2 3 (J^3

of tlje ^ustiim

OF

COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY,

AT HARVARD COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, MASS.
jTotmtictr bi' prfbale subscrfptfon, in 1861.

The gift ofiUu. JfynJiK^-J^^f^ __ ^^ ■

No. vay^. d

9

I

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

I 1 f; f; f: 1; \

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA

FOR

PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

Vol. XXIV.
JANUARY TO DECEMBER, 1887.

PHILADELPHIA :
PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY

BY MAC CALLA & COMPANY.

itFl887.

Jan. 7, 1887.] -•■ [Brinton.

PROCEEDINGS

OP THE

AMERICAN" PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA, FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

Vol. XXIV. January to June, 1887. No. 125.

Critical Remai^ks on the Editions of Diego de Lnnda^s Writings.

By Daniel G. Brinton^ 3LD.
(Read before the American PhilosojJhical Society^ Jan. 7, 18S7.)

No document bearing upon the ancient Ma3'a civilization of
Yucatan surpasses in importance the work written by Diego de
Landa, the second Bishop of the Diocese of Merida, who was a
resident of Yucatan from 1549 until 15*19, the year of his death.
The description of the country and its inhabitants which he com-
posed has been preserved to us in one MS. copy, now in the
library of the Royal Academy of History, at Madrid. In the
winter of 1863-4, the late Abbe Brasseur (de Bourbourg) tran-
scribed a portion of it, and published it with notes, and a trans-
lation into French, the following summer, under the title. Rela-
tion des Choses de Yucatan de Diego de Landa ^ etc. (Paris,
Arthus Bertrand, 1864). As it contained the signs of the cal-
endar, and what purports to be the alphabet of the Ma3'a hiero-
glyphic writing, as well as much material relating to the customs
of the natives, Landa's Relation at once took a leading position
among Americana.

The well-known peculiarities of the Abbe Brasseur, however,
the freedom with which he dealt with his authorities, and the
license he allowed his imagination, have always cast an atmos-
phere of uncertainty about his work,* and hence it was a decided

* This general distrust with reference to the particular instance of the Landa MS. has
been very vigorously expressed by Dr. P. J. J. Valentini in his article on tlie Landa al-
phabet, in Proceedings oj tlie American Antiquarian Society for 1880, p. 91.

PROC. AMER. PHII.OS. SOC. XXIV. 125. A. PRINTED FEB. 2, 1887.

Brinton] ■^ [Jan. 7,

satisfaction to have piiblisbed at Madrid, in 1884, under the
competent supervision of Don Juan de Dios de la Rada y Del-
gado, a literal, faithful copy of the original text. Unfortunately^,
it appears simply as an ai)pendix to the Spanish translation of
M. Leon de Rosny's work on the hieratic writing of Central
America, and is issued to the limited number of 200 copies, all
large folio. It is therefore both dilficult to obtain and needlessly
expensive. Moreover, the editor, for fear of " distracting the
reader," as he tells us, pointed out only a few of the differences
between the correct text and that printed by Brasseur, so that
the real value of the second edition of the text is not apparent
until a long and toilsome comparison has been made.

The leading position which Landa's Relacion holds with refer-
ence to the ancient Maya civilization has led me to examine his
words with cai-e, and the notes I have made will, I believe, prove
of value to those who are engaged in the study of this remarka-
ble people. I shall arrange these notes in three portions, as
they refer to the two texts now printed, to the Abbe Brasseur's
translation with its notes, and to the hieroglyphic signs, etc., in-
serted in the text.

The Text.

In Brasseur's edition the text is divided into numbered sec-
tions, each with an appropriate heading. No such arrangement
is in the original. What is more objectionable, many of the para-
graphs and even sections as arranged by Brasseur are entirely
arbitrary, and do not correspond at all with the paragraphing of
the original. Sometimes they begin in the midst of a phrase,
cutting it in two, and destroying its meaning.

He omits, without a word, fully one-sixth of the whole text.
In his edition, p. 346, he concludes with the words, aqui acaba la
obra de Landa, "here closes the work of Landa." No such
words are in the original. On the contrary, the MS. he copied
from continued wiih a number of chapters, one on the reason
why the Indians offered human sacrifices, others on the serpents,
animals, trees, ^tc, of Yucatan. Of these Brasseur says not a
syllable. In copying he occasionally, but rarely, omitted sen-
tences, doubtless through haste. An instance of this occurs, p.
328, where three lines of the original are dropped immediately
after the word escalera^ terminating the sentence.

1887.] 'J [Brinton.

lie did not hesitate occasionally to alter the original when he
could not get at its meaning conveniently'. Thus, p. 100, he
prints " pero que a parte de los espaiioles," whereas the original
is " pero que entre los Espaiioles," which conveys exactly' the
opposite sense. Again, p. 162, lines 2, 3, he writes " otras se
separavan partes de su cuerpo," where the original is " se seja-
van." Oddly enough, in the note on p. 104, he claims to have
altered the text from " tres fiestas " to " otras fiestas," whereas
the latter alone stands in the original.

The proof-reading of Brasseur's Spanish text leaves something
to be desired. On the first page I have noted three errors, vaya
for om, haz el for haz a, and hiervas for sierras, which last error
he carries into his translation. Others, as Uamaron for Uevaron,
p. 20, line 1, and alcangaron for alancearon, p. 16, line 10, are
not much misleading.

Of greater moment is his inaccuracy in both the spelling and
translation of proper names and Maya words. I shall mention a
few of these :

Taiza, p. 4. This is for tah itza, " the lord or ruler of the
Itzas."

Ulumil Cuz y Etel Ceh, p. 6. These Ma3'a words were un-
derstood and translated by Brasseur as two distinct names con-
nected by the copulative conjunction y, ef, and. This is not the
case. They form one term, the correct spelling of which is
vluumil cutz yetel ceh, "the land of the wild turkey and deer."

Ciizmil, p. 12. The "Swallow-island," ah-cuzamil pelen, ac-
cording to the Diccionario Maya-Espanol del Convento de
3IotuI, MS., was also called Oycen and Oycib. In these names
cen means " ornament," and cib, " wax," while the prefix oy is an
interjection.

Maya., p. 14. The form adopted by Brasseur, Ma~ay-ha,
meaning "there is no water," is incorrect. This phrase in the
Yucatecan tongue is Ma yan ha. For a more plausible deriva-
tion of the word Maya., see The Maya Chronicles, p. 16 (PLila-
delphia, 1880, vol. i of Brinton's Library of Aboriginal Ameri-
can Literature).

The names of the idols mentioned, p. 16, read in the original
Ixhunie, and Ixhuniefa, not Ixbunie, etc. The prefix ix in all
four names is the feminine particle. The meanings are :

Brinton.] ^ [Jan. 7,

Ix-chel, the Lady of the Kainbow, or "of the Cheles."
Jx-chebel-yax, the Lady of the green (blue) feathers.
Ix-Jnm-yei, the one chosen Lady.
Ix-hun-yela^ the Lady with the one adornment.

Mochcovoh, p. 18. The Covohes are referred to, p. T2, as the
ntme of the tribe near Champoton. The word Covoh is applied
to a poisonous spider found in Yucatan, and here probably has
a totemic signification. It is still, sa^s Dr. Berendt, a common
family name among the Mayas.

On p. 30, the original has Cochnah instead of Cochuah ; but
the latter is probably correct, being a simple compound of cocli,
broad or large, :ind iiah, hread or tortilla. Hvcahaihumun has
no terminal n in the original. The proper form I expect is
HoccGhal-hunlxun, "cosa asentada tn el suelo cada afio," relerring
to the 3^ear-stones which were annually set up.

Tikoch^ p. b2, orig. Tiboch. The former is correct. It means
"at (the place ofj the castor-oil plants" (it, at, xkoch or koch,
the Ricinis communis).

Mai, p. 42. This word means ordinarily snuff, or pulverized
tobiicco. Brasseur, in his note, derives from it the name Maya,
forgetting that on p. 14 he had assigned a different etj'mology.

Tutulxiu, p. 46. On the derivation of this name see The
Maya Chronicles, p. 109.

Qilan, p. 52. The proper form is oilaan, and means something
filled, realized, perfected, attested, etc.

Chicaca, p. 70. Brasseur saj^s that Cogolludo calls this prov-
ince Chavacha-Hda. This is inaccurate. Cogolludo's words
are "Choaca, que los Indios Uaman Chuuachati " (Mist, de Yu-
cathan, Lib. II, cap. viii). This is a compound of chauac, large,
great, and ha, water.

VamuxcheJ , p. 76. The original has Namuxchel. The correct
form may be Namach CheI,lhQ distinguished Chel; or Vamac
Chel, some one of the Chels, or, he who is a Chel.

Cojjo, p. 148, is the Ficus ruhiginosa (Aznar, Plantas de
Yucatan, p. 231).

Iztahte, p. 184, stands for yitz tahte, which is the native name
for turpentine.

3Iitnal, p. 200, is spelled by Beltran, A^He de la Lengua Maya,
Metnal. Brasseur's derivation from Nahuatl 3Iictlan is probable.

1887.] »^ [Brintcn.

Ixtab, p. 202. Compounded of the feminine prefix ir, and
tah, whicli as a verb means "to tie to something," and as a noun,
the gallows.

Uinal-Hun-Ekeh, p. 204. In the original this reads Vinal,
Hunekeh. Of these words uinal is the ordinary Maya word for
month; 7ii/n is "one"; but e^e^ does not appear in any of the
dictionaries. Perez Dice. 3Iai/a, gives Keh as "the seventh
day."

Zacab, p. 212. Brasseur explains this in a note as "une sorte
de mais moulu"; but the Dlcclonarlo de Motul, gives gakab,
" la cana del mais," cornstalk. The name of the deity, therefore,
was "The Nine Cornstalks." On the same page, zacah is in the
usual form gaca, and is pulverized roasted maize mixed with
cold water. Xante, on the same page, is not the cedar, as the
editor supposes, which in Maya is Kuche, but "a tree from
whose roots the natives obtain a 3'ellow dye " (Dice. Motul).

Kami, p. 21 6, does not appear in the dictionaries. The Abba's
suggestion that it is an error for Kabul is possibly correct; or
it may be for Kauai, which means one who is very choice in food
and raiment {Dice. 3Iotul).

Batel-okot, p. 218, means "battle dance." The similarity of
the Maya batel or bateel, to battle, a battle, to the English I have
elsewhere noted as an odd coincidence.

Chacan-cantun, pp. 220, 222. The original has chacacantun,
and also Canzienal in place of Canziemil in Brasseur's text.

On p. 222 and elsewhere instead of zac-u-uayeyab, the original
text gives uniformly zacuuayayab.

The Translation.

Bishop Landa's writings on this subject were evidentl3'' mere
memoranda, jotted down to await future arrangement and re-
vision. The copyist contributed to their obscurity, so that
passages of his ReJacion present peculiar difficulties, some of
which have led his translator wide of the mark. I shall point
out some of the most notable of these.

p. 4. "tiene mucha lama"; "la plage y est tres etendue";
more correctly "a beaucoup de limon."

p. 16. "que por esto le llamaron Lazaro"; "queles Espag-
nols appellent de Lazare"; better "et pour cela ils I'appellent
Lazaro.^^

Brinton.] ^ [Jan. 7,

p. 24. "seis soles" is translated " trois soleils.''

p. 32. "tres cuentas de piedra buenas"; ''trois ohjets de
pierre bleu travailles." It is not easy to see where this sense
was obtained.

p. 74. The space left blank at the beginning of § xiii is un-
necessary, and there is no need to supply a supposed omission.
The sense is " The adelantado did not occupy the best position for
one who had enemies," etc. '

p. 116, line 1. The words "les parecia muy mal," do not
mean "bien qu'elleleur parCit mauvaise," but "ce qui les defigu-
rait beaucoup." Later, on the same page, "euero de veuado por
curLir seco," does not mean " cuir de betes fauves tanne a sec,"
but "de cuir sec de chevreuil."

p. 136. " Llamanse aora los nombres de Pilar los proprios";
"Leurs noms propres aujourd'hui sont comme Pilar," etc. This
is a singular mistranslation. The baptismal font in Spanish is
pila, Siiid "nombres de pila" means "christened names." The
meaning evidently is "they now call themselves by their baptis-
mal names."

p. 158. Speaking of the wooden idols which descended from
father to son, Landa says they were considered the most valua-
ble part of the heritage, " tenidos por lo principal de la herencia."
This Brasseur translates "ils y avaient la plus grand confianee."

On p. 174 there are two important errors. Line 2, "losquales
llaman holcanes''^ does not mean "a I'appel des holcans,^^ but
"qu'on appellait holcans^^; and " que a essos holcanes sino era
en tiempo de guerra no davan soldada," means that the holcans
did not receive pay except in time of war, and not at all " Quant
aux holcans, ils n'amenaient point la milice hors du temps de la
guerre."

Equally incorrect is the translation of the description of the
manner in which the natives wore their mantle, p. 186. But it
will not be profitable to continue pointing out such slips. I have
said sufficient to show that Brasseur's translation must be care-
fully compared with the Spanish text before it is accepted.

A very curious error in translation occurs on pp. 48 and 172,
but this time it must be charged to the account, not of the
Abbe, but of the Bishop himself. On p. 48, bottom, there is the
extraordinary statement that as an article of defensive armor

1887.-I i [Brinton.

the natives wore "jacos fuertes de sal y de algodon," "strong
jackets (made) of siU and cotton 1" And this is repeated, p.
172, with tlie specific addition that these jacliets were "quilted
doubly with salt for grinding !^^ No wonder the Abbe was non-
plussed by this outrageous assertion I (See his note to p. 49.)
The explanation is interesting. The word in the Maya language
for salt is taab^ while that for a twisted strand or cord is tab^ the
only difference being in the length of the vowel. Evidently
Bishop Landa, or the person from whom he derived his infor-
mation, mistook the native description of these quilted jackets.
They were of cotton and twisted cords (tab), the layers of the
former being quilted to the latter. The historian of Yucatan,
Father CogoUudo, refers to them, stating that they were called
by the Mexicans (Nahuas), ichcavipiles. This is a sound Na-
huatl word, found in Molina's Vocabulario, and shows that the
same defense was known and employed by the Aztecs. It was
also familiar to the tribes of Maya lineage in Guatemala.

The Maya Characters.

A close comparison of the various Ma3^a characters printed in
Brasseur's edition with those in the Madrid copy proves that in
the main his tracings were accurate.

The Calendar beginning on p. 240 reveals, however, a number
of minor differences. All of Brasseur's characters tend more to
the circular form than those in the later edition wliich are ap-
proximately quadrangular. Occasionally points of detail differ
considerably, as for instance, on p. 240, the signs Ix and Cib.
The lines for the month signs are much fainter and sharper in
Brasseur, and that of the month Minan is incomplete, lacking a
bracket-shaped appendage to the left.

The Katun-wheel on p. ;U2 in the Madrid edition has the in-
scription in its centre. The Maya words should read u uazaJdotn
Katun, " their return the Katuns," i. e., the return or revolution
of the Katuns. Brasseur translates the Spanish rendering of
this, " gerra de los Katunes " by " la guerre on le jeu des Ka-
tuns." The word gerra means neither game nor war, but is dia-
lectic for gira or giro, from girar, to turn around.

In the important matter of the alphabet on p. 320, Brasseur
makes only one serious error, that is, that he places the first
form of the letter b (No. 4 of his list) lengthwise instead of up-

Stowell.] " [Nov. 5,

right. He was led into what I think was another error by the
disposition of the letters in tlie MS. As the Madrid edition
gives a photo-lithograph of the two pages of the original text
containing the alphabet and its explanation, we are in a position
to examine it satisfactorily. The figures are arranged in three
parallel lines across the page, and the two figures for u, stand,
the first at the end of one line, the second at the beginning of
the next. From their evident connection with the sign for the
sky at night, I am of opinion that they belong together as mem-
bers of the same sign. Or did either member of the pictographic
composite serve as indicating its phonetic value ?
• The designs of buildings as given by Brasseur, pp. 328, 332,
342, are much neater and more regular than in the original,
where they are simply out-lined with a pen neither steady nor
skillful. The disposition of the parts is, however, the same in
both.

From these remarks it will be seen that Don Juan de Dtos de
la Rada y Delgado has laid students of Maya culture under posi-
tive obligations by this new and complete edition of Landa's
most important work, and it should find a place in those public
and private libraries which aim to have at all a complete list of
consulting Americana.

THE FACIAL NERVE IN THE DOMESTIC CAT.

BY T. B. STOWELL, PH.D.

(Bead before the Americaii Philosophical Society, November 5, 1S86.)
Introduction.

The embarrassment of tlie student of comparative anatomy will be
greatly relieved, and bis progress will be proportionately facilitated, if he
has access to a complete description of the structural characters of a
typical form. The anatomy of the cat furnishes a desirable and practical
standard for comparison — at least for the Mammalia. Special reasons for
accepting and adopting this standard have been presented elsewhere.
(Anatomical Teclinology, 34, p. 55.)

The osteology and the myology bave already been described (34, B.C.).
The neurology lias been given only in part ; the anatomy of the brain has
been publisbed by Wilder in the Anatomical Technology (34), and in
numerous papers by the same author before scieutiflc bodies. (For the
bibliography see Auatomical Technology.)

Proc. ker. Philos. Soc,

Vol. niV No. 125, p. 8.

Diagram of the Facial iVerue.— Slowell.

1886. y [Stowell.

It lias seemed desirable that the nerves of the cat be described with the
same fullness of detail that has been given to the bones and the muscles.*

The Vagus (27) and the Trigeminus (A.) nerves have been described ;
the present study of the Facial nerve is now offered as a contribution to
comparative neurology. It has been the author's aim to present the rela-
tions and the distribution of this nerve, based upon repeated dissections,
so as to insure, as far as practicable, the elimination of individual variation.

Preparation.

The cats were injected with the "starch injection mass " recommended
in the Anatomical Technology (34, p. 140) ; both arteries and veins were
injected, to Axcilitate identification and to insure accuracy. Alcoholic and
recent specimens were used. Most of the work has been done under a
magnifying power of 15-35 diameters, with the hope that no anastomotic
or terminal filaments should escape notice.

^ NERVUS FACIALIS.

Synonymy. — Portio dura (ot the seventh pair). Par septimum seu faci-
ale, Communicans faciei nervus, Sympatheticus minor, Ramus durior
septimae conjugationis. Respiratory nerve of the lace, Nervus facialis,
Facial nerve.

Anatomical Characters. — This nerve is distributed to the muscles which
give expression to the face, viz., the muscles of the palpebral, the nasal,
the maxillary, the mandibular and the inter-maxillary regions ; to two
of the principal muscles of the ectal ear, viz., attrahens aurem and retra-
hens aurem, and to the small muscles of the cartilage (pinna) ; it gives
filaments to the middle ear, directly to the stapedius muscle, indirectly to
the tensor tympani and those structures innerved by the tympanic plexus
(Jacobson's nerve) ; it supplies the scalp (occipito-frontal muscle) and the
ectal muscle of the cheek and neck (platysma myoides); it communicates
with the several divisions of the trigeminus nerve upon the face, and with
ganglia of the trunk, viz., with the Gasserian ganglion by a small fascicle,
with the spheno-palatine through the great petrosal root of the Vidian

* For the study of Individual structure the elaborate and expensive work of
Straus-Durckhetm (B.), and the more accessible reduced copies of his outline
plates by Professor Henry S. Williams (C), possess excellent features. The
Anatomical Technology by Wilder and Gage (34) is all that can be desired in a
manual which is designed "to furnish those who intend to pursue human,
veterinary or comparative anatomy, with explicit directions for dissection and
for the preparation and preservation of anatomical specimens, and with a cor-
rect and clear account of the principal parts of an accessible and fairly repre-
sentative mammal of convenient size" (Preface, 2d ed.). Directions for dissec-
tion and manipulation are so explicitin tlils manual thatitseems unnecessary
to describe the methods followed in the preparation of this paper. No work
known to the writer, except perhaps Mivart's (18), assumes to present in detail
the nervous system of the cat; the wide discrepancy between his text and the
nervous system of American cats has been mentioned elsewhere (A ; The Na-
tion, June 2, 1881 ; Science and the Athenseum, June 4, 1881).

PROC. AMEll. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 125. B. PUINTED FEB. 2, 1887.

Stowell.] 1^ [Nov. 5,

nerve, with the otic through the small petrosal, and with the suhmaxillary
through the chorda tympani ; it is joined by a considerable fascicle from
the auditory nerve near the ectal origin (this is the origin of the chorda
tympani, according to Sapolini), by a branch from the glosso-pharyngeal
and the vagus nerves ; it anastomoses with the superficial cervical and the
minor occipital nerves. It is not given to the temporal muscles, although
its terminal filaments form dense plexuses upon their ectal surfaces.

Physiological Characters. — This nerve controls facial expression, the
movements of the ectal ear and the auditory ossicles ; it has a direct action
upon the salivary glands. (Sapolini ascribes speech to the chorda tym-
pani, and thinks that the further action of the facial nerve upon the
tongue is to govern its movements in deglutition). I do not know that its
action upon the auditory nerve has been demonstrated. Its anatomical
relations suggest a modifying influence upon the trigeminus, the glosso-
pharyngeal and the vagus nerves.

SPECIAL DESCRIPTION.

Proximate Roots. — The union of the proximate roots of the facial nerve
may be traced along the ventrimesal border of the sensory root of the tri-
geminus nerve caudad of the pons.

Tke dorsal root bends around the caudal root of the trigeminus, crosses
its lateral and dorsal faces, and enters the cerebellum with the medipe-
duncle.

Tke cephalic root is ventrad of the caudal root of the trigeminus and
caudad of the medipeduncle ; a portion is reflected dorsad to the cerebel-
lum with the prepeduncle ; the larger portion dips into the floor of the
epiccele, and may be traced cephalad to the region of the post optici.

The caudal root separates from the cephalic as it passes ventrad of the
root of the trigeminus ; it lies ventrad of the caudal root of the trige-
minus, and passes obliquely meso-caudad to the floor of the metacoele.

Ectal Origin and Entocranial Relations. — The facial nerve takes its
ectal origin from the latero-cephalic border of the trapezium, meso-ceph-
alad of the auditory nerve (27, Figs. 1, 2 ; 34, Fig. 116, and PI. II, Fig. 3).
The distribution of the cerebellar artery is such that the ectal origin is
surrounded by arterioles ; a small twig from the medicerebellar artery
(D ) and a venule pass between this nerve and the auditory.

Tlie ento-cranial course is laterad with the auditorj'^ nerve ; it traverses
the ental meatus auditorius with that nerve, its position being dorsad.

Just ectad of the arteriole which separates the facial and the auditory
nerves a small ramus apparently unites these nerve trunks, or rather is an
accession to tlie facial nerve. Is this the intermediary nerve of Wrisberg
{portio inter duram et mollem) 1 Sapolini maintains that in man this is the
origin of the chorda tympani, which he names the thirteenth cranial
nerve. He traced this nerve to the geniculate ganglion, and found that
the nerve of Wrisberg and the chorda tympani were one and the same
nerve. (From a resume of Sapolini's monograph by Dr. Burnett, pub-

18S6.1 ' J- J- [Stowell.

lished in the Medical Times, February 24, 1883, and reprinted in the
Medical Record, March 31, 1883, p. 363.)

Intercranial Relations. — The facial nerve traverses the serpentine flex-
ions of the aqueduclus Fallopii to the foramen stylo-mastoideura. The
course In the aqueduct is first laterad for 2-3 mm.; an abrupt cliange iu
direction at this point forms an angle which is directly mesad of the fossa
occupied by the spherical tensor tympani muscle ; peripherad of the angle
the course arches first dorsad (the concavity being ventro-laterad), then
laterad (the concavity being ventrad) for 5-7 mm., and lies caudad of the
tensor tympani muscle.

About 10 mm. peripherad of the ental meatus auditorius there is a con-
siderable expansion in the aqueduct, about 2 mm. in length ; in this fossa
a reddish swelling rests upon the facial nerve. This is the ganglion geuic-
ulatum, or intumescentia ganglitormis.*

From this point the course is laterad to the stylo-mastoid foramen.

At the angle (Fig. Ang. ) a considerable twig 2 mm. in length is given
off, which traverses a foramen to the ental surface of the cranium, where
it divides into four ramuli, which become respectively the mesal root of
the great superficial petrosal nerve, the small superficial petrosal, a ramu-
lus to the sympathic plexus in the carotid rete arteriale, and a fascicle to
the eminence on the caudo-lateral angle of the Gasserian ganglia. At a
point caudad of the stapedius muscle a fascicle, the tympanic nerve, is
sent to that muscle. (It is not clear but that this fascicle has its origin in
the geniculate ganglion instead of the nerve trunk.)

Caudad of the geniculate ganglion the fallopian aqueduct arches latero-
caudad (the concavity being mesad). In this canal, immediately caudad
of the ganglion, are two fasciculi separated by a slender arteriole. These
are the chorda tympani and the united anastomotic branch to the glosso-
pharyngeal and the vagus nerves with the long root of the petrosal nerve,
q. V. The geniculate ganglion embraces these united nerves and the
trunk of the facial.

About 5-8 mm. peripherad of the ganglion, where the arch reaches its
ventral angle and begins to curve cephalad (the concavity being dorsad),
the anastomotic branch bends ventri-mesad, and 5 mm. peripherad it bi-
furcates to join the petrosal ganglion of the glosso pharyngeal nerve and
the jugular ganglion of the vagus. This is a portion of the auricular
branch of the vagus. This point of separation is also the origin of the
long root of the great petrosal, q. v.

Chorda Tympani. — This nerve, or the nervus tympano-lingualis, has
its origin and course as given above ; it continues cephalad in the canal,
accompanied by a slender arteriole ; it bends dorsad to enter the tj'm-
panum through the iter chordce ])osterius ; it crosses the tj'mpanum about

♦The author has not at this date completed experiments to satisfy himself .is
to the relation of this body ; whether tlie relation is one rif position only or one
of structure — that is, whether it is a ganglion of the facial nerve, or is peculiar
to the great superficial petrosal nerve and merely rests upon the facial.

19

Stowel!.] -■— ' [Nov. 5,

the middle of the malleus, somewhat mesad of the bone, and emerges
through a minute foramen, the iter chordae anterius, into the glaserian
canal, thence along the canal to the ecto-cranial foramen ; it lies ventrad
of the otic ganglion and the dental branch of the mandibular nerve, eclad
of the external carotid artery, passes between the pterygoid muscles, and
joins the lingual nerve at an acute angle about 5-10 mm. peripherad of
the foramen ovale.

Nervus petrosus superficialis major. — The great petrosal nerve has a
fourfold origin. Tiie principal root may be traced to the geniculate gan-
glion with the trunk which is directed caudad from that body ;* the next
in size comes direct from the petrosal ganglion of the glosso-pharyngeal
nerve, and is a division of Jacobson's nerve ; the third is a brancli from
the trunk of the facial, at the angle ; and the fourth is a slender filament
from the tympanic plexus (Jacobson's). The united trunk lies in the
glaserian canal, and emerges from its ventral hiatus, enters the caudal
foramen of the Vidian canal, which is about 5 ram. cephalad, traverses
the canal, and at the middle of the foramen lacerum anterius becomes the
petrosal root of the Vidian nerve, whence it is related to the spheno-pala-
tine ganglion.

Nervus petrosus superficialis minor. — This branch from the inter-
osseous portion of the facial nerve is one of the four divisions of the ramu-
lus given off at the angle ; about 2 mm. peripherad of its origin it enters
an enlargement (plexus?) about .5 mm. in diameter; this enlargement is
ioined by the tensor tympani nerve ; the petrosal nerve traverses the
glaserian canal and joins the otic ganglion at the ventral hiatus.

Ecto-cranial Relations. — The ecto-cranial trunk emerges from the
foramen stylo masloideum ; its course is cephalad and dorsad, and lies
ectad of the post-auricular artery. (It often lies entad of a branch artery
to the parotid gland.) At the foramen of exit, or just peripherad, the
nerve divides into branches; its relations and distribution are given ac-
cordingly. The primary rami ventrad are the digastric and the stylo-
hyoid ; cephalad are the cervico-facial and the tempore- facial ; dorsad and
caudad are the auricular.

N. digastricus. — The digastric nerve is a small ramus from the ventral
border of the facial nerve at its foramen of exit ; it lies entad of the stylo-
mastoid artery, around the cephalic border of whicli it bends abruptly
and takes its course ventrad ; it extends along the dorsal border of the
proximal end of the digastric muscle, which it penetrates about 5-8 mm.
from its origin ; its terminal filaments supply the proximal end of the
muscle. (I do not find an anastomotic branch to the glosso-pharyngeal
nerves, as is the case in man.)

N. stylo hyoideus arises from the ventral border of the facial nerve,
in common with the digastric, or remains in the truuk-sheath to be given
off about 1-3 mm. peripherad ; it penetrates the stylohyoid muscle at its

*This trunk becomes the anastomotic branch to the glosso-pharyngeal and
the vagus uerves, the chorda tympani and the long root of the petrosal nerve.

1886.] 1^ [Stowell.

proximal third, and is distributed throughout the muscle ; it often com-
municates with the cervico- facial nerve about 10 mm. peripherad of its
origin. As it crosses the post-auricular artery it gives two or three fila-
ments to the sympalhic plexus around this blood-vessel.

Cephalic Division of the Nerve-Trunk. — As the common trunk emerges
cephalad from the foramen of exit, it lies dorsad of the stylo- mastoid
artery (a small twig from the post-auricular), and crosses the lateral border
of the post-auricular artery ; at the dorsal border of the artery the trunk
divides into the cervico-facial and the temporo-facial rami. (In some in-
stances this trunk seems to give origin to the stylohyoid nerve.)

N. cervico-facialis. — This is the cephalic and ventral ramus of the com-
mon trunk ; it is ectad of the carotid artery and the facial vein, entad ot
the submaxillary gland, and upon the ectal surface of the masseler
muscle. At the cephalic border of the submaxillary gland it divides into
three rami, the infra-maxillary, supra-maxillary and the buccal.

The first brancli of the cervico-facial trunk is given off at the origin of
this nerve ; it lies ectad of the carotid arterj^ and is directed dorsad and
laterad upon the ectal surface of the parotid gland ; about 12 mm. from its
origin, ectad of Stenon's duct, it bifurcates, each division again branching
into two or four ramuli and terminating in the dermal muscle ectad ot the
gland (Platysma myoides). A few filaments may be traced to the zygo-
matic muscles.

This branch receives a considerable accession from the temporo-facial
nerve near its origin ; some of the filaments seem to terminate in the sub-
stance of the parotid gland.

5-8 mm. peripherad of the origin of the cervico-facial nerve a second
fascicle is sent to the zygomatic muscles.

N. infra-maxillaris. — This is the ventral division of the cervico-facial
nerve ; it lies ectad of the facial artery and the facial vein ; 5 mm. periph-
erad of its origin it divides into several rarnuli which anastomose freely and
terminate upon the platysma. A large fascicle joins the superficial cer-
vical nerve from the cervical plexus.

N, supra-maxillaris. — This is the middle division of the cervicofacial
nerve. (It often arises as a branch of ihe buccal nerve, given off at the;
border of the orbicular muscle at the angle of the mouth ; its distribution
is constant.)

Its general course is toward the angle of the mouth ; it lies ectad of the
facial artery and vein ; it forms a dense plexus upon the ectal surface of
the ventral lip ; the ventral ramuli supply the muscle between the fora-
men mentale and the mandibular symphysis (M. depressor labii), and
anastomose with the mental branch of the mandibular division of the tri-
geminus nerve; .its filaments are also given to the orbicular muscle (M.
orbicularis oris).

N. buccalis is the dorsal branch of the cervico-facial nerve ; it gives
several anastomotic filaments to the infra orbital branch of the tempuro-
tacial nerve ; it joins the plexus at the angle of the mouth (Plexus labi-

Slowell.] 14: I^Nov. 5,

alis) ; a ramuscle is inflected around the angle of the mouth and anasto-
moses with the buccal branch of the mandibular division of the trigeminus ;
it reaches the following muscles : the buccinator, the orbicular, the 2;ygo-
matic, the risorius and the depressor anguli oris ; it continues mesad along
the dorsal lip between the superior coronary artery and the vein just
dorsad, and at the lateral border of the arteriale rete, just dorsad of the
canine tooth, the infra-orbital and the buccal nerves anastomose and form
a plexitorm swelling for 3-5 mm.; from this united nerve fibres diverge to
the levator muscles and to the muscles upon the nasal cartilage.

N. temporo-facialis. — This is the dorsal division of the cephalic trunk
as it crosses the post-auricular artery ;" it is considerably larger than the
cervical division (N. cervico-fiicialis); it lies ectad of the external carotid
artery, entad of the ventral lobe of the parotid gland and the adjacent
lymphatic gland, and upon the ectal surface of the masseter muscle.
Entad of the parotid gland, and 10 mm. peripherad of origin, it divides
into three rami — the ventral, or infra-orbital ; the middle, or malar ; and
the dorsal, or temporal (the malar and the temporal often remain in a
common sheath for 10-12 mm., forming the temporo-malar trunk).

N. infra-orbitalis. — This, the ventral division of the temporo-facial
nerve, emerges from the cephalic border of the parotid gland just dorsad
of Stenon's duct ; its course is arched toward the angle of the mouth,
about midway between Stenon's duct and the zygoma, and lies upon the
ectal surface of the masseter muscle ; it sustains anastomotic relations
with the malar nerve and the temporo-auricular division of the trigeminus
nerve. At the ventral border of the zygomatic muscle it gives anasto-
motic filaments to the cervico- facial nerve, as described ; it lies ectad of
the zygomatic muscles and dorsad of the superior coronary artery. At the
angle of the mouth it gives filaments to the dorsal part of the orbicular
muscle ; in its course along the dorsal lip it supplies the levator muscles,
the muscle at the base of the vibrissse and the muscles which move the
nasal carj;ilage ; it joins the buccal nerve to form the plexiform enlarge-
ment in the rete arteriale dorsad of the canine tooth, as already described
(v. N. buccalis).

N. malaris. — This is the middle and large division of the temporo-facial
nerve ; the central portion is covered by the parotid gland ; entad of the
gland it communicates freely with the temporo-auricular nerve. At the
dorsal border of the gland it is apposed to the cephalic temporal artery,
and continues along with the artery just caudad of the supra-orbital ridge
(the tension of the muscle will dispose the nerve cephalad or caudad of
the artery). The principal divisions of the nerve make a dense plexus
upon the ectal surface caudad of the supnt-orbital ridge ; the terminal
filaments are given to the occipito-frontal muscle over the frontal region
where they anastomose with filaments of the supraorbital nerve. At the
lateral angle of the eye, where a fascicle joins the supra-orbital, a slender
nerve is given off to the zygomatic muscles. The nerve trunk may be

1886.] 1^ [Stowell.

traced along the supra-orbital ridge to the mesa! angle of the eye, where
it joins the iulra-trochlear nerve.

N. temporalis. — The temporal branch of the tempore facial nerve lies
close to the basal cartilage of the ectal ear and entad of the parotid gland.
The central portion communicates with the temporo-auricular nerve and
sends filaments to the attrahens muscle.

At the dorsal border of the gland, and at the ventral border of the long
triangular cartilage which is directed meso-cephalad from the dorsal angle
of the ectal ear, and which is embedded in the occipitofrontal muscle, the
nerve divides ; one portion, passing ectad of the cartilage, is distributed
to the occipito-frontal muscle in the parietal region ; the other, passing
entad of the cartilage and along its ventral border, joins the supra-orbital
plexus already described.

N. post-auricularis. — This nerve emerges from the stylo-mastoid fora-
men, and takes its course dorsocaudad in a groove upon the ectal surface
of the mastoid process. The central 5 mm. form a loop around the post-
auricular artery, one division lying ectad and the other entad of the
vessel. These may be described as the auricular and the occipital
portions.

The auricular portion, at the peripheral end of the loop, lies apposed to
the ectal or caudal division of the artery,* and is distributed to the lateral
border of the occipito-frontal muscle. A ramulus from this nerve is given
to the retrahens muscle.

The occipital portion lies between the two branches of the post-auricular
artery and is distributed to the caudal part of the occipito-frontal muscle ;
it communicates with a branch of the minor occipital nerve (N. occipitalis
minor).

Hamuli to the Ectal Ear. — A ramulus from the auricular nerve is
directed toward the tip of the ear ; 10 mm. from its origin it gives otf 4-5
ramuli, which supply the dermal muscle of the latter half of the ectal ear
(probably the platysma); the nerve follows an arteriole around the caudal
and the dorsal borders of the ectal ear, and bending aroimd the cephalic
margin just distad of the attrahens muscle, it supplies a muscle (helicis
major?) upon the ental surface of the ear.

From the ental surface of the facial nerve at the stylo-mastoid foramen
a considerable fascicle is directed dorsad close to the proximal cartilage of
the ectal ear and entad of the auricular muscles ; it penetrates the carti-
lage and terminates in a muscle (helicis minor?) upon its ental surface
mesad of a projection from the ental surface of the ear near the external
meatus.

A third ramulus takes its orgin at the stylo-mastoid foramen ; it is ectad
of the post-auricular artery, and crosses the base of the second arteriole,
which is sent dorsad from the post-auricular ; it follows a small arterial
twig about 6-8 mm., when it perforates the auricular cartilage with the

^ The artery divides just periplierad of the loop.

Stowell.] It) ^ [Nov, 5.

arteriole, and terminates upon the thin muscle (anti-tragicus?) at the base
of the ear centrad of the folds which extend from the external meatus to
the marginal "pocket" of the ectal ear.

SUMMARY.
Anatomical.

Proximate Roots. — The dorsal root proceeds from the cerebellum
with the medipeduncle.

The cephalic root has one ental origin in the region of the floor of the
epicoele or the post-optici part of the mesocojle, and another in the cere-
bellum, whence it proceeds with the prepeduncle.

The caudal root originates in the caudal portion of the floor of the
metaccele.

Ectal Origin. — This is from the latero-cephalic border of tlie trape-
zium ; it is separated by an arteriole and a venule from the auditory-
nerve.

The Exit is by the meatus auditorius entalis, dorsad of the auditory
nerve, through the aqueductus fallopii, and emerges from the foramen
stylo-mastoideum.

Principal Ectocranial Divisions and their Distribution. —
Nervus digastricus is distributed to the musculus digastricus ; N. stylo-
hyoideus to M. stylo-hyoideus ; N. cervico-facialis to the MM. platysma,
orbicularis oris ventralis, depressor labii ventral is, depressor anguli oris,
risorius ; N. temporo-facialis to the MM. orbicularis oris dorsalis, buc-
cinator, zygomatici, levatores labii dorsalis, orbicularis palpebral, occipito-
frontalis, attrahens aurem ; N. auricularis to the MM. occipito-frontalis,
retrahens aurem, helicis major, helicis minor, antitragicus.

Communicating Rami.

Ento-cranial. — The facial nerve receives an accession just peripherad ot
the arteriole which separates it from the auditory ; this is probably the
intermediary nerve of Wrisberj^ or the root of the chorda-tympani (Sapo-
lini's thirteenth cranial nerve).

Inter-cranial. — The facial nerve communicates with the spheno-palatine
ganglion by the great superficial petrosal root of the vidian nerve ; with
the otic ganglion by the small superficial petrosal nerve ; with the sympa-
thetic plexus by the lateral petrosal nerve ; with the Gasserian ganglion
of the trigeminus by an anastomotic filament from the ramus at the angle
in the aqueduct ; with the petrosal ganglion of the glosso-pharyngeal by
a large fascicle from the geniculate ganglion ; with the jugular ganglion
of the vagus by the same fascicle ; with the lingual branch of the trigemi-
nus by the chorda tympani ; with the stapedius muscle by the tympanic
nerve ; with the tensor tympani by filaments from the small superficial
petrosal nerve.

Ecio-cranial. — The facial nerve communicates with the superficial cer-
vical nerve by the infra-maxillary branch ; with the mental nerve (man-
dibular division of the trigeminus) by the infra-maxillary ; with the

17

1886.] -•- ' [Stowell.

buccal nerve (trigeminus) by the buccal branch ; with the auriculo tem-
poral (tripcminus) by the infraorbital branch ; with the supraorbital
nerve (trigeminus) by the malar branch ; with the supra-orbital and
auriculo-tcmporal by the temporal branch ; with the great auricular nerve
(spinal) by the auricular branch ; with the small occipital nerve (spinal)
by the occipital branch.

There seems to be no anatomical relation between the facial nerve and
the masseter muscle, although the nerve ramuli make a complex network
over the ectal surface of the muscle.

Physiological.

The facial is the motor nerve of the face ; it excites contractility in the
muscles of the middle ear, the ectal car (except M. attolens aurem), the
cheeks, the scalp, the lips, the nostrils, the eyelids and the neck (pla-
tysma). Through the vidian nerve it modifies the movements of the
muscles which are controlled by ncms whose immediate origin is the
sphenopalatine ganglion. Its action upon the salivary glands through
the chorda-tympani is generally accepted ; further investigation may con-
firm Sapolini's theory that the choida-tympani controls speech. Its anas-
tomotic relations with the branches of the trigeminus suggest that much
of the motor function in structures supplied by that nerve may be referred
to the facial. It is intimately related with the glosso-pharyngeal and the
vagus nerves. Its relation to audition is unknown.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DIAGRAM.

The diagram is not drawn to a scale. No attempt has been made tO'
represent the nerves in perspective. To secure simplicity, it has been
necessary to change the relative proportions and directions of nerves
which intersect or lie in planes at considerable inclination

A., the accession from the auditorj' nerve, the intermediary nerve of
Wrisberg and root of the chorda-tympani (Sapolini) ; Ang., the angle in
the interosseous trunk ; Aniitr.?, the thin muscle upon theental surface of
the ectal ear, which has been provisionally identified as the antitragicus ;
Aq., the intercranial trunk in the aqueductus fallopii; Art., the twig from
the anterior cerebellar artery which separates the facial and the auditory
nerves at their ectal origins ; Attr., the filaments to the M. altrahens
aurem; Anr., the anastomotic branch of the petrosal ganglion of the
glosso-pharyngeal nerve and to the jugular ganglion of the vagus ; Au-
ricular, the auricular division of the post-auricular nerve ; Au)'. Ect., the
ectal ear ; Cerv., the anastomotic filament to the superficial cervical
nerve; Ch., the chorda tympani ; Cheek, filaments to the muscle ectad
of the parotid gland ; Crv. fac, the cervico- facial division of the facial
nerve ; Ctl., the position of the long triangular cartilage at the base of the
ectal ear; Dep., filaments to tlie M. depressor anguli oris ; Dep. lab., to
the M. depressor labii ventralis ; Dig., the digastric nerve ; Ento-cr., the
ento-cranial trunk ; Fm., the position of the small foramina in the carti-

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 125. C. PRINTED APRIL 28, 1887.

Stowell.] -*-" [Nov. 5, 1836.

lage of the ectal ear through which the nerves pass to the ental muscles ;
Fm. men., foramen raeutale ; Fin. St., foramen stylo-mastoideum, the fora-
men of exit of tlie facial nerve ; Oass , the anastomotic filament to the
caudo-lateral eminence upon the Gasserian ganglion ; Gen., the geniculate
ganglion ; Gl. 2')ar., the parotid gland ; Helic. inj., the helicis major muscle
^provisional) ; Helic. inr., the helicis minor muscle (provisional); Inf.
max., the infra-maxillary nerve ; Inf. tro., the infra-trochlear branch of
the trigeminus; J., ramus to the jugular ganglion; Jacob., Jacobson's
nerve ; Occip., the occipital branch of the post -auricular nerve ; Oceipito-
frontalis, filaments to the occipito-frontal muscle ; Occ. min., to the small
occipital nerve ; Orbic. oris, to the musculus orbicularis oris ; Orb. pal., to
the orbicularis palpebrarum ; P., ramus to the petrosal ganglion ; Pe. lab.,
the lateral petrosal branch to the sympathic plexus; Pe. maj., the short
root of the great superficial petrosal ; Pe. maj.', the long root of the
same; Fe. min., small superficial petrosal; PL, the plexus in the rete
arteriale dorsad of the canine tooth ; PI. lab., the plexus at the angle of
the mouth ; PI. sup. orb., the supra-orbital plexus ; Retrah., to the mus-
culus retrahens aurem ; Ris , to the risorius muscle; St. hy., the stylo-
hyoid nerve ; Sup. max., the supra-maxillary nerve ; Sup. orb., the supra-
orbital branch of the trigeminus nerve ; Sym., the filament to the sym-
pathic plexus around the artery ; Tmp. aur., the auriculo-temporal branch
of the mandibular division of the trigeminus; Tmp. fac, the temporo
facial division of the facial nerve ; Tym,., the tympanic branch to the
stapedius muscle ; Zyg., filaments to the zygomatic muscles.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The numbers in the text refer to the Bibliography of the Trigeminus
Nerve. See A. below.

A. Stowell, T. B. — The Trigeminus Nerve in the Domestic Cat {Felii

domestica). Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society,
Vol. XXIII, pp. 459-478, 1886.

B. Straus-Durckheim, Hercule. — Anatomic descriptive et comparative du

Chat, type des mammiferes en general, et des carnivores en par-
ticular. 2 vols. Pp. 1020. Folio atlas of 25 plates. Paris, 1845.

C. Williams, Henry S. — The Bones, Ligaments and Muscles of the Do-

mestic Cat. Pp. 86. Folio atlas of 13 plates. Copies, reduced one-
third, of the outline plates in Straus-Durckheim. Explanatory index.
New York, 1875.

D. Wilder, B. G.— The Names of the Encephalic Arteries. New York

Medical Journal, Nov. 28, 1885.

1Q

Jan. 7, 1887.1 [Vaux.

James R. Ludlow. By Richard Vaux.

{Read before the American Philosophical Society, January 7, 1S87.)

The American Philosophical Society in recording its tributes to the
memory of its deceased members is sensibly impressed by the reflection
that the propriety of their election to its membership had been signally
confirmed by the learning and attainments manifested in their life-work.

Knowledge is advancing to the circumference which bounds the human
mind. Science is laboriously engaged in finding out the reason of things.
Philosophy in the library is exercising its capacities, and elsewhere testing
ils ability to demonstrate them. Out of these sources our Society is filled
with vital force. Those who augment and increase its value are within
the compass of our commendation.

The preparation of this paper is the practical exemplification of this
axiom. It is dedicated to the memory of the Hon. James R. Ludlow.

On the 3d of May, 1825, in the City of Albany, in the State of New
York, James R. Ludlow was born. His father, the Rev. Dr. John Lud-
low, was a minister of the Old Dutch Reformed Church. This venerable
Society had an historical character. Its influence in the earlier days of
New York was marked, and much yet remains. The Dutch settlers of
that Province were earnest, sincere, sluggish, but patriotic people. The
Patroons were noted men in their time. The Van Rensselaer Manor was
historical. The Patroons, Van Rensselaer, even to a late period were
esteemed and respected in social circles.

The anti-rent excitement half a century ago, was evolved out of the re-
lations between these manors and the tenants.

The Rev. Dr. Ludlow w^as an educated, cultivated gentleman. He
was professor of languages in the Theological Department of the New
Brunswick, New Jersey, School of the Dutch Reformed Church.

In the year 1834 Dr. Ludlow came to Philadelphia and was elected
Provost of the University of Pennsylvania, in which post he served for
nearly twenty years.

When Dr. Ludlow came to this city, his son James entered the Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania and graduated with distinction in July, 1843.

He then became a student of law with the Hon. Wm. M. Meredith. It
may not be out of place to say of Mr. Meredith that he was one of the
ablest lawyers of this country. Well read in all branches of learning,
with a brilliant wit, his fame was the growth of inherent ability and mar-
velous culture. Without industry, he absorbed knowledge. His reading
was general, his memory phenomenal.

On the admission of James R. Ludlow to the bar on July 34, 1846, he
entered on the practice of his profession in this city. Earnest, faithful,
industrious, he began to establish a professional character that promised
success.

In 1850 he was appointed Assistant District Attorney of the United

Vaux.] ^^ [Jan. 7,

States and earned high repute for his conduct of some of the Government
cases. He learned rapidly the science of the law, and mastered its prac-
tical details.

In 1856 he was named as a candidate for the District Attorneyship of
Philadelphia. His reputation had grown, his professional standing was
assured.

In 1857 he was nominated for Judge of the Court of Common Pleas ot
Philadelphia County, and elected, and in November, 1857, took his seat
on the Bench. His term of ten years expired in 1867, and he was re-
elected.

By the Constitution of the State of Pennsylvania, which was amended
in the year 1873, the Courts of the County of Philadelphia were reorgan-
ized. By this organic law, four Courts of Common Pleas were established.
Each had a President Judge and two Associates. Judge Ludlow became
President Judge of Court of Common Pleas, No. 3.

In 1877 Judge Ludlow was again elected without opposition. He held
that position until his death. His judicial life began in 1857, and ended,
by his death, in 1886. Thirty years of judicial labor was the training he
received. He gained the respect and confidence of his fellow-citizens.
They appreciated his honesty, impartiality, his courage and his learning.

As a .ludge, his reputation was substantial. In the law and equity
sides of the Court he was admittedly a safe and conservative adminis-
trator of the high trust conferred on him. His conscientiousness was
proverbial. He possessed and developed tlie highest courage in the im-
partiality with which he adjudged the questions he was called upon to
determine. It may be said he died the victim of continuous, conscientious
labors. He investigated and examined, and came to his conclusions after
patient study of the law involved in the decisions of those cases, the
importance of which made severe demands on his time. He took nothing
for granted. He believed his duty required his best efforts, and was not
satisfied tiiat errors inconsiderately made might be possibly corrected in
a court of review.

It may be said of Judge Ludlow, that in dealing with the science of the
criminal law he became an authority in this counlr}\ His tastes led him
to study physiology and psychology. To facilitate his labor he attended
the lectures in the medical school of the University of Pennsylvania.
He therefore became well informed in medical science. In administer-
ing the criminal law, his opinions were regarded as a settlement of those
principles in which a knowledge of these sciences was necessarily in-
volved.

It became a professional fashion to plead insanity to indictments for
murder. Tlie first tentative efforts to introduce this defence seem. t^-. have
been so successful as to encourage its adoption. The Courts, lenning to
the doubt as to the mental condition of the accused when put in issue on
a trial, created a demand for medical evidence in support of this plea.

1887.1 -^J- [Vaux.

It became important to the administration of justice that a rigid en-
forcement of the law should be secured.

To relieve one guilty of murder from the just penalty of his crime, by
the interposition of a scheme to confess the act and avoid the conviction,
by the assertion that the accused was insane, needed to be subjected to
the test of scientific investigation. Medical experts who look up the
specialty of mind diseases made of it a sort of avocation.

There ought to be a significant distinction between an "expert " and a
"witness." This distinction is not always made in these trials. An
"expert" is almost always called as a witness, while his function as an
" expert " is to give merely professional opinions. Many of these experts,
•so called, were too ignorant to do more than cast suspicion on the value
of anj^ medical testimony. It was not long before the intelligent of both
professions became disgusted with this expert system of building up a
theory of want of mental responsibility for acts committed.

Judge Ludlow was one of the first of the Judges in Philadelphia to de-
feat the purpose for the use of these medical experts.

In the Commonwealth vs. Sayres, he laid down the principles which
should govern the investigation of insanity as a plea against a conviction
of murder. The Supreme Court of Pennsylvania confirmed Judge Lud-
low's law in this case.

His opinion in this case became recognized authority. Tlie Insane
Asylum at Utica, New York, published that opinion as canon law on this
subject.

The case of the Commonwealth vs. Taylor, 1884, was perhaps tlie most
important of all the cases which were subjected to judicial determination.
To those best informed as to the character of the prisoner, there was no
doubt of his entire responsibility for the crime of murder of which he was
convicted and afterwards hanged.

The insanity plea was fully discussed, and the Supreme Court on appeal
finally settled the law on this subject in the Commonwealth, by endors-
ing Judge Ludlow's opinion in Taylor's case. From that opinion we
make the following extract as indicating his views and asserting the law
as now settled :

" I do not intend to review the law as settled by our Supreme Court in
Sayres' Case, 7 Norris, 201, upon the subject of insanity.

"I tried that cause, and the charge then delivered was before the appel-
late tribunal. On the trial of this case I quoted from that charge freely,
and added the words contained at the end of the ninth reason for a new
trial of record.

" My object was to draw a line of distinction between what may be called
legal and medical insanity, between acts which an eccentric, angry, jeal-
ous, sentimental and revengeful man may do, when medically and scien-
tifically, in one sense, insane, and when by every legal test that man is a
■responsible being, and for the protection of society must be held so to be.

" It is quite possible for one to commit a violent act, when by reason of

Vaux.J ^^ [Jan. 7,

very many causes, his brain is not in a healthy condition, is in fact dis-
eased, lie knows the circumstances by which he is surrounded, is per-
fectly able to attend to his own affairs, distinguishes right from wrong,
and yet by reason of an unhealthy brain, is abnormally swayed by pas-
sion, sentiment and emotion, and in a fit of anger, jealousy or revenge,
kills another.

"When an expert, in answer to the question

" ' Suppose a case to arise, in which the diseased condition of the brain
produces jealousy, anger, or revenge ; is that man insane?' vVnswered,
Yes. I then remarked : 'That is the sort of insanity the Supreme Court
declares shall make a man responsible.'

"That opinion is yet entertained. If the expert had answered, 'Yes, it
satisfied that this diseased or unsound state of mind existed to such a de-
gree, that although he (the prisoner) could distinguish between right and
wrong, yet, with reference to the act in question, his reason, conscience
and judgment were so perverted as to render the commission of the act
in question a duty of overwhelming necessity,' we could then under-
stand the difference between an opinion based upon scientific metaphysics,
under cover of which every wicked man may be declared to be insane,
and a clear cut, well defined rule of law, which requires every man to be
a resijonsible agent, and adopts rules to test that responsibility, which
every one can understand and apply, and which will in practice rarely,
if ever, consign to the gallows a really insane man.

"It is hardly probable in this enlightened age tliat one whose insanity
is difficult of detection, and whose case may therefore be real, as well as
mysterious, will ever be unjustly punished. When courts and juries
deal with cases of insanity, they can and should only be governed by
plain principles, readilj'' applicable to facts as proved, and not indulge in
impracticable theories, often subtle, and to the ordinary mind incompre-
hensible, which lead to the acquittal of the guilty, and to the final de-
struction of that security which society demands."

It is fortunate for medical and legal science, that a check was imposed
on the vagaries of experts on mental disease.

The Closest and best informed student of mental phenomena must know
that it is impossible to establish and formulate any certain rules to make
a reliable diagnosis as to special mental maladies. Abnormal mental con-
ditions develop themselves to the recognition of educated and experienced
observation. Inherited traits, latent physical causes, morbid moral alien-
ations may express themselves in forms which indicate the existence ot
some irrational mental conditions. In such cases the theorist accepts a
conclusion of insanity. But under which of the terms used to describe
this disease it can be classified, is only to be known by the results of
practical personal observation of those familiar from long experience
with the various characteristics of these maladies. A theoretic opin-
ion is of little value. Mental disturbance may exist, and become
apparent under certain forms, to the expert, when if by long and close ob-

1887.] ^'J [Genth.

servation of those familiar with mental disease the responsibility of the
individual for acts cannot be doubted. When, therefore, it becomes a
question of the responsibility of a person for his acts, a theory is too often
misleading.

Judge Ludlow, in his opinion in Taylor's case, has drawn the dis-
tinction with the force of scientific truth when he says. Scientific meta-
physics, as applied to mind disease, may suggest medical insanity.
Whatever medical insanity may be, it is now clearly determined to be the
law in Pennsylvania that insanity to be a defence in murder must be de*
termined by legal principles. Responsibility for crime is now to be de-
termined by legal tests. Medical insanity resting on scientific metaphysics
may be accepted as authority by medical experts, but before the law, legal
insanity can only be recognized.

This enlightened and learned Judge, worn out by judicial labor, ended
his days on the 20th day of September, 1886, in the 62d year of his age,
with a high reputation, gained and earned in the thirty years of devotion
to tlie conscientious discharge of his high trust.

It is due to the character of James R. Ludlow, that the American
Philosophical Society should eni'oll his name among those of its members
who worthily obtained and richly merited by his life-work the honorable
distinction of its membership.

Contributions from the Chemical Laboratory of the
University of Pennsylvania.

No. XXIX.

CONTEIBUTIONS TO MmERALOGY.

By F. a. Genth.

(With one phototype plate and three wood-cuts.)
' Read before the American Philosophical Society, March ISth, 1SS7.)

I. On the occurrence op Tin Ores in Mexico.

The ores which are the subject of the following investigation were re-
ceived in January, 1885, from Mr. John L. Kleinschmidt of San Miguel
del Mesquital in the State of Zacatecas, Mexico,* to whom I am greatly in-
debted for this gift, and for highly interesting observations, regarding

* r have just learned from Mr. Kleinschmidt that he has returned toHillsboro',
Jefferson Co., Mo.

Genth.] -^4: [March 18,

their occurrence. They are all from the Sierra de Catatlan, in the State
of Durango, and comprise the following :

No. 1. Ore from Mina del Diablo. "Clace 1% Cristal."
" 2. " " " " " Clace 2».

" 3. " " " de San Antonio.
■" 4. Washings received from Mr. W. Schlemm.
" 5. Ore from Mina Varosa.
" 6. Stream tin ore, marked "Superior de Placer. "

The central body of the Sierra de Catatlan, in which the mines which
have furnished these ores are siluateil, consists of quartz-porphyry, which,
in some places, is traversed, in a net-like manner, by small veins of tin
ores. About one mile from the Mina del Diablo doleritic rocks occur.

Nos. 1 and 2. Tlio vein of the Mina del Diablo has been traced for
about one mile in length, it has a thickness of from eighteen inches to
two feet, is almost perpendicular, and perfectly separated from the
porphyry by argillaceous selvedges. It consists of a decomposed white
clayey material, containing druses of quartz with tin ores. In a pocket
was found a white clay in which crystals and crj'stalline aggregations
(No. 1), and also finer ore (No, 2), were intermixed. On wasliing, this
pocket yielded about 54 per cent of clean ore, the crystals and crystalline
aggregations were picked out from a large quantity of clay, and weighed
about C50 grms, yielding nearly 50 grms in well defined shape.

This occurrence is completely exhausted ; the deeper and harder por-
tions of the vein contain tin ores, but not any of these peculiar crj'^stals.
A qualitative examination of the crystals as well as of tl'e finer ores,
although different in form, showed the composition of mimelite, mixed
with more orlesscassiterite, small quantities of porphj^y, quartz, hematite,
clay, etc. Many interesting specimens of cassiterite, mostly of a red
variety, were picked out from the mimetite crystals and crystalline
aggregations ; they all showed such an unusual appearance that it was de-
sirable to obtain a larger quantity from the second-class ore. The finer
portion was separated by a sieve of 16 meshes to the square inch, and 500
grms. of the sifiings treated with hydrochloric acid until all the mimetite
was dissolved. The residue was treated with Thoulet's solution, which
gave in the heavier portion a little over 15 grams of cassiterite with a few
crystals of hematite, while the lighter consisted principally of quartz,
with little feldspar, fragments of porphyry, kaoline, etc.

A fuller description and analyses of the various minerals and varieties
from the Mina del Diablo will be given in the sequel.

No. 3. The San Antonio Mine has furnished in a seam, six inches in
thickness, a length of ten feet, and a height of eight feet, an ore in the
form of pulverulent or very friable, earthy yellowish masses, with darker,
somewhat more ferruginous streaks. There were only a few very small
particles of the red variety of cassiterite present, most of it being of a
yellowish color. A partial analysis gave :

1887.] ^^ [Genth.

SnOj

r=

31.27

Bi,0,

=

6.10

AsjOj

=

10.13

PbO

=

8.58

AiAl

Fe.A r

=

11.39

SiO^

=

14.20

ZnO, MgO, CaO,

by

difi.

=r

12.64

Ignition

=

5.69

Sb,0,

100.00
A portion of the ore, after washing off the lighter particles and remov-
ing the little friable lumps, which showed but a few pseudomorphous
crj^stals of mimctite composition, by a sieve of 16 meshes to the inch, a
yellowish sandy powder was obtained, which was analyzed. It was first
treated with dilute nitric acid for the determination of chlorine, and then
dissolved as far as possible in hydrochloric acid.

The solution contained :

01

=

0.070

SiO.,

=

1.235

P2O5

=

0.075

As^Os

=

14.290

Sb.,0,

—

0 263

SnO^

=

3.860

BiA

=

5.190

CuO

=

0.195

PbO

=

9.482

ZnO

=

3.940

Fe.p3

^

4.955

Al^O,

=r

7.630

MgO

r=

0.200

CaO

=

3.120

53.505

The insoluble contained :

Quartz

=

10 640

SnOj

=

19.300 =

0.129 =

16

As.,0,

=

1.844 =

0.008 =

1

Sb.,0,

^^

1.040

PbO

=

0.198

Fe,03

=

2.945

LA with traces of ZnO, BiA

MgO, CaO

=

3 208 =

39.175

Ignition

=

7.330 =

7.320

100.00

The ores from both mines are melted together with other tin ores, and
yield a crude metal, which, after some purification, furnishes a tin, very

PUOC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 125. D. PRINTED APRIL 28, 1887.

Genth.] -"t) [March 18,

well adapted for soldering, notwithstanding the considerable quantities of
lead and arsenic which it contains.

No. 4. The washings from the Catatlan mountains, which Mr. Klein-
schmidt received from Mr. W. Schlemm, are highly interesting. They
consist of a fine sand, the particles rarely over 1™™ in size.

There were no lead ores present, but cassiterite, mostly in the red
variety, but also minute quantities of the yellow, interesting forms of
hematite and alterations of the same, a few crystals of topaz, many
minute crystals of durangite, quartz, etc.

No. 5. The ores from Mina Varosa are exclusively ot the yellow va-
riety.

No. 6. The Placer ores are both of the red and yellow varieties, the
former largely predominating, also pieces showing bands of the yellow
alternating with a brown variety.

For comparison several other varieties of Mexican cassiterite were ex-
amined which were kindly presented by Messrs. Clarence S. Bement,
Joseph Wharton, Prof. Carlos F. de Landero, and Dr. Joseph Leidy, to
all of whom I am greatly indebted for their liberality ; I am also under
great obligations to Professors Gerhard vom Rath and George A. Koenig,
for generous aid rendered in the preparation of this paper.

1. Cassiterite.

As already indicated, cassiterite occurs in Mexico principally in two
varieties, the most abundant ot which has a red color, while the other is
yellow.

a. Red variety. — Occurs in various shades of red, from bright hyacinth
red, brick-red to brownish red, to brown and brownish-black. The pow-
der is from pale to brownish brick-red. The general appearance of the
red cassiterite proves that the dioxide of tin was in solution from which it
has been deposited upon whatever substances it came in contact with, so
that numerous imitative shapes were produced. Thus, we find it as in-
crustations in plate like masses which formed upon quartz or porphyry,
or in reniform, mammillary, or botryoidal aggregations, frequently in per-
fect stalactites, which are sometimes not over 0.5™"" in length, often hol-
low, radiating from the centre, often in forms resembling sponges, roots,
clubs, &c. ; sometimes granular and compact, especially larger masses,
which closely resemble compact hematite, towards the exterior frequently
assuming a fibrous structure which may end in distinguishable crystals.
The outside of the stalactites is frequently covered with exceedingly mi-
nute crystals which, however, are so small and irregular that their forni
can only be determined in very few cases without a microscope. Some
microscopic groups of crystals obtained from the Ore No. 2 from Mina del
Diablo, most of them not over 1™™ in size, are composed of an aggregation
of apparently hexagonal plates of a bright hyacinth-red color with rounded

1887.J ^* [Genth._

edges, some show flat hexagonal prisms, upon quartz or porphyry, a few
also are groups of minute hematite crystals, together with those of hyacinth-
red cassiterite. The most remarkable and only specimen which is large
enough to distinguish its form with the naked eye came from the pseudo-
morphs of mimetite composition of the Minadel Diablo.

It is a little group of T™"" X 5™™ in size, composed of dark hyacinth red
crystals. There may be ten or more little crystals present, but only a
few are perfect enough to show the form, but even these have somewhat
curved faces and are not smooth enough and are too much interrupted
to allow of an accurate measurement. They are slightly barrel-shaped,
apparently hexagonal prisms with hexagonal pyramid and basal plane ;
the largest is 3™™ high and of about the same diameter.

The specific gravity of the group was found to be = 6.49G, which is evi-
dently too low, probably on account of the presence of a nucleus of quartz
or porphyry around which the crystals may have formed.

The question presented itself, whether the observed forms were really
hexagonal, in which case the dioxide of tin would be dimorphous, or,
whether they were resulting from the twinning of tetragonal forms. In
order to obtain a conclusive answer, I submitted this group, and also
crystalline sands from the washings, received from Mr. Schlenim, to Prof.
Gerhard vom Ratli, in Bonn.

