below the plains, and still less than that below the ocean-
bed” (Pratt, “Figure of the Earth,” 3d edition, Art. 137, pp. 134-135).
Again:
“The conclusion at which we have arrived in Art. 137, that the parts of
the crust below the more elevated regions are of less density, and the parts
beneath the depressed regions in the ocean are of greater density than the
average portions of the surface, seems to bear additional testimony to the
fluid theory. For it shows that notwithstanding the varied surface, seen at
present in mountains and oceans, the amount of matter in a vertical prism
1913.] SEE—ORIGIN OF HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 507
drawn down at various places to any given spheroidal stratum is the same,
although its length varies from place to place as the earth’s contour varies”
(idem., p. 162).
This subject of the density of the matter ltidden from our view
beneath the crust of the earth has also been discussed by the late
Professor Henri Poincaré, in an address on “French Geodesy,”
translated by Professor George Bruce Halstead, and published in the
Popular Science Monthly for February, 1913. The eminent French
geometer reasons as follows:
“But these deep-lying rocks we cannot reach exercise from afar their
attraction which operates upon the pendulum and deforms the terrestrial
spheroid. Geodesy can therefore weigh them from afar, so to speak, and
tell us of their distribution. Thus will it make us really see those regions
which Jules Verne only showed us in imagination.”
“This is not an empty illusion. M. Faye, comparing all the measure-
ments, has reached a result well calculated to surprise us. Under the oceans,
in the depths, are rocks of very great density; under the continents, on the
contrary, are empty spaces.”
“New observations will modify perhaps the details of these conclusions.”
“Tn any case, our venerated dean has shown us where to search and
what the geodesist may teach the geologist, desirous of knowing the interior
constitution of the earth, and even the thinker wishing to sepculate upon the
past and the origin of this planet.”
From this extract it will be seen that the most eminent French
authorities recognize the conclusions first formulated by Pratt over
half a century ago. It only remains to consider the application of
Pratt’s theorem to the Himalayas and the plateau of Tibet.
If, as Pratt says, “the density of the crust beneath the moun-
tains must be less than that below the plains, and still less than that
below the ocean bed,” it is very difficult to see how this could have
come about except by the greater uplift of the mountains, by the
injection of more light material beneath, while a less amount of such
material has been injected under the plains, and scarcely any has
remained under the ocean bed, because it tends to work out by the
path of least resistance. This is the only explanation which satisfies
the observed phenomena, and conforms to the known fact that the
mountains and plateaus are uplifted by the expulsion of matter
from beneath the sea, in world-shaking earthquakes. Thus the
508 SEE—ORIGIN OF HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. _ [April 18,
known facts of geodesy as respects the Himalayas are fully ex-
plained. And the explanation rests on principles established by a
variety of mutually confirmatory observations.
7. DEFECTS IN THE DoctTRINE oF IsostTacy AS COMMONLY STATED.
The doctrine of isostacy as commonly stated is vitiated by a
serious if not fatal error; and it is necessary to overcome this
defect if the doctrine is to hold its place in modern thought. In
Science of February 10, 1911, Professor J. F. Hayford presents a
paper based on the valuable data he obtained in the work of the
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, deduced from 765 series of astro-
nomical observations at 89 stations in the United States. The
causes assigned, however, are so inadequate that it seems worth
while to point out the defects in his reasoning, which is as follows:
“Columns A and B have been assumed to contain equal masses. There
is complete isostatic compensation. The pressures at the bases of the two
columns are equal, and at any less depth, X, the pressure is greater in A than
in B. Now assume that in the normal course of events a large amount of
material is being eroded from the high surface of column 4 and deposited
on the low surface of column B. After this erosion has been in progress
SURFACE
SEA LEVEL
OCEAN BOTTOM
DEPTH X
OEPTH OF COMPENSATION
COLUMN
for some time the isostatic compensation will no longer be perfect. The
pressure at the base of B will be greater than at the base of A. The pres-
sure very near the top of B will still be less than at the same level in A so
long as the top of A remains higher than the top of B. There will be some
intermediate level at which the pressure in the two columns is the same.
1913.] SEE—ORIGIN OF HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 509
Call this level of temporary equality of pressure in the two columns the
neutral level. As the process of erosion and deposition progresses the neu-
tral level will gradually progress upward from its original position at the
base of the columns. Eventually if no interchange of mass took place be-
tween the columns except at the surface, and no vertical displacement
occurred in either column, the neutral level would reach the surface when the
process of erosion and deposition became complete and the upper sur-
faces of the two columns were at the same level. During the process of
erosion and deposition the excess of pressure in A at any level above the
neutral level will continually decrease. Similarly, at any level below the
neutral level the excess of pressure in B will continually increase as the
erosion progresses and the neutral level will rise. Thus there will be estab-
lished a continually increasing tendency for the‘ material below the neutral
level in B to be squeezed over into A. If the stresses tending to produce this
undertow from the lower part of B to A become greater than the material can
stand, the flow will take place as indicated by the arrow in the figure. If the
material flows without change of volume, as if it were incompressible, the
upper part of 4 and its surface will be raised, the upper part of B and its
surface will be lowered, the neutral level will sink and an approximation to
the original conditions with complete isostatic compensation will be re-
established.”
“This is the general case of isostatic readjustment by the action of
gravitation alone. Gravitation tends to produce a deep undertow from the
regions where deposition is taking place to the regions where erosion is in
progress, in the direction opposite to that of the surface transfer of material.”
“Let us suppose that the isostatic compensation at a given stage in the
earth’s history is practically complete for a continent, that the process of
erosion from the greater part of the continent and deposition around its
margins is in progress, and that the process of readjustment by a deep under-
tow is in progress.”
The fatal defect in this reasoning consists in the fact that it
begs the question, and does not in any way explain the elevation of
the margin of a continent, but only how it may maintain its present
form by a process of readjustment. This is like a river rising
higher than its source, or a man trying to lift himself by pulling on
his bootstraps, or the logician reasoning in a circle. For in order to
explain the development of the inequalities of the earth’s crust, we
must not only explain the adjustment and balancing between ad-
jacent parts, but also how the original uplift came about, to give the
observed contrast in surface levels.
Now on the premises used by Hayford, it is possible to explain
how a given inequality of surface levels, when once existing, can
510 SEE—ORIGIN OF HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. _ [April 18,
be maintained ; but it is not possible to account for the origin of the
inequalities of level. Isostacy as thus depicted is not an active
creative agency, but simply a negative process for maintaining exist-
ing inequalities. Under the doctrine as above stated, the height of a
mountain or plateau could never increase, for that would require
the exertion of positive elevating forces, not mere balancing for
maintaining inequalities of levels already existing.
Accordingly, this formulation of the doctrine of isostacy is de-
fective, and inadequate to account for the phenomena of the earth’s
crust.
The true doctrine should include not only the balancing process
described by Hayford, but also those elevating forces directed from
the sea, by which the mountains are elevated as narrow walls about
the borders of continents, on the great plateaus which spread out as
wider embankments beneath them. Without these positive uplifting
forces, no continent could ever have a mountainous border thrown
up about it.
No doubt the elevation is produced under approximately isostatic
conditions. Mountains can be forced up only to a certain height,
the transfer of lighter material under the higher parts thus giving
nearly equal mass in all equal prisms drawn to the center of the
earth. The path of least resistance is towards regions of elevation,
and the underlying material expands as the surface level is forced
up. If this were not so the greater weight under the elevated region
would cause it to subside to the common level. In this way, and
in this way only, can progressive elevation be produced.
The weakness of the old method of reasoning is further illus-
trated by Hayford’s remarks:
“Under a region of deposition two effects of opposite sign tend to occur.
The effect of increased pressure tends to produce chemical changes accom-
panied by decrease of volume and so to produce a sinking of the surface.
The blanket of deposited material tends to raise the temperature in each part
of the material covered, to increase the volume of this material, and thereby
to raise the surface. The temperature effect may serve in time to arrest the
subsidence caused by increased pressure or even to raise the surface and
change the region of deposition into one of erosion.”
“The changes of temperature just described are due directly to erosion
PROCEEDINGS Am. PHILOS. Soc. VOL. LII. No. 211 ” PLATE XXIII
RELIEF MAP OF THE TERRESTRIAL GLOBE.
Illustrating the relations of the mountains to the sea, which has uplifted great
walls along the borders of the Continents, by the expulsion of lava from beneath the
ocean and its injection under the land. This impressive view of the Earth shows
at a glance that the mountains have been formed by the Sea. From Frye’s Complete
Geography, by permission of Ginn & Co., Publishers.
=
1913.] SEE—ORIGIN OF HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 511
and deposition. If as an effect of erosion and deposition an undertow is
started tending to reéstablish the isostatic condition, this undertow, a flow of
material presumably solid, necessarily develops considerable heat by internal
friction. The increase of temperature so produced tends to cause an in-
crease of volume. It may favor new chemical changes, including changes
from the solid to the liquid state, which may be accompanied by a change of
volume. The undertow tends to be strongest not under the region of rapid
deposition, but under the comparatively neutral region between the two in
which neither erosion nor deposition is much in excess of the other, see
Fig. 2. Hence the undertow by increasing the temperature and causing a
change of density may be directly effective in changing the elevation of the
neutral region between two regions of deposition and erosion.”
REGION OF EROSION NEUTRAL REGION REGION OF DEPOSITION
GREATEST HORIZONTAL
COMPRESSION AT SURFACE
ABOUT HERE
GREATEST HEAT FROM
INTERNAL FRICTION
ABOUT HERE
ee ee ae oer tow
— <— -_
<_—
— — SS DEPTH OF COMPENSATION
Fia. 2
“ Horizontal compressive stresses in the material near the surface above
the undertow are necessarily caused by the undertow. For the undertow
necessarily tends to carry the surface along with it and so pushes this surface
material against that in the region of erosion, see Fig. 2. These stresses tend
to produce a crumpling, crushing and bending of the surface strata accom-
panied by increase of elevation of the surface. The increase of elevation of
the surface so produced will tend to be greatest in the neutral region or near
the edge of the region of erosion, not under the region of rapid erosion nor
under the region of rapid deposition.”
The criticism against this reasoning is the same as that used
above—namely, it will explain only balancing, but not the uplifting
of great mountain walls along the sea coast. Nothing but the
transfer of lava from beneath the sea, and the-expansion of it
under the mountains will explain the observed mountain walls along
the borders of continents; and this requires positive forces of eleva-
tion, not mere negative processes. The advocates of isostasy, as
PROC, AMER. PHIL. SOC., LII. 211-0, PRINTED OCT, 3, 1913
512 SEE—ORIGIN OF HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. _ [April 18,
heretofore taught, have left that doctrine with such a serious defect
that this correction is necessary to give it a rational basis.
8. THe UPLIFTING OF THE HIMALAYAS, ARRAKAN AND AFGHANI-
STAN RANGES EXPLAINS THE GREAT ASIATIC EARTHQUAKE
BELT. CONFIRMATION OF COLONEL BURRARD’S IM-
PRESSIONS THAT THE HIMALAYAS HAVE BEEN
PusHED NORTHWARD, BUT NOT BY A
CHANGE IN THE ROTATION PERIOD
OF THE EARTH.
We have seen that the region now occupied by the rivers Indus
and Ganges was formerly a sea valley; and that after the Himalayas
were elevated to a great height, the valley itself was slowly raised
above the ocean.
If proof is asked that the valleys of the Indus and Ganges were
formerly below the sea, it is furnished by the well-established fact
that such valleys as the San Joaquin and Sacramento in California
were below the sea when the Sierras were being elevated. What
has happened in California has also happened in India; and the same
process of elevation will eventually give a fertile habitable valley in
the belt just south of the Aleutian Islands now covered by a sea
nearly five miles deep.
This proof that the valleys of the Indus and Ganges were
once several miles beneath the sea level is absolute. For it is
definitely known how the mountain ranges and adjacent valleys are
crumpled, and finally raised above the sea. And what has happened
for mountain ranges in general, has happened also for the Hima-
layas and the valleys adjacent thereto.
In order to round out the view here traced, it only remains to
add that the Arrakan coast of Father India contains two chief
mountain chains, one of which is the backbone of the Malay Penin-
sula; and the other is the range terminating at Cape Negrais, but
continuing under the sea in a string of islands, and reappearing
further south as Sumatra and Java. The Andaman islands and
several volcanoes in the sea appear between Cape Negrais and
Sumatra. And both Java and Sumatra are noted for their terrific
1913.] SEE—ORIGIN OF HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 513
volcanic violence. This volcanic chain is analogous to that of the
Aleutian Islands, except that the middle part is submerged, and the
two ends raised above the waves.
The line of thought here developed enables us to understand the
volcanic activities of Farther India, and also the terrible belt of earth-
quakes in Assam and the adjacent regions south of the Himalayas.
Part of the ancient sea valley is above the water as low land, and
part still in the ocean, and covered by the sea to a considerable
depth.
West of India, we have the complicated mountain ranges and
earthquake belts of Afghanistan and Persia. It would be difficult
if not impossible to understand the phenomena they present if
studied alone; but if studied in connection with the developments of
India and Farther India above discussed, it is easy to see that
Afghanistan and Persia were built up in like manner, and at no very
distant epoch were beneath the sea.
29
In his article on the “ Himalayas,’ Encyclopedia Britannica,
oth edition, the late General Strachey has strongly emphasized the
view that the mountains and table lands of Afghanistan and Persia
are intelligible only in connection with those of India.
“Tt is after the middle Tertiary epoch that the principal elevation of
these mountains took place, and about the same time also took place the
movements which raised the tablelands of Afghanistan and Persia, and gave
southern Asia its existing outlines.”
He also points out the fact that at no very distant geological
epoch the ocean extended from the Arabian Sea through the
Persian Gulf to the Caspian and Mediterranean. The continuation
of the earthquake belt through this region of Western Asia is
therefore quite intelligible, and the existence of active volcanoes
near the Caspian a survival of present and former relations to the
ocean.
The annual rainfall south of the Himalayas amounts to about 36
feet, and this is so enormous as to be almost as effective as a shallow
sea in keeping alive earthquake processes.
It is established by observation, for example, that the very
514 SEE—ORIGIN OF HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. _ [April 28,
active volcano Sangai, in the terrible rain belt at the head of the
Amazon, in Ecuador, has its activity about doubled during the worst
period of the rainy season, owing to the effects of surtace water. If
in South America the volcanic forces can be visibly augmented
by copious surface water, it is easy to understand that the terrible
rains of India may also operate to keep alive the earthquake
processes almost as well as an overlying sea.
The earthquake belt south of the Himalayas is thus perfectly
explained. And the extension of this line of disturbance through
to the Caspian presents no difficulty, when account is taken of the
recent situation of the sea over a large part of this region of
western Asia.
In conclusion it only remains to add that Colonel Burrard’s argu-
ment, cited in Section 1 above, that the Himalayas resulted from
the pushing of a great mass of matter northward, undoubtedly 1s
correct. This fact appears to be as well established as the rising and
setting of the sun, and further discussion of the subject is
superfluous.
The cause of this northward movement is also fully established,
but it is not that imagined by Colonel Burrard. In the Observatory
for May and June, 1912, will be found a discussion by Colonel
Burrard of considerable interest, but founded on the premises that
the earth’s speed of rotation is variable and has undergone con-
siderable changes within the period covered by geological history.
The writer’s “ Researches on the Evolution of the Stellar Sys-
tems,’ Vol. II., 1910, show that the views formerly held by Lord
Kelvin and Sir George Darwin are now quite inadmissible; and
that the earth’s rotation has not changed sensibly since the earliest
geological time. Thus Colonel Burrard’s premise that the retarda-
tion of the earth’s rotation might cause a flow of matter towards
the poles is wholly inadmissible.
3esides, there are other means of showing that such was not the
origin of the Himalayas. These great mountains of India, for
example, should no more be due to a change in the earth’s rotation,
than should the Andes, which run almost exactly north and south,
and by their course along the meridian, exclude an explanation
founded on a change in the speed of the earth’s rotation.
PROCEEDINGS Am. PHILOS. Soc, VoL. LII. No. 211 PLATE XXIV
RELIEF MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA.
From Frye’s Complete Geography, by permission of Ginn & Co., Publishers.
Illustrating the New Theory that the Mountains were formed by the oceans, and
thus run parallel to the Sea Coast, as in the typical case of the Andes. It was this
vast wall along the Western sea-board of South America and the earthquakes afflict-
ing that region that led to the discovery of the cause of Earthquakes and Mountain
Formation in 1906. The foundations of the New Science of Geogony were thus
laid by the writer, soon after the great earthquakes which devastated San Fran-
cisco and Valparaiso.
Pe lt ace CE he cain
PROCEEDINGS Am. PHILOS. Soc. VoL. LI]. No. 211 PLATE XXV
RELIEF MAP OF ASIA.
From Frye’s Complete Geography, by permission of Ginn & Co., Publishers.
Showing the development of the Himalayas and Plateau of Tibet by the Indian
Ocean on the South, and other ranges of Mountains by the Pacific, along the Eastern
shores of the Continent. Before India was raised from the ocean, the sea coast ran
parallel to the Himalayas, as in the case of the Andes in South America.
PLATE XXVI
No. 211
PROCEEDINGS Am. PHiLos. Soc. VoL. LII.
Be arises niente
a
ypu yoy
~ serra gzg arrg
49
reid ——
|
Pea eas we {
yn
i
Prk om M Mie ASG APH NP eT
oe meray eepuety
MeL emis ranyarcrayny 3 Mew
mw prepos Cuansiony emis
} aos our
erp tah nee ROR wee nik Siem 2 anime
a6 aR ws
showing the location of the
MAP OF INDIA.
From the Encyclopedia Britannica, ninth edition,
Himalayas and Plateau of Tibet in relation to the neighboring parts of India.
a
ee oe
.
|
PROCEEDINGS Am. PHILOS. Soc. VoL. LII. No. 211 PLATE XXVII
AE ee
as
THE CITY OF ARICA, PERU, AS IT APPEARED: BEFORE AND AFTER
THE EARTHQUAKE AND SEA WAVE OF AUGUST 13, 1868.
From photographs in the possession of Mrs. E. V. Cutts, of Mare Island, California.
PLATE XXVII 47s
No. 211
PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILOS. Soc. VOL. LII.
‘purysy arey ‘s14ND “A “A ‘SIP JO uorssassod ay} ur ydessojoyd ve wo1y
‘Qog1 ‘€1 ysnSny ‘nag eol1y ye saeM vas jeaI3 ay} Aq pURTUT o[IUI e Fey poyseMm Sem FT
‘AAUALVM 'S 'S N AHL SI GNNOUDAAON AHL NI dIHS AHL
ae —
=
PLATE XXVIII
No. 211
PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILOS. Soc. VoL. LII.
‘O16I ‘Ae I0F amizvbopy yorydvsboay Jouoynn ‘swepy siowyeyD jorsep_Y Aq ydes30j0yg
‘SOPN}[S JeIIS 9say} Je JUoNHIIF 9IV YIYM SUIIO}S JUSIOIA JSULeSe ‘SIIJIACI} JO Jo}ays ay} 1OF IINq asNOF{ 9U0}G & SurMoYsS
‘VNILNADUV GNV ATIHD NHAMLAd ‘SHAGNV AHL NI ADVSSVd
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yw
7 7 ‘
PROCEEDINGS AM PHILOS. Soc. VoL. LII. No. 211 PLATE XXIX
MT. HUASCARAN, IN CENTRAL PERU, ALTITUDE ABOUT 24,000 FEET.
Photograph and copyright by Miss Anna S. Peck, National Geographical Magazine, for
June, 1909. Used by special permission of Miss Peck.
Mi ACONCAGUA, IN-CENTRAL CHILE.
The highest Volcano in the world, and long considered the summit of the Andes.
Altitude, 22,800 feet.
+
t
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7 | | |
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went.
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4
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PLATE XXX
No. 211
PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILOS. Soc. VOL. LII.
‘
AHTHO IVA4LNHD VODVONOOV AVAN
‘
SHGNVY HHL HO MAIA 1TVOIdAL
= ~~ os SOD Re fe Amt inl ile etal a Nis Mili, Heuibacn at
' re Cgb
IMPONT OCR io eclrtitisrs ee ols Cga
Mooranoppin......... Ogg
WGN KES 10) 2) 4 6 OO OES Ccb
Mordvinovka......... Cw
Mornistowne- esos ese Mg
Mottaidi Conti... 2. Ce
Mount Browne........ Ce
Nomi Oye cee. Ogg
Mount Stirlinp... 52... Og
Mount Vernon........ Pk
Wiilfing
Exchange
Value 1897.
to
Oa
LS)
Cohen
Collation,
Med. 1899.
1.22
1.56
14
27
5-65
site
NOH
mm N
Nw
535
Ward Foote Foote
Collation, | Collation, Collation,
Med. 1904. Lowest. | Med. 1912.
-O7 ae aa
—_— 5.00 5.00
.8I I.00 I.00
sung} .04 .O7
15 38 38
3-65 = ==
-09 .08 10
26 — =
— T.00 I.00
-28 @ a5 /
17/5) 2.86 2.86
— -OI .OI
-63 I.50 1.50
-09 -10 10
TO — —
2.10 2.14 Dols
= .38 95
30) .30 aay
as. 44 44
“57 == =
-79 = Sa
3-40 5-59 5-59
-16 .08 .12
B22, .24 oes
20 I.00 1.00
a5 BS .29
= agit Agi
72 Bit aie
85 — —
179 I.24 Ts
-97 I.00 I.00
ad 1.82 1.82
miley) -14 Ly,
64 .64 .67
.I14 Sibit =18
08 -08 -10
== -40 -4I
2.85 2.50 2.50
-69 .90 95
-62 — —
I.13 2.00 2.00
= 1.25 1.85
-I4 =z oii
-57 -38 38
ai 1.47 1.47
sa0) .06 .08
ity 54; sity
== .36 .36
FOOTE—FACTORS IN THE
[April 25,
Name (Locality).
Muchachos, see Tucson.
Mukerop (exact loc. ?).
Mukerop(AmaliaFarm)
Mukerop, (Goamus).. .|
IMtbheyebatells Gooch GomS 4
Muonionalusta........
Murfreesboro.........
INFERS soo ca adobe os
Nagy-Vazsony........
Nammianthal.........
INalny Gln Oyerreeetenecte toner
INGNECl ors ono dane 9 o.c0
Nelson County........
Nenntmansdorf.......
INGERER stint etace sees |
Ness Countyeee ei ee
Netschaévo, see Tula.
INew. Concorde] ec:
Newton County, see)
Mincy.
INI&ZhWAlle Go c oo aie aa > a0
IN Goureyma ss. ccm |
INIA obo geounoe aoe
Nobleborough........|
INocolecher acsiciecie cr
INOV.O=Urell claire nee
INTIS acne choke ors suarenie
On voe oo cc gecomoon.
Obernkirchen.........
Ochansk, see Tabory.
(Osman Zango uc odoooes
Old Fork, see Jenny’s|
Creek.
@ranee Veter eer rir
Onell saacadsasaccgs
@pMANS: cece sie oes ates |
(Oronoco cocac.aol a6 |
OrviniO.=-- ..- Soe
Oscuro Mountains.....
OysiiGlao cocoa sob unine
Pacula ti lelc kas ets
Pallas, see Medwedewa.
Partallees s-tereecie-r) |
Pavlodar.----+--++-+>:>
Pavlovka.--.--.------
Penkarring Rock, see|
YVoundegin. |
Petersburg.-.---+-++-->
Petropavlovsk......--
Pila, see Rancho de la
Pila.
Pillistfer....----:--->
Symbol.
Wiilfing
Exchange
Value 1897.
NHN
oe)
man oO
Cohen
Collation,
Med. 1899.
NOH
was
on
95
Ward
Collation,
Med. 1904.
NOH
HoH
NO
Foote
Collation,
Lowest.
Foote
Collation,
Med. 1912.
.82
1913.] EXCHANGE VALUE OF METEORITES.
Name (Locality).
Ripe Greek. 2 .82.56653
EIT OTING G's 5 kere S05 «are
TEES DIES ct. ocd iat ich
iPloschikowitzo1. . «0. s «
Powder Mill Creek, see
Crab Orchard.
Prairie Dog Creek.....
Prascoles, see Zebrak.
Primitiva, see La Pri-
mitiva.
altsleahe ence jeesicai-es es
IPGUIOSH a ay -te sacl eee
Putnam County.......
@Ouenggouks 2.2... .4..
IRE KONA ee eres & Bee Gs eee
Ranchito, see Bacubir-
rito.
Rancho de la Pila.....
ReedsG@ity >. sa a.
INEM AZZ OMe ee asta na eee
Rhine Valley 2232)... .4
RIchmonds cn. oe eee
Rittersgriin, see Stein-
bach.
River Brazos, see Wi-
chita.
IRGONENAG bo eaooee cme
Rokicky, see Brahin.
Roquefort, see Bar-
botan.
Sacramento Mountains
Saint Denis Westrem. .
Saint Francois County.
Sainte Genevieve Co...
Saltillo, see Coahuila.
SalilakelCity.. 2.4. .
SaltpRivy ei ae ae
SAUPAT PELOmy eee ae ae
Sancha Estate, see Coa-
huila.
Santa Apolonia.......
Og
Om
Om
Of
(Om
Gea
Og
Of
\Cib
537
Wiilfing Cohen Ward Foote Foote
Exchange Collation, Collation, Collation, Collation,
Value 1897.| Med. 1899. | Med. 1904. Lowest. Med. ro12.
2.69 Ae -I4 plea -17
3.907 — — I.50 1.50
— —_— I.14 —= =
—_— — — 10.00 10.00
1.09 -24 -18 18 .26
-96 1.87 1.10 — —
aw -60 — = =
-19 .07 .05 .05 .07
+35 65 “S7 ‘57 ‘57
“45 -60 -56 .89 -89
-74 1.07 -79 1.00 1.00
1.22 —— I.43 .80 .80
-19 64 ole .18 -18
.06 — 32 -42 -59
06 25 35 37 37
— — cats 13 .20
Te2 2.50 1.79 — —
— — B15 .50 -50
3.10 — Peary 1.20 1.20
3.04 — 2.58 = =
10.14 — 6.00 = =
— — — ss 723
= 20 -I14 Io ATER
= .Q2 38 290 29
“54 = 3.30 — ==
-19 45 34 aa .23
58 — 47 .90 -90
= — aia .08 08
3-39 Bol 2.81 T.00 I.00
+54 a5) .28 38 38
ao — .12 oat Ai
Sy 7/ 2iale2 .68 I.41 I.41
— — a .20 .21
.90 — — 1.00 1.00
2.75 — — I.00 T.00
— — — .OL 1.45
— 2L5) 12 .10 elf
— — -— .05 .05
538 FOOTE—FACTORS IN THE [April 25,
Wiilfing Cohen Ward Foote Foote
Name (Locality). Symbol | Exchange | Collation, | Collation, | Collation, | Collation,
Value 1897. | Med. 1899. | Med. 1904. Lowest. | Med. 1912.
Santa Rosai. 2c. +.) Obz = = = BLS 15
Sao Juliao de Moreira. .|Ogg 35 a5 ar? en aig}
Sarbanovac, see Soko-|
Banja.
Sarepta es. cs ane cls 318i OF 35 522) aegis Aga agit
Saurette, see Apt.
Savtschenskoje........ i'Cck Bere 2.50 2.10 — —
Schonenberg.......... 'Cwa .93 2.30 2.62 — —
Scottsville seenictetsrier- iH AS 122 SG As Hoty
SEAR TOMES Go obb ood oc i€e 1.60 — 2.98 2.61 2.61
Seelascenk wre cer iste ene \Ogg 45 a2y7) 7 ae) .16
Secoviieenvasuoosdens ‘Ck -74 — — iyi Sait
Senecaviiall Semarrcriereine Om -54 — -OL 713 78
Senegal River......... ‘Ds -74 .50 T.00 2.00 2.00
Senhadyali. « sieie<-severa Cwa -74 = 75 59 -79
Seresist osc he ects wishes Cg 93 — I.10 — —_
SeyrtkOv.Ons. «veo neteiteroiey Cs 45 2.20 2.01 — —
Shallkkayetenstre oeiettersae tr Chie | 3.46 2.81 —— 2.00 2.00
Shellbumrelpsraric- cererceter iCg | — = — 25 .46
Shingle Springs....... Dsh —— -75 — -50 65
Sienae maeseiesreeciciaiene \Ch 1.28 Deer Pt} — —
Silver Crownlliscn sce: Og 45 34 .26 22 24
Siratik, see Senegal. |
Sitathallie as iecccreensehe (Cho QEGAi — 1.00 — —
Slobod ka cic sire neil Ge 3.07 — — 3.00 3.00
Smith’s Mountain..... Of .93 — 1.08 — —
Smithvillec. 2. ccc. \Og .20 eae} Aiba .09 .09
Soko-Banlyjamenieeemmice Ge -45 -46 AI -29 .38
Seallldallenia mie 'Cgb 45 -79 65 -40 -49
Stannertioe as sce ‘Eu -74 Alt 34 -39 -40
Sao 6 GoooGsnadsc Om -16 22 18 -09 su
Stavropolsrcic cedar er: |Ck Tey — 2.58 1.00 I.00
Stembachis is - ecckeres oe Si -58 $51 -46 ays .36
Stutsman County, see
Jamestown.
SUMMED fe secs cee esi Ha — — — 5-47 GeAy
GTabOr ss & wie isos ese ‘Ceb -74 I.09 I.05 70 208
SAD OL Yie vs cheve checks ates Ccb .26 25 27 al 14 -20
AMAA OKAS-
a eek
ee
tatawk >
ue,
Peo ke DINGS
OF THE
Pyle hiCAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
HELD AT PHILADELPHIA
FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE
Vou. LIT NOVEMBER—DECEMBER, 1913 No. 212
tak MARINE TERTEARY STRATIGRAPHY OF THE
NORM VPACIFIC COAST OF “AMERICA,
By RALPH ARNOLD ann HAROLD HANNIBAL.
(Plates XXXVII-XLVIIL.)
COLUMNAR SECTION OF THE COLUMBIA RIVER AND SHOALWATER BAY DISTRICT.
Pleistocene marine terraces, 50’
Pliocene basalt : Olequa formation
Monterey formation, 400’ tuffaceous lignitic sandstones
of Little Falls and Coal Creek
above Stella.
3,0007
Seattle formation
tuffaceous shales and _ sand-
stone with interbedded basalts
of Nazel, Grays River, Ilwaco,
and Astoria.
5,000
Chehalis formation
tuffaceous lignitic sandstones
and shales of marine and es-
tuarine origin east of Winlock
and in the upper Cowlitz Basin.
10,000’
Tejon Series
Astoria Series
San Lorenzo formation
tuffaceous sandstones and
| shales with interbedded basalts
of Winlock, Pe Ell, Holcomb,
Clatskanie, and Scapoose.
10,000’
Bedrock complex
PROC, AMER. PHIL. SOC., LII. 212 R, PRINTED NOV. 7, I913.
559
COLUMNAR SECTION OF WILLAMETTE
VALLEY AND UPPER UMPQUA BASIN.
Pliocene basalt
San Lorenzo tuffs of Silverton
and Eugene. 1,000’
As- |
toria
Series
COLUMNAR SECTION OF THE COAST
RANGE AND COAST OF OREGON.
Marine Pleistocene terraces, 50’
Elk River formation, 300’
Merced formation, 50’
Arago formation
tuffaceous and arkose sandstone
of Umpqua Basin, coarse basic
tuffs farther north on Santiam
River.
Tejon Series
10,000/
Bedrock complex
Empire formation, 500’
Monterey formation
sandstone and clay shale of Newport.
2,000/
Seattle formation
tuffaceous sandstone and shale
of Nehalem and Yaquina Bays.
5,000’
Astoria Series
'
San Lorenzo formation
tuffaceous sandstone and shale
of Upper Nehalem and Yaquina }
Rivers.
5,000/
Arago formation
tuffaceous lignitic sandstones |
and shales of Coos Bay district
becoming more and more tuffa- |
ceous to north and grading into
coarse tuffs and basaltic flows |
of Wilson River and South Ne-
halem River.
10,000’
Tejon Series
Bedrock complex
COLUMNAR SECTION OF THE GRAYS HArR-
BOR AND CHEHALIS VALLEY DISTRICT.
COLUMNAR SECTION OF PUGET SOUND
AND THE SAN JUAN ISLANDS.
Admiralty till
Saanich formation, 50/
Empire formation
sandstones and tuffaceous shales with
basalt tuffs at base, west and north of
Chehalis Valley.
4,000°
Monterey formation
sandstones and clay shales south of
Chehalis Valley.
4,000’
Seattle formation
tuffaceous s.s. and sh. of Dela-
S zine Cr.
2 T,600/
3
= San Lorenzo formation
aS tuffaceous sandstone and shale
= | at Lincoln Creek and north of
St Oakville, Porter, and Elma
with basalts at base.
3,000/
rm Chehalis formation
‘S tuffaceous lignitic sandstones
wa and shales, marine and estuar-
= ine with interbedded basic flows
-£ | and tuffs at Chehalis and the
ES Balch syncline.
9,000/
Bedrock complex
Astoria Series
Tejon Series
Vashon drift
Enlai
Seattle formation
conglomerates and tuffaceous
sandstones and shales of the
Seattle monocline.
4,000’
San Lorenzo formation
tuffaceous sandstones and
shales with basalts and ande-
sites at base, of Bean Point and
Port Townsend.
5,000/
Olequa formation tuffaceous
lignitic sandstones and shales
of marine and estuarine origin
forming the coal series of What-
com County and the upper
12,000’ of the Pierce County
section.
Chehalis formation
tuffaceous lignitic sandstones
and shales of marine and es-
tuarine origin of Fairfax and
the Pierce County coal field.
5,000/
Bedrock complex
COLUMNAR SECTION OF THE STRAITS OF FUCA AND WEST COAST OF THE
OLYMPIC PENINSULA.
Admiralty till Sooke formation
Merced formation, 400/ sandstones and conglomerates of Muir
= I$San Z a Yok, cea Creek.
Empire formation 60a |
sandstones of Bogochiel River, tuffa-
ceous shale of Taholah. |
, ”“
=SBG ‘Ss Arago formation
Monterey formation A | basalt tuffs of Port Crescent |
lignitic sandstone of Clallam Bay sec- = | and west of Discovery Harbor.
tion. > 3,000
2,000/ & |
. a ee ;
A : =< = ;
Twin River formation Bedrock complex oy _ fey
clay shales of Twin River sec- ;
tion.
2,000’ )
;
'
A !
Seattle formation
tuffaceous shale and sandstone
of Sekin River and Gettysburg.
3,0007
xs
=
v
nH
3
x
$
1-4
x
San Lorenzo formation
tuffaceous shale and sandstone
of southwest coast of Van-
couver Island, heavy conglom-
erates of the Cape Flattery
section.
17,000’
ESS SKK
va Ja ARR SEO ORR
ae
Ee
ee
y,
Y af
PLATE XXXVIII
(Lan,
SE FUCA
PQRT CRESCENT % SS
Baca
at
v
al
=
0
PA
= Yi Yi, ;
g
Y e@eEOLOGIC MAP
S
\
WS
or THE
y TERTIARY DEPOSITS
{NORTH PACIFIC COAST or tne UNITED STATES
SOUTHERN VANCOUVER ISLAND
wane pte ear ee
FAN Raiph Arnold
SOALE
LE
RK
ee :
OKO? cuaternary KWAstoria series-Middle Oligocens,
IE and B2\Sooke ~ Middle Oligocene.
| =a) Glacial deposits uaternary~ZATejon — Middle Eoceris.