I am greatly indebted to him for his aid in this matter, which was ex-
ceedingly difficult to determine on account of the great minuteness of
these crystals, so that only one of so much experience and perseverance as
he has could attempt to solve this important question.

He found nearly 135° for the angle made by the apparent basal plane
and face of the hexagonal pyramid, which closely corresponds to the
angle produced by the first and second tetragonal pyramids of cassiterite.
For one prismatic edge he found 112^^ (must be 120° in the hexagonal
system), and this angle, too, is the ordinary angle of the geniculated edge
of cassiterite twins. Furthermore, he was enabled to pick out crystals
from Mr. Schlemm's sands, with which approximate measurements of the
angles between the basal plane and the six planes of the apparent hexagonal
pyramid could be made, which gave : 134° 10', 135° 15', 135°, 134°, 135°,
and 134p, in agreement with the above measurements, as closely as could
be expected.

He writes in his last note, under date of October 26th, 1886, referring to
the small group of crystals : " You may consider the determination as
quadratic beyond question, assuming an hexagonal habitus by repeated
twinning."

The twin combination resembles figure 163, page 159, in J. D. Dana's
"Mineralogy," 1868. I am indebted to Dr. Kcenig for the accompanying
drawing, illustrating my group of crystals :

Besides the localities mentioned, I have received the red cassiterite from
Coneto, in the State of Durango, Comanja and Paso de Sotos, in the

Qenth.]

28

[March 18,

State of Jalisco. Professor 6. vom Rath, in his " Geologische Brlefe
SCALT T' / ^"^ Amerika" (Sitzungsberichte der

Niederrheinischen Gesellschaft fiir
Natur und Heilkunde in Bonn, July
7th, 1884), mentions it as woodtin,
implanted in red porphyry in the
Valle San Francisco, San Luis Po-
tosi, also between Sta Rosa and La
Fragua, in Gnanaxuato, and at Sain
Alto and several other localities in
the Sierra Zacatecaua.

The following analyses of the red
variety were made : *

1. Bright brick-red, fine granular,
somewhat reniform, the surface assu-
ming slightly fibrous crystalline ap-
pearance. Durango ; from my Cabi-
net, 1, a and b.
3. Reniform, curved lamellar, the laminse from 0.1 to 1°"" in thick-
ness, separate on breaking with smooth surface slightly granular, brick-
red; powder bright brick red. Coneto, State of Durango; from Mr.
Joseph Wharton, XL

3. Large pebble, somewhat granular, of the appearance of compact
hematite, powder brick red. Durango ; from Mr. Clarence S. Bement, III,

4. A mass which had deposited as an incrustation upon quartz or a
siliceous rock, of a thickness of 20"""", with fine crystalline fibrous structure,
being flat on the bottom and reniform on the surface. Dark brown, a fresh
fracture reddish brown, powder brownish brick-red, Coneto, Slate of
Durango ; from Mr. Joseph Wharton, 17.

5. Stalactitic, granular, the surface covered with minute crystals, color
and powder bright brick-red. Minute crystals of hematite were implanted
which were separated by a magnet (this hematite being slightly magnetic) ;
from the ores No. 1 of Mina del Diablo, V.

6. Botryoidal, dark brown, on fracture paler reddish-brown, with a
slightly fibrous structure ; color of powder terra cotta ; from Guanajuato,
State of Guanajuato, from Mr. Clarence S. Bement, IV.

* Artificial Pj/rite—ln the analj'sis it was found to bs most convenient to render the
cassiterite soluble by fusing with a mixture of sodium carbonate and sulphur, at first
at a very low temperature, and then for about ten minutes at low red heat. There was
rarely more than a few milligrams of cassiterite left unacted upon which yielded readily
to a second fusion. Thus all the tin and arsenic, and the greater part of the iron dis-
solved in water as sulpho-salts of sodium. In two instances in Analyses III and V b, I
was interrupted in my work and the fusion at a low temperature was continued for five
or six hours. When the mass was treated with water it dissolved with a yellowish-red
color without dark green tint, and the washings also did not indicate that any iron so-
dium sulphide had gone in solution. Ths insoluble residue, however, showed the iron
in the form of octahedral crystals or clusters of crystals of pale brass-yellow pyri.te.

18«7.| ^"^ [Genth.

I.

II.

III.

IV. V.

VI.

a b

a b

Sp. Gr.

= 6.820 —

6.591 —

6.911 —

6.535 — 6.714 — 6.712

— 6.581

SnOs

-- 92.5 J — 92.84 —

93.98 —

93.01 —

92.09 — 86.99 — 80.81

— 92.26

FejOs

= 4.18 — 4.12 —

5.62 —

5.S2 —

5.45 — 11.56 — 12.73

— 4.58

As,0»

= trace — trace —

—

—

2.11 — trace —

— 1.25

CuO

= — trace —

—

0.07 —

0.11

— trace

ZnO
SiOj

1) 'V

= lost — 12.70 —

0.23 —

1.07 —

0.66 - 0.57 — 0.52

— 0.44

Ignition

= 0.38 - 0.34 —

0.21 —

0.27 —

0.07 — 0.20 — (I..34

— 0.2(i

100.00 — 100.07 — 100.21 — 100.38 — 99.43 — 100.40 — 99.36

6. Yellow variety . — It occurs like the red in imitative shapes, and evi-
dently liiisbeen formed under similar conditions.

The color is from a pale brownish- yellow, honey yellow to a reddish brown,
sometimes greenish-yellow, variegated in bands of paler and darker colors.
Globular, reniform, frequently ctirved lamellar, in many cases the laminae
readily separating. Several of the reniform masses from 25 to 35™™ in
size are really stalactites whicli have formed upon some unknown irregu-
larly shaped substance which has weathered out, leaving a cavity, others
are fiat and have deposited upon quartz, of which some remnants may
often be seen. Fibrous, radiating.

The most interesting and apparently purest specimens came from Mina
Varosa ; it is also associated with the red varietj' in the Placer ores No.
6, rarely in microscopic botryoidal concretions in the sand from Mr.
Schlemm, and also in the ores of the San Antonio mine, forming about
one-fifih of the whole mass.

The following analyses have been made :

1. Globular, radi.iting from the centre ;;j[powder cream color. Mina Va-
rosa, State of Durango, VII, a and b.

2. Reniform and lamellar, concentrically fibrous ; powder cream color.
Mina Varosa, VIII.

3. Flat, brownish-yellow, banded, fibrous, radiating, powder dark cream
color ; from the Placer ores No. 6, IX.

4. Laminated, reniform, fibrous, brownish-yellow ; powder brownish
cream color ; from Dr. Joseph Leidy,^X.

VII. VIII. IX. X.

a

b

8p. Gr.

—

6.160

—

6.219

— 6.509

— 6.199

—

6.496

SnOj

=

84.20

—

84.30

— 92.50

— 89.90

—

93 13

Fe,03

=:

1.31

—

1.55

— 0.22

— 0.10

—

0.20

As^Oj

=^

9.85

—

10.34

— 4.56

— 5.80

—

3.18

CuO

=

trace

—

trace

— 0.16

— 0.20

—

0.09

ZnO

=

3.05

—

2.9a

— 1.89

— 2.43

—

271

SiOj

=

0.35

—

0.30

— 0.24

— 0.55

—

0.43

Ignition

^^^

0.39

~~'

0.57

— 0.26

— 0.40

—

0.33

99.15

100.02

— 99.83

— 99.38

100. oe

■Genth.] '^^ [March 18,

The analysis of the heavier portion of the ore from the San Antonio
mine shows 3.86 per cent of dioxide of tin which went into solution by
treating the same with chlorliydric acid. As cassiterite is not acted upon
by acids, it is difficult to perceive in which form this tin existed. Dissolv-
ing in the presence of a neutral solution of auric chloride gave not a trace
of reduced gold, therefore neither tin nor arsenic were in the form of the
lower oxides.

There is a sufficient amount of arsenic pentoxide present to combine
with all the bases ; the lead is evidently in the form of mimetite of which
the calculated percentage would be 13.58 per cent, the zinc is probably
there as adamite, and the amount of zinc oxide found would give 6.96 per
cent of this mineral ; noarsenateof bismuth has yet been distinguished as a
mineral, but there can be no doubt that the bismuth in the San Antonio
ore is present as Bi^Og, AsjOj, H2O, the salt which Salkowski has first de-
scribed and analyzed (Journ. fiir Praktische Chemie, 104, p. 172), the bis-
muth oxide found would give 7.94 per cent of the hydrous arsenate.

The insoluble portion of the San Antonio ore contains 19.300 per cent
of SnO^ and 1.844 per cent of arsenic pentoxide. The atomic ratio be-
tween these would be = 16 : 1. To this I shall refer again further on.

The different varieties of cassiterite show a considerable variation in
their speciflc gravity which, in part, is probably owing to cavities pro-
duced in the process of their formation. The arsenical varieties have all
a lower specific gravity.

The analyses show that the red varieties are dioxide of tin, contaminated
with ferric oxide, and only exceptionally containing an appreciable quan-
tity of arsenic pentoxide, while the yellow varieties contain very little
ferric oxide, but a far higher percentage of arsenic pentoxide and also in-
variably an admixture of zinc oxide.

It is difficult to perceive how these c(mstituents in such variable quan-
tities could be present in apparently perfectly pure and often highly crys-
talline minerals.

Excepting analysis V, in which the ferric oxide is double the amount of
the average of the other analyses of the red varieties, which may be
owing to the fact that the little crystals of hematite which have been
observed being only slightly magnetic, were not completely separated by the
magnet, they give the atomic ratio between Fefi^ : SnO.^ = 1:9 and 1 :
12. Although the ferric oxide cannot be extracted from the stannic oxide
by chlorliydric acid, I cannot favor the idea of a definite compound ex-
isting between these oxides, and consider them only as mechanical mix-
tures. The high percentage of arsenic pentoxide, especially in the appa-
rently purest and highly crystalline globular variety from Mina Varosa,
and the constant presence of zinc oxide are very surprising. It suggests
the idea that there might be a zi)ic salt of one of the complex inorganic
acids consisting of tin dioxide with arsenic pentoxide. A calculation of
the molecular ratios of these constituents gave for :

: 13

0.84

: 16

: ?

: 24

1.2

: 31

: 1.1

: 44

: 2.36

: 68

: 123

: 1.4

1887.] 'jl- [Genth

Analysis VII— As,©^ : SnO, : ZqO
" of San Antonio ore,

IX— AsjOj : SnO, : ZnO
VIII— "
X— "
IV_ -

VI— "

This shows no rational proportions in the constituents of the cassiterite,
and there is no other conclusion than that both arsenic pentoxide, ferric
oxide and zinc oxide are admixtures of the tin dioxide, which is easily ex-
plained, if we bear in mind the tendency of this latter substance which at
the time of its formation, precipitated and retained these oxides.

c. Cassiterite, pseudomorpJious after Jiematite. — It has already been stated
that little red crystals of cassiterite are sometimes found associated with
those of hematite. From the sands of Mr. Schlemm a few highly inter-
esting, but unfortunately very small specimens were obtained.

One, about 1""" in size, consists of perhaps a dozen modified crystals of
hematite, with the basal plane predominating, in which latter twin groups
of pseudohexagonal red cassiterite are implanted ; the occurrence reminds
one of rutil which frequently occurs in a similar manner upon the hema-
tite (Eisenrose) from St. Gothard.

Another specimen consists of a group of tabular crystals, radiating from
a centre, the whole group 3""" in diameter, which is almost completely
altered into reddish-brown brilliant cassiterite, leaving a small core of
about 0.5™" in size of unaltered hematite. About ten other pieces of the
same kind, although far less perfect, have been observed.

d. Cassiterite, pseudomorpJious after magnetite ? — A little group of
crystals from the ores of the Mina del Diablo — 5 X 3°"° in size,
consists of crystals which are apparently isometric octahedrons, together
with some botiyoidal aggregations. The crystals are almost black,
but mostly show an uneven surface, a color between brownish-yellow
and yellowish-green and a waxy lustre, owing to a subsequent coating
of reniform, botryoidal cassiterite upon the crystals. A fracture of the
crystals shows the dark brownish-red color and lustre of the red cassiterite.
The original mineral may have been magnetite. Only three of such
minute groups have been found.

Of great interest in connection with these pseudomorphous forms of cas-
siterite are the observations of Mr. Wm. Semmons (published in London
in the December number, 1883, of the Natural History Notes), who de-
scribes the coating of bismuthinite (BijSj) at the Fowey Consols Mine of
Cornwall with thin layers of brownish cassiterite. In a letter dated Lon-
don, August 19th, 1886, Mr. Semmons gives me fuller details about this
occurrence as follows :

Genth.] ^-^ [March 18,

"The bismuthine (bismuthinite Dana) in this mine is found :

"1. As brilliant untarnished crystals.

" 2. Crystals with a slight deposit of cassiterite on them.

"3. With the cassiterite coating the bismuthine in concentric layers,
wood tin.

"All wood tin, the bismuthine having been carried away.

"You doubtless are familiar with the remarkable pseudomorphs of cas-
" siterite after quartz which received for a short time the name of stannite
"or silicate of tin from the late John Garby," &c., &c.

I should mention also the very interesting observation of microscopic
crystals of cassiterite in the black zincblende of Freiberg, Saxony, de-
scribed by Dr. A. W. Stelzner, and Dr. A. Schertel (Jahrbuch fiirBergund
Hiittenwescn im Kouigreich Sachsen auf das Jahr, 1886). The cassiterite
in the variety "Nadelzinnerz" occurs associated with quartz crystals and
sometimes implanted in the same, in minute and microscopic crystals and
groups of crystals. Most of the forms are simple combinations of prisms
and pyramids, and have no resemblance with the Mexican specimens.
The whole occurrence indicates a simultaneous formation of the zinc-
blende and cassiterite.

S. Hematite.

Both localities, the Mina del Diablo, and that in the Catatlan mountains
from whicli the sands of Mr. Schlemm were obtained, furnished minute,
sometimes very perfect, crystals of hematite, occasionally grouped in the
form of "eisenrose." The crystals trom Mina del Diablo are larger, at
times from 2 to 3""" in diameter and have the basal plane oR more fully
developed.

The crystals from the sands of Mr. Schlemm are very minute, and I am
indebted to Prof G. vom Rath for the following information :*

Contrary to the general rule these very minute crystals, from 0.2r> to
1"™ in size show a holohedral development with the second hexagonal
prism a;P2, striated parallel to the basal edge, prominent. The second
pyramid §P2 (~ in Miller's mineralogy, ~ ; oR = 137° 49') dominates the
polar development of these crystals. As combinations appear a more
acute second pyramid f P 2 (n in Miller, n : oR = 118° 53'). R and
— ^R. oR appears from a mere point to a relatively large extension.
Iroublack, powder brownish red ; sliahtly magnetic.

As already mentioned under cassiterite, that hematite is sometimes
found in part or wholly altered into cassiterite.

* I have sent to Prof, vom Rath the crystals of hematite, above referred to,
also the peculiar psendomorphous crystals with mimelite composition and the
first specimens which I had received of the vanadinite and descloizite Irom
Oracle, In Arizona. He has taken such an interes^t in these occurrences that
he communicated the results of his in vestigations to the " Niederrlieinische Ge-
sellschait fUr Natnr und Heilkunde zu Bonn," at the meeting of January ILth,
1886, which have been published by this Society. In the following pages I shall
refer to these communications, as 1. c.

Prflceemngs of tue Aier. PMlos. Soc.

Vol. niv, No. 125.

. lis— ,-*4/-«»Mfc^ ^

=-!f"^

««^^'

IMimetite Psetadomorplns.

Magnified two diameters.

1887,] *^^ [Genth.

3. Mimed/e and Pscudomorphs of Mimetite after Anglesite ?

The greater portion of the ores Nos. 1 and' 2 from the Mina del Diablo
consists of crystals and crystalline aggregations of a white or yellowish-
■white mineral, rough to the toucli, somewhat earthy in appearance, with a
Blight resinous lustre on a fresh fracture. These crystals have been picked
out from a great mass of clay and are a great rarit}', and even the crystal-
line aggregations, which occurred in somewhat larger quantities, are com-
pletely exiiausted. At tlie ]\Iina de San Antonio, a few but far less per-
fect crystals have been observed.

a. Mimetite. — Small fragments of finely granular, frequently cavernous
concretions, the surf ice of which is coated with microscopic coloiless crys-
tals, have been found among the above mentioned ores Nos. 1 and 3. Simi-
lar crystalline coatings are sometimes observed upon the crystals, especially
when in groups, which were better protected against corroding influences,
and it is most likely that the whole mass of the pseudomorphous crystals
consists of an accumulation of such microscopic crystals, so small, how-
ever, that a fracture would show only a compact mineral with a slightly
waxy lustre. Cavities of the pseudomorphous crystals are also someiimes
lined with colorless microscopic crystals. It was very difficult to ol)serve
any distinct forms ; when magnified 60 diameters many hexagonal planes
were seen, but only one crystal was observed which showed a short hex-
agonal prism, with a seccjud hexagonal prism, a pyramid and basal plane.
Several others were found of the same form without the second hexagonal
prism. These crystals have a vitreous lustre and aie undoubtedly mime-
tite.

b. Pieudomorphs of Mimetite after Anrjlcsite? — The great bulk of the
ore, however, is entirely diflerent and consists of pseudomorphs which
have appirently a rhoml)ic form while their composition is that of mime-
tite. Tiiey are associated with stalacliticor bolryoidal red cnssilerite often
in isolated crystals with all planes fully developed, upon it, or in crys-
talline groups or incrusting the same. Tlie whole occurrence shows the
more recent oricin of the mimetite pseudomorphs.

Isolated crystals are rare, they are often cavernous and generally ar-
ranged in reticulated and skeleton like groups. On a most excellent
phototype plate by Mr. Frederick Gutekunst, I have given a few of the
forms magnified two diameters which show best this peculiar arrange-
ment : ta, 2a, and oa are the reverse of 1, 2, and 3.

Measurements of the best isolated crystals gave angles which suggested
the idea that the original mineral was anglesite.

I have submitted these crystals and aggregations to Prof G. vom Rath,
who had the kindness to make the following measurements, which,
together with his conclusions, he communicated, 1. c. On account of
roughness and imperfection of the surfaces of the crystals only api')rox-
imate measurements were possible, which were made with the help of
attached glass plates.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIT. 125. E. PRINTED APRIL 28, 1887.

Genth.]

34

[March 18,

Considering the crystals as a combination of a macrodome d with a
brachydome o, the approximately measured angles d : d in axis c = 101°
30' and 102° 30' and o : o in axis a = 103O 30', 104O 3G' and 105° 30', a
form which is very close to that of anglesite, if we compare d with ^ Poo
(lOlo 13') and o with Poo (104° 24').

Fig. 9.

Prof, vom Rath is opposed to this view ; he would look upon it favor-
ably if only isolated crystals had been observed, but would consider it
very strange to find the skeleton-like formation and the reticulated ar-
rangement of the aggregations in anglesite. He suggests that the primitive
mineral might have been reticulated galenite, and he has been supported
in this view by the late Prof. Websky, Prof. Descloizeaux and Dr. Hintze.
Considering galenite as the primitive mineral, the apparently rhombic
forms of these pseudomorphs would be distortions or irregular hemihe-
dries of isometric forms, as it is well known how frequently galenite oc-
curs in forms which have not the habitus of isometric crystals.

However, he was not able to reduce these oblongoctachedrons to nor-
mal planes of galenite, and notwithstanding the important opinions sus-
taining his views, Prof, vom Rath does not feel satisfied and expresses his
manifest doubts by suggesting that, these forms might be pseudomorphs
after a yet unknown rhombic mineral, having a tendency to occur in
skeleton-like aggregations.

I have examined the reticulated galenite specimens in Mr. Clarence S.
Bement's magnificent cabinet, but could not satisfy myself that the pseu-
domorphs under consideration could have resulted from such forms of
galenite.

Reticulated galenite is of a rather rare occurrence, and such forms
would not be known, if the few localities where it has been found would
not furnish it. That anglesite has not been observed in such forms before,
does not prove the non-existence of the same.

A suite of these pseudomorphous forms was sent by me to the Imperial

1887.]

35

[Genth.

Mineral Cabinet in Vienna, and at my request, to give me his opinion. Dr.
Aristides Brezina wrote me under date, Vienna, July 31, 1886 :

" The pseudomorphs are evidently after mendipite* and permit to de-
termine the heretofore incomplete elements of this mineral with a fair ap-
proximation :

m : m' =: 77° 19', mean of four measurements with the

hand goniometer — mendipit measured 77° 24'.
d : d' ^ 102° 23', mean of four measurements with the

hand goniometer —
from which it follows that the elements are rhombic,
a :b:c =0.8002:1 : 0.9948 (i =0.8044) ifm = (110);
d = (101).

" At the same time the pseudotetragonal character is

peculiar ; the difference of the parameters b and c lies

within the errors of observation, but the habitus of the

crystals speaks for the rhombic system."

I thought it best to give these different views, trusting

Fig. 10. that the future may furnish, by the discovery of the

unaltered mineral, together with the pseudomorphs, the true explanation

of this doubtful subject.

The analysis of these pseudomorphs shows them to be mimetite in
which a small quantity of the lead is substituted by calcium. Even the
purest have an admixture of clay, containing a minute quantity of
dioxide of tin.

Analyses 1 and 2 were made by myself with material selected from the
best crystals and apparently quite pure, 3 and 4 were made by Mr. Harry
F. Keller, with apparently pure crystals.

1

2

3

4

Spec. Grav.

=

6.636

— 6.611

—

—

CI

=

2.47

— 2.38

—

2.43

— 2.43

PbO

=

71.40

— 71.27

—

70.63

— 70.56

CaO

=

0.57

— 0.34

—

not determined

AsjOj

=

24.97

— 24.58

—

24.82

— 24.57

P2O5

=

0.05

— not det'd

—

0.09

— not det'd

Clay with trace of SnO.^

=

0.65

— 0.85

—

1.44

— 1.89

Ignition

0.37

— 0.47

0.60

— 0.49

100.48

— 99.89

100.01

— 99.94

Less 0, equivalent to CI

^

0.56

— 0.53

0.55

— 0.55

99.92

— 99.36

99.46

— 99.39

* I have just received a letter from Dr. A. Brezina, dated : Wien, Aphl 7, 1887, in
which he admits it as an oversight to have considered the mimetite pseudomorphs as
being after mevdipite, and states that there is now nothing to prevent the acceptance of
my original views that the primitive mineral was anglesite. F. A. GENTH.

University of Pennsylvania, April 20, 1887.

Genth.] «^" [March 18,

II. Vanadinite and Descloizite,

a. Mr. Cliarles R. Fletcher, of Boston, formerly Superintendent of the
Mammoth Gold mine, ne.ar Oracle, Pinal county, Arizona, sent me .about
two years iigo a liiirlily interesting and fine variety of vanadinite and des-
cloizite and sulipociuently, from a new occurrence, he presented me with a
number of magnificent specimens of tlie same minerals, which, as for
vanadiniic. are some of the finest which I have seen, for all of which I am
greatly indebted to him.

Of the first lot received I sent a small piece to Prof. G. Tom Il'Uli, who
describes it [1. c.) as being composed of barrel shaped crystals with a
brown nucleus, surrounded by a yellow coating of very fine aggregations
of more recent growth, the druses and surfaces covered with exceedingly
minute crystals of descloizite.

The vanadinite from Ibis mine occurs upon quartz in crystals, varying
in size from 0.1"™ to 8™™ in length, the smallest crj'slals are of a yellow
color, whi« h changes with their size incntasing to an orange yellow, orange
red, aurora red to a brownish-red, often variegated. Perfect isolated crystals
are rare and generally small, they are mostly united to clusters and crys-
talline coalings upon the quartz; the crystals are often very much dis-
torted and eav(;rnous. The forms which I have been able to distinguish
are the hexagonal prism with pyramid and basal plane, the latter fre-
quently very .«-mall or entirely wanting.

Calcite sometiines surrounds the vanadinite and is again covered by
vanadinite crystals.

b. A brownish-black and black descloizite from this locality covers in
form of H cryst.alline coaling in minute rhombic pyramids the rcddish-white
massive gold quartz, or is united to clusters of microscopic crystals upon
and between the crystallized quartz. Upon these coatings of descloizite
are the crystals of vanadinite, whicii again are covered with exceedingly
minute crystals of descloizite. The yellow crystalline coating upon the
brown nucleus, mentioned by vom Raih has often 7io nucleus of vanadin-
ite, it is dull and of a yellow color Ihronghout the mass of the hexago-
nal barrel sliaped crystals. Mr. fl. F. Keller, who analyzed the brown
and tiie bri-lit orange red crystals from this locality (a, 1 and 2) found that
the yellow mineral contains no chlorine. It is very probable therefore
that the dull yellow crystals are pseudomorphs of descloizite after vana-
dinite.

Not enough of the descloizite could be obtained for analysis, qualitative
tests however gave lead, zinc and traces of copper and manganese oxides
with vanadium penloxide.

c. A ]ieciiliar variety of vanadinite, much resembling pyromorphife, has
been noticed in Yavapai county, Arizona, by Mr. J. C. Cooper, of To-
peka, Kansas, who has sent specimens to the East. Mr. Clarence S.
Bement kindly prcsenled to me one, of which I have made the analysis

1887.] *'• ,[aenth.

given below (c). The crystals occur as a coating upon porous quartz, are
barrel shaped prisms with basal i)1ane, from very minute to not over 4°™
in size. Their coh)r is from pale green to brownish olive green, small
fragments are pale grayish green.

d. Mr. J. C. Cooper presented to me a small fragment of another variety
from tlie same couniy. The crystals, not over 1"°^ in size, are of brownish-
red color, short liexagonal prisms with basal plane, on some a pyramid i3
slightly indicated. They cover a dark brown quartz. In some places is
a very minute crystalline black coating upon the quartz, which may be
descloizile.

e. A ver}' interesting variety of a vanadate, which appears to be vanadi-
nite, has been observed by Mr. J. C. Cooper, at tlie McGregor mine. Grant
counlj'. New Mexico. The specimen, for which I am ind^bled to liim, con-
sists of an impure, friable, earthy hematite, which is coated with crystal-
lized calcito, frequently enveloping stalactites of the vanadium mineral,
which is again covered by finely crystalline calcite. After removing the
calcite by dilute acetic acid, the orange-yellow and orange-red stalactites
remain. Tliey are from 3 to 5""" in length, and up to about 1°^ thick.
When magniried GO diameters, they show a core of some other mineral
surrounded by scaly crystals of the vanadium mineral, the f )rm of which
could not be made out. A qualitative analysis showed lead oxide, vana-
dium pentoxide, and chlorine as the principal constituents, hence the con-
clusion that it may be vanadiuile.

f. Prof. Albert H. Chester, of Hamilton College, N. Y., presented to
me a few fragments of a j'ellow ferruginous quartz with a pale brownish
crystalline coating, which appears to be descloizite, and upon it vanadinite
in very niinute crystals mixed with larger ones from 5 to G™" in length,
and 0.5 to 1.5""" in thickness, from Bald Mountain mine, Beaverhead Co.,
Montana. These crystals are hexagonal prisms with basal plane, some
slightly barrel shaped, the greater portion of the crystals is of a dark
greenish brownish color, their ends capped with almost transparent ter-
minations.

g. In his Re-examinatlon of American minerals. Am. Journ. Sc. [2], xx,
246, J. Lawrence Smith gives a description of vanadate of lead (descloi-
zite?) from the Wheatley mines near Phoenixville, Pa., and an analysis of
the same. He had only very imjiure material, mixed with a large percent-
age of wulfenite, etc., for examination, so that with the imperfect knowl-
edge which we then (1855) had of descloizite, he expressed his doubt
whether it was this species. I have examined a specimen which came
from the late Mr. Charles M. Wiieatley, at Phoenixville, and have no doubt
of the correctness of Dr. Smith's determination.

Genth.]

38

[March 18,

Analyses of vanadinite. a, 1 and 2 by H. F. Keller ; c by myself.

a, 1. a, 2. c. Brownish olive

Brownish. Bright orange-red. green from

Yavapai County.

Sp. grav.
CI

Fe,03
CuO
PbO
V,05

P2O5

Less O, equiv. to CI. =

From Mammoth Mine
6.572 —

2.41
0.48

77.49

16.98

3.06

0.29

100.71
0.55

100.16

— 2.46 —

77.47

17.16

4.30

trace

101.39
0.56

100.83

7.109
2.69

0.04

0.18

77.96

18.64

trace

0.73

100 23
0.61

99.62

Ti. Variety of Desdoizile, Cvprodescloizite, Ramirite, Tritochorite. — In
1883, Samuel L. Penfield (Am. Journ. Sc. [3] xxvi, 361) published the
description and analyses of a mineral from Mexico as a variety of des-
cloizite ; at about the same time, C. Rammelsberg (Berl. Acad., Berl., 1883,
1215), under the name cuprodescloizite gave his analysis and description of
the same mineral from San Luis Potosi in Mexico. In a pamphlet, "La
Ramirita, niteva especie mineral, Mexico, 1885," D. Miguel Velasquez de
Leon gave the same mineral the name ramirite, with an engraving show-
ing its appearance and an analysis of the same.

In his paper Mr. Penfield referred to the great similarity of the ap-
pearance and the results of the analyses of his mineral with those of Fren-
zel's tritochorite. About two years ago Prof F. W. Clarke presented to
me a specimen of ramirite from San Luis Potosi, Mexico, and a year ago
I had an opportunity to purchase, from Dr. A. E. Foote, a number of
pieces which gave such an abundance of very pure material that I thought
a re-examiuation desirable on account of great discrepancies in the
amounts of water and the pentoxides of arsenic and vanadium as well as
cupric oxide.

The mineral occurs as an incrustation from 1 or 2 to 10™" in thick-
ness, radiating fibrous to fine columnar. The form of the individual
crystals cannot be distinguished, they are united into groups resembling
the arrangement of cockscomb barite or prehnite. The color is dark yel-
lowish-brown, and the surface has a dark color, and a velvety appear-
ance ; the fracture has a resinous lustre. Powder pale yellow. The spec^
grav. = 6.203.

1887.] ^" [Gentb.

The analyses gave :

0.240

1

2 .3

Mean.

Ratio.

Ignition

=

2.59

—

2.65 — 2.62 -

- 2.63

0.146

PbO

=:

54.89

—

54.35 — 54.31 -

- 54.52

0.244

CuO

=

6.34

—

6.78 — 6.63 -

- 6.58

0.083 ■>
0.157/

ZnO

=

12.70

—

12.84 — 12.56 -

- 12.70

As.Os

=

3.63

—

3.57 — 3.70 -

- 3.63

0.016)

v,o,

=z

19.77

—

19.75 — 20.45 -

- 19.99

0.110 I

P205

=

0.13

—

not determined —

- 0.13

0.001 )

0.125

100.05 100.17

For comparison I give the mean result of three analyses of Penfield,
Rammelsberg's analysis of cuprodescloizite, "Velasquez de Leon's analysis
of ramirite and Frenzel's analysis of tritochorite.

Genth.

Penfield.

Ra;

mnielsber

g- V

. de Leon

Frenzel.

H20

=

2.62

—

2.70

—

2.52

—

—

PbO

=

54.52

—

54.93

—

54.57

—

54.275

—

53.90

CuO

=

6.58

—

6.74

—

8.26

—

8.690

—

7.04

ZnO

=:

12.70

—

12.24

—

12.75

—

11.250

—

11.06

AS2O5

=

3.63

—

3 83

—

0.28

—

3.610

—

3.76

V.O5

=

19.99

—

18.95

—

22.47

—

19.850

—

24.41

P2O5

=

0.13

—

0.18

—

0.17

—

1.830

—

FeO

=

—

0.06

—

^I

nA =

= 0.150

—

100.17 — 99.62 — 101.02 — 99.G55 — 100.17

]\Iy analyses agree very closely with those of Mr. Penfield and give ex-
actly the formula of descloizite Pb^ [HO] (VAs P)Oi + (ZnCu), [HO]
(VAsP)O,.

In Rammelsberg's analysis the greater portion of arsenic pentoxide has
evidently been weighed with the vanadium pentoxide.

In De Leon's analysis the determination of water is omitted, while
otherwise the results agree with ours although the copper oxide is about
two per cent higher.

The physical characters of the mineral and some of the determinations
of the trichorite agree so closely to cuprodescloizite that it would be de-
sirable if Dr. Frenzel would repeat his analysis.

III. Pybite pseudomorphous after Pyrrhotite.

In a highly interesting and important paper on "Natural solutions of
gold, cinnabar and associated sulphides, by Geo. F. Becker" (Am. Jour.
Sciences [3] xxxiii, p. 199 ff), the author shows the solubility of gold, cin-
nabar, pyrite and other sulphides in alkaline solutions containing sulp-
hydrates, and suggests that these minerals, found at Steamboat Springs
and Sulphur Bank and similar occurrences, have been deposited from such
solutions.

Genth.] 40 [March 18,

Several months before this paper appeared, Mr. JoRn F. Blandj'sent me
from the mines near Sulphur creek, Colusa county, California, a number
of specimens, containing gold in minute arborescent crystals, and crystal-
line coatings upon quartz and chalcedony in a dark graj^ shale from the
mines at (h:it locality, also cinnabar and pyrite, which evidently have been
deposited under similar circumsiances as those mentioned by Mr [Jecker.

The jiyrite is remarkable. It occurs in the same dark shah; as the gold
and appears in tabular hexagonal crystals, rarely reaching 1™™ in diame-
ter. A few isolated crystals arc very perfect, mostly however they are
grouped together or one upon the other. Their color is pale brass yellow,
they show very little lustre upon the basal plane, which is rather rough,
but bright metallic lustre upon the prismatic planes.

A qualitative analysis showed them lobe pyrite in composition, the form
is that of pyrrhotite, they arc therefore pyrite, pseudomorphous after pyr-
rholile.

IV. Hessite.

An interesting variety of hessite has been found at the West Side mine.
Tombstone, Cochise county, Arizona, and I am indebted to Mr. Samuel
W. Cheyney for specimens for the same.

It is found in vein-like strings or patches in quartz, associated with
cerargyrite in small crystals and crystalline coalings, a bluish green and a
siskingreen mineral in too small a quantity for investigation, and minute
grains of native gold. Color dark iron black ; spec. gr. = 8.359.
Soluble in nitric acid without separation of gold.

In analysis 1, O.Gl p. c ; and in analysis 2, 3.98 p. c. of quartz were de-
ducted, and gave :

1 2

Ag = 62.87 — 62.34

Pb = 0 28 — 0 30

Fe = 37.34 — 37.05

Se = trace — trace

100.49 — 99.69

It is remarkable that no gold is combined with the tellurium, although
metallic gold is associated m ith this hessite.

V. Tapalpite.

Prof. Carlos F. de Landero has given an account of the occurrence, the
properties and the composition of tapalpite from the Sierra de Tapalpa
(Boletin de la " Sociedad de Ingenieros" de Jalisco, Tom. v. Num. 3).
From an analysis of it which Prof. C. Kammelsberg had made he came to
the conclusion that the composition of this mineral is represented by the
formula : Agj S. Big Te2.

This being exceedingly improbable, and a reexamination very desira-
ble, Prof. C. F. de Landero has placed me under great obligations for spe-

1887.1 "^l [Qenth.

cimens of this rare species, which have furnished the material for the fol-
lowing investigation :

It occurs at the San Antonio mine in the mineral district of San Rafael,
Sierra de Tapalpa, Sayula Canton, Stale of Jalisco, Mexico.

It has a finely granular structure and a pale steel-gray color, inclining
to lead-gray. Lustre dull metallic; soft.

Associated with pyrite, galenile, quartz and a silicate of aluminum and
calcium, and so much intermixed with them that it was impossible to ob-
tain pure material for analysis. The puiest that could be selected was
free from pyrile, but contained about 7 to 8 per cent of galenile and the
same quantity of quartz and silicate. The specific gravity, which was
found to be = 6 739, was approximately calculated for the pure mineral,
and gave — 7.744.

Portions from two pieces, A and B, apparently equally pure, were
analyzed. A by dissolving in nitric acid; B by fusion with sodium
carbonate and sulphur — the sulphur in B was determined by fusion with
sodiuni carbonate and nitrate, lixivialion with water and five times re-
peated evaporation with hydrochloric acid in order to reduce the telluri-
to tel!urous#acid and precipitation of the sulphuric acid by barium chloride.
The tellurium was always weighed as tellurous oxide.

= 3

= 1

= 1.15

= 1.85

= Ag, Bi (STe)3 or 3 Ag, (STe). Bi, (STe)3

The above average analysis and the atomic ratio of the constituents
found give the following percentages :

— 6 Ag = 648 = 43.76

— 2 Bi = 420 = 28.36

— 2.3 Te = 294.4 = 19.88

— 3.7 S = 118.4 = 8.00

The portion

A gave

1

2

Average.

Ratio.

Ag =

38 81

—

38.36

—

38.59

—

0.357

Pb =

7.22

—

7.26

—

7.24

—

Bi =

24.97

—

25.1 a

—

25.05

—

0.119

Cu =

0.23

—

0.19

—

0.21

— "

Te =

17.43

—

lost

—

17.43

—

0.136

8 =

7.93

—

8.54

—

8.24

—

S required for 7.24 Pb to form PbS

=

1.12

—

8 in tapalpile

=

7.12

—

0.226

Ag :

Bi : (TeS)

= 0.357

: 0.119 : 0.362 =

3:1:

Ag

=

43.76

Bi

=

28.41

Te

=

19.76

S

=

8.07

100.00 1480.8 100.00

PROC. AMEK. PHILOS. 80C. XXIY. 125. P. PRINTED APRIL 28, 1887.

Genth.]

The portion B gave :
1

42

Pb
Bi

Cu
Te

S

2
39.34
6.28
21.43

= 39.54
= 6.13

= 23.00

= lost — 18.53 —

= 7.16 — —

S required for 6.22 Pb to form PbS
S in tapalpite

Ag : Bi : (TeS) = 0.365 : 0.102

This ratio makes it probable that the portion B had a slight admixture
of telluride of silver.

Deducting galenite, &c., the analysis would give the following per-
centage :

[March 18,

3

Average.

Ratio.

39.35

—

39.41

0.365

6.25

—

6.22

20.97

—

21.37

0.102

18.53

18.53

0.145

—

7.16

=

0.96

=

6.20

0.194

0.339 =

: 3

: 0.84 : i

0.93

Ag
Bi
Te

S

46.09
24.99
21.67

7.25

100.00 *

Imperfect as these results may be on account of the noticed admixtures,
there can be very little doubt that tapalpite is a normal sulpho-telluro-salt
of silver and Jbismuth. Rammelsberg gives no lead in his analysis, and
may have had purer material at his disposal ; it is to be hoped that such
may be obtained for a subsequent investigation.

VI. Allanite.

A variety of allanite, closely resembling that from E^st Bradford, Ches-
ter county, Pa., and lilce the latter easily decomposed into a brown earthy
powder, has been sent to me by Mr. J. A. D. Stephenson, who discovered
it several years ago near Statesville, N. C.

The pure has a brownish-black color and a pitchy lustre. Associated
with it are small zircons.

Mr. Harry P. Keller has made the following analysis :

18 990 / °^ which about 5 per cent CejOj,
the rest mostly Di^Oj,

Sp. Grav.

=

3.63

SiO^

=

31.685

AI2O3

=

17.330

Fe.Oa

:=

7.052

Ce^Oa 1

Di.Oa I

=

18.990

La^Oj J

Y,03 .
Er.Oa /

=

1.120

PeO

=

10.110

MnO

=

1.025

CaO

=

10.785

1887.] 4:'J [Genth.

MgO = 0.540

Na^O = 0.210

KjO = trace

H,0 =:= 1.460

100.307

VII. WlLLEMITE.

A few specimens of this rare mineral have been discovered by Mr. J. C.
Cooper, of Topeka, Kansas, at the Merritt mine, Socorro county, New
Mexico.

It occurs in very small hexagonal prisms, the largest not over 0.5""™ la
size, associated with barite, quartz, mimetite, wulfenite, cerussite and a
blue coating of a cupreous mineral. The willemite crystals are sometimes
isolated, colorless, or black with a colorless top, mostly in coatings or
ridges of aggregations of crystals filling cavities in the barite and quartz.
They show only the prismatic and basal planes, the prismatic sometimes
slightly striated longitudinally. In druses of quartz the microscopic
willemite crystals are united to clusters, the individual crystals barrel-
shaped, with deep longitudinal striation terminating in a serrated basal
plane or in a point.

The mimetite, which is associated with the willemite, is of a bright honey
yellow color, crystallized in slender hexagonal prisms with pyramid, often
without the basal plane, also united to clusters, which, on breaking, pre-
sent a radiating structure.

The wulfenite has a reddish-orange color, the crystals are tabular, and
show pyramids of the first and second order.

It was difficult to obtain a sufficient amount of the willemite, and only
by selecting a larger quantity of the purest material, and partial crushing
and washing oflf the lighter particles and purifying the heavier by pick-
ing, I succeeded in getting enough to leave no doubt about the accuracy of
the mineralogical determination.

The analyses gave :

1 2

Spec. grav. = 4.098 —

Barite = 0.69 — 0.69

SiO^ = 29.16 — 28.72

PbO = 2.04 — 1.98

CuO = 0.50 — 0.48

Fe^Oj = 0.10 — 0.04

Zno = 66.79 — 66.59

Ignition = 1.18 — 1.18

100.46 99.68

Analysis 1 gave 91.53, and analysis 2, 91.18 per cent willemite.
Lead and copper are probably present as carbonates.

44.

Cope.] ^^ [March 18,

VIII. nrSINGEKITE, PSEUDOMOUPHOUS AFTEU CalCITE.

Many years ago the late Julius E. Ralit, of Cleveland, Tennessee, sent
me a suite of minerals from the Ducktowa mines, which he was then
working. Among them was a specimen composed principally of the ores
of that mine,' pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite with a small admixture of
zoislte, which was covered witJi crystals of calcite, in part allcred into a
dark brown mineral with resinous lustre. The calcite is in the form ot
irregular hexagonal prisms, showing planes of a scalenohedron, the
smaller ones terminating in acute scalenohcdrous. The largest crys-
tals are abor.t 20""" in length and 10°"" thick. They all contain a
nucleus of unaltered calcite, the hi>ingerite surrounding the core of cal-
cite is from 2 to 4™"' in thickness. With a small quantity (0 2236 grm.) of
fairly pure m itcrial I made an analysis, the results of which show that
the pseudomorphous mineral belongs probably to hisingerite, gillingite or
thraulite, if they are not all moie or less pure varieties of the same spe-
cies.

The analysis gave :

Loss by ignition = 23.70

SiOj = 24.42

Fe.,0, = 49 02

ZnO = 1.17

CaO = 1.83

MgO = 0.41

100.55
University op Pennsylvania, March 16, 1887.

Synopsis of the BatracTda and Ri'ptilia obtained by H. II. Smith, in tha
Province of Mato Grosso, Brazil.

By E. D. Cope.

{Bead before the American Philosophical Society, Marcli IS, 1SS7.)

The Naturalist Brazilian Exploring Expedition commenced its work in
the province of San Paolo. From the neighborhood of Sao Joio do Rio
Negro a collection of Batrachia and Roptilia was forwarded to the writer,
and a list of them vvas published in the Proceedings of this Societjs 1884,
p. 18.").* Mr. Smith then went into the interior, crossing the mountains
into the province of Mato Grosso to Cuyaba. on the headwaters of the
Paraguay river. After a short sojourn at this town, he selected for resi-

• In tills collection tliere occurs a specie^ of Pseudis which I had identified
with thti P. parad>xa. In oimparlson with the type of the P. mnnlidactyla the
specimens turn out to belong to that species, as supposed by Dr. Boulenger.

1887.1 ^^ [Cope.

dence the village of Clnipada, thirty miles north-east of Cuyal a. and near
the headwaters of the Xingu, an important tributary of the Amazon.
The species embraced in the following list were obtained at or near this
to-vvn. I reserve any general remarks to the close of the paper.

BATRACHIA.

Anura.
Akcifera.

1. BuFO MARGARiTiFER Laur. Abundant.

2. ScYTOns ALLENii Copc. Procccds. Amer. Philosoph. Soc., 18G9, p. 163

Several specimens, representing a color variety, which lacks the
lateral dark band.
8. IIyl.a melanargtrea, sp. nov.

Vomerine teeth in two small patches entirely between the choanjB, and
scarcely reaching to the line of the posterior borders of the latter. Manus
palmated to the discs of the third and fifih digits, but not to that of the
third, and maiking the basal third of the second ("first"). Pes webbed
in much the same way ; the web reacliing the discs of the second, third
and filth digits, the middle of the penultimate of the first, and the base of
the penultimate of the fourth.

The head is short, entering the length of the head and body, three and
two-thirds times. Hind leg extended measuring the orbit with the heel.
Hind foot short, equaling length of femur from groin. Forearm and
foot, and tarsus and foot, with a free posteiior edge, Avhioli has regular
dermal ibickenings, Avhich give it a serrate appearance. The humerus is
bound to the side by a dermal sheet which crosses the axilla to the middle
of the posterior liorder of the f^ormer. Trace of a posterior dermal fold on
the tarsus. No dermal process on the heel. Skin of upper surf ices with
small scattered warts, which are most numerous and prominent on the
sides. A pectoral fold from axilla to axilla.

The head is obtuse and depressed, with canthus rostralis not evident,
and muzzle rather wide, and not prominent, but with vortical profile.
Nostril terminal ; ^ide of muzzle as long as long diameter of orbit.
Tympanic membrane round, three-fifths diameter of eye slit. Tongue
subround, with an open notch posteriorl3\

Color above, blacUisb gray, like a stain of dilute silver nitrate, with
slightly darker areas included in darker lines. One of these is a large
triangle whose base extends from one superciliary border to the other, and
whose ti uncate apex is between the scapulse : another is a large transverse
area across the sacrum, which extends downwaids and backwards on each
side. Between tliese areas are several smaller ones on the back, and there
is a large area on the side posterior to tlie axilla. An area encloses each
canthus rostralis, enclosing with the large triangle a x-^l'"Pcd area of
groundcolor, There is a dark gray spot <m the lip in front of the orbit,
and a nairow one descending from the posterior part of the orbit. A dark

Cope.] ^^ [March 18.

line extends from the orbit above the tympanic drum to the axilla.
Posterior side of humerus and axillary web, black, the color produced in
an angle towards the middle of the thorax on each side. Groin, femur
except lower surface, inferior side of tibia and hind foot, anterior face of
tarsus and web of inner three toes, pitchy black. A row of five or six
small, silvery gray spots on the superior surface of the femur and sur-
rounding the vent. With this exception, the superior surfaces of limbs
light gray with darker gray cross-bands with black edges ; three on the
tibia.

M.

Length head and body 039

" " to posterior line of tympana 0095

Width " at " " " " 013

Length of anterior limb anteriorly 0265

foot Oil

" " posterior limb from groin 0575

foot 026

" " " " without tarsus 016

This species belongs to the same group as the Hyla marmorata in the
general characters of skin and coloration. It is however of more slender
form, and has less extensive palmation. The color diflfers in the absence
of the yellow, which is so conspicuous in the H. marmorata, and in other
respects.

Three individuals.

4. Hyla velata, sp. nov.

Size small ; head short, wide, muzzle obtuse, not prominent, not long as
the diameter of the eye. Nostril terminal. Tympanic membrane not
very distinct, diameter not more than one-third that of the eye- slit, in
some specimens one-fourth. Canthus rostralis not distinct, vomerine teeth
between choanse, not projecting posterior to the line connecting them.
Tongue subround, with an open median notch behind.

The length of the head to the line connecting the posterior borders of
the tympanic membranes, is contained in that of the head and body three
and a half times. The hind leg when extended marks the end of the
muzzle with the heel. The skin of the upper surfaces is smooth. An ex-
tension of the skin of the sides binds the humerus by its proximal half.
There is a web between all the fingers which does not reach the discs of
the third and fifth, being less than a half palmation. The web of the pes
does not quite reach the discs of the digits excepting the fourth, where it
leaves two and a half phalanges free. No dermal fold on the tibia or
fore-arm.

Color above golden-brown, with a large patch finely dusted with dark
brown, with a narrow dark-brown border, extending from between the
eyes to the middle of the back, and sending a broad branch down to the
middle of each side without defined inferior border. The outlines are con-

1887.] "*♦ [Cope.

traded at the suprascapular region, leaving a wide band of the paler
ground color between it and a black line posterior to the eye. A very-
convex crescent-shaped area extends forwards from the posterior parts of
the iliac region on each side, presenting a convexity forwards on the
sacrum. Lips, sides, humerus and femur thickly dusted with brown, and
■without other spots or marks. Fore-arm and tibia with dark-brown cross-
bars ; on the latter narrow, and four in number. A pale border on exter-
nal edge of foot from heel. Inferior surfaces cream-colored, immaculate.

M.

Length of head and body 033

" " " to posterior line of tympana 0068

Width " " at " " " " 0084

Length of fore leg 014

" " foot 006

" hind leg 0385

" " foot 017

" " " " less tarsus 009

There is a good deal of affinity between this species and the last. The
differences are as follows : In H. velata the posterior legs are longer, and
the manus is less palmate. There are no dermal borders on the limbs.
The femur is unspotted, and the black color so conspicuous in the H. me-
lanargyrea is absent. The dimensions are strikingly difierent, the species
just named having nearly twice the linear measurements of the E. velata.

Four specimens.
5. Hyla nigra, sp. nov.

Habit moderately slender ; heel reaching end of muzzle. Length of
head to posterior borders of tympana, enters length of head and body
three times. The urostyle and pelvis are rather short, the former equaling
the length of the head to the line of the posterior border of the orbits.
The muzzle is slightly acuminate when viewed from above, and project-
ing beyond the mouth in profile. The canthus rostralis is concave,
and the orbit is just as long as the muzzle. Nostrils subterminal. Tym-
panic drum round, one-fourth the diameter of the orbit, and bounded
above by a dermal fold. Vomerine teeth in two fasciculi between the
nares, their posterior edges a very little behind the borders of the latter.
Tongue subround, with an open notch in the free border.

Digits of manus entirely free ; the fourth quite long, and the fifth ex-
ceeding the third in length. Second digit opposed to thii-d. Dilatation of
fourth digit just fitting within border of tympanic disc. Toes webbed to
the dilatations of the second, third and fifth digits, and to the base of the
antepenultimate phalange of the fourth and first.

Skin with numerous short longitudinal and not very prominent warts
on the superior surfaces of the head and body. No distinct axillary mem-
brane.

Superior surfaces uniform black. Gular region, inferior surface of

Cope.] ^" [March 18,

thigh and tarsus dusted with dark brown. Posterior part of side, front
and hind face of femur and inferior face of tibia, more or loss closely
marbled with brown on a white ground, the brown predominating on the
posterior face of the femur. The brown dusting extends across the in-
ferior surface just behind the axillae. Concealed surface of pes and web,
marbled dark brown and white. The coloration is peculiar in that the
superior surfaces of the humerus and tibia are colored like the rest of the

body.

M.

Length of head and body 034

" " " to posterior line of tympana 010

Width " "at " " " " 013

Length of fore leg, on front 023

" " foot Oil

" " hind leg, from groin 057

" " " foot 020

" " " " minus tarsus 010

This species approaches the genus Scytopis in the very narrow fronto-
parietal (rontauelle.

6. Hypsiboas boans Daudin.

One specimen rather smaller than usual. The femur is brown posteri-
orly, with small scattered yellow spots.

7. Hylodes conspicillatus Giinther.

Hyloden fjiieniheri S)ie\n(\achner. Verb. Zool. Bot. Gess. Wien., 1864, p.
246, PI. xvii, fig. 1.

Numerous individuals, all with the posterior face of the femur uni-
color.

8. Paludicola nattereki Steind.

A very abundant species, alwa5's without tarsal spur as described by
Steindaciiner. The lumbar gland is black with a white border, and the
groin below it and the posterior face of the femur is beautifully marbled
with black on a white ground. Vomerine teeth none. Tongue subcyl-
indric.

9. Paludicola kroyeki R. & L. Liupents sagittifer Steind.

Three specimens, two with the oblique longitudinal bands described by
Steindaciiner, and the other unicolor above, having only the black lateral
band extending from the end of the muzzle*

10. Paludicola saltica, sp. nov.

Characterized l)y the great length of its posterior legs. It has the form
of the North American Acris, and is probal)ly like it, a great jumper.

Muzzle narrowly acuminate, and projociinga little beyond the lip border.
No canthus rostralis ; nostril looking partly upwards, half way between
end of muzzle and orbit. Intcrorbilal space not wider than eyelid. Tym-

1887.] 4^ [Cope.

panic membrane not distinguished. Tongue diamond-shaped with
rounded angles, extensively free and entire behind. No vomerine teeth.

Hind legs long ; Avhen extended the muzzle marks a little beyond the
middle of the tibia. Second finger shorter than third. Toes with a der-
mal margin. Two metatarsal tubercles, both small, the internal larger and
subconical, and giving origin to a dermal fold which extends to the mid-
dle of the tarsus. No tarsal tubercle. Skin of upper surfaces and sides
witli numerous small warts. Inferior surfaces smooth.

Color of adult dark-brown on superior and lateral surfaces, of younger
individuals gray. The median dorsal region is marked with a wide black
or dark-gray tract with undulating borders from between the eyes to the
end of the urostyle, and this Is again divided in many specimens by a
median white band which extends from the vent to the end of the muz-
zle. In the adult the femur has one, and the tibia has two blackish cross-
bands, and the superior edge of the tibia is pale-colored on its distal
fourth. Posterior face of femur, and superior face of humerus, pale-
brown. Posterior foot with numerous brown cross-bands. Below white
(inferior surfaces of hind legs possibly yellow in life) ; the lower lip black
all round, the color advancing towards the throat on each side. This
mark is present on all the specimens.

M.

Length of head and body 020

" " " to posterior line of tympana 007

Width " "at " " " " 037

Length of fore limb 013

" " foot 005

" " hind limb from groin 0413

" " foot 020

" " " " without tarsus 013

One adult and several young specimens. Readily distinguished by its
very long hind legs, peculiarly shaped head, etc.

11. Palitdicola mtstacalis, sp. nov.

Size small. Ileel of extended hind leg reaching to front of orbit.

Muzzle a narrow oval as viewed from above, a little longer than the
diameter of the orbit, and not projecting beyond the lip-border. Canthus
rostralis indistinct. Interorbital space wider than eyelid. Gape of mouth
wide. Tongue narrow, extensively free, entire behind. Nostrils two-
fifths way from end of muzzle to orbit. Tympanic disc concealed. Second
finger ("first") shorter than third, which is in turn a little shorter than
fifth. Two large palmar tubercles. Terminal phalanges not shorter nor
expanded at the extremities, but obtuse. The close contact of the third,
fourth and fifth metatarsals gives the foot a narrow form, especially as the
first and second digits are short. The other digits, especially the fourth,
are quite slender, with elongate narrowed terminal phalanges as in Lepto-

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 125. G. PRINTED APRIL 28, 1887.

^0

Oope.] ^^ [March 18,

dactylus. No dermal margins. Skia generally smooth ; no discoidal
Tentral fold.

Color of superior surfaces and sides, black. A broad white band ex-
tends from each eye to the groin ; it is distinct in the young, obscure in
the adult. It is bounded below by a black band which widens near the
axilla. A white line extends on the middle line from the extremity of the
muzzle near the end of the urostyle. In the young it sends off a little
branch on each side to the eyelid. The upper lip is marked as follows :
A white vertical bar marks the middle of the premaxilla ; two bars are
below the nostril, and two larger ones below tlie eye. A short distance
behind the latter a white stripe commences and extends to the axilla. The
superior face of the femur is pale longitudinally ; the posterior face is
brown, with a pale longitudinal band in the centre. Under surfaces white,
except that the throat and breast are faintly brown spotted. The femora
are similarly brown spotted in an oblique tract from the anus to the ante-
rior aspect of the knee.

M. ^

Length of head and body 0173

" " " to line of tympana 0057

Width " " at " " " 0053

Length of anterior limb 009

foot 0047

" " posterior leg from groin 0367

foot 0135

" " " " minus tarsus 009

But three specimens of this species was obtained by Mr. Smith, and
these are of small size. All their parts are, however, fully ossified, and
its characters developed.

13. Paludicola ameghini, sp. nov.

No lumbar gland nor tarsal tubercle, nor vomerine teeth. Skin covered
with large fiat warts irregularly arranged.

Muzzle short and acuminate ; no canthus rostralis ; muzzle not project-
ing in profile. Nostril half way between its extremity and the orbit. No
membranum tympani. Interorbital space a little wider than eyelid. Sec-
ond finger shorter than third. Extended hind limb reaching with the
heel half way between orbit and nostril. Two metatarsal tubercles small
but distinct, a diagonal fold extending from the internal to the middle of
the tarsus. Toes with narrow dermal margins, and a short web at the
base. Soles smooth. General form robust.

Color of superior surfaces and sides, a lighter or darker lead-color.
There is a dark band extending from one superciliary border to the other,
and there are indirect cross-bands on the hind legs. Very indistinct light
bars on upper lip. Below white, the border of the lower jaw densely
marbled with blackish. Posterior face of femur dark, with a longitudinal
pale line near the inferior side.

1887.] ^-'- [Cope.

M.

Length of head and body 0155

" " '' to line (posterior) of tympana 0055

Width " " at " " " " 005

Lengtli of anterior leg 009

foot 004

" " posterior leg 0258

foot 013

" " " " less tarsus 008

This species belongs to the group of P. marmorata of Boulenger's
system. Two specimens.

Dedicated to my friend Dr. Florentine Ameghino, the distinguished
naturalist of Buenos Ayres.

13. LEPTODACTYLtrS GRACILIS D. & B.

One rather large individual.

14. Leptodactylus bkevipes, sp. nov. ^

Form rather stout, legs short. The heel of the extended hind leg
reaches to the middle of the orbit, and the foot is as long as the rest of the
leg measured to the groin.

The outline of the head from above is an acuminate oval. The muzzle
projects a. little beyond the lip when viewed in profile. The top of the
head is flat, but the canthus rostralis is so obtuse as to be scarcely notice-
able. The nostril is almost terminal, and as far from the orbit as the
diameter of the latter. The tympanic membrane is round, and is equal to
two-thirds the orbit in diameter. The vomerine teeth are in two short,
nearly transverse patches, well behind the internareal palatal space. The
tongue is a wide oval, slightly emargiuate behind.

The second, fourth and fifth fingers are equal in length. The toes
contract to their extremities, and have a membranous border on each side
and a rudimental web at the base. The external border of the external
toe is continued along the external edge of the sole of the calcaneum,
terminating near a small, round tubercle. The internal tarsal tubercle is
an oval, attached by one side. There is an obtuse dermal ridge extending
along the inner edge of the tarsus.

There is a strong dermal fold above the tympanic membrane, which is
deflected towards the humerus. Another ridge extends from the eyelid to
above the axilla. Another ridge commences a short distance from the
end of the last mentioned, and ceases just above the groin. Skin of
superior surfaces with numerous small warts, below, except adjacent
parts of femora, smooth, A discoidal fold of abdominal integument. All
the ridges and warts of the upper surface might readily disappear on
prolonged preservation in weak alcohol.

The color of the upper surfaces is a blackish brown, which does not
extend on the sides, but forms a dark band from the eye through the
tympanum to near the shoulder. There is a paler band across the front

Cope.] ^^ [March 18,

between the eyelids, bounded posteriorly by the base of an indistinct
dark triangle, which is darker than the rest of the back. The lips are
clouded, and there is a vertical pale line on the end of the muzzle, and a
similar one on each side of it below each nostril. The ground color of the
legs is gray. The humerus is uniformly pale, but the forearm is blackish
speckled. There are four wide blackish cross-bands on the femur, and
three on the tibia. Femur behind closely marbled with black on a dirty
whitish ground. Inferior surfaces straw-color, with indistinct brown
speckles on inferior face of tibia, femur, and lower jaw. The sole is
blackish from the lieel, and there are five blackish cross-bands on the
outside of the foot. Groin marbled with black, and a few shades in the
axilla.

M.

Length of head and body 054

" " " to posterior line of tympana 015

Width " " at " " " " 020

Length of fore leg 025

" " foot Oil

" " hind leg from groin 074

" " foot 031

" " " " less tarsus 024

Though allied in important characters to the L. (Orossodactylus) gaudi-
ehaudii, the differences are numerous, to judge from the description given
by Boulenger (Catal. Bat. Sal. B. M., p. 249). The well-developed vom-
erine teeth, the terminal nostril, the weak tarsal tubercles and the ventral
discoidal fold are some of these.

One specimen.

15. Leptodactylus glandulosus, sp. nov.

Small ; extended hind leg reaching middle of eye. Toes without der-
mal margins. Vomerine teeth in two transverse fascicles well behind the
line connecting the choante.

Muzzle narrowed, somewhat prominent, rounded transversely and with-
out distinct canthus rostralis. Nostril two-fifths the distance from the ex-
tremity of the muzzle to the eye. Tongue oval, entire posteriorly. Tym-
panic drum one half diameter of eye-slit. First finger not longer than
second. Metatarsal tubercles two, both very small. Palm and sole tuber-
cular, the latter rough with pointed warts. Interorbital width equal that
of eyelid. Skin smooth, excepting two rows of glands or glandular
warts, one on the upper part of the side, extending from above the hu-
merus to the groin, and the other above it, which terminates in a num-
ber of low warts on the posterior iliac region. Numerous similar warts
on the side below the inferior glandular ridge. A groove from the eye
above the tympanum towards the humerus bounds the lower side of a
glandular dermal thickening.

Color blackish, dark-brown, or light-brown above, with a median

1887.] ^*^ [Cope.

whitish line which is wanting from the anterior part of the body or head.
The lighter specimens have numerous dark-brown spots on the lighter
ground above. Several light vertical lines on the lip. Femur behind ob-
scurely and finely marbled. The concealed edge of the tibia and tarsus
dark cross-banded on a light ground. Below dirty white, dusted with
brown on the legs, sides and gular region, and frequently on the abdomen
also.

M.

Length of head and body 024

" " " to posterior line of tympana 0075

Width " "at " " " " 0083

Length of fore leg ... .0115

" " foot 0045

" " hind leg from groin 033

" " foot 0155

" " " " minus tarsus 0103

Fourteen specimens.

FiRMISTERNIA.

16. Engystoma ovale Schn.

17. Dendrobates braccatus, sp. nov.

Small. Second digit of manus ("first") much longer than third
("second"). Skin tubercular. Muzzle overhanging lip, but not much
produced, truncate on superior view, about as long as diameter of orbit.
Nostril nearly terminal. Tympanic disc less than half diameter of eye.
Interorbital space much wider than eyelids. Tongue cylindric, entire.
When the fore leg is extended, the muzzle marks the middle of the fore-
arm. The muzzle marks the heel of the extended hind leg. Digital
expansions of foot smaller than tympanum, and larger than expansions of
fingers. The tuberosities of the upper surfaces are not prominent and in
a soft specimen they have disappeared entirely. Skin of back very porous ;
no distinct glandular folds.

Black above, with a white line extending from one groin to the other,
over the tympanic drum, on the edge of the eyelid, and round the end of
the muzzle. Sides of head and body black ; a narrow white line com-
mencing below the nostril and extending to the humerus. Behind the
humerus a large pink spot, followed by a wide irregular light band to the
groin. A large pink spot in the groin and extending over the adjacent
part of the femur. This spot is sometimes obscured by dark bands run-
ning across it. Limbs dark colored above, the posterior face of the femur
similar, sometimes a bright spot under the knee. Under side of tibia with
pink areas enclosed by black boundaries. Borders of abdomen and front
of femur with small black dots. In some specimens there is a trace of
two pale lines on the back about equidistant from each other and from the
superior lateral lines.

Cope ] ^4: [March 18,

M.

Length of head and body 032

" " " to posterior edges of tympana 007

Width " " at " " " " 007

Length of fore leg 014

" " foot 006

" hind leg 0305

" foot 015

" " less tarsus 0098

This species agrees in most of its characters with the D trivittatus Spix.,
but is very much smaller, not measuring half its linear dimensions. As
the specimens are, according to Mr. Smitli, adult, they must be regarded as
specifically distinct. It is also related to the 2). 7ia7i?ie/i of Boulenger,*
but diflers in the considerably shorter posterior limbs.

The singular manner in which this species carries its larvae is described
by Mr. Smith in the American Naturalist, for April, 1887. The latter
are carried, closely packed, embedded in a coaling of gelatine, on the
back of the parent. This constitutes a method of nursing distinct from
any of those enumerated by Mr. Boulenger in his recently published
table.

It approaches nearest the habit of the Pipa monstrosa, which also carries
the young on the back. But, as is well known, the skin itself and not a
gelatinous secretion, encloses the eggs and retains the young until the
metamorphosis is complete in that species.