(en river, Merced — Pliocene. (il cnico - Upper Cretaceous
Bacio flows) Pliovene and Eaiioxvilter Undifferentiated Lower
KAsna turre | Upper Miocene. Francisca
MM Empire — Middle Miocene. ESlorani
(3 monterey- Oligocene -Miocene ith”
Geologic Map of the Tertiary Deposits of the North Pacific Coast of the United States and Southern Vancouver Island. For explanatory symbols see Plate XX XVIII.
PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILos. Soc. VoL. LII. No. 212 ;
PROCEEDINGS Am. PHILos. Soc. VoL. LII. No. 212
PLATE XXXK'%*
PROCEEDINGS Am. PHiLos. Soc. VoL. LII. No. 212
Deis seat oi oo Fuca Olympic Peninsula
eit Hin
Ocearr
Sass BSS
SERS GSS SS
“Ke we
Bulg Banden ____=> TE
WOH Se
Et
E a eeish, Bandon Cape Blanco~ at
GLEE Tif iitalihih EZ LN ATL eT TT Say i S Ee
—Me—s Moen Pere
er eg —Et= _ EE SSS et
GEOLOGIC _ SECTIONS
TERTIARY. “DEPOSITS
NORTH PACIFIC COAST or m= UNITED STATES
SOUTHERN VANCOUVER ISLAND
By
Ralph Arnold and Harold Hannibal
15 Miles LEG END
is £0 25 Hilometers
iocen Org) rare Ls
a deposits [Mpb] Upper Nie ate ane [one [Oab] Astoria basalts (fa) pis Sls aga
[Qs ]Reised beach deposits [Me ] Empire [05] Sooke [UF] Franciscan
[Qg]Glacial deposits [Mb] Empire basalts [Et] Tejon Calv
[Per] Fk River [Om].Monterey [Ef] Te jon basalts cncouver sivenstones
[Pm] Mercea Astoria [KX] Knoxville [CE] Colebrook schist
tate
om
o*
.
*
oo bean Al) scene pieces .
: Spec SNE CORTINA AY, St, WenertT SES esha TY peel Pm aemuaaratil
pagans af naan aes
nets cee
fuze. aishi
ee wean
amma
ea awe nen apy ap aS gee AP ual
aes Si ——
gwen Tee r.- Sect! pea *
Aap Beet tenn cw anor yt = SD ae
ee er ee |
LJ i
, ci a ee
ponnis PON A
oe het as
pon rao) Jenene) yous
aglt ae ar ES vd
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pee (AMEE TT © Ba
Sit yemenes
«
-
a}
“nt Wi eh
. sy bay Src 1
"elie Bh tees (c (aed) at inte * orp ooll
1913.] STRATIGRAPHY OF PACIFIC COAST OF AMERICA. 563
GENERAL REMARKS.
The recognition of marine tertiary on the North Pacific Coast
of America dates back to 1848 when Conrad! described several
fossil mollusca from “the tertiary deposits on the Columbia River
near Astoria.’ More recent studies by Richardson, Condon, Diller,
Willis and Smith, the senior author, and other writers too numerous
to mention have shown that such rocks underlie all of Oregon west
of the Cascade Range and north of the Klamath-Siskiyou Mountains,
western Washington except the Olympic Range, and portions of
~ Vancouver Island. The several geological horizons have in most
instances been named and something is known of their fossil con-
tents but their stratigraphic relations one to another and their correl-
atives among the closely related formations of California are scarcely
understood.
Several years ago the senior writer visited the more important
fossil localities then known in western Oregon and Washington in
the interests of the United States Geological Survey. No general
report of the work was published owing to the necessity of further
field studies but descriptions of the stratigraphy of particular dis-
tricts are to be found in “ Gold Placers of the northwestern coast
of Washington, ’? “Coal in Clallam County, Washington’? and “A
Geological Reconnaissance of the Olympic Peninsula.’* Some of
the paleontological material obtained was described in “ The Terti-
ary and Quaternary Pectens of California,”® “ Descriptions of New
Cretaceous and Tertiary Fossils from the Santa Cruz Mountains,
California ’’® and “ The Miocene of Astoria and Coos Bay, Oregon.’
The distribution of land and water in this region during the different
tertiary periods is treated of in a preliminary way in “ Environ-
ment of the Tertiary Faunas of the Pacific Coast of the United
States.”®
1 Amer. Jl. Sci., 2d series, V., 1848, p. 432.
Sranold, ik. bull. 260, VU. S..Geol. Sur, 1005; "p. 154-7, Fie. 11.
3 Ibid., p. 413-421.
4 Arnold, R., Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., XVII., 1906, p. 451-468, Pl. 55-58.
5 Arnold, R., Prof. Pap. 47, U. S. Geol. Sur., 1906, 264 pp., 53 PI.
SAcuoid, ik Eroc. Us, S. Nat, Mus. XXIV: 1008; p. 345=300, Pl
XXXI-XXXVII.
7 Dall, W. H., Prof. Pap. 59, U. S. Geol. Sur., 1909, 284 pp., 23 PI.
8 Arnold, R., Jour. of Geol., XVII., 1900, p. 509-533.
564 ARNOLD AND HANNIBAL—MARINE TERTIARY [April 19,
In 1911 the junior writer was commissioned to continue the
exploration at private expense and the months of June, July, and
August were spent in examining the various described sections and
districts of the Oregon coast and western Washington. With the
opening of the spring of 1912 as opportunity offered, short trips
were undertaken from Seattle to points about Puget Sound and the
Straits of Fuca, and three weeks were spent on the southwest coast
of Vancouver Isand. In June extended field work was resumed and
a trip made from Port Townsend west to Cape Flattery along the
north coast of Washington, following which two months were spent
in southwestern Washington. Six weeks more were given over to
further collecting in western Oregon, field work being concluded
in October.
The present paper, preliminary to more extended accounts of
the stratigraphy and palaeontology, is based primarily on the work
done in 1911 and 1912. The faunas listed here include described
species obtained at, or in the vicinity of, the several type sections or,
if the deposits are referred to formations described first from Cali-
fornia, characteristic faunas from some district on the North Pacific
Coast in lieu.
BEDROCK COMPLEX.
The bedrock complex on which the marine tertiary deposits were
laid down varies widely from place to place.
In southern Oregon the underlying rocks are chiefly Mesozoic,
the Franciscan (Myrtle in part), Dothan, and Galice formations of
Jurassic age, and the Knoxville (Myrtle in part), Horsetown, and
perhaps also Chico formations which are Cretaceous (the Knoxville
may extend into Jurassic). These have been partially described
by Diller® and Londerback’® though much work still needs to be
done to elucidate the complicated stratigraphy.
In the Olympic Mountains the Tertiary rests indiscriminately
9 Roseburg Folio, No. 49, U. S. Geol. Sur., 1898; Port Orford Folio, No.
80, U. S. Geol. Sur., 1903; Mesozoic Sediments of Southwestern Oregon,
Am. Jour. Sci., XXIII., 1907, p. 401-421; “Strata containing the Jurassic
Flora of Oregon,” Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., XIX., 1908, p. 367-402.
10“ The Mesozoic of Southwestern Oregon,” Jour. of Geol., XIII., 1905,
P. 514-555.
Proceebines Am. Puitos. Soc. VoL. LI]. No 212 PLATE XL
Fic. A.
Gs Gs
Tic. A. Point of the Arches from Shi Shi Beach near Neah Bay, Wash-
ington. A characteristic exposure of Franciscan rocks such as form the Olympic
complex.
Fic. B. Diabase flow intercalated in Arago beds (Tejon series) on Umpqua
River near Glide, Oregon.
pa oe ere eee
cars! “STRATIGRAPHY OF PACIFIC COAST OF AMERICA. 565
upon indurated shales, sandstones, and conglomerates of supposed
Cretaceous age’! and a great complex of metamorphic sandstone,
shale, radiolarian chert, glaucophane schist, and greenstones cut
by peridotite serpentine, a series closely resembling the Franciscan
of southern Oregon and the California Coast Ranges.
In the Cascade Mountains of Oregon and southern Washington
the contacts between the tertiary and older rocks are usually ob-
scured by outpourings of lava but farther north Russell’? has
described Mesozoic and older sediments associated with granite,
greenstones and serpentine.
On Vancouver Island the Vancouver Series underlies the Oligo-
cene ; it is composed of slates, limestones, and greenstone-diorites of
supposed Carboniferous and perhaps also Triassic age, cut by bio-
tite granite. This has been described by George M. Dawson.18
Farther north in the Straits of Georgia Chico rocks have a wide
distribution.
EocENE DeEposits—THE TEJON SERIES.
Eocene deposits form a large proportion and from an economic
standpoint the most important part of the Tertiary sediments of
western Oregon and Washington. These belong so far as known ex-
clusively to the Tejon Series. Everywhere that a contact has been
observed the Tejon lies directly on the pre-tertiary rocks, so it
appears that the Martinez formation (early Eocene) of California
is not represented on the north Pacific coast. In addition to being
the most widespread formation the Tejon is the most extensively
developed. Prevailing low dips render it impossible to study it
conveniently in any one section, but from data obtained in the coal
field of Pierce County, Washington, and several other partial sec-
tions it is probable that 15,000 feet is not too great an estimate of
the thickness of the series in western Washington, while in Oregon
at least 13,000 feet of.beds stratigraphically higher are present. This
11 Arnold, R., Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., XVIII., 1906, p. 450.
12“ A Preliminary Paper on the Geology of the Cascade Mountains in
Northern Washington,” 20th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Sur. (II), 1900, p. 83-210.
18 2d Ann. Rept. Geol. Sur. Can., 1887, p. 10B-13B.
566 ARNOLD AND HANNIBAL—MARINE TERTIARY [April ro,
extraordinary development of sediments is only to be explained by
a consideration of the nature of the deposits. These are at some
points coarse basalt tuffs and at others, and by all odds this is the
most prevalent type of sedimentation, worked over volcanic eject-
menta in the form of sandstones or shales deposited under estuarine
conditions, evidently with considerable rapidity.
Three divisions, the Chehalis, Olequa, and Arago formations,
represent well-marked paleontological horizons that can be recog-
nized by characteristic faunas and floras over the North Pacific
Coast. The latter is not found in juxtaposition with the Chehalis and
Olequa and may represent a later phase of the Eocene equivalent to
the Ione of California.
Faunal Divisions of the Tejon Series.
\ Tropical flora—
‘Arago formation—zone of Venericardia|fan-palms, magno-
Tejon horni variety with obsolete ribs ‘lias, figs, and ferns.
ea formation \ zone of Venericardia | Austral flora—
Chehalis formation; —horni Gabb™ \birches, sycamores
j and chestnuts.
The Chehalis and Olequa formations usually consist of fine
material and are essentially estuarine deposits throughout, contain-
ing numerous lignite beds interstratified with alternating fresh water
and marine sediments. The Arago of the Coos Bay-Port Orford
coal fields is similar but commonly consists of coarser material
partly arkose in character. Farther north in Oregon this horizon
is represented by basic flows and coarse bedded tuffs occasionally
carrying marine fossils. In the Roseburg district it is essentially
tuffaceous sandstone of marine origin. ‘Coarse basalt tuffs carry-
ing marine fossils and interbedded with basic flows and a sub-
ordinate amount of sandstone on the north coast of Washington are
also referred to this horizon on the basis of palaeontological
evidence.
14 Usually cited as V. planicosta Lam., but the real planicosta is confined
to the Martinez formation on the Pacific Coast.
TABLE OF CORRELATION OF T!
North Pacific Coast.
Formation. Chief Zone Fos
Saanich
Pleistocene
Vashon Drift
Admiralty Till
Elk River Scutella oregonensis
Cardium corbis Mar
Turris smithi Arn, |
Pliocene
i Sanae dilleri Dall
——|Merced Scutella oregonensis
Scutella gabbi Rem.
Argobuccinum cam
Mytilus middendor
Cardium coosense
Pecten coosensis Sh
Bulla bogackiehii
: Pecten propatulus
Miocene
Empire
Arca devincta Conr,
Polinices saxea Con
Venus clallamensis |
Turritella oregonen
Acila gettysburgenst
Polinices olympidiit
Turritella oregonen
Acila gettysburgenst
Turcicula washings
Macrocallista vespes
Acila shumardi Da'
Turcicula columbi
Pecten branneri A
| Pecten branneri A
—- Monterey (Clallam) Monterey (Clallam)
Twin River
Astoria Seattle
Oligocene
__. *San Lorenzo Lorenzo
Sooke
Macrocallista newe
Patella geometrica
Venericardia horn
(obsolete
Venericardia horn
Pecten landest Arn
Venericardia horn
sais californti
Arago {
Olequa
Tejon
Chehalis
Eocene
Age.
Pleistocene
| Pliocene |
Miocene
Oligocene
Eocene
Saanich
TABLE OF CORRELATION OF THE TERTIARY AND QUATERNARY HORIZONS OF THE Paciric Coast.
North Pacific Coast.
California.
Formation.
Vashon Drift
Chief Zone Fossils.
Admiralty Till
Formation.
Chief Zone Fossils.
Upper San Pedro
Lower San Pedro
Merced
Elk River
Cardium corbis Mart.
Scutella oregonensis Clark
Turris smitht Arn.
|
{
Pecten dilleri Dall
Scutella oregonensis Clark
Scutella gabbi Rem.
Argobuccinum cammani Dall
Empire
Mytilus middendorfi Grnk.
Cardium coosense Dall
Pecten coosensis Shum.
Bullia bogackielit Rgn.
Pecten propatulus Conr,
Arca devincta Conr.
Sooke
Arago
Tejon
Monterey (Clallam)
Twin River
Astoria{ Seattle
San Lorenzo
Olequa
Chehalis
Polinices saxea Contr.
Venus clallamensis Rgn.
Turritella oregonensis Cont.
Acila gettysburgensis Rgn.
Polinices olympidit Rgn.
Turritella oregonensts Conr.
Acila geitysburgensis Rgn.
Turcicula washingtoniana Dall
Macrocallista vespertina Contr.
Acila shumardi Dall
Turcicula columbiana Dall
Pecten branneri Arn.
Pecten branneri Arn.
| Macrocallista newcombez Mrm.
Patella geometrica Mrm.
————_—_
Venericardia hornt Gabb
(obsolete ribbed variety)
Venericardia horni Gabb
Pecten landesi Arn.
Venericardia horni Gabb
Meretrix californica Gabb
Deadman Island (Santa Barbara Pliocene)
Merced, Purisima (in part), and Etchegoin
Santa Margarita
Scutella gabbi—S. breweriana beds
Monterey (Temblor)
Vaqueros
San Lorenzo
Ione
Tejon
Martinez
Echinarachniusexcentricus Esch.
Turris smitht Arn.
Turritella jewetti Cpr.
Pecten healeyt Arn.
LEchinarachnius Gibbsi Rem.
Scutella oregonensis Clark
Scutella interlineata Stimp
Astrodapsis antiselli Conr.
Astrodapsis whitneyi Gabb
Tamiosoma gregaria Conr.
Astrodapsis antiselli Conr.
Scutella gabbi Rem.
Scutella breweriana (sabb
Pecten propatulus Contr.
Arca devincta Conr.
Ficus kernianus Cooper
Agasoma barkerianum Cooper
Polinices saxea Contr.
Pecten magnolia Conr.
Turritella inezana Contr.
Acila shumardi Dall
Acila dalli Arn.
Pecten branneri Arn.
|
Venericardia horni Gabb
(obsolete ribbed variety)
Venericardia horni Gabb
Venericardia planicosta Lam
Pholadomya nasuta Gabb
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PLite es
cal STRATIGRAPHY OF PACIFIC COAST OF AMERICA. 567
The Chehalis Formation.
The term Chehalis sandstone was used by Lawson’ for some
arenaceous bedded tuffs containing marine Eocene fossils exposed
in a water tunnel through the hill east of the city of Chehalis,
Washington. The beds here form an intregal part of the south limb
of an anticline in which several thousand feet of conformable strata
are involved, the friable nature of the rock rendering an exact
estimate of the thickness difficult without instrumental measure-
ments. The upper beds exposed by this anticline are distinctly
marine while the lowest are probably of freshwater origin judging
by the presence of workable coal seams.
This anticline is in turn one of a series of folds whose axes
have a general east-west trend, exposed along the lower slopes of the
Cascade Range east of the Portland-Tacoma railway from a few
miles south of the Cowlitz River northward to Tenino. Upwards
of 10,000 feet of bedded tuffaceous and lignite-bearing sandstones
and shales, to a large degree of estuarine or freshwater origin, but
with frequent local zones of marine fossiliferous sediments, are
involved in this folding.
Other areas of the Chehalis formation are the Balch syncline
west of Chehalis and Centralia, the King County coal fields extend-
ing from Allentown in the Duwamish Valley eastward and south-
ward beneath the glacial drift to Renton, Green River, Newcastle,
and Squak Mountain, and the lowest 2,000 feet of Eocene in the
Pierce County coal field, the beds in which the Fairfax and Monte-
zuma mines are located.
No equivalent strata have been recognized elsewhere in the north-
west but the Tejon of the type locality near old Fort Tejon in
California evidently represents the same faunal stage. In many
respects the Chehalis fauna is similar to that of the succeeding
Olequa formation, but the floras are markedly different, that of the
Chehalis formation lacking the distinctly tropical facies of the later
divisions of the Tejon, and thus affording a most characteristic
feature.
15 Am. Geol., XIII., 1804, p. 437.
568 ARNOLD AND HANNIBAL—MARINE TERTIARY [April 19,
Excellent plant localities occur at Steel’s Crossing near Allen-
town, the Fairfax and Montezuma mines on Carbon River, Delazine
Creek near Elma, and Skookum Chuck Canon below Bucoda. The
Taylor clay mine on Green River, Snoqualmie Pass, the Newcastle
mine east of Lake Washington, and a point in the hills south of
where the Centralia-Oakville fault crosses Lincoln Creek are also
said to have contributed fossil plants belonging to this horizon.
The following marine invertebrate fauna has been obtained
from the Chehalis formation.
The Olequa Formation.
Overlying the Chehalis beds is a horizon of the Tejon Series
which on Olequa Creek in southern Lewis and northern Cowlitz
counties, Washington, contains an excellent flora, and also marine
and freshwater faunas. The type section extends from the Erwing
ranch a little over two miles above Little Falls southward down
Olequa Creek to Olequa, a distance of about five and one-half miles.
The beds immediately below Erwing’s represent a low east-west
syncline in which marine beds are overlain by freshwater deposits,
and these in turn by plant-bearing shales. Down the river a low
anticlinal axis crosses Olequa Creek a little above Little Falls in the
heart of which other freshwater and marine beds are exposed. At
the railroad bridge below Little Falls the upper marine and fresh-
water beds reappear dipping southward and some distance above
them in nearly horizontal strata appears a thin zone of coarse basalt
tuff containing numerous marine fossils near the old railroad bridge
above Olequa. From here southward the Eocene is mantled by
Pliocene basalts associated with river gravels.
The same horizon of the Eocene reappears, however, at Castle
Rock and farther west on Coal Creek above Stella in a more or
less regular repetition of low folds with east-west axes. Prob-
ably the total thickness of beds in this district does not represent
more than 2,000 or 3,000 feet.
The flora is noteworthy for the abundance of a large palm, prob-
ably Calamopsis cf. danae Lx. and of Magnolia cf. Californica Lx.
As both these species and one or two others identical with Olequa
Partial List of Species in the Chehalis Horizon of the Tejon Series (Middle
Eocene) on the Cowlitz River and Bordering the
Chehalis Valley, Washington.
PELECYPODA:
Awscula: pellucida Gabba sca siaisG sie 4) slot ngs ies
Garavum brewert Gab Dre ccene c8 «6 se nis to 2 me adie ci soats
Corbula horni Gabb..... rial gs CCU ERSTE RE AE AM er aE
Grasstiellites compacta Gabi. ..6 6.6 00 one oe om ele
nussitellites, cv andts GabDiarive. sisi seis eta sie
Grassitellitesmvasana Cont. 4.0 4586 se hee os on
Macrocallista conradiana Gabb..................
IML ACIE CRYTTLATH (GENO) Dg Bes 6 aio ion Hie 6 ee ONS oie pice
LNG AG TAS CAO OEe (Coin OFS 6 Sonos oukood onset os
ICL ELA GH OTALIN GAD Dian nice svarsied era i a) slice orey caavev alieveic eh
INGE (OHARS. (CANN sag tla o eld aod Be OO Re ee
Meretrix uvasana Conr........
WVIgithasturmert Stanton) ee sa nelncene ce eee: oes
Modiolus ornatus Gabb.......
‘Ostrea idriensis Gabb........
Solen parallelus Gabb.........
Tellina horni Gabb........-.;
Wellina longa Gabb- ....--. =:
Tellina remondi Gabb.........
Venericardia horni Gabb"®.....
‘GASTEROPODA:
Amauropsis alveata Conr......
Aimcillarzabreizy NV a. - + <2
57
113
145
Cal pircarexcenizica GabbDeeriear ince ieieis sere
(COMUSTFEMONGRGADD ers ciety eanieG eu bielerns sae
‘Crepidula pileuam Gabb.......
Exilia diabloi Gabb!®.........
Ficopsis horni Gabb..........
‘Gyrineum washingtonianum Wvr
Mitra washingtoniana Wvr.....
Morio tuberculatus Gabb......
Murex sopenahensis Wvr......
Olvellamathewsont Gabby: «cc was sks sls 2 slo-s.o tiers ess
Perissolax washingtoniana Wvr'®
Polinices horni Gabb.........
IP OMMECESESECLOMG AD Die, cieictaie sisi sind ceased os seas asses
Pseudoliva voluteformis Gabb . .
RIMELLORStMM PLE (GAWD). tae) ps) oust oie letets cto =s crepe, 4) eve ep elu
QTE OUTTA Ne Gad Gon bth ob een onan ancl
SUE PSLOULOMURILI ES DAGAD Dan) paiencts ciel sarees eee =
IR OUSREOCEN UGE INN ile raneaerist oct x catschcriaiis seatiet 3. 3s 04 nits ees anenaas
DORE LIS Yi APHECO OSES ENON 5.5 60 6 Bou dn GC ome aoe
SLOT RAIS ley (SEN 0 OVS 5 oe heck Oe, CRORE UR ee TEE
SCAPHOPODA:
Wentalsumiucco pert | Gabpaane se sen eee eee
Dentaium stranineum Gapb. > ssn-e ee soe eee
CCEPHALOPODA:
AILUPI On ONCWSONM GADD. ssa oe ole ere ie
16 Species supposed to be characteristic of this horizon.
570 ARNOLD AND HANNIBAL—MARINE TERTIARY [April 19,
Locality 57; sandstone, cuts along O. W.-Milwaukee Railway east of
Balch, Washington. (H. Hannibal.)
Locality 58; shaly sandstone, bluffs along Olequa Creek at old Ainslee
Mill below Winlock, Washington. (H. Hannibal.)
Locality 113; shaly sandstone, bluffs along Cowlitz River below mouth of
Drew Creek, 1% miles east of Olequa, Washington. (H. Hannibal.)
Locality 145; shaly sandstone, water-tunnel on hill east of Chehalis,
Washington. (H. Hannibal.)
Partial List of Species in the Olequa Horizon of the Tejon Series (Middle
Eocene) at Little Falls, Washington.
65 | 66 68 | 70 | 73 | 74 | 75
PELECYPODA:
AnculapelluctdalGabbiacts seein ee eee en oe bee iio
‘Barbatiavwmorses Gabriele coe eo ee oe x |
CardiumybrewerGabbrein oe ee ae Eee x |
CardiumOlegGuensisiNViVine Wee Hie ee eee eee wt ; YSN OES IS ac
(CUSS TALS) Bai HUTTON CANONS weirs oc odo Oude oo ciloac tro alloc cies = Pea iio 8 ile
Grassivelliesnerand¢ss Gab bina. ee tee en erent ete ioe Ra Sula ceellioe Site
Crasstiellites washingtontana Wr .......+-o.20eeeleee lees DK !|\ 5, <1] oS eee eee
GCyrenartorevrdes Winite masa a stereo chee noe ee oe Pal Weed lets cc. he
Whacrocallista;conradianay Gabbe ane oe eee > a eri (P40 Pel ei lis bein c
Wirconquvadrata Gap peers oe eee een > Sil ee Or lem ey fetes ;
WMOdTOLUSSOLNATUSAGADD aiaeh oa aes ene ieee ae <8) eta leteeeeal (apa t| os = Ile. =
OsizeasidriensisiGabpb eins ee Cen eee Xe OX
IARI NT NTSG, ENON A MP eealiotat heros A850 Gad 6 62 Feast Slot Led ‘i
Deplijer dicrolomus Gabbin ane eee ene ae 04/13 eral] CRA a rete
OlEMEparallelus Gabbe cess een ae ee ee ee ee a RAN esc
Rellina horni Gabbe sere ok ct on ss ee eee eed > ae lichen (SoA lato | ont | one
| x
x
£9 ok
x
GASTEROPODA:
AMOULOPSisuaveata CON se seen ake ee Salo
(Calypinearexcentrica Gabbe aes eee eee x
Hicopsishhornzi Gabbe ets te ee eee eel le <
ivcusimamillatus Gabba see ae ene Be 8
PolinicesshorniGabbae see seLn ok Ca nae Pa (>.<
Polinices: Sécha Gabbe, ae sed cits tholok es eee xX
x
x
x
< ets Its
dnelliavlonginGaly Dieiemucciceic ceisler coe ro eu eL eRe a nee Pr aeales;< lors olla
hellinmamemondinGabbanw ne aoe cee erie niee -< |) >.<
GASTEROPODA:
A OULO PSPS ALUECAtas CON tye n- piece een SC) leer
Calypiraqexcentr7co GabbDeer ete eee ee eee ener xe) ers
Gonusisimiatus Gabber ere ee eee ee ELE Broil <
oxomematurrita GabDers eel ae oe ene ae eee »«
Olvellatmathewsont Gabbe... 2 oe. eee bal aay Sic
LAOH ORES QTOKO (CAIN, cha sen dun doa sbemeondes sao nat Sci lle, use| Seca secrete x
PoliniGeshornt: Gab Drews ee eee ee eee ne > al Pater d eee ven AltA eS [3.6
'Polinicessshumardtang.Gabb-ue 42 eee eee eee enna SESS
iPotamidesxcaroontcola. Cooper... + ieee ie een Sa
SOLE ONC OG Noo oo pabaokoonsuocuOdoeo saan ue > a el lemonalle alla acc
SIVEPSIGUTG whtinevt1 Gab bie aa aes Ga ete etal iecral|.c c
livmontimucalujornicum: Gabbe eee ree acl Ageaellic tremens x
DUPVES*70. Gab Disa cs s.g 0s 500s Dic Ose AR Oe Ee DE Se alll ote: Bove coll leeenrel oe
huryitellanuvasavaweonin ade eo eee < eG See
SCAPHOPODA: |
Dentalnumstramineum 1 Gab pee | >a >, al laters otal lois lac c
BRACHIOPODA: |
Rercbratulina tejOmensts, Stanton eee eee ee eel ee ee x
19 Species supposed to be characteristic of this horizon.
fora! SDRATIGRAPHY OF PACIFIC COAST OF AMERICA, 573
Locality 32; sandstone and shale, seacliffs between mouth of Big Creek
and Cape Gregory, Coos Bay, Oregon. (H. Hannibal.)
Locality 33; sandstone and shale, seacliffs at Mussel Reef between Coos
Head and Cape Gregory, Coos Bay, Oregon. (H. Hannibal.)
Locality 40; sandstone, one fourth of a mile below top of grade north
of Five-mile Creek, Bandon, Oregon. (H. Hannibal.)
Locality 99; tuffaceous sandstone, bluffs along Little River at junction
with north fork of Umpqua River, Glide, Oregon. (H. Hannibal.)
Locality 116; basalt tuff, seacliffs between pier and Point Crescent, Port
Crescent, Washington. (H. Hannibal.)
Locality 154; basalt tuffs, seacliffs immediately southwest of Tongue
Point, Port Crescent, Washington. (H. Hannibal.)
On the north coast of Washington the senior author”? has termed
a series of coarse heavy-bedded basalt tuffs with intercalated flows
and a minor element of sandstone the Crescent formation. Collec-
tions of fossils from the tuff and sandstone obtained by the junior
author in 1912 indicate that this formation is the stratigraphic
equivalent of the Arago.
The Benton County hills a mile north of Granger, Oregon,
Mary’s Peak near Philomath, the Willamette River above Spring-
field, and the north: Santiam River between Lyons and Kingston
have yielded excellent plant remains pertaining to this horizon, usu-
ally in a white or pink rhyolite tuff intercalated with the basalts.
Knowlton** has also described plants from a locality in the Arago
near Comstock in Douglas County and another on Coal Creek in
Lane County. Several near Ashland may represent the same horizon.
The following fauna was obtained from the type section south
of Coos Bay and from points on the Umpqua River, Oregon, and
the north coast of Washington.
OLIGOCENE DEPOSITS—THE STATUS OF THE OLIGOCENE OF THE
Pacific Coast.
Until a comparatively few years ago the tertiary of the Pacific
Coast was classified on a three-fold basis—Eocene, Miocene and
Pliocene, and the term Oligocene was a vague indefinite division
20 Arnold, R., Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., X VII., 1906, p. 460.
21 20th Ann. Rept. U. S: Geol. Sur.; Pt: III., 1900, pp. 37-64, Pl. I-V.:
Bull. 204, U. S. Geol. Sur., 1902, p. 111.
574 ARNOLD AND HANNIBAL—MARINE TERTIARY [April 1g,
recognized by European geologists, but no equivalent strata were
known on the Pacific Coast. In 1898 Dall’? used the term Oligo-
cene for the first time in connection with Pacific Coast stratigraphy
to cover the “ Aturia bed,’ Astoria shales, and doubtfully (and cor-
rectly so since it is not a homogenous formation) the Tunnel Point
beds of the Oregon Coast. Following this the senior writer** placed
the San Lorenzo formation of California in the Oligocene on the
basis of its equivalence to strata referred to that period on the north
Pacific Coast.
Were the Pacific Coast Tertiary the standard for the world it
is obvious that a three-fold division would be recognized. The low-
est member would consist of the Martinez and Tejon, equivalent
to the present Eocene. The succeeding division would embrace the
Sooke, Astoria, Vaqueros, and Monterey and correspond to what
has been commonly called Oligocene and Lower Miocene. The
third would include the numerous usually local formations of which
the Empire is the oldest and the Elk River and Deadman Island or
Santa Barbara Pliocene the youngest, in other words the middle
and upper Miocene and Pliocene, there being no well-marked hiatus
in this part of the world between beds of Miocene and Pliocene age,
as these divisions are currently recognized.
A direct correlation between the Pacific Coast marine Tertiary
and the deposits of Europe and bordering the Gulf of Mexico is
impossible owing to the almost total absence of identical species
except in the Eocene. The nummulites and corals which have been
depended upon to establish the contemporaneity of the Oligocene
of Europe and the Antilles are not known on the Pacific Coast, and
there do not appear to be any other forms that will serve the pur-
pose. However an assumption that approximately the same time
interval is represented by the Pacific Coast deposits may be based
on certain broad resemblances.
In the closely allied succession of strata commencing with the
Sooke and terminating with the Monterey, the oldest beds lack so
22“ A Table of North American Tertiary Horizons Correlated with One
Another and Those of Western Europe with Annotations,” 18th Ann. Rept.
U.S) Geol. (Sur, (11) 1808, p.1323=348:
23 Prof. Pap. 47, U.S. Geol. Sur, 1006; p. 15 ff.
1913.) STRATIGRAPHY OF PACIFIC COAST OF AMERICA. 575
far as known any recent species of mollusca while the number grad-
ually increases to about 6 per cent. of the fauna in the Monterey.
The proportion of species extending from the Monterey into the
Middle Miocene is somewhat greater—perhaps 25 per cent. Two
or three long-lived species known in the Eocene range through the
entire Sooke-Monterey succession. With two notable exceptions,
the Sooke and Twin River formations, this entire succession is
decidedly subtropical in facies. There is a conspicuous element
of distinctly Eocene-Oligocene genera throughout, such as Crassitel-
lites, Aturia, Molopophorus, Exiha, Perissolax, Priscofusus, Strep-
sidura, and giant Turritellas, associated with an exceptionally large
number of species of Turris, Patella, Barbatia, Macrocallista, Eudo-
lium, giant Limas, and other usually tropical genera unknown or of
exceptional occurrence in the later deposits of the district.
This Oligocene facies of the fauna is very obvious in the Sooke
and Astoria, but less marked in the Vaqueros owing to the additional
presence of Lyropecten and giant Ostreas, typical Miocene types
which, however, must have had their beginning in earlier strata to
have become so widespread and important an element of the Mio-
cene fauna. The Monterey is faunally closely allied to these other
beds by numerous identical species, but as far as our present knowl-
edge goes, might be placed equally well in the latest Oligocene or
the earliest Miocene on the basis of the general faunal facies.
THE SOOKE FORMATION.
Occupying several disconnected areas along the south coast of
Vancouver Island from Becher Bay westward to Sombrio River
near Port San Juan and perhaps farther, is a formation originally
described as probably upper Miocene owing to the boreal type of
fauna. This Merriam** has termed the Sooke beds. With the ex-
ception of the type area between Muir and Coal Creeks several
miles west of Sooke where drillings have shown the sediments to
be more than 1,500 feet thick, the beds comprise only a few feet
of basal conglomerate usually less than the height of the sea cliffs
in thickness. These lie directly on the bedrock complex, the Van-
24 Bull. Dept. Geol. Univ. Cal., II., 1806, p. 101-8.
PROC, AMER. PHIL, SOC., LII. 212 S, PRINTED NOV. 7, 1913.
576 ARNOLD AND HANNIBAL—MARINE TERTIARY [April 19,
couver greenstone-diorites, and on Muir Creek a mile or two back
from the coast the greenstone is exposed beneath the Sooke in the
bed of the Cafion so that the development of the sedimentaries on
the coast is evidently only local.
The following fauna was obtained from this formation.
Partial List of Species in the Sooke Formation (Middle Oligocene) of the
Southern Coast of Vancouver Island.
129 130 13r
PELECYPODA:
Macrocallista mathewsoni Gabb. .............--
Macrocallista newcombei Mrm.**.............
Mytilus sammamishensis Wvr........-..--+---
OstreandrienstsiGabbiaee eee eres ea
Recten. brannert Arne =< oc. 3 tees oe ee
Phacoides acuttleneatus Conr.-............--- ALIAS te Ra nu ch oie
SOlCHSGUTLUS COltiiate.e chertene iho hot ane ne |
Sse, CUecr Aw, (COute. 6 ou cpecsoodoscucwe sc et |
hellanaroregonenstsi\ Conran ie oe eee ne ae
VWOMPOC RPO YES) HibINS 35 Sognnean ono deo odogkoc
xX XX X
opie fet ie)colie (a) fo 10\|]) (ns leo aie aie
xX XK X
x
x
GASTEROPODA:
Alectryon newcombei Mrm.?** .................
SUNTAN OUGCINOVGES™ NUN eterno eee neal
Crepidulaprenuepias Cont. noe ee ere
Budolwum petrosum Cont. 24. - 245 ae se eee ce
IN(Giicaoregonensts) CONT ane eae
Patella geometrica Mrm.2** ...................
IZOD TEAS AMONG (GAN 5 Ga cageacusacesancaaese
POUNIGESHCULWaNOeD alll mere eee eee ae eet
xX xX XK KK KK XK
SCAPHOPODA:
Dentaltuwmiconrade, Dalene soe eee eee eee pote) eral Seto x
24a Species characteristic of this horizon.
Locality 129; sandstone and conglomerate, seacliffs between Muir and
Coal Creeks west of Otter Point, Sooke, Vancouver Island. (C. F. New-
combe and H. Hannibal.)
Locality 130; basal sandstone, seacliffs at Fossil Creek, two miles west of
Sherringham Point, Jordan River, Vancouver Island. (H. Hannibal.)
Locality 131; basal sandstone, seacliffs one half of a mile east of Slide
Hill telegraph station, Jordan River, Vancouver Island. (H. Hannibal.)
Tue ASTORIA SERIES.
The name Astoria formation as applied to a stratigraphic divi-
sion of the Oregon Tertiary was first used in print by Cope®® who
25 Am. Nat., XIV., 1880, p. 457.
ror3-] STRATIGRAPHY OF PACIFIC COAST OF AMERICA. 577
says “the unpublished notes of Prof. Condon, formerly State Geol-
ogist, state that the backbone of the Coast Range consists of argil-
laceous shales, which contain invertebrate and vertebrate fossils,
frequently in concretions. Some of the latter are Physoclostous
fishes with strongly ctenoid scales. To this formation, Dr. Condon
gives the name of Astoria Shales. Above this is an extensive Ter-
tiary deposit rich in Mollusca, which is usually interrupted by the
central elevations of the mountain axis. Prof. Condon refers this
to an Upper Miocene age under the name of the Solen beds.”
As in the instance of other Tertiary formations named before
the modern exact method of describing a type section or area and
basing a formation on it came into use, the definition of the Astoria
Shales is vague, and has led to the inclusion under that name of
nearly all the Lower Miocene-Oligocene of northwestern Oregon
in spite of unconfirmed suspicions on the part of several California
geologists that more than one horizon was represented there. Un-
der the circumstances it is desirable to go back and see what Con-
don intended the name to cover.
At the time of Hannibal’s visit in 1911 the sequence of faunas
and range of species in the North Pacific Coast Oligocene and Lower
Miocene were not understood, and except for keeping the material
from the several localities at Astoria separate no attempt was made
to work out the stratigraphy and it was not until the excellent sec-
tions exposed along both coasts of the Straits of Fuca were care-
fully collected in during the spring and summer of 1912 that a
definite clue to the presence of two formations at Astoria was ob-
tained. A second visit was paid to the section there during that
summer, and later, through the courtesy of Prof. Collier, Condon’s
collection at the University of Oregon was briefly examined with
the idea of deciding what Condon intended the “Astoria Shales”
and “Solen beds”’ to include.
From the Astoria Shales there is in the Condon collection a
quantity of invertebrate material and fish remains*® largely incased
in gray limestone concretions, and derived without doubt from the
26 See the forms figured in the Atlas Geol. Wilke’s Expl. Exp., 1849,
Pl XVI-XVILI.
578 ARNOLD AND HANNIBAL—MARINE TERTIARY [April 19,
low westward dipping monocline of ashy shales which extends
from above Tongue Point, several miles up the Columbia River, to
Smith Point below the city, forming an unbroken bluff back of the
town beneath the scattered areas of Pliocene basalt. Most of the
distance these shales reach down to the water’s edge and quantities
of round or kidney shaped gray limestone concretions are washed
out of them by the combined action of the tide and river currents.
Practically the entire succession of beds in this monocline represent
the Seattle horizon and it is probable that this is what Condon in-
tended to be his type section if he had any specific section in mind.
However, the collections and description indicate that he also in-
tended to include in the Astoria the San Lorenzo Shales of Clatsop
and Columbia counties which conformably underlie the Seattle beds,
and make up to a much greater degree the sedimentary portion of
the backbone of the Oregon Coast Range.
The “ Solen beds” evidently comprised three things, the Empire
sandstone of the Coos Bay district with Solen sicarius Gld., the
sandstones with Solen curtus Conr. at the foot of 19th Street at
Astoria, unconformable on the Astoria Series and from the accom-
and the basal San Lorenzo tufts
at Smith’s quarry near Eugene with Solen curtus Conr. As this
27
panying fauna evidently Monterey,
last locality is isolated from the main Astoria area and the fauna
is quite distinct from that in any of the shales of the Astoria, though
the difference is entirely the result of the character of the bottom
at the time the beds were laid down, it is not surprising that Condon
should have supposed it to represent a horizon nearer to the Monerey
locality at Astoria which contains one or two common species.
The writers propose therefore to use the name Astoria Series,
not in a loose sense for all the Oligocene-Lower Miocene of western
Oregon but as a general name for the conformable sequence of
beds here divided on palaeontological evidence into two horizons,
the San Lorenzo and Seattle formations. To these are added on
the north coast of Washington a third division, soft semicoherent
beds everywhere else removed by erosion before the deposition of
the Monterey, the Twin River formation.
27 See list from here in connection with the description of the Monterey
formation.
PROCEEDINGS Am. PHILOS. Soc. VoL. LI], No. 212 PLATE XLII
BiG. Br
Fic. A. Tuffaceous San Lorenzo sandstone (Astoria series) at old Smith
Quarry, Eugene, Oregon.
Fic. 8. Weathered basic tuffs interbedded in San Lorenzo formation (As-
toria series) on Vance Creek southwest of Union City, Washington.
NS Le A A ie St Atte teat eatin
1913-1 STRATIGRAPHY OF PACIFIC COAST OF AMERICA. 579
Twin River formation (zone of Acila gettysburgensis
Ren., Turritella oregonensis Conr., and Polinices
olympidii Rgn.).
Seattle formation (zone of Acila gettysburgensis Rgn.,
Astoria Turcicula washingtoniana Dall, Turritella newcombet
Series Mrm., and Macrocallista vespertina Contr.).
San Lorenzo formation (zone of Acila shumardi Dall and
dali Arn., Turritella newcombet Mrm., Turcicula
columbiana Dall, and Macrocallista pittsburgensis
Dall).
The average thickness of the Astoria Series is not less than
12,000 feet, but at some points it attains a much greater develop-
ment. In the Cape Flattery section about 17,000 feet of apparently
conformable coarse sandstones and conglomerates, derived largely
from the bedrock series of Vancouver Island, from their fossil con-
tents appear to belong exclusively to the San Lorenzo horizon. The
base of the section is cut off by faulting at the mouth of the Soo-es
River while the uppermost beds pitch beneath the waters of the
Straits of Fuca. Between Winlock and Shoalwater Bay, also in
Washington, is a monotonous westward dipping succession of the
Astoria Series which if aggregated would total more than 50,000
feet of beds. The paucity of outcrops and the recurrence of certain
igneous flows and tuffs associated with the same basal San Lorenzo
fauna suggests the presence of a repetition by step faulting which,
with the limited time spent in this district of heavy forests, it was
impractical to trace out.
The San Lorenzo Formation.
The name San Lorenzo formation has been used by the senior
writer*® for a series of sandstones and diatomaceous shales in the
Santa Cruz Mountains, California. Nearly the entire San Lorenzo
fauna reappears at a definite horizon in the Tertiary of the North
Pacific Coast, 1. e., the lowest faunal division of the Astoria Series.
28 Prof. Pap. 47, U. S. Geol. Sur., 1906, p. 16; Santa Cruz Folio No. 163,
WJ. Ss. Geol Sur, 19000; Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XXXIV., No. 1617, 10908,
p. 348.
580 ARNOLD AND HANNIBAL—MARINE TERTIARY [April 19,
|
It is therefore convenient to use the name San Lorenzo here as
well as in California.
On the North Pacific Coast the San Lorenzo ordinarily con-
sists of two members; a basal sandstone and conglomerate varying
from 10 to 500 feet or more in thickness and composed largely of
worked over volcanic ejectmenta, lying on the basalt or andesite flow
which at many points marked the opening of the Astoria epoch, or
directly on older rocks; and a shale member several thousand feet
thick ordinarily arenaceous, gray and massive, less frequently. ashy
and dark colored, or calcareous and bluish. Seen under the micro-
scope this shale is composed largely of fine volcanic detritus and has
little of the organic character of the San Lorenzo shale of California.
The principal areas of the San Lorenzo formation on Vancouver
Island form the narrow intermittent strip of Oligocene sandstones
and shales bordering the southwest coast from Sombrio River west
to Barkley Sound. In Washington the conglomerates of the Cape
Flattery section and eastward to Shroud Head; the sandstones and
shales overlying the Oligocene basalts and andesites south and west
of Port Townsend; the sandstones overlying the lower Astoria
basalts west of Port Orchard Sound and forming the lower half of
the Bainbridge Island section of the Seattle Monocline; the shales
overlying the basal Astoria basalts north and east of Oakville,
Porter, and Elma; the lowest Oligocene exposed in the Lincoln Creek
‘section; and a large part of the monocline previously mentioned
as occurring west of Winlock including the Winlock, Pe Ell, Hol-
comb, Skamokawa and Upper Nasel River exposures are note-
worthy. In Oregon the Astoria shales south of the Columbia River
at Clatskanie, Scapoose, the upper Nehalem Valley, and West Dairy
Creek, isolated exposures about the borders of the Willamette Valley
at Silverton, McCoy, and overlying the Eocene basalts at Eugene
and Springfield, the lowest beds of the westward dipping monocline
between Blodgett and Newport, and the steeply dipping section
exposed in the seacliffs south of the entrance to Coos Bay between
Basendorfs (Miner’s Flat) and Tunnel Point should be regarded as
contemporaneous. The so-called Pliocene of the Yahates River
belongs also to this horizon.
1913.) STRATIGRAPHY OF PACIFIC COAST OF AMERICA. 581
A typical San Lorenzo fauna has been collected from the area
north and east of Porter, Washington.
Partial List of Species in the San Lorenzo Horizon of the Astoria Series
(Middle Oligocene) of the Porter-Oakville District, Washington.
50 | 51 | 52 | 53 | 54 | 55 | 56 | 109 | 207
PELECYPODA:
Gardium lorenzoanum AYN... 32. 6 oenses xX || 2S] 2X Seales c
Crenellarporterens7s) \Nivilert stele eos © ele ei-ls eel eH Pekeead yer en fol| eereedl eral (erate |lereke
Macrocallista mathewsonit Gabb............ 8 Resteteull eve cay [bana erewaulhereacel | ever oloS
Macrocallista pittsburgensis Dall®.......... eee elle ci
Malletia chehalisensis Arn.®.............-. > Caceres cial hae. Gal leeac| (cee |osenice leacsesl eee
iMancuaioregonensys Cont. 5 ee eee Dilla eallleacual eee c Sera ltakowrl laecic lentea lacot
OBALE VOLE USES. (GAN) cadgonondaeeouscboGe elox
Pecten branneri Arn. (P. proavus Arn., P.
TWOUSILOTULMMETH NII eich siswel owerrsc aie ere erake wtatever ens PRE ed Callie ol eel (ts cal ipod eaters] | Sat ene
IPECtenapeCRROMUGADD: «.6 eee s elnnicaeec savl|leo oll 2S lloaol| 2S I! es llosallo coll 2X
Semele gayi Arn.?9 ns Peshal kogctiallls: eral steers Gn] karate tenets
dhpactaniy.apezorded Conty. » 2.0. 22200-05656 Ree AeA levesess| || keer lease wideilhaci Sores
Thy) Ustr Gioysecta CONG 8. 56. )acted eine oes es Pea ee hoceellt Sal leronal leant se elichaallienave
Maldzammpressa (Cont. ess: ce es «3 eve ahs ose Calle. Spl bees | socal accion accel (ewoaet gation >.<
© |
GASTEROPODA:
iBpuioniwem raciperim Walle’ yc. 2 sles ne
ISB NNO UNbe (Cl NACGUALD IGN es po beUOn One Ane oe ee cell Pocescillavtney lhegemel ahishol teurerced i eget
Molopophorus gabbi Dall®................- Eero lRooveteal eeael (eo eves Woneestteme esa leoaved | eo
JE ANG LOCO USES IMG © ag od oO e Oo oe aaa : x a ailevars
TY CUCULANCOLUTLUL CAND all20R anaes oes) a) se) ss Bee yeilisan wileweeell aor
IEVASCOMUSIES WECOGE MATIN: 9 epee) ole eeienele else) eae) == x
Priscofusus sanctecrucis Arn. ...........: AMG <@ Nice seen (ooo irene cre ovr ane
Turritella newcomber Mrm.*.............- DSN PS POX HI SN OX
x X
x Xx:
xx:
SCAPHOPODA:
Dent alyume Conrad iW alines sets seine rs Veal eel oSlbesSaios Ios looalll os
CEPHALOPODA:
INGO. ORE SOLG (COs ooo Oho oda Bod ee Heel feel ah call epanellteveee| | eeeval | eueien | aueal ltee
BRACHIOPODA:
Terebratalia occidentalis Dall®............. 319.0
Terebratulina caputserpentis L............ 566
x X
x X
ECHINODERMATA:
Cidaris merriami Arn.”
sillescneal teenage seall 28
Note.—Thracia condoni Dall, Acila cordata Dall, dalli Arn. and shumardi
Dall, Strepsidura californica Arn. (S. oregonensis Dall), Epitonium condoni
Dall and rugiferum Dall, and Miopleionia indurata Conr. are also character-
istic species of this horizon.
Locality 50; massive shaly sandstone, road cuts one fourth of a mile
southeast of Porter along Chehalis River, Washington. (H. Hannibal.)
29 Species characteristic of this horizon.
30 Species still living.
582 ARNOLD AND HANNIBAL—MARINE TERTIARY [April 19,
Locality 51; basal marly tuffs, bluffs at old logdam on Porter Creek
one and one half miles above Porter, Washington. (H. Hannibal.)
Locality 52; massive shaly sandstone, bluffs one fourth of a mile below
logdam on Porter Creek, Porter, Washington. (H. Hannibal.)
Locality 53; massive shaly sandstone, bluff on Chehalis River below
Porter, Washington. (H. Hannibal.)
Locality 54; massive shaly sandstone, bluffs along Porter Creek three
fourths of a mile above Porter, Washington. (H. Hannibal.)
Locality 55; massive shaly sandstone, cut on Lytle logging R. R. near
top of ridge one mile above switch, Porter, Washington. (H. Hannibal.)
Locality 56; massive shaly sandstone, bluffs along Porter Creek one mile
above old logdam, Porter, Washington. (H. Hannibal.)
Locality 109; basal tuffaceous conglomerate, beds immediately overlying
basalt at quarry on N. P. R. R, one mile west of Oakville, Washington.
(H. Hannibal.)
Locality 207; tuffaceous shale, bluffs along Vances Creek two and one half
miles above junction with Skokomish River and thirteen miles above Union
City, Washington. (Thos. Purdy, Ed. McCreavy, and H. Hannibal.)
The Seattle Formation.
In the sections at Gettysburg, Bainbridge Island, Lincoln Creek,
Nasel River, Nehalem River, Yaquina River, and several other
points the San Lorenzo formation is overlain conformably by a suc-
cession of beds usually finer grained, thinner bedded, and more cal-
careous, though the exceptions are too numerous to mention, con-
taining a rather different fauna of less distinctly tropical type and
a forerunner of the boreal Twin River fauna which succeeded it.
The most fossiliferous exposures of this formation are in the upper
beds of the northward dipping Seattle monocline extending from
Restoration Point on Bainbridge Island across Admiralty inlet to
Alki Point, Georgetown, and Columbia City in Seattle and reappear-
ing east of Lake Washington near the mouth of Coal Creek below
Newcastle. The maximum thickness is exposed on Bainbridge
Island and aggregates perhaps 3,000 or 4,000 feet of beds.
Other exposures are to be found in Washington on the north
coast east of Gettysburg and at the mouth of the Sekiu River, in the
uppermost Oligocene beds of the Lincoln Creek section, the beds
unconformable beneath the Monterey sandstone south of Elma on
Delazine Creek, the lower Nasel River and Ilwaco Sections, and the
bluffs at Grays River. In Oregon the Astoria Section, the beds at
Nehalem Harbor, and those about the head of Yaquina Bay are
contemporaneous.
Proceeninas AM. PHILos. Soc. VoL. LI. No. 212 PLATE XLIII
Fic. B.
Fic. a. Riprap beach formed from thin sandstone beds intercalated with
Seattle shales at mouth of Sekiu River, north coast of Washington.
Fic. zg. Massive tuffaceous San Lorenzo shales (Astoria series) on Chehalis
River at Lincoln Creek, Washington.
1913.) STRATIGRAPHY OF PACIFIC COAST OF AMERICA. 583
The following fauna was obtained from the Seattle Monocline
and at Astoria.
Partial List of Species in the Seattie Horizon of the Astoria Series (Middle
Oligocene) of Seattle District, Washington and at Astoria, Oregon.
Oregon Washington
46 | 47 | 273 | 48 | 49 | 103 206 | 261
PELECYPODA: | |
PAGULE SELLY SDUNZCWSISH IN OME Oh me ey nine Sper oa din olfacto|| DONG OS OX | x<
Cardium lorenzoanum Arm. ...5.......--+--:.-- iba crcahll cea lifes SCE eae
Grenellasporterensts| Wve). seins st ates = els = Sick bile ots total Ds kewl led. < | Dal eae
EXO PSE LULAES (Conic og oboe ob a See OOEE 2S herrea | paca ke oleic Pele Wesaeal oer
Wiacrocullysiawespertimai Cont. 2 eriy -wya ee ere ieee laretter uence x |X| xX
MANGO CAALO HA ESIS: (COMES, 6 in Bo Oconee Ooo S HE foe cifeoe oh oll eerie lleoss | X
WTOGZOLUSSVMEZLONUS ATM ewe sae ele ate sees cal eee ve ae | Pa Sta tegmpae] Hae Sal eee
WVU SOMINUMISHCNSTS) NV Viens sacicie es ae ee ls eo\\o salle Wowekovire ss ae |X
INMOULOROWMSET OLED Allin ter eta rieicia ene ie res ee Vea ee air la Panetta illacialls oe
ZENO PeNCeNerOSan Gl Gass a tystra: eerste a hein eke aes Tcl Sree (aR IE SS
REClemapecRhGMmt GADD sone ee salts Sees ce | uses Sef) seal kes bse
ZCCLEURIU CY LAN OUPATT CU as wae ea eye erent sae Baraat [28 [2S] 28 floods atc Bieectlhoeereu
PaWacovaes acuinlenentusiCOniums snes See eel. Stall @ollc ad || LS || oS ileal lls
SAIN RAT COSED (Cosmin 5g bu oho denocdbeu od SSG ae eRe lh cae hehecaiet| MS een ae
DOLETMCUPLUSH BOM a Wasi s ciecsie es sis wie ces tates es Soe lees Pies | >< |< lex
Sse, Ware Cie, 5 obs oa son dou otic Oawaoe Bone alle x ile
Tellina lorenzoensis Arn. (Macoma moliniana
DS UD) SUnwenetra casper h ME ter St ye Retsareye ohana tee epee |iscrel lieth AN) OX PX
U AUG OG! Ola e) ECV 6 oo huis Gobo Cae a AAP Ae ane eS AlhONallherscullars ce
Mellimanoregoyeistss CONG iis a ete ee ee Peele ape eal -.-| X| X
MpRaGlanirapeZotded. CONG aaa eee er ata scoloec|louollooels x
TN MUSAAOAOISAR IS Covab awa Got Gig acs BA a cle alee Mave lieveeetl Recealleo ac XS AS ee eeweanee
Mytilus sammamishensis Wvr.......-..-- PN a eee cial lo gibi viol|b ofo.0 8 « \oarremses
Recten pecknamy Gabber cere nee tase a |: “agroteeeane eeeeroncten io lo eco ee Pox
Phacoides acutilineatus Conr...........-. ReneS) Wao die. He Se line oteale os 06
Solen curtus Commo. cas wiicesis Slert oases oi]! ON | Witney spats: |leuee veel lalelee eal | eee
ihelling. oprutaiConteee meee seen by dX yaaa WE Sad Mine x
ihhyaccastrapezovdeas Conta. eee ae eee dali rend oe l, wss,avetell Poe cheney Cae
Dhyasara oisectas Conte ere eye te eens Ke tals oN Wd. cconer| eee
GASTEROPODA: |
udolium: perrosumuCont. eases eee DRG lexan: Xe | eee ae x
iNiaticaoregonensis: CONG ale eaieeiia eee > ae eee XM |i x
iRolinices zalsanow Walle ace eee [svete a teeell ei evetee aol neato X «ede
Polinices olyneprdi7een.2* ere uepeie te eee Se ieaerean > a eee || cco 0 <
Sinum scopulosum) Contec cece eee. ey aeecston Ih5. Aucouis ell pia eaeeetrat| eee
Turritella oregonensis Conr.33,............ Anarene xh) nei eee
SCAPHOPODA:
Dentalwumiconradra alleen En Serer sus Koo awaits x
CEPHALOPODA:
AturiglangustataiConte eerie On Were leh area ltrs teeta gene x
33 Species characteristic of this horizon.
34 Species still living.
ma STRATIGRAPHY OF PACIFIC COAST OF AMERICA. 585
Locality 120; clay shales, seacliffs west of Twin for a distance of three
fourths of a mile along shore, Olympic Peninsula, Washington, (A. B.
Reagan, H. Hannibal.)
Locality 121; clay shales and sandstone, seacliffs at Arc Reef Point two
and one half miles west of Twin, Washington. (H. Hannibal.)
Locality 122; shaly sandstone, seacliffs one half to three miles east of
Twin, Washington. (A. B. Reagan, H. Hannibal.)
Locality 158; sandstone and shale, seacliffs at small point west one mile
from Deep Creek, Twin, Washington. (H. Hannibal.)
Locality 159; shale and sandstone, seacliffs one and one half miles east
of Pillar Point, Twin, Washington. (H. Hannibal.)
of Washington and extending from about three miles east of Twin
River west nearly to Pysht Bay where it is faulted against the
Monterey, is a stretch of soft clay-shales perhaps 2,000 feet thick
intercalated with occasional thin beds of sandstone that wash out on
the beach as flags. These beds, both shales and sandstone, contain
a fauna of a marked boreal type. Most of the species are unde-
scribed, but the few already known indicate that it is quite as closely
allied to the Vaqueros and Monterey as to the San Lorenzo and
Seattle faunas, yet sufficiently distinct from all of these.
The horizon is named from the locality where the best fossil
collecting was obtained.
THE MONTEREY FoRMATION (OLIGOCENE-MIOCENE).
The term “ Monterey Shales” has long been current in the geo-
logical literature of California for the great series of diatomaceous
shales first described by Blake** and Lawson**® from Monterey in
that state. While these deposits are particularly interesting to the
oil geologist on account of their petroliferous character, their affini-
ties have long been uncertain owing to the impoverished molluscan
fauna. Dr. J. P. Smith** was probably the first writer to correctly
interpret their relations, considering them as simply an off-shore
facies of the beds variously called the Upper Vaqueros, Temblor,
Agasoma zone, and Turritella ocoyana beds. Recently the junior
writer visited the type section and had no difficulty in securing a
35 Blake, W. P., Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sct., VII., 1855, p. 328-331.
36 Lawson, A. C., Bull. Geol. Univ. Cal., I., 1803, p. 22.
SirOC MCU wACad Sci (AthnOeh.)s lle Tora py 161162,
586 ARNOLD AND HANNIBAL—MARINE TERTIARY [April 19,
small but characteristic fauna from limestone lenses intercalated in
the diatomaceous shales.
Partial List of Species in the Monterey Formation (Oligocene-Miocene)
Between Monterey and Carmel, California.
PELECYPODA :
Arca devincta Conr. (A. montereyana Osmont).3§
Leda taphria Dall.8®
Leda penita Conr.3§
Marcia congesta Conr. (Tellina congesta Conr.).3§
Nucula townsendi Dall (ranges into Astoria).
Pecten peckhami Gabb (ranges into Tejon).
Venericardia montereyana Arn.38
GASTEROPODA :
Caesia arnoldi F. M. And. (ranges into Empire).
Ficus kernianus Cooper.®§
Polinices saxea Conr.38
Turritella cf. variata Conr.38
This unmistakably fixes the identity of the Agasoma zone of
California and what the senior writer*® has described from the north
coast of Washington as the Clallam formation with the Monterey
shale, and it is proposed to unite all these under this prior name.
It should be specifically understood however that another formation
in California, the Lower Vaqueros, 7. e., the zone of the beds in the
Las Vaqueros Valley, to which the name Vaqueros was applied by
Hamlin‘! and from which were obtained such species as Mytilus
expansus Arn., Ostrea cf. Tayloriana Gabb, Ostrea cf. Titan Conr.,
Pecten magnolia Conr., and Turritella inezana Conr., are not in-
cluded in the Monterey. This formation lies unconformably below
the Monterey in the Santa Monica Mountains, in the Santa Clara
River Valley (where it is more particularly characterized by Scutella
fairbanksi Arn.), and in the Santa Cruz Mountains. For it the name
Vaqueros is retained.
Perhaps the only objection to the use of the term “ Monterey
Formation,” and certainly not an important one from a palzonto-
38 Species characteristic of this horizon.
39 Species still living.
40 Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., XVIII., 1906, p. 461.
41 Water Supply Paper 89, U. S. Geol. Sur., 1904, p. 14.
PROCEEDINGS Am. PHILOS. Soc. VoL. LII. No. 212 PLATE XLIV
TGs eRe
Fic, A. Landsliding in soft clayshales of Monterey formation on O. W.
Milwaukee Railway between Cosmopolis and North River, Washington.
Fic. 8. Jump-off-Joe rock and Cape Foulweather light-house, Newport,
Oregon. The rocks in the foreground are Monterey sandstones and shales, in
the distance basalts intruded in the Monterey.
7913.) STRATIGRAPHY OF PACIFIC COAST OF AMERICA. 587
logical standpoint, is total absence on the North Pacific Coast of
any beds in this formation, or in any other formation for that
matter, lithologically similar to the diatomaceous shales so preva-
lent in Monterey of California. This became vital, however, from
the point of view of the economic geologist since upon the
presence of such shales or similar organic deposits equally lacking
here, depends the possibilities of the discovery of petroleum in
commercial quantities. Except for coal near Clallam Bay, Wash-
ington,*? and on the North Nehalem River in Oregon* no organic
products of economic value are known in this formation.
The Monterey formation of this region ordinarily consists of
two members; the lower a massive buff sandstone often containing
thin lignite seams and attaining south of the Chehalis River a thick-
ness of perhaps 1,500 feet; the upper fine soft clay shales perhaps
2,500 feet thick in the same section which is one of the most complete.
To this formation are referred the conglomerates overlying the
San Lorenzo shales at Carmanah Point on Vancouver Island; and
in Washington: the Clallam section and the conglomerates uncon-
formable on the Seattle beds between West Clallam and the Hoko
River; a small area of Tertiary sandstone faulted into the so-called
Cretaceous north of the Hoh River; an area of shales faulted against
the Empire formation on the upper Wishkah River; the westward
dipping monoclinal section from a few miles west of Elma to North
River Junction on the south side of the Chehalis River and equiva-
lent strata south to the Willipa River; and an isolated area beneath
the Pliocene basalt on Elocheman River about twelve miles above
the Columbia. In Oregon isolated areas lying on the Astoria series
or exposed beneath the Pliocene basalt at Mountain Dale, Westport,
the foot of roth Street at Astoria, and the south shore of Tillamook
Harbor are of this age as well as a narrow belt of. rocks faulted
against the Astoria series and extending for several miles up and
down the coast west of Newport.
The following species were obtained in the Clallam section and
at Astoria.
42R, Arnold, Bull. 260, U. S. Geol. Sur., 1905, p. 413-427.
43 J. S. Diller, 17th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Sur., Pt. I., 1806, p. 494.
588 ARNOLD AND HANNIBAL—MARINE TERTIARY [April 19,.
Partial List of Species in the Monterey Formation (Oligocene-Miocene) of
the Clallam Bay District, Washington, and at Astoria, Oregon.
| 45 | 89 160 | x6x | 162 | 163.
|
PELECYPODA:
Alctla-conradi Meeknin.< 5Jscee cen ee ene S| El ecole ee x<
Arca devincta Conr. (A. montereyana Osmont)*4........ << Sl eal
Arca trilineata Conn. a hes oA 2 east Meee eo ane eee eee eG lee
Diplodontacparilis; Content eae ee DEH eacletei|& 5: ai] stl aed ees
Dosintacwhiiney1 Gabbe 4+ ie oe oe eee eee eee ss ilvaite 01) Dea Sl ae eee
Leda penita Gonttts, 45 oe ea aes eye re sno oe sae cosas Pale ee eH ec cls 5
Miacomia; piercer Arimss* tine cites ee eset ee ae BE eee (prea ee-6 Nlistesclls cc
Marcia oregonensis Conr. (M. subdiaphana Cpr.)**...... SC Sle ce aie x
Modiolus rectus Conr. (M. directus Dall)*®............. DG eae lente lei S et) Gare
IPANOP Ey ZENCTOSA Glico cae ee emekieaenn sie etcrerereaeiel tere ere 6) Xai Noxaiis x
Peéctensfiucanus Dale yk... oe ore Ae ew ae ne PE Sallinceotb oS: |l <
PectenpproparnlusiConnnsee eee eae ere eron cere rier Xs | DR el eel ea ee
Phacoides acuivlimneates (Cont. 7a eee yaaa leesialinoG lla all ><
SOLEMN CUTIUSACONT aA ee ee EEE Ee eee DX ||| DSell cs Sire RS ie rowen eee
AS SOME Nat OM SO oi aininun, once Bmacogacaoy saaobe | |e |e [ese alia
Sipisularcatilsfoymisn Contes aes lee eis eee Pa ae, Ga (se 1 (ehctes| [esse || =v
DRellanaxarctatas@ont:t45 3 ne atee ake eee ee Ps Gl heres nea [fio 6o5 | ho-8
MellinawuculanaeD allestue een ens ere Sena eer paul PR ites teen || oi.0 la: <-
hellina-obrutaContre1 che aloarza Conte ecm eee eee Dal races hs Bre el lao oll os
eliaqua: Ore Omen SUSH CONE eins hia cyae esha eae eee = pee Ve chal Sx
iiirawtarira pezovdeanCont eye ree ae eee eee fe Siill poSei toms ohio ANE
IETS IAT WISAHON COM Sea coagg OA GAO adomoD eae oo Ab > hl WEBB petomel | os naeee
Venericardia subtenta Conr. (V. quadrata Dall)*4........ eal Pearle Xx x
Venus clallamensis Rgn. (V. ensifera Dall)44........... <> <
WEES OU POGIAGIA Rag ane eect ey oo 0.0 Calton oldiciped 4 me ao se al
WOlLAIAT LDV ESS CLEC OUT Rime none ie eee SK
WOLAUG. 07.6 CONG. MUI Eat eee eee ae ee eee x
GASTEROPODA:
FA PONTE AOC SES IDEM A Somes oo dacongg0don ae son oF x eal
(Casio, ould Veh, Wil, JNMGle-G. oo ocdadcgbouacpodeoj neuen x lsewe x
Chrysodomus nodiferus Conr. (Fusus stanfordensis Arn.)..| X | X <
CrepidulosprarupiorContar aneri ae eeeeraee ae eiee Laine x
CylichnellaspetyosahCont-e2ee rae ee nee ae ee S< |
PIUcus SLanfordenstSw Atm. tka Sree ea eek eee ae te
Fusinus corpulentus Conr. (Ff. medialis Conr.)4#4........ | os
I IS OOS SOL AN ING HIS: (Coyote ON Me Oigiss odode ust sonaonl| X€
iNiatica oregonensts: Conte: - ee ee ee One Silas
Polintcesssaxea Conrs425 hot oe ee Ue ee Da etal Salevia bers
IPYUSCOLUSUS BENIGULUS) CONT Ai pene ae eee Hie ees aera lh oe yaa lf Sie
SULUM SCOPUlosUn CON sae ee eal Ih. Sr teers Pecan ccs lS ce
TUT USN OOGHECISTS NVIVGAAa eet eee ene = ey eil tees aye 0) geared eee ES
iuyriteWasorezonensyssContee4 ater eee ee Wes4
SCAPHOPODA:
Dentalium conradi Dall (D. petricola Dall).............| X | X|...| X]|...| X
CEPHALOPODA:
Aluria angustata; Comm. crcicdis 2 5 seins ecleke e oe eee el | eee Pera erat |<
Locality 45; basal sandstone, beach at foot of roth Street, Astoria, Oregon.
(H. Hannibal.)
44 Species characteristic of this horizon.
45 Species still living,
PLATE XLV
PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILOS. Soc. VoL. LII. No. 212
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1913-1 STRATIGRAPHY OF PACIFIC COAST OF AMERICA. 589
Locality 89; basal sandstone and conglomerate, seacliffs eastward from
Slip Point for half a mile along shore, Clallam Bay, Washington. (A. B.
Reagan, H. Hannibal.)
Locality 160; massive sandstone, seacliffs at Pillar Point near Clallam
Bay, Washington. (H. Hannibal.)
Locality 161; shaly sandstone, seacliffs one and one half miles west of
Pillar Point near Clallam Bay, Washington. (H. Hannibal.)
Locality 162; carbonaceous sandstone, seacliffs at Clallam coal mine near
Clallam Bay, Washington. (H. Hannibal.)
Locality 163; shaly sandstone, seacliffs one and one half miles west of
Clallam coal mine near Clallam Bay, Washington. (H. Hannibal.,
THE Empire FORMATION (MIOCENE).
To beds exposed on the east shore of Coos Bay south of Empire,
Oregon, Diller*® has given the name Empire formation. This
horizon the junior writer found in his field work to be widespread
in Western Oregon and Washington. In many respects the Empire
fauna is peculiar since it evidently represents the oldest distinctly
Miocene strata on the Pacific Coast. For, while the fauna is per-
haps most closely allied to the Scutella breweriana-S. gabbi beds
of the San Pablo formation of the San Francisco Bay region in
California, the larger proportion of recent species in those deposits
and rather marked faunal differences preclude an exact correlation.
In the Empire district about 500 feet of beds, sandstones at
the base grading upward into massive shales partially organic in
character, but more or less derived from worked over volcanic
debris, represent the formation. At Cape Blanco sandstones alter-
nating with compact bedded volcanic ash containing abundant plant
remains attain about the same thickness. In the area between
Willipa Harbor and Grays Harbor in Washington the base of the
formation is represented, being marked by a zone of basalt tuffs and
breccias. The most important area, however, lies between the Che-
halis Valley and the foot of the Olympic Mountains, where the
formation attains a thickness of perhaps 4,000 feet, chiefly sand-
stones at the base grading upward into massive tuffaceous shales
with some intercalated sandstones. Small Empire areas occur on
the west coast of the Olympic Peninsula between Cape Grenville and
46 17th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Sur., Pt. I., 1896, p. 475.
590 ARNOLD AND HANNIBAL—MARINE TERTIARY
[April 19,
Partial List of Species in the Empire Formation (Middle Miocene) of the
Coos Bay-Cape Blanco District, Southwestern Oregon.
23 | 26 | 31 | 36 | 37 | 39 | 43 | 44
PELECYPODA:
AtcilaconradtMcekas < c\sccicis os acheter een tene ue eral OX <
Arcantralineatas€onte =. neice so eae ee ee aXe ko)
Gardiumicoosensey Dallas sae ae ee te are | Kare Pat OS's. ellenare
CardimmeckionumlGabonae ei ei ie si elOw a OS
Diplodonta partlisiConts amass ee Elo x
Glycymeris grewingki Dall48 (G. gabbi Dall, G.