Several larvae accompany one of the specimens of this species, which
are stated by Mr. Smith to have been adhering to its back when it was
taken. They do not resemble those of Pipa, but rather those of a Rana
or Bufo. The branchial opening is on the left side, and no limbs are
developed. The tail is long. The mouth is not peculiar. The decurved
lower lip is present, and is furnished with two transverse series of bristle-
teeth. A single series of the same extends entirely across the superior
labial region, above the upper horny jaw. The papillae are rather long,
and extend all round the inferior lip, and for a short distance on each-
side at the lateral end of the upper lip ; the series presenting an entering
angle opposite the mouth.

This species is described and flguredf by Steindachner in the Verhandl.
der k. k. Zoolog. Botan. Ges. in Vienna, 1864, p. 258, who refers it to the
D. tridittitus {" nigerrimus"), under the impression that the specimens
before him are not adult. He states that the latter were labeled Den-
drobates braccatus, by Dr. Fitzinger. This name is not adopted by
Steindachner, but I use it in order not to simplify the synonymy.
18. Prostherapis brunneus, sp. nov.

Viewed from above the end of the muzzle is rounded, but it is angu-
lated at the nostrils. In profile it is vertical, as is also the loreal region.

• Proceeds. Zool. Soo. London, 1883, p. 636. PI. Ivii, fig. 4.
t Plate xlii, flg. 2.

1887.] 55 [(^-opg^

Canthus rostralis obtuse. Muzzle longer than diameter of orbit ; nostril
marking two-fifths distance from ear to orbit. Interorbital space wider
than eyelid. Tympanum concealed. Tongue obovate, extensively free
and e tire behind.

Digital enlargements distinct ; two metatarsal tubercles small and
subequal. Second ("first") finger equal to second. Skin with numerous
small low glandular warts, easily obscured by stretching. The heel of
the extended hind leg reaches the front of the eye.

Color of superior and lateral surfaces brown ; a darker brown tract
commences between the eyes and extends to the middle or end of the
urostyle, with contractions of width on the nape and in front of the
sacrum. A nearly black band extends round the end of the muzzle on
the side of the head and body to the groin. Only one, a wide brown band
across femur, between which and the anal region is a pale space.
The inner edge of the band becomes a blackish spot in front near the
groin. One brown band across tibia ; several b:inds on tarsus. Femur
brown with many light points posteriorly. Inferior surfaces unspotted
white.

M.

Length of head and body 019

" " " to line of tympana OOG

Width " "at " " " 006

Length of anterior leg 0108

" " foot 004

" " posterior leg from groin 0265

foot 012.>

" " " " minus tarsus 0074

Numerous specimens, mostly young.

The discovery of this species is of much interest, as it gives the genua
Prostherapis a continental distribution. First detected in the extreme
north-west of the Colombian district, it has been identified by Boulenger
next from Ecquador,* and later from northern Peru.f To the present
time the latter is the most eastern locality known for it.

LACERTILIA.

19. Anolis fuscoauratus D. & B. One specimen.

20. Anolis binotatus Peters ; Boulenger, Catalogue. Abundant.

21. PoLYCHiius ACUTiROSTRis Spix. Abundant.

22. ScARTiscus CADUcus Copc. Two specimens.

23. MiCROLOPHUS SPINUL08US Copc. Abundant.

24. EcPHYMOTES TORQUATUs Spix. Not rare.

25. HoPLOCERCUs spiNOsus Fitz. One specimen.

26. TUPINAMBIS TEGUEXIN L.

27. Ameiva surinamensis L. Abundant.

* Call. Batr, Sal., Brit. Mas., 1882.

+ Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1883, p. 63'..

Cope.] ^" [March 13,

28. Cnemidophorus ocelliper Spix. Three.

29. Pantodactylus schreibersii Wlegm. Two.

30. Cercosaura occelata Wagl. One.

31. Emcea frenata Cope. Abimdant.
82. Amphisb^na alba L. Abundant.

33. Lepidosternum microcephalum Wagl.

OPHIDIA.

TORTRICINA.

34. TORTRIX SCYTALE L.

ASINEA.

35. Boa constrictor L.

36. Apostolepis erythronotus Peters ; Mapomorphus erythronotua

Peters, Monatsberichte K. Akad. Wiss., Berlin, 1880, 232.

Subspecies lineatus Cope.

This form agrees exactly in pholidosis with Peters' description, above
cited, of specimens from San Paolo, but diSers much in coloration. It
presents five longitudinal brown lines on the upper surface which mark
the third and fourth, the fifth and sixth, and the median rows of scales
respectively. In the adult, the line on the fifth and sixth rows is obsolete.
The inferior surfaces are immaculate, except that the black collar is visible
on the sides of the neck, from below. In the form erythronotus, the gas-
trosteges have black centres, according to Peters.

37. Rhynchonyx ambinigeb Peters, Monatsber. Berlin Akad. Wiss.,

1869, p. 437.

Subspecies vittatus Cope.

This form differs from the typical form described by Peters, in having
longitudinal color bands. These are dark-brown, and are located on the
fourth, sixth and median rows of scales respectively, occupying only the
middle of each row. The space between the sixth rows of opposite sides
is pale brown ; external to the sixth row and below, dirty white. The en-
tire coloration is so like that of the young of Apostolepis erythronotus line-
atus, as to be a case of mimetic analogy.

The present specimen confirms the correctness of the locality given by
Peters.

38. Tantilla pallida, sp. nov.

Postocular plates two, labials seven, the posterior elevated and separated
from the parietal by one and a part of another temporal. Postnasal and
preocular plates well separated.

Characters normal. Postnasal bounded below by first labial, behind by
second labial, which reaches frontal. Preocular deeper than long. Third
and fourth labials bounding orbit, the latter also bounding inferior post-
ocular below. Fifth labial higher than wide ; the sixth of equal height,
which equals the middle ; the seventh largest of all, a little higher than
wide (or long). A large temporal bounds the fifth and sixth above, and a

1887.] ^* [Cope.

narrower one the seventh above, by its anterior third. Inferior labials
seven, the fourth mucli the largest ; the first of opposite sides separated by
the symphyseal. Postgeneials shorter than pregeneials. Frontal with
produced posterior angle ; parietals elongate. Gastrosteges 148 ; anal
1-1 ; urosteges 57.

Color very pale brown above, white below. Top of head black ; a
broad black collar incomplete below, and connected with the head color
on the middle line. A white spot on labial below nostril ; another below
and behind orbit, which extends to the last superior labial, and connects
with the pale collar. Edges of scales on sides, brown-dusted.

Total length 285 ; of tail 65mm., or a little less than one-fourth the
total. One specimen.

39. RHADiNiEA OCCIPITALIS Jan. Eaicognathus, occipitalis Jan., Iconogr.

Gen. des Ophidiens Livr., 16 ; PI. 1, fig. 1. Two specimens.

40. Aporophis almadensis Wagl. Abundant.

41. OpHEOMORPHUS BRACHYURU3, Sp. nOV.

Form robust, tail remarkably short, constituting less than one-sixth the
total length. Head wider than the neck, muzzle rather short.

Rostral plate rounded, visible from above. Internasals as long as pre-
frontals, the median sutures of both not continuous, but each oblique to
the middle line. Frontal narrowing behind ; the parietals not longer than
the frontal, eraarginate at the point of union posteriorly. Loreal plate
much higher than long. Preocular narrow, not or barely reaching fron-
tal. Postoculars two, the inferiors quite small. Temporals 1-3. Supe-
rior labials eight ; the third uarrowed ; fourth and fiftli entering orbit ;
the last three large, the seventh higher than long. Inferior labials ten,
sixth largest. Geneials unequal, the posterior pair short. Scales small,
poreless, in 19 longitudinal rows. Gastrosteges 15-5 ; anal 1-1 ; urosteges
39. Measurements, No. 1, total length 371mm. ; tail 55mm. ; No, 2,
total 435 mm. ; tail 67mm.

Color, above bright green ; below pale yellow. No markings. On the
superior labial plates the green and yellow piss into each other.

This species is allied to the Opheomorphm typhlas, but has a relatively
much shorter tail. It is a much more robust snake than the 0. jcegeri
and it does not possess the brown dorsal stripe of the latter.

Two specimens.

42. OpaEOMORPHtJS MELEAGRis Shaw ; subsp. DOLiATUS Wicd.

A large specimen in the which the black annuli are so wide as to nearly
meet on the dorsal region, leaving only traces of the ground color between
them. I have often had occasion to observe that this annulate coloration
characterizes adults as well as young.

43. LtoPHis REGiN^ L., var. with unicolor parietals.

44. Erythrolamprus venxjstissimus Wied.

45. DiPSAS CENcuoA Linn.

46. SiBON ANNULATUM Llun.

PROC. AMER. PHIL03. SOC. XXIV. 125. H. PRINTED APRIL 28, 1887.

Cope.] »^0 [March 18,

47. Tachymenis strigatus Gthr. Tomodon strigatus Giintlier; TacJiy-

menis hypotonia Cope, teste Boulenger.

48. OXYRRHOPUS TRIGEMINUS D. & B.

49. OxYRRHOPUS RHOMBIFER D. & B.

50. OxTRRHOPUs PETALARius Linn.

51. Leptognathus turgida Cope ; var. in which the top of the head is

uniform blackish.

52. Spilotp.s coRAis Linn.

53. Herpetodryas carinatus L. Abundant.

54. Drymobius pantherinus Merrem.

55. DiRRHOX LATIVITTATUS, sp. nOV.

The generic name Dirrhox is proposed as a substitute for Callirhinus
Girard, a name used by Cuvier for a genus of seals. The type is Dirrhox
patagoniensis Girard, which is described in the report of the U. S. Explor-
ing Expedition under Commodore Wilkes (1858, p. 139). It is a terres-
trial form of Philodryas with two loreal plates one above the other. The
name was first proposed in my catalogue of the Batrachia and Reptilia of
Central America and Mexico, Bulletin U. S. Nat. Museum, No. 32, 1887,
Index. At the same time (1. c.) I propose the generic name Atomophis
for the Philodryas trilineatus of Burmeister (Dryophylax bur meisteri Jan.),
in which the loreal plate is wanting.

The Dirrhox lativittatus is a handsome species of moderately slender
proportions, and with the head little distinct from the body. The scales
are in nineteen longitudinal series, and each has a single apical pit. Muz-
zle rather narrow, rounded and not truncate, the apex of the rostral plate
appearing on a view from above. The internasals are as wide as long,
and the prefrontals a little longer than wide. The frontal has concave
lateral borders, and is about as wide as the superciliaries, and as long as
the occipitals. The nasals are subequal, and the loreals are placed the one
directly above the other. The inferior is parallelogrammic and horizontal,
while the superior is shorter and a little higher behind than before. The
oculars are 1-2. The preocular is much wider above than below, and
reaches the frontal. The superior postocular is larger than the inferior.
The temporals are 1-2-3. The superior labials are eight in number, the
fourth and fifth forming the inferior boundary of the orbit. Inferior labials
eleven, the sixth largest, and in contact with the postgeneials, which latter
are a little longer than the pregeneials. Gastrosteges 184 ; anal divided ;
urosteges 82.

The ground color above is a pale brown, which changes to oliva-
ceous on the head. A narrow black line passes from the eye along
the superior edges of the posterior labial plates, and immediately behind
them widens out into a brown band, which soon occupies three and two
half rows of scales, beginning with the first row. This extends to the
vent where it covers two and two half rows, and still narrower to
the end of the tail. A brown dorsal band commences in irregular spot-
tings, a lenglh of the head behind Ihe same, and soon becomes solid.

18S7.] ^•^ [Cope.

covering three aad two half scales to opposite the vent. It then contracts
and continues to the end of the tall. A. narrow hlack band extends from
the gular region to the end of the tail across the ends of the gastrosteges,
and is separated from the brown lateral band by a yellow stripe. Inferior
surfaces unspotted, but shaded delicately with dusky. The centres of the
scales of the first and second rows on the neck have a black central line,
as have several scales on the throat and gular region. Some small black
spots on the fourth, fifth and sixth superior labial scuta.

Total length, M., .668; length of tail, .153; of mouth to canthus, .016.

This very pretty species resembles the Atomophis trilineatus Burm.,
and the Pkilodryas iceniaius Peters. Besides the peculiarity in the double
loreal plates, it differs from the former in the rounded muzzle. It la
obliquely truncate in the species of Burn\eister. According to Jan's figure
the latter has the seventh superior labial a little longer than high, while
in the D. lativittatus it is higher than long. The inferior lateral yellow
stripe in the A. trilineatus is not black-bordered below. In the Pkilodryas
tmniatiis the preocular plate is scarcely visible from above ; there are only
seven superior labials, and the scales are said to be without pits.

56. Philodryas nattereri Steindachner. Sitzungsber. d. K. K. Akad.

Wissensch. Wien, 1870, p. 20 ; PI. vii, figs. 1-2. Not rare.

57. Phclodryas viridissijius L.

58. Philodryas olfersii Licht.

Proteroglypha.

59. Elaps lemniscatus L.

Solenoglypha.

60. BoTHROPS BRASiLiENSis Latr. Abundant.

61. BoTHROPS NEOViDii Wagl. Three specimens.

63. Crotalus terrificus Laurenti. C. cascavella Wagler, in Spix Serp.
Brazil.
Several individuals, all alike and differing in color from the true C. du-
rissus Linn. (C. horridus D, & B.). This is a brown snake with brown
dorsal rhombs with narrow yellowish borders. The C. durissus is a yellow
snake with brown dorsal rhombs which have yellow centres, the brown
being little more than a border. The C. terrifica is figured by Seba, and
by Wagler as above.

CONCLUSIONS.

The collection made by Mr. Smith is productive of a good many inter-
esting results, especially to the knowledge of geographical distribution.
Such are the great extension of the range of the anurous genus Prosthe-
rapis among Batrachia ; of Anolis and Scartiscus among lizards ; and of
Rhynchonyx and Dirrhox among snakes. The rediscovery of a few spe-
cies brought from the same region a half century ago by the Austrian,
Johann Natterer, is of considerable interest. Such are the species Palu-
dicola nattereri and Philodryas nattereri Steind. Other rare species only

Cope.] oU [March 18,

seen in this collection for the second time, are the Rhynchonyx ambiniger
Peters, Rhadinma occipitalis Jan., Leptognathus turgida Cope, and Scartis-
cus caducus Cope. The number of species known and previously un-
known, is as follows :

Mw. Total.

Batrachia 9 18

Lacertilia 0 15

Ophidia 3 89

12 63

APPENDIX ON A LEPTOGNATHUS FROM SAN PAOLO.

Leptognathus garmani, sp. nov. L. catesbeyi Cope, Proceeds. Amer.
Philos. Soc, 1884, p. 193, not of Dumeril and Bibron.

Renewed examination of the specimens on which the above determina-
tion was based, shows the determination to have been erroneous. A spe-
cies from San Paolo has been named by Dr. Boulenger L. ventrimacu-
latus,* but the present snake, although resembling that species, does not
belong to it.

Fifteen rows of scales, the median larger, but not maintaining its char-
acter as far as the occipital scuta. One pair of normal geneials, which
are short, and are followed by two pairs which are arranged en chevron,
the angle directed forwards. The anterior chevron leaves a triangular
space between it and the normal geneial, to be filled by a triangular plate
on each side. Seven superior labials, the seventh largest, the si.\th next
in size, and both longer than high. The fifth supports only the postocu-
lar, and the fourth the eye, so that the third only enters it by a corner on
one side. Loreal a little longer than high. Oculars 0-2 ; nasals distinct ;
temporals 1-1-2. Internasals less than half prefrontals ; the latter wider
than long. Frontal wide as long, presenting angles both anteriorly and
posteriorly, and about two-thirds as long as the large parietals.

Color light-brown, covered with numerous wide black cross-bands,
which narrow towards the gastrosteges, and are sometimes divided on the
middle line, one-half alternating with the other. The centres of the
spaces of ground color are darker than the margins, and sometimes con-
tain a black spot. Top of head blackish-brown, with a T-shaped mark in
lighter brown extending from the occiput to the anterior superciliary
region, and a brown cross-bar across the anterior part of the prefrontals.
Inferior surfaces yellow, with two irregular series of small brown spots,
one on each side of the middle line. The ends of the dorsal black spots
involve the ends of the gastrosteges. Gastrosteges 158 ; anal entire ; uro-
steges 59. Total length 478 mm. ; of tail 105.

Sao Joao do Rio Negro ; H. H. Smith. One specimen. The species is
•dedicated to the able naturalist of Cambridge, Mr. S. W. Garman.

* Ann. Magaz. Nat. Hist., 1885, p. 87.

3 I I i.owei- Carboniferous

4 I 1 Devonian

5 1 1 Upper SUurian

6 I I Lower Silurian

7 I I Cambrian

A _ Buchhorn Fault
B _ Winonah Fault

C SallTille Fault

D _ WalltepM^ Fault
K.F_ PriceARFaulta
G _ Max Meadows Faiill
H _ Pulaski Fault
I _ DraperM* Fault

CiEOLOGICAL. JVIAP OF
GIL,ES,BLAND & WYTHE COUJNTIES

^A/lTH PA RTS or

PULASKI & MONTGOMERY COS..
VIFCGIIVIA.

by J.J.Stevenson.

Proceedings American Philosophical Society, Vol XXIV., No. 125.

1887.] ^^ [Stevenson.

A Oeological Reconnaissance of Bland, Giles, Wythe and portions of
Pulaski and Montgomery Counties of Virginia.

By John J. Stevenson, Professor of Geology in the University of the City of

New York.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, March IS, 1887.)

Introduction.
I. The Faults and Folds.
II. The Groups, xoith comparative notes.

III. The Area north from Walker mountain, Bland and Giles counties.

IV. The Area south from Walker mountain, Wythe, Pulaski and Mont-

gomery counties.

INTRODUCTION. •

The reg'ioa described in this memoir, embracing Bland, Giles, Wythe
and portions of Pulaski and Montgomery counties of Virginia, is the east-
ward continuation of the region described in the writer's previous mem-
oirs* on the geology of Southwestern Virginia.

The examination of the area under consideration was purely a recon-
naissance, and the notes in several localities must be regarded as little
more than suggestions to the one who may make the detailed study on
behalf of the United States Geological Survey.

The whole area is rugged. Even the Great valley, so wide in Washington
and much of Smyth county, becomes broken in Wythe by the introduction
of Potsdam ridges south from the railroad, while a new fault originating in
Wythe county reproduces Big and Little Walker mountains in Cove and
Max Meadows mountains north from the railroad. These break the val-
ley in Pulaski county also, while the fiiults of Price mountain hold be-
tween them a Carboniferous area, which divides the valley in Montgom-
ery county from New river almost to 'the line of Roanoke county. The
whole region from the Tennessee line north-eastward to beyond the New
river, as far as the writer has gone, is broken by successive pairs of Silu-
rian and Devonian mountains separated by valleys of Lower Silurian
limestone.

The Walker mountains. Big and Little, originating in Smyth county,
are continuous to beyond the eastern border of Montgomery county. The
latter ridge changes its name twice, becoming Cloyd's mountain as it ap-
proaches New river and Brush mountain beyond that stream ; while the
former retains its name to the river and thence becomes Gap mountain.
Big Walker maintains its rugged features throughout and shows but two
water-gaps, those made by Walker's creek and New river, which are sep-
arated by barely seven miles. Some wind-gaps exist, one of which, near

* These were read before this Society and are to be found in the Proceedings, Vol. xix,
pp. 88 to 107, 219 to 262, 498 to 506 ; and Vol. xxii, pp. 114 to 161.

Stevenson.] ^^ [March 18,

the west line of Wythe county, is thought to be available for a railroad
liae. Water-gaps through Little Walker are numerous, but with one ex-
ception they have been made by streams rising in the valley between the
mountains or on the southerly slope of Big Walker. New river alone has
made a continuous gap through both ridges. The ruggedness of Big
Walker is due partly to the refractory nature of the Medina which forms
its body, but more to the steep dip, which makes the mountain narrow
and limits the effectiveness of erosion. The rocks of Little Walker are
more easily affected by atmospheric agencies, and for the most part they
have a much gentler dip.

The Clinch Mountain gi'oup, so conspicuous in the counties previously
described, comes to an end in Giles county under the influence of two
anticlinals and of extensive erosion on botli sides of New river. The
Medina outcrop, doubling over the anticlinals, forms Pearls and Sugar
Camp mountains, while the Brushy mountain of Chemung and Vesper-
tine disappears very near the line of Bland and Giles counties. But be-
yond New river the anticlinals diminish and the group reappears in the
magnificent pile of Butte and Salt Pond mountains, the latter rising to
fully 4500 feet above tide. These mountains extend eastward into Craig
county, and are conspicuously visible from localities beyond Little Walker.
Wolf Creek mountain, originating in Tazewell county as a loop of Clinch
mountain, extends to Pearis mountain and thence is continuous with the
others. The Garden mountains unite to form the anticlinal ridge of Round
mountain, which gradually disappears in the broad space between Wolf
creek and Brushy mountains, known as " the wilderness."

East River mountain, originating in Tazewell county, retains its name
to New river, beyond which it becomes Peters mountain. Like the other
Medina ridges, it is rugged and almost unbroken, the only water-gap for
many miles being that of New river.

The mountains, Cove and Max Meadows, in Eastern Wythe and West-
ern Pulaski, are short, being cut off at each end by a fault. The area occu-
pied by them is comparatively rugged and imperfectly cleared, so that
little examination was made of it. Lick mountain is about fifteen miles
long and is wholly within Wythe county. It lies south from the railroad,
is abrupt and almost uncleared. Draper's mountain, somewhat further
east, is in both Wythe and Pulaski, and is even more rugged than Lick
mountain, while its length is approximately the same. Price mountain, in
Montgomery county, north from the railroad, is a short, by no means
abrupt ridge, which extends froni New river eastward for say eight miles,
and attains its maximum at about five miles from that river.

The whole region, aside from the south-west corner of Bland county, is
drained by the New river and its tributaries. That great stream rises on
the Atlantic side of the Blue Ridge and flows across every fold of the
great Appalachian chain until, as the Kanawha, it enters the Ohio at Point
Pleasant. Its most important tributaries here are Reed and Cripple
creeks in Wythe ; Big and Little Reed Island, Peak and Back creeks in

18.S7.] ^" [Stevenson.

Pulaski ; Walker, Wolf and Sinking creeks in Giles. Most of these
streams carry much water, and for a large part of the year afford power
for mills ; but the water-supply is not so regular as it was before so much
clearing had been done, and floods are now too frequent. The New river,
however, carries a large volume, and mills along its banks rarely suffer
inconvenience.

Agriculturally the features of this region do not differ from those of the
area already described, except that, as already indicated, the proportion of
rich land is much less. The limestone areas are those indicated on the
map by the number 6, all the other portions are sandstone or shale. Much
of the sandstone region is abrupt or so rugged as to be worthless for ordi-
nary farming purposes, but much of the shale land lies so well for culti-
vation that one feels more than regret because it is so thin. In seasons
when the "rich " valleys yield twenty-five to thirty bushels of wheat,
the " poor " valleys yield only from seven to ten bushels. The limestone
areas are admirably adapted to grazing, as the grass is abundant and nu-
tritious. The stock interests are extensive, and the cattle bring the high-
est price in Baltimore, Philadelphia and New York markets.

As the area described in this memoir does not reach to the West Virginia
coal measures at the north, it offers a somewhat shorter list of mineral
resources than do the areas previously examined. Clinton ore occurs on
Big Walker, Round, Wolf creek and others of the Medina mountains,
while brown hematite occurs on the southerly slope of those mountains
and to some extent in the Lower Silurian limestones north from the Nor-
folk and Western railroad ; but nothing is known positively respecting
either the quantity or the quality of these ores. Brown hematite, zinc,
lead and manganese ores occur abundantly in the southern part of Wythe,
Pulaski and Montgomery counties, where the production of iron, zinc and
lead has long been important. Little has been done toward developing
the manganese. Coal occurs in the Vespertine along Brushy mountain in
Bland county ; Little Walker in Wythe, Pulaski and Montgomery ; in
the Peak hills of Wythe and Pulaski ; and in Price mountain of Mont-
gomery. It has been mined to a greater or less extent at several localities
in Pulaski and Montgomery. Not a little good timber remains, but the
charcoal burner at the south and the portable saw-mill at the north have
done much destruction without bringing much profit to the owners.

The only outlet to market is by the Norfolk and Western railroad with
its New River branch to the Pocahontas mines, seventy-six miles long,
and the Cripple Creek branch from Pulaski to the rich mineral region of
Southern Pulaski and Wytlie counties. The topography renders construc-
tion of railroads difficult and costly, and the only easy line northward
from the valley is occupied by the New River branch of the Norfolk and
Western ; but an available route is said to exist from Wytheville over
Walker mountain near the Wythe and Tazewell pike. As the mountains
are in pairs a promising water-gap in one usually leads to an impractica-
ble crossing of the other, and the railroad engineer often finds his wits of

Stevenson.] ^^ [March 18,

little service. Many routes have been surveyed in these and adjoining
counties, and each new survey is an object of much interest. Some addi-
tional railroads would be an undoubted convenience, as, except the pike
connecting the county towns of the Great valley, the roads are not mac-
adamized, and the amount of labor expended on them clearly does not
exceed the minimum required by law.

Those portions of this area which are underlaid by limestone are cleared
and for the most part are under cultivation ; but the other portions have
comparatively few settlers and are traversed by roads usually not fit for
light vehicles. As a rule the people are prosperous, utilizing the advan-
tages which are available, while they waste little of their energies in dis-
cussing the value of the mineral wealth, which is of no immediate im-
portance away from the Great valley. The villages in the valley are
thrifty, have good church buildings and are well supplied with schools.
The hamlets in Bland and Giles counties are very small and have little to
support them.

Lists of Altitudes.

Mr. W. W. Coe, of Roanoke, Va., Chief Engineer of the Norfolk and
Western railroad, has kindly given me the following list of elevations
above tide :

On main line.

Crocketts 2327

Wytheville 2230

Max Meadows 2015

Pulaski ! 1904

Dublin 2058

New River 1768

Central 1773

Christiansburg 2007

New River Bridge 1760'

On New River Brancli.

Belspring or Churchwood 1766

Summit cut, 2^ miles from New River 1914

Staytide 164^

Ripplemeade 1607

Wenouah 1559

On tJie river.

Mouth of Walker's creek, about 1570

Mouth of Stony creek, about 1555

Thorn's ferry 1950

Mr. Oramel Barrett, Jr., of Abingdon, Washington Co., Ya., has given

1887.] ^^ [Stevenson.

me the following list of elevations of points on Clincli and Holston rivers,
on the line of the proposed Clinch River railroad.

Mouth of Thompson's creek 1518

Mouth of Weaver's creek 1503

Mouth of Dump creek 1480.5

Mouth of Bickley's Mill creek 1447

Mouth of Lick creek 1443

Mouth of Russell creek 1413

Mouth of Bull creek 1399

Mouth of Guest river 1373

Mouth of Little Stony creek 1333

Osborne's ford, about 1384

Railroad crossing at Dingus's 1855

Mouth of Big Stony creek 1348

Mouth of Cove creek 1330

Mouth of Stock creek 1303

Mouth of Copper creek 1196

Summit in "Big Cut," between Clinch and Holston 1579

Big Moccasin creek, below Estilville 1341

N. Fork Holston, at Holston Springs 1185

Same at mouth of Opossum creek 1176

Same at Virginia and Tennessee line 1175

Nash's ford, on Clinch, above five miles above mouth of
Thompson's creek, about 1543

Some of the elevations given in this list by Mr. Barrett, differ from ele-
vations of the same localities, as published in a former memoir. The dis-
crepancy is due to the acceptance of a wrong determination of the local-
ity where the work began.

I. THE FAULTS AND FOLDS

The Clinch River group of faults, including the New Garden, Stone
Mountain and Abb's Valley, lie north from the area under consideration.
They gradually diminish eastward in Mercer county, of West Virginia,
and it is doubtful whether they pass in any case much beyond the line
into Summers county, of the same State. Nothing further north than
the edge of the House and Barn synclinal of the last paper was reached
during this reconnaissance.

The geological structure of the southern part of this area is not un-
known. Two sections were made by members of the Geological Corps,
under W. B. Rogers, one passing through the eastern part of Wythe and
Bland counties, the other through Roanoke and Craig counties, at a few
miles beyond the eastern limit of the writer's study. Prof. Rogers,
in his report of 1838, gave a summary account of the Vespertine coal
areas. Prof. Lesley* published notes on the geology of Wythe, Pulaski

•Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc, Vol. is, p. 30 et seq.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 135. I. PRINTED APRIL 30, 1887.

Stevenson.] v)0 [March 18,

and Montgomery, and Prof. Fontaine* lias given interesting details
respecting the Vespertine coals. Mr. C. R. Boyd, of Wytheville, Va.,
has published a work, dealing with the economics of South-west Virginia,
in which are given many geological details, with a map which topo-
graphically is a very notable improvement on its predecessors. The
writer is under obligations to these publications which will be acknowl-
edged in the proper connection.

The general type of structure is practically the same as that found in
the areas already described, and it has been well represented by Lesley,
who in his memoir on Tazewell county, f gives an ideal figure, which
with his permission is reproduced as Fig. 1. The upthrow side, except in
the case of cross-faults, is the south-east, and the Lower Carboniferous is
found for greater or less distances in contact with the Lower Silurian
limestones along most of the fractures. These faults are not simple, as is
well shown in the Clinch group, but subordinate and cross-faultsdo not
appear to arise directly from those of the principal system ; and where-
ever a fault, either principal or subordinate, was followed out, it was found
to originate or to terminate in an anticlinal. The faults are not parallel,
they bear no relation whatever to the folds except such as is purely for-
tuitous, and their direction is wholly independent of the strike. A regu-
lar fault such as the Saltville exhibits this well, the upthrow group being
in contact with different groups at different localities, owing to the influ-
ence of anticlinals on the downthrow side. Some interesting facts of this
kind were given in the previous memoirs ; others will be given in this,
going to show independence of the faults and the folds and, as the writer
intimated several years ago, suggesting very strongly a difference in age.

The structure is hardly so simple as that of the counties already
described and the description cannot be given in so direct a manner as
that of the other counties.

The Lick Mountain Anticlinal.

Lick mountain, at a little way southward from the railroad in Wythe
county, is due to a strong double anticlinal, which diminishes rapidly east-
ward and is soon recognizable only as a gentle fold, followed by the Val-
ley pike north-eastward for six or seven miles in Pulaski county. It was
not traced beyond New river. How far westward it can be traced in
Smyth county was not ascertained. It brings up the Potsdam in Wythe
county, so as to form a very rugged mountain about fifteen miles long, but
eastward it sinks so as to be crossed by the Knox shales before Reed creek
has been reached ; thence, as far as it was followed, no beds below the
Knox shales are shown on the axis.ij: Some anticlinals in the Knox lime-
stone were seen between the Lick mountain fold and the southern edges
of Wythe and Pulaski counties, but they were not followed. One is
crossed by the New river, very near the Wythe lead mine.

*Amer. Journ. of Science, Jan. and Feb., 1877.

tProc. Amer. Phil. Soc, Vol. xii, p. 490.

X The easterly limit assigned to these shales on the map is conjectural.

Proc, Amer. Pliilos, Soc, Vol. Till h, 125, p, Bl.

Fig. 1.— After Lesley ; Ideal cross-section showing the downthrows.

Fig. 2.— Section through Kent's Station on Norfolk and Western Railroad, a, Wytheville syn-
clinal; b, Wytheville anticlinal; c, Lick Mt. anticlinal;/, Draper Mountain fault; 0, Lower
Silurian ; 7, Cambrian.

Fig. 3.— Near line between Wythe and Pulaski counties, n. Draper Mt. ; /, Draper Mt. fault;
/I, Max Meado\v.s fault ; 3, Lower Carboniferous ; 6, Lower Silurian ; 7, Cambrian.

Fig. 4.— On Pulaski road, a. Draper IMt.: h. Draper Valley . c. Macadam road ; /, Draper Mt.
fault; 4, Devonian ; G, Lower Silurian ; 7, Cambrian.

1887.] ^* [Stevenson,

The Fault of Draper Jlowitain.

At a mile and a half, or perhaps a little less, south from Reed creek on
the road leading from Wytheville southward over Lick mountain, the
Knox Limestones are much disturbed, being thrown into several close
folds. On the Valley pike, prolmbly a mile and a half from the first
crossing of Reed creek, the upper limestones of the Knox are succeeded
by red shales belonging at the base of the group ; the fault rapidly de-
velops and passes along the northerly side of Draper mountain, where it
brings the lower beds of the Potsdam at the south into contact with the
base of the Lower Carboniferous, and further eastward with the Chemung.
It quickly diminishes eastward and soon is in the Knox limestone. An
anticlinal is crossed by the Valley pike very near Newbern ; it may rep-
resent the fault.

The structure of this fault is fairly well shown at several localities, but
the conditions are complicated for much of the distance by two cross-
faults coming the one from the north-west and the other, if the map be
right, almost from the north. A section on and near the Valley pike in
Wythe county is represented by Fig. 2, but the section crossing Draper
mountain near the line between Wythe and Pulaski counties, as repre-
sented in Fig. 3, shows a very ditferent condition, for here the Max
Meadows cross-fault is seen. The Knox limestones certainly describe an
anticlinal near the fault, but whether or not they dip away at the fault
could not be ascertained. /The Potsdam forms the heart of this very
rugged mountain and is dipping south-eastwardly at from thirty-five to
nearly sixty degrees. Further east, where the road crosses Draper moun-
tain to Pulaski, the structure is as given in Fig. 4. The structure is dis-
tinct along this road for the Devonian shales are turned up at the fault
so as to be actually conformable in dip with the lower shales of the Pots-
dam. The exposures along this road in descending the mountain are
practically continuous, yet it will be found difiicult to determine accu-
rately the place of the fault, so closely do the shales resemble each other
and so nearly exact is the conforraability of dip. In all probability, the
Vespertine is brought into contact with the lower beds of the Potsdam at
a short distance west from the road, so that this is the most formidable
fault yet noticed. The Pulaski fault cuts off the Devonian and Carbon-
iferous, and the Lower Silurian beds are on both sides of the fault beyond
Peak creek.

The Area between the Norfolk and Western Railroad and the Walker Moun-
tain Fault.

The village of Wytheville, county seat of Wythe, is built on a ridge
marking the course of the Wytheville synclinal, which, beginning cer-
tainly more than six miles westward from Wytheville, extends east-north-
east to where it is cut olf by the JLax Meadows fault north from Max
Meadows station. A well-marked anticlinal bounds it on the southerly
side, which is crossed by the Valley pike near Kent's mills, three miles

Stevenson.] Oo [March 18»

and a half from Wytheville, and it may be the same with that seen near
Max Meadows on the railroad. It is crossed very near Reed creek on the
Lick Mountain road. The dips in this portion are interesting. Within
the synclinal ridge, composed of Knox Limestones, the dip is fifty to sixty
degrees on both sides. The anticlinal brings up the Knox shales, which
are shown on the railroad just west from Kent's mills. The south-easterly
dip looking toward the Draper Mountain fault is at first very abrupt,
being almost vertical for some distance along the pike, but it becomes^
gentler until the higher limestones have a dip of not more than twenty
degrees.

The Max Meadows fault has its origin evidently in an anticlinal, which
is crossed by the Wythe and Tazewell pike at say two miles and a half
from the Wytheville borough line ; it is crossed by Cove creek very near
its forks and by the Norfolk and Western railroad at not far from three
miles and a half beyond Max Meadows station. At a little distance fur-
ther it must unite with the Draper Mountain fault. It cuts ofl:'the Wythe-
ville anticlinal and synclinal at the east, while on the other side it cuts off
a broad synclinal and an anticlinal which are well shown in eastern
Wythe and western Pulaski and may be continuous with the Wytheville
folds ; but of this, one may not speak positively. The fault becomes
greater as it extends south- eastwardly at an angle with the strike, so bring-
ing Hudson, Medina, Clinton, Hamilton, Chemung and Vespertine suc-
cessively into contact with the Knox limestones and shales on the oppo-
site side.

The Pulaski fault, like the last, is a cross-fault and is the easterly
boundary of the area of newer rocks held between the Walker Mountain,
Max Meadows, Draper Mountain and Pulaski faults. The details of this
fault were not worked out, but if the map employed be accurate, the
direction from the Walker Mountain fault is almost south-south-east to
Pulaski, where tlie course is changed to east-south-east. Evidently the
line is south from Peak creek for more than two miles below Pulaski.
Knox limestones are shown throughout on the easterly side of the fault,
but on the opposite side are Devonian and Carboniferous rocks as far as
followed. The region embraced within these faults was not worked out
in detail, as much of it is not cleared ; but it is evident that Cove moun-
tain and its Devonian companion are monoclinals and there is every
reason to suppose from the exposures along the railroad that an anticlinal
exists in the Peak hills, the low ridge directly north from Pulaski. The
limits assigned to the several groups within this area are largely conjectu-
ral.

The structure of Pulaski county east from the Pulaski fault is not shown
satisfactorily along the roads, but cuts along the New River branch of the
Norfolk and Western railroad make the structure clear. The Knox lime-
stones are badly twisted for two miles and a half from New River station,
but afterwards for nearly a mile they dip quite regularly to the north-west.
The dip is reversed at three and a half miles and thence for a mile the pre-

1887.) t)y [Stevenson.

vailing dip is south-east, tliough tliere are some reversals. The dip be-
comes very flexuous at four miles and a half, and the same beds remain in
sight thence until near Belspring station, where all exposures cease. The
structure may be regarded as representing two anticlinals with irregular
•crests, separated by a well-defined synclinal, whose axis is somewhat
more than two miles south from Belspring station. The northerly anti-
clinal is cut off by the Walker Mountain fault.

The faults of Price's mountain east from New river in Montgomery
county hold between them a fragment of an anticlinal, the Price Moun-
tain area of Vespertine coals. Between the Walker Mountain fault at the
north and the northerly fault of Price's mountain, the Knox limestones
■describe a synclinal, though the few and unfortunately somewhat indefi-
nite exposures show that it is complicated. The lower beds of the Knox
limestone are brought into contact with Umbral red shales, but whether
they are dipping to or from the fault could not be ascertained. The lime-
stone on the northerly side dips northwardly at fifteen to thirty degrees,
while the Lower Carboniferous rocks beyond the fault are dipping in the
same direction at thirty to fifty-five degrees, the rate increasing toward
the summit of the Price's Mountain anticlinal. The dip is gentler on the
southerly side of the axis, rarely exceeding twenty degrees. The condi-
tions at the southerly fault were not clear at the only point where it was
crossed, further than that the Umbral shales and the Knox limestones are in
contact. The eastward extent of these faults was not ascertained. They
do not appear to cross New river at the west.

The Walker Mountain Fault.

This fault, following the southerly foot of Little Walker mountain,
•enters Wythe from Smyth county and, at the county line, brings Knox
limestone into contact with the Vespertine sandstones. The line of fault
is crossed by Stony fork of Reed creek at somewhat more than six miles
from Wytheville, its place being shown there by a narrow valley passing
in front of the M. E. Church. The church is on Umbral shales, while
Knox limestones crop out on the opposite side of the bottom. The condi-
tions are the same in Crockett's cove, but in Pulaski county for several
miles they are very different. There the Lower Carboniferous beds on
the northerly side must be brought into contact successively with Lower
and Upper Silurian, Devonian, and possibly with Vespertine near the
Pulaski fault ; beyond that fault, Knox beds occur again. Tlie fault-line
passes but a little way south from the Altoona mine ; is crossed by the
Dub in and Pearisburg pike at half a mile, possibly a little more, north
from Back creek ; by New river just below the mouth of Back creek ; and
by the Newport and Christiansburg road at only a little way south from
Tom's creek : in each case bringing the red Umbral shales into contact
with the lower limestones of the Knox group.

Generally speaking, the structure in the vicinity of this fault is simple,
and notwithstanding the enormous vertical extent of the fracture, the

Stevenson.] « " [March 18,

crushing and distortion are very much less than that observed near the
Kew Garden fault in Tazewell county, the Hunter valley fault in Russell,
or even the Max Meadows fault on the railroad. Where crossed by the
Wythe and Tazewell pike it shows dips of thirty to forty degrees in the
Lower Carboniferous, and forty to fifty-five degrees in the Knox limestones
at about equal distances from the line of faulting ; on the Dublin and
Pearisburg road, the dip is comparatively gentle and the succession of
Lower Silurian on top of Lower Carboniferous appears to be wholly con-
formable ; a similar condition exists on New river, where the dips in the
Umbral shale near the fault are only ten to fifteen degrees, while in the
Vespertine further from the line the dip rises to fifty-five degrees. Here,
however, the rocks on the southerly side are disturbed, and the beds are
wrinkled for a mile or more. Near Tom's creek the greater disturbance
is on the northerly side, where the Lower Carboniferous beds are almost
vertical, though dipping toward the fault, while the Knox limestones are
dipping much less sharply in the same general direction.

The structure between the Walker Mountain and Saltville faults is much
less complicated than that of the next block southward. The Vespertine
Coal group is exposed continuously on the northerly side of the former
fault from eastern Smyth to beyond the centre of Montgomery county,
and the course of the fault is -so little ofi the strike of the beds that the
thickness of the overlying Umbral shales shows very little change from
Wythe county eastward. Big Walker mountain is a Medina ridge sepa-
rated by a Clinton and Hamilton valley from Little Walker mountain,
an Upper Devonian ridge with Lower Carboniferous sandstones and
shales on its southerly slope. The dip throughout, or nearly so, is south
of south-east at from ten to sixty degrees. Petty wrinkles occur in the
shales, but the only material interruption of the dip on Big Walker is near
the Tazewell pike, where at barely five or six miles from the Smyth county
line an anticlinal evidently has its origin. This rapidly increases eastward
and soon causes a considerable southward deflection in the Medina out-
crop or. crest of Big Walker mountain. The axis must be cut several
times by Walker's creek, which flows on Knox limestone along the
northerly foot of the mountain ; and the fold shows no material decrease
until beyond the line of Bland county ; but thence to New River gap, the
Medina of Walker mountain gradually approaches the Saltville fault.
The interval between that fault and the Medina opposite Seddon is fully
three miles, but at New River gap it is barely one mile.

The dips on the northerly side of Big Walker are comparatively gentle
except for a few miles on each side of the New River gap ; and it is worthy
of notice in this connection that the dips throughout Big and Little Walker
along the New river are much more abrupt than at any other localities.
Possibly the approach of the Medina outcrop to the Saltville fault may be
due as much to a thrust as to diminished strength of the Walker Creek
anticlinal.

1887.] '1 [Stevenson.

The Saltmlle ^ault.

This interesting fault, originating in Tennessee, enters Bland county-
just north from the Saltville and Sharon Springs road ; passes at only a
few rods north from that road at Sharon Springs ; less than one-third of a
mile north from the cross-roads at Seddon ; lies north from the road for
six miles beyond Seddon ; thence for two miles is south, but is again
crossed so that it is only a few rods north from the forks of the road at
Poplar hill, in Giles county ; it is crossed by New river in Buckeye moun-
tain, very near Scott's ferry ; and by the Salt Pond and Newport road in
a wind-gap through Buckeye mountain at half a mile north from New-
port. The dips of the southerly side are regularly south south-eastward,
and not very abrupt, rarely exceeding twenty five degrees ; those on the
northerly side are equally regular except near Newport, where the
Trenton shales are faulted against the Knox limestone and the former are
badly twisted.

The Knox limestones are shown on the southerly side of the fault, and
notwithstanding the great variations ot horizons on the northerly side,
there is comparatively little change on the southerly side — even less than
might be expected from the influence of the Walker Creek anticlinal.
The variations on the northerly side possess much interest, but being due
to the Clinch Mountain group ot folds cannot be described until after those
folds have been discussed.

The Clinch 3fountain Qroiif of Folds.

Where tirst seen, in Scott county. Clinch and its associated Brushy
mountain make up a broad monoclinal, showing a section from Medina on
the crest of Clinch mountain to tlie highest Umbral rocks at the Saltville
fault. The width of Upper Silurian and Devonian is barely three miles.
In Smyth and Tazewell, however, a fold, the Burk's Garden anticlinal,
arose at the foot of Clinch mountain, widening the area of Silurian and
Devonian, and narrowing that of the Lower Carboniferous until at the
line of Wythe county only the Vespertine remains. Similarly, gentle
folds in Russell and Tazewell interrupt the dip at the north and the Medina
outcrop is carried further in that direction, so that Rich mountain, whose
crest is merely the continuation of Clinch mountain around a petty anti-
clinal, lies nearly a mile north from the previous line of Clinch. So the
monoclinal of Scott county is interrupted by a great fold with a broad
synclinal at the north as it enters Bland county. The structure becomes
more complicated within Bland and Giles, but gives promise of returning
simplicity as the group passes into Craig county beyond the limits of the
writei-'s examination.

The Burk's Garden fold, which attains its greatest maximum in the cove
of that name, quickly flattens, so that at the easterly end of the cove, the
Medina outcrops of Garden mountain unite and that sandstone crosses the
fold in Round mountain. The decrease is so rapid that within five miles

Stevenson.] ' ^ [March 18,

the Hamiltoa crosses the anticlinal, which at four miles further eastward
seems to have disappeared.

The Pearisburg synclinal, between the Cove and Elk Garden anticlinals
in central Tazewell county, lies between the Elk Garden and Burk's
Garden anticlinals in eastern Tazewell, owing to the disappearance of the
Cove fold. Wolf creek, rising in Burk's Garden, flows for more than
fifteen miles in this synclinal within Bland county, so that Rich mountain
of Tazewell, continuous with Clinch mountain further west, becomes
Wolf Creek mountain of Bland county. The disappearance of the Burk's
Garden fold and the rapid growth of the Kimberling anticlinal keep this
trough distinct to beyond the eastern limit of Giles county. Brushy moun-
tain, the Devonian ridge with Vespertine foothills, continues to about the
eastern border of Bland, where under the increasing influence of the new
anticlinals the mountain gradually disappears.

The Kimberling anticlinal was first observed on the Seddon and Mercer
county road, where, though narrow, it is distinct at not far south from the
summit of Brushy mountain. To the influence of this anticlinal, most
probably, is due the widening of the Vespertine area further west as shown
on the road crossing Brushy mountain to Hunting Camp creek. The
"Wilderness" road, leading from Kimberling creek to Rocky gap,
crosses the anticlinal at say a mile* from the junctitm of Kimberling with
No -Business creek. This fold, rapidly increasing in height, causes the
broad space of Devonian shales, known as the "Wilderness," which
extends from Brushy mountain northward almost to the foot of Wolf
Creek mountain. It soon brings up the lower rocks and the Medina in
crossing it forms a long V, with the opening toward New river. The
northern arm, known as Pearls mountain, reaching north-north-eastward
into the Pearisburg synclinal, terminates in a peak — the Angels' Rest —
near Pearisburg, where it bends on itself and becomes continuous with
Wolf Creek mountain. The southerly arm is Sugar Run mountain, point-
ing out in the synclinal between Kimberling and a new anticlinal, the
Sinking Creek, which first appears along the Saltville fault at a little way
east from the Bland county line. The Kimberling anticlinal attains its
maximum elevation between Walker creek and the Dublin and Pearisburg
road, whence it diminishes rapidly toward the north-east. Erosion has
been effective on both sides of New river, so that for several miles Lower
Silurian limestones are the immediately underlying rocks.

But the comparatively rapid flattening of the Kimberling anticlinal per-
mits the Medina to appear in the Pearisburg synclinal with double out-
crop as Butte mountain at, say four miles eastward from New river. The
course of the fold and its loss of elevation are shown by the deep re-en-
trant angle between Butte and Salt Pond mountains. The latter is the
double outcrop of Medina in the synclinal between the Kimberling and

*Many of the distances given in this memoir were determined by "dead reckoning,"
there being no other means of making determination in the thinly settled portions.
They may be either too large or too small.

Proc. Amer, Philos, Soc, Vol. XIIV, No. 125, p, Bl.

Fig. 5.— Throush Sharon Springs, a, Garden axis ; 6. Brnshy Mt.; c, Big Walker Mt.; /, Salt-
ville fault ; 3, Lower Garb.; 4, Devon.; 5, Upper Silur.; 6, Lower Silur.

Fig. fi.— Throngh Sedrton. n. Garden Mt.; 6, Kimbcrling axis ; c, Brasliy Mt.; d, Big Walker
Mt.; /, Saltville fault ; numbers as before.

Fig. 7.— Through Newport, a, Big Walker Mt.; 6, Sinking Creek axis ; f, Saltville fault ; Num-
bers as before.

1887.1 '*^ [Stevensou.

Sinking Creek anticlinals, but it does not extend so far westward as Butte
mountain, for the Sinking Creek anticlinal attains its maximum at a little
way eastward from Xew river and Medina does not cross it until very near
the easterly line of Giles county. This fold is crossed by the Salt Pond
and Newport road at barely two-thirds of a mile north from Sinking
creek.

For the most part the dips in the synclinals are not very abrupt ; but
the "Wilderness" road in crossing the Pearisburg synclinal shows
Chemung with fifty degrees northerly, and almost vertical southerly dip.
Northward the dip diminishes, for in Rocky gap through Wolf Creek
mountain the Medina shows only twenty-six degrees. Further eastward
in this trough, at the end of Butte mountain, the calcareous shales of the
Trenton have been thrown into numerous and very narrow flexures. A
similar condition exists in the Salt Pond synclinal on the Salt Pond and
Newport road where some of the petty folds show distinct faults.

The effects produced by the Saltville fault in cutting across the south-
erly slope of the anticlinals are shown by the map. As the Burk's Garden
anticlinal diminishes, the width of the Lower Carboniferous area increases,
so that at Sharon Springs the Umbral red shales appear ; but as the Kim-
berling anticlinal increases, the width diminishes and the whole of the
Lower Carboniferous is finally lost in the fault near the Giles county line.
Devonian, Upper Silurian and the upper beds of the Lower Silurian are
cut off quickly at a little way further east under the added influence of the
Sinking Creek anticlinal and of erosion by Walker's creek and New river,
so that for several miles east and west from Poplar hill, the fault is in
Knox limestone. Thence north-eastwardly to the county line, Medina is
found on the northerly side of the fault, except at New River gap and for
a few miles on each side of Sinking Creek gap, where erosion has cut away
both Medina and Hudson.

Knox limestone is continuous on the southerly side of the Saltville fault
from the Smyth county line to the end of Giles county. It is in contact with
Lower Carboniferous in Bland, with Chemung, Hamilton, Clinton,
Medina, Hudson, Trenton and Knox within eight miles eastward from the
line of Giles county ; and with Medina, Hudson or Trenton, according to
extent of erosion, thence to the end of the region examined. The rela-
tions are shown in Figures 5, 6 and 7, which are merely diagrams, not
actual measured sections.

The Elk Garden Anticlinal and Wolf Creek Faults.

The Elk Garden anticlinal of Russell and Tazewell counties gives rise
to the Copper Creek fault in western Russell. The anticlinal continues in
eastern Tazewell between Wolf Creek and East River mountains to within
less than four miles of the Bland county line ; but at some place between
that and two miles west from Rocky gap in Bland county it gives rise to a
double fault, the Wenonah, which was followed to within eight miles of
the Craig county line. Another fault, that of Buckhorn mountain, origi-

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 125. J. PRINTED APRIL 30, 1887.

Stevenson.] *^ [March 18,

nates nearly opposite Rocky gap or Wolf Creek gap, through Wolf Creek
mountain, where it cannot be more than a few rods distant from the
Wenonah. This was followed to somewhat less than twelve miles east
from New river. But both faults must extend several miles further than
the writer's examinations went.

The Wenonah fault, whose course is shown by the Valley ridge of Wolf
Creek valley, is crossed by Wolf creek at a little way below Rocky gap,
but not again except, perhaps, above the " round bottom ;" it is crossed
by New river At Wenonah ; is touched by Big Stony creek at one mile
from the river, and its peculiarities are well shown at three miles from the
river on the road leading from Big to Little Stony creek. Where first seen,
this fault is in Knox limestone and holds a wall of Medina and Clinton in
its jaws. As one comes fi'om the " Wilderness " through Rocky gap of
Wolf Creek mountain, he finds the complete succession from Medina to
Knox limestone ; but within a mile below the gap he reaches the fault.
There the creek breaks through the Valley ridge, in which Medina is
shown with dip of eighty degrees, while on the lower, as on the upper side
of the ridge, Knox limestone is shown against the Medina. The wall of
Medina is wanting at Wenonah, where the fault shows Knox on both sides.
The Valley ridge shows two sets of faults instead of one at three miles
east from New river, where two lines of Medina are present.

The Buckhorn fault, whose course is shown by Buckhorn mountain and
Little mountain, a ridge following the southerly foot of East River and
Peter's mountain, is crossed by the Wolf Creek road after passing through
the Valley ridge, nearly one mile below the Rocky gap. It is recrossed
on the hill overlooking Mr. Carpenter's house at say two miles and a half
frohi the gap. Thence, neither road nor creek touches the fault, though
they approach it closely at the Giles county line. It brings Medina or
Clinton into contact with Knox limestone.

The lines of faulting are not exposed. A reversed dip is shown on the
north side of the Wenonah fault at one locality on Big Stony creek ; and
the Medina shows a flexure on the southerly side in the Wolf Creek
gap through the Valley ridge ; so that there is evidence of dragging at
both localities. The dips in the intervals between these faults rarely
exceed forty degrees and ordinarily are between twenty and twenty-five
degrees. The interval is but a few rods wide at the gap through the Val-
ley ridge, but beyond the New river it is nearly two miles. The faults
disappear at no great distance beyond the limits of the writer's examina-
tion, for in the Rogers section, an anticlinal is shown along the foot of
East River mountain in Craig county.

The Souse and Barn Synclinal.

Nothing was ascertained respecting the structure of this trough, which
seems to be less and less complicated eastward. East River mountain is
a monoclinal ridge with Medina as the backbone, and there must be a

1887.] ' «^ [Stevenson.

synclinal between it and the similar ridge of Buckhorn mountain. The
valley between these ridges is reported to show only shale.

The Clinch FaxdU.
The Clinch River system of faults continue from Tazewell county into
Mercer county of West Virginia, which lies beyond tlie area examined for
this memoir. The New Garden fault passes at a little way north from
East River mountain and continues eastwardly beyond the eastern
limit of Mercer county, as appears from the Rogers' section ; but it is
greatly diminished in eastern Mercer, for there it is in Devonian rocks,
whereas in Tazewell it brings Quinnimont into contact with Knox lime-
stone. The Stony Ridge and Abb's Valley faults certainly disappear before
the eastern line of Mercer county is reached, unless their course has been
greatly changed, for the writer found no trace of them in Summers
county, of West Virginia, where they should be found.

The extreme vertical extent of the several faults is approximately as
follows :

Draper mountain 12,500 feet.

Max Meadows' 9,800 "

Pulaski 9,600 "

Price mountain 10, 000 ' '

Walker mountain 10,000 "

Saltville 10,000 "

Wolf creek 2,000 "

II. THE GROUPS, WITH COMPARATIVE NOTES.

The section is a long one, reaching from the Umbral of the Lower Car-
boniferous to the lower beds of the Potsdam. No detailed measurements
were attempted and in most cases no effort was made to estimate thick-
nesses. Only the more general features are summarized here, as most of
the details given in previous memoirs are equally applicable to this area.

The, Carloniferoiis.

The Coal Measures are not reached but the Lower Carboniferous is repre-
sented by the Umbral and the Vespertine. These groups are shown in
Bland county along the southerly slope of Brushy mountain ; in Wythe,
Pulaski and Montgomery counties, they form the foothill of Little Walker
mountain ; they are present in Wythe and Pulaski counties in the area
between the Max Meadows and Pulaski faults ; and in Montgomery, on
Price mountain.

The Umbral. — Prof. Fontaine makes the thickness of the upper portion,
the Umbral red shales and shaly sandstones, to be 1090 feet in Brush and
Price mountains of Montgomery county, and the writer finds 996 feet in
the New River gap through Brush or Little Walker mountain. In the
Memoir on Lee county, &c., the writer regarded these Montgomery
county shales as Vespertine, but he now feels that that identification is

7fi

Stevenson.] • ^ (March 18,

erroneous and that the shales belong to the Umbral or Greenbrier series.
These shales are well shown on the various roads crossing Brushy moun-
tain in Bland and especially well along the various roads crossing Little
Walker, in Pulaski and Montgomery counties. They occasionally con-
tain a thin bed of coal, which was seen on Brushy mountain, in Bland,
and on the Norfolk and Western railway near Clark's summit, in Pulaski
county ; but the bed is of no importance. The rocks are reddish shales,
mostly sandy, occasionally compacted into earthy sandstones ; but in
nearly all cases the bedding is irregular. So far as observed, these beds
are not fossiliferous.

A silicious limestone, too impure to be used in making lime, occurs
under these shales. It is said to be seven or eight feet thick on Stony
Fork of Reed creek, in Wythe county : it is rather less on the railroad in
Clark's summit cut four miles and a half east from Max Meadows ; and is
a little thicker on Brushy mountain, in Bland county. In many ways
this is exceedingly suggestive of the silicious limestone which occurs at
the summit of the Vespertine in Pennsylvania and it maybe the represen-
tative of that rock. This limestone the writer takes to be in all proba-
bility the separating bed between the Umbral and the underlying Vesper-
tine, but with greater affinity with th? latter. Unfortunately, the only
locality where measurements can be made without great expenditure
of time is along New river, but there the limestone was not recognized
and an arbitrary line had to be assumed for separation of the two groups.

The variations in the Umbral within South-western Virginia are not
without interest. The section obtained in Lee county showed

1. Shales and sandstone with thin limestone 705'

3. Limestone and calcareous shales 150'

3. Cherty limestone 200'

In Brushy mountain of Washington county on north side of the Salt-
ville fault, the upper division retains its thickness while the lower divi-
sions increase vastly, the measurements being.

No. 1 800 feet.

No. 2 1470 "

No. 3 605 "

But in western Smyth county, where the group is crossed by the road
leading to Saltville through Brushy mountain, there is manifestly a seri-
ous decrease in thickness of the limestones, while tlie shales appear to
have decreased very slightly. Within Bland county, in the same moun-
tain, the red shales are found thick, but the limestone has disappeared.
This is simply the condition which one should expect to find here, when
it is remembered that on the north westerly side of the Great Valley in
Pennsylvania and Maryland, limestone is found almost wholly absent
from the isolated patches of Umbral : similarly, with the disappearance of
the calcareous matter, the fossils disappear. Prof. Fontaine came to the
same conclusion with respect to the relations of these shales after com-

77

1887.] * * [Stevenson.

paring them with the section obtained near Lewisburg, in Greenbrier
county, of West Virginia.

The Vespertine. — This great period is represented by sandstones and
shales witli coal beds, having in all an extreme thickness of not far from
seven hundred feet. The bottom of the group is taken to be a grayish
sandstone, sometimes slightly conglomerate, often with impressions of
SpiropJiyton, and about thirty feet thick. It is a characteristic rock rest-
ing directly on sandy beds which mark the transition to Chemung and in
which the dividing line cannot be dra»vn very closely. On this sandstone
rests the succession of shales and sandstones, the latter varying from gray
to blue or red, from compact to shaly, from good building stone to miser-
able rubbish. The general succession is fairly well shown in many of the
smaller gaps through Brushy mountain of Smyth and Bland, as well as in
the similar gaps through Little Walker in Wythe, Pulaski and ]\Iont-
gomery ; a more accessible section is along the Norfolk and Western rail-
road for seven or eight miles west from Pulaski.

The change in this group is as marked as that in the Umbral. The sec-
tion in Lee county shows

Reddish silicious beds, some shale 150 feet.

Some part of which must represent the Vespertine. No coal was seen
here. In the North Holston section near Mendota, in Washington county,
the Vespertine can only be in the concealed space of eighty feet at the
bottom. But the sandy beds increase toward the north-east so that before
the line of Smyth county has been reached a coal has been mined in the
river bed, while the shales and sandstones form a notable foothill to
Brushy mountain. At the Laurel gap, in Smyth county, the estimated
thickness is about 500 feet, while in the same ridge within Bland county,
the thickness appears to be approximately the same. But followed north-
westward into Tazewell county, this division is found insignificant wheie
shown among the Clinch faults, being thinner on Indian creek than in
Pennington's gap, in Lee county. Along the foot of Brushy and Little
Walker mountains, one finds the Vespertine very much as in South-cen-
tral Pennsylvania, a mass of shales, sandstones and irregular coal beds,
capped by a silicious limestone.

The feature of especial interest is the great development of Vespertine
coal beds within Wythe, Pulaski and Montgomery counties. These have
been worked, especially in Montgomery county, for many years, and a
summary account of them was given by Prof. W. B. Rogers, in his report
for 1838. Prof. J. P. Lesley gave an excellent statement respecting the
beds and workings as they existed in 1860 ; while Prof. Fontaine has
described in detail the beds of Brush and Price mountains, in Montgomery
county.

According to Capt. Boyd, thirteen beds or streaks of coal occur in a ver-
tical space of less than 400 feet within the gap made through Little Wal-
ker mountain by Stony Fork of Reed creek. The first five of these beds
are embraced within a column of 100 to 130 feet, No. 1 resting on the

Stevenson.] * ^ [March 18,

sandstone, known as " Quarry rock, " which the writer has assumed as
the base of the Vespertine. The first three beds alone possess any
economic interest, as no others are mined anywhere within this region.

The lowest bed is usually very thin, but on Cloyd's mountain in
Pulaski, and on Brush mountain in Montgomery, it becomes of workable
thickness, two and a half to three feet. The second bed has been opened
near the Wythe and Tazewell pike in Wythe county ; at the Altoona
mine in Pulaski ; at several places along Tom's creek in Montgomery, all in
the foothill of Little Walker or Cloyd's or Brush mountain, as the ridge is
termed in different portions of its extent. Apparently the same bed has
been mined near Sharon Springs, in Bland county ; and on Price's mountain,
in Montgomery. It varies from nearly four feet of nearly solid coal in Wythe
to twenty-two feet of shale and coal in Pulaski, and nine or ten feet of coal
and shale in Montgomery. But these are extreme measurements and the
bed exhibits great and sudden variations in thickness, owing to the im-
mense pressure which the yielding material has suffered. A similar con-
dition exists in Bland county ; but the variations in Price's mountain are
comparatively small. The third bed was mined systematically onlj' at the
Altoona mine in Pulaski, though it was opened in Wythe county,
near the Wythe and Tazewell pike. Its thickness at these localities is
said to be between three and four feet. It is not worked now.

The physical structure of the coal shows great variations, which cannot
be accounted for always by supposing different degrees of pressure. The
coal from the second bed appears everywhere to have undergone much
greater change than either the first or the third. In Wythe county at the
Boyd mine, in Pulaski ; at the Altoona mine and on the Dublin and
Pearisburg road ; and in Montgomery county, on Tom's creek ; as well
as in Bland county, near Sharon Spriags, the coal from the second bed
appears to have been crushed into fragments, which f§ere pressed and
rubbed until they were reduced to lamina?, so loosely packed in many
places as to be easily separable by the fingers. But the coal of the first
or third bed may be found on the same hillside, hard enough to bear
transportation, though it shows with sufficient distinctness that it too has
been subjected to severe crushing and rubbing. It has been broken into
fragments, which have been rubbed together until thoroughly glazed.
But the rubbing did not reduce the fragments to laminae.

This variation may be due to difference in chemical composition or to
the fact that the thinner beds are not broken by shale partings. It is of
interest, however, to note that notwithstanding all this crushing and rub-
bing, the penetration of coal layers by shale layers in the second bed is no
greater than that often seen in coal beds within the very little disturbed
Coal Measures area of South-western Pennsylvania and the adjacent parts
of West Virginia. The crush of strata in Price's mountain has been
comparatively slight, despite the faulting, though there also, it is suf-
ficiently clear that the greater part of the crushing was endured by the
<;oal, as being the more yielding substance.

1887.1

79

[Stevenson.

Analj'ses of coals from several of the pits have been made bj' Mr. A. S.
McCreath, the accomplished chemist of the Second Geological Survey of
Pennsylvania. The results taken from his memoir on the Resources of
Virginia, are as follows :

1. Guggenheim bank, Brush mountain, near head of Tom's creek.

2. Smith bank, also on Brush mountain, one mile further east.

3. Blacksburg M. & M. Co., also on Brush mountain.

4. "William Perfator, also on Brush mountain.

5. William Meyers, Price mountain.

All of these are from Montgomery county :

6. Altoona mines, Pulaski county.

7. Stony Fork, of Reed creek, Wythe county, 2d bed.

8. Same locality, 4th bed.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Water

1.22S

0.816

0.615

0.725

1.080

0.236

0.466

0.620

Volatile matter . . .