ConradmWall) Maw sete cea ele eoe eo een ee ses x x
WMidcontavastoys vat erie arcuciejciensseetate terete ence sia ills ayeilleeekes x A letatiea| | oS
MacomaycalcareaaGmel Aaya) te eee nee ie xX AES
MC COMAMNGUENOLE ND GS ne Wan eene rete ieiayenet ieee ini |lsypecel| ene Selle c
Marcia oregonensis Conr. (M. subdiaphana Cpr.)*|...| X Herel || ><
Modiolus rectus Conr. (M. directus Dall)®......|...)...|... x
Mulinia densata Conr. (M. oregonensis Dall)....|...]...|..- Soll 2s
DU EMAL pe Cae OR i cee, oh aetaanicoe Dhow Gre oa.cloao, 60 levee eae avers S<|
Mytilus middendor fi Grnk. (M. condoni Dall)#® | X | X|]...|...|...]...-]...]-
Panomya ampla Dall (P. chrysis Dall)*#........)... BA re ey edieeal ts cecil oS
iParapholasicalsjorneca Cont.) aaeracie re oer oii ea aatsl aor | x
Papiiaesrayleves Gabba eee ee Joes [o eile eal XX aoe x
PEGtEN COOSENSIS SHUI AS enerete eta e eine eine Jess[eeeteo-] MJ...| X
Phacoidesacutlincarus, Contes eee eens ie eared (eeepes| teaekesl seueiie-<.4| ©
SChiZzotnerus: pajeroanus: COnt)-)-)- 5). ees oe | Se Sih eR dal ate etal Ne
Siliqua nuttalli Conr. (S. oregonia Dall)®....... Hae [PD Sleds el eee A Lrahegers
Solen sicarius Gld. (S. conradi Dall)#®.......... [ieee x SX ale XS
Spisula albaria Conr. (S. precursor Dall) ...... Noten es XK el SHE
lellina avapontasD alate aan ei een elon ee aly ect eo
iihracvatinapezovdeas Cone eee ee eerie |. oe les = lls. Oe
Venus securis Shum. (V. parapodema Dall)..... oo Du rae an el scale
VMoldiamm pressalCont er niece eee sede o[ on [h OS [eo = tee te ent
WOOO AAA SVNUbIN, 2556004 nn bn Aee aoe ye add SMO AMMIIGe IIMS eS [po olloocloos
Voldiravsirigata Wallin aerate tarts eine teal ee Re ee 44 Sheva alloc (ac
GASTEROPODA: | |
Ampullina oregonensis Dall...............++-- ewes hase ile sap
Argobuccinum cammani Dall48................ ane) PREM) Hobie x
Argobuccinum coosense Dall#8...............0. REA OEE hors, ch leSeaua |e
BathytomasgavprananWal lesa an eee Feel Pare: x
Boreotrophon stuart Smith“"2)4 2). oe eee Hisceme tere i x
Bulliatborachielva Renesas ae ete eae escllex
GCesicvarnoldssheMeyAn deere inerrant ee) > al Ie eal lero oljoc ollaic.c
(Pecten) dillera No AM eer kev 5 erate bcs ie sa cecetatie eke saya acteversiese intel tor ste cael ened tee x
SPW ACOLA CS RAMU OTUS TR. CLOS oo aie vain ecole) soles ofocin Oo tere rao | ete | CET ae Xilteverel leven
JEONG CGTAT, GA pao Onis GB bo OOOO db ab noGesccoeboour > Gal Pea (aces eho. Sy diel rene
IP SCPRUGta onde Gree, Peru acto scutes eisinls ors ae ieke oto ee ERE Reser lies clio 6
Se SOLENESUCAN EU Sa Gl Gc Ok ees, aie si krn cele lstrecten dei vststedh ceo Merete iceel een eee SC ilaeel ere
SS PIsUlaralbargd | COntH . dele onde.she Bye, oe avePeyo. eueheyan age ecto ete ee eee Se ites cas |-o28
Sprsula voy: Gabb GS. alaskana Dall)**.t. 2 .2.. aces sees Jeelleretei lO Srillene
DEW VASUOADESECLO CONT. Oseregs ote nierere etna to eee ohei| cep slhetel | eee x
VEIL USTS CG, 0S 2S IMUITAN (eee, Sr aoes ore) ee-5.0) ooh vo aoe she Miepeteee tonnes sddueth seeks eats x
GASTEROPODA:
AV ZO0UCCIINIM Or CZONeENse REUL.EA anita cic ieee ante ener DK lnc tel [ios ele Pr
EAUSTT. COMIC QUGLISE Nia Cnet ane tela e Sete ene eee il ere evens syscall
CastanmendicanGldrsar Merny shite einem eee sv svilcney © | arora | On
Chrysodomusumpertalis Dalley socio ele nieen oeneeieereiee aliess 5 iceorel Oeil
Chrysodomus apulatus BGte a a ae es ee. toe |Sceo ||
Gyrineum marshalli Rgn. (G. mediocre Dall)........... Sica locale oo]| o<.||-
Littorina remondi Gabb (L. petricola Dall)............. Dalle A leet IS Gallo es' |:
INGLICOICIOUSAIB OAS ee eer Ee oe Prec terete lea tens || OX
iNgucellaydecemcostatamNivd dts een eee eee Hohe (aes «I DX lheearctleaaette
Olivella pedroana Conr.54.......... aie xaheties Shale na tote aiet rete Sy XS Sal cen ones
Bar purauoliatayNianrteotis mclaren eee > aa ieee le Scie a cil csc
Stylidium eschrichti Midd. (Bittium filosum Gld.)*4...... XGllrec 4 eas |: 60's. "all Retreat | ene
iivonaiiauuridas iid desperate Heedllla clo 6c XS low allan
MOC CHAE EAI Ps obo acocadadoabuebcHaccauccuoer Sérailtene'All lens KN ierorliawtts
rns peruersauGapb An ee noe Ee ene Pres ee, See alte.< lo a elise. -
Locality 34; basal conglomerate and sandstone, Fossil Rock, three and
one half miles south of Empire, Coos Bay, Oregon. (H. Hannibal.)
54 Species still living.
55 Species characteristic of this horizon.
1913:] STRATIGRAPHY OF PACIFIC COAST OF AMERICA. 595
Locality 35; basal conglomerate, point south of Fossil Rock, four miles
south of Empire, Coos Bay, Oregon. (H. Hannibal.)
Locality 98; basal conglomerate, seacliffs at point three fourths of a mile
south of Five Mile Creek, Bandon, Oregon. (H. Hannibal.)
Locality 77; sandstone, seacliffs from Cape Grenville northward for a
mile to long landslide, Taholah, Washington. (H. Hannibal.)
Locality 79; shaly sandstone, seacliffs north of Quinaielt River bar,
Taholah, Washington. (H. Hannibal.)
Locality 80; sandstone, seacliffs from Cape Elizabeth northward for three
fourths of a mile to big landslide, Taholah, Washington: (H. Hannibal.)
Two areas of soft semicoherent sandstone faulted into the Older
Tertiary and Mesozoic rocks on the coast of the Olympic Peninsula
near Taholah, Washington, contain a fauna evidently the same age.
The thickness here is perhaps 500 feet.
THE ELK River FoRMATION (UPPER PLIOCENE).
Extending from the Goldwashers’ cabin one and three fourths
miles southeast of Cape Blanco south to Garrison Lagoon near Port
Orford, Oregon, is a gently southward dipping cliff, essentially a
raised beach composed of sands and littoral gravels, blue and more
or less concretionized at the base but rusty and hardly consolidated
above, perhaps 250 feet thick near their contact with the Empire
sandstone lying to the north but gradually dropping down below sea
level to the south. This formation has been named by Diller®* the
Elk River beds from an important stream which cuts through the
section. As a matter of fact Diller’s name was given only to the
upper rusty portion of the section while the blue beds conformable
below were included with the Empire (Cape Blaco Beds) a pro-
cedure not borne out by the character of the fauna. It might be
added.that there is a marked discrepancy between the dip and strike
of the Empire beds and the overlying blue sands where the two
formations meet that was apparently overlooked by Diller.
The fauna of the Elk River beds consists chiefly of recent species
but associated with them are others common to the Merced, thus
establishing the Pliocene age of the formation. In a general way
this fauna suggests the Deadman Island or Santa Barbara Pliocene
in the boreal facies of the fauna and the small percentage of extinct
56 Bull. 196, U. S. Geol. Sur., 1902, p. 31.
596 ARNOLD AND HANNIBAL—MARINE TERTIARY [April 1g,
forms, though the two formations have only one characteristic
species, Turris smithi Arn., in common.
Partial List of Species in the Elk River Formation (Upper Pliocene), at the
Seacliff North of the Mouth of Elk River, Port Orford, Oregon.
(F. F. Wood, H. Hannibal, collectors.)
PELECYPODA :
Cardium corbis Mart.5™
Cryptomya oregonensis Dall.
Kennerlia grandis Midd.5*
Leda acuta Conr.5*
Macoma inquinata Desh.5*
Macoma nasuta Conr.5?
Modiolus modiolus L.57
Modiolus rectus Conr.57
Mya truncata 1.57
Mytilus californianus Conr.57
Mytilus edulis L.57
Paphia staminea Conr.57
Pecten caurinus Gld.57
Psephidia lordi Baird.5*
Saxidomus giganteus Desh.57
Siliqua nuttalli Conr.57
Spisula cf. albaria Conr.
Spisula falcata Gld.57
Spisula voyi Gabb (S. alaskana Dall) .57
Thracia trapezoidea Conr.
Venericardia ventricosa Gld.57
GASTEROPODA :
Amphissa corrugata Rve. and var. versicolor Dall.57
Argobuccinum oregonense Redf.57
Bela tabulata Cpr.57
Boreotrophon gracilis Perry.57
Boreotrophon stuarti Baird.57
Buccinum strigillatum Dall.57
Calliostoma costatum Mart.57
Caesia fossata Gld.57
Caesia perpinguis Hds.57
Calyptraea fastigiata Gld.57
Chrysodomus phoeniceus Dall.57
Chrysodomus tabulatus Baird.57
Columbella gausapata Gld.57
Epitonium hindsti Cpr.57
Lacuna vincta Mtg.57
Lepeta concentrica Midd.5*
Margarites pupilla Gld.57
57 Species still living.
PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILOS. Soc. VoL. LII. No. 212 PLATE XLVII
Fic. a. Glacial grooving of Vancouver greenstone-diorites at entrance io
Victoria Harbor, Vancouver Island.
Fic. B. Seattle shale (Astoria series) overlain by Pleistocene sands. Ilwaco.
Washington.
1913] STRATIGRAPHY OF PACIFIC COAST OF AMERICA. 597
Natica clausa B. & S.57
Nucella decemcostata Midd. (Purpura lima auct.).57
Nucella lamellosa Gmel. (Purpura crispata Chem.) .57
Nucella saxicola Val.57
Olivella biplicata Sby.5*
Olivelia pedroana Conr.5?
Polinices draconis Dall.57
Polinices pallida B. & S.57
Puncturella galeata Gld.57
Purpura foliata Gmel.5*
Sipho halibrectus Dall.57
Solarielia cidaris A. Ad.57
Trichotropis cancellata Hds.57
Tritonalia lurida Midd.5*
Tritonifusus rectirostis Dall.57
Turris perversa Gabb.57
_Turris snuthi Arn.
BRACHIOPODA :
Hemithyris psittacea L.
ECHINODERMATA :
Scutella oregonensis Clark.
THE SAANICH FORMATION (PLEISTOCENE).
Benching the Oligocene and glacial deposits at Alki Point and
Bainbridge Island in Puget Sound, filling glacial depressions at
various points north of Victoria on the Saanich Peninsula of Van-
couver Island, and terracing the length and breadth of the Straits
of Georgia notably the Sucia Islands is a raised beach deposit for
which the writers propose the name Saanich Formation. This for-
mation carries numerous mollusca, usually species now living in
adjacent waters, but others extinct or like Pecten islandicus Muller,
Cardium decoratum Grnk. and Mya arenaria L. are now native only
off the Alaska coast or at other arctic points. In this respect it
resembles the lower San Pedro fauna which contains species now
confined several hundred miles or more northward.
Overlying the marine deposits in several glacial hollows on the
Saanich Peninsula are peat and marl beds containing numerous
freshwater shells, the species being identical with those found in
adjacent lakes. It appears that after the Post-Saanich elevation
57 Species still living.
598 ARNOLD AND HANNIBAL—MARINE TERTIARY [April 19,
these hollows were filled by freshwater lakes and gradually silted up
as Swan Lake and others on the Saanich peninsula are yet doing.
“With the Saanich formation are tentatively included the wide-
spread raised beaches on the west coast of Oregon and Washington
containing marine shells at Cape Blanco, Bandon, and Newport in
the former state and at Bay Center in the latter. Reagan®® mentions
the occurrence of marine shells in Pleistocene deposits at Beaver
Prairie on the Olympic Peninsula, but the locality here is an old
kitchenmidden.
Partial List of Species in the Saanich Formation (Pleistocene) of Puget
Sound and the Straits of Georgia.
PELECYPODA :
Cardium corbis Mart.
Cardium decoratum Grnk.®®
Macoma calcarea Gmel.
Macoma inquinata Desh.
Macoma nasuta Conr.
Mya arenaria L.*®
Mya truncata L.
Mytilus edulis L.
Paphia staminea Conr.
Paphia tenerrima Conr.
Pecten islandicus Mill.5®
Pecten hastatus hericeus Gld.
Saxicava arctica L.
Saxidomus giganteus Desh.
Serripes groenlandicus Gmel.
Schizothaerus nuttalli Conr.
GASTEROPODA :
- Buccinum percrassum Dall.
Natica clausa B. & S.
Nucella lamellosa Gmel.
Polinices lewisii Gld.
GEOLOGICAL Hrsrory.
The Coast Range of Oregon and the Willamette Valley.
The Coast Range, Willamette Valley, and Cascade Range of
Oregon as has been intimated in the discussion of the Arago lavas
were apparently built up during Eocene time as a gently westward
58 Geological Papers Kans. Acad. Sci., 1908, p. 220.
59 Species now native only to northward.
PROCEEDINGS Am. PHILOoS. Soc. VoL. LII. No. 212 PLATE XLVIII
idk 7
PrGe Ee
Fic. a. Steilacoom gravels (outwash of Vashon drift), prairie between Gate
and Olympia, Washington.
Fic. B. Glacial deposits at south end of Marrowstone Island, Port Town
send, Washington.
he
_
1913-1 STRATIGRAPHY OF PACIFIC COAST OF AMERICA. 599
sloping floor of successive basaltic flows and tuffs. In the Cascade
Mountains intercalated sediments are reduced to a minimum but
farther to the west and south they apparently replace more and more
the igneous materials. With the close of the Tejon this floor was
elevated into the form of a plateau with a synclinal sag at the
present position of the Willamette Valley. At the opening of the
Astoria period of sedimentation an arm of the sea extending up the
Willamette Valley at least as far as Eugene connecting across the
Range at Wren and Blodgett but it was not until the Seattle Epoch
that the Coast Range was completely submerged by the load of
igneous and sedimentary detritus piled upon it, for at many points
on the west flank particularly near Nehalem and Tillomook Harbors
the Seattle beds rest directly on the Eocene with the lower Astoria
(San Lorenzo) lacking. Following this, western Oregon was elevated
and except for an embayment of the Monterey sea which extended
up the Columbia River and southward to the Tualatin Valley west of
Portland, no later sediments have been deposited inland from the
extreme western border. It is probable that the coast line has stood
near its present position during much of late Tertiary time owing
to the existence of an important fault paralleling the coast for many
miles. Elevations on the east side of this fault have resulted in the
removal of all the later and much of the early Tertiary deposits and
submergences on the west side have carried the successive deposits
even deeper beneath the sea.
Much has been written of the continuity of the Willamette
Valley with the geosynclinal trough of the Great Valley of Cali-
fornia, but facts do not bear this out. The Willamette Valley is
the result of the differential erosion of soft shales and sandstones
compared with the basalts which flank it. It is underlain at no great
depth by Eocene deposits, igneous and sedimentary, which frequently
stand up as monadnocks through the thin veneer of fluvial deposits
and alluvium. The so-called “ Willamette Sound” either refers to
the Oligocene embayment or to the fluvial deposits in the Willamette
Valley above Oregon City where a late Tertiary basalt flow impinged
in passing down the lower Willamette and Columbia Rivers and
temporarily dammed back the Willamette River.
600 ARNOLD AND HANNIBAL—MARINE TERTIARY [April 19,
The Chehalis Valley and Southwestern Washington.
The geologic history of this district during the Tertiary has been:
first the deposition of the Tejon series chiefly as an estuarine deposit
but with some associated lavas, mostly basalts; second the defor-
mation of Tejon by folding in a west-east or northwest-southeast
direction ; third the successive deposition of the Astoria Series, and
the Monterey, Empire, and Merced formations; fourth the final
elevation of the Olympic and Cascade Mountains in Pliocene time
and the resultant faulting, prevailingly in an east-west or north-
south direction, of all the Tertiaries of southwestern Washington
into a jumble of westward-dipping monoclinal blocks. Except locally
in the proximity of faults, folding of the Oligocene and later strata
of Washington is almost unknown.
The Tertiaries of the Periphery of the Olympic Complex.
The succession of events about the periphery of the Olympic
complex is similar to that of southwestern Washington, except that
the Tejon is very largely absent and the folding which succeeded
it has left no record. On the west coast several isolated areas of
Tertiary rocks have been faulted down into the Cretaceous, and
thus preserved. A fault which requires special mention in this con-
nection is the one which marks the north boundary of the Olympic
Mountains, extending from the mouth of the Soo-es River south
of Cape Flattery to Lake Crescent and the head of S’quim Bay
an unbroken distance of more than eighty miles. On the south side
except at the terminii all the adjacent rocks are pre-Tertiary. To
the north lies the great monocline of northwestward-dipping Oligo-
cene beds. It is probable that a second fault paralleling this lies
in the trough of the Straits of Fuca else it is difficult to explain
that remarkable topographic feature. The structure of the gently
seaward-dipping Tertiary rocks of the southwest coast of Vancouver
Island may also be readily explained by an assumption that such a
fault exists.
Puget Sound is probably a pre-Pleistocene valley of erosion filled
by glacial debris. It has been regarded as a structural depression,
1913-] STRATIGRAPHY OF PACIFIC COAST OF AMERICA. 601
but if this is true it is difficult to explain why all the Tertiary and
older rocks exposed about its borders or at various points in it form
an integral part of a series of northward- or southward-dipping fault
blocks which cross its major direction at right angles.
NOTES ON THE GEOLOGICAL FORMATION NAMES APPLIED TO THE
TERTIARY OF THE NortH PaciFic COAST.
During his work in I911 and 1912 the junior writer made a
special endeavor to visit as many as possible of the type-sections of
the formations described on the North Pacific Coast and data are
at hand to decide the age and status of practically all, as shown on
the accompanying table. Those not already discussed may be noted
chronologically.
Thos. Condon, in Cope, 1880, “Corrections of the Geological
Map of Oregon.”®° The Astoria shales and Solen beds have already
been considered in connection with the identity of the Astoria Series.
C. A. White, 1888, 1899, “On the Puget Group of Washington
Territory ’* and “The Mollusca. of the Puget Group.’®? Broadly
speaking the Puget Group is the equivalent of the Tejon Series.
It was described as a freshwater deposit, but this is hardly true.
While molluscan remains of any kind are generally scarce, several
species described as freshwater forms are well-known marine Tejon
species. Exactly how much of the Tejon is represented by the
Puget is somewhat uncertain, however, and will continue to be so
until the various floras are described and the species characteristic
of the different portions of the Tejon become known. The Pierce
County coal field where the Wilkeston section first described by
White is located, represents about 14,700 feet of beds. The lowest
2,000 feet at the Fairfax and Montezuma mines evidently belong to
the Chehalis formation judging by the flora. The upper 10,000 or
12,000 feet of beds (Carbonado, Wilkeston and Burnett formations)
are certainly later and probably represent the Olequa. The beds on
the Duwamish River near Allentown, eastward to Newcastle and
60 Am. Nat., XIV., 1880, p. 457.
61 Am. Jour. Sci. (3d ser.), XXXVI., 1888, pp. 443-450.
62 Bull. 51, U. S. Geol. Sur., 1889, pp. 49-63.
602 ARNOLD AND HANNIBAL—MARINE TERTIARY [April 19,
Squak Mountain, and southward to Green River, so far as paleo-
botanical evidence goes are of Chehalis age. Those at Bellingham
appear to be younger, though more than one horizon may be repre-
sented. In any event the continued use of the name Puget is very
misleading since the Upper Puget, so-called, is earliest Tejon (Che-
halis), and the Lower Puget is later Tejon.
A. C. Lawson, 1894, “ Note on the Chehalis Sandstone.’’** This
formation redefined has already been considered as a division of the
Tejon.
J. C. Merriam, 1896, “Note on Two Tertiary faunas from the
Rocks of the south coast of Vancouver Island.’’** The section
between Muir and Coal Creeks west of Sooke where Dr. New-
combe collected for Merriam in the early 9go’s, and courteously
accompanied the junior writer in 1912, is recognized as the type of
the Sooke formation. Dr. Merriam states that he never intended
to name a Carmanah Point formation but the name has passed into
the literature. The beds at this point are San Lorenzo shales over-
lain unconformably by Monterey conglomerate in the cliff be-
neath the lighthouse. Dr. Newcombe’s collection came from the
San Lorenzo shales, from Sooke boulders in the Monterey, and from
the Monterey itself. The list should be expurged. The one quoted
from Dall was derived from the San Lorenzo beds at Bonilla Point;
it requires some revision.
W. H. Dall, 1898, “A Table of the North American Tertiary
Horizons Correlated with One Another and with Those of Western
Europe with Annotations.”®> The “foraminiferal shales . . . con-
formably underlying the Tunnel Point beds at Coos Bay, Oregon”
contain a characteristic San Lorenzo fauna. The portion of the
Tunnel Point beds adjacent to the “ foraminiferal shales” represent
a sandstone phase of the San Lorenzo. However, the bulk of the
type section and the beds from which the fauna listed by Dall**
came are of Empire age being separated from the main Empire
63 4m. Geol., XIII., 1804, p. 436.
64 Bull. Dept. Geol. Univ. Cal., II., 1896, pp. 101-108.
65 178th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Sur. (II), 1808, pp. 323-348.
66 Prof. Paper 59, U. S. Geol. Sur., 1900, p. I5.
1913-1] STRATIGRAPHY OF PACIFIC COAST OF AMERICA. 603
syncline by faulting. An angular unconformity marked by Pholas-
borings may be observed in a niche of the seacliffs which form the
type-section of the Tunnel Point beds.
The Aturia bed at Astoria lies in the Seattle formation. As
Aturia, angustata ranges through the Astoria series and Monterey
formation yp and down the Pacific Coast, its value as an index-
fossil of a single horizon is doubtful. The term “ Astoria sand-
stone” appears to have been intended to cover Condon’s Solen Beds
at Astoria as well as the sandstones intercalated with the Astoria
shales in the steep bluffs behind the town.
Mytilus beds; based on a locality at the north end of Shoalwater
Bay (more properly Willipa Harbor), Washington, containing My-
tilus condom Dall = M. middendorffi Grnk. This is the Empire
sandstone.
Coos Conglomerate, basal Merced conglomerate overlying the
Empire beds at Coos Bay, Oregon. This is not the Coos Group of
Vermont geological literature which is Palaeozoic.
J. S. Diller, 1896-1903, “ A Geological Reconnaissance in North-
western Oregon ” ;** “Roseburg Folio,” U. S. Geological Survey,
1898; “Coos Bay Folio,” U. S. Geological Survey, 1901; “ Topo-
graphic Development of the Klamath Mountains” ;°* “ Port Orford
Folio,” U. S. Geological Survey, 1903. The Arago is recognized as
a division of the Tejon. Its subdivisions, the Pulaski and Coaledo,
appear to be of interest chiefly to the coal geologist. The Tyee
sandstone from the fauna at Basket Point on the Umpqua River is
probably the same horizon as is also the Umpqua formation. The
Wilbur tuff is a lithologic phase of the Arago, a type of rock not
uncommon on the North Pacific Coast where fossiliferous beds rest
upon basic igneous flows and tuffs.
The areas of Oakland limestone are so small that in the absence
of a recognizable fauna it can only be considered as a local division.
If post-Eocene in age, as supposed, these may represent isolated
San Lorenzo areas similar to those flanking the Willamette Valley.
The relations of the Empire formation have already been con-
67 17th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Sur., 1896, pp. 441-520.
68 Bull. 196, U. S. Geol. Sur., 1902, pp. 30-31.
604 ARNOLD AND HANNIBAL—MARINE TERTIARY [April 19,
sidered. To this horizon are referred the lower 475 feet of the
Cape Blanco beds. The upper 75 feet, argillaceous sands with some
calcareous nodules, are unconformable on the Empire beds and
form the base of the Elk River Formation, here referred to the
Upper Pliocene.
Willis and Smith, 1899, “ Tacoma Folio,” U. S. Geological Sur-
vey. Three divisions of the Lower Puget (middle and perhaps
upper Tejon), the Carbonado formation, Wilkeston sandstone, and
Burnett formation are named. So far no paleontological evidence
has been advanced to insure their recognition beyond the limits of
the Pierce County coal field.
R. Arnold, 1906, “ A Geological Reconnaissance of the Olympic
Peninsula.”®® The use of the Arago in place of Crescent, and Mon-
terey in preference to Clallam has already been discussed. Other
beds on the north coast of Washington mapped with the Clallam as
undifferentiated Oligocene-Miocene are now assigned to one horizon
or another of the Astoria series.
The Quinaielt formation is divided on paleontological grounds
between the Empire and Merced formations.
A. B, Reagan, 1908, “Some Notes on the Olympic Peninsula.”’°
Most of geological data in this paper are adopted from the one by
the senior writer just mentioned. The Hoko River Pliocene, so-
called, is an area of Monterey sandstone and conglomerate uncom-
formable on the Astoria series. The Raft River Pliocene contains
a small but characteristic Empire fauna. The description of the
Quillayute formation is based on the glacial filling of the valley of
the Quillayute River. If Reagan had visited the locality from which
the fossils he describes from the Quillayute were brought by the
Indians, he would have found it to be about two miles from the
Devils Club swamp where he says they occur, and the formation
lithologically very different from what he describes. It is typical
Empire sandstone.
C. E. Weaver, 1912, “A Preliminary Report on the Tertiary
Paleontology of Western Washington.’"! Cowlitz formation; the
69 Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., XVII., 1906, pp. 451-468.
70 Geol. Papers, Kans. Acad. Sci.; 1908, pp. 131-238.
Frieistocene
riocene
Formation.
Saanich
Vashon drift
Admiralty till
Elk River
D. | Merced
WLIOCENE
Empire
__| Monterey
VUESOCene
LOCCHC
Twin River
Astoria4 Seattle
San Lorenzo
Sooke
Arago
‘ Olequa
Tejon Z
Chehalis
eeeee
encode
sscecge
Solé....
se eeee
et
NortH Pacrric Coast.
Reagan, 1908.
Weaver, 1912.
Quillayute (type section)
Quinaielt (in part)
Quillayute (fauna only)
{ita (in part)
Raft River
{ Hoko
Clallam
Fee e erences es esas sseesesoeeee
Peo ee sereeroeerasaaeseeeesers
Crescent tuffs
Ree eecesetesesseeresesecses seeceeee
Peewee torres ese eesesseeeseeeeseeeens
Montesano
{ Chehalis (in part)
Wahkiakum (in part)
Blakely (in part)
| | Wank (in part )
Blakely (in part)
Lincoln Creek (in part)
Wahkiakum (in part)
Blakely (in part)
Lincoln Creek (in part)
Tejon
Lincoln Creek (in part)
Cowlitz
a.
a
fi
al
4
ia
~ 4
TABLE OF CORRELATION OF THE FoRMATION NAMES APPLIED BY VARIOUS AUTHORS TO THE TERTIARY Horizons oF THE NortH Pactric Coast.
Merriam, 1896.
Dall, 1898.
Formation. Condon, 1880. Diller, 1896-1903. Willis and Smith, 1899. Arnold, 1906. Reagan, 1908, Weaver, 1912.
» | Saanich
q
8
2 Vyas Gbiht: cep asso uonosonesonn |beonnsnepecaceansace%cs5000| acon Re TN onset eeee an aonenouenieucae ceaonenc|| ERIC Chine
Oo
a Admiralty till | ssceeseeeecacceeeeeseeee|saseeceneeeueeeeeuceseeeses|sceeeeteeseceneeers aaeeces 208560 badece ucoDboDACEAtaataNsD ongnate Admiralty till = =|... Sane ceeeetn Ces .| Quillayute (type section)
a Elk River
B | Elk River | asssssnnsseecnns see he ner e Bre oie ee praca { Gape Biesoo (iil Bae
A
| Merced ———acecenerevereeseseececeee]orene Sc0de05 SCOR OCCCODEG Coos conglomerate Coos conglomerate —s J... sss sev eee sees sEackacehnavasienll Mec esvoetacstaaceew es Quinaielt (in part)
re Quinaielt Quinaielt (i t)
x lytilus be Binnire inalest CD spar Montesano
§ | Empire Solempeds= a|anesenceesenescbeises 500000 Empire { P P sy |oonbonpococoabosas Ghacacsoansepeoccd |) jososbaadaecoocncebnap Quillayute (fauna only) { anit
8 (in part) | Beets Point (in part) (Caypre Nevers (iba eb a) Raft River Chehalis (in part)
=)
Hoke Chehalis (in part)
__| Monterey Solen beds Carmanah Point Astoria sandstone |. ssseeee eeerneee SRC ened locrmope HS IOLOEORGSOOU ARC Clallam { Wahkiakum (in part)
(in part) (in part) (in part) Blakely (in part)
Twin River |....-..-.c.cesecceecescee|scvccsccncncecsnceccacecces|sensncecccencsccscecsesecnrsscseeslacscossccscncnesesssasasetasccaslorsocses podoanG SEC CAOIOOAINOIEOGOIO Mannediwith
Astoria s. s. (in part) Cues agiune Clallam Blakely (in part)
Astoria4 Seattle Astoria shale }........ FasobSANSG6NG50000 Astoria Gale lsendaodanan Saqnadobdoobed GeSeaar\|-aI000 na ouooECECh OGaaDHISe cacKgOsoq differentiated | | ccccstcetreeseetee Lincoln Creek (in part)
5 | Aturia bed Nene Wahkiakum (in part)
8 San Lorenzo Carmanah Point Tunnel Point (in part) Be ETE a | Sia oN ne TOGEDG! get Ooi [hice ao Nee ee eae {Bikey (in part)
& tee beds (in part) | | Foraminiferal shale...... Oslelandilimestone? ™ ) lass ihe Lincoln Creek (in part)
is) (in part)
Stag So eehcecadoosanascons0se Sooke Sooke
White, 1888-9. Lawson, 1894.
U Wilbur
o ae \ TY CEs comet |S Soo ache eran ..| Crescent tuffs Crescent tuffs
8 INE) re Se poncremnoDs on6ed| hengeonencactoobaobesoscod Arago Feo Goaledon ane|iaee Ramet
5 : aed Lower Puget~ Wilkeston Tejon
in Te; Olequa dice isin Bee a Pipe Grae. clee N ae Oni § oes Lincoln Creek (in part)
ejo :
ay Chehalis } Se ee eae Chehalis sandstone |J ..........ccccssececceccnceccn|tcoetcecesceterserensesanr sence: Upper Puget \ Carbonado Cowlitz
uf
Hbbih soachopeas tte ssanargbeostarcparcayeceel
if ; ene at a | ;
}
‘
.
7
f . f
ROE eae Tee Bassons siiestshsopndpetethhs
i
‘
Pee eee eee eee phn ewan POP e ee geet ee eee
=
iv i
awn, 200). jamemenes seed nt tennsnt pp deesl| RPh a eee!
, i" :
dah inh vith Couinalelt
Ph | ; no 00044 -4a s Pun baeegbeadnts jee. oautbodh aloe.
#2 Gn a) ee sna T . |) Gag ai)
¥
Tater elites eit) eee)
1913-] STRATIGRAPHY OF PACIFIC COAST OF AMERICA. 605
fauna of the beds on the Cowlitz River below the mouth of Drew
Creek is identical with that at Chehalis and Centralia in the lower
Tejon (Chehalis formation).
Lincoln Creek formation; this is very vaguely defined. The
area shown on the map comprises two different things, Chehalis
beds underlying the basalts of the Balch syncline, and a conform-
able sequence of a late phase of the San Lorenzo formation and an
early phase of the Seattle. The fauna listed appears to have come
from the basal San Lorenzo beds at Oakville about fifteen miles
away. The equivalent beds of Sinclair Inlet are apparently lower
San Lorenzo, and those of the Cape Flattery section, like most of
the rocks on the west coast of the Olympic Peninsula mapped by
Weaver as Lower Miocene, are Cretaceous.
“Tejon formation.” The exact use of this formation name in
Washington is uncertain. The fauna listed appears to have come
from the Olequa beds near Little Falls and on Coal Creek above
Stella. If the term Tejon is used in the broad sense that it is
by the writers then the reasons for separating the Cowlitz formation
which contains a fauna much more closely allied to that at Fort
Tejon in California are not apparent. If it is used in a restricted
sense for the Olequa beds then it is obviously misapplied.
Blakely formation; this name seems to be intended to cover all
the Oligocene-Lower Miocene deposits of the Puget Sound and
north coast of Washington. The type-section on Bainbridge Island
is the exact equivalent of the Astoria Series as recognized by the
- writers.
Wahkiakum formation; the Oligocene-Lower Miocene of south-
western Washington. The type-section is Monterey sandstone but
many of the fossils listed came from the Astoria beds on Skamo-
kawa and Grays Rivers.
Chehalis formation; the type section is Monterey and Empire,
and the fossils listed a mixture of the shale faunas of the two.
Montesano formation; apparently intended as a local name for
the Empire sandstone.
THE NOMENCLATURE OF MINERALS.
By AUSTIN F. ROGERS.
(Received May 14, 1913.)
About five thousand mineral names are in use or have been pro-
posed.t. These names are, of course, mainly varieties and synonyms.
Many of them have been discarded and are gradually disappearing
from the literature. Even some of the Germans are dropping such
names as kupferglanz and eisenkies and are using the international
names, chalcocite and pyrite in this instance. Thanks to the fifth
edition of Dana’s “System of Mineralogy ”’ the synonymy has been
pretty thoroughly worked out and most of the names used for the
distinctive minerals are well established.
Though there are about five thousand mineral names, there
are not more than a thousand distinctive minerals.”
The distinctive minerals are usually called “simple minerals,”
99 66
“ definite minerals,” “ mineral species,” or “ definite mineral species.”
It is necessary to use some such term, for the word mineral is used
(1) as a general term for the inorganic constituents of the earth’s
crust, (2) in a popular way for a metallic substance of commercial
value that is mined or quarried and (3) in a restricted sense for a
natural inorganic substance of definite chemical composition.’
The term most used is “ mineral species,’ borrowing a biological
term. In this connection it is interesting to note that a binominal
1The most complete list of mineral names available is found in the
“Mineralogisches Taschenbuch” of the Vienna Mineralogical Society pub-
lished at Vienna in IQII.
2TIn Dana’s “System” and Appendices up to the year 1909, 951 minerals
are given. In Groth’s “ Tabellarische Uebersicht der Mineralien” (1908)
there are 829. In the “ Mineralogisches Taschenbuch” of the Vienna
Mineralogical Society (1911) there are 972 (including 22 hydrocarbons not
given by Dana and Groth). So the number of distinctive minerals is, in round
numbers, 1,000.
3 For an interesting discussion of the use of the word mineral see an
article by J. W. Gregory, Trans. Institution of Mining Engineers, 1909.
606
1913.] ROGERS—THE NOMENCLATURE OF MINERALS. 607
nomenclature like that now used for plants and animals was at one
time used for minerals. In the first (1837) and second (1844) edi-
tions of Dana’s “System of Mineralogy” binominal names* were
given along with the usual names, mostly ending in -ite. Thus barite
was known as Baralus ponderosus and celestite as Baralus prismati-
cus. The genus Baralus also included witherite, strontianite, and
barytocalcite. Classes and orders were also recognized. The classi-
fication used then was the natural history classification of Werner
and Mohs based upon external characters.