11.652

11.324

12.870

12.215

9.675

9.459

16.264

17.853

Fixed carbon ....

73.012

75.618

70.924

72.737

74.013

49.353

55.615

59.427

Sulphur

0.548

0.697

0.481

0.333

0.6824 1.122
14.550 39.830

0.995

1.575

Ash

13.560

11.545

15.110

13.990

26.660

20.525

The coal from several of the mines is in good repute. Much of that
from Tyler's mine near New river is used as grate fuel in villages along
the railroad west from New river. The Tom's Creek mines are worked
and the coal is carried in wagons nine or ten miles to Bang station, on the
railroad, whence, witli the Price Mountain coal, it is distributed to villages
in the vicinity. In spite of the great percentage of ash and the much
higher cost per ton, the Tyler and Price Mountain coals are preferred to
Pocahontas coal for grates, as they are practically free-burning, having
very slight tendency to coke. The Altoona coal is used at the salt-works
in Smyth county, and at the Bertha zinc-works in Pulaski.

A comparison of the fuel ratios is interesting. Arranged in order from
northeast to south-west along the foot of Little Walker mountain we have

No. 2 15 85

No. 1 10 84

No. 3 18 82

No.4 16 84

No. 6 19 81

No. 7 29 71

No. 8 30 70

An analysis of the Tom's Creek coal is given in Prof Rogers' report for
1836, p. 17, which shows the ratio of

Volatile 16

Fixed 84

Stevenson.] °^ [March 18,

or the same as No. 2, of Mr. McCreath's analyses of Tom's Creek coals.
These analyses show that the proportion of the volatile combustible mat-
ter decreases north-eastward, so that one is prepared to find not a semi-
bituminous coal such as these, but a true anthracite in Narrowback moun-
tain at the Dora mines further north-north-east, near Harrisonburg.

The material for comparison of the areas lying further south-east, in
the Valley, does not exist. No analyses of coals in the area between Max
Meadows and Pulaski have been made, so far as the writer knows ; only
one analysis of the Price Mountain coals by McCreath, and one of the
Catawba coal in Botetourt county by Rogers, have fallen under the
writer's notice ; these show :

Price mountain 13 87

Catawba 21 79

a very notable difference. "Whether or not the specimens were taken from
different parts of the same bed or from different beds cannot be ascertained.
The Vespertine coal beds attain their chief importance within the coun-
ties of Wythe, Pulaski, Montgomery, Roanoke and Botetourt, a distance
along Little Walker mountain of barely 105 miles. But isolated patches
of slight extent preserved in synclinals within Augusta and Rockingham
counties, show that the field with beds of workable thickness extended to
certainly 100 miles further north-north-east, thus giving a length directly
measured of nearly 200 miles. Exposures in Wythe, Pulaski and Roanoke
show that the Vespertine beds reached far into the area now known as the
"Great Valley," fragmentary patches still remaining at a distance of
barely twelve miles from the Archtean, while exposures in Bland and Rock-
ingham show that the productive coal area in Virginia extended to some
distance beyond the line of the Saltville f;iult. Certainly it was 200 miles long
by fifteen miles in Virginia ; and the width may have been twelve miles
greater toward the south-east, reaching to the Archi^an. The whole area
may be estimated at beyond 5000 square miles, of which only insignificant
strips and patches have escaped erosion, amounting in all to not more than
130 square miles. How much further north-eastward this area extended
cannot be determined, for in Pennsylvania and Maryland the numerous
folds with the disappearance of the faults have thrown the most easterly
outcrop of Vespertine, to a distance from the Archaean greater than that
of the Abb's Valley fault from the Archnean in Virginia. No workable
coal beds occur in Pennsylvania and Maryland within the Vesper-
tine, but what existed in that portion of the Vespertine which has been
removed by erosion, we may conjecture from the conditions occurring in
Virginia within the same space.

Within Virginia the coal beds diminish quickly in importance in all direc-
tions from the area already defined. South-westward, the coal-bearing
division of the Vespertine diminishes and the last trace of it occurs on
the North fork of Holston, near Mendota. in Washington county, where
coal is said to be found'in the river-bottom at low water. North-westward

1887.] ol [Stevenson.

the coals diminish. In Lee, Wise, Russell and Tazewell counties, of Vir-
ginia, this lower division is either insignificant or wanting — but further
north-west, in Greenbrier county, of West Virginia, Prof. Fontaine* found
the sandstone division with strings and beds of coal, which, however, are
interesting more because of their existence than because of any economi-
cal importance. The total thickness of the whole series there is about
290 feet.

No Vespertine is found in or immediately adjoining the Great valley,
beyond Augusta county, of Virginia ; but the petty areas preserved on the
crests of synclinal ridges are among what Prof. W. B. Rogers termed the
Allegheny mountains, in Hardy, Hampshire and Morgan counties, ot
West Virginia. There the coals are usually very thin, as they are also
under the great anticlinals of Randolph and Tucker counties, of West Vir-
ginia, Allegheny county, of Maryland, Bedford, Huntingdon, and the
counties further north in Pennsylvania. The coal is present in all of these,
but not in such shape as to deserve more than passing notice ; the thick-
ness seldom exceeds a few inches and the large percentage of ash leads
most persons to regard the coal as anthracite. Along the lines mentioned,
the sandstones show a decided thickening, becoming 1100 feet or more in
Bedford county, of Pennsylvania ; but the thinning is very marked in a
north-westward direction, as the whole thickness in Fayette county, of
Pennsj^lvania, is barely 400 feet. There, the last westward exposure on
the easterly side of the Appalachian region, it appears to contain no coal.

The Devonian.

The Devonian is represented by Chemung and Hamilton only, the Cats-
kill and Carboniferous being absent. In Bland and Giles counties Devonian
rocks occur in the "Wilderness" area of Kimberling creek, and they
make up the great part of Brushy mountain, in the former county ; they
underlie the "Poor valley " of Walker mountain, and make the mass of
Little Walker and Max Meadows mountains, while a narrow strip lies
along the north side of the Draper Mountain fault in Pulaski county.
Except in the " Wilderness," where the Oriskany was recognized, no line
could be drawn between Devonian and Upper Silurian, the shales of the
one passing interceptibly into tlie shale of the other.

Ghemung. — The Chemung, as seen on the North Holston near Mendota,
is 350 feet thick, but it is wholly absent from Stony mountain in Lee county.
Eastward, or rather north-eastward in Brushy mountain, the thickness in-
creases rapidly, so that north from Saltville, in Smyth county, it is cer
tainly twice as great as at Mendota. On the same mountain, in Bland
county, the increased thickness is noticeable even to the most careless ob-
server, and on the road leading from Walker creek to Hunting Camp
creek, the following succession was seen :

1. Sandstones with some shales.

2. Conglomerate sandstone.
* Loc. eit. , pp. 44 and 45.

PKOC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 125. K. PRINTED APRIL 30, 1887.

Stevenson.] ^-' [March 18,

3. Shales and sandstone.

4. Conglomerate sandstone.

5. Shales and flags.

No eflfortwas made to secure measurements here, as the road is tortuous
and in unbroken forest, but an excellent section can be obtained by instru-
mental measurement, as the stream bed affords almost continuous expo-
sures below the upper conglomerate. The flaggy sandstones between the
conglomerates are bluish red and resemble closelj^ the rocks immediately
overlying the upper conglomerate ; but details respecting the great part of
No. 1, which includes beds of passage from Vespertine to Chemung, are
practically wanting here. In the Laurel Fork gap tlirough Brushy
mountain in Smyth county, and in the Seddon gap in Bland county, these
are shown to be gray to blue sandstones.

The section is similar in the Little Walker mountain gaps. On New
river the distance from the "Quarry rock" to the conglomerate is not far
from 900 feet, but no exposures occur in the interval along the railroad.
Almost continuous exposures on the Newport and Christiansburg road
show the space to be filled with gray to yellowish flags and sandstones
with few shales.

At all localities the beds of No. 3 consist of more or less argillaceous
concretionary sandstones passing downward into shales with bluish led or
deep red flaggy sandstone. The flags, though forming a small part of the
mass, are sufficiently hard to support the cliffs of this division, which are
seen in many ravines. These beds are well exposed on all graded roads
crossing Brushy and Little Walker mountains ; along the ravine followed
by the road to Hunting Camp creek, in Bland, they are shown in cliffs.
There, however, the flags appear to be more abundant than at any other
locality. No satisfactory estimate was made of the thickness, but as ex-
posed along the Hunting Camp road, in Bland, it is not less than 1000
feet.

No. 5 consists of flags and shales, olive, gray, blue and drab, which are
well shown at many localities.

The conglomerates are rarely shown in place. No. 2, which is not far
from forty feet thick on Brushy mountain aud is certainly much thicker
in Little Walker, was seen in place only on the road to Hunting Camp
creek, on New river and on the Newport and Christiansburg road over
Little Walker, yet this conglomerate is the "backbone " of both moun-
tains, and to its ragged outcrop is due the irregular crest of each. Its
fragments are always abundant and ordinarily they are characteristic.
The pebbles vary in size from a ijea, to a hen's egg ; while in several of
the layers they are flat and, curiously enough, in some parts their longer
axis is almost vertical to the plane of bedding. Almost without excep-
tion these are of quartz or quartzite. The lower conglomerate was seen
in place only on the Hunting Camp Creek road in Bland county, just
where the road leaves the long gorge and emerges upon the "clearing."
In general features it closely resembles the upper conglomerate.

80
.u^,.j '^ [Stevensou

In the New River section fragments with Chemung fossils are plentiful
to a vertical distance of not far from 500 feet above the conglomerate, but
beyond that the fossiliferous fragments become rare and soon are alto-
gether wanting. A fossiliferous sandstone containing Ghonetes and
Pthonia, both Chemung forms, together with many other forms not easily
recognizable on the weathered surface, was seen on the Dublin and Pear-
isburg pike at between 300 and 400 feet vertical distance above the sup-
posed place of the upper conglomerate. The transition tlience to the Ves-
pertine, as shown in the excellent and almost continuous exposures along
that road, is absolutely imperceptible — there is no change to the "Quarry
rock," and the drawing of the line of separation at the bottom of that rock
is wholly arbitrary here. But at many other localities a change occurs at
about 200 feet below that rock, bringing in some bluish sandstones. Che-
mung forms become very abundant immediately below the upper con-
glomerate. Good collections can be made on Brushy mountain in Bland
county along the Seddon and Mercer road, as well as along the road from
Point Pleasant to Kimberling creek. Excellent localities on Little Walker
are on New river and on any of the roads crossing the mountain in Pul-
aski and Wythe counties. No doubt good collections can be made within
a mile and a half of Pulaski on the road leading over Draper mountain.

The geologist familiar with the Chemung of Pennsylvania and Mary-
land will recognize a familiar section here : the two conglomerates with
variegated shales below them passing into' the flags, while between them
are the flags and shales passing through clayey concretionary sandstones
to the upper conglomerate. The similarity fails above that conglomerate
in that the red shales are wanting, and the passage to the Vespertine is
through sandstone rather than through shale. The condition is more
nearly that of South-western Pennsylvania where, as here, the Catskill is
absent and the Chemung is carried directly to the Vespertine. The thick-
ness of the section in Bland county appears to be very nearly the same
with that of the section in northern Bedford county of Pennsylvania,
nearly 300 miles away along the line of strike. This persistence through
so great a distance makes more remarkable the entii"e disappearance of the
group between Bland Court-house (Seddon) and Pennington's gap in Lee
county, only 125 miles away at the south-west.

This group evidently reached to the south-easterly side of the "Great
valley," for the beds upturned alongside of the Draper Mountain fault are
within twelve miles of the Archisan.

Hamilton. — The line between Hamilton and Chemung cannot be drawn
satisfactorily during a reconnaissance, as the passage from one to the other
is by no means abrupt. So gradual, indeed, is the passage here, as well as
in a great part of the Appalachian region, that the older geologists of both
Virginia and Pennsylvania placed the series together as a single group,
their No. VIIL The Hamilton shales are gray to black, and evidently
represent only the lower part of the group as found further northward.
They are shown in the " Poor valleys " of Walker and Cove mountains.

Stevenson.] O^ [March 18,

as well as in Bland county around the foot of Round mountain. They
contain little of interest.

The Upjjer Silurian.

No definite line of separation between Upper Silurian and Devonian
could be made out except in the " "Wilderness " area of Bland and Giles
counties ; there the Oriskany is present, which makes the boundary dis-
tinct. Upper Silurian, represented by Oriskany, Clinton and Medina,
makes up the most prominent features of the district, Medina being, par
exeellence, the mountain -making rock.

The Oriskany was seen only in Bland county, where it is exposed at the
foot of Round mountain and the Garden mountains, as well as along the
foot of Wolf Creek mountain in the "Wilderness." The rock is a thin
sandstone, which resists the weather so well as to make a small ridge. If
this rock be present in the "Poor valley " between Big and Little Walker
mountains, it must be very thin and must yield readily to the weather, as
that valley was crossed on four lines, each aftbrding good exposures, but
without Oriskany. As shown in the " Wilderness " the rock is a moder-
ately coarse gray sandstone, evidently not more than ten feet thick, and
containing, in addition to the ordinary forms, impressions of large crin-
oidal joints.

The Lower Hclderherg may be present in the "Wilderness," but no pos-
itive proof exists. Fragments of white chert containing a delicate Stro-
matopora, and seen near Round mountain, have much resemblance to the
chert bed at the base of the Oriskany or top of the Lower Helderberg.
Aside from those fragments nothing referable to the Lower Helderberg
was seen in any of the " Poor valleys."

The Clinton forms a bench around Round mountain ; on the Garden
mountains ; on Wolf Creek mountain and its continuation in Pearis and
Sugar Run mountains ; ou Big Walker and Cove mountains. Everywhere
it presents the same features, variegated shales with white sandstones near
the ores. The "fossil'' ore occurs, but little only is known respecting
either its quantity or quality. It appears to be abundant, though silicious,
on Wolf Creek mountain, if one may judge from the fragments where the
ore horizon is crossed by the I'oad near Wolf creek or Rocky gap.

The Medina is well known as the mountain-making rock. Its outcrop
forms the crest of Cove, Big Walker, Garden, Round and Wolf Creek
mountains ; it makes a double outcrop on Pearis and Sugar Run moun-
tains, as well as on Butte and Salt Pond mountains ; while it is shown on
each side of the House and Barn synclinal in Buckhorn and East River
mountains.

The Upper or White Medina is very far from being coarse, though a
few layers of conglomerate were observed in it. The best exposure is in
the gap made by New river through Big Walker mountain, where the
estimated thickness is 375 feet. For the most part the rock is white, and
on long exposure the surface becomes beautifully polished. This is char-

1887.] ^^ [Stevenson.

acteristic of the rock along an outcrop of fully 400 miles. Some brown
or reddish-brown layers occur in this division, but their thickness was not
ascertained. Aside from ArthropJiycus liarlani and a 8colithus-\\\<.Q form,
no fossils occur in the sandstone.

The Lower Medina, composed of reddish sandstones and shales, is the
imperfect terrace on the northerly side of the mountains, and, as was
stated in a previous memoir, this is clearly the same with the Terrace
group of South-central Pennsylvania, which has been identified by Lesley,
and therefore by the writer in his Pennsylvania report, as the Red Medina
of New York. The thickness cannot be given with any degree of cer-
tainty, as the rock passes downward without break into the Hudson ; or-
dinarily it is much disturbed. The best exposure in detail is on the Taze-
well and "Wythe pike as that road descends the northerly side of Big
Walker mountain toward Sharon Springs. There, within 100 feet verti-
cally below the White Medina, is a fossiliferous bed, six to eight feet thick,
containing Bhynchonella, OrtJiis, Modiolopsis, Avieula emacerata, Ambo-
nyeliia rciMnta and fragments of Orthoceras, which were collected during
an examination lasting but a few minutes.

The relation to the Lower Silurian, therefore, is intimate, so intimate
that the writer is more tlian ever convinced that there is room for doubt-
ing the accuracy of any identification which makes the Terrace group of
Southern Pennsylvania the equivalent of Medina in New York.

The Lower Silurian.

The Lower Silurian is represented by Hudson, Trenton and Knox lime-
stone. Hudson beds occur only on the steeper slopes of the Medina
mountains ; Trenton is at the foot of such mountains, but within the
counties described in this memoir, is rarely seen in the broader limestone
valleys. The Knox limestone is the surface group in the "Rich valley"
of Bland and Giles ; on both sides of New river in Giles* county ; and is
the great limestone group cropping out over so macli of the " Great val-
ley " in Wythe, Pulaski and Montgomery counties.

The Hudson consists of red to yellow sandy shales, which pass with
equal indefiniteness into the Red Medina (?) above and into the calcareous
shales of the Trenton below. The Trenton beds are calcareous shales
with streaks of impure limestone passing downwards into pure massive
limestones, some of wliich would be valuable as marbles. The lower beds
become more or less silicious and show embedded nodules of chert.

These cherty beds afford transition to the Knox limestones, which are
very cherty in the upper portions. The lower portions contain much shale
with silicious limestones, and near the base is a curious limestone, some-
what silicious, which is veined with white spar and contains great blotches
of the same material. This is a notable bed, which is recognized in many
places where it promptly affords a key to the puzzles. Its presence on
New river and at several other localities in Pulaski county shows the rela-
tions of the rocks on both sides of the Walker and Pulaski faults, and

Stevenson.] ot) [March 18,

proves the presence of Knox beds in that part o'f Pulaski county lying
between the Altoona railroad and New river. A good section of this
group should be obtained along the Valley pike in "Wythe county beyond
Reed creek, beginning near Kent's Mills, where the series is well exposed
almost to the fault of Draper mountain.

Along the southern side of Wythe and Pulaski counties, the Knox beds,
more or less dolomitic, carry important deposits of zinc and lead ores,
some of which have been utilized. The mine of the "Wythe Lead and
Zinc Company will be described in its own place. There the lead ore has
been worked for more than a century, but the zinc ore had been neglected
until the near approach of the Cripple Creek extension of the Norfolk and
Western railroad led to its development and preservation. The zinc ores
at the Bertha mine, also in Wythe county, yield a spelter of the finest
quality. This strip of zinc and lead ores extends from Smyth county
across Wythe and Pulaski, but developments thus far have been confined
to Wythe county.

The brown hematites of tlie Knox limestones in Pulaski and Wythe
counties, along the New river and its tributary, Cripple creek, have been
well described by Mr. A. S. McCreath,* who examined most of the open-
ings and analyzed the ores, using samples collected by himself. The ore
lies not far from the lead and zinc, and appears to be present in great quan-
tity. Much of it is of excellent quality.

Manganese oxide and barytes are reported as occurring at several local-
ities, but no information was received respecting the quantity.

The Cambrian.

Here are placed the Lower Knox shales and the Potsdam. The former
are probably equivalent to the Hj^dromica schists of Pennsylvania and the
lower part of the Calciferous of New York ; the latter is the Potsdam of
New York, vastly increased in thickness.

The Knox shales are shown in Draper valley, within Wythe and Pulaski;
they surround Lick mountain in Wythe and continue for some distance
eastward along the anticlinal ; they are continuously exposed within a
mile of the southern border of Wythe and Pulaski counties, and are
brought up for a little way under an anticlinal lying south from the
Wytheville synclinal.

I'or the most part these shales are reddish, sometimes streaked with
white, usually more or less greasy, often talcose-looking on the slipped
surfaces. The rock is hard and is used for repairs of the "V^alley pike. An
admirable exposure occurs on that pike for some distance east from the
Cripple Creek railroad crossing, and one almost equally good is on the road
crossing Lick mountain on the way from Wytheville to Brown Hill fur-
nace. Streaks of limestone occur in the upper part, but they are wanting
below. In the upper part are also some beds of yellow and blue shales,

* The Mineral Wealth of Virginia tributary to the lines of the Norfolk and Western
and Shenandoah Valley Railroad Companies. 1884.

1887.] ^' [Stevenson.

but they are thin. These shales are hard enough to form bluffs ; where
they have been long exposed to the weather, their surface becomes very
dark and the dismal effect is increased by the abundant growth of ashen
lichens, which are never absent from the older outcrops. The thickness
of the group cannot be determined without careful study, as at all locali-
ties crossed the beds are badly folded ; but it cannot be less than six hun-
dred feet.

The Potsdam forms the great mass of Lick mountain ; is the sandstone
of Draper mountain ; and is found along the southern border of Wythe,
Pulaski and Montgomery counties. The upper beds are alternations of
sandstones and shales. Tlie sandstones are mostly white, vary from
slightly conglomerate to exceedingly fine grain, almost like quartzite ;
many layers are hard and on long exposure become beautifully polished.
The lower beds shown in the deeply eroded gorges of Lick mountain and
on the northerly side of Draper mountain, are sandy shales, mostly gray-
ish and often so thickly bedded as to be shaly sandstones. The bottom of
the group is found not far from the line of Grayson and Carroll counties,
but that line was not reached by the writer. No measurement to deter-
mine the thickness of the group was attempted, as the bottom is not exposed
in either Draper or Lick mountain, but in Draper the thickness is not less
than 2000 feet, the calculation .being based on the dip and a rough esti-
mate of the horizontal distance through the mountain from the fault to the
bottom of the Knox shales. The amount of rock exposed along the road
traveled over Lick mountain is not so great, but the deeper ravines of that
mountain should show an equally extensive section.

No fossils were observed in the Knox or Potsdam shales, but the search
for them was not diligent. Some layers of sandstone near the bottom of
the Potsdam sandstone yield Scolithus linearis aljundantly on Lick moun-
tain ; but neither that nor any other fossil was seen in the Potsdam of
Draper mountain.

Ores of manganese and iron are reported as occurring near the bottom of
the Knox shales, but no effort has been made to develop these except in a
small way on Lick mountain.

IIL THE REGION NORTH FROM BIG WALKER'S MOUNTAIN,
BLAND AND GILES COUNTIES.

In descending Walker's mountain by the Wythe and Tazewell pike, one
leaves the Medina at the summit and comes to a fossiliferous bed at barely
one hundred feet vertically below the mountain crest. This is from six to
eight feet thick and contains many typical Hudson fossils in great num-
bers ; Bhynchonella increbescens, Orthis occidentalis (?), Avicula emacerata,
Ambonychia radiata, Modiolopsis with fragments of Orthoceras were col-
lected within a few moments. Other fossiliferous beds were seen lower
down the slope, but no specimens were taken. These reddish shales with
streaks of sandstone pass gradually into the yellowish shales of the Hud-
son, which in turn pass into the dull reddish calcareous shales or shaly

Stevenson.] CO [March 18,

limestones of the Trenton. The cherts at the base of the Trenton or top
of the Calciferous are reached at the first house. Thence exposures are
rare until at the Sharon Springs some sandstones with indefinite dip are
shown in the stream. These springs, which are the sources of the North
Fork of Holston river, are very large and issue from very near the Salt-
ville fault. The place was a popular summer resort in former times, but
the construction of the railroad through the Great valley made it practi-
cally inaccessible and the hotel has few visitors.

The Saltville fault passes very near the yard at Sharon Springs, the ridge
behind the hotel being sandy. The dip where the pike passes through
this ridge is southward at fifty-eight degrees, and the silicious limestone
of the Vespertine is shown at the nortlierly foot of the hill. The lower
beds of the Vespertine have been eroded near the pike, but at a fourth of
a mile eastward they form a low hill, in which a coal bed was mined at one
time to supply local needs. The pits have fallen shut and most of them
appear to have been little more than extensive strippings along the out-
crop. The thickness varies greatly ; it is reported as eleven feet at one
place. The coal is badly twisted, but the crushing and polishing are much
less tiian at many other localities. Notwithstanding this crushing, the
volatile matter is considerable and the coal cokes on the fire. The rocks
enclosing the coal are regular and not much distorted except at one place,
where the distortion may be due to a surface creep.

The Tazewell pike continues northvv^ard, crossing Garden mountain,
and, within a direct distance of four miles, entering Burk's garden, to
which reference was made in the notes on Russell and Tazewell counties.
This road was not followed beyond the abandoned coal-pits.

The Rich Valley road is near the top of the Calciferous until six or
seven miles beyond Seddon, where it crosses the Saltville fault ; but within
a little way it returns to the Calciferous and remains in it. The Calcif-
erous limestones and shales are apparently non-fossiliferous ; certainly
fossils are rare, none having been seen, though the exposures were exam-
ined for several miles. The dips vary from twenty to forty degrees, the
more common rate being not far from thirty. Waddell's lead mine, aban-
doned long ago, is a group of rude excavations in Calciferous at five or
six miles east from Sharon Spiings. The road leading to Hunting Camp
creek leaves Rich valley at nearly seven miles from the springs. The
dips quickly steepen on that road, so that limestones exposed in the little
stream-bottom near the first house are dipping southward at from fifty to
sixty degrees. The Saltville fault is reached at barely half a mile, at top
of an abrupt grade beyond the first house.

The blossom of a thin coal bed, indicating a thickness of not more than
ten inches, was seen at the top of the first hill, which may be the same
with a thin bed digged in the bed of a run not far west from the road.
The silicious limestone is exposed at R. Waddell's house and a coal bed
is worked in a small way by ]\Ir. Harmon, very near the summit of the
road, which is far from being the summit of Brushy mountain. The pit

1887.] ^^ [Stevenson.

was not examined and the thickness of the bed, wliich is said to be
between three and four feet, was not ascertained.

The road descends rapidly on the northern side to a large branch of
Hunting Camp creelv, wliich follows a long gorge through Brushy
mountain. The upper conglomerate of the Chemung is shown soon after
the stream has been reached and forms a ridge on each side of the road ;
the exposed thickness is not far from forty feet. The layers of conglom-
erate are distinct and one of them is ferruginous, with pebbles as large as
a walnut. The gorge below this is exceedingly rugged, the shaly beds of
the Chemung being held in cliffs by thick flags which are shown nicely
in the stream so often crossed by the road. A second gray sandstone,
with layers of conglomerate and closely resembling the former, is shown
just above the mouth of the gorge. The more shaly beds at the base of
the Chemung are shown as one approaches Hunting Camp creek, at Mr.
Soutter's. There one sees, in looking back, that the tributary streams
have cut Brushy mountain into parallel ridges, each with one of the
harder Chemung sandstones for its crest.

The lower shales of the Chemung with their hard flags form a low but
very distinct ridge, which follows the foot of Brushy mountain and curves
round the easterly end of the Garden anticlinal to form a similar ridge for
a little distance between Round and Rich or Wolf Creek mountains. The
Hamilton shales, which can be hardly separated from the Chemung dur-
ing a hasty examination, continue to the northerly side of Hunting Camp,
where the road first reaches it, though at a little way further down the
stream cuts almost to their base. The Oriskany sandstone is exposed just
north from the creek at barely a mile below Mr. Soutter's and thence its
fragments are very numerous. The rock crosses the end of Round moun-
tain as the Burk's Garden anticlinal dies away, and it is shown in the
road at a short distance above the mouth of Hunting Camp creek. The
most notable fossil is the stem of a criaoid of which individual joints are
extremely common. Spirifera arrecta appears to be more abundant than
any other of the ordinary forms. Evidently associated with the sandstone,
but not seen in place, is a white chert, which contains a delicate Stroma-
topora. Whether this represents the Lower Helderberg or not could not
be determined.

The road to Seddon leaves Hunting Camp creek at about two miles
from its mouth and crosses Brushy mountain to Rich valley, at Seddon.
The shales northward from the creek on this road are without doubt
largely Hamilton, but beyond the creek southward the road quickly
enters the low ridge of olive shales and flags, which has been referred to
already as persistent along the foot of Brushy mountain for fully twelve
miles. As the road ascends the mountain, it passes over olive flags with
olive, gray, ash'en, blue and yellow shales, continuing to the summit of
the road ; the southward dip being somewhat irregular, but rarely falling
below twenty, or rising above forty degrees. These shales show no
fossils aside from occasional impressions of cricoid joints and rude traces

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 125. L. PRINTED APRIL 30, 1887.

Stevenson. J "^ [March 18,

of fucoids on the surfaces of the flags. Similar shales and flags continue
for a little distance down the southerly side of the mountain, but the upper
beds are soon reached and some of them are very fossiliferous. On one
slab Bhynchonella orbicularis, (?) Grammysia sttbarcuata, 3fodiomorpha,
Mytilarca and Edmondia were seen and the specimens were remarkably
well preserved. The gray sandstones of the group are not exposed along
the road, but their fragments are very abundant and the rocks themselves
form the summits of the subordinate ridges. The Kimberling anticlinal
is crossed at less than half way down the mountain and brings up again
at least one of the sandstones. The passage to Vespertine is not easily
made out. A mass of red sandstone occurs in a narrow gorge, say half a
mile from Seddou, which probably marks the bottom of the Vespertine.
Coal belonging to that group has been mined in a small way at half a
mile west from Seddon and at about the same distance north-east from
that village. A mine has been opened for domestic use at about three
miles further east ; but none of these pits was visited. The topography
is reversed on the road crossing Brushy mountain, the long gorge being
on the southerly side.

The road in Rich valley lies in Calciferous for somewhat more than sis
miles from Seddon or to a little beyond Point Pleasant. The chert ridge
is south from the road and attains to considerable height in its eastern
extension. The road lies south from the Saltville fault to Point Pleasant,
but almost directly beyond that place it turns northward and thence to
the road crossing the mountain to Kimberling creek it lies north from the
fault. The dips in the limestone seldom exceed thirty degrees, except near
the fault, where they become fifty-five and sometimes even more. Expo-
sures are very indefinite along the road to Kimberling creek, as it ascends
the slope of Brushy mountain. No coal blossom was seen and no coal is
digged anywhere near the road. Fragments of the Chemung upper con-
glomerate are very numerous at the first summit of the road and the rock
forms the crest of the first main ridge. Between this and the second or
main summit of the road, fossils maybe obtained in considerable quantity,
Rhynchonella, Chonetes, Orammysia and Qoniopliora all well preserved,
having been obtained from a single block. Ambocoelia occurs in vast
numbers, its casts forming the mass of several tliin beds. From this sum-
mit to Kimberling creek, the road is in the shales and flags which are
exposed almost constantly thence to the mouth of No-Business creek.
The dip is steadily southward, but becomes comparatively gentle along the
creek, being barely ten degrees at the mouth of No-Business. There
Kimberling changes its course to south-east and evidently flows through
Devonian to where it crosses the Saltville fault at two or three miles east
from Mechanicsburg. The stream was followed only to witliin about four
miles of the fault so that the limits of groups as given on the map are only
approximate. Dismal and No-Business creeks, tributaries of Kimberling,
take their rise respectively in Sugar Run and Pearis mountains, double
outcrops of Medina with Clinton between the outcrops : but the streams

1887.1 "J- ' [Stevenson.

enter Kimberling in Devonian, wliicli is the surface group in nearly
all of the broad space between Brushy mountain at the south and Wolf
Creek mountain at the north, the distribution being due to the disap-
pearance of the Burk's Garden anticlinal and to the growth of the Kim-
berling anticlinal. The portion of the area lying north from Kimberling
is almost uninhabited and is known as the "Wilderness."

Exposures are very indefinite along the Wilderness road for some dis-
tance from Kimberling creek on the way to Rocky gap ; but near Mr.
Benton's house, at, say, two miles from the creek, tlie rocks are dipping
northward at nearly fifty degrees, and the rate increases at a little distance
further, as is well shown by exposures in the stream.

The dip again becomes southward at somewhat more than a mile from
Benton's house and the Chemung rocks are soon shown with almost ver-
tical dip forming an irregular broken ridge. No exposures aside from those
of a few dark shales occur in the interval to the next ridge, a space which
should be occupied by Hamilton. A sandstone ridge, evidently Oriskany,
is cut by the road at somewhat more than a mile and a half from the
Rocky gap by which Wolf creek passes through Wolf Creek mountain,
the same with that known in Tazewell county as Rich mountain. This
ridge is cut by the creek at, say, three-fourths of a mile from the forks of
road at head of the gap. No fossils were observed in the sandstone.
Some white chert which may represent the Lower Helderberg was ob-
served here.

The Clinton is quickly reached with its dark red sandstone ; it makes a
well-marked ridge and terrace along the southerly foot of Wolf Creek
mountain. Fossil ore occurs very abundantly, but the fragments seen
along the foot of the mountain are very silicious. Medina is shown in the
stream-bed at the very head of the gap, whence it rises rapidly to crest
of the mountain with a dip of twenty-five to twenty- seven degrees. The
immediately underlying red beds are more silicious than at most of the lo-
calities visited, and they are exposed to a thickness of about 250 feet. Ex-
posures are very indefinite beyond this until the Trenton is reached mid-
way in the gap. The Calciferous beds next come up and at the mouth of
the gap they are dipping southward at thirty-five degrees. These beds
prevail to the cross-roads at J. D. Honaker's store.

Wolf creek bends northward immediately below Honaker's store and
soon crosses the Wenonah fault, which brings Calciferous against Clin-
ton, the dip of the latter being eighty degrees. The Medina caught in
this double fault forms the Valley ridge, which is persistent thence to the
New river. The creek passes through this ridge at say a mile and a halt
below Honaker's and affords a fine exposure of Medina on the easterly
wall of the gap. The Calciferous limestones are reached immediately
behind the ridge and within one-fourth of a mile are faulted against the
Medina of Buckhorn mountain, a low ridge following the southerly foot
of East River mountain. The road crosses this fault to the IVIedina, but
returns to the limestone on the hill opposite Mr. Carpenter's house about

Stevenson.] "^ [March 18,

three miles from J. D. Honaker's store. Thence to New river the road is
in the limestone between the two faults. The creek approaches the Buck-
horn fault very closely near the line of Giles county, but the Wenonah
fault, whose course is marked by the Valley ridge, is touched nowhere by
Wolf creek below the gap near Honaker's. The dips in limestones be-
tween the two faults vary greatly, being from fifteen to forty degrees
along the creek ; but the rate diminishes toward New river, where it
rarely exceeds twenty degrees. Though underlaid by limestones and cal-
careous sandstones, much of this Wolf Creek valley is very poor. Great
fragments of Medina are numerous and the disintegrated sandstone has
contributed most largely toward formation of the detrital covering.

The valley between Buckhorn and East River mountains is reported to
be "freestone." No examination of its structure was made, but there
appears to be a synclinal here, in which case the surface rocks would be
Silurian shales.

The valley is contracted near the mouth of Wolf creek and the locality
is known as the "Narrows." The crest of Wolf Ci'eek mountain is
carried northward in a bold knob which overlaps the Valley ridge. Thence
it recedes southward, limiting the broad deep valley of Mill creek, to
return northward and fdrm the bold knob of Pearis mountain. The point
of this mountain is at about two miles from Pearisburg and there the
Medina outcrop curves southward under the influence of the Kimberling
anticlinal. The Valley ridge becomes indistinct where the fault is crossed
by the pike near Wenonah station. Thence to Pearisburg the road lies in
Calciferous and Trenton limestones. The S5rnclinal north from the Kim-
berling anticlinal is crossed by the Dublin pike at the southerly end of
Pearisburg and in this is the "Angel's Rest" or terminal peak of Pearis
mountain. The outcrop of Medina climbs the anticlinal as the fold de-
clines, crosses it at the head of Sugar run and then moves eastward along
the southerly side of the anticlinal. It soon recedes toward the west as it
ascends the weakening anticlinal of Sinking creek and finally disappears
against the Saltville fault.* That fault is crossed by the Dublin and
Pearisburg pike at a very little way north from Poplar hill, where the
Trenton and Calciferous are in contact and the road passes into the Rich
valley between Big Walker's mountain and the Saltville fault.

A road, leaving the pike north from Poplar hill and leading to New
river at Scott's ferry, crosses the Saltville fault at four miles from the pike
or at a little more than one mile by Walker's creek above Stafford sville.
Erosion here, as on the pike, has cut away all rocks higher than Trenton
limestone from the north side of the fault, but, within a short distance, the
Medina appears again and forms Buckeye ridge, the northern boundary of
Rich valley to and beyond New river. The dying away of the Walker's
Creek anticlinal permits the Walker's Mountain outcrop of Medina to
advance northward so that the valley is narrow near New river.

* This outcrop was not followed to the Saltville fault and the statement given in the
text is based on the topography.

1887.] "'^ [Stevenson.

The many railroad cuts along New river from this gap northward to
Big Stony creek exhibit the structure very well. Only Calciferous is
shown under the Kimberling and Sinking creek anticlinals until the
Wenonah fault is reached near the mouth of Big Stony creek, where one
sees Medina. Thence to the foot of Buckhorn or Little mountain the
limestone is exposed in cuts and loss frequently in natural outcrops.

The surface of the area between Pearls and Sugar Run mountains on
the westerly side, and the Salt Pond mountains on the easterly side of
New river shows traces of erosion planes. The underlying rocks belong
to the Calciferous, Trenton and Hudson, but the detrital ccatis very thick
and for long distances completely conceals the bedded rocks.

The Buckhorn fault is continuous eastward from New river certainly
for twelve miles and the limestones of the Calciferous are exposed fre-
quently along Big Stony creek. The fault runs along the face of Buck-
horn or Little mountain, but what l)ecomes of it or of the limestone valley
iust south from it was not ascertained as the creek was followed only for
three miles from the river, but ihe valley appears to be continuous to the
county line. Big Stony creek approaches very closely to the "W^enonali
fault at barely a mile from the river, where the limestone is turned up
suddenly at forty degrees northward and Medina is shown in the hill
above.

A road leading to Little Stony creek leaves this stream at rather more
than two miles and a half from the river. The Medina of the Valley
ridge is reached before one comes to the first house, being shown in place
at a little way from the road. The summit of the ridge is about GOO feet
above New river at Snidow's lower ferry and there the Medina is reached
a second lime. The rock is not shown in place, but the surface is covered
with fragments of the sandstone which could hardly have come down
from Butte mountain. The limestones are reached again as the road
descends to a little stream and they are still dipping southward.

The Trenton shales and shaly limestones are shown on the next ridge,
but the Hudson beds are shown only further up the ridge eastward from
the road. The summit of the road, at approximately 400 feet above the
river at Snidow's lower ferry, is covered with debris of Medina and this
ridge is merely the termination of Butte mountain. The Pearisburg syn-
clinal passes at somewhat more than a mile from Little Stony creek, and
the northward dip is well shown on the road as it descends to the creek.
The Trenton limestones form a bold ridge on the southerly side of the
creek, the southerly wall of a deep gorge which has Butte mountain for its
northerly wall. Medina forms the double crest of Butte or Big mountain.
The northerly outcrop encroaches on the narrow strip of Cambro-Silurian
between the mountain and the Valley ridge so that the two lines of Medina
appear to overlap. The area of the lower rocks is certainly so narrow
that it cannot be represented on the map.

The road to the Mountain lake leaves the pike at Doe creek, which it
follows to very near the lake. The cherts of the Calciferous are exposed

04-

Stevenson.] ^^ [March 18,

at the pike and the axis of the Kimberling anticlinal must pass near the
fork of the road. The Lake road winds up the mountain side and reaches
the Hudson beds within two miles of the lake. The Pavilion Knob, just
west from the lake, shows the red shales with Rhynchonella and AmhonycMa
half way up, while at the very top is a large Lingula in vast numbers
associated with a Modiolopsis. Medina caps several knobs on the ridge
between Doe and Little Stony creeks. The outcrops of that rock meet on
the summit of the Kimberling fold at a considerable distance east from the
lake and thence to the eastern edge of Giles county Big and Salt Pond
mountains are covered by dense forest, through which no road passes.

The Mountain lake or Salt pond is at somewhat more than 4000 feet
above tide and is three-fourths of a mile long by one-half mile wide, the
measurements being extreme in each case. It occupies a great sinkhole,
which, within fifty years contained only a small pond of water at the
bottom of the depression, by which a farmer salted his cattle. In some
way, the outlet of the pool became choked, and water from the adjacent
springs accumulated until it overflowed the rim and discharged itself into
Little Stony creek. The subterranean outlet may be opened again and
the pond drained. The spot is very attractive, and at one time it was a
popular resort.

The road to Newport winds along the side of Salt Pond mountain,
descending rapidly after it passes the point of the mountain, which is in
the synclinal between Kimberling and Sinking Creek anticlinals. The
Trenton shales are reached at about three miles from the Lake hotel and
are thrown into numerous and complex folds, many of which are broken
and slightly faulted along the axial plane. These occupy the synclinal
and exhibit conditions the same with those observed in these shales in the
Pearisburg synclinal on the point of Butte mountain. The massive beds
of the Trenton are reached quickly after the road begins direct descent to
Sinking creek, but exposures soon become rare, as the surface is thickly
covered by debris, derived largely from Medina, of which huge fragments
are numerous. The Calciferous cherts are shown occasionallj', but not in
place.

The Sinking Creek anticlinal is crossed at not more than two-thirds of a
mile north from that creek, and the massive limestones of the Trenton are
shown at the stream with southward dip. The pike is reached at a little
way beyond the creek, and there the Trenton shaly limestones are shown
much distorted and describing many complicated folds ; the dip on each
side being often eighty degrees. The thicker limestones are brought up
several times. The road crosses the Saltville fault at a little more than
half a mile north from Newport, the Trenton shales being brought into
contact with the lower cherts of the Calciferous. The fault passes along
Buckeye mountain, which, where crossed by the pike, has suifered much
from erosion ; but at a little distance on each side the Medina is present
and the mountain is conspicuous. The Sinking Creek anticlinal diminishes
eastward and the Medina outcrops unite before reaching the county line.

1887.] *^^ [Stevenson.

Rich valley widens between Xew river and Newport. The dips in its
limestones are from fifty to sixty degrees. The massive beds of the Tren-
ton are shown on Gap or Big Walker's mountain with this dip, and
Medina at the summit shows a dip of sixty degrees. Exposures are very
good on the northerly side of this mountain.

IV. THE COUNTRY SOUTH FROM WALKER'S MOUNTAIN, EM-
BRACING PORTIONS OF WYTHE, PULASKI AND MONT-
GOMERY COUNTIES.

By far the greater part of Wythe county south from the Norfolk and
Western railroad shows only rocks belonging to the Knox group, but the
Potsdam is brought up along the southern border of the county, as well
as at a little way from the railroad, in a bold east and west ridge, known
as Lick mountain. In going southward from Wytheville, one finds the
Knox limestones so much twisted as to suggest that the Draper mountain
fault has not wholly disappeared. The Knox shales are shown within two
miles from the railroad, where the road enters Lick mountain and the Pots-
dam beds at not many rods further. The sandstones of this great group
form the hog-back ridges, of which the mountain is made up, while the
shales are exposed in the deep ravines. 'The sandstones are passed at
about eight miles from New river, where one comes again to the Knox
shales, which are badly distorted.

On the road leading to the Wythe lead and zinc mine, which is reached
at about two miles from Cripple creek, the rocks are concealed for long
distances by the thick cover of terrace debris ; but the Knox limestones
are well shown in the river blufls, at the Wythe lead and zinc mine, both
above and below Thorn's ferry, where the New river cuts a fine anti-
clinal.

The Wythe lead and zinc company have their mine at Austinville, in
Wythe county, nearly seventeen miles from Wytheville, or twelve miles
from Max Meadows station. The ore was discovered and first utilized not far
from 130 years ago, but systematic mining has been prosecuted for barely
fifty years. The reduction works have a capacity of between 600 and 700
tons per annum, and are of interest, as they were practically the only
lead works within the limits of the confederacy and yielded nearly all of
the lead employed in the manufacture of bullets for use of the Confeder-
ate soldiers.

The lead and zinc ores occur in an enormous impregnation deposit and
are extracted both by open cut and by deep mining. The conditions in
the surface workings are approximately as follows :

1. Gray limestone 25'

The upper part shows a network of galena ; some excellent
blende almost free from galena is found midway ; while
lower down both galena and blende occur abundantly. The
lower half of the rock, which had been digged extensively, is
said to contain a large amount of both blende and galena ; but
it was concealed by a slide at the time of examination.

Stevenson.] Jt) [March 18,

2. Gray sandy limestone 10'

This appears to be barren.

3. Ore 8'

This consists of carbonate and silicate of zinc associated
with much galena. The calcareous matter has been leached
out and the ore is in irregular honeycomb masses.

4. Limestone, evidently barren 9'

• 5. Ore 8'

The conditions are the same as those in No. 3.

6. Limestone, gray 25'

This contains a very large amount of blende and galena, but
the ore is not sufficiently concentrated to make working profit-
able.

7. Ore 2 to 10'

The conditions in this are the same as in Nos. 3 and 5. The
deposit shows more irregularity than was observed in the
others.

8. Limestone, apparently barren 10' to 12'

9. Ore 6' to 10'

Here too the calcareous matter has been removed and the
ore, which consists of zinc silicate and carbonate, with only
a trace of galena, is cavernous.

10. Limestone, barren, seen 5'

No further exposures occur. The upper edges of the limestone in this
extensive stripping are rounded as though they had been exposed to long
erosion, and the whole was covered with a tough reddish clay, fifteen to
thirty feet thick, overlaid by slidden material, ten to twenty feet thick.
For the most part the clay is barren, but sometimes it yields fragments ot
galena and altered zinc ores ; and at a cutting just beyond No. 10 it has
yielded a very considerable quantity of earthy carbonate of lead. These
silico-carbonate ores are merely superficial, for at less than 100 feet from
the surface in No. 9 blende occurs to the almost complete exclusion of
calamine and smithsonite.

Though commonly spoken of as "leads," these deposits have no fea-
tures entitling them to that name. The characteristics are well shown in
surface workings made on this property by J. S. Noble in 1866, when he
mined the zinc ore for shipment to New Jersey. These pits, at say half a
mile from the tipple of the present surface workings, are on Bald hill,
where erosion has removed the superficial material so as to expose the
limestone over many acres. As the lease under which the work was done
was short and as lump ore alone was to be removed, the deposit was worked
only where richest and most distinctly marked ; when it became indefi-
nite the pit was abandoned and a new opening was made elsewhere. The
whole area is pitted and the openings vary greatly in shape. Clearly no

1887.] y* [Stevenson.

Systematic mining is possible in deposits such as this, and the only availa-
ble method is follow ore, wherever found, until it ends.

The separation of the lead and zinc ores is effected by jigging. The
ore, after crushing and grinding, passes to the jigs, which are in sets of
four. The galena is almost wholly removed in the first, while the ores of
zinc are separated by the remaining three. The separation is almost com-
plete and the amount of escaped ore passing off in the tailings is insig-
nificant. Much of the lead produced here is manufactured into shot of
decidedly excellent quality, and an air-shaft, 263 feet deep, is utilized as
the shot tower.

Along the road leading from Thorn's ferry to the Valley pike, exposures
are few until Mr. Raper's house has been reached, but thence to the pike
exposures are good. The Knox limestone is shown in the road near Mr.
Raper's house and at a little way further the shales are at the surface. But
a slight fault exists here, for the limestone re-appears within a few rods
and continues until a short distance beyond the road leading to Walton's
furnace. Thence to the pike the road lies in the shales and the Potsdam
of Lick mountain nowhere reaches it. The beds seem to be thrown into
two anticlinals, of which the more northerly is crossed near the last fork
in the road, less than two miles from the pike, which is reached at barely
seven miles from Wytheville.

Knox limestones, dipping west of north at sixty-five to sixty-seven
degrees, are well exposed in Wytheville along the street leading Irom the
railroad station to the court-house ; but exposures are very poor for some
distance northward from the borough on the Wythe and Tazewell pike.
The dip is soon changed on that side and the first good exposures show the
south of east dip practically the same as the opposite dip on the other side
of this Wytheville trough. The ridge on which the borough of Wythe-
ville stands marks the course of the synclinal, which is cut off by the Max
Meadows fault at a little way further east. The anticlinal north from this,
in which the Max Meadows fault may originate, has been crossed before
one comes to the blacksmith's shop two miles and a half from the court-
house in Wytheville, for there the dip is northward at from twenty-five to
thirty degrees ; but the place of the axis cannot be determined easily as
the surface is covered with a thick coat of sands and clays.

The dip is changed .again at somewhat more than two miles and a half
from Stony Fork of Reed creek, the southerly direction being very marked
at the S-curve in the road, while at Mr. Brown's house it is fifty-five
degrees almost east of south. This direction of dip continues to the little
valley in front of Stony Fork M. E. Church, where the Walker Mountain
fault is crossed and one comes to the Umbral shales. The Knox limestone
is well shown in the low hill, while shales are seen at its northerly foot
dipping toward the fault at from thirty to thirty-five degrees. The shales
are exposed occasionally at the roadside, and one comes to the silicious
limestone at the Vespertine ridge, which forms the foothill of Little Walker
mountain. The coal-bearing group begins below this limestone and its

PBGC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXTV 125. M. PRINTED MAY 3, 1887.

Stevenson.] "o [March 18,

red or brownish-red sandstones are shown for some distance southward
from the ford.

Col. J. T. Boyd of Wy theville has opened several of the coal beds along-
side of the stream as well as in a hollow coming down by Mr. Davidson's
house. The numerous openings on the south side of the creek show
fairly well the relations of the lower beds, the following section having
been obtained :

1. Coal bed, V, said to be 1' 6" to 3'

2. Interval, said to contain Coal bed, IV, 2' 67'

3. Coal bed III, said to be 1' 1"

4. Sandstone and shale 13'

5. Coal bed II, said to be 6' or more to 2' 6"

■6. Sandstone 17'

7. Coal bed 1 0' 10"

8. Sandstone, seen about 20'

Mr. C. R. Boyd, who has reported on this property, says that the inter-
val, No. 6, becomes thirty feet at only a few rods from the locality visited.
Coal beds II and III have been opened in a hollow above Mr. Davidson's
house, where both are badly crushed, the lower much more than the
upper. The roof shales have been crushed as badly as the coal at most of
the pits, but at one under the road and alongside of the creek a fragment
of Lepidodendron was seen, altogether without distortion ; at all other
points, however, the crushing and consequent distortion have practically
destroyed all details of structure. The underclays are full ot leaves or
appendages belonging either to Lepidodendron or to Stigmaria.

The coal bed, II, has been opened at several places along its outcrop
east from the creek, where it shows material variations in thickness and
structure, due evidently to the pressure which the bed has undergone.
The thickness at one opening appears to be more than four feet, but the
structure could not be made out. A new cut showed

1. Black shale and coal streaks 1' 6"

2. Clay 1' 0"

3. Coal 2' 6"

Here there is apparently no distortion, but the crushing is no less severe
than at an older pit where the bed has been twisted beyond recognition.
The coal occurs in thin laminae, easily separable and beautifully polished.

The "Quarry rock," the lowest bed of the Vespertine, which comes to
the creek at the coal pits, is a gray, sometimes slightly conglomerate sand-
stone. The Chemung is not well shown in the gap through Little Walker
mountain. The relation of Devonian to Upper Silurian is not altogether
clear, as the Oriskany was not recognized in the "Poor Valley." Black
shales, dipping northwardly, were seen nearly opposite Mr. Hedrick's
house, which seem to be continuous thence to the final crossing of the
stream, where they are associated with drab and yellow shales which con-
tain fossil ore and are of Clinton age. From that place, the road winds for

1887.] *^" [Stevenson.

three or four miles vip the side o' Big Walker mountain and for certainly-
half the distance is on Clinton which is thrown into many narrow folds.
Where the Medina is first reached, the dips vary from fifteen to twenty-
five degrees, but the rate increases, until at the summit the lower beds
with ArtJirophycus Jiarlani dip soulh-eastw ardly at forty degrees. Another
form, like a ScoUtJius, penetrating a layer about ten inches thick, is seen
at the summit. It is single at each surface of the layer, but forms a loop
in the body of the rock.

The Vespertine beds form a foothill to Little Walker mountain and are
faulted against the Lower Silurian rocks in Crockett's Cove of Wythe
county as they are on Stony Fork of Reed Creek. But the Max Meadows
fuult crosses the strike and the eastern side of Wythe county shows a
much longer continuous section than is found in the western part. On
the southerly side of Crockett's cove the Trenton and Hudson beds pass
upward into the short but bold Medina ridge known as Cove mountain,
which is a notable feature of the scenery. Clinton forms the southerly
flank of the mountain as well as the northerly side of the valley between
Cove mountain and Max Meadows or Tract mountain, which lies north
from the railroad between Max Meadows and Pulaski. The southerly
side of the valley is occupied by Devonian shales passing upward into
hard sandstones of the Chemung, which make the body of the mountain.

In following the Norfolk and Western railroad from Wytheville station
eastward, one finds the north-westward dip continuous until the Knox
shales are reached at about three and a half miles from Wytheville.
Beyond that, exposures become few, but the road follows closely the line
between the limestone and the shales until the Max Meadows fliult has
been reached beyond Max Meadows. Exposures are good and almost
continuous between Max Meadows and Pulaski.

Some dark shales and impure limestones are exposed immediately
beyond the former station and red shales are shown at and beyond the
first small bridge. These are succeeded in the first cut by the dark lime-
stone with veins and pockets of white spar, which lies at the base or
nearly so of the Knox limestone. Owing to the direction of the railroad,
this limestone is exposed until nearly two miles from Max Meadows. In
a deep cut beginning there, the limestone has been replaced by a conglom-
erate, which may be of recent origin. It is not less than forty feet thick,
has no definite bedding and is variable in composition, some parts break-
ing down readily on exposure, while others retain their shape and disin-
tegrate very slowly. This may mark the course of an extinct stream.

The next cut, beginning at two and a half miles from Max Meadows,
shows first a gray sandstone, quartzite-like in fineness of grain, which is
succeeded by irregularly bedded reddish shales with thin streaks of sand-
stone, the dip being south eastward at about fifteen degrees. The shales
in the next cut are very red and somewhat fissile. These continue to
Clark's Summit cut, which begins at somewhat more than four and a half
miles from Max Meadows, where they are succeeded by reddish sandstone

Stevenson.] -*-^'J [March 18,

and shales containing a thin coal bed. These have been thrown into
petty folds and the coal bed has been the chiet sufferer. It has been
squeezed beyond recognition as a bed and the coal is laminated ; but the
lamination, unlike slatj' cleavage, is rudely parallel to the plane of bedding.

The rock exposure ends abruptly midway in this cut and thence to the
end, fully one-eighth of a mile, the material is a loose incoherent mass of
clay and sand, loaded with fragments of sandstone, chert and a little lime-
stone, all of the fragments being angular. This accumulation bears much
resemblance to those containing "wash ores" in Bedford county of Penn-
sylvania. The limestone at the top of the Vespertine is shown in this cut
very near the beginning of the rubbish.

The next cut shows the Vespertine rocks with a thin coal bed and with
gentle dip. Some prospecting pits were sunk on the Clark property in
search of coal, and, according to the report made to the writer, coal of
fairly good quality was found in quantity to repay working ; but no at-
tempt to utilize the deposit has been made. The coal in the cut is too thin
to be of any value, but the Hon. J. S. Draper states that beds of worka-
ble thickness occur on his property at a little way south.

It is sufficiently clear that the Max Meadows fault is crossed at not far
from three and a half miles from Max Meadows, and that the red shales in
the cut west from Clark's summit belong to the Lower Carboniferous.

Vespertine sandstones remain in sight to the Bertha Zinc Works, just
west from Pulaski. Near the 86th milepost, or somewhat more than six
miles east from Max Meadows, the blue sandstone is reached. This hand-
some stone has been quarried for building purposes ; it has been used
largely in railway masonry, and is the stone of which the IVJaple Shade
Inn at Pulaski has been built. The rock is blue, fine-grained, cross-bedded
and breaks with a conchoidal fracture. Where first seen it is exposed to a
thickness of about twenty -five feet and contains many rounded balls of
red clay or red shale scattered throughout the mass of the rock. The
lower layer is less coarse but contains small pebbles of quartz and sand-
stone. No fossils were observed at any of the exposures.

This rock is shown along the railroad and Peak creek, forming bluffs
alongside of the creek, and being quarried at several places on the rail-
way. The thickness is not less than forty feet. Underlying it are shales
and sandstones, the shales drab, gray to red, while the sandstone very
closely resembles the more massive beds above. Some fucoids were seen
in the red shales, but no other forms were observed.

The synclinal between Peak hills and Draper's mountain is crossed by
the railroad at the tunnel near the second bridge over Peak creek, where
the north-westward dip is twelve degrees. The sandstones of the group
form a line of hills south from the railroad which are distinct from near
Clark's summit to certainly two miles beyond Pulaski. The railroad runs
on the easterly side of the synclinal to the Zinc Works. Between those
works and the station passes the Pulaski fault, which brings the Vesper-
tine into contact with almost the lowest bed of the Knox limestones.

1887.] iUl [Stevenson.

Returning to "Wytlieville and taking the macadamized road leading
thence to Newbern, one rides on the lower limestones of the Knox group
until he crosses Reed creek, where the Knox shales are shown, still dip-
ping sharply toward the west-north-west. The first good exposure beyond
the creek is at the roadside near Kent's mill, where the limestones are
shown with vertical dip, so that the axis of the anticlinal must pass at but
a little way from the creek. The dip gradually decreases and within half
a mile the massive limestones are dipping at from twenty to twenty-five
degrees almost south-east. These limestones belong to the upper part
of the Knox.

Haifa mile further east, there being no exposures in the interval, Knox
red shales were seen with almost vertical eastward dip. An exposure of
sandy limestone, also with nearly vertical dip, was seen on the northerly
side of the road at a little way further east, but thence the exposures are
poor for several miles. The dip is reversed again near the Max Meadows
road.

Where the road leaves Reed creek, at nine or ten miles from Wythe-
ville, there is a close anticlinal whose formation was connected with severe
disturbance, for the rocks are much crushed and there seem to be some
petty faultings. The road turning southward soon rises to near the sum-
mit of the Lick Mountain anticlinal and follows it for a number of miles.
The rock exposed for a long distance is the same limestone with veins and
pockets of wJiite spar, which is so well shown in the railroad cuts east
from Max Meadows. It is associated with yellowish shales which are
especially well shown in the cuts beyond the Pulaski road.

The chert ridge is double in the synclinal between the Lick Mountain
anticlinal and Draper's mountain, and it forms an imposing knob near
Reed creek, while one side of it forms a low persistent ridge between the
pike and Draper's valley, terminating in a double knob at the eastern end
of the mountain. Tliis ridge is notched by many little streams which rise
in the valley and unite to form larger streams only after passing through
the ridge.

The Pulaski road leaves the pike at about twenty miles from Wythe-
ville and crosses Draper's mountain. As it passes through the ridge of
Draper's valley it shows the Knox limestones with easterly dip. The
limestones end at a little way east from Mr. J. S. Draper's house, which
is on the Knox shales. There the road begins to ascend the mountain and
within a short distance sandy shales or shaly sandstone of the Potsdam is
imperfectly exposed at the roadside. The next exposure, beginning at
somewhat more than half a mile from Mr. Draper's house, is continuous
to beyond the summit. This shows Potsdam sandstone dipping south-
eastward at from thirty-five to fifty-five degrees, the average being not far
from forty-five degrees. No fossils were observed in this sandstone, but
the rock bears close resemblance to the Potsdam of Lick mountain as much
in the intercalated brown or reddish-brown shaly beds as in the sandstone
itself. There is nothing on either side of the mountain to answer to Hud-

Stevenson.] IVZi [March 18,

son or Clinton, but on the northerly side is a mass of shale like that form-
ing the lower part of the Potsdam on Lick mountain.

These underlying shales are well shown on the northerly side of
Draper's mountain, where, for a few feet directly under the sandstone
they are almost black ; but for the most part they are grayish, sandy, and
in rather thick layers, so that they might almost be termed shaly sand-
stones. Their south-easterly dip is as abrupt as that of the sandstone on
the other side of the summit.

The Draper Mountain fault passes about one-third of a mile west north-
west from the crest of the mountain, and on this road brings the lower
beds of the Potsdam into contact with the lower Chemung shales. The
Chemung sandstones form a bold ridge beyond the old Pepper road, in
which the brownish beds contain many fossils. The Chemung conglom-
erate was not seen in place as the foliage was very dense, but its frag-
ments are numerous. Vespertine beds form the next, a low ridge in
which traces of coal have been observed and the bluish sandstones have
been quarried. Thence for a little way there are no exposures, but in the
bank behind the Maple Shade Inn the veined limestone of the Knox
group is quarried, while just beyond Peak creek, immediately north from
the railroad station in Pulaski, limestone belonging to the same group is
exposed. These limestones are shown on the country road to the Robin-
son tract, a distance of about six miles, and that beautiful tract must also
be underlaid^ by the Lower Silurian limestone; but no examination to
ascertain this was made.

The limit between the shales and shaly sandstones of Devonian and
Carboniferous at the west and Lower Silurian at the east was not followed
out in detail, but it passes almost midway between the Altoona coal road
and the county road in Pulaski ; it is a little way west from the Poplar
Hill church, four or five miles from Pulaski. Beyond that northward, it
evidently lies east from the Altoona railroad.

The Altoona coal mines are in Pulaski county, at eleven miles by rail
from Pulaski, though the actual distance is much less. The bed now
mined is the second of the Vespertine beds, which varies in thickness from
four to twenty-two feet, in the latter case including not a little shale. The
pressure has crushed the coal to such an extent as to destroy in great
measure its marketable value, but a large quantity is mined each year for
use at the Salt works in Smyth county. At one time the third bed, said to be
four feet thick, was mined here, but work on it has been discontinued, only
a small quantity being taken out to run the locomotives on the coal road.
The coal from this bed is far superior to that from the other.

A road follows the bottom of Peak creek for nearly two miles below
Pulaski, and then leaves the creek to cross the easterly point of Draper's
mountain to the Valley pike, which it reaches at somewhat more than a
mile and a half southward from Peak creek. The Vespertine ridge is cut
off by the Pulaski fault before this road reaches the line, but the Devonian
ridge continues beyond the road. The Draper Mountain fault is greatly

1887.] iUd [Stevenson,

diminished in strength and the Potsdam sandstone makes little showing
along this road. That rock evidently extends to near Peak creek and the
limestone on the north side of the Pulaski fault must be in contact with it
near the creek.

Where the road reaches the pike, Knox shales are shown at the roadside
with almost vertical dip. For the most part they are red, weathering
dark brown and covered with lichens. "With these are some yellow and
blue shales, and streaks of impure limestone. The shales continue along
the pike to beyond Peak creek^ where one crosses the Draper mountain
fault and comes again to the Knox limestones. An anticlinal was observed
in Newbern, the county seat of Pulaski county. Thence to half a mile
north from Dublin the limestones are dipping northwardly.

But a little more than half a mile north from Dublin, exposures practi-
cally cease and thence almost to Back creek very little is shown. The
whole space is an old erosion plane and the bedded rocks are con-
cealed under a deep cover of debris. The few imperfect exposures show
only shales, which are dipping southwardly. These belong to the lower
part of the Knox limestone and are the same with those exposed on the
valley pike, east from the Pulaski road. Limestones are reached near Back
creek and continue to perhaps half a mile or more north from that stream.
The beds appear to be wholly without fossils, but their relations are clear
enough and they belong to the lower part of the Knox limestone. The
lowest bed js the dark limestone carrying veins and geodes of white spar,
which is exposed for a long distance on the Valley pike, east from Reed
creek.

After crossing Back creek, the road begins to ascend Cloyd's or Little
"Walker mountain and exposures are good. A great thickness of red
shales comes immediately behind the geodal limestone and some of the
upper beds are very like those of the Knox shale ; but shales of very
different character are soon reached, which belong to the Lower Carbonif-
erous, to the Umbral period. The Vespertine or coal-bearing division is
reached at a short distance below the Jennell place, where one of the beds
has been mined to some extent. The blossoms of four beds are shown in
the roadside, above the Jennell house, within a vertical distance of about
115 feet. The upper beds are not more than three or four inches thick,
but the second is almost nine feet from rock to rock. It is said to contain
one foot of good coal at the bottom, while the rest of the interval is occu-
pied by alternating thin layers of coal and shale. The lowest bed is from
two feet to two feet six inches thick, and is said to yield very good coal.
This is said to be the bed worked by Mr. J. H. Tyler, two miles east from
this road. That mine was not visited. The interval between the two beds
at the roadside is about fifteen feet and is filled mostly with sandstone.

The lowest bed of the Vespertine is a gray sandstone, well-shown at
the roadside. The passage to the Chemung is imperceptible through con-
cretionary sandstone and shale, undoubted Chemung being reached in a
fossiliferous sandstone containing Chonetes and other forms which are not

Stevenson.] iU* [March 18,

recognizable on the weathered surface. Concretionary sandstones con-
tinue below this and, at say 300 feet lower in the series, the upper con-
glomerate of the Chemung is shown, with not a few of its layers contain-
ing flattened pebbles. The concretionary structure gradually disappears
iQelow the conglomerate and many of the beds on the northerly side of
Cloyd's mountain are fossiliferous. The conglomerate forms the crest of
the mountain for nearly the whole length. The variegated flags and shale
in the lower part of the Chemung are reached quickly on the northerly
side of the mountain as the road descends- to the valley of Little Walker
creek. Exposures are fairly good in the valley and in the gap through
Big Walker mountain, but Oriskany was not recognized, so that, if present,
it must be very thin. Medina forms the great part of Big Walker moun-
tain and is fairly well exposed in the gap made by Little Walker creek.

The Medina is well shown in the gap made through Big Walker moun-
tain by New river, where it appears to be in all not far from 375 feet
thick. Good exposures occur here between the mountains, but, if present,
the Oriskany and Lower Helderberg are so thin that they escaped obser-
vation. The Chemung beds are sufficiently well shown to make the con-
struction of a complete section by no means difficult to one doing syste-
matic work ; but no section was attempted by the writer, who began his
examination near the top of the group.

The "point " of Cloyd's mountain in New River gap is at a little more
than eight miles from New River station on the main line. There the
Chemung conglomerate, which forms the backbone of the mountain,
comes down to the river and is exposed in a railroad cut. Behind it for
about 130 yai'ds — beyond which no examination was made — fragments of
the bluish-red sandstones of the Chemung are plentiful in the debris which
covers the mountain side. TMany of these fragments are fossiliferous and
the locality will prove to be a good one for the collector. The sandstones
are very hard and the fragments are used in ballasting the track from this
place almost to New River station.

The upper conglomerate of the Chemung, as shown in this New River
gap through Cloyd's mountain, is not far from thirty feet thick. Its upper
part is well exposed, is about fifteen feet thick, very hard and coarse, with
pebbles often as large as a hen's egg, mostly of quartz and frequeutlj^ flat.
In some of the layers the longer axis of the pebbles is vertical to the plane
of bedding. The lower part is less hard, is conglomerate only in some
layers and has a rusty color on the weathered surface. The dip is almos*
south-east at fifty-five degrees.

Ten feet of brownish sandstone are exposed at fifteen feet above this
conglomerate, but no further exposure occurs in a horizontal space of
about 1175 feet. Fragments with Chemung fossils are abundant in the
first 500 feet of this interval, but beyond that they become less plenty and
soon disappear, so that proof of Chemung is not likely to abound in the
upper half of this interval.

The bottom of the undoubted Vespertine, the "Quarry rock " of Lesley

1887.] 1^5 [Stevenson.

is exposed at the end of this interval. Tlie exposure shows only five feet,
but the fragments indicate a thickness of fully thirty feet. The rock
is light gray, some parts are very hard and in thick layers, but others are
in thin layers ; the dip is nearly fifty degrees.

This rock is succeeded by shales ill-exposed and extending nearly 400
feet to the eighth mile post. The exposure is so poor that the dip could
not be ascertained, but it may be taken as averaging not far from thirty-
five degrees. Here belong the coal beds, to which reference has been
made, and one of them is mined on the opposite side of the river.

From the eighth mile post for 1175 feet, everything is practically con-
cealed. Clearly enough the interval is occupied by gray to bluish sand-
stones and shales, but there is no exhibition good enough to tell the rate of
dip. An uncertain measurement almost midway in the interval made the
rate not far from twenty-five degrees. As the next exposure shows a dip
of only fifteen degrees, the dip in this concealed interval may be averaged
at twenty degrees.

This is succeeded by a reddish or bluish sandstone, fortj^ feet thick,
which is well shown in a cliff on the hillside but does not appear in any
of the railroad cuts. The dip is fifteen degrees.

No further exposure occurs for 200 feet, bej^ond which comes a sand-
stone with dip of ten degrees. This is shown as a cliff, but it was not
seen in the cuts ; it continues for a horizontal distance of 600 feet. The
color varies from gray to rusty brown and the rock is fine-grained but
irregular in bedding.

This is succeeded bj^ a concealed interval of 375 feet, in which the dip is
twelve degrees ; beyond it one comes to red sandy shale extending 300
feet with dip of twelve degrees. Upon this rests a red to gray, irregu-
larly bedded sandstone continuing for 200 feet, also with dip of twelve
degrees. After a concealed space of ninety feet, sandstone, gray to red,
is reached, which, with dip of fourteen degrees, extends for 300 feet along
the track. It contains many thin beds of red shale and some insignificant
beds, or rather streaks, of impure limestone or possibly only calcareous
sandstone. Above this are alternations ot red sandstone and red shale,
with dip of fifteen degrees and continuing for 2300 feet to Back creek just
beyond Tyler's coal switch. Next comes the geodal limestone, to which
reference has been made so frequently and which belongs at the base of
the Knox limestone. Evidently the fault of Walker mountain has been
crossed ; so the succession may be summarized. It is as follows :

Lower Silurian.

Limestone in bank of Back creek 25'

The Walker Mountain, fault.
Lower Carboniferous.

1. Red sandstones and shales 570'

2. Sandstone, red to gray with some shale 73'

3. Concealed 23'

PROC. AMKR. PHILOa. 80C. XXIV. 125. N. PRINTED MAY 3, 1887.

Stevenson.] lUO [March 18,

4. Sandstone, red to gray 42'

5- Red shales 1 63' •

6. Concealed 78'

7. Sandstone 105'

8. Concealed 42'

9. Sandstone, reddish brown to bluish 40'

10. Shales and sandstones 400'

11. Shales with coal beds 230'

13. " Quarry" sandstone 30'

Devonian.

1. Concealed 900'

2. Sandstone 10'

3. Concealed 15'

4. Conglomerate 30'

5. Sandstones, flaggy, not well shown 160'

The "Walker Mountain fault passes very near the mouth of Back creek
and is crossed by that stream at a little way west from the railroad. The
exposure of the shales is practically continuous to the creek, but there
were seen none of the yellow shales observed on the Dublin and Pearis-
burg pike. The line of fault is therefore drawn directly under the lime-
stone of the Knox group.

Southward from Back creek for nearly a mile, the whole region near the
railway is covered with a thick deposit of terrace debris, and the only
exposure is in a cut at about 1000 feet from the end of the Back creek
trestle, where a veined, somewhat brecciated limestone is shown associated
with light drab shales, all belonging to the lower part of the Knox lime-
stone. The next exposure is in a stream at, say, 600 feet south from Bel-
spring station, where limestones and shales are shown. Similar beds are
exposed on the railroad at about 300 feet further, where the shales, or
rather shaly limestones, weather light yellow or grayish white. The
limestone is drab to blue, is somewhat silicious, is veined with white spar
and is more or less brecciated. The dip is south-eastward at about eighteen
degrees. But the dip quickly becomes flexuous and these shales and lime-
stones remain in sight to the fifth mile post. The irregular dip continues
for half a mile further, but thence for a mile or two, to within three miles
and a half of New River station, the more prevalent dip is south-eastward,
so that the massive limestones with large nodules of chert are brought
down. These thicker beds are separated by impure shaly limestones
which weather into clays, usually yellowish red.

The dip becomes north-westward at three miles and a half from New
River station, and this direction is kept forprobably a mile along the road,
which follows the strike for much of the distance. In the deep cuts about
two miles and a half fi'om New River station, the beds are in great disor-
der and consist of the shaly limestones which the reversed dip has brought
to the surface again. Thence no exposure was found until the first mile

1887.] ^ ^ ^ [Stevenson.

post was reached, Tvhere somewhat higher beds are shown in very con-
fused stratification. From this place to the main line of the Norfork and
Western railroad at Xew River bridge, the thick bedded limestones of the
Knox group are bent and folded to a degree, which one would think
hardly possible in rock of that character, yet so far as could be ascertained
no fractures exist.

Returning to the New River gap through "Walker mountain and crossing
the river so as to take the road leading across Price mountain to Chris-
tiansburg, one comes to the Vespertine as the road rises to the river hill.
But exposures quickly become indefinite and little is shown until beyond
Price's fork in the road, about five miles west from Blacksburg. The only
exposures in this interval of four or five miles are of drab shales such as
were seen in the cut south from Belspring station on the New River
branch of the Norfolk and Western railroad. The whole area for several
miles from the river is covered with the terrace deposit, which is very deep.
The Knox limestones are shown on the Blacksburg road, as well as to a
short distance south from it, dipping southwardly ; but a synclinal is
crossed between that road and the northerly fault of Price's mountain, so
that the limestones, where last seen, dip away from the fault.

Red shales of the Lower Carboniferous, such as those seen on New river,
are shown on the flank of Price mountain, and are underlaid by the coal-
bearing Vespertine. The coal beds are mined along a fork of Strouble's
creek on the northerly side of the Price Mountain anticlinal. Several
abandoned openings were seen on the Bruce property, one of which
showed

1. Sandstone not measured.

2, Clay 0' 5"

8. Coal 0' 10"

4. Slaty coal 1' to 0' 10"

5. Coalseen 2' 6"

The dip is northward at thirty degrees ; the coal has been crushed badly
but not so badly as in the mines of Little Walker or Brush mountain. The
bed is mined by Linkous and Kipp at somewhat more than half a mile fur-
ther west, where, according to Mr. Linkous, the lower part of the bed is

5. Coal 2' 6" to 2' 10"

6. Coal 1' 3"

7. Coal V 6"

No. 6 is soft and is used as the "bearing-in," but the others are very
hard. The coal has been crushed to but a very slight extent in comparison
with that on the other mountains. It bears much resemblance to cannel.
It is mined extensively and is wagoned to Bang's station, whence it is
shipped to neighboring stations.

The rocks alongside of the road dip at fifty-five degrees as the crest of
the anticlinal is approached ; but on the other side near Mr. Church's
mine, the dip in the southerly direction is barely twenty degrees. Thence

Stevenson.] iUo [March 18,

nothing was seen aside from the shales and sandstones until the Blacks-
burg and Christiansburg road was reached, on which the southerly fault
of Price's mountain was crossed at a little way north from Mr. Stevens's
house, where Umbral shales and Knox limestones are in contact.

Directly north from Mr. Stevens's house, the road from the coal mines
unites with that leading northward to Blacksburg and Newport. Expo-
sures are very indefinite on this road as it crosses Price's mountain,
though the Lower Carboniferous shales are shown in several shallow cuts.
No coal blossoms were seen along the road and no coal is mined near it.

The Knox limestones are reached at somewhat more than two miles
south from Blacksburg, but exposures on this old erosion plane are few
and widely separated, so that nothing can be told respecting the character
of the rocks.

The place of the "Walker Mountain fault is about half a mile south from
Tom's creek, where Umbral shales are thrown over to almost vertical dip,
while the Knox limestones are shown within a few rods with much gentler
dip. Coal is mined at several places on Tom's creek both above and
below this road. The dip at a pit immediately south from the creek is
twenty-fire degrees toward the south-east. The bed is thin, being reported
as follows :

Coal V

Clay 0' 6"

Coal 1' 6"

but the bed is thicker at other pits and, at some, it has three feet of work-
able coal. The crush has been severe and the coal of the Tom's creek
mines is so loosely laminated that the laminte are easily separated by the
fingers.

The dip becomes gentler as the road ascends Brush or Little Walker
mountain. Sandstones with dip of ten to twelve degrees make the road-
bed for a long distance and form spurs extending southward from the
mountain. The passage to the Chemung is through these yellowish sand-
stones, which appear to be thicker than on New river. The upper beds of
the Chemung are not shown near the road ; fragments of the upper con-
glomerate are numerous, but the rock was not seen in place. It however
forms the crest of Brush mountain and Chemung fossils are numerous at
several exposures on the northerly slope as the road descends to "Pov-
erty flats," the "Poor valley" between the Walker mountains. The
conditions in this valley, digged out of Chemung, Hamilton and Clinton
shales, differ in no way from those in the "Poor valleys" already
described. Exposures show nothing but shales.

The Clinton ore was mined here many years ago for the furnace at New-
port, in Giles county, but nothing can be learned now respecting either
its quantity or quality. Medina forms the southerly slope of Gap or
Big Walker mountain and on the summit is dipping south-eastwardly at
sixty degrees.

1887.] -'-"*^ [Osborn.

The Triassie Mammals, Dromatlieriam and Microconodon.

By Henry F. Osborn, Sc. D.

{Read before the American Philosophical Society, April 15, 18S7.)

The mammaliaa jaws discovered by Professor Emmons in the Upper
Triassie beds of North Carolina, and ascribed to a single genus, Droma-
therium, were recently examined by the writer and found to belong to
separate genera. The type mandible of Dromatherium is preserved in the
Williams College Museum, and differ widely from the mandible preserved
in the Museum of the Philadelphia Academy. These differences have
already been pointed out,* but require to be more fully stated, as both
Professors Marsh and Cope have expressed doubts as to the distinct sepa-
ration of these genera. The accompanying lithographic figures also bring
out the characteristic features of these mandibles much more fully than in
the pen drawings which accompanied the earlier description.

In many respects these genera agree with each other, and stand sepa-
rate from the Jurassic mammals of both England and America. There is,
first, a considerable diastema behind the canine, a very rare feature in the
division of Mesozoic mammals to which these genera belong, although
always present in the division to which Plagianlax and its allies belong,
viz., the sub-order Multituberculata Cope.

Dromatherimn has three premolars and seven molars, but the number in
Microconodon is quite uncertain, as only four of the series are preserved.
The molars agree in one particular, which separates them widely from
other Mesozoic genera, viz., in the imperfect division of the fangs. This
division is indicated merely by a depression at the base of the crown, as
in the genus Dimetrodon, among the Theromorph reptiles.

In all other respects these mandibular rami differ widely. The Micro-
conodon ramus is two-thirds the length of that of Dromatherium ; it is flat-
tened and slender, with a nearly straight lower border beneath the molar
alveoli, and a characteristic depression of the border which possibly rep-
resents the angle of the jaw as in Prof. Owen's genus Peraimis. The
coronoid process is low and the vertical diameter of the jaw at this point
is very narrow. This ramus offers a great contrast to that of Dromatheri-
um, which is very stout and convex with a thick lower border, pro-
jecting widely from the matrix, an elevated coronoid process and has the
curvature of the lower border unbroken by any downward projection. If
these differences may be given merely a specific value, and attributed in
part to the fact that the Microconodon jaw is seen upon the outer surface,
and that of Dromatherium upon the inner surface, let us compare closely
the teeth in the two genera., Unfortunately the canine and incisors of the

* Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 18.S6. p. 359. I
find upon a second examination of Prof. Emmons' original flgiire, that I did unintention-
ally criticise it too severely in the former article, p. 359. While far from accurate the
figure is not so misleading as I at first supposed.

Osbom.] J- J- 'J [April 15,

Microconodon ramus are wanting. We first observe that the premolars
of Dromatherium are styloid and procumbent ; if erect they would rise>
above the level of the molars ; they have no trace of a cingulum. In the
other genus the premolars are subconical and, although erect, they do not
reach the level of the molar tips ; they show a faint posterior cingulum,
and the third premolar has the same evidence of a division of the fang
which is seen in the molars, while in Dromatherium there is no trace of
such a depression, but a distinct groove on the postero-internal face of the
tooth reaching nearly to the summit. The molars of Dromatherium are
narrow and lofty ; the general pattern of the crown consists of a single
main cone with a high anterior and lower posterior accessory cusp upon
its slopes ; but these cusps are very irregular in disposition. For exam-
ple, in the second molar there are two anterior cusps ; in the third molar
the posterior cusp is nearly as large as the main cusp ; in the fifth molar
there is a trace of a postero-external cusp ; in the last molar both the
anterior and posterior cusps are distinctly bifid at the tip. In Microcono-
don, on the other hand, the molars are comparatively low and broad, with
a low anterior and higher posterior accessory cusp ; these cusps are regu-
lar and very prominent ; there is also a well-marked posterior cingulum,
which cannot be distinguished in the corresponding molars of the other
genus.

Although the two posterior molars are wanting in Microconodon, the
rise of the corouoid probably marks the position of the last molar ; taking
this estimate of the posterior point of the molar-premolar series and com-
paring it with the length of the series in Dromatherium, we find that while
the ramus of one genus is only two-thirds the length of the ether, the total
space occupied by the molar-premolar series is very nearly the same. Esti-
mated in another way, the molar-premolar series of Microconodon is a little
less than one-half the entire length of the jaw {f^), while that of the other
genus is exactly one-third the length of the jaw. This discrepancy is due
to the difference in the proportions of the molars ; in one genus they are
low and broad at the base, in the other they are unusually high and com-
pressed.

It is difficult at present to assign any systematic position to either of
these genera. Dromatherium is entirely unlike any known mammal, fos-
sil or recent. The form of the molars is extremely primitive both in
respect to the incomplete separation of the fangs and the remarkable varia-
tions in the number and size of the accessory molar cusps. In fact the
molars appear to be in what may be called an experimental stage of struc-
ture. The accessory cusps are sometimes large and distinct, as in the third
true molar ; sometimes minute like needle points, as in the second molar.
The incomplete separation of the fangs is a reptilian character, which
correlated with the styloid premolars and recurved canine-incisor series,
place Dromatherium very remote from any of the known Mesozoic mam
mals. Microconodon, on the other hand, is a somewhat more "recent"
type, the premolars have the trace of a low posterior heel, and the molars

Vol rxrv. N°125

1 M

ICROCONODON. 2 .DROMATHERIU M

1887.] ill- [Kirkwood.

have that regular tricuspid division of the crown which is first observed in
the genus Ampliileates of the English Lower Jurassic and characterizes a
large number of the Jurassic mammals.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Figure 1. Microconodon tenuirostris. The outer surface of the right
mandibular ramus, enlarged. The two premolars preserved are the first
and third, with the fang of the second between. The space behind the
third was occupied either by a fourth premolar and the first molar, or by
the first and second molars. The molars preserved are, therefore, either
the second and fourth, or the third and fifth. The dotted outlines are
purely conjectural,

\a. The same, natural size.
16, The fourth or fifth molar, much enlarged.
Figure 3, Dromatherium sylvestre. The inner surface of the left man-
dibular ramus, enlarged.

2a. The same, natural size.

2b. The second molar, much enlarged.

ABBREVIATIONS.

a. Angle ; c. canine ; en. condyle ; cr. coronoid ; i. incisors ; v)(/. my-
lohyoid groove ; to. molars ; p. premolars.

The Relation of Aerolites to Shooting Stars.

By Professor Daniel Kirkioood.

■iEead before the American Philosophical Society, April 15, 1887. )

The writer more than twenty years since gave reasons for believing that
shooting stars, fire balls and meteoric stones move together in the same
orbits.* The facts then collected were deemed sufiicient to sustain the
theory advanced, or at least to give it a high degree of probability. This
view has been rejected, however, by several eminent astronomers, and
especially by the present Astronomer Royal for Ireland, the distinguished
author of " The Story of the Heavens." He remarks: "It is a notice-
able circumstance that the great meteoric showers seem never yet to have
succeeded in projecting a missile which has reached the earth's surface,

* Meteoric Astr,, Chap. v.

Kirkwood.] ±1^ [April 15,

Out of the myriads of Leonids, of Perseids, or of Andromedes, not one
particle has ever been seized and identified. Those bodies which do fall
from the sky to the earth, and which we call meteorites, never come from
the great showers, so far as we know. They seem indeed to be phenomena
of quite a diiierent character to the periodic meteors" (Story of the
Heavens, p. 349).

In pointing out the coincidence in the epochs of shooting stars and me-
teoric stones,* the present writer neglected to assign an obvious reason for
the fact that star showers are so seldom observed at the same time with
the fall of aerolites : a majority of the latter have been seen in the day
time, when ordinary shooting stars would be invisible. At night, how-
ever, the phenomena have more than once occurred at exactly the same
time. The writer called special attention to one of these epochs as long
since as 1881. f In describing the shower of April meteors as it occurred
in the year 1094, the historian says: "At this period so many stars fell
from heaven that they could not be counted. In France the inhabitants
were amazed to see one of them of great size, fall to the earth, and they
poured water on the spot, when to their exceeding astonishment, smoke
issued from the ground with a hissing noise. "| A few other examples are
given below :

(1.) During the meteoric display which continued through three consec-
utive nights in the latter part of October, A. D. 585, a globe of fire, spark-
ling, and producing a great noise, fell upon the earth. ^

(2.) A simultaneous fall of aerolites and shooting stars is indicated by
the phenomena of 1029, as described in the catalogues of Herrick and
Quetelet.

(3.) But without quoting other records which imply the existence of
aerolites and ordinary meteoric matter in the same streams or clusters, it
is sufficient to refer to the recent and very decisive phenomena of Novem-
ber 27, 1885. II During the periodic star shower from the fragments of
Biela's comet a mass of meteoric iron weighing about ten pounds was
seen to fall near Mazapil, Mexico, in lat. 24° 35' K, long. 101° 56' 45" W.
from Greenwich. The evidence afforded by the phenomena of 1094 and
1885, apart from the other cases cited, renders the coexistence of large and
small masses in the same meteo^ streams almost infinitely probable.

*Metr. Astr., pp. 58-64.

t Science, Feb. 5, 1881, p. 59.

:[ Am. Jouru. of Sci., Jan., l&tl, p. 356.

g Quetelet's Physique du Globe, p. 291.

II Am. Journ. Sci., March, 1887, p. 221.

1887.] ■•- J-'^ [Claypole.

Organic Variation Indefinite not Definite in Direction — an Outcome of

Environment.
I

By Prof. E. W. Claypole, B. A., B. Sc. (Lond.), F. 0. S., &c. Akron, 0.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, April 1, 18S7.)

Introduction.

Two remarkable utterances liave recently appeared from the pens of
two of the most distinguished biologists of the day in defense of a theory
of evolution radically unsound and differing, as the writer thinks, from
that which is held by the majority of evolutionists. The eminence of the
names of these authors is suflBcieut reason to justify a consideration of the
view they have advocated. It cannot be supposed that Prof. Asa Gray,
of Cambridge, Mass., and Dr. W. B. Carpenter,* of London, would put
forward statements all the aspects of which they had not fully considered,
and all the legitimate conclusions from which they were not prepared to
maintain. Yet both these distinguished writers have enunciated a view
of evolution fraught with momentous consequences to biology. So
momentous indeed are they that they exclude (if the views in question
are well founded) a very large part of the field of investigation now before
the biologist from the lawful domain of natural science and relegate it to
another department of enquiry.

The nature and direction of organic variation are subjects which have
become prominent during the intellectual ferment excited by the publica-
tion of the '"Origin of Species." As a fact variation is admitted by
all evolutionists. It is indeed the cardinal fact on which all theories
of evolution do and must depend. And both the -writers above men-
tioned alike admit its reality and its importance. Both allow' or
tacitly assume that there runs through all organic nature a capability of
varying from generation to generation — that under the superficial and
obvious resemblance existing between parent and offspring therL! lie
deeper and less easily discerned distinctions which differentiate the one
from the other and accumulate in certain directions from age to age.
This capacity, manifesting itself in the fact of variation, when encouraged
or repressed by the action of natural or other selection has— so Darwin
maintained — resulted in the extinction of old and the production of new
species.

But while agreeing thus far with most evolutionists the two writers in
question express views on variation that are remarkable in the following
respect. Instead of proceeding on the ground that variation occurs, or

* These pages were written before science had been deprived of the services of this
veteran laborer and leader in biological research by the deplorable accident which
caused his death.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 125. O. PRINTED MAY 20, 1887.

Claypole.l J--*-^ [April 1,

may occur, iudiscriminately in any direction as lines radiate trom a centre,
both Prof. Gray and Dr. Carpenter assume or maintain that it talces place
only along certain definite lines. Yet further, in their view the changes
thus produced in an organism are uniformly of a beneficial kind.

That I may not be subject to the charge of misrepresentation I quote
the following extracts from the writers referred to.

In a paper entitled " On an Abyssal Type of the genus OrhitoUtes ; a
Study in the Theory of Descent," published in the Philosophical Trans-
actions, for 1883. Dr. Carpenter remarks, after detailing the variation
exhibited by the forms of OrbitoUtes, "that no exercise of natural selec-
tion could produce the successive changes presented in the evolutionary
history of the group." "And," he adds, " as all these earlier forms still
flourish under conditions which, so far as can be ascertained, are precisely
the same, there is no ground to believe that anyone of them is better fitted
to survive than another." " To me therefore it appears that the doctrine of
natural selection can give no account of either the origin or the perpetua-
tion of those several types of foraminiferal structure which form the
ascending series that culminates in OrbitoUtes complanatus." " On the
other hand there seems traceable through the series a plan so obvious and
definite as to exclude the notion of "casual or aimless variation."
"Everything in their history shows a well-marked progressive tendency
along a definite line towards a highly specialized type of structure in the
calcareous fabric."

The significance of these remarks is unmistakable. The writer is evi-
dently maintaining that alongside of the capacity for variation there acts
some power guiding the ensuing variation along a definite course to a
definite end.

One expression in the above passage calls for a passing remark. In
saying that the doctrine of natural selection can give no account of the
origin of these types Dr. Carpenter appears to have overlooked the fact
that no evolutionist attributes the origin of varietal or specific forms to
this source. Tlieir origin must be sought in variation. Natural selection
is only the means of preserving and perpetuating or of destroying and
eliminating them. This remark would perhaps be impertinent were it
not that other expressions in the same essay also apparently ignore the
part played by variation in every accepted theory of evolution. For
example, we read, "Those who find in natural selection or the survival of
the fittest an all-sufficient explanation of the origin of species seem to
have forgotten that before natural selection can operate there must be a
range of varietal forms to select from." "No exercise of natural selec-
tion could produce the successive changes presented in the evolutionary
history of the typical OrhitoUtes from Cornospira to SpiroloeuUna thence
to PeneropUs, to OrbicuUna, to the simple and then to the complex forms
of OrbitoUtes."

There is in this passage a singular omission of all reference to the fact

1887.1 ^^^ [Claypole.

and function of variation, the existence of -wliich no naturalist can doubt,
be his explanation what it may.

The second utterance of opinion to which I have alluded is contained in
a letter from Prof. Asa Gray, printed in " Nature " (Jan. 25, 1883). The
letter itself is written in reply to some remarks made by Mr. G. J.
Romanes in an article in the " Contemporary Review " for October, 1883.
It is difficult to quote any particular passages in exemplification of the views
of Prof. Gray, which are rather implied than expressed. The main point
of difference between the two writers is however the denial by Mr.
Romanes that "the facts of organic nature furnish evidence of design
other and better than any of the facts of inorganic nature," and the main-
tainance by Prof. Gray that this denial rests on no good foundation. In
some passages indeed the latter writer goes apparently even farther than
this merely negative position and implies, if no more, that in his opinion
variation has been beneficently guided by intelligence. It is difficult to
extract any other meaning from the following passage : " The evidence ot
design may be irresistible in cases where we cannot indicate its limits.
We can only infer with greater or less probability according to circum-
stances and especially according to relation to ends. Better evidence than
that of exquisite adaptation of means to ends is seldom if ever attainable of
human intention and in the nature of the case it is the only kind of evi-
dence which is scientifically available in regard to superhuman intention.
With what propriety then can it be affirmed that organic nature furnishes
no other and no better evidence of underlying intelligence than inorganic
nature? The evidence is certainly other and to our thinking better."

It seems impossible to attribute to the author of this passage any inten-
tion other than that already expressed ; viz. : that alongside of the capacity
for variation there acts some power guiding the ensuing actual variation
along a definite course to a definite end.

If any doubt yet exists concerning Dr. Gray's meaning, such doubt
must be altogether removed by the following extract. In a notice of Dr.
Carpenter's paper in the "American Journal of Science, " for April, 1884,
Prof. Gray says :

"Variation has been led along certain beneficial lines like a stream
along certain definite and useful lines of irrigation."

The expression "has, been led" is rather indefinite, but can scarcely
mean less and may mean much more than I have above attributed to its
author. To assert that variation has been led along definite lines implies
the coaction of some guiding power. To assert that these lines are always
beneficial to the variant organism implies a postulate of vast magnitude
and one whose admission is infinitely difficult in face of the phenomena of
organic nature.

II.

Definition of Terms.
The purpose of this paper is in the first place to examine so much of the
evidence of nature on this point as shall be sufficient to show that the

Claypolc] lit) [April 1,

theory of evolution favored by the writers above quoted is not in harmony
with the facts, and in the second place to prove that, taken as a whole,
the phenomena of nature in the organic world are much more easily ex-
plained by the principle of indefinite variation.*

To prevent ambiguity and perhaps misunderstanding it will be well to
define at the outset the principal terms that will be employed in this paper.

"Variation" will be here taken to mean all deviations of every kind and
degree from perfect resemblance to the immediate parents of the organism
whether animal or vegetable. This is the widest signification which it is
possible to give and with no other can any useful conclusion be reached.
Any limitation can only result in invalidating the argument because it
would confine the discussion to a special part of the subject indicated by
such limitation. The universal signification to be here employed is also
the only fair interpretation that can be accepted by all Evolutionists.

The organism in which such Variation is supposed possible will be
called a "Variable." The term is borrowed from mathematics and will
be understood to mean an animal or plant possessing the capability of
varying whether that capability be latent or active. At any one given
instant this power may be always considered latent, time being a necessary
element in actual variation.

When from any cause this possible variation has become actual and the
organism shows progressive resulting changes, this organism may be
called a "Variant." And again when a series of changes is complete or
when any particular phase is intended the organism in that stage may be
called a " Variate." Thus the term "Variable " will indicate that change
is possible ; "Variant," that such change is in process, and "A^ariate,"
that it is complete, at least for the time, in any given organism.

The term "beneficial" will be employed to characterize any change
that conduces to the longer life of the variant organism ; this being, for
the most part, and other things being equal, the greatest benefit that can
accrue to it. I do not deny that there are exceptional cases in which
other inherited or acquired advantages may outweigh even this usually
supreme one. But almost always a long life may be considered the most
conducive to the continuance of the species as it indicates vigor in the in-
dividual and increases the chances of multiplication.

The expression " Tendency to Variation," sometimes employed by
writers on this subject, either commits an author to the views here opposed
(for such tendency must have a cause) or it is meaningless. When varia-
tion occurs it must have been antecedently possible. But its occurrence
is our only proof of this possibility. Of any "tendency to variation " in-
herent in the organism we have no proof whatever. For all that we

*The possible assertion that variation is always beneficial in consequence of some
cause underlying the constitution of the organic and inorganic worlds and their relation
to one another will not be here considered. No writer has, so far as I am aware, ever
distinctly enounced it and moreover it will be excluded if, as I hope, I shall succeed in
showing that as a fact variation is not always beneficial.

1887.] 11* [Cla5T)ole.

know to the contrary an organism is capable ot existing unvaried for any
length of time, through generation after generation, without showing the
least tendency toward any other form. As well might the mechanician or
the astronomer speak of a " tendency to motion " in the heavenly bodies
because he sees them all in a state of active movement. For anything that
he knows to the contrary all the matter in the Universe may be capable of
lying at rest for countless ages. Matter itself has no tendency to motion
or to rest. It is absolutely a creature of conditions and of circumstances.
80 we have reason to believe that organisms have no tendencj' to variation
or to invariance. Changes if they occur, or their absence if they do not,
are simply accidents of the environment. The astronomer sees all mat-
ter in motion and comes almost instinctively to the belief that the two are
inseparable. The biologist sees every organism varying and grows un-
consciously into the opinion that variation Is a necessary concomitant of
life. Both are equally unphilosophical. Absolute rest may be almost in-
conceivable to the physicist and absolute invariance to the naturalist.
Yet both so far as we can know, are thinkable and possible, and both may
form a part of the actual scheme of Nature. We see no ground for the
expression "tendency to variation."

iir.

Vakiatiox not Always Beneficial.

In the consideration of this part of the subject it will be manifestly
impossible within due limits to even notice any large portion of the
facts that bear more or less directly on the question. No attempt
will therefore be made to take a wide range. Nor is this necessary for the
argument. If sufficient proofs can be adduced to show that in some cases
the actual variation is prejudicial to the variant the purpose will be
served. Yea, more, in logical strictness if a single such case can be
established the advocacy of definite variation in a uniformly beneficial
direction becomes futile. For unless such beneficial variation be abso-
lutely constant and unfailing no object can be attained by maintaining its
occurrence in any single instance.

I propose therefore to limit myself to the presentation of a few of the
more conspicuous instances of prejudicial variation, of which some one or
more must during a lifetime fall within the cognizance of all who take
any interest in the study of Nature.

I may here remark in passing that of the two authors quoted at the out-
set. Prof. Gray does not give a single instance in support of the proposi-
tion which he is maintaining and that the only one under discussion by Dr.
Carpenter is drawn from the lowest class and one of the most obscure in
the animal kingdom — the Rhizopods — among the Protozoa.

1. Variation in color. — Among the many variations in color constantly
occurring among animals is the production of a white descendant from
colored ancestors.

Claypole.] 1-*-^ [April 1,

Every naturalist knows that among wild land animals, with some few
exceptions, this color is exceedingly rare. The cause of this rarity is obvi-
ous. In a green world a white individual is very conspicuous. Such an
animal has much less chance of escaping from its enemies if pursued, or
of capturing its prej' if a pursiier, than one whose color is more in har-
mony with its surroundings. Hence its prospects of living and of leaving
offspring are proportionally reduced. And in places where green is not
the prevailing color, we find the wild animals dressed in harmony with
their surroundings. In the Polar regions and in winter the fur-hearing
inhabitants are clad in white. No other livery would give them so good a
chance of life. In dry and sandy deserts the prevailing color of the fur
of the residents is nearly the same as that of the sand. Nevertheless in
the parts of the world that are clad in green, white individuals are
frequently produced. And we can hardly doubt that similar exceptions
to the prevalent color occur elsewhere. Thus we find white deer, white
mice, white blackbirds and white wild horses. But their extreme rarity
shows that there is some check to their multiplication. And in asserting
that this check is nothing more than early destruction in consequence of
their conspicuousness I am not going beyond what has often been ob-
served in cases falling within our notice. "On some parts of the conti-
nent," says Darwin, "persons are warned not to keep white pigeons" on
account of their liability to destruction by hawks. (Origin of Species,
1860, p. 84.)

And when to these disadvantages we add those of deafness, of epilepsy
and of other diseases which often accompany the white color in animals,
cats for example, we find an accumulating variation which cannot fail of
being deeply prejudicial to the variant.* Darwin says, " Cats with blue
eyes are almost invariably deaf." He has collected a great number ot
cases showing the disadvantages to which animals are liable whose hair is
partially or altogether white, f

Another instance is afforded by some pet rats kept by a relative of the
author's, which were with one exception wholly white. They all recently
became troubled with bronchitis or some similar complaint, and the sound
of their breathing was so unpleasant that they were destroyed except one.
The sole survivor was the rat that was not entirely white. This one,
though sharing in the disease, was much less severely affected.

The case of albinoes may fairly be cited here. In this form of variates
not only is the increased color-risk a source of danger, but the imperfect
sight so frequently accompanying the whiteness is almost equally preju-
dicial .

In regard to the vegetable kingdom similar facts may be given. Every
gardener is aware that the white seedlings that so frequently come up, in
a field of maize for instance, usually die down and yield no seed. Here,
as in the case of albinoes among animals, the radical cause of prejudicial

• See examples of this published in various numbers of Nature, 1884.
tSee "Animals and Plants under Domestication," "Vol. i, p. 330.

1887.] -L-LJ [Claypole.

results seems to be the want of the usual vigor, probably in consequence
of arrested development or of imperfect ante-natal nutrition — two of tlie
most fruitful sources of variation.

2. Variation in strength. — It comes within the observation of all that
among animals great difference of bodily strength exists. This is easily
noticed in those that are reared for draught. Though less conspicuous the
fact is equally true of the savage species. Now this deficiency of power
is prejudicial to the variate. The load which one horse can draw with ease
is a severe tax on another. A battle between two wild beasts is decided,
other things being equal, to the injury and often the death of the
weaker. Indeed the prejudicial effect ensuing upon bodily weakness is so
evident that Jong proof is superfluous.

Nor is the deficiency of mental power any less prejudicial. Every one
accustomed to observe animals must have noted great difierence in their
intelligence. Among domesticated species one individual shows mental
power fully entitled to the name of reason, while another, perhaps of the
same brood, manifests so little that education is impossible. A well-
known horse-trainer once told me that though he never failed to train a
horse when he took him in hand, yet there were but few that he could
train at all, and that he could, in a very short time, pick out and reject
the many with which success would be impossible. Some rats are so
cunning that to catch them requires all the craft and skill of the house-
holder. Others are so silly that they walk into the trap the first time it is
set, and are killed to their great prejudice. The sagacity of bears in
avoiding the snare is sometimes wonderful, compelling the belief that they
have mastered its construction and found out how to take the bait and yet
avoid the danger. Others show no subtlety of this kind, and are caught
and killed with ease. Such tales may be found in any work on the habits
of animals, and need not be repeated here. But enough has been said to
show that the range of variation of the mental faculties of animals is
great, and that while the higher degrees confer much advantage on their
possessors, the lower are so far inferior as to be seriously prejudicial.

Though pertinent to the argument, it is scarcely worth the time to point
out the frequent occurrence of similar prejudicial variation in the human
species where the range of the mental faculties is from idiocy upward.
In our present state of civilization this disadvantage is partially and
temporarily neutralized by the humane sentiment prevailing in society
which counteracts the laws of natural selection as they operate among
other animals. Yet all such deficiency of power is seriously and often
fatally prejudicial

3. Variation in the senses. — Whatever prejudicial effect ensues from de-
ficiency of bodily or mental strength is aggravated when this deficiency
takes the form of the absence of one or more of the senses. Yet animals
are not infrequently born blind or deaf, and the probable reason wliy
such cases are seldom seen is that the absence is so prejudicial as to be
soon fatal.

Claypole.] 1^^ [April 1,

In the consideration of this subject we must bear in mind that to obtain
evidence from wild animals is difficult, because they are not under our
supervision. Hence it is necessary in most instances to quote facts from
animals kept in domestication. But abundance of cases have been
recorded to show that similar prejudicial variation occurs among animals
in the wild state.

4. Variation in form. — Under this head I maj^ quote the well-known
case of the Ancon or otter sheep of Mass., " which originated in 1791 with
a single specimen having short crooked legs and a long back like a turn-
spit dog." This change in a natural state would hare been extremely
prejudicial to so active an animal. But under human control the very de-
fect was, for a time, a convenience to the farmer, who found that these
sheep could not leap over his fences. Hence he preserved and bred them.
But the Merino superseded the Ancon, and without the preserving care of
man the latter soon disappeared, as it would have done much earlier in a
state of nature.

The once well-known turnspit dog supplies another case in point.

A friend of the writer once had a kitten which was born without any
hind legs — a defect which had occurred in several litters dropped by tlie
same cat. It lived for some years to my knowledge, and may be living
still. When I last saw it it was nearlj^ or quite full grown. Its difficulty
of motion was great. Yet T have seen it get up on a chair, and when it
walked it threw up its hind quarters and moved with a series of jumps,
much as a boy moves when walking on his hands with his feet in the air.
Without the care of man so defective an animal must soon have starved
for want of locomotive power.

From the above instances the transition is slight to that of monsters.
Indeed the line between these and malformation so great as that last
mentioned is not easily drawn. Nor do I care to insist on the distinction.
The only obvious difference between them lies in the transmission or
arrest of the defect. In most cases malformation so serious necessarily
ends with the individual.

Some may feel unwilling to admit the pertinence of monsters to the
present argument. But they cannot logicall}^ be excluded. They are
only the extreme cases in which the variation is so prejudicial that life is
usually short and transmission impossible. No department of either the
animal or the vegetable kingdom is free from the occasional appearance of
these usually inexplicable forms. Five-legged calves, sheep with two
tails, two-headed fowls and other such cases of malformation are often
announced. And after making all due allowance for mere external abnor-
mality there remain enough instances certified by anatomical demonstration
to show that the birth of such monsters is by no means rare.*

"The Museum of Michigan University contains a double-headed milk

* Abundant evidence tliat the human species is not less liable than others to this kind
of variation may be seen on the shelves of ahuost any medical museum and especially
on those of the Royal College of Surgeons of Loudon.

1887.] . J---"- [Claj'pole.

snake (Ophibohis tnangulus) of which the remainder ot the body appears
to be perfectly normal. Another case is recorded by Prof. Wyman * of a
water snake (Tropidonotus sipedon) with two heads and two tails, and a
similar case as well as one of a five-legged frog is reported by Mr. Kings-
ley.f Mr. Ryder also calls attention:): to a specimen of the pickerel frog
(Bana palustris) with five limbs or rather an additional pair of hind
limbs fused together. This leg had six toes and its digital formula might
be written— 5, 4, 3, 3, 4, 5.

Among insects such monstrous forms have been observed. " Numerous
instances of supernumerary legs and antennte are recorded. The antennte
are sometimes double but more Sbmmonly the legs." Asmuss has col-
lected eight examples and in six of these the parts on one side are treble.
"Newport relates that from a single coxa of Scarites pyrachmon on the left
side two trochanters originated. The anterior supported the true protho-
racic leg, while the posterior carried two legs each as well formed as the
first. "§

"Other deformities occur in the wings. Cases of hermaphroditism are
on record in which one wing bears the colors of the male insect and the
other those of the female. Sometimes the wings are aborted or deformed."

Most persons who have had much experience in the breeding of animals
can recall similar instances.

At a recent meeting of the American Entomological Society a mon-
strosity was noted in a longicorn beetle of the genus Acmceops in which
the left front leg has three tarsi. A specimen in the collection of Prof.
Riley {Isosoma tritici) was also described in which the fore wings are rep-
resented by rudimentary pads while the hind wings are fully developed
(Science, Dec. 5, 1884, p. v).

Mr. J. A. Ryder has recenily recorded similar malformation among
lobsters under his observation such as the absence of eyes, partial fusion ot
two bodies, fusion of the eyes on the median line. These changes were
coincident with the stage of gastrulation.||

In lecturing on the denizens of the aqueous kingdom, on Friday last,
at the Royal Aquarium, Mr. A. Carter referred to deformities that exist
among fish. In 1885 and 1886 he had examined thousands of salmon and
trout fry at South Kensington, on their emerging from the ova, and found
one case of deformity in every thousand, and one case of monstrosity such
as twin and dual-headed fish in every four thousand."^

Though as said above these forms are usually inexplicable, yet their
dependence on the chances of outside conditions in some instances at least
is, indicated in the following passage taken from Darwin's Animal and
Plants under Domestication (p. 279).

*Proe. of Bost. Nat. Hist. Soc, Vol. ix, p. 1.S3.

t American Naturalist, Vol. xii, pp. 594, 751.

X Zo61og>' of Ohio, p. G90.

? Paclcard's Guide to the Study of Insects, p. 84.

1! See American Naturalist, for 188G.

^ Nature, Jan. 6th, 1887, page 231.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIT. 125. P. PRINTED MAY 20, 1887.

1 99

Claypole.] -L-i-J [April 1,

"It is known from the labors of G. St. Hilaire, and recently from those
of Dareste and others, that eggs of the fowl if shaken, placed upright, per-
forated, covered in part with varnish produce monstrous chickens. Now
these monstrosities may be said to be directly caused by such unnatural
conditions, but the modification thus induced is not of a definite nature."

It is not by any means unlikely that the indefiniteness to which the
great naturalist here alludes is a mere consequence of our want of knowl-
edge of this obscure subject and not inherent in nature. The recent ex-
periments of Warynski & Fol, as quoted in the Journal of the Royal
Microscopical Society (June, 1866, p. 401), tend strongly to confirm this
opinion. These zoologists have succeeded in producing double hearts in
chickens by artificial means. The mode of procedure is as follows : " The
blunt edge of a scalpel is carefully and lightly drawn backwards along an
embryo between twenty-four and thirty-six hours old from just behind the
head without injuring any tissues. If all goes well the embryo will con-
tinue to develop normally with the exception of possessing two hearts."
The authors quoted were also able to produce other abnormalities in a
similar manner.

In the absence of any evidence to the contrary it is more logical to infer
that all such cases owe their origin to similar causes, antenatal accidents,
not yet discoverable.*

Turning now to the vegetable kingdom we find monstrous forms by no
means rare. Not seldom among wild plants the botanist finds flowers in
which one portion in hypertrophied to the injury or the atrophy of another
or of others. When this atrophy includes the essential organs, such as the
anthers or stigmas, it results in sterility and the extinction of the species
along that line. Human selection has enormously increased this form of
variation. Most of the double flowers of the gardener are monsters to the
anatomist. The showy double corolla is obtained at the cost of more im-
portant though less conspicuous organs. To quote special cases is here
needless. Abundance of them will occur to every naturalist or may be
found in works on the subject.

5. Moral variation. — Another phase of the subject should not be passed
over though any adequate discussion of it is not practicable here. Most
naturalists will sigree that the moral development of an organism may be
prejudicial. Animals born in domestication are not seldom so ill-tempered
or obstinate that little or nothing can be made of them. Horses, subject
to vice, as it is termed, are sold from hand to hand, lower and lower in
the labor scale, until they end by being employed as drudges in the hard-
est and most menial tasks which exhaust their strength and kill them off
before their time Dogs, too, are often met with which show a disposition
so ferocious or uncertain that their owners are compelled to kill them from
a regard to their own safety or to that of others. And the testimony of

• For some curious illustrations of another but kindred topic in this connection see a
paper on the " Disadvantagesof the upright position in man," by Dr. E. Clevenger, in the
American Naturalist for 18S4.

1887.J -'■'"^ [Claypole.

the tamers of wild animals proves that the same is true among them.
The temper of tamed elephants,' of tamed lions (so-called), and of other
■wild beasts indicates a difference of moral qualities quite equal to what we
see in the domesticated species. The difference is often very conspicuous
in members of the same litter.

The tendency to vice born in many individuals among mankind and
growing with age — the inheritance from vicious ancestors — impels its pos-
sessor to acts which shorten his days and are in other ways extremely pre-
judicial to him. The evolutionist may assert that this result is only
Xature's way of killing off those unfit to live. The philanthropist may
pity them and spend time and labor and money in trying to reform them,
and occasionallj' with success. But both evolutionist and philanthropist
thereby proclaim their belief that the moral tendencies developed in these
individuals are highly prejudicial and often fatal. They are, however,
the outcome of environment of themselves and their ancestors. They
are effects of the variability of the organism moulded by circumstances.
They are variates whose variation is hostile to their civilized surroundings
and leads to extinction. In other countries and among other circumstances
they might yet be fairly in harmony with their conditions of life and
might live. "The most inhuman monster of crime that ever was con-
demned by a court and executed by an officer of the law would among
such tribes as those of Australia surely pass for the embodiment of all
excellences and rise to an uncontested chieftainship" (Bergen: "The
Development Theory," p. 178).

It is not relevant to reply that most of the cases here cited are accidents
and should not be quoted in proof of the proposition. All such actual
occurrences can be logically employed. Accident merely means happen-
ing out of the expected course. If accidents happen often they partially
lose that character ; if they prevail they lose it altogether. If such acci-
dents as those above mentioned were advantageous to the organism they
would soon be perpetuated and become the rule. All variations are acci-
dents and their continuance and repetition are dependent on their advan-
tage to the variant. If prejudicial they are soon eliminated and cease.

" Treason doth never prosper ; what's the reason ?
AVhy, if it prosperuone dare call it treason."

Variation is treason to the original organism. If it can sustain itself it
becomes the new organism and supersedes the old one. If not it soon
goes down and is forgotten.

These cases therefore are not only relevant but they are the only cases
that can be cited. So quickly do all prejudicial variations die out that in
the wild state only now and then can they be noted and recorded. Hence
the exceptional are the only relevant and valid 'examples, and to reject
them on this account would be to put out of court the only witnesses
whose testimony is pertinent and by which the proposition can be estab-
lished.

Claypole.] l-'^: [April 1,

So far, therefore, is variation from being uniformly beneficial in its
results to the variable or to the variant organism, that in not a few cases
that come under our observation it is positively hurtful or even fatal.
And these must be only a few out of all that actually occur, inasmuch as
they are necessarily taken for the most part, indeed almost entirely, from
animals and plants in a condition of domestication.

In domestication also a new and almost omnipotent factor entfers the
problem — human selection. Now if this beneficial tendency in variation
had any existence, it might be expected to show some sign of its action in
species under human control. Yet here no trace of it can be detected.
When a cattle-breeder attempts to develop certain features it would be
evidently beneficial that the stock should vary in the required direction,
for failure to do so is quickly fatal. Yet immense care and pains, and
the constant elimination of faulty individuals are requisite to obtain suc-
cess in the endeavor. So with plants. In the attempt to establish a new
variety of cabbage or lettuce, years of work are essential and thousands
of "rogues " must be pulled from the seed-bed and destroyed before the
strain desired attains persistence and perpetuity.

IV.

Beneficial Variation and Natural Selection inconsistent.

It is further worthy of remark that supporters of the theory of evolu-
tion alluded to in the extracts given above can find no use in their system
for the subsidiary doctrine of natural selection. Maintaining a beneficial
tendency in all variation guiding it in a channel favorable to the variant,
they cannot logically admit the directive influence of selection. All vari-
ation being favorable, there can be no forms to be rejected. Yet one at
least of the writers quoted is evidently an adherent to the doctrine and
admits that its action has much influence in determining the surviving in-
dividuals. Were directive beneficial variation a fact, all variates must be
equally well adapted to their environment though ditferent from each
other. So evident is this that proof is needless. Yet Prof. Gray himself
appeals to the action of natural selection in his "Darwiniana," where
with a beautiful metaphor he writes :

"Natural selection is not the wind which propels the vessel, but the
rudder which by friction — now on this side and now on that — shapes the
course. The rudder acts while the vessel is in motion, effects nothing
when it is at rest. Variation answers to the wind."

Directive beneficial variation and natural selection are logical contradic-
tories, and cannot both exist. The former it real must be universal. But
I have shown that it is not so. Hence every evolutionist who adopts the
theory of natural selection must abandon that of beneficial variation, and
vice versa every adherent to the theory of beneficial variation is unable to
admit the agency of natural selection in any ot its forms.

1887.] 1-5 [Claypole.

V.

Indefinite Variation.

The instances already given have sufficiently illustrated the fact of pre-
judicial variation. Of beneficial variation no evolutionist entertains any
doubt. To dwell on it will therefore be needless. But there is a third
aspect of the change which must not be omitted. As we have seen, the
gain or loss of an organism by varying may be of any degree from that
which gives the variate a surpassing advantage and predominance over his
fellows to that which leads straight to extinction. In mathematical lan-
guage the range of variation is from positive infinity (+ <^) through zero
to negative infinity ( — oo). We must consequently admit the existence of
variation which confers no advantage and inflicts no disadvantage on the
variant — neutral variation it may be called. This neutral variation is an
important factor in the problem, though hitherto it has received very little
attention. It is capable of explaining some difficulties, of removing some
anomalies. Darwin has alluded to it in a single passage : "I am inclined
to suspect that we see in polymorphic genera variations in points of struc-
ture which are of no service or disservice to the species " (Origin of Spe-
cies, p. 46).

Variation of the kind now under consideration may be often seen among
the domestic animals where the struggle for existence is less severe and
controlled by other laws than among the wild species. For example, six-
toed cats (see "Nature" for 1886 and 1887) are a not uncommon though usu-
ally a local variety. The peculiarity is freely transmitted. Yet no ill
effect seems to attend the irregularity. Indeed if, as asserted, they are
good mousers, it may confer a slight benefit though it detracts much from
a light and graceful appearance. The same variation is not uncommon
among mankind, is there also freely transmitted and is also equally inert
in result. The tailless Manx cats may also be quoted in the same connec-
tion,* the great range of color in the domestic animals and the manifold
shapes of the leaf in many of our garden vegetables which are reproduced
with certainty and seem to work neither good nor evil to the plant.

Among wild species the same fact may be noted. Great difference may
be seen among the leaves of any species of our forest trees attended with
no perceptible advantage or disadvantage. In these cases we need not be
surprised to see the variates living side by side with their unvaried ances-
tors. The red maple of North America is a striking instance. This tree,
whose remains are found fossil in the Miocene strata, yet lives in company
with its more highly developed and later variates which do not occur in
the fossil state.

On this principle I would explain the fact brought forward by Dr. Car-
penter of the existence of ancestral forms of Orbitolites alongside of later

* In a case that recently occurred under my own observation a single kitten of a litter
was born without a tail. It is now nearly full grown and appears to suffer no inconve-
nience from the curtailment. In a similar way the Manx cats may have originated.

Claypole.] 1-^" [April 1,

variates. We have but to admit that the changes which occurred to the
earlier variable organism were attended with little or no advantage, and
that consequently the variable shows no diminution or tendency to extinc-
tion by the side of its more specialized variate offspring and the difficulty
entirely disappears.

"We are compelled to admit variation of all degrees ranging from that
which rapidly kills off through that which is absolutely neutral to that
which puts its variates at so great an advantage above their fellows that
they soon leave them behind and become the " Winners in Life's Race."

VI.
The Cause of Variation.

For a variation so wide in its range as that above described a cause
equally wide must be sought. JSio narrow or arbitrary limits can be set
to the cause of a universal consequence. And what more natural or more
obvious cause can be suggested than the changes constantly occurring in
the environment of the organism ? This is of course not a new suggestion,
but some writers on evolution seem afraid to carry it out to its full extent.
They seem unwilling to abandon the organism to the uncontrolled, con-
fused and seething waves of the sea of physical nature. Yet only in the
ceaseless, never repeated tossing of this unresting sea can be found a
cause at once sufficiently changeful and far reaching to correspond with
the observed changes of the organisms that are borne upon its surface or
that live among its waters. Elsewhere in vain do we look for any means
of explaining them. All other known natural causes are insufficient and
to resort in a difficulty to the unknown and the supernatural is to place
the enquiry beyond the pale of science.

In the changes of the physical world therefore and in these alone do we
find a cause even presumably sufficient to account for the continual and
contemporaneous changes in organic beings. It would be idle to assert
that we know the precise mode of action in which the former produces
the latter. So new and unexplored is this field that such knowledge is at
present impossible. But with every advance we see more and more prob-
ability that in the one we have the real and efficient cause of the other.
Experiments on the influence of food, temperature, light and other phys-
ical agents upon the modification of organisms especially during the
formative part of their existence are gradually giving us a mass of infor-
mation which has already greatly modified former opinions. Some forms
once ranked as distinct varieties or even species are now known to be
mere accidents resulting from the conditions in which part of their pre-
vious existence was spent. Especially is this true with regard to the
lower forms.

Time and space will not allow many quotations. One or two must
suffice.

"The Mexican axolotl is a tadpole-like animal of considerable size
which lives in the water, breathes by gills and is reproduced from eggs.

1887.1 l-J' [Claypole.

In its native country this animal is not known to change its form but
hatches from the egg into a minute object much like a young tadpole and
gradually grows to the form and proportions of the axolotl.

" Now in 1867 the astonishing fact was observed at the Jardin des
Plantes that some of these animals cast their skins after crawling out of the
water and began a new existence in the shape of a common salamander
(Amblystoma).

"This change from axolotl to salamander is accomplished in from four-
teen to sixteen days and may, it seems, be always brought about in healthy
specimens by placing them in shallow water and gradually diminishing
the supply.

"Since these axolotldescended salamanders are of precisely the same
species as other salamanders in the western part of the United States it
seems certain that these wild individuals are descended from axolotls and
it has been suggested that a dry season or a succession of sucli seasons
first caused the change to take place. If so we have here a striking
instance where change of climate has produced not merely another species
but another genus.*

The following case given by Schmidt in his work " Descent and Dar-
winism " I borrow from the author last quoted.

"At Steinheim, in Wurtemberg, was once a small lake and in its waters
grew countless little shellfish many of them water snails like those ot
lakes and rivers at the present day. By the appropriation of the lime-
stone dissolved in the water of the lake generation after generation ot
these snails built up their shells only to let them fall to the bottom on the
death of the little inhabitant. By this slow process a layer of shell mud
was formed which has, since the deposit was made, hardened into chalk.
About forty distinct layers of this chalk differing from one another slightly
in appearance may be distinguished and throughout these layers are the
perfectly preserved remains of many shells. The shells of each layer
remain much the same throughout its thickness but toward the upper
limit of each they are observed to vary, so as to approach the form which
will be found in the next layer. And not only are the shells of the lowest
layer so different that if the intermediate forms had not been discovered
they would certainly have been called different species but there are also
many among the intermediate forms themselves which if they had been
found separated from the others would have been counted distinct."

A figure accompanies this account which exhibits the progressive change
from a flat, discoid, planorbiform shell at the base of the deposit to one
with a much elevated spire at the summit. A more striking instance of
invariance in monotonous conditions followed by variation on the ensual
of physical change can hardly be imagined, f

* Bergen, " The Development Theory." See also Buckley's " Winners in Life's Race.' '
t Mr. W. H. Edwards, of West Virginia, has recently demonstrated similar facts in re-
gard to several species of the Butterflies. He has shown that several forms hitherto
considered di.stinct are in reality only seasonal or other variates. See his "Butterflies
of N. America " and his numerous papers on the subject in the " Canadian Entomolo-
gist."

Claypole.] ii^O [April 1,

Facts of this kind fully and fairly considered (and geology is yearly
bringing them in great numbers before us) urge us strongly to the belief
that great results are constantly wrought in an organism by physical
changes in its environment, and failing evidence of any other agent com-
petent to effect them it is not irrational to ascribe to the same cause all the
variational changes. We may then view the organism as plastic material
in the hands of its environment, shaped by it entirely and absolutely, and
owing its form to its external conditions. Resuming the mathematical
illustration the organism is a variable quantity; the physical conditions
around it are the causes of its variation ; in response to these it varies and
after an uncertain period of variancy it becomes another — a Variate.

In thus attributing all changes in an organism to changes in its environ-
ment we are under no obligation to admit that such changes are or must
be favorable. The physical world exists in total independence of the
organic. It was before (>rgauization and may be after it. So far from
serving or aiding it, phenomena lead us to the conclusion that animate
nature is, as it were, permitted b}'- and during certain states of inanimate
nature. Within certain limits of temperature, light, etc., organic beings
can exist. Beyond those limits their existence is impossible. The organ-
ism is, so to speak, an accident among its physical surroundings. If these
are compatible with life it lives, if not it dies. It exists on sufferance and
its existence is lengthened by its power of adaptation — by its variability.
If physical changes ensue the organism must adapt itself to them if it can,
and continue in being. If it cannot do so it becomes extinct.

Summing up results thus far obtained we reach the conclusion that the
doctrine of evolution by variation in a definite beneficial course is not in
consonance with the facts of Nature. On the contrary we find that this
variation both of animals and plants appears to take place in every direc-
tion indifferently and quite without regard to the welfare of the variant.
We find further that no cause is known to which these changes can be
referred except the accompanying changes in the physical world. To
these accordingly we refer them, conscious at the same time that the exact
method of their action is as yet largely unknown.

Further we find that the changes thus produced may be either beneficial,
neutral or injurious to the variant organism, following, as they do, certain
physical laws which are, if the expression may be allowed, totally indiffer-
ent to its welfare. In a word, adopting again the language of mathematics,
we may say that the Variate is a function of the original Variable depend-
ent on its constitution and the conditions of its environment — that the
changes between the Variable and its function, the Variate may be bene-
ficial in a high or low degree ; and may lead to its extension and increase ;
they may be neutral and leave the organism where they found it ; or they
may be prejudicial and lead to its diminution or extinction. In every
case, however, they are necessary consequences of the interaction of the
laws of organic nature within and of physical nature witheutthe organism,
inevitable, inexorable, fatal.

1887.] 1-" [Claypole.

VII.
A Possible Objection Considered.

It ■will not improbably be objected that in thus attributing organic vari-
ation entirely to outward agency I am going considerably bej^ond what
can be proved. In the strict sense of the terra this is true. We cannot
yet demonstrate all the effects of physical change on a variable organism.
But we are constantly seeing more and more clearly the immense effects
of physical nature on organic beings. And experiments, purposed and
accidental, are gradually enabling us to trace special organic changes to
their causes in inorganic nature, and thus, as it were, to correlate the
kingdoms. A vast field of experiment lies here before us in the attempt
not merely to correlate but to commeasure these two, not only to deter-
mine what physical changes produce certain organic effects, but to measure
both, to estimate and weigh them and at length to predict the organic
effect of any given physical cause.

And in this direction modern biological research is tending. The re-
sults already obtained warrant the hope that some day the present chaos
will be reduced to order, and the changes of organic nature will appear as
only the outcome of contemporaneous or antecedent changes in the physi-
cal world. A correlative and commensurate scale will be established.
Rest in inorganic nature, if possible, will be accompanied with iuvariauce
of organic nati;re, for as said above, no " tendency to vary " exists. On
the other hand change in the former, if uncompensated, must as certainly
induce change in the latter. The induction is not complete, as no induc-
tion ever can be, but the number of instances is already so great and so
rapidly increasing that the conclusion cannot be called premature, and
while every day increases its probability.

It is true that we cannot as yet show many examples of invariance
through very long periods of time. Species die out and others come in.
Change is the rule, and we have so far found few exceptions. But the
biologist does not stand alone in thus advancing a step beyond the cover of
"bald facts." Other students in other departments are accustomed to do
the same, and boldly to accept the logical outcome of their observations
even in cases where for want of opportunity the crucial experiment can-
not be performed. A mechanical illustration will make the meaning
clear. The first law of motion is thus expressed by mechanicians: "A
body continues in a state of rest or of uniform rectilinear motion unless
acted on by some outside force. ' ' Yet the mechanician has never seen
"a body in a state of rest or of uniform rectilinear motion." His faith is
nevertheless unshaken. He argues that as every approximation to the
necessary conditions is followed by a nearer approach to such motion if he
could obtain perfect conditions, perfectly uniform rectilinear motion
would result. The force and justice of his argument are admitted. And
on proof like this he builds his science of mechanics, and on this science
the works of the engineer confidently rest.

PKOC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 125. Q. PRINTED MAY 21, 1887.

Claypole.] 130 [^^pHl 1,

Now conceive an organism as tlie moving body, tlie motion of the latter
being represented by the specific life of the former. As the moving body
travels through space, so the organism travels thi-ough time. If unaf-
fected by outside disturbing force the former continues in a straight line.
So if unaffected by changes in its environment, the latter remains unva-
ried from generation to generation, merely changing its position in time as
the former in space. Thus each would continue indefinitely, the same in
all respects except position, after many thousand years had passed away.
But on its way the flying body approaches some other mass of matter,
and immediately feels an influence by which its own motion is modified.
So on its way through time the organism comes into a different environ-
ment to the influence of which it responds by modification of structure or
habits or both. These modifications are the necessary consequences of the
changes in its surroundings. In the former case we call them physical, in
the latter natural. Hut in neither do we know anything of the mode of
working. Of the "why" and the "wherefore" of both we are equally
ignorant. The mechanician sometimes imagines that by attributing the
one to " universal gravitation " he has explained it. But he has not. He
knows nothing of the nature or of the cause of this universal gravitation.
The biologist is not yet sufficiently advanced to generalize variation and
give a definite name to its cause. But with this unimportant difference
the two are in the same predicament.

The parallel may be followed a step farther. The body moving through
space and the organism through time are alike in another respect. The
former maj^ be drawn forward and its motion accelerated by an outside
force. So the latter may vary and improve under the influence of envi-
ronment. The former may be retarded and its motion may be diminished
or destroyed. So by unfavorable environment the latter may vary
in a prejudicial manner until extinction ensues. Yet again the for-
mer may, under the influence of the disturbing forces, change its direction
without either acceleration or retardation. So the latter may vary in
directions which shall be perfectly neutral in their effect upon its welfare,
and the new form may be as capable of survival as the old. In both cases
the variable is perfectly passive and plastic in the hands of its environ-
ment, and the environment is perfectly indifferent to the welfare of the
variably. The ensuing variate is an outcome of the conditions of the
world around it and must take its chance among them, living if in har-
mony, or dying if in discord.

In both the above cases the crucial experiment is beyond our reach. To
obtain absolutely uniform rectilinear motion there must be only one body
in the universe, and no resisting medium. To obtain an absolutely
unchanging variable organism there must be no alteration of the condi-
tions of existence. Both are alike unattainable. Yet, as with the mechani-
cian so with the biologist, every approximation brings him nearer to the
desired result. The vertebrates are least capable of enduring changes of
environment, and land surfaces afford the most variable conditions of life.

1887.] ^'^^ [Claypole.

Among the vertebrates, therefore, of a terrestrial fauna occurs the most
rapid evolution of animal forms. The depths of the sea are the places
where conditions vary most slowly. The lowest forms of animal life are
least affected by changes of environment. Accordingly among low forms
of life, and at the sea-bottom, we find most persistence of type. Illustra-
tions might readily be quoted, but they are needless. The facts are famil-
iar to every naturalist. And reasoning from these facts in the same man-
ner as does the mechanician the biologist argues. that could he obtain the
requisite unchanging conditions his species would continue unvarying for
an indefiaite time. Though still variable they would be perfectly inva-
riant.