This gradually gave way to the chemical classification of Berze-
lius and the Swedish chemists. In the third edition (1850) of
Dana’s “System” the chemical classification was adopted and the
binominal names, even as synonyms, were rejected.
A mineral species is a mineral with definite chemical composition
and distinctive crystal form (or crystalline structure). “ Definite”
must be interpreted in the light of isomorphism, including mass-effect
isomorphism first recognized by Penfield.’ It is also necessary to
recognize solid solutions of a kind different from isomorphism.**
Pyrrhotite,* for example, is a solid solution of sulfur, S, in
ferrous sulfid, FeS. Nephelite,” is a solid solution of NaA1SiO,,
KAISiO, and NaAISi,O,, of which only the first two are isomor-
phous.
Crystal form must also be used in defining a mineral species for
polymorphous minerals are distinct and are often strikingly differ-
ent in physical properties as in the extreme case of diamond and
graphite. Some of the dimorphous minerals have distinctive names
(e. g., calcite, aragonite) but there is a tendency to use a prefix be-
fore the first known mineral for the dimorphous form. Thus we
have clinozoisite, paralaurionite, pseudowollastonite, metaboracite,
4 These binominal names were first suggested by Dana in an article in the
fourth volume of the Annals of the New York Lyceum.
5 That is, in large molecules dissimilar elements or groups may replace
each other. See Amer. Jour. Sci. (4), Vol. 7, p. 97, 1809.
5a Kiister (Zeit. fiir phys. Chem., Vol. 17, p. 367, 1805) maintains that a
distinction should be made between solid solutions and isomorphous mixtures.
6 Allen, Crenshaw, and. Johnston, Amer. Jour. Sci. (4), Vol. 33, p. 193, 1912.
7 Bowen, Amer. Jour. Sct. (4), Vol. 33, p. 49, 1912.
PROC. AMER, PHIL, SOC., LII. 212 U, PRINTED NOV, 18, 1913.
608 ROGERS—THE NOMENCLATURE OF MINERALS. [May 14,
and neotantalite for the dimorphous forms of zoisite, laurionite, wol-
lastonite, boracite, and tantalite respectively.
Since the rise of colloidal chemistry the question of names for
colloidal or amorphous minerals arises. Recently names have been
proposed for a few of the naturally occurring amorphous numerals.
These substances can hardly be excluded from the list of mineral
species as they are definite in composition, unless we insist that a
mineral must be crystalline in character. To obviate this difficulty
Niedzwiedzki® has proposed the term muineraloid for the natural
amorphous substances. Among examples of colloidal minerals or
mineraloids are the following: ostwaldite colloidal AgCl (butter-
milcherz) ; jordisite == colloidal MoS,; a-kliachite — colloidal
Al,O,-H,O;, @-kliachite—= colloidal Al,O,-3H,O; ehrenwerthite=
colloidal Fe,O,-H,O. The term sulfurite has been proposed for
amorphous sulfur and metastibnite for amorphous antimony sul-
fid. Fortunately there are very few amorphous minerals which are
definite enough to be recognized as distinct mineral species® but the
application of colloidal chemistry to mineralogy will probably in-
crease the number in the future.
Names are used not only for definite chemical compounds, which
are often end members of isomorphous series, but also for isomor-
phous mixtures such as olivine, rhodolite, epidote, and pisanite; for
double salts such as dolomite and monticellite; for pseudomorphs
such as martite, arkansite, and hampshirite ; for mechanical mixtures
such as californite and azurlite; for semiprecious or ornamental
stones such as bonamite and satelite; for artificial substances such as
alite, cementite, silver-analcite, soda-leucite, and carnegieite; for
group names such as orthoaugite, clinoaugite, glaucamphibole; and
for numerous varieties based upon crystal habit (e. g., adularia),
structure (e. g., pholerite, nemalite), color (e. g., melanite, hiddenite,
kunzite), unusual optical properties. (e. g., isomicrocline, neocole-
manite), and variations in chemical composition due either to
impurities, (e. g., johnstonite) or to isomorphous replacement (e. g.,
cuprogoslarite, paravivianite, titanaugite). Varietal names are
8 Centralblatt fiir Min. Geol. u. Pal., 1900, p. 661.
®Of the more common minerals only opal, bauxite, psilomelane, and
allophane are amorphous.
1913.] ROGERS—THE NOMENCLATURE OF MINERALS. 609
rarely consistent or logical for they are not usually coordinate and
not uniform for the various minerals. In the earlier editions of
Dana’s “System” varieties were greatly subordinated but in the
fifth and in the current sixth edition varieties are again given
prominence. As Miers’? has emphasized, the non-essential proper-
ties of mineral have received too much attention. The recognition
of this fact will naturally lead to the supression of varietal names
as far as possible. While often convenient their use tends to con-
fusion. For example iron-bearing sphalerite has been called mar-
matite. A sphalerite from Breitenbrunn, Saxony containing eight-
een per cent. of iron was named cristophite. Where draw the line
between marmatite and cristophite? Sphalerite usually contains
more or less iron. If the iron content is notable or needs to be em-
phasized let it be called ferriferous sphalerite. No special name is
necessary.
Names should serve two purposes, which are more or less dis-
tinct, namely convenience and accuracy. A name serves a conveni-
ent purpose for distinguishing a particular variety or kind of
mineral found at a certain locality or one with striking proper-
ties found at several localities. But there are so many variations in
the properties of minerals that the names multiply too rapidly. Ac-
curacy is not attained for it is very difficult to correlate the differ-
ent varieties and to define them accurately.
Isomorphism plays a very prominent part in explaining the chem-
ical composition of minerals for many minerals are isomorphous
mixtures of two end members. The gaps in isomorphous series
are gradually being filled in.
The only satisfactory way of simplifying mineralogical nomencla-
ture is, in my opinion, to name a mineral by its predominant molecule
of the isomorphous series to which it belongs. If the mineral is
described and named before the isomorphous relations are under-
stood the name still stands for the predominant molecule present.
The other names used for varieties, isomorphous mixtures, pseudo-
morphs, etc., should be discarded, except in a few cases to be men-
tioned later. Isomorphous mixtures may be indicated by qualify-
ing terms, e. g., ferriferous sphalerite instead of marmatite. The
10 “ Mineralogy,” p. 2.
610 ROGERS—THE NOMENCLATURE OF MINERALS. [May 14,
same method can be used with varieties. Thus we can use the
term fibrous brucite instead of nemalite.
Such names as soda-orthoclase, natroalunite, ferrogoslarite, and
manganocolumbite are ambiguous. Soda-orthoclase may mean an
orthoclase in which a portion of the potassium is replaced by sodium
or it may mean the sodium compound corresponding to ortho-
clase. The best method is to use a distinctive name for the
monoclinic feldspar in which sodium predominates molecularly
over potassium. For such a mineral, which has been found
at several localities, Schaller’? has proposed the name barbierite
after the French chemist, Barbier. Note the inconsistency in
these compound names. Ferrogoslarite is an iron-bearing zinc sul-
fate while manganocolumbite is a manganese niobate isomorphous
with ferrous niobate. It might be well to restrict these compound
names to artificially prepared members of isomorphous series not
yet found in nature. Thus we could use the term soda-anor-
thite instead of carnegieite. The names silver-analcite, soda-leu-
cite, zinc-romerite are examples.
If my suggestions are adopted a number of mineral names will
be discarded. Embolite will be either cerargyrite (chlorargyrite)
or bromyrite. Petzite will be auriferous hessite. Pisanite will be
either cupriferous melanterite or ferriferous boothite. Hyalophane
will be barium-bearing orthoclase. Mesitite will be ferriferous mag-
nesite. Nigrine will be ferriferous rutile.
On the other hand, a few new names or resurrected old names
will be necessary. Thus the name montebrasite would be resur-
rected for the basic lithium aluminum phosphate which is isomor-
phous with amblygonite, lithium aluminum fluo-phosphate. Very
few new names will be necessary for synonyms and varieties can
often be elevated to the rank of distinct mineral species.
Some exceptions to my rule should be made. The isomorphous
mixtures of three or four common and important mineral groups
now have distinctive names which should be retained. Thus we
have oligoclase, andesine, labradorite, and bytownite in the plagio-
clase group. Olivine is a convenient name for the isomorphous
Amer. JOur. sict. (4), Vole 30; 5p) 359; LO10!
1913.] ROGERS—THE NOMENCLATURE OF MINERALS. 611
mixture of magnesium and iron orthosilicates but the names hyalo-
siderite and hortonolite in the olivine group are hardly necessary.
Epidote is an isomorphous mixture of basic calcium aluminum
orthosilicate, clinozoisite, and basic calcium iron orthosilicate, not
yet found. Hypersthene is an isomorphous mixture of magnesium
metasilicate, enstatite, and ferrous metasilicate, not yet found. It
might be well as assign arbitrary limits to olivine, hypersthene, and
epidote. This must be done if the names are to be accurate. Dana
uses the name hypersthene for orthorhombic pyroxene with ferrous
oxid content of over ten per cent. For these various isomorphous
mixtures arbitrary divisions similar to those used in the quantitative
classification of igneous rocks might be used.
Are the names of mineral species to be arbitrary or can any
system of giving names be used? Leaving out the binomial nomen-
clature there are three possibilities to consider.
1. Chemical Names.—As minerals are substances of definite
chemical composition purely chemical names will appeal to some as
being the simplest and best. But minerals are often complex in
composition and the chemical names would be long and cumbersome.
While accurate they are not convenient. Moreover the name of a
mineral connotes certain physical properties. Calcite is more than
calcium carbonate. It is calcium carbonate with certain definite
physical properties. The chemist would obviate this difficulty by
using the term a-CaCO, for calcite and B-CaCO, for aragonite.
Except for the elements, perhaps, distinctive names are preferable
to chemical names.
2. Arbitrary Names.—The names used at present are derived
from the locality at which the mineral was first found, from the
name of the person who discovered or described the mineral, or
they are based upon some prominent physical or chemical char-
acteristic. They are arbitrary and without system except that
most of them end in -ite (from the Greek and Latin -itis or -ites,
which was added to a word signifying a quality, use, or locality of
the mineral). Among other terminations are -ane, -ine, -ase, -ote,
-ole, and -ome while older names include galena, quartz, garnet, etc.
Some of the names have a chemical significance but even they are
612 ROGERS—THE NOMENCLATURE OF MINERALS. [May 14,
in part arbitrary. Cuprite might have been applied to any copper
mineral but it is arbitrarily used for cuprous oxid.
3. Combined Chemical and Arbitrary Names.—sStill a third
method is an attempt to combine the chemical names with arbitrary
root-names. This method is used to some extent at present. We
have such names as natramblygonite, plumbojarosite, and mangano-
columbite, for distinctive minerals. As emphasized before these
names are ambiguous and so are objectionable. In fact all such
compound names should be discarded, except as indicated above.
For varieties, qualifying chemical terms can be used. For example
we can use the term ferriferous goslarite instead of ferro-goslarite.
For distinctive minerals such as natramblygonite, plumbojarosite,
and manganocolumbite it is preferable to use distinctive names.
In a recent paper entitled “Suggestions for Mineral Nomen-
clature,”!” H. S. Washington proposes a new system of mineral
nomenclature. He uses as a root name for the acid radical of a
mineral group the present name of a typical member of the group.
This root name is modified by chemical terms to indicate the par-
ticular mineral. For the apatite group the root name is apatate.
Apatite is calcium phosphapatate, pyromorphite is lead phospha-
patate, while mimetite is lead arsenapatate. The root name for
the sphalerite group is sphaleride.1* The sulfids of this group are
called sulsphalerides, the selenids, selsphalerides, and the tellurids,
telsphalerides. Sphalerite itself is called zinc sulsphaleride, meta-
cinnabar, HgS, is mercury sulsphaleride while tiemannite, HgSe, is
mercury selsphaleride and coloradoite, HgTe, is mercury telsphaler-
ide. Calcite is calcium calcitate, siderite is ferrous calcitate, and
dolomite is magnesicalcium calcite. Forsterite is magnesium oli-
venate. Orthoclase is potassium adularate. Albite is sodium
albate, etc.
Washington’s proposed system emphasizes the isomorphous rela-
tions, but in my opinion that is about the only good point in its favor.
As Washington himself admits, the names are barbarous and un-
couth. Most of them are also long and cumbersome and so do not
12 Amer. Jour. Sct. (4), Vol. 33, p. 137, 1912.
13 The termination -ide is used for binary compounds and sulfo-salts
while the termination -ate is used for the oxy-acid salts.
1913.] ROGERS—THE NOMENCLATURE OF MINERALS. 613
serve the purpose of convenience. For example, the name for the
basic calcium phosphate for which I recently proposed the name
voelckerite?* would be something like calcium oxy-phosphapatate.
Arbitrary names I believe are preferable to names such as those
proposed by Washington. My reasons are as follows:
1. Arbitrary names are stable; there is no necessity for change
because of an incorrect analysis.
2. Any name of a new mineral that is proposed stands for the
predominant molecule whatever its isomorphous relations may be.
3. Arbitrary names are more convenient than other names be-
cause they are shorter.
4. The present names are to a large extent retained and very few
names will be necessary.
Most of the present names are so well established by long asso-
ciation that it will be almost impossible to substitute other names
for them. The law of priority, with certain limitations, holds in
mineralogy as in zoology and botany.
Only the professional mineralogist would be apt to use Wash-
ington’s system, but to him the arbitrary names are not objectionable.
There is one apparent objection that may be urged against my
plan. A quantitative chemical analysis will often be necessary to
place and name a mineral that is near the dividing line between two
isomorphous compounds. This is unfortunate from the standpoint
of determinative mineralogy but it is no real objection. It goes
without saying that accuracy of definition is based upon accurate
work which must often be quantitative in character. As Miers*®
says“... it cannot be too strongly impressed upon the student at
the outset that scientific mineralogy is based upon accurate measure-
ments and determinations.” .
There are several points to mention in connection with the record-
ing of chemical analyses of minerals. I think it is well, as I have
done in a recent text-book," to record mineral analyses in the form
of metals and acid radicals instead of the usual form of oxids. The
14 Amer. Jour. Sci. (4), Vol. 33, p. 475, 1912.
15 Dana, “ System of Mineralogy,” 6th ed., p. xliii, 1892.
16 “ Mineralogy,” p. v.
17 “Introduction to the Study of Minerals,” New York, 1912.
614 ROGERS—THE NOMENCLATURE OF MINERALS. [May 14,
present method is based upon antiquated notions dating back to
electro-chemical theory of Berzelius. The ideal way would be to
record the constituent elements. This can be done with haloids,
sulfids, and sulfo-salts but not with the oxygen salts for there is no
method of determining oxygen directly. If haloids or sulfids are
combined with oxygen salts as in minerals of the apatite group there
is decided advantage in recording percentages of the metals and acid
radicals. In the silicates the acids and acid radicals are not known
and it is necessary to use the ordinary oxids as in rock analyses.
In recording analyses it is well to give the molecular ratios of
elements and acid radicals in addition to the percentage composition
even if the purpose is not to establish a chemical formula.1* This
plan has been proposed for igneous rocks by Washington?® but might
well be extended to cover minerals. Murgoci*® in an article on the
classification of the amphiboles uses a tabulated list of the molecular
ratios instead of the more usual percentage compositions.
My suggestions concerning mineral names are far from carried
out at present. Out of Spencer’s list?4 of about one hundred new
mineral names proposed between the years 1907-10 approximately,
not more than fifty-five can possibly be regarded as distinct mineral
spaces. That is, forty to fifty names proposed within this short
time are, in my opinion, practically useless. There are glendonite,
pseudopirrsonite, and pseudostruvite, names for pseudomorphs.
Fermorite, anemousite, spandite, and grandite are isomorphous mix-
tures. Spandite is an isomorphous mixture of spessartite and
andradite, while grandite is an isomorphous mixture of grossularite
and andradite. While these names may occasionally be convenient
they only increase the difficulty of naming a mineral. The names
are not exact for the limits are not defined. Azurmalachite,
sefstromite, and leesbergite are mechanical mixtures. Alomite,
18 The tables in Kemp’s “ Handbook of Rocks,” 5th edition, pp. 171-177,
will be found useful in converting percentage compositions into molecular
ratios.
19 Amer. Jour. Sci. (4), Vol. 10, p. 59, 1900.
20 Bull. Dept. Geol., Univ. of California Pub., Vol. 4, pp. 377 and 383.
21 Mineralogical Magazine, Vol. 15, p. 415, 1910. For previous lists see
ibid,, Vols: 21, p., 323: 12) p. 3785 14, p. 3033, and 145 p. 304:
1913.] ROGERS—THE NOMENCLATURE OF MINERALS. 615
bonamite, ricolite, satelite, and vredite are trade-names of semi-
precious and ornamental stones. Aglaurite (orthoclase), bravoite
(pyrite), hallerite (paragonite), cobaltocalcite (calcite), isomicro-
cline (microcline), loaisite (scorodite), neslite (opal), magnesium-
pectolite (pectolite), pulleite (apatite), tawmawite (epidote) are
simply varieties of the minerals indicated. Still other names are
synonyms but these are often unavoidable.
The task of descriptive mineralogy is to establish and define the
distinctive minerals or mineral species but the science is greatly
handicapped by hundreds of varietal names which are worse than
useless.
In conclusion let me urge that in the future new names be given
to bona fide mineral species only and that distinctive names of
varieties, pseudomorphs, and mixtures be discarded as far as possible.
STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CALIFORNIA.
May, 1913.
THE CHARACTER AND ADVENTURES OF MULADEVA.
By MAURICE BLOOMFIELD, Ph.D., LL.D.
(Read April 18, 19173.)
Any selection of Hindu fiction might fitly open with the only
story that attempts a continuous account of Muiladeva’s adventures,
because Muladeva is one of the very few figures in Hindu fiction
that may be described as a
of Hindu fiction is made up of stock or lay figures. Such are, above
“ce
character.’ In general the personnel
all, the young prince, usually of ineffable beauty, virtue, strength
and skill, who contrives to get himself separated from his happy
home, and starts upon a career of adventure. This leads up to a
union with a no less hyperbolically beautiful and virtuous princess.
The hero, for his part, is liable to be carried off by a mettlesome horse
into the wilderness, where his adventures begin. He is pretty sure
to come upon the heroine in some unpleasant predicament, such as a
prospective uncongenial marriage, or, when she is in some personal
danger. J. g., times without end, the hero saves the beautiful
maiden from an infuriated elephant, usually by throwing his upper
garment before the elephant’s trunk.t. Or, quite in the manner of
St. George and the dragon, he saves the princess from a bloodthirsty
Raksasa.? In the end he marries her, and she, incidentally, bestows
her father’s kingdom upon him.
Very frequently the prince is attended by a faithful friend, per-
chance the son of his father’s chief minister. The two, as boys, had
played in the sand together, that is, had made mud-pies together.®
This friend is prone to display much heroism and self-sacrifice in
behalf of the prince: he is a stock figure of the better sort. Simi-
1 Kathasaritsagara 89; Story of Bambhadatta, in Jacobi’s “ Ausgewahlte
Erzahlungen,” p. 16, |. 19 ff.; “Story of Agadadatta,” ibid., p. 71, stanzas 53 ff.
2 Kathasaritsagara 79; Vetalapaficavingati 5.
3 Such a person is called in Sanskrit, pansukridita (Paricistaparvan,
p. 123; cf. Harsa-Carita 1, Bombay edition, 1897, p. 17; in Pali, pansukilita
(Jataka 83 and 519); Mahavastu 3. 451; in Prakrit, pansukiliya, Jacobi’s
“ Ausgewahlte Erzahlungen,” p. 20, 1. 16.
616
1913.] ADVENTURES OF MULADEVA 617
larly, the heroine has a faithful female friend, who is almost in-
variably the go-between, or love’s messenger (servus currens) be-
tween herself and the hero. The lady, as a rule, takes the initiative,
by look or act, in establishing relations with her lover-to-be.
Comfortably settled kings, in their maturer years, are also taken
with a kind of ‘‘ wanderlust,’ and roam in search of adventures.*
Merchants and merchants’ sons start on quests of trade and wealth ;
travel to a great distance; suffer ship-wreck; are rescued by dan-
gerous sirens; are destroyed by them; or attain in the end mar-
velous prosperity. Holy men, gifted with supernatural powers,
wander about; whensoever they are treated properly they secure
the happiness of deserving lay persons. On the other hand, all
sorts of rogues in the guise of holy men play tricks under the mantle
of their sanctity, usually to meet with discomfiture and disgrace in
the end. Faithful or faithless wives; noble or degraded courtezans ;
gamblers, thieves, and robbers are further instances of the stere-
otyped dramatis persone of Hindu fiction. To a very considerable
extent all these adventures are lifted to a higher plane of romanti-
cism by the interference, or deus ex machina cooperation of super-
natural beings: benign gods, magic-loving Vidyadharas, Yaksas, and
heavenly nymphs, called Apsaras. And all persons, divine or human,
operate with supernatural agencies: magic objects that grant wishes,
or perform wonderful acts; powerful charms; the forecast of
dreams; the prophecies of holy men and women.
The adventures of all these personages contain as a rule no very
continuous plots. They usually consist of a chain of salient, indi-
vidual, romantic episodes, strung together, one after another. Quite
frequently, one or the other of the happenings are in the nature
of an anecdote, or prank, or trick which one person in the story plays
upon the other. In this latter phase of fiction puns and riddles
often play a part. The separate events of a story rarely unfold
character, and do not necessarily contribute to such dénouement as
the story may happen to have. There is the familiar boxing of story
within story, and frequently the events told in one and the same
story are really different events which merely overlap each other at
some one point.
4 See Prabandhacintamani, Tawney’s Translation, pp. 12, 30, 42.
618 BLOOMFIELD—CHARACTER AND [April 18,
The real interest of Hindu fiction lies in the ingenuity, imagina-
tiveness, and shrewdness of each unit of story-telling. Taken
in bulk, these stories seem fairly to exhaust all the permutations
which can be imagined to arise from the juncture of real or fictitious
persons and things with the circumstances of time and place. There-
fore, the individual motifs of story or fairy-tale, as found with
other peoples, seem to hold a kind of mass-meeting on the great
arena of Hindu fiction. As is well known, the ancient treasury of
narrative which India pours out lavishly from the time of the Rig-
Veda to this day, passed freely beyond the bounds of India. Not
only the stories and fables of entire cycles, such as the Paficatantra,
or the ‘Seventy Tales of the Parrot,’ were exported bodily and
taken over by other literatures, but numberless individual stories
and individual story traits penetrated to the farthest ends of the
earth. It is, at any rate, rather hard to find, in the rest of the
world, fable or fiction traits of marked character which do not own
to an Indian analogon; many a time they may, at least, be suspected
to be of Indian origin. As a corollary to this last condition, nearly
all the more important motifs are intensely repetitious in the Hindu
narratives themselves, so that, as a matter of external experience,
there are neither absolutely original fables or stories, nor absolutely
original collections of such fables or stories.
With all this wealth of themes, and the clever way in which they
are worked up, the Hindu story rarely goes beyond the limits of a
sort of thin novelette. Real types of men and women are, as a
rule, either wanting, or they are indicated by crude, sometimes con-
tradictory delineation. The biography of Muiladeva, though dwelled
upon with some insistence, is no exception to the rule; yet it fulfils
to a certain extent more modern requirements as regards delineation
of character. The stories told about him show more real sequence,
closer interlocking of cause and effect than is customary in Hindu
fiction.
The most important story of Miladeva is preserved in Deven-
dra’s Vrtti, a sort of commentary on the Jain text called the Uttara-
dhyayana. Miladeva, moreover, figures in an autobiographic episode
of his own life, narrated by himself to a king in Kathasaritsagara
1913.] ADVENTURES OF MULADEVA 619
124, or at the end of the tenth book of the Brhatkathamafijari.
Again, in the fifteenth ‘ Tale of the Vampire’ ( Vetalapaficavineati),
he acts a Mephistophelic part in involving a princess in two mar-
riages, arranged so trickily that it is hard to say which husband she
really belongs to. Miuladeva figures occasionally in other stories ; in
addition, a lively tradition of a very variegated sort shows that he
has fixed himself as a “character” in the imagination of the Hindu
people through many centuries. Yet even Devendra’s biography is
rather in the nature of an impressionist sketch than a well-knit
novel. Nor is his characterization in tradition as a whole by any
means consistent: he has traits of Simplicissimus, Tyl Eulenspie-
gel, Cagliostro, Mephisto, and others. On the whole he is a rogue
whose pranks have endeared him to the popular heart as a shifty,
yet delectable figure, who may however, as in Devendra’s story,
occasionally be taken more seriously and padded out into a sort of
hero.
The life history of Muladeva fitly begins with his own name,®
which seems to mean “ Wizard,” literally, ““ He who makes roots his
bf
divinity.” Within the sphere of narrative in which Miladeva fig-
ures, magic practices by means of roots are still as familiar as they
were in the time of the Atharva-Veda.° Muladeva is identified,
next, with Karnisuta,’ an author on the “Science of Thieving ”
(steyacastra-pravartaka). MKarnisuta is said to be a Karataka, some
sort of gentile designation. In Dacgakumaracarita, Apaharavar-
man, one of the princes who narrates his own adventures, him-
self a great scoundrel, tells how he decided to follow the way of
Karnisuta, in order to teach the misers of a certain city the insta-
bility of wealth, by the simple device of stealing that wealth. At the
end of the same story King Rajavahana, after hearing Apahara-
5 Cited by the Kacika at Panini 8. 2. 18.
6 See Bloomfield, “ The Atharva-Veda,” General Index, p. 135”; Schmidt,
Beitrage zur Indischen Erotik, pp. 730, 740; Prabandhacintamani (Tawney’s
Translation), p. IOI.
7In the Lexicon called Haravali, as cited by the commentary to Subandhu’s
Vasavadatta; see Weber, “Indische Streifen,” i. 383, note 2; Pavolini,
GSAI. ix. 176; Meyer’s translation of Dacakumaracarita, pp. 215, 244.
Balakrsna to Bana’s Kadambari, in a roundabout fashion, also makes the same
identification; see p. 621.
620 BLOOMFIELD—CHARACTER AND [April 18,
varman’s rascally story, exclaims: “ Why, you have gone Karnisuta’s
rough practices one better!”
Karnisuta goes, all told,.by four names: (1) Miladeva. (2)
Mulabhadra, perhaps, “ Servant of Roots’’: the name is little more
than an equivalent of Miladeva. (3) Kalankura, “Shoot of Ac-
complishments,” that is, “ Product of the 648 kala’s,” or accomplish-
ments, which belong to a rowtiné man of the world, or man about
town, the typical nayaka or “hero,” a sort of “devil of a fellow,”
as he is sketched ideally and systematically in the scheme of the
(to us) villanous Kamacastras,® or ‘‘ Love-Bibles” of India. (4)
Karnisuta (Karnicuta’®), and Karniputra, i. e., “Son of Karni,”
a mother about whom we hear nothing, perhaps a courtezan. Else
we should, according to Hindu models, expect a patronymic, rather
than a metronymic. “Sons of maidens” (kumiariputra, kanina)
are well-known in Sanskrit literature, e. g.. VS. 30.6; TB. 3. 4. 1. 2;
Manu 9. 160, 172. In the two Vedic texts he typifies lust or pleas-
ure (pramad, pramud).
This fourth name is similar to that of a frequently mentioned
author of amatory literature, namely Goniputraka, Gonikaputra,
and Gonikasuta, 7. e. “Son of Goni or Gonika.” In the introduc-
tion to the Paficasayaka, “Five arrows (of the God of Love),”
occurs the expression goniputraka-miiladeva-bhanitam, which looks
for all the world as tho it meant “ Miladeva, the Son of Goni.” In
the same text Gonisuta and Miladeva are mentioned once more, tho
not side by side, as authorities ; no other authors are mentioned at all.
This also looks as tho the names were interchangeable, especially
when we consider that the text is metrical and is liable to require
differing quantities in a tetrasyllable ; see Richard Schmidt, “ Beitrage
zur Indischen Erotik,” p. 918 ff. The same author, p. 46, remarks
§ Prabandhacintamani, p. 32, counts 72 accomplishments. So also Devendra,
in the story of Agadadatta (Jacobi’s “ Ausgewahlte Erzihlungen”’), stanza 22.
See the list in Prabhavaka-Carita (ed. Hirananda U. Sharma), p. 132.
® Not so the Hindus. They regard the Kamacdstra as a legitimate
Castra. E. g., in the Prabandhacintamani, p. 63, Vatsyayana’s Kamacastra is
regarded as on a par with the three Vedas, the Raghuvanca, and the Artha-
castra (Kautiliya) of Canakya.
10 This spelling due, perhaps, to Prakrit cuta “ fallen,” the standard ex-
pression for passing from a higher to a lower existence in the course of
transmigration.
1913.] ADVENTURES OF MULADEVA 621
that Goniputra, and the like, are metronymics of an author whose
real name is no longer known. It is probable, therefore, that Miula-
deva, Karniputra, and Goniputra are one and the same man. In
any case there is no occasion for scepticism as regards the identity
of Muladeva and Karnisuta. Bana’s Kadambari (Peterson’s edi-
tion, p. 19, 1. 16) states that the Vindhya forest, like the story of
Karnisuta, had its Vipulacala and Caga. This is euphuistic indirec-
tion (vakrokti) for, “it had extensive mountains and was frequented
by hares.” The word for mountain is acala, and the word for hare
is caca. These two words figure in the Miladeva legends as proper
names of persons, and thus make out a mathematical equation
between Miladeva and Karnisuta.
So much for the name. As regards Miladeva’s character we may
begin with his performances as an author. In Ksemendra’s Kala-
vilasa,™ a satirical treatise on the foibles or tricks inherent in sundry
walks of life, Muladeva appears as the mentor (a sort of Visnucar-
man) of a young merchant’s son, Candragupta. Miladeva is desig-
nated as dhirtapati, “prince of rogues.” As such he is supposed to
be a fit teacher of a young man of wealth and family, the point
being that Muladeva is best able to save a youth from the pitfalls of
rogues and courtezans.
Next, he is, as was pointed out above, shining authority on
kamacastra: the Paficasayaka refers to him several times on inti-
mate questions of the ars amatoria.'* This is supported by a text
called Caktiratnakara, which deals with the secret cult of Durga; he
is there mentioned along with a set of kamacdstra authors which
for the most part are cited elsewhere in this sphere of literature.
If my surmise is correct, that Gonikaputra is no other than Mila-
deva himself, his authority in this line of literature rises in the scale.
Incidental mentions in literature show his adroitness not only in
11 The text is published in the series Kavyamala, fascicles 1 and 2 (1886).
An analysis of its contents is given by J. J. Meyer, in the Introduction to his
translation of the Samayamatrka, pp. xl ff. Cf. also Sylvain Lévi, “La
Brhatkathamafijari de Ksemendra,” p. 11 (reprint). In Cukasaptati, 23, the
merchant Candra entrusts, similarly, his son to the pander Dhurtamaya, to
teach him the wiles and tricks of bad women.
12 See Schmidt, “ Beitrage,” pp. 50, 879, 919.
13 See Charpentier, “ Paccekabuddhageschichten,” p. 58.
622 BLOOMFIELD—CHARACTER AND [April 18,
practices, but also in wise saws pertaining to love. In Kathasaritsa-
gara 98 (Vetalapaficavincati 24) a son encourages his widowed
father to marry again, by means of a stanza composed by Mila-
deva: “ Who, that is not a fool, enters that house in which there
is no shapely love eagerly awaiting his return, which tho called a
house, is really a prison without chains?” A scholiast to the Sap-
tacataka of Hala‘ cites a hemistich by Miladeva of quite similar
import: “It’s no use anointing yourself with fragrant unguents, if
you haven’t a light-o’-love.” In the 3oth Story of the Parrot (Cuka-
saptati) two demons (picacas) quarrel over the beauty of their
respective wives. They catch hold of Muladeva, who is to decide.
He, thinking in his soul that both their she-devils are passing ugly,
wriggles out with the verse: “To every lover in the world she alone
seems charming that is his love; no other.” The same riddle in
Mahabharata, Kathasaritsagara, and in the story of Oedipus; see
Tawney’s note to his Translation of Kathasaritsagara, i. 26.
Mialadeva is, however, not merely the theoretic academician of
love. Tradition has him the practical promoter of love: wherever
there be some beauty to conquer, either on his own account, or on
the account of others, he pushes himself forward. More especially,
in love-affairs of the shady sort, Mtladeva is the standard resort.
Or, he plays the part of a mischievous devil in connection with
illicit loves. Thus, as regards the last point, in the “Tales of the
Parrot,” 22, a farmer’s wife who is in the habit of carrying him his
dinner amuses herself with her paramour on the way. She deposits
the dinner-kettle on the road, and Miladeva puts in camel’s meat.
When her husband inquires suspiciously she, quick as a flash, an-
swers: “ Sir, I dreamt that you would be eaten by a camel, and have
played this prank to nullify the omen.” Another time, in an un-
savory little story told in the Jain Avacyaka Niryvukti, Mualadeva is
on the road with a boon companion, a sort of fidws Achates, who is
here named Kandarika. They come across another traveler with
his wife. When Kandarika is smitten with the charms of the
woman, Miladeva tricks the husband.
Miuladeva climbs to the pinnacle of tricky mischief, as “lord of
14 Cf. Weber, Das Saptacgatakam des Hala, p. xxv.
1913.] ADVENTURES OF MULADEVA 623
rogues’ in affairs of love, in the 15th Vampire story, as told in the
Kathasaritsagara 89, or the 14th story in Civadasa’s version of the
same book. A young Brahman, Manahsvamin, saves the life of a
princess Caciprabha from an infuriated elephant. The two young
people, of course, fall madly in love with each other. Manahsvamin,
who is not eligible, goes to visit that master of magic, Mtladeva.
Then that matchless deceiver places a magic globule into his mouth,
and transforms himself into an ancient Brahman. He gives a
second globule to Manahsvamin, who turns into a beautiful maiden.
And that prince of villains took him in this disguise to the judgment-
hall of the king, the father of his lady-love, and said to him: “O
king, I have only one son, and I asked for a maiden to be given him
to wife, and brought her from a long distance. But now he has
gone somewhere or other, and I am going to look for him; so keep
this maiden safe for me, until I bring back my son; for you keep
safe under your protection the whole world.”!® Needless to say,
the king accepts the charge; gives Manahsvamin as a companion to
Caciprabha; the two marry by the Gandharva rite; and Manah-
svamin is a woman by day and an ardent lover by night, using the
simple device of putting in and taking out the magic globule.
In time the brother-in-law of the king gives his daughter, Mrgan-
kavati, in marriage to the son of his minister. The princess Caci-
prabha is invited to her cousin’s marriage, and goes there with her
ladies-in-waiting, including Manahsvamin, wearing the form of a
young maiden of exquisite beauty. The fresh bridegroom becomes
distracted with love on beholding Manahsvamin. There were no
difficulty in his marrying Manahsvamin as a second wife, but how
can the king who has him (or her) in keeping for another husband,
a Brahman’s son, permit this marriage? It is decided to send the
minister's son on a journey of six months; if, when he returns,
the Brahman has not come back to claim the maiden, he may marry
her also. Manahsvamin, the trick-maiden, remains behind with
Mrgankavati. The two girls become very affectionate, until finally
15 The same ruse in similar stories, Cukasaptati 62; Pramati’s adventure,
Dacakumaracarita 5; Kathasaritsagara 7. 40-87; Viracarita 8 (Jndische
Studien, xiv. 153 ff.).
PROC. AMER, PHIL, SOC., LII. 212 V, PRINTED NOV, Ig, I913.