VIII.
Nature's "Waste of Variates.

Nature's variates thus produced talve their place among their physical
and organic surroundings. With these they are more or less in harmony
and in discord. If they can, they live ; if not, they die. Nature has no
care for her nurselings. She casts them adrift on the world to shift for
themselves ; to swim if they can ; to sinli if they cannot. She neither aids
nor hinders them. She "cares for nothing." It is a game of "hit or
miss ;" a method of " trial and error."*

If a somewhat homely simile may be here allowed I will lilien the process
of Nature in producing variates that are in harmony with their environ-
ment to the plans adopted by large commercial houses in making their
goods known. Not knowing where their customers can be found they
scatter advertisements wholesale over the country. Here we find the
name of the firm in a newspaper, there at a railway station, here in a
magazine, there on a blank wall, here on the fly-leaf of a book, there on
the back of a railway ticket, in one place on the pavement underfoot, in
another on the ceiling overhead, now on a handbill forced on us in
the street, then around the pages of a railroad guidebook, and some-
times even on the fences and the rocks in little frequented spots. Every-
where crops out evidence of a systematic effort to catch the eye of the
public by dint of irrepressible advertising without definite method. Of
all these attempts the greater part are doomed to failure. Overlooked by the
eager readers of the news-sheet and of the railway guide, trampled under
foot by the hasty passenger in the street, read and immediately forgotten
by the preoccupied and the thoughtless, they live out their little lives as
variates among uncongenial conditions, as seed in stony ground, and pass

* It is to this neglect of her variates that the slowness of Nature's results are due com-
pared with the rapidity with which varieties are obtained by man. A valuable seedling
grows up in some out of the way place ; man secures it, propagates from it and so per-
petuates the variate. But if left to Nature it is probably destroyed and the opportunity lost.
Every variety and, still more, every species of Nature's making may fairly be looked on
as the result of many experiments undertaken and brought to the verge of success only
to be abandoned and fail.

Claypole.] J-^-^ [April 1,

away without remembrauce or result. But here and there one out of the
great number catches the eye of some one in want of the thing adver-
tised. It brings him in as a purchaser and a sale is made. One success
out of a myriad of failures. Yet the purpose is served and the business
maintained.

So with nature. She launches into the world her countless hosts of vari-
ates — in form, in color, in size, in strength, in bodily and mental qualities.
Of these, myriads — perhaps the great majority — die and leave no trace.
But here and there an individual possessing characters more in harmony
with its environment than those of its ancestors or relations takes advant-
age of the fact, increases rapidly and finally in the struggle vanquishes them
and takes their place. The old organism yields and the variate is called the
new species. Such is the method of trial and error employed in Nature
if we judge impartially from the facts that meet our eye in every field of
the organic world.

Strictly speaking every individual is a variate, for never does the oflF-
spring in all minute points resemble its parents. But when out of these
hosts of variates all the unfit have been eliminated how few remain. How
few even among the human family live to manhood, and how much smaller
is the number among the wild species. Nature appears to keep in her
workshop moulds of almost every conceivable form, and in these moulds
she casts her variates, issuing them broadcast on the world in order to see
which can survive. The greater number perish. Only here and there
does one prove to be in harmony with its environment and live. But those
that perish are quickly destroyed and forgotten — melted down and recast
— while the survivors apparently testify by their fitness in favor of special
adaptation.

IX.

Creation bv Beneficial Variation and by Special Design.

In this prodigal waste of her variates therefore rather than in their eco-
nomical production by beneficent variation, we find the clue to Nature's
method of creation. She does not make a new variate in perfect harmony
with its surroundings and then carefully watch and nurse it into growth
and supremacy. She does not study the surroundings in order to make
the variate. Still less does she fashion the surroundings to fit the variate.
On the contrary her plan is to produce her organisms in vast numbers,
and of varied forms and leave them to be assorted by the sifting process of
natural selection. The unfit many soon perish. The fit few alone survive
and multiply. The result is that nearly all living species thus sifted out are
in a harmony so nearly complete with their environment that it seems at
first view intentional. And this is the fallacy underlying the argument of
the teleologist, whether he belong to the school of "beneficial variation,"
represented by the writers quoted at the outset of this paper, or to that
older school that formerly pressed and whose adherents still press, though

1887.] lod [Claypole.

with somewhat diminished confidence, the famous arguments for "creation
by special design."

These writers maintain that the adaptation of an organism to its sur-
roundings is a proof of a specially designing intelligence. They say that
the countless instances of accommodation discoverable in existing nature
and those which may be inferred in past ages could not have come to pass
except by intent. It is needless to quote examples. They are familiar to
everybody. They have been enlarged on from the daj^s of Paley's watch
picked up on a common down to the present day. And even now books
issue from the press reasserting and attempting to reinforce this old argu-
ment. Yet from the point of view here taken this "argument from de-
sign " is entirely illusory and obtains all its apparent importance and its
seeming strength from being based on a mere partial view of the subject.
The teleologist picks out instances of organisms that are in harmony with
their surroundings, sees and studies the many and minute adaptations of the
one to the other, and then somewhat hastily infers a special intention in
the arrangement. From the examination of a few instances he infers a
general rule and asserts that every organism is specially adapted to its en-
vironment by intelligence. The inference is natural, obvious and pardon-
able on a superficial view, but wider and closer observation refutes it.
Every organism is in approximate harmony with its surroundings because,
as said above, it lives only on that condition. If not it dies. This fact the
teleologist fails to see or to appreciate. By him the constant struggle for
existence is unseen, the cries of the vanquished are unheard, the thousands
that are born only to die of unfitness are unnoticed. Were all these ele-
ments taken into account his problem would be less simple and his re-
sults less easily reached and less confidently announced. Special inten-
tion or design in creation could hardly be affirmed of a world where the
greater part of the experiments fail of success.

Returning for a moment to the illustration employed above, the tele-
ologist is in the position of one who seeing an advertisement fall into the
hands of a man in need of the article advertised should straightway infer
a special design in the advertiser to bring these two together. Not seeing
or not heeding the thousands that went to waste he comes to a hasty and
incorrect conclusion by imperfect induction. A wider view would give a
juster sense of the relation between the failures and the successes and
enable him to see the design, for such it may fairly be called in its true
light.

For, be it understood that evolution as here defined by no means dis-
proves design. To assert or to imply this would be as illogical as the fault
just condemned, but in the opposite direction. That it disproves " special
design " is, it appears to me, evident. But design of another kind and of
a wider scope, working in quite another fashion — " the method of trial
and error" — may yet exist behind all. On this question evolution thus
far speaks doubtfully and the biologist holds no positive opinion.
Of one fact, however, he is confident — that all the changes of organic

Oaypole.] 1«^4 [April 1,

life are results of unswerving "natural law," the details and modes of
•whose working he cannot yet trace. Chance at present seems supreme
among the tranformations which evolution has revealed. But chance is
only a name under which we disguise our ignorance. In a world under
the action of universal natural law. Chance, that is, causeless effect, can-
not exist. Chance in this sense is to the careful student of Nature un-
thinkable, inconceivable. Every event is a consequent of antecedents and
an antecedent of consequents. Order, such as it is, prevails everywhere.
The sequence is unbroken. Every existing species is a single link of a
chain, one end of which is lost in the distant past and the other end has
not yet emerged from the distant future. Every link depends from that
preceding it and serves as a point of attachment for that which follows.
What the one is the other will be, barring the effect of outside inlluences,
and could the exact nature of the organism be known and the exact effect
of environment be determined, it would be possible to foretell the exact
nature of the ensuing variate.

But firm as is the faith of the biologist in the existence and ceaseless
action of universal law he admits his utter ignorance of that deeper force or
of those deeper forces that keep the law in action. This must be determined
from the working of the law itself. He must reason back from the law ta
the underlying principle and determine the nature of the latter from the
mode of the former. And if in this profound investigation he finds him-
self coming to results which clash with prevalent or preconceived opinion,
if the law ofthe universe seems other and harder than poets have feigned, yet
sentiment and prejudice should not be allowed to lie as stumbling-blocks
in the path of advancing knowledge, nor should the faint voices and dim
lights which come to us out of the darkness ahead be disregarded, though
they would lead us in different direction from that in which we were wont
and wishing to go.

COXCLUSIOX.

A possibility looms up before the biologist on this view of his science
which no other theory can encourage. If all organic changes come about
as consequences of changes of environment, why should it be beyond rea-
sonable hope that he may some day be able to grasp the effects of the lat-
ter so completely as to foretell the former? Astronomy was once in the
state of confusion and ignorance in which biology now lies. The move-
ments of the planets were an unsolved enigma, their paths a tangled maze,
their mutual influences a seemingly hopeless chaos. But Copernicus,
Kepler, Galileo, Xewton, Laplace and Leibnitz arose. The kev of the
enigma was found, the clue to the maze, the order in the chaos. And now
of all the physical sciences, astronomy is the most exact, the most thor-
oughly under control of mathematical laws. The astronomer, rising
above the task of merely recording the past, predicts the future. The
movements of the planets are understood ; universal gravitation enables
him to grasp them, and the subtle mathematical analysis gives him the

1887.] 1^5 [Claypole.

means of seizing any one of them, of tracking it through space, of mark-
ing its course, of including the varjing effects of other globes, and finally,
from his complicated formula, he educes a prediction of its place at any
moment in the future.

Is it too much to hope that some day the biologist too will rise to the
same position ; that some other and greater Darwin will be born to give
us a generalized law of variation ; that some biological Newton will arise
and enable us to compute the complicated problem which organic beings
present in passiog through their different stages of variation ? If even
now the pigeon-fancier will undertake to produce in a given time a bird
with any desired plumage (within possible limits) ; if the cattle-breeder
can call into being a variety retaining desirable and excluding undesirable
qualities ; if a gardener can develop a new and valuable variety of plant,
and fix its characters so that it comes true from seed for many years, why
should we not hope that some day the special will become the general,
and that what can now be done in a few cases will then be done in all at
will? When the effects of changes in the environment are definitely
known and traced back to their special causes, their direction and amount
determined and their condition so fully understood that they can be repro-
duced at pleasure, then will the material be in our hands for the final gen-
eralization. Is it too sanguine to hope that a biological analysis will then
be invented and perfected as mathematical analysis has been perfected,
and that the biologist, armed with this new engine of investigation, will
'be able to trace the past evolution of organisms to its causes in the organic
world? And, bolder still, may he not venture into the future, seize in the
grasp of his Calculus any variable organism, and involving in his formula
the successive conditions of its environment, trace it through its compli-
cated changes during its period of variance until his equation yields up
the function — the variate — at the end of any desired inj,erval, exhibiting
new characters and forming a new species ?

Is such a prospect, though distant, altogether visionary ? May we not
hope some day to solve the great evolutionary problem ? Given, a vari-
able organism and the conditions of its environment during a certain time,
to determine the consequent changes.

Mooney.] ^'^^ [April 15,

THE MEDICAL MYTHOLOGY OF IRELAND.

, By James Mooney, Washington, D. C.

{Bead before tlie American Philosophical Society, April 15, 1887.)

Note.— The information contained in the following paper has Deen obtained by
the writer's personal investigation among the people who believe and practice the
things described, and has not been obtained from books, although numerous works
bearing on the subject have been consulted. Every belief and custom described is
still in vogue in some part of Ireland, especially in the west. They have even been
transplanted to this country, and some of the charms mentioned have been used by
Irish men and women for the relief of children at the request of tairly intelligent
American parents, while the accidental death of a young man at Holyoke, Mass., some
years ago, is attributed ))y his friends to the evil eye of a Mearnan who was near him at
the time. Where inquiry among people of diflFerent sections has shown a custom to be
general, the lact has been stated, and most of the charms described as local would prob-
ably prove to be generally known on further investigation. — The Author.

For several reasons the mytbologic theory of disease has probably
reached its highest development and retained most of its original strength
among the people of Ireland. Her national life was crushed into the
ground by an alien tyrant while still the gloom of the Dark Ages hovered
over Europe, and when the Irish nation itself had hardly emerged from
the tribal condition. The island which had been the home and the refuge
of scholars during the troubled centuries which followed the fall of the
Roman empire was given over to desolation, and the fire kindled upon
the altar of learning went out in blood and tears. Laws were enacted
against the dress, the language, the very names of the people, and it was
held no crime to kill an Irishman. Schools and monasteries were despoiled
and their inmates hunted down like wild beasts or banished from the
country — the same price was offered for the head of a priest and for the
head ot a wolf — and for nearly seven hundred years teaching was a trea-
son and education a crime. When at last, within the present century,
the laws became at least human, and schools were established throughout
the country, the same landlord system against which tlie Irish people are
now fighting fastened them down with a weight of poverty which their
utmost exertions were not sufficient to throw off. The people had no time
or money to go to school, and therefore remained in a great measure uned-
ucated. In addition to all this must be considered the peculiarly spiritual
temper of the Kelt, and especially of the Gael, which inclines him to a
strong faith in the things of the invisible world, and renders the Irish
nation an eminently religious people. The same qualities, when not
properly directed by education, lead naturally to superstition, the religion
of ignorance.

If a line three hundred miles long be drawn through the greatest extent
of the island, from Inishowen in the north to Cape Clear in the south, it
will divide the country into two parts, of nearly equal size. The eastern

1887.1 [Moouey.

section is a fertile plain, shut in by low mountains along the coast, and
being naturally easy of access and more exposed to foreign influence and
colonization, its inhabitants have lost much of their original character and
nearly all of their language. The western section is chiefly a region of
rugged mountains, and limestone clifts covered with a thin layer of soil,
where no one but an Irishman would attempt to raise a crop. Its inhab-
itants, who are fishermen on the coast and shepherds in the mountains,
are still in the primitive condition of their ancestors, retaining in a great
degree their simple habits and their Gaelic language. The typical districts
of this region are Donegal in the north, Kerry in the south, and Conna-
mara in the extreme west. Here the practices and beliefs which were
once general throughout the country still have full sway, the enchanted
horse dwells in the lough, and the fairies dance under the hawthorn.

The Practitioners.

In describing these customs and beliefs they will be treated, not as half-
forgotten superstitions raked up out of the past, but as living realities, for
such they are in fact. The medical professors of this region are generally
old women, whose stock in trade consists of a few herbs and simple decoc-
tions, a number of prayers and secret formulas to be recited while apply-
ing the remedy, and a great deal of mystery. Such a woman is com-
monly called a cailleac luib'e- "herb hag" or beanfeasac'f "knowing
woman. " When her art is of that doubtful kind which tends rather more
to the injury than to the good of her neighbors, she is called a piseogX and
the same name is also applied to her nostrums. In some few cases the
doctor is a man. There are also a number of persons who have cures for
particular diseases, these cures being innate in the individual, owing to
some accident of birth, or hereditary and transmitted from parent to child
from a remote generation. When hereditary, the secret is jealously
guarded — even by the mother from her child — and only revealed upon
the deathbed, to some one of the family who, at the same time, is pledged
to silence. For this reason it is almost impossible to get the formulas used
with any of these cures, but there are a number of charms in use which
are common property, and from a knowledge of these the character of the
others may be guessed. In rare instances the possessor of a cure bestows
it upon another in return for some favor, the charm losing none of its
efficacy by the transfer. It is generally considered essential that the
charm should have been inherited from a woman by a man, or from a man
by a woman. Persons who possess these single cures give their services

* Pronounced cawl-yakh ttva. The Connamara i)ronuuciation is given, unless other-
wise noted. In the Gaelic text the aspirated consonants are indicated by a dot placed
after them near the top. When the Irish characters are used the dot is placed above
the aspirated consonant, and when the Roman characters are used, as in Scotland, the
consonant is followed by an h. The h is not here used, as it does not properly belong to
the Gaelic alphabet, and gives a false appearance of harshness.

t Pronounced ban fCisakli.

I Pronounced plshoeg.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 125. R. PRINTED MAY 21, 1887.

Mooney.] -'-^O [April 15,

freely, as their powers are looked upon as sacred gifts whicli would depart
from them were a fee demanded, although they may accept a small pres-
ent. The other class, on the contrary, who are considered as akin to
dealers in the black art, act upon the principle of "nothing for nothing."
In Connamara it is customary to cross their hand with a two shilling
piece, a silver coin having a cross upon one side, the sacred emblem being
supposed to compel them to speak the truth. The herbs are gathered
fasting, generally by moonlight, and whisky enters largely into the
decoctions.

These practitioners have their specialties, and one who deals with the
evil eye will have nothing to do with a fairy sickness, neither will the
"fairy woman " meddle with an illness which is due to the influence of
the evil eye. It must not be supposed, however, that the people depend
entirely upon the skill of these doctors. On the contrary, every house-
keeper is well acquainted with the virtues of all the common herbs, to
which she never fails to resort in case of need — always accompanying the
application with a prayer — and it is only when she has exhausted her
resources or is convinced that the sickness is of supernatural origin, that
she applies to the cailleac luib'e. When an ailment does not yield readily
to simple treatment, it is generally ascribed to one of three causes, viz.,
the fairies, thfe evil eye, or witchcraft. The last of these is not often held
responsible, as Irish witches usually confine their operations to stealing
the butter, and seldom harm the owners. We will speak first of the
fairies.

The Sig'efkeog and Fairy Influence.

The person, of either sex, who treats illness of fairy origin is called a
sig'efreog,* the name being probably a diminutive of sig-efear,\ a "fairy
man." In the south they are called sheefers or sJieefros, while in the east
they are known as fairy men or women, as the case may be. They have
generally obtained their knowledge by a residence of some years with the
fairies, who frequently carry off both grown persons and infants, and
detain them for three, five or seven years, unless forced to return them
sooner. Young mothers and their infants are especially liable to be
abducted, and to prevent such a calamity numerous precautions are
adopted, which need not be described here. The health — at least of grown
persons — is in noway affected by their sojourn among the fairies, while
they learn all the secrets of their captors and afterward use this knowl-
edge to defeat their purposes. Although, after returning to their friends,
their services are in constant demand to counteract the fairy influence,
they are never able to shake it off" from themselves, but are frequently
called away, even in the dead of night or from the midst of a company,
to perform some office for the " good people " — generally to wait upon a
fairy mother or her child. The fairies naturally resent the interference of

■ • Pronounced sheefroeg.
t Pronounced shee-fCir.

1887.]

i-OtJ TMoonev.

the sig'efreog, and while gatliering her medicinal herbs she is frequently
stricken with convulsions and falls to the ground, foaming at the mouth,
owing to the violence of her struggles with the invisible beings, who strive
to tear the plants from her grasp. In one instance, in the County Clare,
they seized a man at night in a lonely place, and beat him so terribly that
he was confined to his bed for a week afterward.

In addition toher medical knowledge, the sig-efreog can read the thoughts
of others, and tell the whereabouts of missing articles, and her powers are
often inherited by any of her children who may be born after her return
from fairy land. She also warns the people occasionally against doing
anything which would incur the ill will of the fairies, such as throwing
out dirty water after nightfall, when the elves are engaged at their sports ;
forgetting to leave clean water on the dresser for them to drink ; or saying
grace over the potatoes without first setting aside a portion for the fairies,
who cannot touch consecrated food. Such is the dread of ofiending these
spirits that they are seldom mentioned under their true name of sig'e,* or
"fairy," but are generally called daoino mat'a,\ or "good people," fre-
quently accompanied by the invocation, Fogramuid deag'-c'om'arsanac't
oraib',X "we beg good neighborship of you."

The supernatural power of the sig'efreog is sometimes due to some
remarkable cause other than a residence with the fairies. In the County
Clare is a wild mountain lake known as Lough Doon, where St. Patrick
confined the last of the serpents, which still at rare intervals comes out
upon the bank. On one of these occasions the serpent was seen by a man
who ever afterward "had a cure." There formerly lived near Tuam, in
the County Galway, a cripple known as Dom'nal Crom,% or "Crooked
Daniel," who, on account of his infirmity, was generally appointed to
watch his neighbors' cattle upon the mountain side. While thus engaged
one day he saw a bull descend from the heavens and associate with one
of the cows. By drinking the first milk drawn from the cow after the
birth of the calf he was endowed with a knowledge of fairy doings and
the gift of prophecy. 11

A single instance, from east Galway, will serve to illustrate the man)ier
of fairy seizure and rescue. A woman was carried off while her husband
was out of the house for a short time, and on his return, instead of the
blooming young wife he had loved, he found a shriveled whimpering
creature, who would take no care of the child. He was in great trouble
over the matter for some time, until one night, as he was coming across

* Pronounced she.

t Pronounced dheence moha.

t Pronounced FoegramHj jaw-khoersancikhth tiriv.

§ Pronounced Dhonaid Cnim.

11 This man is referred to on page 83 of Sir Wm. Wilde's valuable and interest-
ing work on Lough Corrib, published in 1867. The account here given was ob-
tained from a native of that vicinity.

Mooney.] XtlU [April 15,

the field, he saw his wife standing in the Jmggart* Going up to her, he
asked her, in the name of the Trinity, who had her in their power, and
what he must do to rescue her. She told him that she was with the fairies
and that there was one way by which he could recover her, if he had
suflicient courage to try it. On a certain night and at a certain hour, a
company of mounted fairies, with her in their midst, would enter a fairy
fortt near his house. He must be ready with some urine and some chicken
dung, which he must throw upon her and then seize her. He promised
to do as directed, and at the appointed time he was in waiting near the
fort. Soon he heard the fairies approaching, and when the noise came in
front of him he threw the dung and urine in the direction of the sound,
and saw his wife fall from her horse. He seized her, and although the
fairies crowded around and strove to tear her away from him, he defied
them and held on to her until they gave up the attempt and retired into
the fort, when he brought her home with him. At the instant he seized
her there came such a blast that "you'd think the wind would sweep the
roof from the house," and in the midst of it all the withered hag disap-
peared and was not seen afterward. The woman lived to a good age and
had several children after her return.

The method adopted in this case to break the power of the enchantment
is especially to be noted, as it is a cardinal principle in Irish mythology
that fairies, being pure spirits, cannot endure defilement. Even a hand-
ful of dust thrown into their midst will sometimes cause them to release
their hold on a prisoner. The same ingredients enter into most of the
charms and amulets used as a protection against the fairies. The chicken,
also, is regarded as peculiarly sacred, and some wonderful virtue is con-
nected with everything belonging to it. According to popular belief, the
fairies can take anything but a chicken or an egg.

Unusually promising young children — especially infants not yet bap-
tized^-are frequently carried off by the fairies, who leave instead what are
known to be changelings by their pinched and withered features, their
hollow voice, their constant crying and inordinate appetite, and their
unnaturally shrewd remarks and actions. In other words, the uninformed
observer might think them precocious children in delicate health. In such
cases, when there is no longer any doubt in the matter — for mothers are
always slow to be convinced of the real truth — the fairy woman is called
in to bring back the stolen child. Her usual method is to heat the shovel
in the fire, place the changeling upon it and put it out upon the dunghill.
She then returns to the house and recites certain words, after which the
family go out to the dunghill and find there the real child, in place of the
other, which has been taken away again by the fairies. The child seldom

* An outdoor inclosurc for storing grain and hay.

t Prehistoric circular earthworks, with underground passages, very numerous
tliroughout tlie south and west, and popularly believed to be the abode of the
fairies. Antiquariaus generally regard them as ancient communal village iuclosures.

1887.) 14i [Mooney.

lives long after its return, owing to the rough treatment it receives while
in the hands of the fairies.

In this operation we have a combination of fire, iron and dung, the three
great safeguards against the influence of fairies and the infernal spirits.
Three is also the sacred number in Ireland, as well as throughout Europe.
The changeling sometimes leaps through the window at sight of the prepa-
rations, and disappears in some unaccountable manner, when the real child
is found asleep in the cradle. This method is known throughout the coun-
try, but there are also other ways to accomplish the same purpose. In the
County Cork the mother, while still fasting, takes the changeling before
sunrise to a point where three running streams meet, and after stripping
it, dips it into the water three times in the name of the Trinity. This is
done on three successive mornings, and on returning home the third
morning her real child is restored to her arms as she enters the doorway,
the substitution being effected instantaneously by the fairies.

In another instance a young man was suddenly stricken with a rheu-
matic illness, which confined him to his bed nearly three years. At last
one day while his parents were gone to the market he got up and joined
the younger children playing outside the house, and was as active as any
of them. When it was about time for the parents to return he went back
to bed again. The children told the old folks all about it and an elder
brother agreed to watch the next day. In the morning the parents started
off again, but were hardly out of sight when the sick man was out of bed
once more and in the field with the children. The watcher ran toward the
house to see if the bed was empty, but with all his swiftness, the rheu-
matic got there first and was in bed when he entered the door. The
brother look up an ax, and approaching the sick man, swore that he would
kill him if he did not tell who he was. "Oh, brother," cried the sick
man, "don't strike me, for I have only a few more days to serve, and
then I will be with you again." The brother desisted and soon after the
young man was restored as well and strong as he was three years before.
He explained that a servant girl of the family, who had apparently died
about a year before the beginning of his illness, was with the fairies, and
had warned him not to accept food or drink at their hands. He followed
her advice, and at the end of three years, the shortest period of fairy de-
tention, they were consequently obliged to release him, while the girl
who had made the fatal mistake of eating with them was never restored.
The young man was the son of a respectable farmer named Halpine, in
the County Limerick.

This belief in the presence of a fairy changeling in .place of the sick
person is very general, especially in the case of infants which pine away
without apparent cause, strong young men suddenly stricken down, and
old persons whose illness is of a fitful and lingering nature. It probably
has its origin in the change in disposition and features under such circum-
stances, and the unwillingness of the people to believe that this can be

Moouey.] i-±— [April 15,

the result of natural causes. The supposed fairy is sometimes threatened
to force him to reveal his identity, and when the case is evidently hope-
less, although the patient still lingers, a piece of Lus-Mor* or foxglove,
is put under his bed. If he be a changeling, the fairies will be compelled
to restore, at once and in good health, the person taken away. If the in-
valid be really present in his proper person, he will not recover, but die.
The reason of this is, that when the soul, after death, is brought up for
judgment, it is sometimes condemned to return and re-animate the body,
and endure with it all the miseries of sickness until its sins have been ex-
piated, when it is finally separated from the flesh and enters into eternal
happiness. The fairies take advantage of this temporary absence of the
soul before the judgment bar to put one of their number into the body so
that when the soul returns it finds its place occupied and is obliged to go
with them. The presence of the lus-mor compels the fairies to take away
their spirit from the body and release the soul, which then enters at once
into glory. This, of course, i^no part of the Catholic belief, but a survi-
val of the old paganism.

Lameness is frequently the result of having intruded upon the precincts
of the fairies or interfered with them in some other way. For this reason
the people are especially careful not to disturb the fairy forts or venture
near them after nightfall. A girl near Feakle, in the County Clare, fell
asleep in a fort on a harvest day, and on awaking in the morning found
herself unable to walk on account of a painful ulcer on her limb. The
fairies had struck her for coming upon their ground. After a long illness
something like a thread of flax came out of the wound and she recovered.
Ulcers, scrofula and running sores are commonly called " fairy strokes,"
and attributed to fairy influence. The particles of hardened pus which
sometimes come out of the sore are the fairy darts which have caused the
wound. A man near Dunmore, in Galway, rented a small farm upon
which was a fairy fort, which was overgrown with bushes. As these were
never disturbed they at last began to encroach upon the cultivated ground.
In spite of the remonstrances of his wife he determined to root out some
of them, but had hardly begun the work when he was struck with such a
sharp pain in his leg that he fell to the ground and had to be carried into
the house and put to bed. His wife went out and replanted the bushes
just as they were before, when he at once got relief. This was told bj-- the
man himself and confirmed by his wife, who was present and added : "If
there is one thing certain, it is that there are fairies in Ireland." He holds
a responsible position at a salary of 81300 per year. Near Bandon, in the
County Cork, lived a man who in his youth was a noted jumper, and on
cue occasion leaped across a ditch twenty-two feet in width and alighted
in such a manner as to severely injure his foot. A running sore appeared
on his ankle and pieces of bone came out. His mother procured from a
fairy woman a "bottle of herbs," which was rubbed upon the foot and

♦Pronounced lus-more; literally the "great herb."

1887.] 14d [Mooney.

resulted in a cure. The bottle -was paid for with a basket of eggs, each
one of which was marked with a black cross made with the burned end
of a stick, probably of furze. Tlie woman explained that he had been
kicked by the fairies, who were passing that way when he jumped into
their midst. This woman went every night with the fairies, who sum-
moned her with a peculiar whistle, which was heard by other persons as
well as herself. She was once called away from a wake in this manner,
but no one had the courage to follow her. The story is given as told by
the man who made the leap, an old soldier who has spent the last tliirty
years fighting Indians and border outlaws on the frontier, and is now laid
up for repairs at the soldiers' home near Washington. When a boy he
often watched all day at the entrance to a fairy fort to catch a glimpse of
the fairy shoemaker, but he says he no longer believes in such things.

Another of these women kept a bottle of water, and by holding it up to
the light could tell whether or not a sick person would recover. A man
once came to her to inquire about his brother, who was sick. She looked
at the bottle of water and said, " You have come three minutes too late."
The man went home and his brother died.

When any one sneezes, it is in consequence of a blast from the fairies,
who are then endeavoring to carry him off. At the third sneeze they will
accomplish their object, and leave a corpse or an invalid changeling in
his place, unless some one present exclaims, "God bless us!" On hear-
ing the name of God the fairies take flight, and it is hardly too much to
say that this ejaculation is never omitted on such occasions. A similar
custom prevails throughout Europe and has been traced back as far at
least as the time of Homer.

The prehistoric stone arrow head, or saige'ad* occasionally found in the
country, is a fairy dart which has been shot at some man or animal, and
thus lost. The fortunate finder can counteract the designs of the fairies,
and the old woman who possesses one is regarded with much veneration, and
in the expressive language of the people, "she will get good nursing."
When an illness is supposed to be due to the influence of the fairies, the
saig'ead is put into a tumbler and covered with water, which the patient
then drinks, and if the fairies are responsible for his sickness he at once
recovers. The saig'ead is preserved in some iron receptacle to prevent
the fairies stealing it.

As so many physical evils are due to the fairies, it is natural that some
means should be used to ward oft their influence. For this purpose a
horse shoe is nailed over the door, while garlic is planted in the thatch
above it. As newly made brides and young mothers are in most danger
from this source, a great many measures — which come more properly
under the head of marriage customs — are taken to prevent the abduction
of either the wife or the child. It may be in order here to state that no
fire must be taken out of a house while a woman is sick within it, and

* Pronounced siedh, equivalent to the Latin sagitta.

Mooney.] ■'■'*4 [April 15,

there is a general reluctance to lending anything whatever out of the
house at such times. The ancient religion of Ireland was Are worship,
and numerous vestiges of the old belief still exist among the popular cus-
toms.

Scraps of iron are frequently carried as a protection against the fairies,
and in Connamara it is still a common practice to wear about the person
what is exactly equivalent to the medicine-bag of the Indian. The con-
tents of this bag, which is about the size of a liiclvory nut, are known only
to the owner, who conceals also the fact of its possession even from his
most intimate friend, but among them are usually found tobacco, garlic,
salt, chicken dung, lus-crea, and some dust from the roadside. This is
worn also as a protection against the evil eye, and something of the same
nature is sewed into the clothing of the bride when her friends are pre-
paring her for the marriage ceremony.

Convulsions in a child are sometimes due to the influence of the fairies,
being probably the result of its struggles to escape from their grasp. The
theory and practice are best illustrated by relating an instance, which is
given just as it was told by the narrator, who knew the mother and
believed the story. A woman had a child which was subject to danger-
ous convulsions, and after one unusually violent attack she consulted a
fairy woman, who told her what she must do. On her way home the
mother picked up from the roadside ten small white pebbles known as
fairy stones. On reaching home she put nine of these into a vessel of
urine and threw the tenth into the fire. She also put into the vessel some
chicken dung and three sprigs of a plant (probably garlic or ivy) which
grew on the roof above the door. She then stripped the child and threw
into the fire its shirt and the other garments which were worn next the
skin. The child was then washed from head to foot in the liquid, wrapped
in a blanket and put to bed. There were nine hens and a rooster on the
rafters over the door. In a short time the child had a violent fit and the
nine hens dropped dead upon the floor. The rooster jumped down from
his perch, crew three times, and then flew up again to the rafters. If the
woman had put the tenth stone with the others, he would have dropped
dead with the hens. The child was cured.

Vicarious Cures.

This single instance combines in itself a numberof important features in
connection with the popular mythology— the dung, the urine, the plant
over the door, the chicken, the fire and the garment worn next the skin —
and introduces also a new element in the popular theory of disease, viz. :
the idea of vicarious cure, or rather, of vicarious sacrifice. This belief,
which is general, is that no one can be cured of a dangerous illness unless,
as the people express it, "something is left in his place," to suffer the
sickness and death. A few illustrations from the County Clare will exem-
plify this belief.

1887.1 • 14o [Mooney.

A father, whose son was nearly at the point of death, applied to a man
noted for his healing powers, who told him that the boy could be saved
but that something must go in his place. " Well," said the father, "take
anything that I have but a Christian." The other said it would not do for
him to accept anything, but that he would put his own horse in the place
of the boy. He then told the father to watch the horse, which was just
coming up from the sea with a load of sand. The moment the carl
reached the spot where the sand was to be put, the horse dropped dead.
When the man arrived at home his son was well.

In another instance a woman was sick, and her husband called in a man
who told him to take every living thing out of the house before he pro-
ceeded to cure her. The husband put his cliildren out of the house, but
forgot "a sow with a litter of bonnivis"* in one corner. The other man
then recited certain prayers and restored the woman to health, but when
the family came back again into the house they found the sow and the
bonnivs dead.

At another time a man's wife was sick and the operator was sent for.
He recited some words and the woman began to recover, but the next
morning a fine cow belonging to her husband was found lying in the field,
groaning and unable to rise. The cow grew worse as the woman grew
better, and when the cow died the woman was well.

In the same connection may be mentioned a custom which prevails
among the fishermen of Mayo and Connamara. Every master of a fish-
ing boat carries a dog with him when out at sea, and should a storm arise,
the dog's legs are tied together and it is thrown overboard, in the belief
that the sea will at once become calm. This practice e.xists in Ireland to-day,
in the nineteenth century, and is exactly what formerly existed among the
Indians on the great lakes, as we learn from the trader, Alexander Henry.
In 1766, while crossing Lake Huron in a canoe with a party of Ojibwas,
a storm came up, which was attributed by the Indians to the anger
of the snake god, whom he had oflended the day before by attempting
to kill a rattlesnake. After calling on the snake god for help, " One of the
chiefs took a dog, and after tying its four legs together threw it overboard,
at the same time calling on the snake to preserve us from being drowned,
and desiring him to satisfy his hunger with the carcass of the dog."f We
read in the Bible how, nearly three thousand years ago, the prophet
Jonah, fleeing from the will of God, was on board a ship in the 3Iediter-
ranean when they were overtaken by a storm. After calling upon their
several gods, and using every effort to right the vessel, the sailors cast lots
to discover who was responsible for the storm, and the lot fell upon the .
prophet. " Then said they unto him. What shall we do unto thee, that
the sea may be calm unto us? for the sea wrought and was tempestuous.
And he said unto them, Take me up and cast me forth into the sea ; so

* Gaelic, banab', a sucking pig.
t Henry, Travels, 178, 1809.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 125. S. PRINTED JUNE 4, 1887.

Mooney.] i4b [April 15,

shall the sea be calm unto you, for I know that for my sake this great
tempest is upon you. * * * So they took up Jonah and cast him forth
into the sea, and the sea ceased from her raging" (Jonah, i : 11, 12, 15).

Another belief, which exists alike in Ireland and among the Indians, is
that certain localities are the abode of invisible malignant spirits, which
visit sickness and death upon those who come within their reach. These
evil spirits are overhead in the air, and are quite a different order of be-
ings from the fairies, who live upon or under the ground, and on the
whole are rather regarded as benevolent. If sickness or death occurs in
a new house, it is frequently ascribed to this cause, and the house will be
removed, or torn down and rebuilt in another place.

There is also a way by which the pains of maternity can be transferred
from the woman to her husband. This secret is so jealously guarded that
a correspondent in the west of Ireland, who had been asked to investigate
the matter, was at last obliged to report : " In regard to putting the sick-
ness on the father of a child, that is a well-known thing in this country,
but after making every inquiry I could not make out how it is done. It
is strictly private." It came out, however, in a chance conversation with
a woman who, when a child, had once been selected to wait upon a nurse
on such an occasion. At a critical moment the nurse "hunted her out of
the room," and then, taking the husband's vest, she put it upon the sick
woman. The child had hid behind the door in the next room and saw
the whole operation, but was too far .off to hear the words which were
probably repeated at the same time. It is asserted by some that the hus-
band's consent must first be obtained, but the general opinion is that he
feels all the pain, and even cries out with the agony, without being aware
of the cause.

The Evil Eye.

The belief in the existence of the evil eye is general throughout Ireland
as well as throughout the greater portion of Europe and Asia. It was
held also by the ancients, among whom there were whole nations whose
glances were supposed to be fatal, and it was even thought that there was
death in the sound of their voices. The eastern nations, both Christian
and Mohammedan, ascribe almost every unaccountable illness to this
cause ; and among the Turks sentences from the Koran are written upon
the walls of the houses to counteract it, while glass balls are hung from
the ceiling, and gaudy trappings put upon the horses, to divert from the
owner the attention of the evil-minded beholder. So general is this be-
lief that a writer upon the subject says : "It is not improbable that if the
matter were still more profoundly investigated, it would be found that
every nation that exists, or has existed, with anything like a developed
system of superstition, believes or has believed in the reality of fiiscina-
tion in some form or other."* There seems to be nothing exactly simi-
lar among the Indians, at least among the Siouau tribes of the plains,

*Am. Cy.,iv, 177,1880.

1887.] ^^* [Mooney.

although the belief is said to exist among some Californian tribes. It may
be that the idea is too subtle and intangible for the mind of a savage.

The general prevalence of this belief would seem to indicate that there
must be some good reason for its existence, and this reason is doubtless to
be found in the wonderful properties of the eye itself. We all know how
much of attraction, repulsion, love or hate, may be expressed by a glance,
and how intensified is this power of expression in certain individuals.
There is unquestionably some innate, inexplicable power in the human
eye, although more apparent in some persons than in others, and we can
readily understand how the people of Ireland believe that every individual
possesses this faculty at some period in his existence, and that it is some-
times hereditary, like other physical and mental characteristics. The
influence of the human eye over the inferior animals is well known, and
much has been written concerning the fascinating powers of the serpent,
although in the latter case modern biology has shown thattheresult is due
not so much to the eye of the serpent as to the paralyzing effect of fear
upon his victim.

Droc's'uil, the "bad eye,"* is the name given to the evil ej'e in the
Gaelic-speaking districts of Ireland, while it is known as the bad eye in
the east, and the ill eye in the north. The act of fascination is called
deanad' droc'-s'iiilj, "making a bad eye," or overlooking. Those who
possess this blighting power are generally unaware of its presence in
themselves, and the evil consequences of its influence are not usually the
result of any malevolent desire upon their part. The evil ej^e, either in
man or woman, is generally due to some omission or irregularity in the
ceremony of baptism. Should any word of the prescribed formula be
forgotten, or should the sponsor fail to give the surname of the child as
well as the name about to be conferred upon it, the infant will, in spite
of itself, come into possession of this dreaded power. The idea under-
lying this belief may be that, as the child is born in a state of original sin,
it is under the influence of the evil spirit until sanctified by baptism, and
that if the ceremony be improperly performed, a part of this influence
still remains and manifests itself in the evil eye. In some instances the
droc'-s-uil is hereditary, and there are even cases where it exists among
all the relatives of the same surname. A notable example of this occurs
in the western part of the County Clare, where all the members of a
family named Mearnan are known to possess an evil eye, even to the re-
mote degrees of kinship. Xotwithstanding this, they are much esteemed
for their upright character, as it is well understood that this mysterious
power is not subject to their own control. This family is referred to, but
not named, in Hall's Ireland (III, page 2.50), a book published about forty
years ago. The stories given further on concerning the Mearnans were
obtained, with others, from natives of the County Clare, who were well

* Pronounced, dhn'ikh-uil.
tPronounced, jeenoo dhrukh-uil.

Mooney.] -L4:0 [April 15,

acquainted with the family. "While the evil eye belongs to some persons
in a special manner, every man, woman and child possesses this faculty
unawares once in every twenty-four hours, and a single glance at such a
time is followed by all the ordinary disastrous consequences. This ex-
plains many mysterious cases of sickness otherwise unaccountable.

As has been shown, sickness and death sometimes result from the un-
conscious glance of one possessed of the evil eye, without any desire upon
his part to injure the victim. Should a person, however, known to pos-
sess an evil eye, speak admiringly of another, praising his good looks, his
healthful color, or his robust physique, or speak in a similar manner of
his child, his cow, his crops, or anything belonging to him, it is inferred
that he intends evil toward the person or thing thus spoken of, and meas-
ures are at once taken to prevent it. In many cases the evil-minded per-
son is compelled by the injured man, on pain of bodily damage, to spit
upon the object of his pretended admiration, and at the same time to in-
voke a blessing upon it. In Connamara a bowl is sometimes sent around
the neighborhood, and each person to whom it is presented is expected to
spit into it. The bowl is then taken home, and the person or animal over-
looked is anointed with the spittle. The object of this is to obtain the
spittle of the person responsible for the injury without giving him offense
or awaking his suspicion, as a direct appeal to him would be certain to do.
"When the spittle cannot be procured, the same result is accomplished by
burning near the atHicted person a piece taken from the clothing of the
one who has overlooked him.

Should any one accidentally meet a person suspected of an evil eye, its
influence may be averted by doubling the thumbs under the fingers. This
gesture, and the measures just mentioned, are used throughout a great
part of Europe for the same purpose. It has been asserted that the closed
hand is used from its fancied resemblance in shape to the initial letter of
the Hebrew name for God ; but while the name of the Hebrew letter also
signifies a liand, the equivalent Phoenician and Egyptian hieroglyph is an
open, instead of a closed hand. It seems also to be of different origin
from the ancient Italian gesture still used to avert the evil eye, which is
made by extending the first and fourth fingers, and is supposed to have
had reference originally to a pair of horns. The true reason for using the
closed hand probably lies in the fact that in this position the thumb and
finger form a cross. In all Catholic countries it is a common practice to
make the sign of the cross as a protection against dangers, especially those
which are due to the influence of evil spirits. This sign is usually made
upon the forehead, while occasionally the second finger is simply crossed
over the first, but the method of the closed hand would naturally be
adopted in this case to avoid attracting attention, just as an entire neigh-
borhood is sometimes laid under contribution for spittle in order to avoid
giving offense to the suspected party.

"When an illness is thought to be due to the influence of the evil eye,
the beanfeasac who makes a specialty of such cases is called in to deter-

1887. J i-'iJ [Mooney.

mine the matter, and to point out the author of the trouble, but her office
seems to go no further, as the mode of cure is generally understood.

Anything which renders an individual conspicuous is liable to attract
the attention of the evil pye — a belief also held by the Turks — and this
explains some Irish blessings which are intended and regarded as curses.
A common one of this kind is, Go mheid' ha b'dna do c'uid ha, go mheid'
teac air an nirde do t'eac, agvs go mheid' bean h'reag' do b'ean.* "May
your portion of cows be white cows, may your house be a house upon the
height, and may your wife be a fine woman." Here the real wish of the
speaker is that the conspicuous color of the cattle, the prominent position
of the house upon a hill, and the pleasing qualities of the wife, may attract
the attention of the evil eye to the possessor.

A few of the stories related of the Mearnans will illustrate the various
phases of this belief. They are given substantially as told by the narra-
tors. Two parties of men were one day at work in the field putting up
the hay into reeks, and one party was getting ahead of the other. A man
of the slower party called the attention of a comrade named Mearnan to
this fact. " Never mind," said Mearnan, "just wait." The others had
their reek finished first and were just putting the top on it, when the
whole pile fell over, burying the men under it, and Mearnan's party came
out ahead.

Another one of the same family stopped one day to admire a fine mare.
As he started to go, a neighbor suggested to the owner that Mearnan
ought to bless the mare. Much against his will he was compelled to come
back, bless the animal and spit upon it. Soon after the mare had two
foals, which were both dead, and if he had not blessed the mother she
would have died likewise. The same man was one day passing along the
road when he stopped to admire a horse in an adjoining field. The next
day the animal, in attempting to jump across a ditch, fell into it and could
not rise again. The owner and several of the neighbors tried for some
time to get the animal upon its feet, without success, until at last one of
the men remarked to the owner, " Micky, didn't Mearnan say yesterday
that was a fine horse ?" " He did," says Micky. " Well, then, you send
for him and make him spit on it." So Mearnan was sent for, and whether
he liked it or not he had to come. As soon as he laid his hand upon the
horse the animal neighed. He said, " God bless you," and spit upon it,
and the horse at once climbed up out of the ditch. The owner's wife,
who was looking on, said to her husband, " Faith, Micky, if spitting ever
got a horse out of the ditch, and it did yours today."

A woman of this name caused an accident to her little boy, just learn-
ing to walk, on three several occasions, by calling attention to his agility
in climbing up on the table or the dresser. Each time he fell down from
his elevated position and broke his leg. When this happened the third

* Pronounced, Qu m6 bawh waivna dh6 khuj baivh, gU in6 chdkh er an aivija dh6 hOkh,
dgxis gH mO ban vraw dho van.

Mooney.] lOU [April 15,

time her brother, who well knew the reason of it, told her that it washer
fault, in not having blessed the child when she spoke of it. The mother
would not believe it, and insisted as strongly that the brother was respon-
sible for the accident. When the boy grew up he was obliged to wear
trousers instead of knee breeches to conceal the deformity caused in this
manner. This woman one day met a young man going to church, and
carrying his shoes in his hand, as the road was muddy. She made some
complimentary remark about his feet, and when the young man got home
from church they were turned inward, and he was unable to stand upon
them. The woman was sent for and compelled, very unwillingly, to
bless his feet and spit upon them, but as she was going out of the door
she turned round and said, "May it never thrive with you." The young
man recovered the use of his feet, but there was always a twist in them
afterward. In tliis climate a tramj) of several miles barefoot over a muddy
road, together with kneeling or standing for two liours in a cramped posi-
tion on the cold floor of a church, might have resulted in rheumatism.

One of the Mearnans was so well aware of this blighting influence in
himself, that on entering a house to pay a visit he would always spit upon
and bless each member of the family before sitting down.

A number of men, including two carters with their horses, were one
day at work in the County Cavan, when one of the party happened to
say something in praise of the animals. On quitting work for the day the
horses were found to be sick, and soon lay down and were unable to rise.
Several remedies were tried without avail, until some one told the owner
of one of the horses that the man who had praised them in the morning
had an evil eye, and advised him to get him to spit upon them. He said
he could not do that, as that man had a grudge against him. His friend
then told him to get a piece of the maji's clothing and burn it near the
horses. That night the carter secretly cut a piece from the coat of the
man who was responsible for the trouble, and going out to the horses he
get fire to the rag and held it first near the head of his own animal and
then near the other. In the morning his horse was well and the one
belonging to the other carter was dead. The virtue was gone from the
cloth before it reached the second horse. As the one who related the inci-
dent said, it was, "Man, save yourself." In this instance the knife used
belonged also to the owner of the coat, but this had no effect upon the
result.

The Blessed Wells.

In addition to the practitioners of various kinds, the people have great
recourse to the numerous "blessed wells" throughout the country. The
religious veneration for healing wells is older than history, and is found,
not only in Ireland, but throughout Europe and Southern Asia. It is fre-
quently referred to in the Bible, the most notable instance being that of
the pool of Bethesda. There seems to be nothing of the kind among our
Indians, who, although they regard certain localities with peculiar rever-

1SS7.] 10 i [Mooney.

ence as the abodes of invisible manitos, to -^-hom they never fail to make
some offering in passing, yet apparently do not attach any healing powers
to such places.

There are hundreds of these wells in Ireland, at least twenty being in
the Count}' Galway alone. They are generally dedicated to some saint,
and there is always a legend to account for their origin. Thus Coluni-
Cille's well, at Kells, in the County Meath, sprang up from the floor of the
saint's house while his mother was lying on a sick bed, thirsting for a
drink. In many, and perhaps in most cases, ancient Druidic remains or
round towers are found near them, showing that these have been places
of religious resort even before the dawn of Christianity. Should one of
these wells be defiled, it would at once cease to flow, and the perpetrator
of the sacrilege would wither away under the curse of the patron saint of
the spring. The water must not be used for ordinary purposes. Incidents
are related of women, who, being in haste to prepare a meal, have taken
water from a blessed well close at hand rather than go to another spring
at a distance, but found, after exhausting their patience in fruitless efforts,
that it was impossible to bring the water to a boil. This is perfectly true,
as the strong mineral impregnations which give the water its medicinal
virtues, render it extremely difficult to boil under ordinary circumstances.
There is usually a fish, a worm, or a peculiar stone at the bottom of the
well, and the circumstances attending its appearance are regarded as
omens of success or failure in obtaininsi relief. On departing from the
well, pilgrims leave behind some small token of their visit, generally a
shred torn from the clothing, which is twisted into the ivy that clambers
up the rock, or hung from the limb of a tree overshadowing the water.
These trees may be distinguished afar off by the number of rags sus-
pended from their branches and fluttering in the breeze. This is an
ancient custom, and is still practiced in Southern Asia as far east as
Ceylon, and throughout Northern Africa, and along the east coast as far
south as Zanzibar. Cripples who have recovered the use of their limbs
leave also "the crutches and litters used in coming. Besides the wells,
there are many small lakes and waterfalls which are visited for the same
purpose. Many of these wells have been deserted since the great famine
of 1847-8.

While religious exercises are a prominent feature at all these resorts,
there are some which are visited principally from motives of devotion.
Chief among these is the celebrated Lough Dearg, in Donegal, which was
resorted to by pilgrims from all parts of Europe during the Middle Ages,
and where the rigid discipline imposed upon the penitents in its subterra-
nean caves is said to have served as the model for Dante's Purgatorio.
The wells are resorted to for almost everj' variety of ailment, but there
are some which are especially noted for the cure of particular diseases,
such as ulcers, sore eyes, or rheumatic affections. The pilgrims frequently
come from long distances, sometimes even walking a hundred miles. The
exercise, which is known as "making the stations" or "going a round,"

1 ^'>.

Mooney.] -«-«-/ -j [April 15,

is sometimes performed by proxy, or by the invalid after recovery in
accordance vfith a vow made during his illness. In the latter case, he is
generally accompanied by a friend, who goes through the same exercises.
The sanitary part consists of immersion, shower baths — where the water
falls over a rock — rubbing and drinking the water. The operation is gene-
rally repeated on three, sometimes on seven or nine consecutive mornings,
while the patient is still fasting. The religious part consists of the repe-
tition of a number of prayers, usually the Our Father and Hail Mary, or
the two combined in the rosary. While reciting these prayers the patient
walks or is led around the well a certain number of times, always follow-
ing the course of the sun. The circuit is frequently made upon the knees,
and in every case the pilgrimage is undertaken and carried out in a spirit
of deep religious fervor.

The wells are visited at all seasons of the year, but the favorite time is
the day consecrated to the patron saint of the well. In some cases a re-
markable phenomenon takes place at a certain hour, and is awaited by the
people as the signal for entering the water. Thus St. John's well, a noted
well at Kilcarty, in the County Meath, is visited on St. John's eve — June
23, or midsummer eve, the great fire festival of ancient and modern Ire-
land. Just at midnight a mist rises from the surface of the water, on see-
ing which those in waiting begin the circuit around the well. A similar
phenomenon is related of Lough Ee-Cinlaan, a small "blessed lough"
near Kenmare, in the County Kerry, which is also visited on St. John's
eve and the following day. At a certain hour three "tussocks" of float-
ing grass in the middle of the lough begin to move around in a circle,
upon which the people waiting on the bank go down into the water.
Compare this with the Bible account of the pool of Bethesda, which
was surrounded by five porches. "In these lay a great multitude of im-
potent folk, of blind, halt, withered, waiting for the moving of the water.
For an angel went down at a certain season into the pool and troubled
the water. Whosoever then first after the troubling of the water stepped
in, was made whole of whatsoever disease he had."* In each case the re-
markable appearance is doubtless owing to the same causes which govern
the periodic movements of geysers and other intermittent springs.

In the lough just mentioned, one of the three tussocks always moves
around in the rear of the other two, which, like everything else in Ire-
land, is accounted for by a legend. They formerly moved along abreast,
until one day a sacrilegious wretch attempted to mow the grass for his
own use The moment he struck his scythe into the first tussock, blood
followed, as from a living thing, and dyed the waters of the lake. Terri-
fied at the sight, he desisted from his purpose, but ever since the Avounded
tussock has limped behind its fellows.

A brief extract from a recent Irish letter, written in reply to some ques-
tions concerning the blessed wells of the County Galway, will give a

John V : 3, 4.

1887.] lOd [Mooney.

better idea of the present beliefs and practices in this connection than many-
pages o (description. The writer is one of the people, and has been
familiar all his life with the customs which he describes so accurately.
The extract is given in his own words, with the exception of a few slight
grammatic changes. The letter is written from Curuamona, near Clon-
bur, about twenty miles north-west from the town of Galway :

" Thubber Muira and Feheen, in Ballintubber. Noted to cure any kind of
sickness that may occur in a family. Station days are the eve of any of
the Lady Days — eighth of September, fifteenth of August and second of
February. The stations are performed thus :

"The person will kneel before the wells barefooted, will say so many-
prayers, and will take in his right hand seven pebbles, of stones which
are for the purpose at the mouths of the wells. After walking around the
well he will drop a pebble at each round, will kneel again and say more
prayers, and so on until finished. There is one remarkable thing about
these wells. After promising a station at these wells, if a person goes and
prays there, he will see a small worm ; and if the worm lives (i. e., is
alive) the patient will recover, and if seen dead the patient will 'die.
After performing a station here, if it be a male person he will drop a but-
ton in the well, sometimes a piece of coin, etc. ; and if it be a female, she
will pull some threads oat of ber shawl or some part of her clothes, which
she ties on the bush that covers these wells. Persons abroad promise sta-
tions at these wells and get some of their friends on this side to perform
them, which must be done by two persons together."

In this instance there are two wells at the saine locality. The name of
the principal one, Thubber Muira,* or "Mary's well," shows that it is
dedicated to the Blessed Virgin, and consequently the favorite times for
visiting it are the " Lady Days," or days specially devoted to her honor.
These are named in the order of their importance, which is the reverse of
the chronologic order. Feheenf is the name of a saint of local celebrity,
and is sometimes rendered by Festus. It is to be noted that the name of
the place, Ballintubber, :j: signifies the "town of the well," showing that
the village owes its name, and perhaps also its origin in the remote past,
to the presence of the spring in its vicinity. The water is probably used
as previously stated, according to the nature of the complaint.

A second extract from the same letter furnishes an excellent illustration
of some of the beliefs connected with these wells, aside from their healing
powers. After describing Thubber Enue, or Eneas' well, which springs
out of a rock in the hill of Doon, in the same region, and is especially
noted for the cure of sore eyes, the writer goes on to say, "There was
another remarkable affair about this well— a kind of a round stone, called

* Gaelic, Tobar Muire. The three wells and the leac described in this letter are also-
noticed in Wilde's Lough Corrib, already referred to. pages 267-9.
t Gaelic, Fec'irt.
t Gaelic, Baile'n-Tobair.

PROC. AMEK. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 125. T. PRINTED JUNE 4, 1887.

Mooney.] s-urt: [April 15,

Lyoc Enue.* Prayers were offered and this lyoe turned over. For in-
stance, if one person belied anotiier, or gave scandal by any means, then
the person would go and offer those prayers and turn the lyoc, and who-
soever of them would be in the fault, he was sure to die ; but what-
ever time of the year this would occur, it was sure to be followed by bad
weather, thunder and rain. So the farming class was almost ruined by
this work, and the people practicing it more and more, until at last the
clergy got the lyoc taken away and thrown into the deepest spot of Lough
Corrib — and more was the pity, for the people were not so often at that
time going to petty sessions as they do now ; they were leaving it all to
God and Lyoc Emi£."

In another letter, dated January 20, 1887, the same writer thus men-
tions a noted waterfall in the same neighborhood : "There is a waterfall
convenient to this place that cures pains of the back. The patient goes in
his or her nakedness, for about ten minutes, under this waterfall, and the
third time is sure of being all right. The only thing given down for this
is, that a priest in the time of Shawii-na-Sogyarth\ was concealed for
twenty-four hours under this waterfall." Whatever may be thought of
the theory in this instance, it is plain that the treatment is exactly that
adopted by the best surgeons in dealing with sprains and similar ailments,
including "pains of the back," viz., subjecting' the afiected part to the
action of a stream of cold water falling from a considerable elevation.

The pool of Bethesda at Jerusalem has already been noticed in this con-
nection, and a comparison of the present Irish beliefs and customs in this
regard with the Bible story ofNaaman will show that they are substan-
tially those which existed among the Jews nearly three thousand years
ago. Naaman was a Syrian general, living at Damascus. He was afflicted
with leprosy, and at last, by the advice of his friends, undertook a long
JDurnej'^ to Samaria to procure the help of the prophet Elisha. When he
had reached the latter city, "Elisha sent a messenger unto him, saying,
Go and wash in Jordan seven times, and thy flesh shall come again to
thee and thou shalt be clean. * * * Then went he down and dipped
himself seven times in Jordan, according to the saying of the man of
God ; and his flesh came again, like unto the flesh of a little child, and he
was clean.":]: In this case the Syrian practice seems to have been difler-
ent from that of the Jews, as Naaman had expected that the prophet
would cure him by simply touching the diseased part and invoking the
name of his God.

There can be no doubt that these " blessed wells " of Ireland are min-
eral springs of great medicinal virtues, as the wliole country is a mineral
region, containing coal and iron in abundance, with limestone cliffs along

* Gaelic, Leac Aong'us " Eneas rock, or slab. "

t Gaelic, Seag'an na Sagart, "John of the Priests ;" the name given by the people to a
" priest hunter " during the time of the penal laws.
X 2d Kings v : 10, 14.

1R87.1 -L^^ [Mooney.

the western coast, while the alluvial soil is deposited upon a stratum of
turf or peat, whicli crops out at intervals in tlie numerous hogs. We
should thus expect to find in these wells the same constituents that
give a reputation to the mineral springs of the mountain region of Vir-
ginia and Pennsylvania, According to Dr. Jolin Rutty, the author of two
valuable works* on the mineral springs of Ireland and of Europe in gen-
eral, some of the Irish wells commonly resorted to by the people are equal
to any of the celebrated continental spas, while those noted for the cure
of particular diseases contain just the constituents most beneficial in such
cases. Tlie ordinary impregnations are combinations of iron, lime, soda,
magnesia and sulphur. In addition to these, many wells and streams are
impregnated with petroleum and bituminous compounds, owing to their
vicinity to the bogs, which contain large quantities of half- fossilized pines
and other resinous conifers. It is a well-known fact that bog water has
preservative qualities, and bodies of persons drowned in these bogs have
been recovered long afterward still undecayed. There are also some
streams and lakes, notably Lough Neagh, whose waters have petrifying
properties. Were Ireland free to develop her own resources, not only
would her neglected mines and marble quarries be made available, but her
healing springs, now visited only by barefooted peasants, would speedily
acquire a reputation, which, together with the natural beauties of the
country, would attract thousands of those who yearly seek health or
pleasure on the continent. There is nothing but simple truth in the proud
boast of the people of Ireland that in their native country the grass is
always green, the soil harbors no venomous reptile, and the waters are
blessed.

Miscellaneous Charms.

Besides the blessed wells and the sig'efreog, the people have a number
of charms for various diseases — in fact, it is probably safe to say that they
have a charm for every malady, real or imaginary, that ever existed.
Many of these charms are accompanied by verses or other formulas,
which have been handed down for generations, and there is generally a
legend to explain the formula. A. few of these charms are here given. It
must be stated at the outset that the application is always made in the
name of the Father, Son and Holy Ghost. Should any one become sick
in church while wearing a garment sewn on Sunday, it will be impossi-
ble to cure him.

Epilepsy is c&Wed tinneas »io?',f the "great sickness," and is regarded
with such dread that it is seldom mentioned except under some figurative
name. The patient is cured by drinking milk boiled in a human skull.
An "essence " prepared from a human skull was formerly used in Italy
lo cure the same disease, according to a medical work published in that

• A Mettiodical Synopsis of Mineral Waters, &c., and Essay Towards a Natural, Exper-
imental and iVIedicinal History of the Mineral Waters of Ireland.
+ Pronounced chinyas moer.

Mooney.J ^'^^ [April 15,

country in 1726, and the skull of one who had died a violent death was
preferred, being considered to retain more of the vital principle.

Toothache is cured by rubbing the gum with the finger of a corpse, or
washing it with some of the water used in washing the corpse when pre-
paring it for burial. The cure is permanent. The pain is commonly sup-
posed to be caused by a small worm eating the tooth, and this worm is
sometimes killed by applying to the tooth a piece of tobacco, guano, or
some other pungent substance. The Omaha Indians, who hold the same
theory, kill the worm by blistering the skin on the outer surface of the
jaw. The dead hand holds an important place in Irish mythology.

Headnclie is Q&WaiX flab'ras beag,* or "little fever," and is caused by the
joints of the skull springing apart until "the head is open" — ^just as we
sometimes hear a man under such circumstances say that his head is split-
ting. The woman who has the cure takes a woolen string, with which she
measures the head of the sufferer in three different directions, in order to
see how far it is open. First the string is put under the chin, and the ends
are brought up over the top of the head. Next it is measured in the same
way from under the nose to the back of the head, bringing the ends of the
string across just above the ears, and finally the string is drawn around
the forehead and over the temples to the back of the head. Having learned
how much the head has opened, she presses it firmly between her hands
to bring the sutures together, says certain words, and the cure is effected.
In one instance the patient was told that his head had opened something
more than an inch. There may be more virtue in this method than is at
first apparent.

Earache is cured by putting into the ear a piece of wool from a black
sheep, saturated with oil, at the same time reciting the appropriate words.
The last remark holds good also of this cure.

Sore throat is cured by putting the head of a live gander into the mouth
of the patient and making it scream down his throat. The thrush in chil-
dren is cured in a similar way, by getting a posthumous child to blow into
the mouth of the sufferer. The blowing must be done by the ()perator
while still fasting, and is generally repeated for three successive morn-
ings.

Some persons can " set a charm " to staunch a icound so that not a drop
of blood shall flow from it. The charm is said to consist solely in the
repetition of certain words, without any application whatever. A hemor-
rhage can be stopped instantly by the application of a garment, which
has been washed or ironed on Sunday.

There are several cures for a sprain. The most common method is to
tie around the joint ^fogee, or worn-out thread from a loom. Sometimes
a string is used which has been held in the mouth while a certain charm
is recited. The most remarkable method is used in Kerry, both for men

* Pronounced feveams Vyug.

1887.] 157 [Mooney.

and animals, and is here given without comment, as described by a man
■who saw the operation performed at his own house for the cure of a lame
horse, which recovered before morning. There is a thorny shrub, known
in that county as sgeac'-vvadera* or "dog briar," whose white flowers
are fixed close to the stem, while its thorns point downward. As our
Savior, when a child, was one day walking with His mother, they met
this briar and admired its flowers. The Mother tried to pluck one of them,
but could not reach it until the briar bent down to her grasp. Since then
its thorns always bend downward. To perform the cure a rod about three
feet long is cut from the sfjeac'-m'ddera and split down the middle. Two
men then stand close together, facing each other, each one holding against
his body, at the right and left side, one end of the two pieces thus made,
while his companion holds the other two ends in the same manner. In a
short time the two rods begin to bend in toward the centre and gradually
approach each other until they are firmly united for about six inches of
their length in the middle. The man who sets the charm — a third party —
then cuts off this portion and lays it upon the sprained joint, repeating
certain words at the same time. The rest of the stick is thrown away.
This charm never fails, excepting when there is a stain upon the birth of
one of those holding the rods.

Scrofula, or the evil, is sometimes cured by applying a little powder
from a deer's horn, which is kept in houses for this purpose. Another
common method is to apply the blood of nine or twelve young wrens.
The number must be decided by the ornithologist, as they take the whole
brood, which, according to some persons, always consists of twelve birds,
while others say there are only nine. This blood is called fuil rig'e\ or
"king's blood," for the wren is the king of birds in Ireland as in Ger-
many. There may be some connection between king's blood and king's
evil. The water of St. John's well, already referred to, is also noted for
curing this disease.

The cure for sore eyes due to the presence of some foreign body, is best
described by an incident, given as related by the man who was cured by
the operation. While gathering seaweed on the strand he got somethin<r
in his eye, and sent instructions to a bean feasac living six miles away to
take it out. She put some clean water in a glass, took it in her mouth,
repeated a charm known as avoid a b'raoiniii,^ the "charm of the little
drop," and then squirted the water back into the glass. The obstruction
was seen floating on top ot the water, and the woman took it out and
threw it away. At the same instant the man working on the seashore ex-
perienced relief. This reminds one forcibly of the orthodox Indian medi-
cine man.

A man who found a cataract growing over his eye walked on three suc-

* Pronounced in Kerry shg'yOkh-ivOdhera.

I Pronounced /tM7 ree.

J Pronounced, 6rocj a wreeneen.

Mooney.] -'-^O [April 15,

cessive mornings before breakfast to the house of the woman who cured
it, which she did by making the sign of the cross upon his eye with her
finger three times on each occasion, repeating a charm at the same time.
If a bramble, or the finger, sliould accidentally strike the eye, the pain is
at once relieved by making the sign of the cross in the same way three
times with the object which caused the injury.

There are several cures for rheumatism. One, which has its paral-
lel in this country, is to carry a potato in the pocket, and as the
potato dries up the patient will recover. Another way is for the
patient to lie upon his breast, and let a man who came into the world
feet foremost walk along his body from the feet to the head. In one in-
stance, where a man was completely crippled by rheumatism in his knee,
he was advised by a woman to make a poultice of raw potatoes sliced
very thin, and bind it upon his knee, and keep it there without change
until the potatoes became offensive from decay. He did as directed, and
after wearing the poultice for several weeks until he could endure the
smell no longer, he found himself recovering. The potato is believed to
have great medicinal virtue, as is also the water in which potatoes have
been boiled.

A man who suffered from colic applied to another who had a cure for
it, and was given a small piece of unsalted butter, with instructions to
take a little of it for three consecutive mornings, while still fasting, re-
citing certain prayers at the same time. He could not say positively what
those prayers were, "for fear of telling a lie." The doctor was not
allowed to take pay for his cure, but might accept a free gift. The man
did as directed, and was permanently cured, nor did the butter ever melt
or become less, although he kept it until he was coming to America.
Another man on the vessel was troubled in the same way. He lent him
the butter, and it cured him, but on looking for it the next morning it had
disappeared. Unsalted butler is used in a great many charms, and may
not be such a bad thing after all.

The following charm for tumors and similar swellings comes from
Meath. The patient, a child who was afflicted with an unnatural swelling
just above the upper lip, on three consecutive Friday afternoons walked
several miles into Navan, so as to arrive at the house of the bean feasac'
just as the sun was setting in the west. Turning the child's face toward
the setting sun, the woman bathed the swelling with a liquid from a glass
which she held in her hand, repeating certain words at the same time.
After the third Friday the swelling disappeared. This idea in connection
with the setting sun is part of an old belief common to all Europe, which
prompts farmers to plant crops with a growing moon, and leads fishermen
to expect the end of a dying man when the tide is going out. It is impos-
sible to learn the composition of the liquid.

Warts are cured in the same county by impaling a snail upon a hedge
thorn. As the body of the snail shrivels up, the wart disappears. The

1887.] !'->»' [Mooney.

idea here is similar to that just mentioned. In Connamara for the same
trouble ten joints (the knots only) are cut from an oat stalk, nine of which
are tied up in a small parcel, while the tenth is thrown away. Tlie parcel
is left at the crossroads, and the warts will go to the one who picks it up.
The idea here is also common in European folk-lore, and almost the same
method is used in Switzerland. The selection of ten similar objects, one
of which is afterward thrown away, appears also in the account already
given of the child cured of convulsions. It is also proper to mention
here that oats are the sacred grain in Irish mythology.

Another method is, on rising in the morning, to spit upon the hearth
while still fasting, and then rub the spittle upon the wart with the second
finger. The first finger is never used for rubbing spittle or ointment
upon sores of any kind, as it is supposed to have a poisonous effect. The
operation is repeated every morning until the wart disappears.

Another method, used in Galway, is to bathe the wart witli water found
lying in a depression in the surface of a rock, saying at the same time :

" Uisfje cloc'a gan ia/rraid',
Ni'g t'iarraid' td me."*

" Water of a stone without seeking.
It's not seeking for you I am."

As the words of the formula imply, the water must be found accident-
ally, no benefit resulting from its application when a deliberate search is
made for it.

In a case resembling asthma, where the patient, a boy about seven years
old, felt a constant choking sensation and was rapidly losing flesh, he was
taken by the old man who had the cure, and placed standing with his
back against a tree growing in a field — the tree, in this instance, being an
apple tree. A hole was then bored in the tree just above the child's
head, a lock of his hair cutoff and placed in it, and the opening closed up
again. Although not mentioned by the informant, some words were
undoubtedly repeated at the same time. As the boy grew above the hole
in the tree, he grew away from the disease.

A well-known charm used in cases oi decline, or incipient consumption,
may be described by giving an instance, without comment, as related by
an eye-witness. A young girl of lively disposition suddenly lost health
and spirits, and appeared to be rapidly sinking into the grave, wlien her
friends persuaded her to visit an old woman who offered to cure her. On
arriving there the woman filled a tumbler with oatmeal, even with the
top, and wrapped a thin cloth around it. Then loosening the girl's dress
she applied the mouth of the tumbler first to her back, then to her side,
and lastly to her bosom. On removing the cloth from the tumbler it was
found that half the meal had disappeared. The glass was refilled and the

* Pronounced, Ish'/a cirikha gun eerree,
Nee g<X cheerree thaw mae.

Mooney.J iOU [April 15,

operation repeated, and on removing the cloth a part of the meal was gone,
but not so much as the first time. Once more the tumbler was filled and
applied as before, and this time, on removing the cloth, there was hardly
a depression in the surface of the meal, and the woman pronounced the
■cure complete. The girl's friend, who had looked on with wonder, now
asked what had become of the meal. The woman replied, "I gave that
to the worms that were eating her heart." In some cases the three oper-
ations are repeated on as many consecutive days.

For worms an amulet is worn, which consists of a small piece of paper
on which is written a charm. The bean feasac , holding this paper in her
hand, kneels down and recites a prayer, and the paper is then sewn into
a covering of red woolen (flannel) cloth, of three-cornered shape, and
worn about the neck.

Cramp is caused by worms, which twist themselves into a knot about
the intestines. For this trouble, in men or animals, a string is tied with
a peculiar triple knot, known as snaid'm na juiste,^ or "the worm's
knot,'' in such a manner that on pulling the ends of the string the knot
is undone. The sutterer is struck on the stomach or back several times
with the string, before and after knotting it, the name of the Trinity being
invoked at each blow. In Kerry it is merely placed upon the stomach of
the patient, and the ends pulled so as to undo the knot. Any one subject
to cramps will be cured by making the sign of the cross three times on his
stomach on seeing a rainbow.

For convulsions in children it is sometimes customary in the County
Galway to use a preparation of charcoal made by burning and pulverizing
the bones of an infant which has died before baptism.

Boils, however swollen and painful, may be cured by a blacksmith who
is the seventh son of a blacksmith. It is only necessary that he shall open
and shut his tongs three times in front of the boil, without touching it.
The seventh son has generally great power over disease.

The ringiDorm is called tdne-d'iad'a,\ or the " divine fire," and is cured
in a number of ways. Perhaps the most common method is to rub the
inflamed spot three times with a ring or other article of gold, or with a
live coal of fire, saying at the same time, O'ugat \\ a teine, \\ a feine-d'iad'a.X
" Beware of the fire, teine- d'iad'a," the gold or coal of fire being applied
as each of the principal words is being pronounced. The operation is
repeated three times, making nine applications in all. Another method is
to apply the blood of a black cat, and in some houses there are cats whose
«ars have been cut away by piecemeal for this purpose. Black and red
(the color of fire) are the principal colors of Irish mythology. Another
method is to write around the ringworm the full name of the suff"erer,

* Pronounced sneem na paeshcha.

t Pronounced chinnee-yea.

X Pronounced h&gath a chinnee, a hinnee-yea.

1S87.] 1"! [Mooney.

while still another is to rub the spot with spittle upon the second finger for
three successive mornings.

The black tongue in csitt\e is caWed bolg-feanrja,* or "swelled tongue,"
and is sometimes cured by bleeding the animal in the tail, but more often
by reciting the following charm, by means of which the Blessed Virgin,
while one day walking with her Son, cured the cow of a poor widow, who
was unable to give them a drink of milk on account of the illness of the
animal :

" 'N aroid a c'uir Maire go h'o G'ual-an-daire,
0 feid' a druime go feid' a siorra ;

Air b'uinn, air c'enn, air b'o-g'eimneac, air g'alra truad',
Agus air lein'eas na bolg-feanga." f

Cual-andaire, which is evidently a compound word,is explained as the
name of the village where the widow lived, while buinn and cenn appear
to be the names of two cattle diseases. The Gaelic may be thus rendered :

" The charm which Mary put on the cow of Cual-an-dherra,
From the sinew of her back to the sinew of lier pastern,
For bHinn, for cenn, for the groaning cow, for the wasting sickness,
And for a cure of the swelled tongue."

There is another contagious cattle disease, which generally attacks
young animals of the best breeds, and is known in the Gaelic districts as
ceat'ram'a-d'ub',X the "black quarter," and elsewhere as black-leg or
quarter-ail. It begins with a slight lameness in one of the quarters, which
soon swells and becomes discolored, and in a very short time the animal
dies, the instances of recovery being extremely rare. In Kerry, as soon
as the animal is dead, the affected quarter is cut off and hung up in the
chimney, in the belief that this will prevent the spread of the contagion.
As the infection may be communicated to the other cattle by smelling the
diseased part, and as there is alwaj's danger that the buried carcass may
be rooted up by hogs or dogs, there seems to be something in this method
to recommend it.

Any one who licks a lizard three times along the under side from the
tail to the head can cure a burn by applying his tongue to the injured part
three or nine times. This may have some connection with the old sala-
mander theory. In Galway, on receiving an accidental burn, it is custo-
mary to ejaculate : Lab'ras easbal agits Dia d'a f'reaHtail,% "Lawrence,
the apostle {sic) and God to care for it." In Meath they exclaim, Morra

* Pronouuced hulao-honga.
t Pronouuced :

'Ndropj a khilir Muira fjd woe Khual-an-dhcrra,

0 fae a dhn'tma gO fae a sherra,

Er win, er khen, cr woe-yacmndkh, er ghawlra thrua,

Ogiis er I'l/ice na bUlag-honga.
X I'rouounced in Kerry carhoo-ghoov.
\ Pronounced Loivarax asbal 6gas jea ghaw raslhal.

PROC. AMEK. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 125. U. PRINTED JUNE 4, 1887.

Mooney.] -^"^ [April 15,

sneef, which is probably a corruption of Maire 's naom't'a,* " Most Holy
Mary !"

When the palate falls it is raised by lifting the skin at a certain point al
the back of the head. A similar method is used by the negroes.

Hooping cough is called troc'\ by the Gaelic speakers, and cMn-cougJi
in the eastern districts, and there ai'e a number of charms for it. One used
in the south is to pass the sufferer three times over and under the body of
a donkey, in the name of the Trinity. The same thing is done in Scot-
land. Sometimes a piece of bread or something of that kind is given to
the donkey to eat, and the crumbs which he lets fall to the ground are put
into broth for the patient. The most remarkable method is adopted in
Gal way, where the mother of the child goes to the owner of a white horse
and asks :

" O'iolV an eac g'eal,

Ce rud a leig'eas air a troc ? %

" Fellow of the white horse,
What thing is the cure for the whooping cough ? "

He generally replies, " A. cup of tea and a piece of bread," or something
of the kind, and whatever he advises is given to the child in the confident
hope of relieving it. The words used in asking this question are impor-
tant, as showing the antiquity of the charm. The ordinary form for
" white horse " is capal bdn,% while eac is an obsolete word, and such an
expression as eac' geal is found only in the ancient manuscripts and in
poems and stories and similar compositions which have been handed down
from a remote period.

The donkey is also in great repute for curing almost any contagious
fever, as typhoid fever, etc. If the patient be a child, the donkey— a
young one being preferred — is lifted three times over his head from front
to back, after which the sick person drinks some of the milk of the dam.
If the invalid be an adult, and sufficiently strong, he takes the animal by
the fore and hind feet and lifts it over himself in the same manner. The
donkey, or ass, is regarded as sabered, on account of being the animal upon
which the Saviour once rode. The black cross upon his back, formed by
the intersection of two lines of dark hair near the shoulders, is supposed
to commemorate this event, and a young animal is preferred in these
charms on account of the greater distinctness of the mark in the foal. It
is considered lucky to have a donkey about the house, and many farmers
who own horses, and have no need of donkeys, keep one in the field for
this reason. A similar belief in regard to the sacredness of the donkey,

* Pronounced Morra 'sneeva; in the vocative the sound becomes Worra.
t Pronounced thritkh.

renounced, YiV anydkhyal,

Caer'dli a Vyice er a thrukh .'

§ Pronounced cdpcil haimi; capal is the Latin cobaUiis, while eac' is equivalant to cquvs.

1887.] ^^^ [Mooney.

and its usefulness in the cure of certain diseases, especially whooping
cough, prevails also in England and Scotland.

There is a disease, called cleid'in* in Gaelic, which is difficult to charac-
terize, but is described as a general break down or loss of strength, result-
ing from some sudden and violent over-exertion. In lifting heavy weights
it sometimes happens that what is known in the eastern districts as the
"spool of the heart" — probably the diaphragm from the description — is
torn loose and drops down, so as to press upon the intestines. When this
occurs the spool of the heart must be I'aised again, which is done in the
following manner : A coin is stuck upon the lower end of a short piece
of candle, which is then lighted and placed upright upon the bare breast
of the patient, who, of course, is lying down. A tumbler is then inverted
over the lighted candle, and in a few moments the skin over the inclosed
surface is raised up into a blister and the sufferer finds relief. It is hardly
necessary to state tliat this is simply a crude cupping process. This method
is known throughout the country, but it is a disputed point whether the
coin should be a copper ha'penny or a silver sixpence. The disease bears
a different name in the south.

Erysipelas is called ruaid',\ which signifies something red, by the Gaelic
speakers, while in the east it is known as rose, or St. Anthony's fire. It
is generally cured by means of a charm used in connection with the
dearg-liac .% This is a grassy plant growing in the bogs, and having the
lower part of its stems of a bright red color, by reason of the bog water
with which they are always covered. The fact that it is sometimes used by
laborers as a substitute for soap, shows that it possesses some peculiar
properties. The operator — who should be a woman if the patient be a man,
or a man if the contrary be the case — gathers a considerable quantity of
this grass, holds it up in front of the mouth and breathes upon it, at the
same time reciting a certain charm, after which it is bound tightly around
the inflamed part. This must be done on the next Monday after the disease
first appears, and is repeated "fZ'a Luain agus Dia-d'ardaoin eadorra,"%
that is, "two Mondays and Thursday between them," making three ap-
plications in all. The sufterer must endure the pain until Monday comes
round, and it is also essential that the three applications be made under
the same moon in which the illness is first noted, otherwise the trouble
will be liable to recur every month afterward. Unsalted butter ig some-
times used instead of the dearg-Uac, but is not considered so good, al-
though the charm is recited in the same way. If a sick person should
overhear his friends say that he has the maid', he would at once be
obliged to undergo the operation, no matter what might be the nature of

* Pronounced cld-een.
t Pronounced, rua, or ruee.

X TTonouncbd jdiwj-leeakh; perhaps from dearg, "scarlet," and liac', "gray," the
dearg referring to the discoloration of the stems.
§ Pronounced ghaio Luan 6gus Jaenlhcen Adharra.

Mooney.] J-Utt [April 15,

his illness, under the certain penalty of taking the disease if he neglected
the precaution. For this reason his relatives are careful not to " accuse "
him of this disease unless the fact is heyond question. Stripped of all
mythologic embellishments, there seems no reason to doubt the existence
of some curative property in the dearg-Uac, as numerous instances are
related of its efficacy.

A stitch in the side is cured by applj^ing the blood of a rooster which
has been sacrificed to St. Martin. On the eve of St. Martin it is custom-
ary to sacrifice an animal to the saint, or, as the people express it, they
"draw blood for St. Martin." The animal most commonly selected is a
rooster, which has been consecrated to this purpose some time in advance.
The blood is soaked up with tow or cotton, and preserved as a remedy for
the stitch. At the moment of applying it to the side of the sufferer the
following words are recited : *

" Fear caoin aig a mnaoi b'oirb',
A c'uir losa Criosd na litig'e arms a g-colg ;
C'uig m'euraib' losa Criosd fuascailt do g'reime,
Bearna M'uire agus a Mic leai." *

Which may be thus rendered :

A mild man with the haughty wife,
Who put Jesus Christ lying on the hulls (of the tow) ;
The five fingers of Jesus Christ to relieve your stitch ;
The palm (of the hand) of Mary and of her Son with you.

In Galway the form is somewhat difierent, and the characters of the man
and his wife are reversed. In the same county the blood is sometimes
sprinkled upon the difierent membei;s of the family when the animal is
killed, and the words alone are used to cure the stitch, as well as a
stomach ache. The words are founded on the legend that Christ once
asked penliission to stop over night at a house, where the husband, a kind-
hearted man, was disposed to accommodate him, but his wife, who was of
the opposite disposition, compelled the Savior to sleep on the hulls stripped
from the fiax. For this reason tow is preferred to cotton. The practice
is known throughout the country.

One more instance and we have done. In this case the informant was
ignorant of the words which were undoubtedl}^ used, and we have left
the simple statement of the medical treatment and its result. The son of
well-to do parents in the County Kerry was so crippled by a painful
swelling of the leg that he had to be taken to Tralee for treatment. The
doctors held a consultation and decided that the limb must be amputated.
At this juncture a " traveling woman" from the north — where the people
are supposed to have most knowledge in such matters — called on the

* Pronounced, in Kerry : Faivr ceen ig a mnee ivUrav,

A khiiir Esa Creesdh na lee ans a gidag ;
Khuig vaeriv Esa Oreesdh fuascalth dhd ghrttna,
Jawrna Wirra Ogus a Mic lath.

1887.] loo [Mooney.

father of the young man and asked permission to try her skill. The doc-
tors objected, but the father said that as they had done their best to no
purpose, she could do no worse. Having obtained permission, she went
out and gathered a quantity of the herb known as uarac-a-loc',* which
she put into water and boiled to a poultice. This was in the middle of the
afternoon. She then put the poultice upon the swollen limb, and had the
young man tied down to the bed so that he could move neither hand nor
foot. In a few hours the poultice began to cause him such terrible agony
that, if he had not been so securely fastened down to the bed, the efiorts
of several men would be required to hold him. This continued for some
time, after which the suflerer fell into a sound sleep, which lasted all
night. When he woke up in the morning he called out to his father that
the poultice had come oft. On going to his bedside it was found that the
limb had resumed its natural size, which was the cause of the poultice
falling off. The young man was able to start home in a short time, and
was so overjoyed at his recovery that he walked the entire distance,
twelve miles. The cure created a sensation in the vicinity at the time.
The herb used is common in pastures and is eaten by cattle with great
relish. Its leaves are about an inch across at the base, and from six to ten
inches long, and are distinguished by having a semi-circle taken out from
one side, which is popularly known as greim a diab'ail,] " the devil's
bit."

Corresponding Belief in Scotland.

It is an established fact that the ancient connection of cognate nations
may be traced in their mythology, even though the people themselves
have been separated for ages. This is strikingly true of the Gaelic race of
Ireland and the Scottish Highlands. They are still one people, speaking
the same language, with but slight dialectic differences, although their for-
tunes have been widely separated for nearly fifteen centuries, while their
customs and beliefs are in a great measure identical. Compare the follow-
ing cures given by Rev. W. Gregor in an article on " The Healing Art in
the North of Scotland in the Olden Time," (in the Journal of the Anthro-
pological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. iii, 1874.) The coin-
cidence is the more striking as the article had not come to the notice of
the writer until the rest of the paper was in type, and consequently no
questions could be asked to draw out parallel customs :

Hooj)mg Cough: "Let the first man seen riding on a white horse be
asked what is the cure. Whatever he says, is the cure.

" Let the patient be passed three times below the belly of a piebald
horse. .

"The milk of an ass was an eftectual remedy. * * *

"The patient was held below the animal's head, so as to inhale its

* Pronounced, iu Kerry, ouraJ:h-a liikh ; the word appears to be a compound,
t Pronounced, in Kerry, greem a jeeal.

Barker.] J-t)t) [April 1,

breath. When this iuhalation of breath had been carried on for a consid-
erable time the patient was passed three times under the belly and over
the back of the brute."

Bingworm : "The common cure for this disease was rubbing with sil-
ver. The modes of rubbing were various."

Warts : "Wrap up in a parcel as many grains of barley as there are
warts, and lay it on the public road. Whoever finds and opens it inherits
the warts.

"Rub the warts with a piece of raw meat, bury it, and as it decays the
warts disappear.

"Wash the warts with water that has collected in the hollow parts of a
layer-stone.'"

Eye Disease : "Catch alive frog and lick the frog's eyes with the tongue.
The person who does so has only to lick with the tongue any diseased
eye, and a cure is effected. " Compare this with the cure for burns.

Bheumaiism : "Those who were born with their feet first possessed
great power to heal all kinds of sprains, lumbago and rheumatism, either
by rubbing the aflected part or by trampling on it. The greater virtue
lay in the feet."

071 the Henry Draper Memorial Photographs of Stellar Spectra. By Oeorge
F. Barker.

{Bead before the American Philosophical Society, April 1, 1SS7.)

By the courtesy of Prof Edward C. Pickering, Director of the Harvard
College Observatory, I have the pleasure of exhibiting to the members of
the American Philosophical Society some of the remarkable photographs
of stellar spectra which have been recently taken under his direction, and
which form part of an original research to be called the Henry Draper
Memorial.

The first photograph of a stellar spectrum ever taken was that of the
star Sirius (a Canis majoris), obtained by Dr. Huggins in 1863. But, as
he says, it was scarcely more than a stain on the plate, and showed no in-
dications of fixed lines.* The first spectrum photograph showing distinct
lines, was obtained by Dr. Henry Draper in 1872. The star photographed
was Vega (a Lyrte), and the spectrum showed four strong lines toward
the more refrangible end. It was taken with the twenty-eight inch x'eflect-
ing telescope which Dr. Draper had himself constructed. Subsequently
he used for this purpose the twelve inch refractor which he had obtained
from A. Clark & Sons in 1875. Up to the year 1877, he had taken, beside
a Lyraj, the spectra of a. Aquihe, Arcturus, Capella, the moon, Venus,
Mars and Jupiter.f In 1880 this refractor was exchanged for another, also

* Phil. Trans., 1S64, 428.

t Am. J. Sci., Ill, xviii, 419, 1879.

o __

d
>

0

>
r

1887.] • -*^^' [Barker.

made by the Clarks, but wliich, although of slightly less aperture — half an
inch — was provided with a photographic correcting lens. The large amount
of work done with these instruments appears from the fiict that at the time
of his death in 1883, he had taken more than a hundred stellar spectrum
photographs, the later ones having a comparison spectrum upon the same
plate. The methods employed both by Dr. Huggins and by Dr. Draper
in all their later work were in general the same. The light of the star
was concentrated by the object glass of a large teles,cope upon the slit of a
spectroscope placed at its focus. In consequence, a narrow slit was neces-
sary in order to obtain good definition, and very perfect adjustment of the
driving clock was required to keep the image of the star upon the slit.
The spectra thus obtained were of course quite minute ; being about half
an inch only in length, and only one sixteenth or thereabouts in width.
Dr. Huggins made use of a cylindrical lens placed in front of the slit to
obtain the necessary width to the spectrum. But Dr. Draper secured this
end by throwing the image of the star slightly out of focus.

The first attempts to obtain photographs of stellar spectra which were
made at the Harvard College Observatory were undertaken in May, 1885,
by the aid of an appropriation from the Ruraford fund of the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences. In these experiments an entirely new
photographic method was adopted. The prism was placed in front of the
object glass of the telescope ; a plan originally suggested for eye observa-
tions by Fraunhofer in 1823* and employed subsequently, practically, by
Secchi and Respighi. The advantages, for photographic purposes, of this
method are twofold: First, the loss of light is extremely small; and
second, the stars over the entire field of the telescope will impress their
spectra upon the plate. Hence while previous observers could photo-
graph but one star at a time, and this satisfactorily only with stars of the
first or second magnitude, more than one hundred spectra have now been
simultaneously obtained on a single plate, many of them of stars no
brighter than the seventh or eighth magnitude. The earliest photographs
obtained at the Observatory were taken by placing a prism whose refract-
ing angle was 30° in front of a Voigtlander photographic lens of two
inches aperture and about seven inches focal length. No clock-work was
used, the spectra being formed of the trails of the stars. In the spectrum
of the Pole-star thus taken, over a dozen lines could be counted ; and in
the spectra of a Lyne and a Aquila?, the characteristic lines were shown,
even when the time of exposure was only two or three minutes.

In the autumn of 1885, an appropriation was made from the Bache fund
of the National Academy of Sciences for the purpose of continuing these
investigations. A prism of 15° refracting angle and eight inches in clear
aperture was employed, placed in front of a Voigtlander photographic lens
having an aperture of eight inches and a focal length of about forty-five
inches. The details of the method are thus described in the report of Prof.
Pickering :t

*See Schellen's Spectrum Analysis, English ed.. 1872, p. 462, ct seq. •
t Memoirs Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., xi, 209, 188C.

Barker.l ^^^ [April 1,

"The prism was always placed with its edges horizontal when the tele-
scope was in the meridian. The spectrum then extended north and south.
If clock-work was attached, a line of light would be formed, too narrow
to show the lines of the spectrum satisfactorily. The usual method (»f re-
moving this difficulty is the employment of a cylindrical lens to widen the
spectrum; but if the clock-work is disconnected, the motion of the star
will produce the same effect. Unless the star is very bright, the motion
will, however, be so great that the spectrum will be too faint. It Is only
necessary to vary the rate of the clock in order to give any desired width
to the spectrum. A width of about one millimeter is needed to show the
fainter lines. This distance would be traversed by an equatorial star in
about twelve seconds. The longest time that it is ordinarily convenient to
expose a plate is about an hour. If then the clock is made to gain or lose
twelve seconds an hour, it will have the rate best suited for the spectra of
the faintest stars. A mean lime clock loses about ten seconds an hour. It
is only necessary to substitute a mean time clock for the sidereal clock to
produce the required rate. It was found more convenient, however, to
have an auxiliary clock whose rate could be altered at will by inserting
stops of various lengths under the bob of the pendulum. One of these
made it gain twelve seconds in about five minutes, the other produced the
same gain in an hour. The velocity of the image upon the plate when the
clock is detached could thus be reduced thirty or three hundred and sixty
times. This corresponds to a difference of 3.7 and 6.1 magnitudes respec-
tively. Since the spectrum of a star of the second magnitude could be
taken without clock-work, stars of the sixth and eighth magnitudes re-
spectively could be photographed equally well with the arrangement de-
scribed above."

The work already undertaken in this direction developed so rapidly that
the Bache appropriation soon proved entirely inadequate to carry it fur-
ther. Whereupon early in 1886, Mrs. Henry Draper, who from the first
had taken a great interest in this work as a continuation of that so auspi-
ciously begun by Dr. Draper himself, generously came forward and agreed
to place at Prof. Pickering's disposal, not only the excellent eleven
inch photographic telescope which Dr. Draper had so successfully used
in his spectrum researches, but also a sufficient sum of money to enable
the experiments already suggested to be fairly tried. In consequence.
Prof. Pickering decided to continue the investigation along three more or
less independent lines : First, he purposed to make a general survey of
stellar spectra, each spectra being photographed with an exposure of not
less than five minutes. These photographs exhibit in general the spectra
of all stars brighter than the sixth magnitude, with sufficient distinctness
for measurement. Second, he desired to undertake a determination of the
spectra of the fainter stars, each photograph of this set receiving an expo-
sure of an hour. All stars not fainter than the ninth magnitude, and in-
cluded in a region ten degrees square, are represented upon a single plate.
The work in both these directions has been done thus far with the Bache

1887.] lb J [Barker.

photographic telescopes, 15,729 spectra having been already photographed
and measured. Third, he decided to carry on a more careful study of the
spectra of the brighter stars. For this work, the Draper eleven inch cor-
rected refractor was specially used, a suitable observatory having been
erected for it in Cambridge. Four prisms, each having a refracting angle
of 15°, were constructed, of which three had a clear aperture of nearly
eleven inches, the fourth being somewhat smaller. These four prisms
with their mounting weighed more than a hundred pounds and occupied
a cubic foot of space.

The original negatives have been enlarged by a novel process which
gives most excellent results. A cylindrical lens is placed close to the
enlarging lens with its axis parallel to the length of the spectrum. In the
apparatus actually employed the length of the spectrum and with it the
dispersion, is increased five times, while the breadth is increased nearl}'-
one hundred. This arrangement has the great advantage that it greatly
reduces the difficulty arising from the feeble light of the star. Until re-
cently, the spectra in the original negatives were made very narrow, since
otherwise the intensity of the starlight would have been insufficient to
produce the proper decomposition of the silver particles. The enlarge-
ment being made by daylight, the vast amount of energy then available
is controlled by the original negative, the action of which may be com-
pared to that of a telegraphic relay. The copies therefore represent manj^
hundred times the original energy received from the stars.

It was with the apparatus above described and under these conditions,
that the photographs were taken that I have the honor of exhibiting to the
Society. Although the earliest satisfactory results were obtained in Octo-
ber, 1886, yet it is evident that the full meaning of these photographs can
be discovered only after they have been carefully measured, and after
these measurements have been reduced and thoroughly discussed. Some
points of interest, however, appear on simple inspection of them. This
photograph of « Cygni for example, which was taken November 26,
1886, shows the H line to be double,* its two components having a differ-
ence of wave-length of about one ten-millionth of a millimeter. This
photograph of o Ceti shows the lines G and h as bright lines, as well as the
four ultra violet lines which are the characteristic of spectra of the first
type ; to which Dr. Iluggins gave the letters a, /?, ;' and S. In this spec-
trum, however, the H and K lines are seen to be dark ; showing that they do
not belong to that series of lines. The spectrum of a Tauri shows a mul-
titude of lines and bands, massed in the more refrangible region ; thus ac-
counting for the ruddy color of the star. The spectrum of Sirius shows,
besides the well-known broad lines characteristic of this brilliant star, a
large number of fainter ones. The spectrum of a Canis minoris, taken
with four prisms, shows the solar dark lines G, h, H and K.

This entire research is entitled " The Henry Draper Memorial." The

* According to Young, the line H in the solar cliromosphere, which is bright, is donbla
also.

PROC. AMER. FHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 125. V. PRINTED .JUNE 4, 1887.

Barker.] ' 1«U [April 1,

first annual report has just been issued by Prof. Pickering and con-
tains an account of the investigations thus far made, together with tlie re-
sults obtained. It is illustrated with a plate (which I have the pleasure of
placing before you) illustrating the rapid progress which has been made
within the past few years in photographing stellar spectra. The first
figure, which is a direct copy of the spectra obtained in 1885, was taken
with the Voigtl3,nder lens of two inches aperture having a 30° prism in
front of it and shows the spectra of a. Lyr*, « Aquilae, a Bootis and /9
and Y Urste Majoris ; the instrument having been directed successively to
these stars and the plate exposed five minutes on each. The longest of
these spectra is not over four millimeters in length. The second figure is
the spectrum f Ursff Majoris accompanied by that of an adjacent fifth
magnitude star. It was taken with the larger VoigtlJinder lens, with an ex-
posure of five minutes. It is about nine millimeters long and one wide,
and illustrates the size of spectra used in preparing the catalogue of spec-
tra of the brighter stars, one or two hundred of these being sometimes
photographed on a single plate. The third figure represents the spectrum
of a Lyrre, and was taken with the Draper eleven-inch telescope with
two prisms, on November 5, 1886, with an exposure of fifty-nine minutes.
This spectrum is a little more than fifty millimeters long and about two
and a half millimeters wide. The fourth spectrum, taken on January 21,
1887, represents /? Geminorum. The exposure was fifty minutes, four
prisms being used with the eleven-inch Draper telescope. This spec-
trum is nearly eighty millimeters long. All these now described are
original negatives printed by contact. The fifth figure in this plate
represents a little more than half of the spectrum of /5 Geminorum (as
given in figure four) enlarged by Prof. Pickering's special process
above described. This spectrum is 220 millimeters long and seventy-five
wide, and shows a mass of dense lines irregularly distributed. Below this
Is a narrow strip, fifteen millimeters wide, of the spectrum of the same
star taken on January 12th. It is given for comparison and shows that
practically all of the lines shown belong really to the star itself and are
not produced in the photographic processes.

It is gratifying to know that Mrs. Draper has been so well satisfied with
these splendid results that she has decided greatly to extend the original
plan of the work and to have it conducted in the future on a scale suited
to its importance. The attempt will be made to include all portions of the
subject so that the final results shall form a complete discussion of the
constitution and conditions of the stars as revealed by their spectra, so far as
scientific methods at present permit. It is expected that a station will be
established in the southern hemisphere, so as to permit the work to be so
extended that a similar method of study may be applied to stars in all
parts of the sky. The investigations already undertaken include (1) a
catalogue of the spectra of all stars north of 24^, of the sixth magnitude
or brighter, (2) a more extensive catalogue of spectra of stars brighter
than the eighth magnitude, and (3) a detailed study of the spectra of the

1887.] -'■'-'- [Barker.

bright stars. This hist will include a classification of the spectra, a de-
termination of the wave-lengths of the lines, a comparison with terrestrial
spectra and an application of the results to the measurement of the ap-
proach and recession of the stars. A special photographic investigation
will also be undertaken of the spectra of the banded stars and of the ends
of the spectra of the bright stars. Beside the instruments already men-
tioned, there will be used the twenty-eight-inch and fifteen -inch reflectors
constructed by Dr. Draper, which Mrs. Draper has decided to send to
Cambridge for this purpose, and also the fifteen-inch refractor belonging
to the Observatory.

From these statements it will appear that photographic apparatus
has here been provided on a scale quite unequaled elsewhere. "But,"
says Prof. Pickering, "Mrs. Draper has not only provided the means
for keeping these instruments actively employed, several of them during
the whole of every clear night, but also of reducing the results by a
considerable force of computors and of publishing them in a suitable
form. A field of work of great extent and promise is open, and there
seems to be an opportunity to erect to the name of Dr. Henry Draper a
memorial such as heretofore no astronomer has received. One cannot but
hope that such an example may ])e imitated in other departments of
astronomy, and that hereafter other names may be commemorated not by
a needless duplication of unsupported observatories but by the more last-
ing monuments of useful work accomplished."

Note added May 1, 1SS7.

The excellent phototype plate which accompanies and illustrates this
paper, shows the enlarged positives of the spectra of a Tauri taken with
two prisms and that of o Ceti taken with one. The negatives from which
the phototype plate was prepared were kindly furnished me by Prof.
Pickering especially for this purpose. My obligations are due to him,
therefore, for this courtesy. I am also indebted to ^Mr. Gutekunst for the
faithfulness of their reproduction.

It is a gratifying evidence of appreciation of Prof. Pickering's pho-
tographic work, that the National Academy of Sciences, at its meeting in
Washington, in April, awarded to him the Henry Draper gold medal, for
having in their opinion made the most important progress in Astronomical
Physics during the two years which have elapsed since the preceding
award.

Dr. Frazer made the following remarks :

A question suggests itself in relation to the very important results of Prof.
Pickering, which Prof Barker has so lucidlj^ and interestingly described.

As the extremely minute point of light which is received on the first
prism represents the radiation from every part of the star under examina-
tion, of course the line of light produced by the prism will represent
at any infinitesimal fraction of time, the whole radiation of light from the

Stevenson.] li ^ [Uay 20,

half of the star turned towards us during that time ; and during an inde-
finitely short exposure might be said to represent the condition of the
surface visible to us as it was during a certain minute time interval when
the waves set out from that surface. [Neglecting for the moment the
modification of this statement which the curvature of the star's surface
would render necessary owing to the fact that the light which proceeded
from the extreme outer edge would have a longer distance to travel than
that in the centre by a little more than the radius of the star, and there-
fore its arrival at the instrument might be later than that from the central
portion. ]

But the broadening of this line into a surface by making a slight differ-
ence between the rate of the clock-work and the angular motion of the
earth, would represent this same elongated surface of the star at differ-
ent times. In other words the one axis would represent different parts of
the star at the same instant of time, and the other axis would represent the
same region (the hemisphere visible to us) at different periods of time.

If the movements of the atmosphere of the star observed were as rapid
and extensive as those of our own sun, the consequence would be that we
would have a succession of different conditions of the star's atmosphere
placed in close juxtaposition, the whole series representing all the changes
that had occurred in the star's photosphere during the interval of expo-
sure. On this account it would seem that this method was not adapted
to do more than give the resulting average of these changes on a sensi-
tive plate of measurable breadth and would not permit the condition of
the photosphere at any one instant of time to be studied.

It would be interesting to know what effect a similar procedure on the
disc of the sun would show, by juxtaposing a large number of instantane-
ous photographs of the disc as different parts of the latter were successively
brought over the slit of the spectroscope.

Notes on the Surface Geology of South-tcest Virginia. By John J. Stevenson.

{Read before the American Philosophical Society, May W, 1SS7.)

New river, rising in North Carolina, flows across the Archtean area of
Virginia, and enters the " Great Valley" of that State in Wythe county.
It flows througli Wythe and Pulaski counties, separates the latter from
Montgomery, and flows through Giles county into West Virginia on its
way to the Ohio river at Point Pleasant. It drains the counties named,
with the addition of Bland. The most important forks of the Holston
river flow through Smyth and Washington counties of Virginia into Ten-
nessee ; while the Clinch river rising in Tazewell county of Virginia flows
through Russell and Scott counties and drains much of Wise. It is joined
in Tennessee by Powell river, which drains Lee county and part of Wise.

1887.] 1'^ [Stevenson.

The Clinch and Holston unite to form the Tennessee, through which their
waters reach the Ohio at Paducah,

The effects of erosion in Bland county are seen in the removal of lime-
stone and shales so as to throw the harder rocks into relief as mountains ;
to form narrow valleys in limestones near the present lines of faulting,
and to scoop out a basin in Devonian and Upper Silurian shales. Within
Giles county. New river llows on Knox (Calciferous) limestone, and the
later rocks have been eroded from a considerable space on both sides of
the stream. The conditions became approximatelj' the same throughout
this area after the removal of the Devonian and Upper Silurian, and good
illustrations of certain types of erosion are afforded here as well as further
southward along New river.

Remnants of two planes of erosion, one 225 (1810 feet above tide) feet
and the other 115 (about 1670 feet above tide) feet above New river
at Snidow's forr}% were seen in Giles county on the road from the county-
seat to that ferry, which is opposite the mouth of Big Stony creek, where
the altitude of the water surface is about 1555 feet above tide. The upper
plane originally extended far into the recess between Pearis and Sugar
run mountains ;* and even now it can be recognized easily in the many
hills, whose leveled tops have almost the same altitude. The second
plane is more distinct, being better preserved than the other, and having
a larger area. Still lower benches, river terraces, were seen, but thej'^ do
not exist on the road followed by the writer, and no measurements of
their height could be obtained.

Tiie deposit on the higher planes is sand and clay, carrying vast num-
bers of transported polished fragments, most of which are barely three
inches in diameter, though some were seen upwards of ten inches. For
the most part, these pebbles are of local origin, or, at least, they came
from the confines of the "Great Valley," for the sandstones predomi-
nate ; but there are not wanting pebbles of glassy and milky quartz,
seldom more than four inches in diameter, which must have come from
the Blue Ridge, not less than seventy miles away by the nearest water-
line. And these are found on the highest bench at nearly three miles
from the river's present channel way.

A fine plane of erosion is well preserved on both sides of New river
south from Little Walker mountain in Pulaski and Montgomery counties.
Its summit is shown on the west side of the river near Belspring station,
with an altitude of not fixr from 1775 feet above tide, the station being
1766 feet A. T., while a higher plane is reached along the New River R. R.
on this side of the river at the summit cut, two and a half miles from New
River station, and about 1925 feet above tide, the track in the cut being

•For explanation of the relations of the mountains and of most of the localities re-
ferrcil to in this paper, the reader is referred to memoirs on Southwestern Virginia,
published by tiie writer in Iroc. Amer. Phil. Soc., as follows: Vol. XIX, pp. SS, 219,
498; XXII, ]). in, and XXJV, p. Gl. The faults are described summarily in a paper in
the Amer. Journ. of Science for April, 1887.

Stevenson.] -L • 4 [Maj' 20,

1914 feet. This bench extends eastward from New river for more than
eight miles between Little Walker and Price mountains, and it is probably
the same with the fine terrace shown above the railroad bridge over New
river. It is distinct on the west side at four miles from the river on the
railroad ; and it appears to be the same with the plain seen nearly six
miles further west on the road leading across Pulaski county from Dublin
to Pearisburg ; but the barometric readings on that road are not wholly
satisfactory.

The deposit on these benches is of clay and sand, containing pebbles of
varying size, most of them, as before, of local origin, but not a few
of them have come from the Blue Ridge. The upper bench is deeply
trenched here and there by narrow valleys in which rock exposures
occur ; elsewhere such exposures are rare, as the detrital cover is from
five to thirty feet thick. River terraces, apparently unbroken and almost
as perfect as those shown in theoretical diagrams were seen in the
"Horseshoe bend" bottom, but they could not be reached for measure-
ment.

Erosion planes are equally well marked along New river within Wythe
county for some distance above and below the Wythe lead and zinc mines.
The lead company has sunk a shaft at about half a mile south from New
river, beginning at the topmost part of the bench, which, according to the
barometer, is 310 feet above the river at Thorn's ferry opposite the com-
pany's offices, or 2260 feet above tide. The surface is covered with loose
boulders, mostly three inches or less, though some are fully eight inches.
The deposit, as found in the shaft, is nearly fifty feet thick, and the bench
is of great extent on this southerly side of the river. Crossing to the
other side and taking the road over Lick mountain to Wytheville, one
soon comes to a bench, 120 feet by barometer above the river or 2070 feet
above tide. This was not recognized at the lead mines on the southerly
side of the river, but on this side it is distinct almost from Jackson's ferry
to the Wytheville road, on which it is reached at three miles from New
river. The higher bench is reached by the Wytheville I'oad at six miles
from the river, and, according to the barometer, is 320 feet above low
water at Thorn's ferry or 2270 feet above tide. It carries a thick coat of
debris loaded with pebbles.

The tributary streams of New river are terraced. A fine bench was
seen on Wolf creek in Giles county at a mile or so from the river. It is
sixty -five feet above the stream and carries a thick deposit, which is rich
in rolled stones. The upper terrace of Reed creek below Wytheville was
not measured, but it is fully 150 feet above the stream. It shows huge
boulders of Potsdam sandstone resting on the Knox limestone, though a
broad and deep ravine separates their resting place from Lick mountain,
whence they came. An erosion plane, similar to that seen in Pulaski
county, was observed north from Wytheville within the New river area.
Its superficial deposit of sand, often carrying many pebbles, is so thick as
to conceal the bedded rocks for long distances.

1887.1 -•- ' ^ [Stevenson.

Great planes of erosion are shown in all parts of the "Valley" from
the Tennessee line to the eastern side of Montgomery county ; no doubt
they are continuous thence into Pennsylvania, -where such planes are
sufficiently distinct. At all localities they illustrate effects of erosion
during a long period in which the channel-ways of the main streams are
not deepening materially.

By some means the erosive or channel-deepening power of the New
river has been greatly increased since the erosion of the upper planes was
completed ; for the river has excavated a trorge 255 to 300 feet deep with
the hills abrupt on one or both sides for considerable distances ; while ero-
sion extends at best to but a little way from the river. The tributary
streams flow for the most part in comparatively narrow valleys, even
where the conditions appear to be such as to favor extended erosion.
Meanwhile the destruction of the elevated planes has gone on irregularly ;
the upper bench south from Walker mountain has suffered little in Mont-
gomery county except near the river. But that in Giles county has been
eaten away and another, widely extended, has been formed at a lower
horizon ; and there appears to be nothing south from Walker mountain to
compare in extent with the lower plain north from that mountain.

While the erosion of the "Great Valley" and of the region drained by
New river appears easily referable to a simple plan, the conditions in the
limestone area of Tazewell, Russell and Scott counties, drained by Clinch
river, are not so clear. Benches exist, but they are not so obvious as are
those in the valley, they do not always carry a deposit loaded with peb-
bles and they seem rarely to have great extent. One gravel deposit was
found on the line between Russell and Scott within a mile of Clinch river
and at G40 feet above that river at Osborn's ford, making its height above
tide not far from 1920 feet. The pebbles are rarely larger than a hen's
egg, and are mostly quartz ; comparatively few could have been derived
from the region now drained by the Clinch, and most of them must have
come from the Blue Ridge or further at the south.

The Clinch and North llolston are as handsomely terraced as the New
river and its tributaries. The " bottom" of Clinch river appears to main-
tain a uniform height of about fifteen feet above low water ; a fine terrace
is shown near Osborn's ford at ninety-five feet above the river or 1375 feet
above tide, and it is present on both sides of the river at a little way above
the ford. A higher bench is shown on the southerly side, but its height
could not be ascertained. Near Nash's ford in Russell county, three ter
races are crossed as one descends to Clinch from the south. These are
about 155, 40 and 15 feet above low water at the ford. The highest
reaches far back from the river and its height above tide is not far from
1700 feet. A fine terrace was seen on the north fork of Holston below
the mouth of Laurel creek in Smyth county, where the top of the deposit
is between eighty-five and ninety feet above the river or at not far from
1625 feet above tide. The deposit on these river terraces consists of sand
and clay carrying abundance of boulder, all apparently of local origin.

Stevenson.] X4D [May 20,

In some portions of South- west Virginia, notably in the region embracing
much of North-west Tazewell county, Virginia, and of Mercer and Sum-
mers counties of West Virginia, which is known as " Flat Top," there are
high benches or fragmentary plains which are of considerable extent, but
do not appear to carry many water-worn stones in their thin cover. They
are very like the higher benches observed by the writer* in South-west
Pennsylvania, and very possibly they are due to the same causes.

But what these causes were is still an open question. The most natural
explanation is that which regards them as erosion planes, such as were
termed "base levels of erosion " by Major Powell. But in discussing
these benches as they occur in Pennsylvania and adjacent States, the
writer showed that as they line valleys and form irregular rings about iso-
lated hills, they are merely incidental modifications of a topography due
to prior and long continued erosion ; and that they are too well preserved
to be regarded as fragments of great erosion planes. More than this. The
deposit on these benches is marked by the absence of water-worn
and rounded fragments ; the absence of such fragments cannot be
accounted for by the supposition that they have been broken up by
exposure, for the greater part of the deposit has been protected from
atmospheric agencies ttntil exposed by the plough or in excavations for
roads. The Coal Measures of Western Pennsylvania contain sandstones,
whose fragments should resist disintegration eqitally with the Medina and
Potsdam pebbles of South-west Virginia ; while in Bedford county of the
former State, where high benches are as conspicuous as in the Coal Meas-
ures counties further west, the Chemung conglomerates and the Medina
sandstones are present and the stream beds are loaded with their frag-
ments ; yet no rounded pebbles were seen on the benches.

The absence of these boulders militates against any application of the
base level process, as generally understood, and equally against the sup-
position suggested by the writer, that the benches were produced by shore
erosion between tides. The problem of their origin is not simplified by
denying their existence, for, unfortunately, the benches are "here to
stay." A ride along the National road in Pennsylvania, from Uniontown
in Fayette county to Washington in Washington county, enables one to
secure a key to the whole succession.

Returning to Virginia. That the great erosion has occurred since the
faulting took place is sufficiently shown by the contrast between the up-
throw and downthrow sides of the faults ; for on one side is seen the
highest portion of the Lower Carboniferous, while on the other are the
lowest beds of the Knox limestones. It may be that the main streams
antedated the faults and possibly the folds. The course of New river,
which rises far beyond the axis of the Blue Ridge crosses at least six great
faults as well as all the folds, great and small, from the Blue Ridge to the
Ohio river, suggests that it may be following in a general way the original
direction,

*Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc, Vol. XVIII, Aug. 15th, 1879.

1887.] il* [Stevenson.

Byt there have been great changes in the water- waj'S. The fragment-
ary deposit on the line between Russell and Scott counties, carrying
quartz pebbles at 640 feet above Clinch river, tells the story of one great
change, for nothing along the upper Clinch could furnish the material for
this deposit, of which so little remains. The deep erosion near the North
fork of llolston river, from Saltville in Smyth county eastward for sixteen
miles, cannot be referred to any present drainage system ; its bottom is
more than 600 feet below the present bed of the river and the excavation
has been filled with a deposit of gypsum and rock salt. This was digged
out after tlie faulting, for the excavation crosses and re-crosses the Salt-
ville fault.*

It is sufficiently clear that the courses of many of the present streams
are due in no small degree to the geological structure. The fans formed by
the Clinch and llolston with their tributaries show a co-incidence with the
general course of the rocks and faults which cannot be merely fortuitous.
Tributaries to New river in Bland and Giles counties flow irregularly with
the strike of the beds ; between outcrops of sandstone they follow the
more readily yielding rocks, so that they are often brought near to the
fault lines ; and many streams belonging to the other systems do the same.
But in the broad limestone areas, some other cause has determined
the direction, for not a few streams exist there whose courses appear to
bear no relation to the geological structure. No especial weakness now
exists in the immediate vicinity of the faults, for the streams flow with
utter indifference to them. New river crosses all of the faults. Big
Walker creek and the North fork of Holston flow back and forth over the
Saltville fault, and the latter at times wanders to a distance of two or
three miles, apparently without reference to the cliaracter of the rocks.
Clinch river coquettes in the same way with the Clinch faults and event-
ually deserts them to cross the limestone area in Scott county and to cut
the Copper creek fault at ten miles toward the south-east. The North
fork of Clinch crosses two faults and many of the smaller streams flow
directly across one or more.

It is altogether probable that the present lines of the faults are verj'^ far,
in some cases at least, from the original lines. The lateral thrust in more
than one case must have been enough to push the upthrowu rocks to a
considerable distance over upon the downthrown series ; so that the areas
of weak or crushed or much distorted roclis lay north or northwest from
the lines as now observed. The crushed portions have been removed by
erosion and the streams have changed their channel-ways as the erosion
advanced. It is diflicult, therefore, to determine much respecting the
former drainage ways.

The thickness of rock removed by erosion in this region, though not
equal to that removed from Western Colorado and adjacent parts of Utah,
is still sufficient to challenge respect. There is no room for doubting that
the Coal Measures reached at one time beyond the "Valley " to the Blue

♦See Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc, Vol. XXII, p. 15-t et seq.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 125. W. PRINTED JUNE 7, 1.887.

Stevenson.] -L ' ^ [May 20,

Ridge, for those rocks are just missed on the northerly side of the Draper
Mountain fault, at twelve miles from the Blue Ridge. Even now the
Coal Measures must be caught on some of the Washington county hills
beyond the Saltville fault. The Lower Potsdam is brought up under the
Lick Mountain anticlinal at not more than four miles from the line of the
Lower Carboniferous in the Draper Mountain area. The whole of the
Palseozoic column, then, or not less than 22,000 feet, has been removed
from the westerly side of the Blue Ridge in South-western Virginia; while
in the "Valley" and on the upthrow side of the Aiults the thickness ot
removed rocks is Irom say 18,000 feet in Lick mountain to 12,000 feet or
more along the faults. Additional proofs of this enormous erosion are
found in the occurrence of Lower Silurian valleys separated by ridges
carrying small areas of the Coal Measures.

This enormous erosion occurs only on the upthrow side of the faults ; so
that on the downthrow side one may find even the Coal Measures, while the
lower beds of the Calciferous may be on the other. So, 15,000 feet or more
may have been removed from one side, while on the other, the whole loss
may not exceed 3000 or 4000 feet. This great contrast between the two
sides seems to suggest that the lateral thrust was enough in every case to
push tlic tqnhroicn beds far over on the downthrown, so that there could
be no erosion of the latter until after removal of the former.

Of course, there are perplexing problems here; they usually abound.
One is suggested by the successive increase in height of the erosion planes
as one ascends New river. Thus the highest south from East River moun-
tain is at 1810 feet above tide ; that south from Big Walker mountain is at
about 1925 feel ; while that south from Draper and Lick mountains is at
about 2270 feet. These benches were all made during a long period when
the river in each area had practically ceased to deepen its cliannel -way.
It may be that the Medina sandstone of Draper mountain, the Chemung
conglomerate and Medina sandstone of the Walker mountains and the
Medina sandstone of the East River mountains may have proved sufficiently
hard to resist erosion for a long time. However that may be, corrasion
advanced regularly after it began, for the first bench below is reached at
140 feet south from East River mountain, at 150 feet south from the Wallier
mountains, and at nearly 200 feet in the space between Lick mountain and
the Blue Ridge.*

A long halt in corrasion occurred during the formation of the second
bench ; but thenceforward no important obstacle seems to have been en-
countered and the interruptions were only long enough to admit of form-
ing narrow river terraces, which usually are found on but one side of the
river.

University of the City of New York.

* For the elevations along New river, I am indebted to Mr. W. W. Coe, Chief Engineer
of Norfolk and Western R. R. ; and for those on the Clinch and Holston rivers to Mr.
Oramel Barrett, Jr., of Abingdon, Virginia.

1887.1 ^ * ^ [Blasins.

Ihe Signal Service Buremi. Its Methods and ResnUs. Bi/ William Blasiuft.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, May 6, 1SS7.)

In 1872 the Leipzig Conference propounded this question, with others,
to the principal meteorologists of the ■world : "Are you of the opinion
that the present state of our knowledge of the weather justifies giving
definite prophecies or predictions instead of the telegraphic communication
of facts, or shall we limit ourselves to intimations upon the state of the at-
mosphere in the surrounding countries, from which the receivers of tlie
communications may deduce their own rules?"

The replies were almost uniformly in the negative, and among them
that of the very distinguished meteorologist. Prof. Buys-Ballot, of Utrecht,
who said : "No prophecies, if we do not want to bring this matter into
discredit. It is impossible for tlie director to say on which part of the coast
the wind will blow first, and be the strongest, if he does not await the be-
ginning of the storm at a place at some distance, and then it is too late.
Tlie state of the weather may be given. Every one may have the fixed
rules by which, from this state, he may deduce his own results." And
then, in a humopous way, he adds : " He who shall predict tlie weather, if
he does it conscientiously and with inclination, will have no quiet life
anymore, and runs great risk of becoming crazy from nervousness."

The United States Signal Service Bureau has from the beginning — owing
to the nature of its organization perhaps — taken a different course ; it has
devoted its chief efforts to pr.edidion and signaling, while the study of
nature and its laws has received but scant attention. And what is the re-
sult"? Can it now give the "fixed rules," of whicli Buys-Ballot speaks,
by which every one may be enabled to form some judgment of the
weather? What additions to meteorological science has it ever made?
Is there even one valuable result in all its voluminous literature that can-
not be found in the prior works of others? If so, where and what is it?
Nay, more. It has published during the last twenty j'ears a vast con-
glomeration of facts and observations, at great expense of labor, intelli-
gence and money, but from all this great material have any meteorologists
the world over been able to make generalizations that have been accepted
as sound and valuable?

I think, upon reflection, we must all see that the answer cannot be
affirmative, and that when the results of the Signal Service Bureau's work
are summed up, it is found to be utterly disproportionate to the means at
its disposal, even in the matter of prediction. Its methods must therefore
be at fault. Let us examine.

At the close of our civil war, upon the suggestion of the late Prof.
Henry, the Telegraph Corps, whose services in the field as an active part
of the army were no longer needed, was reorganized as the Signal Service
Bureau, and its officers and soldiers became at one stroke, full-fledged me-
teorologists, but remained under strict army discipline, and worked under

Blasius.] ibU pjay 6,

rigid rules. The duties assigned to them individually were, however,
and still are of a very simple nature. The "observers" at the various
stations, at certain hours of the day, record in tabular columns the readings
of their meteorological instruments, and telegraph these to Washington ;
and since my work on " Storms"* was published in 1875, in which I called
especial attention to the Bureau's neglect of cloud forms, some simple
observations upon the clouds are added to the telegraphic reports. Upon
receipt of these reports at Washington, they are written down upon blank
maps, on which the respective stations are marked. The points of lowest
equal barometric pressure are then united by a line called the Isobar
which usually form an ellipse. In the same way the stations of five or
ten points of higher pressure are joined by a line. The field enclosed by
these somewhat concentric Isobars is the "area of low pressure," or the
"cyclonic storm" so called. From the results of the next reading the
next position of the area of low pressure is ascertained in the same way,
and by comparing the distance traveled with the time occupied, the
probable position for some hours ahead is calculated, and predictions are
issued. The labor is thus of a routine character

"Areas of high barometer" are likewise noted, but these are thought to
bring fair weather. The barometer therefore is still the chief reliance in
the prediction of storms, and those storms which are distinguished as
"areas of low pressure" are practically all that the Signal Service is able
to predict.

Now, in the report of the Chief Signal Officer for 1884, there are noted
as having occurred during the year 152 of these areas of low pressure, 172
tornadoes, 947 hailstorms, and 1745 thunder-storms, so that if every one of
the 152 "cyclonic storms" — the "areas of low pressure" — are correctly
predicted, we have some 2864 storms, of which the Bureau knew nothing
until after they had occurred. Relying on the barometer and on machine
methods, it could not be otherwise.

Lieut. J. P. Finley, Chief of the Tornado Division of the Bureau, in
"Signal Service Notes, No. XII," says: "Probably if a barometer were
placed in the immediate track of a tornado cloud, it would not with any
certainty indicate the presence of the storm until the crushing winds had
fallen on the instrument." Indeed, although the Bureau appears to pro-
ceed on the old rule that has obtained predominance since the daj'sof Otto
von Guericke, that a falling barometer denotes an approaching storm, it
has long been well known that the most destructive storms often arrive
with a rising barometer, and this for reasons that I explained as long ago
as 1852. One of these storms took place at Colon, or Aspinwall, Panama,
December 2, 1885. The New York Herald of December 18 says : "This
storm was not preceded by any distinct precursory signs. The barometer
on the Isthmus apparently remained stationary or slowly rose during the
progress of the tempest. Much property, many vessels and lives were
lost."

* Storms : Their Nature, Classification and La-\ys. Porter & Coates, Philadelphia, 1875.

1887.] 1"! [Blasius.

One of the most destructive storms this country has ever witnessed,
occurred on the coasts of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, August 28, 24and
25, 1873, by which about 500 lives were lost and 1032 vessels destroyed,
including 435 small fishing schooners. The Signal Service Bureau was
entirely taken aback by this storm, because an "area of high pressure"
or an "anticyclone" had been moving from Manitoba to the coast, and
therefore, fair weather was to be expected. But in the weather maps
for several days previous could be traced the gradual advance of a
wave of cold air from the North — the "area of high pressure" — which
banking up the warmer air in its front as shown by the gradually rising
gradient, finally culminated in a terrific south-east storm with its centre
of destruction on the coast. We thus have a storm of the most violent
character traced on the maps of the Signal Service Bureau for several
days as a fair weather indicator.

The Chief Signal Oflicer reports 80 "areas of high barometer" during
1884. Those occurring in the cold season mean fair weather, as they dis-
place the warm current which has previously discharged its moisture. In
the summer, however, this cool air from the North, which being heavy can
be identified as an " area of high pressure, " causes — in its displacement
of the then prevailing warm and moist air — tlie south-east storm, with its
tornadoes, hail-storms, cloud-bursts and thunder-storms, none of which
the Signal Service Bureau predicts, and which cause vastly more destruc-
tion than the north-east storms — the "areas of low pressure" — both from
their greater violence, and because they mostly occur at a season of the
year when the work of the agriculturist is going on and his crops — on
which the nation depends for its prosperity — are subject to injur^^

It is true that quite lately the Bureau has turned its attention to this
brancli of the subject, after so many years of practical neglect, and that
claims of considerable magnitude have been advanced as to what has been
accomplished and what will be accomplished, both in the way of predic-
tion and scientific discovery. Let us therefore examine into this a little.

The most eminent of American meteorologists — Redfield, Espy and
others— agree in thinking the tornado the most instructive of all storms.
It is in some respects the type of our American storms, since here the op-
position of air-currents of different temperature and density, which is the
general cause of storms, is most strikingly manifested and within the nar-
rowest limits.

Mr. Wm. A. Eddy, an attache of the Bureau, in The Popular Science
Monthly tor January, 188G, says: "During the first part of 1884, the
United States Signal Service began to pay special attention to the question
of tornado prediction. Tlie development of the science was rapid under
the active supervision of Lieutenant .John P. Finley, having charge of that
department of the service. It was found that the public interest in the
question was widespread, and that with the aid of voluntary reporters of
tornado phenomena, the possibility of saving life and property had begun
to crystallize into a practical scheme." He furtlier says: "During the

Blasius.l -l-O-^ [MayC,

summer of 1886, it is hoped that, by means of signals, hundreds of lives
and much valuable property will be saved."

The summer of 1886 has passed ; can it be said that this hope is realized ?
Has the Signal Service saved a single life or any property by its tornado
predictions?

Mr. Eddy tells us that the "invariable location south-east of the storm-
centre is one of the main peculiarities of tornado development upon which
the predictions depend." And yet to this same peculiarity, with its expla-
nation, I called attention as earlj^ as 1852, and again in 1875, in the pub-
lication of my work on storms already referred to, and I urged it on the
Signal Service Bureau during a personal visit to Washington at that time.

Mr. Eddy also says: "When the conditions are unfavorable for the
development of tornadoes, there are no unusual contrasts of tempera-
ture, the areas of warm and cold air neither great nor well defined north-
ward and southward, the winds are variable and not very strong, and the
distribution of pressure is about normal." All this can be found in my
work on "Storms," published in 1875 — why is it put forward as a new
discovery in 1886 1

Indeed, it was only after the publication of that work that the Signal Ser-
vice Bureau began to note the difference of temperature in air-currents —
to which I had called attention — and made various and important changes
in its method of prediction. But when Lieutenant Finley puts forth as a
discovery of his own, the fact that tornadoes are caused by "two opposing
air-currents of different temperatures and moisture," it seems a little sin-
gular, in view of my communication of the same fact to the Academy of
Science in Boston, in 1851, its publication in 1852, and again, in 1875.

As to the prediction of tornadoes by the Signal Service, it can never be
done with any certainty, except in so general a waj^ as to be valueless. If
any one has mastered the principles of atmospheric disturbance — and
they are not so difficult — he will be able to judge for himself as to the
probability of tornadoes being imminent in his locality ten times as well
as the Signal Service can ever tell him. Just where the tornado will
strike, and its path is a narrow one, no man can tell until within a few
minutes of its passage.

Mr. Eddy says: "That during 1884, 3228 predictions ■?^^?ifavorable to
tornadoes were made, and of these 3201 were verified." But what a sim-
ple matter it is with the most ordinary knowledge and circumspection to
say that tornadoes will not take place, when the dark clouds of the south-
east storm give ample notice when there is a possibility of their happen-
ing? If we have a southeast storm we may or may not have tornadoes ;
but if we have 7iot a south-east storm, then we have no tornadoes.

As to the prediction of a tornado itself, jNIr. Eddy cites that which
passed over Camden and Philadelphia, August 3, 1885, as " one of the best
illustrations of the advance made in definiteness in predictions ;" and he
further says : "The chart used by Lieutenant Finley shows that torna-
does were predicted and their location marked upon the map for the State

1887.1 loO [Blasliis.

of Delaware, South-eastern Pennsylvania and for New Jersey. The tor-
nadoes actually occurred in these States, about eight hours from the time
of prediction."

Now if we ask how valuable to the owners of the houses damaged by
that tornado in Philadelphia was the Signal Service's prediction eight
hours before, that tornadoes would occur somewhere in " Delaware,
South-eastern Pennsylvania or New /ersey, " we cannot fail to see, I
think, the entire impracticability of the whole scheme.

The Signal Service is perhaps obliged by circumstances to devote most
attention to those things which will show most apparent results to the
general public and to Congressmen who vote for the annual appropriation.
It is hampered too by its routine methods and its army rigidity of disci-
pline. It cannot however but be a cause of disappointment that whether
owing to these causes or others, it has added so little of scientific value to
the knowledge of meteorology during the twenty years of its existence. It
has been following the old methods in reference to which Sir William
Ilerschel says : " In endeavoring to interpret the weather, we are in the
position of a man who laears, at intervals, a few fragments of a long his-
torj^ related in a prosy, unmethodical manner ; a host of circumstances
omitted or forgotten, and tlie want of connection between the parts pre-
vents the hearer from obtaining possession of the entire story." And the
great Biot, after enumerating the efforts to advance this science, says :
" What has come of it? Nothing, and nothing will ever come of it. No
single branch of science has ever been fruitfully explored in this way."

No, the methods followed have been wrong. Would astronomy be in
its present position if the great astronomers had been dependent on the
data furnished by ol)servations made according to arbitrary rules, and for
a minimum of time at one or two hours of the night, and for the most
part, too, by observers of meagre training and intelligence? And how
much would the great naturalists have learned, liad they been content to
send out into the fields three times a day for five minutes, and sit in their
closets to generalize upon the data thus obtained ?