624 BLOOMFIELD—CHARACTER AND [April 18,
the pupil of that master-rogue tells her: “I have a boon from Visnu,
by which I can at pleasure become a man during the night, so I will
now become one for your sake.’ Then they elope before the min-
ister’s son, the husband of Mrgankavati, returns to claim the man-
woman Manahsvamin, who had been promised him as his second
wife.
One should think that Miladeva would be content with the impish
mischief done so far. Not he. Again he takes on the guise of the
old Brahman, turns his Leporello (who is this time called Cacin)
into a young Brahman, his supposed son, and goes to claim Manah-
svamin as his daughter-in-law from the fiduciary king. The latter is,
of course, unable to deliver the goods, and, afraid of the feigned
stern Brahman anger of Miladeva, gives his own daughter Caci-
prabha to Cacin, by way of compensation.
Then Miladeva takes this bridal couple to his own home, where
Manahsvamin meets them, and a fierce dispute takes place between
the latter and Cacin in the presence of that Miladeva. Manah-
svamin says: “ This Caciprabha should be given to me; for, long ago,
when she was a maiden, I married her by the favor of the master
(1. e., Muladeva).”’ Cacin says: “ You fool, what have you to do
with her? She is my wife, for her own father bestowed her on me
in the presence of the fire.
of the dispute.
9
The story cleverly dodges the decision
There is one charming story which Miladeva narrates to the
famous legendary king Vikramaditya, as illustrating the virtue and
resourcefulness of a true wife. It is told in Kathasaritsagara 124,
and, in a poor digest, in Brhatkathamafijari 10. 272 ff. As behoves
the atmosphere of our hero, it is full of quips and pranks, but the
joke is rather on Miladeva, who narrates it with a sort of humorous
self-persiflage. Mialadeva, in company with Cagin, arrives at Pata-
liputra, and, after some witty preliminary passes, full of give and
take, with some of the inhabitants,1* Miladeva falls in love with a
saucy Brahman’s daughter who had shamed them by her wit. He
ingratiates himself with her father, and manages to marry her; she
16 The quip with the mango-fruits recurs in Prabandhacintamani (Tawney’s
Translation), pp. 5, 6.
1913.] ADVENTURES OF MULADEVA 625
does not remember that they had previously exchanged repartee. At
night he recalls himself to her memory, when she says: “ Yes,
country bumpkins are tricked in this way by city wits.” Then he
replies: “ Rest you fair, city wit; I vow that the country bumpkin
will desert you and go far away.” She then vows in her turn that
a son of hers by him shall bring him back again. He puts a ring on
her finger, and promptly makes off to Ujjayini, in love with her,
but wishing to make trial of her cleverness.
Then the Brahman’s daughter starts off to Ujjayini in the guise
of a splendidly equipped hetzra, calling herself Sumangala. There
she poses as the beauty of the world, a position which she is able to
maintain through her father’s wealth and her own charm. She is
approached by many suitors, but manages to elude them. Mutladeva
narrates with gleeful unction, how his own friend Cagin was chased
from pillar to post in an attempt to reach her. Finally Miladeva
himself is admitted to her presence and favor. He does not recog-
nize her as his own wife, but lives with her in great mutual love for
some time, until she forges a letter from her supposititious sovereign,
and disappears as she came, returning, of course, to her home in
Pataliputra.
In due time she gives birth to a boy by Muladeva. This boy, at
the age of twelve, is wonderfully accomplished. In a quarrel he
beats with a creeper a fisher-boy who is, of course, of low caste, and
the boy throws into his teeth: “You beat me, tho nobody knows
who your father is; for your mother roamed about in foreign lands,
and you were born to her by some husband or other.”1*7 The boy
then extracts from his mother the whole story, including his father’s
name, and finally exclaims: “ Mother, I will go and bring my father
back a captive; I will make your promise good!”
At this point Miladeva’s own narrative becomes too good to be
shortened. ‘‘The boy set out and reached this city of Ujjayini.
And he came and saw me playing dice in the gambling-hall, making
certain of my identity from the description his mother had given him,
and he conquered in play all who were there, and he astonished every
one there by showing such remarkable cunning, tho a mere child.
17 Cf, Prabandhacintamani, p. 170.
626 BLOOMFIELD—CHARACTER AND [April 18,
Then he gave away to the needy all the money he had won at play.
And at night he came and stole my bedstead from under me, letting
me down gently on a heap of cotton while I remained asleep.” We
must remember that gambling is Miladeva’s pet vice which brings
him to grief in Devendra’s novel, and that, furthermore, he is
“prince of thieves,” author of a steya-cdstra or “ thieves’ bible.”
Stealing a bedstead from under such as he, is like stealing the white
of Sherlock Holmes’ eyes. Miuladeva continues: “So when I woke
up, and saw myself on a heap of cotton, without a bedstead, I was at
once filled with mixed feelings of shame, amusement, and astonish-
ment. Then, O king, I went at my leisure to the market-place, and,
roaming about, I saw there that boy selling the bedstead. So I went
up to him and said: ‘ For what price will you give me this bedstead?’
Then the boy said to me, ‘ You cannot get the bedstead for money,
O crest-jewel of cunning ones; but you may get it by telling some
strange and wonderful story... When I heard that I said to him,
‘Then I will tell you a marvelous tale. And, if you understand it
and admit that it is really true, you may keep the bedstead; but if
you say that it is not true and that you do not believe it, you will
be illegitimate, and I shall get back the bedstead. Now listen!
Formerly there was a famine in the kingdom of a certain king; that
king himself cultivated the back of the beloved of the boar with
great loads of spray from the chariot of the snakes. Enriched with
the grain thus produced the king put a stop to the famine among his
subjects, and gained the esteem of man.’
“When I said this the boy laughed and said: ‘The chariots of
the snakes are the clouds; the beloved of the boar is the earth, for
she is said to have been most dear to Visnu in his boar incarnation ;
and what is there to be astonished at in the fact that rain from the
clouds made grain to spring on the earth?’”’
The boy then, in his turn, poses a cosmic-mythological riddle—
dear to the heart of the Hindu from the time of the theological
brahmodya of the Veda—on the condition that, if Muladeva solves it,
he gets the bedstead; if not he becomes the boy’s slave. Of course,
Miladeva fails; the boy takes hold of his arm, and takes him to his
mother in Pataliputra. Muladeva, the unstable scape-grace, lived
1913.] ADVENTURES OF MULADEVA 627
there “a long time” with that wife and that son, and then returned
to Ujjayini, unable to keep steady company for ever.
Miladeva is not merely versed in the direct arts, practices, and
tricks of love; he is also celebrated in all accessories. He is a culti-
vated conversationalist ; brilliant narrator ; marvelous musician; ex-
pert in massage, perfumes, and ointments ;** knows how to send a lady
a present; in fact, man of the world and arbiter elegantie, or accord-
ing to the Hindu Love-Bibles, a typical nayaka, or “ hero,’ who must
really control no less than sixty-four accomplishments. These quali-
ties come to the fore in Devendra’s story.
In the broader sphere of tradition he, or his double Karnisuta, is
a dhurtapati, “master-thief,” and author of a steya-castra. In the
story of Mandiya,’® another of Devendra’s stories, Muladeva, after
he has become king of Bennayada, figures as a resourceful thief-
catcher (a la Haroun-al-Rashid) ; cf. Kathasaritsagara 88 and 112;
Vetalapaficavineati 14 (Wivadasa 13). Asa corollary to his artistry
in this science we may regard the statement that he was an adept
in cipher. This is also one of the necessary qualifications of the
great Hindu Macchiavelli, the celebrated Canakya, Minister of king
Candragupta, who like Richard III, was born with teeth in his
mouth.?° Canakya goes by the nick-name Kautilya, 7. e., “ Crooks.”?1
The recent publication of his Arthacastra, or “ Science of Politics”
is one of the important events of Indology.
Miladeva is, furthermore, a great magician. In Devendra’s story
he slaps a hunch-backed female slave upon the back, and, presto, she
becomes straight. Particularly he has always at his hands one of
those magic pills.2? They are familiar in Devendra’s stories; in the
18 Jn Weber’s Catalog of the Royal Library in Berlin, vol. I, p. 306,
Miladeva is mentioned in a series of authors on personal toilet: snaniya-
sugandhisamuddecah . . . mukhavasasamuddecah . . . sarvottamasaurabhya-
samuddecah, and so on.
19 See Jacobi, “ Ausgewahlte Erzahlungen,” p. 65.
20 Teeth hadst thou in thy head when thou wast born, to signify thou
camest to bite the world. Henry VI.
21 Cf. Dacakumaracarita I (end) ; Cukasaptati 3 (where Kutila is the
name of a rogue).
22 Gulika, gudika, gutika; in Vetalapaficavincati 14 (Civadiasa’s version)
siddhagutika; in Brhatkathamafijari 9. 743, yogagutika (correct) ; ibid., 9. 731,
628 BLOOMFIELD—CHARACTER AND [April 18,
story of Muladeva our hero thus transforms himself into a dwarf.
All sorts of devices for such transformations are familiar in Hindu
fiction; see especially Kathakoga, pp. 103, I10, 114, 130, 135, 184;
Kathasaritsagara 37 and 74 (cf. Tawney, II, p. 632) ; Prabandha-
cintamani, p. 106; Meyer’s Translation of Dacgakumaracarita, p. 83.
The dramatic, or almost tragic note in Miladeva’s character is
his love for gambling. In the story digested above the boy, on arriv-
ing in Ujjayini, finds his father duly engaged in gambling in the
gambling-hall, just as the theft of the bedstead is a jibe on Mila-
deva’s reputation as master-thief. In Samayamatrka 6.29 Mila-
deva is said to be skilled in the practices of the demon Kali, meaning
that he is a gambler. Devendra’s story begins by telling that his
father drove him from home on account of this passion of his. In
the same story he, like Yudhisthira or Nala, loses his all by gambling;
in consequence he is humiliated by a rival, and is driven from the
side of his beloved, the hetera Devadatta.?°
It is a curious, yet rational trait of story tradition that an outside
atmosphere of complacency or benignity surrounds the scape-grace
shape of Muladeva. The story-tellers all like him. Don Giovanni
must go to perdition in the end, but, as long as he lives, he is too
entertaining to be read out of stage or drawing-room. It is true that
one solemn Jain text, the Jnatadhyayana 19, cites him, or what
amounts to the same, his companion Kandarika, as a forbidding
example of sensuality.** Yet there is no mistaking that he is beloved
of the romancer. And so it has come to pass that this dissolute
rogue and companion of the base, this “ Schlaumeier and Erzspitz-
bube,” as Jacobi once designated him, is done over into a real pious
hero by another Jain writer, Devendra, the author of the Vrtti to
the Uttaradhyayana. We are accustomed to an important difference .
in the handling of fiction by Brahmanical texts on the one hand and
Buddhist and Jinist texts on the other. Brahmanical fiction is essen-
tially secular, tho it is employed sententiously to illustrate both the
yogaghatika or yogangulika (both corrupt); in Samavidhana-Brahmana 3.
4. 3, golika. See above, and Jacobi, “ Ausgewahlte Erzahlungen,” p. 9, line 38;
10, line 1; 31, lines 29-33.
23 See below, p. 641.
24 See Leumann, WZKM. vi. 43.
1913.] ADVENTURES OF MULADEVA 629
utilitarian and moral aspects of life (artha, kautilya, niti, dharma).
But the Buddhist and Jinist texts are religious forthright ; they teach
the high piety, the high moral law, the dhamma. Yet they work up
the same variegated, unmoral, often immoral fiction, and that, too,
always under the cloak of teaching the law (dhammakatha, dhamma-
kaha). The texts are full of curious discrepancies between the tissue
of the story which is often palpably phlogistic, so to say, if not pru-
rient, and the sententious piety which hangs from it as loose em-
broidery. It comes as a shock when we read in Andabhita-Jataka,
how a king who is the future Buddha hires a professional rascal
(dhutta) to corrupt an innocent young girl by pander’s tricks worthy
of the doctrines of the Kuttanimata or Samayamatrka, in order that
he may beat his own chaplain (purohita) at gambling. The text has
in mind to bring out in strongest relief the mental superiority of the
Buddha, but at what cost? It is hard to shut out the impression that
those good saints, those Bhikkhus and Arhats; those Sahus and
Kevalins liked a romantic, or even salacious story for its own sake;
that they sat there in their viharas and acramas with something very
like the ghost of a smirk on their faces listening to what people -will
always listen to, but saving their faces in the end by drawing the
moral which tacks itself gratuitously to the heels of almost any
naughty entertainment.
The story of Muladeva, as told by Devendra, is a tour-de-force
of this sort, which is hard to beat and not quite easy to understand.
Miuladeva is still the gambler who gambles away the clothes off his
back; the black-art practitioner ; the musician ; the companion of low
women; the viveur; and the resourceful adventurer. None of these
qualities, we must note, respond to the Jinistic ideal. But the story
recoins many of these values; it makes him out a veritable pattern
and exemplar: skilled in every accomplishment, versed in many
arts, noble of mind, of grateful disposition, a heroic protector, virtu-
ous, clever, and gifted with beauty, grace, and youth. Or, in the
words of Devadatta, the hetzera, whose devotion to him is the saving
motif of the story: “he is wise, of noble soul, a very ocean of kind-
liness, skilled in the arts, pleasant of speech, grateful, virtuous, and
of discerning mind.” One is surprised at hearing the jargon of the
630 BLOOMFIELD—CHARACTER AND [April 18,
Hindu counsel of perfection—this is about what it amounts to—
on such a stage and from such mouths. The way these people de-
claim on, and really seem honestly to admire “virtue,” fits vice-
crusaders better than denizens of the lower world. Aside from this
paradox the happenings of the story, event by event, are sheer
romance, strangely uncongenial to an Acta Sanctorum.
The purpose of the Jinist writer is served thus: Miladeva’s for-
tunes sink to a very low ebb indeed, because of his passion for
gambling, and the rivalry of a rich suitor for the favor of Devadatta,
named Ayala. In the end he manages by dint of a frankly selfish
act of piety to obtain success through the favor of the gods. He
gives his own scant food, which he has just obtained by begging, to
a saintly ascetic who has come to a certain village, in order to break
a month’s fast. In consequence thereof he obtains the kingship of
Bennayada. The point is, that it pays to serve holy ascetics. I must
say, I like Devendra, the story-teller, better than Devendra, the
theologian.
Something needs to be said about the remaining characters of this
story. The heroine, Devadatta,?> belongs to the type of the beautiful
and noble hetera, gifted with every grace of heart and mind. How-
soever difficult we may find it to adjust this conception to our ideas,
the fact is that with the Hindus this is a settled conception, and a
settled type in fiction. The system of the erotic books deals with
various grades of heteras; the first grade, called ganika, standing
for the type of noble hetera.2*° We need not try the hopeless task
of appreciating such distinctions. Taken in bulk they are in the
main the product of the naive schematism of the Hindu mind. Yet
there is an appreciable sediment of reality as regards the beginning
and end of the classification: there are vile and noble heteras. For
an extreme example of the former class see the parallel stories,
Kathasaritsagara 58; Kathakoca, p. 128 ff.; Kalavilasa (Meyer’s
25 A commentator of Subandhu’s Va4savadatta substitutes the name
Nagaramandana, stating that a hetera of that name was captivated by
Miladeva’s superior intellectual qualities. See Weber, “Indische Streifen,”
I., 383, note 2.
26 See Schmidt, “Beitrage zur Indischen Erotik,” pp. 278 ff., 788 ff.; Meyer,
Dagakumaracarita, p. 41 ff.; Samayamatrka, pp. ix ff.; Cukasaptati 45.
1913.] ADVENTURES OF MULADEVA 631
Samayamatrka, p. L ff.) As regards the noble hetzra the class-
ical figures of Aspasia, or Phryne, or Lais, those “ companions”’ of
antique swell society, come easily to mind as parallels, but parallels
may run on different planes. The character of the Hindu hetera is
at times really noble. Such a heteera, Vasantatilaka, is the friend of
the princess Ratnamafijari, in Kathakoga, p. 151; another one,
Kuberasena, shows the greatest devotion to her children, in Paricista-
parvan 2. 225 ff.; a third one is remarkable for her intellect in Pra-
bandhacintamani, p. 67.
The story of king Vikramaditya and Madanamala, Kathasarit-
sagara 38, is a story of a hetera’s true devotion which winds up with
the reflection: “Thus, king, even hetzras are occasionally of noble
character, and as faithful to kings as their own wives, much more
bP)
than matrons of high birth.” Accordingly, Prabandhacintamani, p.
116, describes the heteera Cauladevi as a famous vessel of beauty and
good faith, excelling even matrons of good family. But the high
standing of courtezans, as well as their nobility of character, is illus-
trated best by Vasantasena, the famous heroine of the “ Toy-Cart.”
She loves the Brahman merchant Carudatta, who has impoverished
himself by liberality, and ultimately becomes his wife. In our story
Devadatta rivals Vasantasena in tone and character, and yet she is
a courtezan with a villainous “ Mama” to guide and browbeat her,
and otherwise surrounded with all the animate and inanimate real
properties of her vocation. The description of the Mama, as given in
Samayamatrka and Kuttanimatam, shall not blacken these pages,??
but I may draw attention, as one of the gems of our romance, to the
symbolic debate between the Mama and Devadatta which contrasts
the former’s sordidness with the latter’s refinement.
In the legend at large Miladeva is in the habit of training with a
friend, or boon companion. Mention has been made above (p. 622)
of one Kandaria (Skt. Kandarika), but Kandarika belong rather to
the Bambhadatta cycle of stories, as one name (the other is Vara-
dhanu, or Varadhanuga) of the fidus Achates of the adventurous
prince Bambhadatta.?8 In the Brhat-katha books (Kathasaritsagara
~2t Cf. the doings of Danstrakarala and Dhirtamaya in Cukasaptati 22
and 23.
28 Cf. Leumann, WZKU. vi. 43.
632 BLOOMFIELD—CHARACTER AND [April 18,
and Brhatkathamafijari) the name of Miualadeva’s companion is
Cacin. The commentator Balakrsna, to Bana’s Kadambari, 19.16
(Peterson’s edition), alludes to him as gaga “ Hare.’’? This Cacin,
a sort of Leporello to Miladeva’s Don Giovanni, flits across the
Miladeva legend with tantalizing elusiveness: we should like to know
more of him. It is rather curious that Devendra’s novelette fails to
mention him. But I think that he is, after all, there by reflection.
When Miladeva is driven out of Ujjeni by the Mama’s machinations,
he starts without a penny to bless himself with for Bennayada, where
he ultimately becomes king. On the way he comes to an extensive
forest. At the sight of it he reflects that, “if he could meet some
other person traveling m the same direction, so that he might at least
have someone to talk to, the journey through might be pleasant
enough.” Opportunely there comes along a Dhakka-Brahman,
which I take to mean a “ Brahman of the Thugs.’’®° In his company
Mialadeva crosses the forest. There is regularly a touch of facetious-
ness in this road-companionship, but this time the joke is rather on
Miladeva. For three days they travel together. Miladeva has
nothing to eat, whereas the Dhakka has a well-provisioned knap-
sack. At each meal-time the Dhakka feasts without offering Mila-
deva anything, until the time comes for parting. They exchange
names and addresses, and Muladeva, tho treated thus shabbily,
expresses his gratitude for the companionship. Later on, when he
has become king Vikrama, he presents the Dhakka with a village.
The curious anecdote seems to me to reflect the companion of Mila-
deva, and to serve the additional purpose of placing in strong relief
the grateful disposition which the story explicitly ascribes to
Miladeva.
The Jaina story of Miladeva in Maharastri Prakrit, by the Jaina
chronicler Devendra,** gathers up the adventures and unfolds the
29 The same authority mentions also Acala (Ayala), Miladeva’s rival, as
one of his friends. Also a personage by the name of Vipula, otherwise un-
heard of in the story: Karnisutah Karatakah steyacastrapravartakah tasya-
khyatau sakhayau dvau Vipula-Acalasamjfitau Cacag ca mantripravarah.
30 See the note below, p. 641.
31 Edited by Jacobi, “ Ausgewahlte Erzahlungen in Mahardstri,” pp. 56-
65; elaborated, or translated by Pavolini, “ Vicende del Tipo di Miladeva,”
1913.] ADVENTURES OF MULADEVA 6338
character of this singular personage more completely and consist-
ently than all the rest of the data which occur scatteringly in the re-
maining literature. It is a legendary biography without any real
historical value. There certainly existed at some time or another
an author Miuladeva, the son of the woman Karni (or Gont), skilled
in the ars amatoria and kindred topics. But this connected quasi-
biography, well-knit and consistent, a rattling good story, so to speak,
reveals itself on closer inspection as both legendary and unoriginal.
The individual items of the story are for the most part recurrent
motifs from earlier sources. Devendra’s skill lies in his power
to connect and to imbue with life the separate members of his
story. The shifting, flitting, shadowy figure of Miladeva shapes
itself into a real person in his hands. Devadatta, in whom is
embalmed the notion of the noble hetzra, becomes, whether we
will or not, a personage altogether lovable. The Mama makes us
forget her own baseness by the sheer force of her character and
the wit of her utterances. Her sayings and doings are, perhaps,
the best and most original feature of the story. Miladeva’s
rival, Ayala, is well delineated. Miuiladeva’s mishaps, the manner in
which he prepares for greatness, his dream of kingship, and his
choice as king of Bennayada are well told. The entire setting of the
story, from the moment that Muladeva arrives in Ujjeni and be-
comes acquainted with Devadatta, betrays the practised skill of a
good dramatist, and reveals Devendra as more than a rival of the
best Jataka-narrators. In the following translation the parallels to
the individual items are stated in the notes, without, however, going
into the details of comparison. For the materials involved in these
comparisons, as indeed for the data involved in this essay as a whole,
I am indebted in part to the essays or translations of the scholars
mentioned in the foot-note on p. 632. Jacobi’s excellent edition of
Devendra’s stories with vocabulary has long been an Indological
classic.
Giornale della Societa Asiatica Italiana, 1X. 175 ff.; by Charpentier, “ Pacceka-
buddhageschichten ” (Upsala, 1908), pp. 57 ff.; and by John Jacob Meyer,
“Hindu Tales” (London, 1909), pp. 193 ff.
634 BLOOMFIELD—CHARACTER AND [April 18,
THE ADVENTURES OF MULADEVA AS TOLD BY DEVENDRA.
There is a city called Ujjeni. A certain Rajput, Miladeva by
name,*” had-been cast out by his father because he was addicted to
the vice of gambling,®* and after roaming over the earth had come
to this city from Pataliputta. He was withal skilled in every art;
versed in many sciences; of noble mind; of grateful disposition; a
hero to those who sought his protection; devoted to virtue; cour-
teous; clever; and gifted with beauty, grace, and youth. In Ujjeni
he changed his appearance by virtue of a magic pill,** took on the
shape of a dwarf, and astonished the city folk by his many stories,
by his skill in music and other arts, and by the performance of sun-
dry jugglers’ tricks, so that he became a celebrity.
Now there lived at that time in Ujjeni a most elegant courtezan,
Devadatta by name, proud of her beauty, charm, and intellect.
Miladeva heard that her pride was such that she took no pleasure
in any ordinary mortal. He became curious, and, in order to stir
her emotions, stationed himself at daybreak near her house, and
began to intone a sweet-sounding melody. His voice vibrated with
its many modulations; his song was exquisite in the harmony of its
various sounds. Devadatta heard it and thought: “Ah, what an
incomparable voice; this must be a god, not a mere man!’’*® She
sent out her slave-girls to look for him, and, when they found him,
they saw that Muladeva had the shape of a dwarf, all of which they
reported to Devadatta. She then dispatched a hunchbacked slave,
Mahava by name, to call him. Mahava went up to him, and ad-
dressed him politely: “ Very noble sir, my mistress Devadatta bids
thee favor her with a visit to our house.”
Miuladeva slily disguised his purpose, and answered her: “ I have
82 The part of the story beginning here, up to the point where Miladeva
is disgraced by Ayala, is essentially the same as the story of Lohajafigha,
Kathasaritsagara 12. 78 ff.; see the notes in Tawney’s Translation, vol. I.,
Dp. 574.
33 Cf. Kathasaritsagara 121.
34 See above, p. 627.
35 The theme of the lure of a beautiful voice recurs frequently (see
Benfey’s Paficatantra i. 436 ff.) : Meyer, “ Hindu Tales,” p. 263 ff.; Ardschi-
Bordschi-Chan, second interpolation in 11th story (Jtlg, Mongolische
Marchen) ; Goontilleke, Orientalist, i. 277 ff.
1913] ADVENTURES OF MULADEVA 635
no use for the society of courtezans; genteel men are forbidden to
associate with dissolute women. As the poet says:*°
“A courtezan is a most degraded person; she is worn out by
countless gallants, is given over to drink and gluttony. She is
soft of speech, but evil of mind: such a one is not regarded by
gentles.
“ Like the crest of a flame her nature is to devour ; like intoxicat-
ing drink she bewilders the senses; like a razor she cuts the body;
aye, like a thorn the courtezan is rued!
“ Therefore I have no desire to go to her.”
The slave-woman, however, beguiled his soul with many en-
ticing expressions, insistently took him by the hand, and led him to
the house. As he went he slapped her crooked back, and by virtue of
his great art and magic skill, she was made straight. With
astounded mind she brought him to the house, where Devadatta
beheld him, a dwarf in shape, yet incomparably charming. In a
daze she bade him be seated, and offered him betel.** Then Mahava
exhibited her restored figure, and told the whole story. Devadatta,
still more amazed, began to converse in sweet and cultivated lan-
guage: her heart was attracted to him. As says the poet:
“The conversation of clever men, pleasant in its courtliness,
adroitly witty, delightful in its delicate sounds, that is sorcery—
what use is there in magic roots! ’’8
It happened that a certain lute-player arrived there and sounded
his lute. Devadatta was pleased, and exclaimed: “ Bravo, Mister
lutist, bravo, your skill is exquisite!” But Miéladeva said: “ Ah,
the Ujjeni-folk are passing clever; they know the difference between
what is beautiful, and what is not beautiful.” Devadatta asked:
“Sir, what is wrong here?” Miuladeva replied: “The tube of the
lute is unclean; the string full of flaws.” She asked how he knew,
36 These two stanzas are quoted in Sanskrit; Charpentier, /. c., p. 50, sug-
gests that they may be from a lost work by Muladeva himself. See another
description of the baseness of courtezans in Cukasaptati 23.
37 For the use of betel in erotic practices see Schmidt, “ Beitrage zur
Indischen Erotik,” Index, p. 945; for its character and chronology see Hornle,
“Uvasagadasao,” Translation, p. 20, note; Speyer, “Studies about the
Kathasaritsagara,” p. 49.
38 See Meyer’s good note on this stanza, p. 195.
636 BLOOMFIELD—CHARACTER AND [April 18,
and he said, he would show her. The lute was handed him, and he
drew a pebble from the tube, and a hair out of the string.*® Then
he put it in order and began to play. Devadatta and her attendants
were transported. A she-elephant nearby which was always in the
habit of roaring stood still rocking herself, with her ears down.*°
Devadatta and the lute-player in surprise thought: ‘“ Verily, he is
Vissakamma (the Creator) in disguise!” Then she dismissed the
lute-player with presents.
Dinner-time arrived and Devadatta ordered the massagist, so
that they might both bathe. Muladeva said: “ Permit me to do your
anointing.”** Devadatta asked: “ What! do you know this also?”
and Muladeva replied: “I do not know it perfectly, but I have stood
in the presence of them that know.” They brought campaka-oil ;
he proceeded to anoint; she was enchanted. And she thought:
“What exceeding skill, what unexcelled touch: he must be some
divine personage in disguise; ordinarily such excellence does not
reside in a person of such shape. I must make him disclose his
true shape!’’ She fell at his feet, and said: “ Noble Sir, your unpar-
alleled virtues of themselves mark you as a superior person. Such
a one is gracious to those who appeal to him, and anxious to oblige.
Show me therefore your true self, my heart longs greatly to see
you!” When she kept on importuning, Miladeva, laughing softly,
removed the magic pill which had changed him, and assumed his
true form. He appeared resplendent as the sun, like the God of
Love bewildering all creatures by his beauty, his body abounding in
89 Marvelous skill in detecting flaws in objects that are supposed to be
perfect, Supparaka-Jataka, first part. Cf. the four wonderful house-servants
of King Jitari, Weber, “Handschriften-Verzeichniss,”’ Vol. II., p. 1093, bottom;
or the skill tricks in Parigistaparvan 8. 170 ff.; Prabandhacintamani, p. 45.
40 In Kathakoga, p. 65 ff., occurs a tourney of lute-players for the hand of
princess Gandharvadatta: the music of the first quiets a mad elephant; that
of the second makes a tree burst into blossom; that of the third attracts a
distant deer; that of the fourth makes an elephant give up a half devoured
sweet ; and, finally, a fifth soothes the entire assembly to sleep. In Prabandha-
cintamani, p. 122, the musician Solaka sings so that a dry branch bursts forth
into buds. In Kathasaritsagara 11 King Udayana subdues evermore with his
lute wild elephants, and taming them brings them home.
41. One of the sixty-four accomplishments (kala) of the typical man of
the world (nayaka). See Schmidt, “ Beitrage,” p. 143.
1913.] ADVENTURES OF MULADEVA 637
fresh youth and grace. The hair on Devadatta’s body stood erect
with joy ;** she again fell at his feet, and said, “ You have shown me
great favor!”
Then she anointed him with her own hands, and they both
bathed and feasted in great state. She had him dressed in a robe
fit for a god, and they passed the time in genteel conversation.
Finally she said: “ Noble Sir, excepting yourself, my heart has never
inclined to any man. As has been truly said:
“*“Whom may not one see with one’s eyes, and with whom may
not one hold conversation? Rare, however, is that quality in man
which arouses joy in the heart.’**
“Therefore, to please me, you must come to this house quite
constantly.”
Miuladeva said: “O thou, that art devoted to virtue, an attach-
ment to such as me, stranger that I am and poor, is not proper,
nor is it likely to endure. As a rule attachments spring from self-
interest alone. As the poets say :**
“*Birds abandon a tree whose fruit is gone; cranes a dried-up
lake; bees a withered flower; and game a burnt forest.’
“*Courtezans abandon an impoverished man; servants a fallen
king. Every person loves from self-interest; no one regards any
other attachment.’ ”
Devadatta replied: “Own country or strange country are of no
consequence to noble men.* ‘The poet says:
“*The moon, though separated from the ocean, dwells on the
head of Hara: wheresoever virtuous men go there they are carried
on the head.*® Likewise, wealth is of no consequence; noble men do
42 Horripilation in Hindu stories is produced by joy as well as by fear;
e. g., Kathasaritsagara 10, 14, 124.
43 According to Pavolini, GSAI. ix. 179, note, this stanza recurs in the
Gathakoca of Municandrasiri.
44 The following two stanzas are again in Sanskrit, quoted from an un-
known author.
45 This quasi proverbial statement is nullified by frequent expressions of
love for home and country in Sanskrit literature; see Meyer’s “ Translation
of Dacakumaracarita,”’ p. 222, note.
46 Hara (Civa) wears the moon, whose original home is the ocean, as
a diadem on his head: see Mrcchakatika (Stenzler’s edition), p. 64, |. 10;
Samayamatrka 4. 26, 27, 20.
638 BLOOMFIELD—ADVENTURES OF MULADEVA _ [April 18,
not attach much value to it; to virtue alone is their inclination.’
Anent this it is said:
“* Speech is valued at a thousand; the rewards of love at a hun-
dred thousand. But the devotion of a noble man exceeds a krore.’
“Therefore, by all means yield to my wishes.” Then he con-
sented, and there sprang up between them a union of surpassing
love.
It came to pass that Devadatta danced before the king, while
Mialadeva beat the drum. The king was delighted, granted her
a boon, which she laid up in store.** But Mtladeva was so
passionately addicted to gambling, that he did not keep even the
clothes on his back. Devadatta, sweetly spoken, administered a
friendly rebuke: “ Dearly beloved, the passion of gambling in thee,
that art the resort of all virtues, is a blemish, like the figure of the
gazelle on the full-moon.*s Gambling, as the poet says, is the
foundation of every sin:*
“Gambling disgraces the family; is the enemy of truth; brings
shame and grief upon parents and teacher. It destroys piety, and
wastes property. It precludes liberality to others and own enjoy-
ment; it steals from child and wife, from father and mother. O
beloved do not adhere to this vice which makes forget God and
teacher, and right and wrong; which ruins the body and leads to hell!
“ Aye, by all means desist from this vice!’’ But Muladeva could
not control his exceeding passion.
Now there was a rich son of a merchant, Ayala by name, who
had a host of friends, and was deeply smitten with Devadatta. He
gave her whatever she asked; sent her clothes, jewels, and other
presents. He bore Miladevaa grudge, and sought out his vulnerable
points. Miuladeva regarded Ayala with suspicion, and did not come
to the house, unless there was some special occasion. Now Deva-
datta’s “ Mama’ said to her: “My child, drop Muiladeva! You
47 This practice is referred to quite frequently: Kathakoga, p. 48; Pra-
bandhacintamani, p. 77; Jatakas, Vol. I, p. 24.
48 The Hindus fancy either a gazelle or a hare in the moon.
49 Cf. the reflections on gambling in the gamblers’ stories, Katha-
saritsagara I2I,
50 This “Mama” is sometimes the real mother of the hetzra, but,
generally speaking, rather a hired manager. See Dhanamjaya’s Dagaripa 2.
1913.] ADVENTURES OF MULADEVA 639
have no use for this penniless gallant, whereas Ayala is a stupendous
giver who keeps on sending much wealth; attach yourself to him with
all your soul! Two swords do not go into one scabbard, and one
‘does not polish a non-precious stone.*? Therefore drop this gam-
bler!” Devadatta answered her: “1am not, my mother, bent upon
money alone; to noble quclities rather is my inclination.” Her
mother asked of what sort were the noble qualities of that gambler,
and Devadatta retorted: “Mama, he is altogether made up of
virtues:
“ He is wise, of noble soul, a very ocean of kindliness; skilled in
the arts, pleasant of speech, grateful, devoted to virtue, and of
‘discerning mind; therefore I shall not give him up!”
Then the mother started to convert her by means of sundry
symbols: when Devadatta asked for red lac she gave it her dry;
when she asked for sugar-cane she gave it her squeezed; when she
‘asked for flowers she gave her mere stems.*? And when pressed to
explain, she said: “Of such sort is that most beloved of thine, and
yet you will not give him up.” But Devadatta thought that the
mother was foolish in offering such illustrations.
(By way of counter-illustration) Devadatta then said to her
‘mother: “ Mama, ask Ayala for sugar-cane!”’ She spoke to him,
whereupon he sent a cart-load. Devadatta burst out: “ What, am I
a she-elephant, to have sent me such a load of cane with leaves
and branches?” The mother pointed out that he must surely be
liberal to have sent in this wise. (Of course) Ayala had figured
that Devadatta would share with others. Next day Devadatta said
to Mahavi: “ My dear, tell Miladeva, Devadatta has a craving for
sugar, therefore send her some!” She went and told him. Now
20; Samayamatrka 1. 4o ff.; and especially 4. 9 ff. The Mama’s greed for
money comes out, ibid., 4. 80; her hostility to poor lovers of her charge,
ibid., 5. 80 ff.
51 The rendering of the second of these proverbs is not quite certain.
52 These three symbols state technically how a hetera should estimate
her lover in dollars and cents. They appear to be borrowed directly from
‘Samayamatrka 5. 78: “After she (the hetera) has sucked him (the lover)
dry, and his serviceableness is at an end, she should throw him off like a
squeezed stick of sugar-cane; for a withered flower disfigures the place where
‘it has been put, and is removed from the braid of hair.”
PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LII, 2I2 W, PRINTED DEC. 16, I913.
640 BLOOMFIELD—CHARACTER AND [April 18,
Miuladeva took two sticks of cane, cut them into blocks two inches
in length, sprinkled them with a mixture of four spices,°* made them
fragrant a bit with camphor, and split them slightly at both ends.
Then he took some fresh jessamine, covered the cane with it, packed
it and sent it off.°* Mdahavi went and delivered it; then Devadatta
showed it to the mother, saying: ‘“ Regard, Mama, the difference
between men: this is why I am taken with these his qualities.”
The mother concluded that Devadatta was hopelessly infatuated ;
that she would not of her own accord let go of Muladeva; and that,
therefore, she herself must find a way by which that gallant might
be driven out: then all would be well. So, after reflection, she said
to Ayala: ‘“ Pretend to her that you are going to another town.
Then, when Miladeva has come, do you arrive with a retinue and
shame him in such a way that he will leave the place in disgrace.
Then you two will be united. I shall furnish you the needed in-
formation.” He agreed, and on the next day did just as he had
been told. He went off, pretending that he was going to another
town. Muladeva came; Ayala was informed by the mother, and
arrived with a large retinue.
Devadatta saw Ayala coming, and said to Mtladeva: “ Such and
such is the situation; mother has accepted money sent by him. Do
you therefore for a while hide under the couch.” He did so, but
Ayala spied him, seated himself upon the couch, and told Devadatta
to get ready all the belongings of a bath. Devadatta agreed and
told him to get up and put ona robe, in order to be anointed.®®> Then
Ayala said: “I saw to-day in a dream, that I would be dressed,
anointed, and bathed here upon this couch; make then my dream
come true.” Devadatta asked whether he wished to spoil all the
valuable belongings, such as coverlets and pillows, but he replied that
he would give her others, more sumptuous. The Mama agreed with
this; Ayala was anointed, massaged, and washed with warm bath-
53 Caturjata; cf. Schmidt; “ Beitrage zur Indischen Erotik,” p. 850.
54 Cf, perhaps the games called iksubhafijika “breaking of sugar-cane,”
and naveksubhaksika “feasting on fresh sugar-cane,’ mentioned in Schmidt,
“ Beitrage zur Indischen Erotik,” p. 196. They belong to the accomplishments
of the nayaka, or “elegant.”
55 Cf, the dripping vesture after a bath of the heroine in Karptramafijari
i. 27; and see Meyer’s note on this passage, p. 203.
1913.] ADVENTURES OF MULADEVA 641
ing water right there on the couch, so that Miladeva, who lay un-
derneath, was drenched with it. Then Ayala’s men entered, armed,
and the mother gave the signal. Ayala seized Miladeva by the hair,
and said to him: ‘“‘ Ho there! see now if you find any one to protect
you!” Miuladeva looked about him, and perceived that he was sur-
rounded by men with sharp swords in their hands. Then he re-
flected: ‘I cannot get away from them, but I must live to retaliate
for their enmity. Now I am unarmed, so this is not the time for
heroic deeds.”’ Then he said to Ayala: “Do what you please!”’
Ayala observed that Miladeva by his very carriage showed him-
self to be a person of distinction, and reflected that great men in
the course of the revolving cycle of existences easily get into mis-
fortune. As the poet says:
“Who in this world is always lucky, who can rely upon Fortune’s
favors? Who does not on occasion take a fall, aye, who is not
crushed by fate?”
Then he said to Miladeva: “Tho you have come to such a
pass, do you now go free, and, if ever, by the might of fate, I should
come to grief, treat me just as I have treated you!” .
Then Miladeva went from the city disspirited and sad, brooding:
“See how I have been tricked by this man.” He first bathed in a
clear pond, and then decided to travel to a distant land, there to
devise some scheme of retaliation.°® He set out toward Bennayada.
After passing many villages and towns he came to the edge of a
forest twelve leagues in length. It occurred to him that if he could
meet some other person traveling in the same direction, so that he
might at least have some one to talk to, then the journey through
might be quite pleasant. After a while there approached a Dhakka-
Brahman*® of distinguished appearance, equipped with a sack of
56 A sort of “ Live to fight another day.” See the proverbial statement
to that effect, Paricistaparvan 8. 256.
57 The words dhakka, thakka, takka, taka, Mahratti thaka, are Hindu
terms for a despised people, tribe, caste, or guild; see Kern, “ Indische
Studien,’ XIV. 396; Meyer, to the present passage, p. 205, note. According
to Pischel, “ Grammatik der Prakrit-Sprachen,” § 25, a dialect called Dhakki
is spoken by gamblers in the second act of the Mrcchakatika. Sanskrit
sthaga, “cunning, sly, fraudulent, dishonest,” reported by the lexicographers,
is probably the same word; cf. Sthagika, the name of a thieving courtezan,
642 BLOOMFIELD—CHARACTER AND [April 18,
provisions. Miuladeva asked: “Reverend Sir, have you far to go?”
He replied: “There is beyond the forest a place called Viranihana;
there is where I am going. And where may you be bound for?”
Miuladeva said that he was going to Bennayada, and the Doctor then
proposed that they should travel together. The two of them started,
and, as they marched along, they saw at noon-time a clear pool. The
Dhakka proposed that they should rest a while, whereupon they went
to the water and washed their hands and feet. Miladeva sat down in
Cukasaptati 7. The words most frequently imply stinginess. Mahratti
thaka, according to Yule, “ Dictionary of Anglo-Indian Terms,” is the name
in that language of the notorious guild of the Thugs (see under that word),
and it seems to me likely that we have in all these words the precursors
in Hindu literature of the Thugs, or Phansigars, even though stinginess and
roguery, rather than murderousness, are their characteristics in the literary
documents referred to. According to Hornle, Uvasagadasao,” Appendix ii,
note 8, Pali cora-ghataka, German “ Raubmorder,” is the equivalent of modern
thag. Ladd here the curiously parallel Takka-anecdote from Kathasaritsagara
65. 140 ff.: “There lived somewhere a rich but foolish Takka who was a
miser. He and his wife were always eating barley-grits without salt, and he
never learned the taste of any other food. Once the Creator moved him to
say to his wife: ‘I have conceived a desire for a milk-pudding; cook me one
today.’ His wife agreed, and proceeded to cook the pudding, while the Takka
remained indoors, concealed in bed, for fear some one should see him, and
drop in on him as a guest. In the meantime a friend of his, a Takka who was
fond of mischief, came there, and asked his wife where her husband was.
And he, lying on the bed, said to her: ‘Sit down here, and remain weeping
and clinging to my feet, and say to my friend: “ My husband is dead.” When
he is gone we will comfortably consume this pudding.’ After he had told her
this she began to cry, and the friend came in and asked her what was the
matter. She said to him: ‘Look my husband is dead.’ But he reflected: ‘I
saw her a moment ago happy enough, cooking a pudding; how comes it that
her husband is now dead, tho he has had no illness? No doubt the two have
arranged this trick, because they saw that I had come as a guest. So I will
not go. Thereupon the mischievous fellow sat down and began crying out,
“Alas, my friend! Alas, my friend!’ Then his relations came in and pre-
pared to take that silly Takka to the burning-place, for he still continued to
counterfeit death. But his wife came to him and whispered in his ear: ‘ Jump
up, before these relation take you off to the pyre and burn you.’ The foolish
man answered his wife in a whisper: ‘ No! that will never do, for this cunning
Takka wishes to cat my pudding.” The story goes on to tell that the stingy
Takka actually allowed himself to be burned, sacrificing his life in order
to save his pudding. The story does not, as far as I can see, occur in the
two sister-texts of the Kathasaritsagara, namely, Brhatkathamafijari and
Brhatkathaglokasamgraha.
1913.] ADVENTURES OF MULADEVA 643
the shade of a tree on the bank. The IDhakka loosened his provision-
sack, put grits into a dish, moistened them with water, and fell to
eating. Miiladeva thought: “ This is just what you might expect
from the Brahman gang, to be given over to feeding ;°* doubtless he
will offer me some later on.” But the Doctor, after having eaten,
tied up his knapsack, and proceeded on his way. Miladeva followed,
hoping that he would give him something in the evening. Yet in the
evening he ate in exactly the same way, and did not give him any-
thing. Miualadeva proceeded, hoping that he would give him some-
thing in the morning. Night overtook them as they traveled; they
stepped from the road, and slept under a banyan-tree. At daybreak
they set out again; at noon they halted after the same fashion, but
the Dhakka ate just as before, giving him nothing. On the third
day Miladeva thought that, now that the forest was almost crossed,
he would surely on this day give him something. Yet even then he
did not give him anything. They crossed the forest, and their roads
parted. The Doctor said: “Sir, this is your road, and this is mine;
depart you therefore by this.” Miuladeva said: ‘ Reverend Doctor,
I have traveled with your assistance. My name is Miladeva: if my
affairs should ever prosper, then you must visit me in Bennayada.
What now might your name be?” The Dhakka said: “ Saddhada,
but people also know me by the nick-name Nigghinasamma.’*® The
Doctor then started for his village; Mutladeva proceeded to
Bennayada.
After a while he perceived a house which he entered for alms.
After that he tramped through the entire village, obtaining some len-
tils, but nothing else. Then he started toward a pool. There shortly
he perceived a mighty ascetic of great majesty, his body lean from
abstinence, who was entering (the village) to break a month’s fast.
When Miladeva saw him the hair on his body stood erect with joy,
as he thought, “Oh, I am in luck, my fortune is made, since this
58 A Brahman without greed is hard to find, according to Harsacarita
6 (Bombay edition, 1897, p. 181) ; cf. Weber, “Indische Studien,” X., 61, 62.
59 Saddhada seems to mean, ironically, something like “ Pious Giver”;
Nigghinasamma, something like “ Devotee of Pitilessness.”’
644 BLOOMFIELD—CHARACTER AND [April 18,
mighty ascetic has at this juncture come within the path of my
sight. For I shall certainly come into fortune:
“As the wish-tree in the Marutthali-desert, as a shower of gold
in a poor man’s house, as a royal elephant in the house of a Pariah,
thus here is this great-souled saint.
“Purified by insight and knowledge; intent upon the five great
vows; wise; endowed with patience, gentleness, and rectitude; intent
upon salvation; devoted to study, meditation, and self-mortification ;
pure in thought; engrossed with the five-fold samiti-virtues, and the
three-fold gupti-restraints; without wordly goods; free from the
attachments of house-holders—this noble person is a Sahu (Saint).
“Such a person is a fruitful field, irrigated by the water of holy
thought: wealth deposited in it as grain yields endless crops both
here and in the other world.
“T must not therefore hesitate: I shall offer him these lentils.
Since the village is stingy, this noble Sahu, after having visited some
houses, will come back here. But I shall make two or three trips, so
as to get more; there is also another village nearby. Then I shall
give him all I have gathered.”
Thereupon, with reverent gestures, he offered his lentils to the
Saint. The Sahu, observing the perfection of his obeisance, under-
standing the pure-mindedness of this gift of his possessions, said:
“© thou who art devoted to piety, let me take a little,” and held out
his bowl. Miladeva’s zeal increased as he gave, and the Sahu
chanted in metre (the following half of a stanza): “ Verily, fortu-
nate are the men whose lentils serve for the Sahu’s break of fast!”
Then a divinity in heaven, devoted to the Saint, pleased with Miula-
deva’s piety, called out: “O son Miiladeva, thou hast done well!
Therefore, in the second half of this stanza (recited by the Saint),
ask what thou wishest: I shall grant all!”” Miladeva chanted: “ The
courtezan Devadatta, a thousand elephants, and a kingdom!” The
divinity responded: “ My son, live without care. Very shortly thou
shalst obtain all this by the might of the sage’s feet.”®° Miuladeva
said: “O blessed divinity, thus be it!” Then he bade farewell and
60 In Prabandhacintamani (Tawney’s translation), p. 15, King Calavahana
also owes his exalted station to the favor of an ascetic, to whom he, a poor
carrier of wood, had given his barley-meal in order that he might break a
month’s fast.
1913.] ADVENTURES OF MULADEVA 645
returned (to the village). The Saint went to a grove. Miuladeva
begged alms for the last time, ate and started for Bennayada, where
he arrived in due course.
By night he slept outside in the travelers’ hospice, and in the
last watch had a dream: The moon with full disc, her brilliance
undimmed, entered into his body. Another tramp had the very same
dream which he told to the rest of the tramps. One of them said:
“You will to-day get a tremendously big cake full of ghee and
sugar!”? But Miladeva did not tell his dream, thinking that they
knew not its true meaning. The tramp started out for alms, did get
from a house-wife such a cake as had been described, and joyously
told the other tramps. Miladeva went to some garden, where he
made friends with a wreath-maker by helping him gather flowers.
The gardener gave him some flowers and fruits. These he took, and,
having adorned himself, went to the house of an interpreter of
dreams. He paid his respects, and inquired about his prosperity and
health. The teacher in turn addressed him politely, and inquired
after his concerns. Miuladeva, with folded hands, narrated his
dream, whereupon the teacher exclaimed joyously: “I shall interpret
your dream in an auspicious hour; in the meanwhile now be my
guest.” Miuladeva accepted, bathed, and feasted sumptuously. After
dinner the teacher said: “I have here a lovely daughter; out of
regard for me do you marry her.” Miladeva said: “ Father, would
you make one whose family and character you do not know your
son-in-law?” The teacher replied. “My son, behavior of itself
betrays a man’s family, even when he has not made mention of it.”
The poet says :**
“Behavior declares one’s family, speech one’s country; agita-
tion betrays love ; and personal appearance the food one subsists on.”
Moreover:
“Ts it necessary to impart smell to the lotus, or sweet to sugar ; or
to teach sport to noble elephants, or refinement to them that have
sprung from a good family’ ?®? . And again:
61 This stanza in Sanskrit.
62 See Agadadatta, stanza 75 (Jacobi, “Ausgewahlte Erzahlungen,”
p. 72): “ Who paints the peacock, or imparts their gait to the royal swans?
Who bestows fragrance upon the lotus, and good manners upon them that are
sprung from noble families?”
646 BLOOMFIELD—CHARACTER AND [April 18,
“Tf virtue be present, what matters family? The virtuous have
no need of family; but a yet more grievous stain on the vicious is
the very stainlessness of their family.”
By such and the like saws he was induced to consent and marry
her in an auspicious hour. Then he was told the purport of the
dream, namely, that he should be king within seven days.** When
he heard that he was rejoiced, and stayed there happily. On the
fifth day he went outside the city and sat down in the shade of a
campaka-tree.
At that time the king of the city died without leavingason. Then
the five royal emblems (magic electors of a king) were consecrated.**
After roaming about within the city they went outside, and came
upon Miladeva. He was discovered sitting in shade that did not
shift.°° On beholding him the elephant roared ; the steed neighed ; the
water-pitcher sprinkled; the chowries fanned; and the sun-shade®
stood over Miladeva. Thereupon the people shouted “ Hail, Hail.”
The elephant lifted him upon his back; he was conducted into the
63 Jn Paricistaparvan 8. 231, a pregnant woman desires to drink the moon:
it is a sign that her son will become king. The sight of the moon in a dream
secures to Madanareha an imperial son, in the story of Nami, Jacobi’s
“ Ausgewahlte Erzahlungen,” p. 41, 1. 23 ff.; Kathakoca, p. 19. There are
many other dreams and signs of future royalty: In Paricistaparvan 6. 232,
the son of a courtezan by a barber dreams that Pataliputra is surrounded by
his entrails; whereupon he becomes king of that city. In Jagaddeva’s
Svapnacintamani, 1. 62, we have: “ He who surrounds in his dream a city or
village with his entrails as a magic instrument, becomes prince in the city,
ruler of a province in the village.” (Half a dozen parallel verses from other
texts are quoted by von Negelein, the editor of this last text.) To be born
with teeth is a sign of future kingship, Paricistaparvan 8. 196. In Prabandha-
cintamani, p. 80, a three-year old prince seats himself upon the throne, and is
immediately crowned king. In the same text, p. 117, a king washes the feet
of a hermit, and recognizes by the upward lines on them and other signs, that
the hermit is worthy of a throne.
64 On this curious, widely prevalent magic practice see now Edgerton’s
paper, JAOS. xxxiii. 158 ff. The list of these five magic electors follows three
lines below.
65 This is a sign of the temporal or spiritual superiority of the person
sitting in the shade. Meyer, p. 212, cites several instances from Hindu litera-
ture and elsewhere, to which add Prabandhacintamani, p. 16; Kathakoga, p. 97.
66 pundarikam sitam chattram: Ksemendra’s Lokaprakaga, i. 15 (“In-
dische Studien,” XVIII. 327).
1913-] ADVENTURES OF MULADEVA 647
city, and consecrated king by ministers and vassals. The divinity
then appeared on the firmament of the heavens, and proclaimed:
“ Behold, behold, this is the puissant king Vikkama, expert in all arts;
his body is permeated with divinity! Therefore, him that does not do
his bidding I shall not spare.’ Then the entire retinue of vassals,
ministers, chaplains, and others became submissive to his commands.
Miladeva lived in the enjoyment of refined pleasures of the senses.
Shortly he entered into relations with Viyaradhavala, the king of
Ujjeni, and they became united in close mutual friendship.
While this was going on Devadatta, after she had witnessed Mila-
deva’s humiliation, became exceedingly wroth against Ayala. She
upbraided him: “ See here, I am a courtezan, and not your wedded
wife,** and yet you behave thus in my house: now you need not
trouble yourself about me any further!’ Then she went before the
king, fell at his feet, and said: “Grant me the favor of that gift
(which I have reserved for myself)!” The king said: “ Speak
out, the favor is already thine; what more have you to say?”’ Deva-
datta said: “ Your Majesty, I desire that no man other than Miala-
deva be bidden to me, and that Ayala be forbidden to come to my.
house.” The king said: “It shall be as you please, but tell me now,
what is this affair of yours?” Then Mahavi stated the case. The
king became incensed against Ayala, and said, “How now, in this
my city are these two jewels, and even these this fellow does mal-
treat!” He had him brought up and beaten; then he said to him:
“Sirrah, are you king here, that you demean yourself thus? There-
fore do you now seek protection, else I shall hold your life forfeit!”
Devadatta said: “ My lord, what purpose is served by killing him,
dog as he is in the main:® let him go!” The king said: “ Sirrah,
I am going now to release you on the word of this noble woman, but
67 See the story, Kathakoca, p. 187, of the leper husband, as illustrating
by an extreme example the devotion of a wife. In Dacakumaracarita 6
(Mitragupta’s third story) we read: “Husbands are the only divinities of
wives, especially of wives of good family.” In Kathasaritsagara 13, end:
“Thus, O queen, women of good family, ever worship their husbands with
chaste and resolute behavior.”
68 See above, p. 638.
69 Or, “ dog-foot,”’ as he is. In Kathasaritsagara 13 a dog-foot is branded
on the forehead as a sign of disgrace.
648 BLOOMFIELD—CHARACTER AND [April 18,
you shall obtain full pardon only when you have produced Miladeva
himself.” Ayala fell at his feet and went out of the palace. He
began to search in every direction, but even so he did not find him.
Then on the full-moon of this very month’? he loaded ships with
wares and started for Persia.
In the meantime Miladeva sent a letter and presents to Deva-
datta and to king Viyaradhavala. To the king he wrote: “I am
greatly attached to this Devadatta; therefore, if it so pleases her,
and if it is agreeable to you, kindly send her to me.” The king said
to his royal wardens: “I say, why has king Vikkama sent such a
letter ; is there any difference between him and me? Even this my
entire kingdom belongs to him, how much more Devadatta: let her, »
however, state her own wishes!” Devadatta was called; the matter
was explained to her, and she was permitted, if she so liked, to go
to him. She said: “It is very gracious of you to permit me my
heart’s desire.” Then the king honored her with presents of great
value, and she was dispatched to Muladeva who received her in
greatest state. They ruled the kingdom in common, and Miladeva
lived with her, enjoying his love, but even more engrossed with
building Jina temples and images, and doing honor to the Saints.
Now Ayala, who, in the course of his tour through Persia, had
amassed great wealth and choice wares, arrived at Bennayada, camp-
ing without the city. He asked the people the name of the king
there, and was told, king Vikkama. Then he filled a dish with coined
and uncoined gold and pearls, and went on a visit to the king. The
king had a seat offered him; as soon as he was seated he recog-
nized Ayala, but Ayala did not recognize the king. The king asked:
“Whence has the merchant come?” And Ayala said, from Persia.
On being honored by the king Ayala proposed: ‘‘ Your majesty,
send some inspector to appraise my wares.” Whereupon the king
said that he would go in person. The king went with a revenue
officer," and was shown the wares on the ships, consisting of mother-
of-pearl, betel, sandal-wood, aloes, madder, and so on. In the
b
70 tie ceva unimade. Thus Jacobi’s uncertain conjecture; Meyer, p. 215,
note, “one account of this very deficiency.” He does not state his authority.
71 paficaula = Skt. paficakula: see Prabandhacintamani, pp, 18, note, and
84, and especially p. 208.
1913.] ADVENTURES OF MULADEVA 649
presence of the appraiser the king asked: “Look here, Mr. Mer-
chant, is this the extent of your property?” Ayala answered:
“Your majesty, it amounts to just so much.” The king then
ordered: “ Make the merchant give half, but weigh in my presence! ”
The goods were weighed in bulk. By noticing their (unexpected)
weight, by pushing against them with the feet, and by poking into
them with a spike, valuables were found hidden within the madder™
and the other bales. The king had the bales ripped open; a careful
search revealed just where was the gold and the silver, and where
the many other precious wares, such as crystals, pearls, and corals.
The king, in anger, ordered his attendants: “ Zounds, chain this con-
victed thief!”” They chained Ayala, his heart beating. The king
committed him to the hands of the guards, and returned to the
palace.
The chief of the guards led him into the king’s presence. And
when the king saw him securely bound, he ordered his immediate
release. Then he asked Ayala: “Do you know me?” Ayala said:
“Who should not know the great princes that are famed over the
whole earth?” The king said: “A truce to your flattery; say
straightforth whether you know me!” Then Ayala said: “ Your
Majesty, I do not know you at all.” Thereupon the king had Deva-
datta called; she appeared like a lovely Apsaras, wearing jewels on
all her limbs. Ayala recognized her, and was mightily ashamed in
his soul. And she said: “ Behold this is that Miladeva to whom you
said at that time: ‘Show thou courtesy to me also, if ever, by the
might of fate, I should come to grief!’ There lies your chance:
now that you have gotten into danger to property and life, you are
freed by the king who is kind to the humble and afflicted!” Upon
hearing this he said, abashed in his soul: ‘“ Your mercy is great!”
He fell at the feet of the king and of Devadatta. Then he addressed
himself to the king: “I did at that time obscure Your Majesty who
makes all people happy, who is adorned with every accomplishment,
72 A curious parallel to this touch in the story occurs in Prabandha-
cintamani, p. 105. A young merchant “bought some sacks of madder, and,
when he came to sell them, he saw some spoons of gold that had been hidden
in them by merchants for fear of thieves.” This text is acquainted with the
Uttaradhyayana literature in general; see p. 08.
650 BLOOMFIELD—MULADEVA. [April 18,
just as Rahu** obscures the ful-moon, spotless by nature: may Your
Majesty pardon me that! Moreover, the king of Ujjeni, angry
because I have abused you, does not allow me to enter that city.”
The king said: “You are already pardoned by the mercy of the
queen.” Ayala with great devotion again fell at their feet. Deva-
datta had him bathed and dressed in a robe of price, and the king
remitted his duties. He was sent to Ujjeni, and Viyaradhavala, at
the request of Miladeva, pardoned him.
Nigghinasamma, too, having heard that Miladeva had entered
upon his kingdom, came to Bennayada, and obtained an audience.
The king, in a spirit of piety, presented him with the village he
came from. He bowed in gratitude for the great favor and returned
to the village.
At this time the tramp heard that Miladeva had seen the same
dream as himself, but that he had become king in consequence of
his ardent desire. Now he thought: “I shall go where there is milk
to be gotten. That I shall drink and sleep until I shall again see that
dream.”—As to whether he shall see it no man reporteth.
73 The demon of eclipse.
Jouns Hopkins UNIVERSITY,
BALTIMORE.
1913.] MINUTES. Wt
MINUTES:
Stated Meeting January 3, 1913.
Witiiam W. KEEN, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair.
Thanks were received from the Naturwissenschaftliche Verein
fiir Steiermark for the Society’s friendly good wishes upon the
occasion of, and for the sending of a delegate to, its Semi-
Centenary.
Professor Herbert Weir Smyth presented an obituary notice of
Professor William Watson Goodwin.
The following papers were read:
“The Historic Value of Old Law Books,” by Hampton L. Car-
son, Esq.
“Place and Personal Names of the Gosiute Indians of Utah,”
by Ralph V. Chamberlin (introduced by the Secretaries).
The Judges of the Annual Election of Officers and Councillors
held on this day between the hours of two and five in the afternoon,
reported that the following named members were elected, according
to the Laws, Regulations and Ordinances of the Society, to be the
officers for the ensuing year:
President,
William W. Keen.
Vice-Presidents,
William B. Scott,
Albert A. Michelson,
Edward C. Pickering.
Secretaries,
I. Minis Hays,
Arthur W. Goodspeed,
Amos P. Brown,
aw MINUTES. [March 7,
Harry F. Keller.
Curators,
Charles L. Doolittle,
William P. Wilson,
Leslie W. Miller.
Treasurer,
Henry La Barre Jayne.
Councillors
(To serve for three years),
Charlemagne Tower,
William Morris Davis,
George Ellery Hale,
i ae Penrose. jir:
(To fill an unexpired term),
Samuel W. Pennypacker.
Stated Meeting February 7, 1913.
WiLiiam W. KEEN, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair.
The death was announced of George Augustus Koenig, A.M.,
Ph.D., at Philadelphia, on January 14, 1913, zt. 69.
Dr. Paul Heyl (introduced by Professor Harry F. Keller) read
a paper on “ Platinum in North Carolina,’ which was discussed by
Professor Keller.
Stated Meeting March 7, 1913.
WILi1AM W. KEEN, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair.
An invitation was received from the President and Executive
Committee of the Twelfth International Geological Congress, invit-
ing the Society to be represented at the Congress to be held in Canada
in the month of August.
1913.] MINUTES. v
Dr. R. M. Pearce (introduced by Dr. W. W. Keen) read a paper
on “The Gradual Development of the Idea of Cellular Structure
throughout the Animal and Vegetable Kingdom,” which was dis-
cussed by Dr. Coplin, Dr. Tyson, Professor Kraemer, Dr. Hawke,
Dr. Donaldson and Dr. Harshberger.
The following Address was adopted:
To His ExcELLENCY
Wooprow WILson,
Sir: The American Philosophical Society extends its cordial congratu-
lations to you, as one of its fellow members, upon your accession to the
Presidency of the United States. You carry into public life the ideals of
the scholar and you will show in the new world, as has been proved so often
in the old, that scientific training in the best and broadest sense of the term,
is a help to the practical statesman. Your studies in history and political
science will illuminate your task of giving to the Nation a wise and strong
government.
It was Montesquieu, the good genius of the makers of our National
Constitution, who said that for a safe voyage of the Ship of State the spirit
of the laws should serve as compass and history should be the chart. This
Society confidently believes that you have at your command this compass
and this chart; that with your firm hand at the helm the Ship of State will
safely ride the seas, and that, like those of your distinguished predecessors
in the Presidency, who were its members; you will help to make the future
history of the Nation worthy of its past.
Seven times since the founding of the Republic the American Philo-
sophical Society has had cause for congratulation in the selection of one of
its members as President of the United States. Washington, Adams, Jef-
ferson, Madison, the second Adams, Buchanan and Grant were all honored
names upon its Roll before the popular vote inscribed them in the list of
American Presidents. To you, the eighth in turn of its members to enter
upon this high office, this Society extends its warmest greeting.
’ Given under the Seal and in the name of The American Philosophical
Society held at Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge, this seventh
day of March, 1913.
Stated Meeting April 4, 1913.
Wiuiam W. Keen, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair.
The following letter was received from President Wilson in
response to the address presented to him by the Society on March 19:
VL MINUTES. [April 17,
THE WHITE House,
WASHINGTON, March 10, 1913.
My dear Dr. Keen: May I not express to you, and through you to the
members of the American Philosophical Society, my deep and sincere appreci-_
ation of the cordial message brought me from the Society by you and your
associates this afternoon? Nothing has gratified me more. I do not know
of any Association whose confidence I would rather enjoy. It has been a
matter of peculiar pride to me to be associated with the American Philo-
sophical Society, and that that distinguished body should feel honored by my
elevation to the Presidency is a source of genuine satisfaction to me. I can
only say in reply to their gracious Address that I shall hope and strive at all
times to deserve their respect and confidence.
Cordially and sincerely yours,
Wooprow WILSON.
The decease of the following members was announced:
Professor Angelo de Gubernatis, at Rome, on February 27,
TOV2; cet. 73:
John Shaw Billings, M.D., LL.D., Dc.L., at New York, on
March 10, 1913= 2ct. 74.
Edward Pepper, LL.D:, at Algiers, on March 23, 1913 ;)ect00:
James McCrea, at Ardmore, Pa., on March 28, 1913; et. 65.
The following papers were read:
“Tiluminants Present and Future,” by Herbert E. Ives, Ph.D.
(introduced by Dr. W. W. Keen), which was discussed by
Professor Ferree.
“The Fluting and Pitting of Granites in the Tropics,” by John
C. Branner, hop ID:
“The True Atomic Weight of Bromine,” by Gustavus Hinrichs
(Introduced by Professor Keller).
General Meeting April 17, 18, and 19, 1913.
Thursday, April 17. Opening Session—2 o'clock.
WILLIAM W. KEEN, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair.
Professor J. C. Kapteyn, elected to membership in 1907, signed
the roll and was admitted into the Society.
An invitation was received from the Missouri Botanical Society
1913.] MINUTES. vir
to be represented at the opening of its new hall on May 1 and 2, and
Professor Francis E. Nipher was appointed to represent the Society
on the occasion.
The following papers were read:
“The Biographies of Suetonius,” by John C. Rolfe, Ph.D., Pro-
fessor of the Latin Language and Literature, University of
Pennsylvania.
“The Etymology of the Word ‘Ill,'” by Hermann Collitz,
Ph.D., Professor of Germanic Philology, Johns Hopkins
University.
“The Treaty Obligations of the United States relating to the
Panama Canal,” by Charlemagne Tower, A.B., LL.D., Phila-
delphia.
“A Counsel of Perfection. A Plan for a State University and
for an Automatic Collection and Distribution of a State Tax
for Higher Education,” by Joseph G. Rosengarten, A.M.,
LL.D., Philadelphia. Discussed by Dr. Cyrus Adler.
“Reprisals, Contraband and Piracy under Queen Elizabeth,”
by Edward P. Cheyney, A.M., LL.D., Professor of European
History, University of Pennsylvania. Discussed by Mr. Har-
rison S. Morris and Mr. Rosengarten.
“Some Commercial Transactions in Babylonia During the
Period of Greek Supremacy,” by Albert T. Clay, A.M., Ph.D.,
Laffan Professor of Assyriology and Babylonian Literature,
Yale University.
“The Historical Value of the Patriarchal Narratives,” by
George A. Barton, A.M., Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Lan-
guages, Bryn Mawr College.
“The Succession of Human Types in the Glacial and Inter-
glacial Epochs of the European Pleistocene,’ by Henry Fair-
field Osborn, D.Sc., LL.D., Research Professor of Paleon-
tology, Columbia University, New York.
“The Flora of Bermuda” (illustrated), by Stewardson Brown,
Conservator, Botanical Section, Academy of Natural Sciences
of Philadelphia (introduced by Professor Henry Kraemer).
“A New Type of Sewage Disposal Tank,” by William Pitt
vier MINUTES. [April 18,
Mason; M.D., LL.D., Professor of Chemistry, Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute, Troy, N. Y.
“Determination of Uranium and Vanadium in Carnotite Ores
of Colorado,” by Andrew A. Blair, Philadelphia.
Friday, April 18. Morning Session—9.35 o’clock.
Wi.LiiAM W. Keen, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair.
The following papers were read:
“The Uses and Needs of Selachology (The Study of Sharks
and Rays),” by Burt G. Wilder, M.D., Emeritus Professor of
Neurology and Vertebrate Zoology, Cornell University.
“Interpretations of Brain Weight” (illustrated), by Henry H.
Donaldson, Ph.D., D:Sc., Professor of Neurology at The
Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Philadelphia.
“The Correlation of Structural Development and Function in
the Growth of the Vertebrate Nervous System ” (illustrated),
by George E. Coghill, Ph.D., Professor of Zoology, Denison
University, Granville, Ohio (introduced by Dr. H. H. Don-
aldson).
“The Correlation of Structure and Function in the Develop-
ment of the Nervous System” (illustrated), by Stewart
Paton, M.D., Lecturer in Biology, Princeton University (in-
troduced by Dr. A. C. Abbott).
“The Relation Between the Physical State of the Brain Cells
and Brain Function (experimental and clinical),” by George
W. Crile, M.D., Ph.D., Professor of Clinical Surgery, West-
ern Reserve University, Cleveland. Discussed by Professor
Conklin, Dr. Paton, Dr. Minot and Professor Nipher.
“Life of Cells Outside the Organism” (illustrated), by Ross G.
Harrison, M.D., Ph.D., Professor of Comparative Anatomy,
Yale University (introduced by Dr. A. C. Abbott). Dis-
cussed by Dr. Crile and Dr. Donaldson.
“Heredity and Selection,” by William E. Castle, Ph.D., Pro-
fessor of Zoology, Harvard University.
“The Nature of Sex and the Method of Its Determination”
1913.] MINUTES. Ce
(illustrated), by Clarence E. McClung, A.M., Ph.D., Pro-
fessor of Zodlogy, University of Pennsylvania (introduced
by Dr. George A. Piersol). Discussed by Dr. Minot.
“Fever: Its Nature and Significance,” by Victor C. Vaughan,
M.D., LL.D., Professor of Hygiene and Physiological Chem-
istry, University of Michigan. Discussed by Dr. Wilder.
“The Control of Typhoid Fever by Vaccination,’ by Mazyck
P. Ravenel, M.D., Professor of Bacteriology, University of
Wisconsin.
Afternoon Session—2 o'clock.
Wim B. Scott, Ph.D., Sc.D., LL.D., Vice-President, in the
Chair:
The following papers were read:
“Gautemala and the Highest Native American Civilization,”
by Ellsworth Huntington, M.A., Ph.D., Assistant Professor
of Geography, Yale University (introduced by Mr. Henry
G. Bryant). Discussed by Professor Scott and Mr. Joseph
Willcox. :
“ Further Considerations on the Origin of the Himalaya Moun-
tains and the Plateau of Tibet,” By T. J. J. See, A.M., Ph.D.,
U. S. Naval Observatory, Mare Island, Cal.
“Dana’s Contribution to Darwin’s Theory of Coral Reefs,” by
William Morris Davis, Sc.D., Ph.D., Sturgis-Hooper Pro-
fessor of Geology, Emeritus, Harvard University. Discussed
by Professor Scott.
“The Formation of Coal Beds,” by John J. Stevenson, A.M.,
LL.D., Emeritus Professor of Geology, .University of the
City of New York.
“Cambrian Fossils from British Columbia” (illustrated), by
Charles D. Walcott, Ph.D., Sc.D., LL.D., Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution. |
“The Alleghenian Divide and Its Influence Upon Fresh Water
Faunas,” by Arnold E. Ortmann, Ph.D., Sc.D., Curator of
Invertebrate Zodlogy, Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh. Dis-
HP MINUTES. [April 19,
cussed by Mr. Joseph Willcox and Professor W. M. Davis.
“Neutralization and Elimination of Toxic Substances,” by
Oswald Schreiner, Ph.D., Chief of Division of Soil Fertility
Investigations, Department of Agriculture, Washington.
Discussed by Dr. Harshberger and Professor Nipher.
“ Progressive Evolution Among Hybrids of Oenothera”’ (illus-
trated), by Bradley M. Davis, A.M., Ph.D., Assistant Pro-
fessor of Botany, University of Pennsylvania (introduced by
Professor John M. Macfarlane).
“Climatic Areas of the United States as Related to Plant
Growth” (illustrated), by Burton E. Livingston, Ph.D., Pro-
fessor of Plant Physiology, Johns Hopkins University (in-
troduced by Professor John W. Harshberger). Discussed
by Dr. Harshberger, Professor Scott, and Professor Nipher.
“The Day of the Last Judgement,” by Paul* Haupt. 2ior
LL.D., Professor of Semitic Languages, Johns Hopkins
University.
“On the Character and Adventures of Miladora,” by Maurice
Bloomfield, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Sanskrit and Com-
parative Philology, Johns Hopkins University.
Evening Session.
George Grant MacCurdy, A.M., Ph.D., Assistant Professor of
Archeology, Yale University, gave an illustrated lecture on “The
Antiquity of Man in the Light of Recent Discoveries.”
Saturday, April 10.
Executive Session—9.30 o’clock.
Wituiam W. KEEN, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair.
Pending nominations for membership were read and the Society
proceeded to an election.
Secretary Keller and Professor Rolfe served as tellers and re-
ported that the following nominees had been elected to membership:
1913.] MINUTES. Hi}
Residents of the United States
George Francis Atkinson, Ph.D., Ithaca, N. Y.
Charles Edwin Bennett, A.B., Litt.D., Ithaca, N. Y.
John Henry Comstock, B.S., Ithaca, N. Y.
Reginald Aldworth Daly, Boston, Mass.
Luther Pfahler Eisenhart, Princeton, N. J.
George W. Goethals, Culebra, Canal Zone.
Waltham C. Goreas, MID. ScD: ELD: Ancon, Canal Zone
Ross G. Harrison, A.B., Ph.D., M.D., New Haven, Conn.
George Augustus Hulett, Princeton, N. J.
Clarence BE. McClung, A.M., Ph.D., Swarthmore, Pa.
John Dyneley Prince, Ph.D., Sterlington, N. Y.
Samuel Rea, Sc.D., Bryn Mawr, Pa.
Henry Norris Russell, Ph.D., Princeton, N. J.
Charles Schuchert, New Haven, Conn.
Witmer Stone, A.M., Philadelphia.
Foreign Residents.
Sigeanthon ohn EL yans,D.Litt., LL.D. i.ReS:, Oxford, Ene.
Sir Joseph Larmor, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., Cambridge, Eng.
Arthur Schuster, Sc.D., Ph.D,, F.R.S., Manchester, Eng.
Morning Session—1o o'clock.
EpwArp C. PICKERING, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., Vice-President; in
the Chair.
The following papers were read:
“The Potassium, Phosphorus, Nitrogen Cycles,’ by Charles E.
Munsee. PhD: EL.D, §.G:S., Professor of (Chemistry,
George Washington University, Washington.
“An Ammonia System of Acids, Bases and Salts,” by Edward
C. Franklin, Chief of Division of Chemistry, U. S. Public
Health and Marine Hospital Service. Discussed by Dr. H.
C. Jones and-Professor H. F. Keller.
“Some Unsolved Problems in Radio-activity””’ (illustrated), by
Xt
MINUTES. [April 19,
* William Duane, Ph.D., late of the Curie Radium Laboratory,
University of Paris (introduced by Professor Arthur W.
Goodspeed). Discussed by Dr. H. C. Jones, Mr. E. C.
Franklin and Mr. Joseph Willcox.
“Some Diffraction Phenomena; Superposed Fringes,” by
Charles F. Brush, Ph.D., LL.D., Cleveland, O.
“Matter in its Electrically Explosive State,” by Francis E.
Nipher, A.M., LL.D., Professor of Physics, Washington
University, St. Louis.
“New Investigations of Resonance Spectra,” by Robert Wil-
liams Wood, A.B., LL.D., Professor of Experimental Physics,
Johns Hopkins University. Discussed by Professor Schuster.
“Application of Recent Studies on the Origin of the Earth’s
Magnetic Field to the Possible Magnetic Fields of Rotating
Bodies in General” (illustrated), by Louis A. Bauer, Ph.D.
Director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the
Carnegie Institution, Washington.
“The Determination of Visual Stellar Magnitudes by Photog-
raphy,’ by Edward C. Pickering,’ D/Sc., LL.D, F:R-o.we
rector of the Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge.
“Some Problems in Connection with the Milky Way, as Shown
by Photographs Made with Portrait Lenses,” by Edward E.
Barnard, Sc.D., LL.D., Astronomer of the Yerkes Observa-
tory, Williams Bay, Wis.
“The Spectroscopic Detection of the Rotation Period of
Uranus,” by Percival Lowell, LL.D., and V. M. Slipher,
Ph.D., of the Lowell Observatory, Flagstaff, Arizona.
“On the Spectrum of the Nebula in the Pleiades,” by V. M.
Slipher, Ph.D., of the Lowell Observatory, Flagstaff, Arizona.
“Eclipsing Variable Stars,” by Henry Norris Russell, Ph.D.,
Professor of Astronomy and Director of the Observatory,
Princeton University (introduced by Professor William F.
Magie).
“Progress of New Lunar Tables,” by Ernest W. Brown, M.A.,
Sc.D., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics, Yale University.
Dr. John Mason Clarke, elected to membership in 1911, Dr. E. C.
1913.] MINUTES. avit
Franklin, elected in 1912, and Professor Henry Norris Russell, a
newly elected member, subscribed the laws and were admitted into
the Society.
Afternoon Session—2 o'clock.
Epwarp C. PIcKERING, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., Vice-President, in
the Chair.
A portrait of William W. Keen, M.D., LL.D., President of the
Society, was presented by Joseph G. Rosengarten, A.M., LL.D., on
behalf of the subscribers.
Mr. Chairman and Members:
On behalf of the subscribers, I have the honor and privilege of
presenting to the Society, the portrait of our President, Dr. William
W. Keen, by Robert Vonnoh.
Among the one hundred and twenty-nine subscribers,—a list
will be handed to the Secretaries for preservation among its records,
will be found the names of many representatives of institutions of
learning, many men noted in science and letters, who thus testify
their grateful sense of Dr. Keen’s great services to the Philosophical
Society, both as member and as President.
His portrait is that of the seventeenth President, thus adding
one more to the long series that adorn this hall, beginning with the
first president, Hopkinson, followed by Franklin, Jefferson, Ritten-
house, Wistar, the two Pattersons, father and son, Tilghman, Chap-
man, the two Baches, Kane, Wood, Fraley, the second Wistar,
Edgar F. Smith, and now Keen.
This portrait represents Dr. Keen seated in Franklin’s chair,
and in the cap and gown of the University of St. Andrews, for both
Franklin and Keen were the recipients of its Doctor’s degree.
Of Dr. Keen’s distinguished career, it is enough to say that a
graduate of Brown University in 1859, he is also a Trustee and
Fellow, as well as the recipient from that University, and from
Toronto and Yale and Greifswald and Upsala and St. Andrews, of
their highest academic honors.
xiv MINUTES. fApril 19,
His services as a surgeon in the Civil War covered nearly the
whole period of that struggle.
His work as a teacher began in the Philadelphia School of
Anatomy in 1866, and ended only when he resigned in 1907, after
long and brilliant service in Jefferson Medical College.
His contributions to medical and general literature have won for
him a place among our authors.
Retired irom the active practice of his profession, with the grate-
ful acknowledgments and regrets of his colleagues, his students and
his patients, he has given time and thought to his duties as President
of the American Philosophical Society.
In acknowledgment of his great service in that office, his fellow
members, and some not members of the Society, join in presenting
his portrait to the Philosophical Society that it may take its place on
the walls of this Hall, with the long list of the portraits of his
predecessors.
By his services to the world and to the Society, he has won the
affection and esteem typified in the portrait now presented to the
Society.
The portrait was accepted on behalf of the Society by Vice-Presi-
dent Pickering, who said:
To render a scientific society successful, it is necessary that at
least two or three of its members should devote a large part of their
time and energy to its administration. Even then it is not easy to
secure an annual meeting which many regard as the most interesting
of its kind in the country. While it is eminently fitting that the
oldest scientific society of America should maintain this position,
those of us who see something of the management each year, realize
how largely this is due to the successful administration of our
seventeenth President, supported as he is by the unwearied efforts
of other officers of the Society. This painting will always serve as
a reminder of the able and tactful services of Dr. Keen.
The annual meetings are remarkable not only for the high grade
of the papers presented but, what is unusual, for their interest to
specialists in other departments of human knowledge. For this
1913.] MINUTES. xv
reason, many of us come hundreds of miles to meet our fellow
members here.
By the authority and in the name of the American Philosophical
Society held at Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge, I
accept this gift with grateful acknowledgments and the hope that it
may be many years before we are obliged to elect the eighteenth
President of the Society.
Dr. Arthur Schuster, Dr. Ross G. Harrison and Professor Clar-
ence E. McClung, newly elected members, subscribed the laws and
were admitted into the Society.
The following papers were read:
“Symposium on Wireless Telegraphy, Radiated and Received
Energy,’ by Lewis W. Austin, Ph.D., Head of U. S. Naval
Radio-Telegraph Laboratory, Bureau of Standards, Wash-
ington (introduced by Professor William F. Magie).
“Resonance in Radiotelegraphic Receiving Stations,” by George
W. Pierce, A.M., Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Physics, Har-
vard University (introduced by Professor Arthur W. Good-
speed).
“New Form of Resonance Circuits,” by Michael I. Pupin,
Ph.D., Sc.D., Professor of Electro-Mechanics, Columbia
University, N. Y.
“The International Radiotelegraphic Conference of London
and its Work,” by Arthur Gordon Webster, Ph.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Physics and Director of the Physical Labora-
tory, Clark University, Worcester.
Stated Meeting May 2, 1913.
WiturAmM W. Keen, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair.
Dr. Witmer Stone, a newly elected member, subscribed the laws
and was admitted into the Society.
Acknowledgment of election to membership was received from
George Francis Atkinson, Ph.D., Ithaca, N. Y.
Charles Edwin Bennett, A.B., Litt.D., Ithaca, N. Y.
John Henry Comstock, B.S., Ithaca, N. Y.
XVI MINUTES. [October 3,
Reginald Aldworth Daly, Boston, Mass.
Luther Pfahler Eisenhart, Princeton, N. J.
George Augustus Hulett, Princeton, N. J.
John Dyneley Prince, Ph.D., Sterlington, N. Y.
Samuel Rea, Sc.D., Bryn Mawr, Pa.
Witmer Stone, A.M., Philadelphia.
Obituary notices of Horace Howard Furness, Litt.D., LL.D., by
Professor F. E. Schelling, His Excellency M. Jusserand, Dr. Le-
Baron Briggs, Dr. Morris Jastrow, Jr., and Mr. Owen Wister were
read.
The decease was announced of Lester F. Ward, A.M., LL.D., at
Washington, April 18, 1913; zt. 72.
The application of the cinematograph to studies in biology was
demonstrated by Professor A. W. Goodspeed, Dr. W. M. L. Coplin
and Dr. A. P. Brubaker, and was discussed by Dr. Keen.
Stated meeting October 3, 1913.
WILLIAM W. KEEN, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair.
Letters accepting membership were received from:
Sir Joseph Larmor
Prof. Arthur Schuster
Prof. Charles Schuchert
Col. George W. Goethals
Dr. William C. Gorgas
Prof. Reginald A. Daly
Sir Arthur John Evans.
Invitations were received:
From the Director of the Imperial Botanical Garden of St. Peters-
burg to the Bi-Centennial Jubilee of the founding of the Garden, on
June 21-25, 1913.
From the Directors and Faculty of Ursinus College to the in-
auguration of George Leslie Omwake, as President, on October 7th.
From the President, Trustees and Faculty of Princeton Uni-
versity to the dedication of the Graduate College, on October 22d.
The decease of the following members was announced:
William Hallock, Ph.D., at Providence, R. I., on May 20, 1913,
eet 50:
1913. MINUTES. xvi
Rt. Hon. John Lubbock, Lord Avebury, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
on May 28, 1913, xt. 79.
Philip Lutley Sclater, M.A., D.Sc., at Odiham Priory, Winch-
field, Hants, Eng., on June 27, 1913, et. 83.
Charles H. Cramp, A.B., Sc.D., at Philadelphia, on June 6,
1913, xt. 85.
Horace Jayne, M.D., Ph.D., at Wallingford, Pennsylvania, on
iiulyS; 1913, cet. 54:
William Tatham, at Paris, on September 10, 1913, et. 63.
William Armstrong Ingham, C. E., at Philadelphia, on Septem-
ber 23, 1913, zt. 87.
The following papers were read:
“Factors in the Exchange Value of Meteorites,” by Warren M.
Foote. (Introduced by Prof. Harry F. Keller.)
“The Nomenclature of Minerals,” by Austin F. Rogers. (In-
troduced by Prof. John C. Branner.)
“The Marine Tertiary Stratigraphy of the North Pacific Coast
of America,” by Ralph C. Arnold and Harold Hannibal.
(Introduced by Prof. John C. Branner.)
“Geology of the Region about Natal, Rio Grande do Norte,
Brazil,’ by Olaf Pitt Jenkins. (Introduced by Prof.-John
C. Branner.)
Stated Meeting November 7, 1913.
WILLIAM W. KEEN, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair.
The decease was announced of
Sir William Henry Preece, K.C.B., at London, on November
' 6, 1913, in his eightieth year.
Alfred Russell Wallace, O.M., LL.D., D.C.L., at Broadstone,
Wimborne, Eng., on November 7, 1913, in his ninety-first
year.
Prof. John M. Macfarlane read a paper “On the Phylogeny of
Plants in Relation to their Environment.”
LvIUt MINUTES. [Dee. 5,
Stated Meeting December 5, 1913.
Wi.ui1aM W. KEEN, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair.
The decease was announced of Sir Robert Stawell Ball, Kt.,
M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., at Cambridge, England, on November 26,
KOUa, cet. 72:
Dr. Simon Flexner read a paper on “ Epidemiology of Disease
with Special Reference to Infantile Paralysis.”
The President read his “ Annual Address.”
INDEX
A
Address to President Woodrow Wil-
son, v
, Reply to, uv
Alleghenian divide and its influence
upon fresh water fauna, 287, ix
Arnold and Hannibal, Marine ter-
tiary stratigraphy of North Ba
cific coast of America, 550, xvii
Austin, Radiated and received en-
ergy in radio-telegraphy, 407, xv
B
Barnard, Problems in connection
with the Milky Way, «ii
Barton, Historical value of the Pa-
triarchal narratives, 184, vii
Bauer, Earth’s magnetic field and
possible magnetic fields of rotating
bodies, xi
Blair, Determination of uranium and
vanadium in the carnotite ores of
Colorado and Utah, 201, viii
Bloomfield, Character and adven-
tures of Miladeva, 616, x
Brain-cells and brain functions, Re-
lation between, 307, viii
Branner, Fluting and pitting of gran-
ites in the tropics, 163, vi
Brazil, Geology of the region about
Natal, 431
Bromine, True atomic weight of,
543, vt
Brown, Ernest W., Progress in new
lunar tables, xi
Brown, Stewardson, Flora of Ber-
muda, vu
Brush, Some diffraction phenomena,
276, xit
Cc
Carnotite ores of Colorado and Utah,
determination of uranium and va-
nadium in, 201
Carson, Historic value of old law
books, i
Castle, Heredity and selection, viii
Chamberlin, Names of the Gosiute
Indians, I, i
Cheyney, Reprisals, Contraband and
Piracy under Queen Elizabeth, vii
Cinematograph, Application of, to
studies in biology, «v7
Civilization, Highest native Amer-
ican, 467, ix
Clay, Some commercial transactions
in Babylonia, vii
Climatic areas as related to plant
growth, 257, x
Coal beds, Formation of, 31, ix
Coghill, Correlation of structural
development and function in de-
velopment of nervous system, viii
Collitz, Etymology of the word “ill, “
vit
Crile, Relation between brain-cells
and brain functions, 397, vit
D
Davis, Bradley M., Progressive evo-
lution among hybrids of (Cé£no-
thera, 4
Davis, W. M., Dana’s contribution
to Darwin’s theory of coral reefs,
1%
Diffraction phenomena, 276, xi
Donaldson, Interpretations of brain
weight, viii
Duane, Some unsolved problems in
radio-activity, «7
E
Education, State tax for higher, 243,
vit
Electrically explosive state,
in, 283, vit
Epidemiology of disease, xvii
Matter
F
Fauna, Influence of the Alleghenian
divide upon fresh water, 287, iv
Flexner, Epidemiology of disease
with special reference to infantile
paralysis, «vtit
Foote, Factors in the exchange value
of meteorites, 516, xvi
Franklin, Ammonia system of acids,
bases and salts, +7
Fringes, superposed, 276, xi
vie
LX INDEX.
G
Goodwin, William Watson, Obituary
notice of, iii
Gosiute Indians, Place and personal
names of, I, WW
Granites, Fluting and pitting of, in
tropics, 163, vi
Guatemala and the highest native
American civilization, 467, ix
H
Hannibal, Marine tertiary stratigra-
phy of North Pacific coast, 559
Harrison, Life of cells outside the
organism, viii
Heyl, Platinum in North Carolina,
2i, iv
Himalaya mountains, Origin of, 495,
ix
Hinrichs, True atomic weight of
bromine, 543, v1
Huntington, Guatemala and the high-
est native American civilization,
467, ix
I
Illuminants present and future, vw
Infantile Paralysis, rviii
Ives, Illuminants present and future,
vi
i
Jenkins, Geology of region about
Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Bra-
zil, 431, «vu
K
Keen, Presentation of portrait of
President W. W., xiii
L
Livingston, Climatic areas of the
United States as related to plant
growth, 257, x
Lowell and Slipher, Spectroscopic
detection of the rotation period of
Uranus, xii
M
McClung, Sex and the method of its
determination, wiit
MacCurdy, Antiquity of man in light
of recent discoveries, x
Macfarlane, Phylogeny of plants in
relation to their environment, xvi
Mason, New type of sewage disposal
tank, vit
Matter in its electrically explosive
state, 283, ri
Members deceased:
Avebury, Rt. Hon. Lord, xvii
Ball, Sir Robert S., x vit
Billings, John Shaw, vi
Cramp, Charles H., xvii
Members deceased (continued) :
de Gubernatis, Angelo, vi
Hallock, William, xvi
Ingham, William A., xvii
Jayne, Horace, xvii
Koenig, George Augustus, iv
McCrea, James, vi
Pepper, Edward, vi
Sclater, Philip Sutley, xu
Tatham, William, xvi
Ward, Lester F., xvi
—, Obituary. notices of, iii,
xvi
, elected, x7
——,, presented, xii, rv
Membership accepted, rv, xvi
Meteorites, Factors in the exchange
value of, 516, xvii
Minerals, Nomenclature of, 606
Minutes, wi
Miuladeva, Character and adventures
of, 616, x
Munroe, "The potassium, phosphorus,
nitrogen cycles, +i
N
Names used by Gosiute Indians, 1
Natal, Brazil, Geology of region
about, 431
Nervous system, Correlation of
structure and function in develop-
ment of, 488, vuit
Nipher, Matter in its electrically ex-
plosive state, 283, xii
0)
Obituary notices of members de-
ceased, ili
Officers and Council, Election of, tii
Ortmann, The Alleghenian divide
and its influence upon the fresh
water fauna, 287, 14+
Osborn, Succession of human types
in the glacial and inter-glacial ep-
ochs of the European Pleistocene,
vit
Ve
Pacific coast, Marine tertiary stra-
tigraphy of North, 559
Panama Canal, Treaty obligations
relating to, 234, vii
Paton, Correlation of structure and
function in development of nerv-
ous system, 488, viii
INDEX, en
Patriarchal narratives, Historical
value of, 184, vii
Pearce, Development of idea of cel-
lular structure, v
Pickering, Acceptance of portrait of
President Keen, xiv
——, Determination of visual stellar
magnitudes by photography, xii
Pierce, Resonance in _ radio-tele-
graphic receiving stations, rv
Plant growth, Climatic areas as re-
lated to, 257, #
Platinum in North Carolina, 21, iv
Pupin, New form of resonance cir-
cuits, rv
R
Radial velocities by means of ob-
jective prism, obtaining, 175
Radiotelegraphy, Radiated and re-
ceived energy in, 407, xv
Ravenel, Control of typhoid fever by
vaccination, 226, i+
Rolfe, Suetonius and his biographies,
206, vii
Rogers, nomenclature of minerals,
606, xvii
Rosengarten, Presentation of por-
trait of President Keen, xiii
, State tax for higher education,
243, Vit
Russell, Eclipsing variable stars, x1
Ss
Schlesinger, Obtaining radial veloci-
ties by means of objective prism,
175
Schreiner, Elimination and neutrali-
zation of toxic soil substances,
420, #
See, Origin of Himalaya mountains
and the plateau of Tibet, 405, i+
Slipher, Spectrum of the nebula in
the Pleiades, xii
Soil substances, Elimination and neu-
tralization of toxic, 420, x
State tax for higher education, 243,
vu
Stevenson, onmenion of coal beds,
31, 1x
Suetonius and his biographies, 206,
Vit
Ay
Tibet, Origin of plateau of, 495, ix
Tower, Treaty obligations of the
United States relating to the Pan-
ama Canal, 234, vu
Typhoid fever, Control of, by vacci-
nation, 226, ix
U
United States, Treaty obligations of,
relating to the Panama Canal, 234,
Vib
Uranium in carnotite ores of Colo-
rado_ and Utah, 201, viii
Utah, Gosiute Indians of, names used
by, 1
Vv
Vanadium in carnotite ores of Colo-
rado and Utah, 201, viii
Vaughan, Fever, ix
Ww
Walcott, Cambrian fossils from Brit-
ish Columbia, 1x
Webster, The international radio-
telegraphic conference of London,
XU
Wilder, Uses and needs of selachol-
ogy, viii
Wilson, Address to President, v
, Reply from, v
Wireless telegraphy, rv ;
Wood, Resonance spectra, rit
CDA NOTICES
Or VENEERS: DECEASED.
m4
vi
WILLIAM WATSON GOODWIN.
(Read January 3, 1913.)
William Watson Goodwin, a member of the American Philo-
sophical Society since 1895, was born May 9, 1831, at Concord,
Mass., and died June 15, 1912, at Cambridge. For fifty-six years
he stood in some official connection with Harvard College. A grad-
uate of the class of 1851, he was tutor in Greek and Latin from 1856
to 1857, tutor in Greek from 1857 to 1860, from 1860 to 1901 Eliot
professor of Greek literature, from I901 to 1912 professor emer-
itus, and from 1903 to 1909 overseer of the university. Even after
his resignation of the Eliot professorship in 1901, his zeal did not
permit him to remain inactive, and for seven years his colleagues
gladly accepted his offer to continue his course on Plato and Aristotle.
In the history of education in America few men have exceeded
Goodwin’s period of service; and few have conferred greater dis-
tinction on American scholarship. His life is no exception to the
rule that the annals of a scholar’s career are short and simple. His
many years were spent in unremitting and unobtrusive labor for the
welfare of Harvard in a period fruitful in far-reaching changes, a
period that witnessed at one end the decline of the old type of Amer-
ican college, and at the other the growth of the American university.
He was clear-sighted in his judgment and temperate in his reasoning
alike when he advocated, or when he opposed, the policies that shaped
the conduct of Harvard University to its present estate.
But it is as an Hellenist that his name will live, for directly and
indirectly as an interpreter of the literature and language of ancient
Greece, he had a large influence on the temper and conscience of
classical scholarship in the United States.
In the middle of the last century our native classical scholarship
had scarcely awakened to the possibility of the independence born of
original research. A leisurely interest in the classics as the humani-
ties, a somewhat torpid belief in their efficiency as a discipline for all
ili
iv OBITUARY NOTICES OF MEMBERS DECEASED.
mental dispositions, which was tempered but rarely by incursions
into the larger meanings of Hellenic literature, sufficed with but rare
exceptions for the generation under which Goodwin grew to man-
hood. In the year when, at the age of twenty-nine, he succeeded
Felton in the Eliot professorship, Goodwin gave evidence with a
certain brilliant audacity that he severed himself from the past.
The year 1860 may well be taken as the mark of the appearance of
a new spirit in our classical scholarship. In that year Hadley at
Yale published his “Greek Grammar” based on the work of Georg
Curtius; at Harvard, Goodwin brought out the book with which his
name will be longest associated—the “Syntax of the Moods and
Tenses of the Greek Verb.”
I cannot discover that Goodwin had occupied himself especially
with the problems of systematic Greek grammar in any of its aspects
during his residence at the universities of Gottingen, Bonn, and Ber-
lin; but the “ Moods and Tenses”’ is itself a witness to the quicken-
ing spirit exercised by European masters upon the American philolo-
gists who, about the middle of the last century, began to cross the
ocean in search of the inspiration they could not find at home. Yet
the work, alike in its first form and when rewritten and greatly en-
larged thirty years afterwards, owes relatively little to European
research for its essential distinction. Not that Goodwin was not
indebted, as he himself gladly acknowledged, to the labors of the
great Danish scholar Madvig, or that some of his positions had not
already been occupied by German syntacticians. But at the very
outset of his career he had learned to think for himself—‘‘ Librum
aperi, ut discas quid alii cogitaverint ; librum claude, ut ipse cogites.”
It was due to his native and trained sense and knowledge of language
as the instrument of the most delicate and refined expression that
he was enabled to safeguard the subject of the modal and temporal
relations of the Greek verb from the twofold danger that menaced
it at the time. On the one hand, metaphysical subtlety exercised a
malign influence in disturbing a clear understanding of the facts
and their interpretation; on the other hand, comparative grammar,
a science at that time in its infancy, by the very width of its horizon
and the insecurity of its basis, threatened to carry back to the primi-
WILLIAM WATSON GOODWIN. V
tive home of the Aryans many of the problems that pertained in the
first instance to the history of the Greek language on Greek soil.
It was Goodwin’s clarity of judgment—with characteristic mod-
esty he called it “common sense’”—that saw the truth when the
Germans had generally failed to release themselves from the intri-
cacies of philosophical abstractions; and with equal sagacity and
discernment he refused to trust himself upon the shifting sands of
comparative syntax. The metaphysical syntax that held sway when
Goodwin began his career is a thing of the past; but historical syntax,
both in the wider area of the Indo-European languages and on Greek
territory, has immeasurably increased its influence as it has steadily
built upon securer foundations.
The wonder is that after thirty years the large increments of sci-
ence should have found themselves easily at home and should have
worked no disturbance to the principles laid down in a book, of
which its author, in his revision of 1890, said that it had appeared
“in the enthusiasm of youth as an ephemeral production.” The
truth is that the “Moods and Tenses” of 1890 is at bottom the
“Moods and Tenses” of 1860; for, though there was much to add
to a work designed to fill a larger compass, there was astonishingly
little to curtail, to modify in important particulars, or to reject out-
right. I know of no book of like complexion which possesses the
quality of prescience in equal degree. The “Moods and Tenses”
displays the working of an independent and resourceful thinker, who
with steadied purpose aimed at presenting the essential facts, freed
from the entanglements of specious and shifting theories. To its
judicious presentation of these facts, to its lucidity and precision
of statement, perhaps even to its very refusal to enter at all points
and at all hazards upon the treacherous ground of absolute defini-
tion, the book owes its fame as a standard work, still indispensable,
despite the subsequent mass of treatises, both large and small, that
traverse the whole or some part of the same field. And it has had
a wider and more salutary influence than any American or English
book in its province for more than half a century.
Apart from its virtues of lucidity and orderliness, there are cer-
tain special features of the “ Moods and Tenses” that have com-
vi OBITUARY NOTICES OF MEMBERS DECEASED.
manded most attention: the distinction between the time of an action
and the character of an action, the distinction betwéen absolute and
relative time, the division of conditional sentences (and in particu-
lar the treatment of shall and will and should and would conditions,
which Goodwin discussed at some length in the Transactions of the
American Philological Association, Vol. 7 (1876), and in the Journal
of Philology, Vol. 8 (1879) ), the relation of the optative to the sub-
junctive and other moods, and the origin of the construction of od py
with the subjunctive and the future indicative.
The author of the “ Moods and Tenses,” the doctor irrefragabilis
of Greek syntax, would have been the last to claim that he had, with
Browning’s grammarian, settled all of the “67.’s business.” He had
not been, like Tom Steady in “ The Idler,” “a vehement assertor of
uncontroverted truths; and by keeping himself out of the reach of
contradiction, had acquired all the confidence which the conscious-
ness of irresistible abilities could have given.” There is much in
Greek syntax that is debatable territory; but whenever Goodwin
entered that territory—though he was not a statistician, as the earlier
great scholars were not—his prevailing soundness of judgment and
his range of illustration afford the controversialist only rarely the
luxury of holding a different opinion.
Goodwin’s “ Greek Grammar” appeared ten years after the “ Moods
and Tenses,” and inherited as by right the distinction and the dis-
tinctive features of the earlier work. The “Moods and Tenses”
appealed to the advanced student and the teacher; the “ Grammar”
brought before the neophyte the facts of the language in exact and
clear form; and showed that its author possessed the rare (and often
underestimated) faculty of making a good elementary book. Only
he who has himself labored to improve on Goodwin can adequately
realize the clarity and compactness of his statements that never err
through undue emphasis either on logical or on esthetic relations.
The very excellence and success of Goodwin’s work in the depart-
ment of grammar made the wider public, and to a certain degree
even the Hellenists of this country, ignorant of the scope and the
distinction of his work in other fields. It is an altogether erro-
neous notion that Goodwin was purely a grammarian, honorable as
WILLIAM WATSON GOODWIN. vil
that title has been made by many illustrious scholars. The range
of his sympathies with Greek literature was indicated early in his
career. The Greek grammar appeared in 1870; in the same year
was published Goodwin's revision, in five volumes, of the transla-
tion of Plutarch’s ‘“ Morals” made by various hands in the seven-
teenth century. Innumerable errors and infelicities of the old trans-
lation were cleared away by Goodwin, whose work was termed a
“vindication” of Plutarch by Emerson, who contributed an Intro-
duction to the revision. English readers who would acquaint them-
selves with the deep and broad humanity of the sage of Chzronea,
in whom the intellect was illuminated by the force of morals, will
long continue to use the translation of the Cambridge scholar.
With Greek philosophy Goodwin never claimed the intimate
acquaintance of the professional philosopher. The temper of his
mind was not metaphysical. Yet he had a large knowledge of the
great ethical books of Greek literature, and years of close study
made him a wise and judicious interpreter of the “Republic” of
Plato and of Aristotle’s “Ethics.” To the investigation of the
history, antiquities, and law of ancient Greece he brought a mind
keenly observant of the similarities and differences between ancient
and modern times. It is in the interpretation of the masterpiece of
Greek oratory that the scholar must be able to draw, in well-nigh
equal measure, upon a sound knowledge of ancient history and
ancient law. Goodwin’s mastery of this double field appears in his
editions of Demosthenes’ “On the Crown” (1901) and “ Against
Midias” (1906). He wrote also on “ The Relation of the zpdcdpor
to the zpurdéves in the Athenian Senate” (Transactions of the Ameri-
can Philological Association, Vol. 16, 1885), and on “ The Value of
the Attic Talent in Modern Money” (0. c. Vol. 16).
It is to be regretted that Goodwin would not allow himself to
be persuaded to give to the world an edition of A*schylus, to the
interpretation of whose text he devoted years of profound study.
He edited the text and prepared a translation of the ““ Agamemnon,”
to be used in connection with the public presentation of that play by
the Department of Classics at Harvard in 1906. Of his critical
method we have a luminous example in the paper entitled “On the
viii OBITUARY NOTICES OF MEMBERS DECEASED.
Text and Interpretation of certain passages in the Agamemnon of
feschylus” (Transactions Amer. Philol. Assoc., Vol. 8, 1877). In
confronting the great difficulties of the text of 7%schylus, Goodwin
was invariably hostile to the sciolist who complacently substitutes
his emendations for the words of the poet. “Est quaedam etiam
nesciendi ars et scientia’—an admonition applied far more rigor-
ously by the American scholar than by its German author.
In common with many men of his position Goodwin turned at
times to editorial work of a humbler character. He reédited Felton’s
editions of Isocrates’ “ Panegyricus” (1863) and the “ Birds”
(1868) and “Clouds” (1870) of Aristophanes. One of the most
excellent books of its kind is the “Greek Reader” (1877, and in many
later editions), while his edition of the “ Anabasis” (1885 ff.), pre-
pared in conjunction with one of his colleagues, Professor J. W.
White, is a model for its exact attention to grammatical details.
It was Goodwin’s good fortune to visit Greece as a young man
when fresh from his studies in Germany ; and it was he who was the
first director of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens
(1882-83), an appropriate honor for the foremost Greek scholar
of his time who was also one of the founders of the American
Institute of Archeology. To his acquaintance with the land of
Greece, reinforcing his knowledge of Greek literature and history,
we owe the admirable paper on “ The Battle of Salamis,” first pub-
lished in 1885 and in another form in 1906. Goodwin’s careful sift-
ing of the evidence determined the several localities in question and
convincingly described the dispositions and movements of the Greek
and barbarian forces in connection with that memorable contest.
His interest in the land of Greece was fittingly signalized by his
being named a knight of the Greek Order of the Redeemer.
Such are the landmarks in the career of a scholar whose life was
spent in quiet devotion to high things, a life that made no parade
and sought none of the noisy ways of fame. Yet to few Americans
of our time has been given an ampler measure of the tribute of
recognition that great powers have been used effectively and service-
ably. Goodwin’s mastery of Greek syntax enfranchised in Great
Britain the Hellenic scholarship of the United States. The “ Moods
WILLIAM WATSON GOODWIN. ix
and Tenses” became there, as at home, a standard treatise; the
Journal of Philology and Liddell and Scott’s Greek Lexicon con-
tain evidences of his exact learning. He received the degree of
LL.D. from Cambridge in 1883, from Edinburgh in 1890, and the
degree of D.C.L. from Oxford also in 1890. In 1905 Gottingen
renewed honoris causa the degree of Ph.D. which he had received
at that University in 1855. At home he received honorary degrees
from Amherst, Chicago, Columbia, Yale, and Harvard. He enjoyed
the rare distinction of being twice president of the American Philo-
logical Association (1871 and 1884); he was vice-president of the
Egypt Exploration Fund; for many years he was closely identified
with the work of the Archeological Institute of America; and he
held the office of president of the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences in 1903. He was an honorary member of the Hellenic So-
ciety of London, of the Philological Society of Cambridge, England,
of the Hellenic Society of Constantinople, of the Archzological So-
ciety and Academy of Science at Athens, and was a foreign member
of the Imperial German Archzological Institute.
Professor Goodwin was not a blind worshipper of the classical
literature of the ancients ; he saw in it, not an agent for the discipline
of the intellect of all youth, but an instrument, imperative for the
understanding of the development of European letters, and salu-
tary for those who would deepen their appreciation of English
literature. In him the intellectual spirit of scientific research in
the field of grammar did not blunt the literary and artistic sense,
which, as has well been said, is partly also moral. The old-time
humanities translated themselves in him into the spirit of just and
refined living. He did not confine his sympathies to the ancient
world that was his by the association of daily work; but he realized,
in the words of Renan, that “progress will eternally consist in de-
veloping what Greece conceived”; and from Greece he gathered,
what many of the noblest and best have gathered thence, a large
part of that wisdom of life which is more precious and more endur-
ing than mere learning.
HERBERT WEIR SMYTH.
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