Tliirty five years ago, I urged that only by continuous observations could
we hope for anything beyond mere empirical knowledge ; that we must
gather up the "host of circumstances " now "omitted or forgotten," and
supply "the connection between tho parts."' I am not unmindful of the
practical difficulties that are in the way of a method of observation that
alone can give a continuous knowledge of a storm as it passes ; but it
seems to me that this may be obtained with the means now available, if
the meteorological organization would devote more attention to the dis-
covery of general laws than to the more sensational part of their duties —
the weather predictions, which the newspapers now make a matter of busi-
ness enterprise. If we know the laws, there will be little trouble about
the prediction. Each of us can do this for himself sufficiently well for all
practical purposes.

i-o4: [Dec. 17,

Stated Meeting^ December 17^ 1886.

Present, 39 members.
President, Mr. Fraley, in the Chair.

Correspondence was submitted as follows :

Letters of envoy from the Musee Tejler, Leyden, and Mete-
orolooical Office, London.

Letters of acknowledgment from Serge Nikitin, St. Peters-
burg (123); Dr. Paul Albrecht, Hamburg (121, 122, 123); R.
Accademia dei Lincei, Rome (122) ; Mr. William John Potts,
Camden ,123).

The College of Physicians requested, by letter, the oil por-
traits of Dr. Franklin Bache, Dr. Elisha Kent Kane and Dr.
Joseph Priestley, for use at its approaching Centennial.

On motion, the paintings were ordered to be loaned, the
Curators taking proper guarantees for their safe keeping and
return.

Accessions to the Library were announced from the follow-
ing :

Geological Survey of India, Calcutta ; Naturforscher- Verein,
Riga; Fondation de P. Teyler, Harlem: Astronomische Nach-
richten, Kiel ; Zoologischer Anzeiger, Leipzig ; Messrs. R.
Friedlander & Sdhn, Berlin ; Academic Royale de Belgique,
Bruxelles; Biblioteca Naziouale Centrale Y. E. di Firenze ;
Societe d'Emulation, d' Abbeville ; Societe Historique Litter-
aire ; Artistique et Scientifique du Cher, Bourges; Societe
des Sciences Naturelles et Archeologiques de la Creuse, Gueret;
Institut de France, Societes de Geographic, Geologique, Zoo-
logique, Musee Guimet, Ministeres de la Marine et de 1' Instruc-
tion Publique, Paris; Meteorological Council, Nature, Lon-
don ; American Journal of Science, New Haven ; Museum of
Comparative Zoology, Prof. Benjamin A. Gould, Cambridge;
Messrs. Walter Baker & Co., Dorchester ; American Chemical
Society, New York ; Mr. George A. Bacon, Publisher, Syra-
cuse; College of Pharmacy, Publishers of the American

1886.

185

Naturalist, Messrs. Chas. A. Lagen, Henry Phillips, Jr., Phila-
delphia; Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore; Department
of State, Public Opinion Co., Washington ; Academy of Sci-
ences, St. Louis ; Geological and Natural History Survey of
Minnesota, St. Paul ; University of California, Sacramento.

On motion the following were ordered on the Society's ex-
change list to receive Proceedings fi"om No. 119 :

La Ministere de la Marine Imperiale, Administration gener-
ale de la Hydrographie, St. Petersburg ; Societe Historique,
Litteraire, Artistique et Scientifique du Cher, Bourges, France ;
Societe des Sciences Naturelles et Archeologiquesde la Creuse,
Gueret, France ; R. Societa Italiana d' Iginie, Milan.

A photograph was received for the Society's album from
Prof. Serge Nikitiu, St. Petersburg, Russia.

The death of Hon. Isaac Lea, LL.D., was announced by the
President in some appropriate remarks, as having taken place
at Philadelphia, on December 8th, in the ninety-fifth year of
his age, and on motion, the President was authorized to ap-
point a suitable .person to prepare the usual obituary notice.

The Committee on Finance made its report and, on motion,
the appropriations for the ensuing year were passed to the
same amounts and for the same purposes as those of the last
year.

On motion of Dr. Allen, the Society extended an invitation
to the American Society of Naturalists to visit its hall during
the forthcoming meeting.

On motion of Mr. Ames, the Society ordered that new
electrotype plates should be prepared for a table for the inter-
conversion of English and metric units by Dr. Frazer, he stat-
ing that the old ones were worn out.

This being the stated meeting for balloting for candidates,
an election was held and the following were declared to have
been chosen members of this Society :

2105. Prof. Morton W. Easton, Philadelphia.

2106. Prof. William F. Norris, M.D., Philadelphia.

PROC. AMEU. PIIILOS. SOC. XXIV. 125. X. PRINTED .TUNE 7, 1887.

186

[Dec. 17, 1886.

2107. Prof, James MacAlister, Philadelpliia.

2108. Charles S. Dolley, M.D., Philadelphia.

2109. Prof. John A. Ryder, Philadelphia.

2110. Prof. Hermann V. Hilprecht, Ph.D., Philadelphia.

2111. George W. Childs, Philadelphia.

2112. Prof. W. B. Scott, Princeton, N. J.

2113. Sir Henry Sumner Maine, F. R. S., London.

2114. Sir Monier Monier- Williams, F. R. S., Oxford.

2115. Prof. Dr. Hugo Yon Meltzel, Koloszvar.

2116. Prof. Dr. Paul Hunfalvy, Buda-Pesth.

2117. Prof. Dr. G. Weil, Berlin.

2118. Prof. Dr. Henri Kiepert, Berlin.

2119. Prof. Dr. Adolph Bastian, Berlin.

2120. Prof. Dr. Friederich Mueller, Vienna.

2121. Prof. Dr. Matthgeus Much, Vienna.

2122. Prof Dr. A. Reville, Paris.

2123. Prof. Dr. Paul Topinard, Paris.
2124:. Prof. Dr. Remi Simeon, Paris.

2125. Prof. Dr. Conrad Lemanns, Leyden.

2126. Prof. Dr. George Curtius, Leipsic.

2127. Julius Platzmann, Leipsic.

2128. Prof. Lucien Adam, Rennes.

2129. Prof. Guido Cora, Milan.

2130. Bishop Crescendo Carrillo, Merida, Yucatan.

2131. Prof. Juau de Dios de la Rada y Delgada, Madrid.

2132. Vicomte Hyacinthe de Charency, St. Maurice-les-
Charency, France.

2138. G. A. Hirn, C.E., Colmar, Alsace.

And the Society was adjourned by the President.

Jan. 7, 1887.1 1" '

Stated Meeting^ January 7, 1887 .
Present, 24 member?.

President, Mr. Fraley, in tlie Chair.

Dr. Marshall, a lately-elected member, was presented to the
Chair, and took his seat.

Correspondence was read as follows:

Acknowledgments were received from : Societe Historic Lit-
teraire, Artistique et Scientifique du Cher, Bourges (96-123);
Royal Institution, Society of Antiquaries, Royal Horticultural
Society, South Kensington Museum, Mr. R. "W". Rawson, Lon-
don ; University Library, Cambridge ; Prof. I. Geikie, Edin-
burgh; Free Public Library, New Bedford (123).

Acceptance of MemhersMi-). — Prof. Charles S. Dolley, Prof.
Morton W. Easton, Dr. Hermann Y. Hilprecht, Prof, James
MacAlister, Dr. Wm. F. Norris, Prof. John A. Ryder, Phila-
delphia ; Prof. Wm. B. Scott, Princeton, N. J.

Photographs were received for the Society's Album from
Messrs. Wm. Blades and H. Carvill Lewis.

Accessions to the Library were reported from the Asiatic
Society of Japan, Yokohama ; Royal Asiatic Society (North
China Branch), Shanghai ; Messrs, R. Friedlander & Sohn,
Berlin ; Gartenbauverein, Darmstadt ; Dr, A, Weisbach, Frei-
berg ; Astronoraische Nachrichten, Kiel ; Der Naturfor-
scher, Tiibingen ; Societe Batave de Philosophic Experi-
mentale de Rotterdam ; Societes Malacologique, Entomologique
de Belgique, Academic de Belgique, Bruxelles; Biblioteca
Nazionale Centrale di Firenze ; R. Societa Italiana d'Igiene,
Milan; R. Accademia dei Lincei, Rome; Societe de Geo-
graphic, Ecole Libre des Sciences Politiques, Revue Inter-
nationale de I'Enseignement, Paris ; Sociedade de Geographia
de Lisboa, R. Academia de la Historia, Madrid ; Revista Eus-
kara, Pamplona, Spain ; Royal Society, Royal Astronomical
and Geographical Societies, Greenwich Observatorj^, Royal
Horticultural Society, Liverpool ; Natural Histor}'- Society,
Montreal ; " Mr. George L. Vose, Boston ; Yale College,

188

[Jan.

American Journal of Science, New Haven ; Meteorological
Observatory, American Chemical Society, New York; Frank-
lin Institute, American Journal of Medical Sciences, Pub-
lishers of the American Naturalist and the Naturalist's Leisure
Hour ; Prof. Angelo Heilprin, Henry Phillips, Jr., Mrs. Zelia
Nuttall, Baltimore, Md. ; United States Naval Institute, An-
napolis ; Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. ; United
States Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Navy Department,
Public Opinion Co., Washington ; Washburn College, To-
peka ; Imperial Observatorio, E.io de Janeiro.

An obituary notice of the late Judge James R. Ludlow,
prepared (by request) by Hon. Richard Vaux, was read by the
Secretary,

The President announced the death of Pliny Earle Chase,
LL.D., Vice-President of the Society, December 17, 1886, £et.
65, and, on motion, was authorized to appoint a suitable person
to prepare the usual obituary notice, pursuant to which the
selection of Hon. Philip C. Garrett was made.

The President announced the death of Mrs. Emma Seller
December 21, 1886, »t. 65.

The President reported that, pursuant to the resolution of
the last meeting, he had appointed Prof. Joseph Leidy to pre-
pare the obituary notice of the late Isaac Lea, LL.D., and that
said appointment had been accepted.

The stated business of the meeting was then taken up, and
the report of the tellers of the annual election being received,
the following ofiicers a ad councilors were declared duly chosen
for the year 1887 :

President.

Frederick Fraley.

Vice-Presidents.
E. Otis Kendall, W. S. W. Ruscheuberger, J. P. Lesley.

Secretaries.
G. F. Barker, D. G. Brinton, Henry Phillips, Jr., George H.

Horn.

1887.] 189

Curators.
Charles G. Ames, John R. Baker, Philip H. Law.

Councilors for three years.

Daniel R. Goodwin, Henry Winsor, William A. Ingham,
Thomas H. Dudley.

Councilor for two years in place of Oswald Seidensticker,
resigned^

Richard Vaux.

Treasiirer.
J. Sergeant Price.

This being the evening for the nomination of a member to
serve as Librarian for the ensuing year. Dr. D. G. Brinton re-
nominated Mr. Henry Phillips, Jr., Dr. Persifor Frazer nomi-
nated Admiral E. Y. ^JcCauley, and the nominations were
closed.

Dr. D. G. Brinton read " Some Critical Remarks on the
Writings of Diego de Landa."

Pending nomination No. 1151 and new nomination No.
1152 were read.

A report was presented by the Committee on Library, ac-
companied by the following resolution, which was adopted by
the Society :

"Resolved, That the Society request that the Library be kept open dur-
ing the year 1887 from 10 a.m. to 3 p. m. from January 1st to May 31st
and from October 1st to December 31st."

A communication was read from Mr. E. Muybridge, request-
ing a subscription to his proposed work on " Animal Locomo-
tion."

On motion the Library Committee was directed to report at
the next stated meeting of the Society on the expediency of
subscribing to it.

And the Society was adjourned by the President.

^'J^' [Jan 21,

Stated Meeting^ January ^1, 1887.

Present, 87 members.
Mr. Richard Vaux in the Chair.

Prof. James A. MacAlister, a newly-elected member, was
presented to the Chair and took his seat.

Correspondence was submitted as follows :

A letter of envoy from the Real Academia del la Historia,
of Madrid, Spain, accompanying certain numbers of its publi-
cations, for which a request had been made.

A letter from Prof. Horsford, in relation to Heckewelder's
MS. vocabulary of the Lenni-Lenuape, etc., was referrec! to the
Secretaries with power to fict.

Letters of acknowledgment from the Statistical Society,
London (121, 123);" Portland Society of Natural History;
New Hampshire Historical Society, Concord ; State Library
of Massachusetts, Boston; Museum of Comparative Zoology,
Mr. Robert N. Toppan, Cambridge ; Essex Institute, Salem ;
American Antiquarian Society, Worcester; Rhode Island
Historical Society, Providence; Connecticut Historical Soci-
ety, Hartford; Prof. James Hall, Albany; Prof. C. H. F.
Peters, Clinton ; Dr. J. J, Stevenson, University of the City of
New York, Astor Library, New York; Oneida Historical
Society, Utica ; U.S. Military Academy, "West Point ; New
Jersey Historical Society, Newark ; Dr. George H. Cook, New
Brunswick; Rev. James A. Murray, Carlisle; Prof. M. H.
Boye, Coopersburg; Prof. J. W. Moore, Easton; Numismatic
and Antiquarian Society, Drs. S. W. Gross, C. A. Oliver,
Messrs. T. U. Walter, Thomas M. Cleeman, Henry Phillips,
Jr., Philadelphia ; Maryland Institute, Baltimore ; Surgeon-
General's Office, Washington, D. C. ; Leander McCormick
Observatory, Prof, J. W. Mallet, University of Virginia;
Elliott Society, Charleston; Georgia Historical Society, 'Sa-
vannah; Cincinnati Observatory ; Chicago Historical Society ;
Rantoul Literary Society ; State Historical Society of Wis-

191

1887.] -L"^^

consin; University of California; Prof. John L. LeCpnte,
Berkeley, Cal. (124); Prof. James MacAlister, Philadelphia,
(121, 122, 123 and 124, etc.).

Accessions to the Library were received from the Adminis-
tration Generale de la Hydrographie, St. Petersburg; Batavi-
aasche Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen ; An-
thropologische Gesellschalt, Vienna ; Berliner Gesellschaft iiir
Anthropologic, Ethnologic und Uigeschichte ; Astronomische
Nachrichten, Kiel; E. Society It;iliana D'Igiene, Milan ; So-
ciete de Geographic, Paris ; Societe dc Borda, Dax; K. Aca-
demia de la Historia, Madrid ; E. Geographical Societ}^, Lon-
don ; Geological Society of Glasgow ; Prof. Daniel Wilson,
Toronto ; Brooklyn Entomological Society ; Mr. William J.
Potts, Camden ; College of Pharmacy, Prof. E, D. Cope, Dr.
D. G. Brinton, Messrs. Henry Phillips, Jr., and William S.
Baker, Philadelphia ; Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore ;
Census OfiSce and U. S. Coast and Geodetic 'Survey, Bureau of
Education, Washington ; Eev. Stephen D. Peet, Chicago ; Ob-
servatorio Astronomico Nacional de Tacubaya, Mexico,

This being the evening for the selection of the Standing
Committees to serve for the ensuing year, on motion, the
President was authorized to appoint the same and to report his
action at the next stated meeting of the Societ3^

This being the evening for the election of a member to
serve as Librarian for the ensuing year, a ballot was gone into
and on the votes given being counted by the Tellers, it was
announced that Mr. Henry Phillips, Jr., had received 61 votes,
and Admiral E. Y, McCauley 25, and one vote blank, and Mr,
Henry Phillips, Jr., was declared duly elected Librarian for
the ensuing year.

Nominations Nos. 1151 and 1152, and new nomination No.
1153, were read.

At this point Vice-Pres. Dr. Euschenberger took the Chair.

The Committee on the Library presented a report, accom-
panied with the following resolution, which was adopted :

Resolved, That this Society do appropriate the sum of $100 as a subscrip-
tion for one series of plates of E. Muybridge's work on Animal Locomotion;

192

[Feb. 4,

the said plates to be selected by liim, and the selection to be approved by
a Committee to be appointed by the President of this Society.

The Committee on the Michaux legacy presented a report,
accompanied by the following resolution, which was adopted:
Resolved, That the sum of $280 be expended under the supervision of
the Michaux Committee to enable Dr. J. T. Rothrock to secure a collec-
tion of photographic plates of the unique flora of Florida, which may be
■used as lantern slides to illustrate the course of lectures to be delivered
this year in the Park under the auspices of the Society.

And the meeting was adjourned by the presiding member.

Stated Meeting^ February 4, 1887.

Present, 12 members.

Vice-President, Dr. Ruschenberger, in the Chair.

Correspondence was read as follows :

Letters of envoy from the Mining Department, Melbourne,
Australia ; La Societe de Borda, Dax, France ; The U. S.
•Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.

La Societe Liegeoise de Litterature Wallone, Liege, and La
Societe des Antiquaries de la Morinie, St. Omer, France, were
placed on the exchange list to receive Proceedings from No .
119 ; K. Meteorologisches lustitut, Berlin, Preassen ; Physi-
kalische-Medicinische Societat zu Erlangen.

Letters of acknowledgment were read for No. 123 from J.
Steenstrup (Copenhagen); Het Bataafsch Genootschap der
Proefondervindelijke Wijsbegeerte, Rotterdam; La Societe
Royale de Zoologie de Amsterdam ; Musee Teyler, Harlem
Victoria Institute, London ; Cambridge Philosophical Society
for No. 124 from Museum Comp, Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.
Mr. L. A. Scott, Philadelphia ; Prof. J. H. C. Coffin, the
U. S. Geological Survey, and the Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D. C. ; Prof. Serge Nikitin, St. Petersburg, 12 L

1887.]

193

A letter was read from the College of Physicians thanking
the Society for the loan of portraits at the late Centennial
Celebration of the College.

A letter was read from G. Eichler, in Berlin, in reference to
his reproductions from the antique.

Also one from the Buffalo Library inviting the Society to
the opening of its new Building, on February 7th, 1887.

Accessions to the Library were received from the Depart-
ment of Mines, Melbourne ; K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt,
Wien ; Gartenbauverein zu Darmstadt; Naturwissenschaft-
liche Gesellschaft " Isis," Dresden ; Verein fiir Thiiringische
Geschichte, Jena ; Astronomische Nachrichten, Kiel ; K.
Sachsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Zoologischer An-
zeiger, Leipzig ; Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie,
Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, Miinchen ; Prof. E. Renevier,
Lausanne ; Nordisk Oldkyndeghed og Historie, Copenhagen ;
Biblioteca N. Centrale, Vittorio Emanuelle, di Roma ; Biblio-
teca N. Centrale di Firenze ; Academic des Sciences, Arts and
Belles- Lettres de Caen; Societe de Borda, Dax; Societes de
Geographic, de L'Enseignement, D' Anthropologie, D' Ethno-
graphic, and Societe Americain de France, Paris ; Societe des
Antiquaires de la Morinie, St. Omer ; Royal Society, Society
of Arts, Meteorological Office, " Nature," London ; Cambridge
(Eng.) Philosophical Society ; Boston Society of Natural His-
tory ; Essex Institute, Salem ; American Oriental Society,
Cambridge ; Publishers of " The Travelers' Record," Hartford ;
American Journal of Science, New Haven ; New York
Meteorological Observatory ; Mr. Wm. John Potts, Camden ;
Prof. George H. Cook, New Brunswick ; Franklin Institute
Pharmaceutical Association, Mercantile and Philadelphia
Libraries, Dr. D. Jayne & Son, Henry Phillips, Jr., Philadel-
phia ; Wyoming Historical and Geological Society, Wilkes-
Barre ; Johns Hopkins University, Prof. Ira Remsen, Balti-
more ; the Philosophical Society, the U. S. Geological Survey,
and John H. Hickcox, Washington, D. C. ; Mr. Charles C.
Jones, Jr., Augusta, Ga.; the State Historical Society, Iowa
City, Iowa; the Imperial Observatory of Rio de Janeiro.

PROC. AMER. PIIILOS. SOC. XXIV. 125. Y. PRINTED JUNE 7, 1887.

1"± [Feb. 4,

A communication entitled "An Egyptian Ecclesiastes," by
Dr. George Selikovitcli, was read by the Secretaries ; also one
by Dr. Earl Flint, of Eivas, Nicaragua, " On tlie fossil human
foot-prints lately discovered in the tufa of Nicaragua." Also
one by S. N. Clevenger, of Chicago, entitled " Suggestions con-
cerning the nature of comets."

Dr. Persifor Frazer mentioned the occurrence of a crystal-
lized garnet in a garnet schist in a specimen brought from the
Stikine river and presented to him, stating that the ma-
trix was similar to that in which garnet was found near this
city.

Pending nominations Nos. 1151, 1152, 1153, and new nomi-
nations Nos. 1154, 1155, 1156 were read.

The President reported that according to the request of the

Society at its last meeting he had appointed the following to

serve as the Standing Committees of the Society for the year

1887 :

Finance^

Henry Winsor, J. Price Wetherill, William B. Rogers.

Puhlication^

Daniel G. Brinton, George H. Horn, Persifor Frazer,

J. Blodgett Brittou, J. Cheston Morris.

Hall^
J. Sergeant Price, William A. Ingham, Harrison Allen.

Library,

Edwin J. Houston, William Y. McKean, Thomas H. Dudley,

Francis Jordan, Jr., Edwin A. Barber.

The President reported that he had received and paid over
to the Treasurer the sum of $132.12, being the amount of in-
terest on the Michaux Legacy, due January, 1887.

On motion the Library Committee was requested to examine
into the desirability of a subscription by the Society to the In-
ternational Geological Map of Europe; and the Society was
adjourned by the presiding officer.

1887.1 1'^^

Stated Meeting, February 18, 1887.

Present, 14 members.

Vice-President, Dr. Ruschenberger, in the Chair.

Dr. Charles S. Dolley, a newlj-elected member, was presented
to the Chair and took his sieat.

Correspondence was submitted as follows :

Letters acknowledging election to membership from Dr. A.
Eeville, Paris; Lucien Adam, Rennes; Vicorate Hyacinthe de
Charency, St. Maurice-les-Charency, France ; Dr. Conrad
Lemanns, Leyden ; Sir Henry Sumner Maine, London ; Dr.
Friederich Mueller, Wien ; Dr. Julius Platzmann, Leipzig;
Dr. Gustav Weil, Heidelberg ; Dr. Henri Kiepert, Berlin ;
Bishop Crescencio Carrillo, Merida, Yucatan ; Dr. A. Bastian,
Berlin ; Dr. Paul Hunfalvy, Buda-Pesth ; Dr. M. Much, Vienna.

Letters of acknowledgment were read as follows :

Kong. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Copenhagen (122,
123 and list of members) ; Dr. E. Suess, Vienna (121, 122,
123, &c.); Oneida Historical Society, Utica, N. Y. (124);
Kansas State Historical Society (124) ; Boston Public Library
(124); Maryland Historical Society (124); Lackawanna In-
stitute of Science (124); Royal Society of Tasmania (120);
Physikalische Gesellschaft, Berlin (123); K. Meteorologisches
Institut, Berlin (123).

Letters of envoy were read as follows : United States Geo-
logical Survey, Washington, D. C.

A circular was received from the Trustees of the Elizabeth
Thompson Fund stating that the income was again available
for appropriations in aid of scientific work ; that applications
for the same should be made to Dr. C. S. Minot, Boston,
Mass.

Accessions to the Library were announced from the follow-
ing:

Astronomische Nachrichten, Kiel; Zoologischer Anzeiger,
Leipzig; Der Naturforscher, Tiibingen ; K. Statistika Central
Byran, Stockholm ; Musee R. d'Histoire Naturelle de Bel-
gique, Bruxelles ; R. Society Italiana D'Igiene, Milan ;

196

[March 4,

Societe de Geographie, Paris ; Eoyal Society, " Nature," Ben-
jamin Ward Eichardson, M. D., London ; Geological and Nat-
ural History Survey of Canada, Montreal ; Rev. Edward E.
Hale, Boston ; Harvard University, Edward C. Pickering,
Cambridge; Prof. James D. Dana, New Haven; Astor Li-
brary, New York ; College of Pharmacy, Historical Society
of Pennsylvania, Messrs. A. E. Foote, Philip H. Law, Henry
Phillips, Jr., Philadelphia; AYar Department, Department of
State, U. S. National Museum, Hydrographic Office, U. S.
Geological Survey, Washington ; Cincinnati Society of Natural
History ; State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison ;
Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul.

This being the Stated Meeting for the balloting for candi-
dates for membership, an election was held and the following
declared duly elected members of the Society :

No. 2134. John S. Billings, M.D., LL.D., Washington,
D. C.

No. 2135. Henry F. Osborn, Professor of Geology, Prince-
ton, New Jersey.

Pending nominations Nos. 1154, 1155 and 1156 and new
nominations Nos. 1157 and 1158 were read.

Dr. Harrison Allen made a verbal communication on
"Muscular Anomalies in the Subject of an Idiot."

The Minutes of the Board of Officers and Council were sub-
mitted.

The Board recommended that the Society should abandon
the quarterly issue of its Proceedings and return to the origi-
nal half-yearly publication.

The Board recommended that the principal of the Michaux
legacy should be invested in American securities.

And on motion the meeting was adjourned.

Stated Meeting^ March ^, 1887.
Present, 26 members.
President, Mr. Fkaley, in the Chair.
Prof. John F. Ryder, a newly-elected member, was presented
to the Chair and took his seat.

1887.] 1'^'

Letters were read, accepting membership, as follows: Dr.
John S. Billings, Washington, D, C. ; Prof. Henry F. Osborn,
Princeton, iSr. J. ; Sir Monier Monier- Williams, London ; Eemi
Simeon, Paris; Prof. Paul Topinard, Paris.

Accessions to the Library were announced from Gesell-
schaft flir Erdkunde, P. Priedlander & Sohn, Berlin ; Garten-
bauverein, Darmstadt: Verein fur Erdkunde, Halle Vg.;
Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologic, Ethnologic und Ur-
geschichte, Miinchen ; Academic R. de Copenhague ; Socic-te
R. des Sciences de Liege; Musce P. d'Histoire Naturclle de
Belgique, Bruxelles ; P. Accademia dei Lincei, Rome : Societes
de L'Enseignement et de Geographic, Ecole des Mines, Paris;
R. Academia de la Historia, Madrid ; Royal Society, R. As-
tronomical and Geographical Societies, Meteorological Council,
London ; Philological Society, Cambridge, England ; Ameri-
can Antiquarian Society, Worcester: American Journal of
Science, New Haven : Brooklyn Entomological Society ;
Warner Observatorj^, Rochester ; Mr. Thomas H. Dudley,
Camden ; Numismatic and Antiquarian Society, Dr. Wilham
F. Norris, Dr. F. A. Genth, and Henry PhilHps, Jr., Philadel-
phia ; Department of State, U. S. Geological Survey, U. S.
National Museum, U. S. Fish Commission, Smithsonian Insti-
tution, Washington, D. C. ; University of California, Sacra-
mento.

The President presented a communication for the Magel-
lanic Premium, " On the correct determination of the Moon's
mass," signed " Baboiha^^'' which was read and referred to
Council.

Pending nominations Nos. 1154, 1155, 1156, 1157 and 1158
were read. The recommendations of Council, submitted at
the last meeting, were taken up and considered.

On motion it was resolved to discontinue the quarterly pub-
lication of the Proceedings of the Society and to return to the
former method of semi-annual issue.

On motion it was resolved to sell the principal of the
Michaux legacy, now invested in French Rentes^ and to cause
the proceeds of such sale to be remitted to this country, and

198

[March 18,

that the Finance Committee and the Treasurer be directed to
take all the steps necessary to sell the same whenever such
sale shall be deemed expedient and advisable by them ;
and further that they shall invest the same in good American
securities and that the Officers of the Society be empowered to
execute all necessary documents and to comply with all requi-
site formalities.

And the meeting was adjourned by the President.

Stated Meetimj, March IS, 1887.

Present, 14 members.

President, Mr. Fraley, in the Chair.

A letter was read from Columbia College, New York city^
New" York, inviting the Society to be present by delegate at
its approaching Centennial anniversary, April 13, 1887, and
the President was empowered to appoint a suitable person to
represent the Society.

Letters of envoy were received from the K. P. Meteorolog-
isches Institut, Berlin ; Physikalisch-Medizinische Societat,.
Erlangeri ; Meteorological OflEice, Statistical Society, London -
Bureau of the Mint, Washington.

Accessions to the Library were reported from the Royal
Society of New South Wales, Sydney ; K. Akademie der Wis-
senschaften, Verein zur Bef orderung des Gartenbaues in den K.
Preussischen Staaten, Physikalische Gesellschaft, K. P. Meteor-
ologisches Institut, Berlin; Physikalisch-Medizinische Societat,
Erlangen ; K. Nordiske Oldskrift, Selskab, Copenhagen ; In-
stitut Eoyal Grand-Ducal de Luxembourg ; Academie Royale
de Belgique, Bruxelles ; E. Accademia dei Lincei, Rome ; Bib-
lioteca N. C.di Firenze ; Societe de Geographic, Paris ; R. Geo-
graphical Society, Statistical Society, Meteorological Council,
" Nature," London ; Philosophical Society of Glasgow; Mani-
toba Historical and Scientific Society, WinnipegBoard of Trade,
Mr. Charles N. Bell, AVinnipeg ; Museum of Comparative Zool-
ogy, Cambridge ; Meriden Scientific Association ; Wesleyan

1887.]

199

University, Middletown ; Connecticut Academy of Arts and
Sciences, New Haven ; Editor of "The Critic," New York ; Nat-
ural History Society, Trenton ; Academy of Natural Sciences,
College of Pharmacy, Editors of " The American Naturalist,"
Messrs. H. H. Farness, H. Carvill Lewis, Henry Phillips, Jr.,
Philadelphia; Gov. James A. Beaver, Harrisburg; Johns
Hopkins University, American Journal of Archaeology, Amer-
ican Journal of Philology, Baltimore; Light-House Board,
Census Office, United States Coast and Geodetic Survey,
Bureau of the Mint, Washington; Mr. Jed. Hotchkiss, Staun-
ton ; Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul.

The following papers were presented for the Proceedings:

By Dr. F. A. Genth. " Contributions from the Chemical
Laboratory of the University of Pennsylvania. No. XXIX.
Contributions to Mineralogy."

Through the Secretaries :

From Prof. John J. Stevenson — " A Geological Eeconnais-
sance of Bland, Giles, Wythe, and portions of Pulaski and
Montgomery counties of Virginia."

From Prof. E. D. Cope, on " The Reptilian Fauna of the
Mato Grosso, Central Brazil."

Pending nominations Nos. llo4;-58 and new nomination
No. 1159 were read, and the meeting was adjourned by the
President.

Stated Meeting^ April 1^ 1887.

Present, 16 members.

President, Mr. Fraley, in the Chair.

A letter of envoy was read from the Meteorological Office,
London.

Letters of acknowledgment were read from the K. Zoolog.
Genootschap, Amsterdam (124); the Eoyal Society, Edin-
burgh (122).

A letter was read from " Baboika,^^ requesting the return of
a communication under that name for the Magellanic pre-
mium, which was on motion ordered to be returned to the

^00 [April i_

writer. A letter was read from M. J. Thore, of Dax, France,
accompanying tiis pamphlet, entitled " Une Nouvelle Force V

A photograpli for the Society's Album was received from
Prof. J. W. Moore, of Easton, Pa.

Accessions to the Librar}^ were announced from Geological
Survey of India, Calcutta; Gartenbauverein, Darmstadt; Astro-
nomische Nachrichten, Kiel ; Zoologischer Anzeiger, Leipzig ;
" Der Naturforscher," Tubingen; Socicte Hollandaise des Sci-
ences a Harlem ; Biblioteca N. C. di Firenze Societe Toscana
di Scienze Naturali, Pisa ; R. Ac3ademia de Lincei, Eome ;
Socieie de Borda and Mr. J. Thore, Dax; Societes de Geo-
graphic, de L'Enseignement and publisher of the Revue de
L'Enseignement Secondaire et Supc'rieur, Paris ; Sociedade de
Geographia, Academia R. das Sciencias, Lisbon ; Royal Society,
Geological Society, Royal Astronomical Society, Meteorologi-
cal Council, "Nature," and "The Earth," London; Cambridge
Philological Society ; Bath and West of England Society ;
Natural History Transactions of Northumberland, Durham
and New Castle on Tyne ; publisher of the " Travelers' Record,"
Hartford ; Brooklyn Entomological Society ; Franklin Insti-
tute, Engineers' Club, Journal of Medical Sciences, Mercantile
Library Co., publisher of the " American Naturalist," and
Mr. Henry Phillips, Jr., Philadelphia ; Germantown Dispen-
sary and Hospital ; Johns Hopkins University, Prof. Ira
Remsen, Baltimore ; Bureau of Education, Department of
State, Washington, D. C. ; Rev. Stephen D. Peet, and the pub-
lisher of "The Open Court," Chicago; Observatorio Meteoro-
logico Magnetic© Central, Mexico.

The Secretaries presented a communication from Prof. E.
W. Clay pole, Akron, Ohio, entitled "On Organic Variation,
indefinite not definite in direction, an outcome of environ-
ment."

Prof. Barker made a communication on the methods and dis-
coveries of Prof. Pickering in Astronomical Physics, based
upon his researches with the Bache and Draper funds, and ex-
hibited spectra of the stars a Cyjni and a Tauri, on which
some remarks were made by Dr. Frazer.

1887.] -^"1

Pending nominations Nos, 1154-59, and new nominations
Nos. 1160-66, were read.

Dr. D. G. Brinton otYered the following resolution: "That
after action on the candidates now proposed for membership,
the resident members shall be limited to 150 persons."

Dr. Frazer offered as an amendment : " That a Committee
of scrutineers be elected as a permanent committee of the
Society, of which the duty shall be to examine the qualifica-
tions of all candidates for membership and report upon the
same to the Society, and no vote shall be taken on candidates
by the Society, until the presentation of a report on their
qualifications by the scrutineers."

At the suggestion of the President, the motions were with-
drawn, and Dr. Brinton offered the following substitute, which
was unanimously adopted : " Resolved that the President be
authorized to appoint at his leisure a committee of five mem-
bers to consider these resolutions and the whole subject of the
restriction of membership in the Society, and to report its action
to the Society.*

Prof Barker stated that he had received from Prof. G. A.
Hirn, of Colmar, a letter accepting membership in the Society,
and thanking it for the honor conferred.

And the Society was adjourned by the President.

Stated Meeting^ April 15, 1887.

Present, 15 members.

Mr. Thomas H. Dudley in the Chair.

Correspondence was submitted as follows : A circular from
the Academic des Sciences, Arts et Belles-Lettres, Dijon,
announcing the awarding of prizes.

Envoys from the Physikalische Central Observatorium, St.
Petersburg; K. Preuss. Geologische Landesanstalt u. Berga-

*0n April 4. the President appointed Dr. D. G. Brinton, Chairman ; Dr. Frazer, Dr. Wm.
Thomson, Dr. Goodwin and Mr. Ingham as the committee.

TROC. AMEE. THILOS. SOC. XXIV. 125. Z. PRINTED .TUNE 7, 1887.

202

[April 15,

cademie (Berlin), and requesting exchanges;* E. Geographical
Society, London ; Col. Garrick Mallerj'-, Washington, J). C.

Acknowledgments from the Comitt' Geologique, St, Peters-
burg (122); Anthropologische Gesellschaft, Berlin (96-124);
Yerein fiir Thiiringische Geschichte und Alterthumskunde,
Jena (96-110, 112-124);- Fondation de P. Tevler Harlem
(124); Bataafsch Genootschap van Proefondervindelijke Wijs-
begeerte, Eotterdam (124); Societo R. des Sciences, Liege
(124), and asks for (100) ;t Societc D' Emulation d'Abbeville
(124); Socictt' nistorique Artistique et Scientifique, du Cher
(119) ; Cambridge Philosophical Society and University
Library, Cambridge, England (124); Royal Institution, Society
of Antiquaries and Sir Richard Owen, Royal Horticultural
Society, London (124).

Accessions to the Library were received from the Geological
Survey of India, Calcutta ; Societc Impcriale des Naturalistes,
Moscow ; Natural History Society, Odessa ; Comite Geo-
logique, Physikalische Central Observatorium, St. Peters-
burg ; R. Friedlander and Sohn, Berlin ; Astronomische Nach-
richten, Kiel; Zoologischer Anzeiger, Leipzig; Dr. F. v.
Sandberger, Wiirtzburg ; Academic R. de Belgique, Braxelles;
R. Societu Italiaua D'Igiene, Milan; Biblioteca, N. C. V. E.,
Rome ; R. Academia de la Historia, Madrid ; Royal Society, R.
Geographical Society, R. Meteorological Society, Meteorologi-
cal Council, "jSTatare," London; Rousdon Observatory, Devon;
Philosophical Society, Cambridge (England) ; . Massachusetts
Historical Society, Boston ; Museum of Comparative Zoology,
Cambridge ; Free Public Library, New Bedford ; Providence
Public Library ; publishers of the " Travelers' Record," Hart-
ford ; American Journal of Science, New Haven ; Brooklyn
Entomological Society, American Chemical Society, Meteoro-
logical Observatory, New York; Historical Society of Penn-
sylvania, College of Pharmacy, publishers of " The American
Naturalist " and " Naturalists' Leisure Hour," Henry Phillips,
Jr., Philadelphia; Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore;
Hydrographic Ofhce, Garrick Mallery, Washington, D. C.

* Ordered to receive from 96.
■f Ordered to be sent.

1887.] ^0"^

Elliott Society and Art, Charleston; Wm. Harden, Savannah ;
Cincinnati Society of Natural History,

A paper for the Transactions by Joseph L. Hancock, of
Chicago, on the Datames Magna, was presented and referred to
a committee to be appointed by the President.

The following communications were offered (through the
Secretaries) for the Proceedings : " On the medical mythology
of Ireland," by Mr, James Mooney, Bureau of Ethnology,
Washington, D.C.; "On the relation of Aerolites to Shooting
Stars," by Prof Daniel Kirkwood, Bloomington, Indiana;
" On the Triassic mammals Dromatherium and Microconodon,"
by Prof. H. Osborn, Princeton, N. J.

Prof. Cope made a communication " On the Vertebrata of
the Trias of New Mexico," which he illustrated by specimens.

Pending nominations Nos. 1154-1166, and new nominations
Nos. 1167, 1168, were read.

The Trustees of Building Fund presented their annual
report.

A communication was presented from Dr. Brinton, Chair-
man of the Special Committee, appointed at the last meeting,
reporting progress, and on motion the committee was con-
tinued.

And the Society was adjourned by the presiding member.

iStated Meeting^ May 6th, 1887.

Present, 13 members.

President, Mr. Fraley, in the Chair.

Correspondence was submitted as follows : Letters of envoy
from Department of Mines, Wellington, New Zealand; Hong
Kong Observatory ; Institut Me-tcorologique de Eoumanie,
Bucharest ; Maatschappij der Nederlandsche Letterkunde te
Leiden ; Bureau des Longitudes, Paris ; Meteorological Office,
London ; Literary and Philosophical Society of Liverpool.

Letters of acknowledgment from The Eoyal Society of New
South Wales (122) ; Comitc Geologique de la Eassie, St.
Petersburg (124); Prof Serge Nikitin, St. Petersburg (124);

-^'i [May 6,

Societe des Antiquaires de la Morinie, Saint Omer (121, 122,
123), and Register, etc.

A letter was read from Dr. Genth in reference to an addi-
tion to his paper on Pseudo-maple Mimetites.

Accessions to the library were reported from tlie Depart-
ment of Mines, Wellington, New Zealand ; Hong Kong Ob-
servatory; K. Akademie der Wissenschaften; Comite Geol-
ogique, St. Petersburg ; Institut Mcteorologique de Roumanie,
Bucharest ; K. K. Zoologisch-Botanische and Geographisclie
Gesellschaften, K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt, Vienna ; Hun-
garian Academy, Budapest ; K. Preussisclien Akademie der
Wissenschaften, Deutsche Geologische Gesellschaft, and R.
Friedlander & Sohn, Berlin; Prof. G, vom Rath, Bonn; Gar-
teubauverein zu Darmstadt ; Naturwissenschaftliche Gesell-
SGbaft " Isis," Dresden ; Oberlausitzer Gesellschaft der Wissen-
schaften, GiJrlitz; Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologic,
Ethnologic, etc., Miinchen ; Voigtland. Yerein fiir Natur-
kunde, Reichenbach ; Maatschappij der Nederlandsche Letter-
kunde. Flora Batava, Leiden ; Musoe R. d'Histoire Naturelle
de Belgique, Bruxelles; Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft,
St. Gallen ; R. Accademie dei Lincei, Rome ; Societe Linne-
enne de Bordeaux ; Musee Guimet, Institution Ethnographique,
Bureau des Longitudes, Societes de rEoseignement superieur,
Zoologique, Marquis de Nadaillac, Paris ; Societe des Anti-
quaires de la Morinie, Saint Omer ; Literar}^ and Philosophi-
cal Society, Liverpool; R. Astronomical Society, Meteoro-
logical Council, Diplomatic Review Office, Rev. E. W. Syle,
London ; Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society, Hali-
fax (England ) ; Natural History Society, Montreal ; The Can-
adian Institute, Toronto ; Astronomical Observatory of Har-
vard College, Prof. Eben Norton Horsford, Cambridge ; Mas-
sachusetts Historical Society, Boston ; American Journal of
Science, New Haven ; Academy of Sciences, Historical Soci-
ety, " The Forum " Publishing Co., Prof. John J. Stevenson,
New York ; Secretary of Internal Affairs, Harrisburg ; Johns
Hopkins University, Baltimore; United States National Mu-
seum, Hydrographic Office, Washington (D. C); University
of Virginia ; Scientific Association of Peoria ; State Histori-

1887.]

205

cal Society, Iowa City ; Impereal Observatorio do Rio de
Janeiro.

Dr. Horn, from the Committee on the Datames Magna^
reported progress, and on motion the Committee was con-
tinued.

A paper by William Blasius on " The Signal Service Bu-
reau, its methods and results," was presented.

Prof. Cope presented MS. of his communication on the
" Vertebrata of the Trias of New Mexico," with a plate.

A communication was presented for the Magellanic pre-
mium, signed "Magellan," which was referred to Council.

Pending nominations 1154 to 1168 and new nomination
1169 were read.

Dr. Brinton, chairman of the Committee appointed April 1,
1887, presented a report, and the Committee was on motion
discharged.

The President reported receipt and payment to the Treas-
urer of $132.43, interest on the Michaux legacy.

Notice having been given to the members that the Society
would consider the subject of the sale of the French Rentes^
constituting the corpus of the Michaux legacy, the subject
was taken up and the President informed the Society that he
had handed to Drexel, Harjes & Co., of Paris, an attested copy
of the resolution adopted on March 1-4, 1887, for the sale of
the said Rentes, and one of the forms of sale and transfer used
here for selling and transferring stocks and loans and inquired
whether the sale could be made in that way, and that he had
also sent to them a copy of the laws of this Society. In reply
they had sent a letter indicating what they by inquiry had
found to be deemed necessary, which letter was then read to
the Society.

The President then stated that he had prepared the follow-
ing resolutions in order to meet the views suggested in said
letter, and submitted them for the action of the Society there-
on, as follows :

" Resolved^ That the Society authorizes the sale of certifi-
cates of 2778 Rentes, French 3 per cent, which the American
Philosophical Society possesses in its name upon the books of

■^'-'O [May 20,

the Frencli Public Debt No. 279,732 of Serie 7, coming from
tlie Micbaux legac}'.

'• Resolved^ That Frederick Fraley, President, and J. Sergeant
Price, Treasurer, of the American Philosophical Society, be
and they are hereby authorized and empowered to make, exe-
cute and deliver under the corporate seal of the Society a
power of attorney in legal form constituting John H. Harjes,
of the firm of Drexel, Harjes & Co., Paris, France, the attor-
ney of said Society to sell, assign and transfer to any purchaser
thereof, the 2778 francs French three per cent Rentes described in
the foregoing resolution, and to do all matters and things legally
necessary for the sale, transfer and assignment of the said
Rentes that may be required by the French Treasury."

The resolutions were seconded by Dr. Euschenberger, and
after due consideration were unanimously agreed to and further
action thereon was ordered to be made part of the stated busi-
ness of the meeting of the Society to be held on May 20th,
1887, of which due notice shall be given to the members.

And the Society was adjourned by the President.

Stated Meeting^ May 20, 1887.

Present, 38 members.

President, Mr. Fealey, in the Chair.

Dr. W. H. Wahl was presented to the Chair and took his
seat.

Correspondence was submitted as follows : Envoys, from
the Hong Kong Observatory ; Geological Survey of India ;
Naturforschende Verein in Briinn ; K. Sachsischer Alter-
thums-Verein, Dresden; Meteorological Office, London; De-
partment of the Interior, Washington, D. C.

Letters of acknowledgment from the South African Philo-
sophical Society, Cape Town (96-123 and Eegister, etc.);
Prof. J. J. Steenstrup, Copenhagen (121) ; Observatorio As-
tronomico Nacional Mexicano (123).

Accessions to the Library were received from the Hong
Kong Observatory ; China Branch of the R. Asiatic Society,

1887.]

207

Shanghai ; The Great Trigonometrical Sarvey of India,
Dehra Dun ; K. Russische Geographische Gesellschaft, St.
. Petersburg ; Anthropologische Gesellschaft, Wien ; Gesell-
schaft fiir Anthropologic, Ethnologic, &c., K, Preussische Geo -
logische Landesanstalt und Bergakademie, Gesellschaft fiir
Erdkunde, Berlin ; Naturforschende Vercin in Briinu ; Gar-
tenbauverein zu Darmstadt ; Sachsische Geschichte und Alter-
thumskunde Yerein, Dresden; Prof. Dr. Paul Albrecht,
Hamburg ; K. Sachsisclie Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, L.
Fernan (publisher), Leipzig ; Verein fiir Erdkunde, Stettin ;
Societe Hollandaisc dcs Sciences a Harlem ; Academic R. de
Belgique, Bruxelles ; Biblioteca N. C. di Firenze ; R. Societa
Italiana D'Igiene, Milan ; R. Accademia dei Lincei, Rome ;
Socictc Americaine de France, Societe de Geographic, Paris;
R. Accademia de la Historia, Madrid ; Meteorological Coun-
cil, Nature, London ; Nova Scotia Institute of Natural- Sci-
ences, Halifax ; Harvard University, Cambridge ; Rhode
Island Historical Society, Providence ; Buffalo Library ;
American Chemical Society, publisher of " The Public Service
Review," Prof. Samuel Lockwood, New York ; College of
Pharmacy, Zoological Society, Philadelphia ; Prof. Ira Rem-
sen, Baltimore ; U. S. Naval Institute, Annapolis ; U. S.
Geological Survey, Department of Agriculture, Washington,
D. C.

Dr. Horn, from the Committee on the " Datames Magna,"
reported progress, and on motion the committee was con-
tinued.

The following deaths were announced : Prof Bernard
Studer, Berne, May 2, 1887, in his 93d year ; John T. Napier,
Rothesay, Scotland, May, 1887, in his 29th.

On motion the President was authorized to appoint a suita-
ble person to prepare the usual obituary notice of Mr. Napier.

The minutes of the Board of Officers and Council were sub-
mitted.

On motion the President was authorized to appoint at his
leisure a committee of five (5) members to examine the com-
munication signed " Magellan," submitted for the Magellanic
premium, and to report to Council as to its merits.

^^O [:SIay 20, 1S87.

Notice having been given to the members that tlie Society
would take a final action upon the question of the sale of the
French Rentes^ constituting the Michaux legacy, the same was-
taken up as the stated business of the meeting and considered,
and the resolution passed at the last stated meeting of the
Society was again put to the vote and unanimously adopted.

This being the stated meeting for balloting for members an
election was gone into, and after scrutiny, by the tellers, of the
votes given, the following were declared to have been duly
elected members of the Society :

No. 2136. Mr. Joseph S. Harris, Philadelphia.
No. 2137. Dr. WiUiam Powell Wilson, Philadelphia.
No. 2138. Dr. James Tyson, Philadelphia.
No. 2139. Mr. William Henry Rawle, Philadelphia.
No. 2140. Mr. Henry D. Wireman, Philadelphia.
' No. 2141. Prof. Albert H. Smyth, Philadelphia.
No. 2142. Miss Helen C. de S. Abbott, Philadelphia.
No. 2143. Mr. Henry H. Houston, Philadelphia.
No. 2144. Prof. William T. Barnard, Baltimore.

Pendino- nominations Nos. 1156, 1159 and 1164 were on
motion deferred until the next reoular meeting for the ballot-
ing for candidates.

Pending nomination No. 1169 and new nomination No.
1170 were read.

A paper was presented, through the Secretaries, by Prof.
John J. Stevenson, " Notes on the Surface Geology of South-
west Virginia."

A letter was read from Dr. Frazer in reference to the dis-
charge, at the last meeting, of the committee appointed April
1st, asking that "the action of the Society be recalled."

Dr. J. Cheston Morris moved "that the resolution of the
Society adopted at the last meeting discharging the said com-
mittee be reconsidered."

The motion was seconded and after discussion being put to
a vote, the yeas were 15 and nays 20, and the Society refused
to reconsider the said motion.

And the Society was adjourned by the President.

April 15, 1887.] -^^^ [Cope.

PROCEEDINGS

OP THK

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA. FOR PROMOTING USEFUL OOWLEDGE.

Vol. XXIV. July to December, 1887. No. 126.

A Contribution to the History of the Vertehrata of the Trias of North
America. By E. D. Cope.

[Read before the Americnn Philosophical Society, April 15, 1S87.)

The vertebrata of the Trias of North America are not as yet well known,
and scarcely twenty species have been describecl. Those known to the
writer in 1870 are enumerated in the Transactions of this Society, Vol.
xiv ; and the species discovered in Pennsylvania are catalogued in the
Proceedings of this Society for 1886, p. 403. Some species from New
Mexico are described in the American Naturalist, 1881, p. 922,* and
April, 1887. Descriptions of several forms from this formation, from the
Rocky Mountain region, with plates, were given in the Report of the U. S.
Oeol. Geogr. Survey W. of the 100th Meridian, 1877.

I am now able to add descriptions of some new species from New Mex-
ico ; and furnish additional characters of species already described.

1. EuPELOR DURUS Cope. Transac. Amer. Philos. Soc, 1869, p. 25,
V. xiv.
A good many fragments of this species or one nearly allied to it were
obtained by Mr. C. M. Wheatley, in York county, Pennsylvania. These
pieces are not all as yet identifiable, but one of them consists of a large
part of the ramus of the lower jaw which supports the bases of the pos-
terior teeth, but from which the cotyles and angles have been broken off.
The bases of the teeth are cylindric, and show delicate grooves, being
similar to those of Eryops, and proving that my original reference of
teeth to this genus was probably correct. All the bones show the coarse
honeycomb pattern of sculpture of the external surfaces characteristic of
the species. Towards the margins of the bones the pits become confluent
into radiating grooves. A subtriangular plate measures :

M.
Length 345

Greatest width 140

* Belodon biiceros and B. scolopaz Cor>e.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 120. 2 A. PRINTED JULY 8, 1887.

Cope.] zlU [April 15,

The fragment of jaw measures : M.

Depth at last tooth 040

Length, including three teeth 027

Nothing can yet be determined as to the characters of the vertebra? of

this form.

2. Ttpothorax coccinarum Cope. U. S. G. G. Survey W. of 100th Me-
ridian, Capt. G. M. "Wheeler, 1877, iv, Pt. ii, p. 30. PI. xxii, figs.
4, 5 and 9. American Naturalist, 1887, p. 468.

The genus Typothorax was distinguished by me, 1. c, from Belodon,
on account of the regularly pitted surface of the dermal bones. With
such dermal bones others of a different character were found, which it
was thought best to refer to the same genus, and a fragment of maxillary
bone found near by was included in the description. I now suspect that
the dermal bones which do not possess the pitted character belong to
some other reptile, and the fragment of jaw is not to be referred, certainly,
to the TypotJiorax coccinarum, but is more likely a part of a Belodont
Saurian.

The additional material belonging to this geuus and species which I
possess consists of two ribs with corresponding dermal bones attached to
their superior surfaces, and two femora, one of which adheres to one of
the ribs. Also several other more or less incomplete dermal bones. There
are numerous other bones accompanying, but their reference is not cer-
tain.

Char. Gen. The peculiarities of this genus as displayed by these speci-
mens are as follows : Ribs greatly expanded but with free margins, each
overlaid by a band-like dermal bone for its entire length. The dermal
bones with pitted sculpture and straight, simple margins, the one acute
and the other obtuse. The margins of the ribs are similar to each otherl
It results that a gaping groove is formed between the parallel acute edge
of the dermal plate and the rib into which the appressed edges of the
adjacent rib and plate enter and fit. Thus is formed a complete cuirass
covering the body. Femur sigmoid, without distinct head or trochanters,
excepting a prominent, ridge-like third trochanter on the posterior face.
Condyles with a posterior lobe separated from the external lobe by a fossa.

It is possible that one of the ribs described is abdominal in position, as
it does not appear to have had a head. There is no head preserved on
the other. The dermal bands described may be therefore abdominal. The
ribs are, however, strongly curved in the longitudinal direction, and it is
to be supposed on this account that they are dorsal, and perhaps in the
position of flying ribs. The adhesion of a femur to one of them indicates
posterior position. The character of the femur is different from that of
the BelodontidfB in its trilobate condyles, approaching thus the Goniopod
Dinosauria. The third trochanter is much better developed than in any
known Belodont.*
* Von Meyer Paleeontographica, vii, 1861.

1887.] -^11 [Cope.

Future comparison must be bad witb the genus Aetosaurus Fraas,* which
accompanies Belodon in the Upper Keuper of Wurtemberg. That genus
is encased in parallelogrammic scuta arranged in contiguous cross-bands,
on both surfaces of the body. But the scuta are not co-extensive with
tlie ribs as in Typotliorax ; at least tlie latter are represented by Fraas as
much narrower than the osseous dermal bands. The latter are also trans,
versely subdivided in Aetosaurus.

It is highly probable, however, that Typothorax represent Aetosaurus
in the Upper Trias of North America, and may belong to the same family
of the order Rhynchocephalia.

The relations of the dermal bones and ribs are highly interesting. The
great expansion of the latter needs but the development of sutural sur-
fivces on their borders to produce an osseous continuum. The same modi-
fication of the dermal bones above it would form a second external
roof. A subsequent fusion of the superior and inferior roofs would give
us the testudinate carapace. And this history would be what embryology
teaches us is the origin of that remarkable modification of the dermal and
true skeleton exhibited by that order of reptiles. It is probable that Typo-
thorax is nearly allied to the type from which the order of tortoises has
been derived. It is unfortunate that we know nothing of its skull and
vertebrae, but there is nothing in the characters of the femora to preclude
the above hypothesis. They belong to a type which progressed in a
prone position, and which probably differed much from both Belodonts
and other Dinosauria.

Char. Specif. Ribs strongly convex in the longitudinal direction ; in the
transverse direction flat above, and with a longitudinal convexity below.
This convexity occupies about one-third of the inferior surface, and ex-
tends obliquely to one of the lateral borders at the extremity. At the
other extremity the surface is flat, the rib-convexity disappearing. la
both ribs one edge is subacute and the other obtuse. The rib-thickening
runs out to the thin edge. The dermal scuta have the same width as the
ribs. They have thicker and thinner edges corresponding with those of
the ribs. Where the rib-thickening of the latter is prominent, the dermal
bone has a median convexity below ; and this disappears at the other end
as the thickening does from the rib. The superior face of the dermal
bones is perfectly flat. It is sculptured with coarse shallow pits, separated
by obtuse ridges, which have a reticulate pattern, since the pits are not
in rows.

These osseous bands are probably in contact, thus forming an impene-
trable buckler, as in Aetosaurus. One edge of the osseous combination
of rib and dermal plate gapes, the thin edges of the two elements diverg-
ing so as to receive the margin of the adjacent band. The matrix along
this border is clearly impressed so as to prove the former presence of the
succeeding portion of the carapace.

* Aetosaurus ferraius Fraas ; Festschrift zur Feier d. vierliundertjahrigeii Jubiliiums
Univ. Tubingen, 1877.

Cope.] -^1-^ [April 15,

Measurements. M.

Lengtli of rib on curve on inner side 276

" " chord of rib 250

Width of rib near proximal end 090

" " ' " distal end 074

Thickness of rib at proximal end 005

" " middle 014

" " scuta at proximal end 005

" " " middle Oil

" " " distal end 008

Average diameter of fossa; of do 007

The femur is quite characteristic. The long axes of the extremities
form an angle of about 45° to each other. The shaft is incurved from the
third trochanter proximad, and is expanded more externally than inter-
nally at the distal extremity. The proximal extremity is rhomboid in out-
line ; the internal border convex, the anterior concave, the posterior less
concave, and the postero-exterior nearly straight, and joining the anterior
by an acumination with obtuse apex, which represents the great tro-
chanter. Surface of head, flat-convex. The junction of the internal and
external posterior faces is marked by a convexity ; and the shaft below
the external posterior face is longitudinally concave. The third tro-
chanter marks about two-fifths the length of the shaft, and is quite prom-
inent. It is convex externally, and concave internally. Below it the
section of the shaft is a transverse oval, wider exteriorly. The condyles
of the femur are considerably expanded transversely, the external being
the most produced. The rotular groove is shallow but distinct. The ex-
ternal condyle, as already remarked, has a distinct postei'ior lobe, which is
separated from it externally by a large ? ligamentous fossa within the
bonndary of the articular surface. This posterior lobe is well within the
exterior border, and bounds the intercondylar groove on the external side.
It presents posteriorly, and is narrowed and obtuse. A corresponding
part of the internal condyle presents posteriorly also.

Measurements of femur. M.

Total length (axial) 230

Diameters of head I anteroposterior (greatest) 060

I transverse (axial) 0d5

Anteroposterior diameter at great trochanter 031 '

_. ^ r. ■, c (anteroposterior 023

Diameters of shaft \ ^ ^„n

I transverse OdO

{transverse 081
( internally 040
anteroposterior < at groove 032

(at posterior lobe. . .051

The parts of this individual preserved indicate an animal of the average

1887.] 213 fCope.

size of the ^Mississippi alligator. More perfect specimens will be awaited
with much interest.

3. Episcoposaurus horridus. Gen. et sp. nov.

This species is indicated by a number of bones which were excavated
at the same place. They are : Two caudal vertebrii?, a proximal and a
distal ; a humerus ; two ulnre ; a femur lacking the condyles ; a prox-
imal part of a tibia ; the distal part of a fibula ; a calcaneum, and a num-
ber of dermal bones. The only part of the skull possibly belonging to
this animal is a splenial bone.

Char. Oen. The generic characters, so for as ascertainable from the
materials, resemble those of Belodon with certain exceptions. Chief
among the latter is the disproportion, in dimensions, between the ante-
rior and posterior extremities, which is as great as that existing in many
Dinosauria proper. Appropriately to this relation, the femur diflers from
that of Belodon in the absence of curvature of the shaft, having the
straight form of that of most Dinosauria proper. There are no trochanters
of any kind on this femur, and its head has the wedge-shaped Belodon
outline. The head and condyles of the humerus are transversely ex-
panded ; the shaft is contracted ; condyles not specialized. No epicondylar
foramina of either side, but a strong ectepicondylar groove, which cuts off
a narrow ectepicondylar ridge, which terminates freely. The caudal
vertebne are elongate, indicating a powerful tail. But one species is yet
known.

Char. Specif. The body of the anterior caudal vertebra has a wedge-
shaped section, the apex inferior, representing the section of an obtuse
median keel. The articular faces are subcircular, widening upwards.
Both are concave, the posterior more so than the anterior, which is nearly
plane. No lateral ridges on the body. Arch lost. The posterior caudal
is long and slender, and has a long compressed neural arch. The section
of the body is heptagonal, as there are two low lateral angles on each
side, and an obtuse median inferior keel. The inferior lateral angle is
stronger than the superior. There is not so much difference in the con-
cavity of the articular extremities, as in the case of the larger vertebra.

Dimensions of caudal vertebrm. M.

Length of centrum of anterior vertebra 070

-p.. , c . • f (transverse 050

Diameters of anterior face -^ . , „,„

( vertical 048

Length of centrum posterior vertebra 0G9

transverse 033

Diameters anterior face , . ,

t vertical 031

The humerus is remarkable for the small diameter of its shaft as com-
pared with the expanse of its extremities. The long axes of these ex-
tremities make an angle of about 45° with each other. The articular sur-
face, which is co-extensive with the head, is long and narrow, widening

Cope.] 214 [April 15,

gradually to the inner rounded extremity. Viewed in profile it is strongly
convex, the convexity being a little nearer the internal than the external
extremity. The articular surface descends on the inner edge of the bone
towards but not to the bicipital crest. Viewed proximally, the convexity
of the head is as wide as the inner extremity, and is distinguished from it
by a concavity of the inner side. The bicipital crest is the incurved
external border. It commences opposite the prominence of the inner
extremity of the head, and extends but a short distance down the shaft.
It is quite prominent. The face of the bone below the head displays a
very shallow concavity. The posterior face is recurved towards the two
margins, as we approach them. The shaft is very much contracted. Its
section at the middle is a wide oval ; the external edge subacute, the
internal broadly rounded. The distal extremity is much expanded,
though not so widely as the proximal end. The expansion is greater
internally than externally. Neither epicondylar prominence, however,
extends much beyond the articular surface. The latter is rather narrow,
and is curved, the concavity anterior. The two extremities are wider
than the middle region, the external part being the widest. There is a
deep groove on the posterior face near the external edge, which runs out,
leaving the external epicondylar process to terminate at about 20 mm.
proximad of the condyle. The latter terminates outwards in an acute
angle, which marks the internal edge of the ectepicondylar groove. The
epitroclear fossa is well defined. Posterior face plane.

Measurements of Immerus. M.

Total length 230

ilong (straight line) 088
r internal 025
transverse < greatest (submedian) 024

i least (external) 015

anteroposterior 021

Diameters at middle of shaft , ^ ^„„

transverse 027

( with ectepicondylar crest. .076
transverse I ^^^j^^ ,. .. q^^

Diameters of distal end \ e internal 021

anteroposterior \ median 018

(external 029

The ulna is characterized by its small size, and its great compression,
especially of the distal half. The olecranon is deep, but it scarcely pro-
jects behind the cotylus, where it is more prominent than at the inferior
border. On the external side a regular convex mark extends from the
base of the corouoid process to the inferior posterior angle. Behind this
arc- like border, the surface of the bone is dense and smooth, as though
for a cartilaginous cap. "What this structure indicates it is difficult to
understand, as it is clearly not a muscular insertion. Tlie coronoid pro-
cess is quite prominent. The external face of the shaft is convex in the

1887.] -J-^ [Cope.

vertical section ; the internal flat. The vertical diameter increases a little
at the distal extremity. The latter is in the plane of the shaft, and is
gently convex in both directions. Its narrow proportions indicate a cor-
respondingly feeble carpus.

Measurements of ulna. M.

Total length IGl

!at olecranon 037
at coronoid process 055
at middle of shaft 02G
at distal extremity 035

f at cotylus 033

Width of ulna \ at middle of shaft 010

( at distal extremity 012

Parts of the radius resemble considerably that of a mammal. The head
as a transverse oval, slightly concave, and the shaft is quite narrow, and
with an oval section.

Measurements of radius. M.

, f transverse 035

Diameters of head A .. , ^on

( vertical 030

T^. ^ „ , -f transverse 015

Diameters of shaft i ^. , „,„

{ vertical 013

The femur is the characteristic bone of the genus. Tlie specimen pre-
served lacks only the condyles. The remainder of the bone is perfectly
straight. The inner face of the shaft is rounded, becoming flat as it ap-
proaches the head. The external edge is an angle which vanishes above
the middle of the shaft, to reaj)pear again as a narrow ridge which ter-
minates in the external extremity of the head, which is homologous with
the great trochanter. A well -developed obtuse ridge, above the middle
of the shaft on the posterior face, represents the tliird trochanter. The
head occupies the entire proximal extremity. Viewed proximally, it is
pyriform, with a concavity of the anterior, and a convexity of the poste-
rior outline. The external extremity is narrowed ; the internal is broadly
rounded. A wide groove occupies the center of the entire articular sur-
face. Below the middle the shaft is uniformly convex in front ; while
posteriorly there is a shallow groove just within the external edge.

Measurements of femur. M.

Length of fragment preserved 315

{internal 057
median 053
exterior 0.30

Diameters of shaft below f anteroposterior 041

3d trochanter 1 transverse 052

The tibia is represented by the proximal end only. It is much like that

Cope.] -^16 [AprillS,

of Belodon, but, like the humerus, is characterized by a relatively small
diameter of the shaft. The outline of the head is wide-reniform, the
shallow concavity posterior. The articular surface descends on each side
of this concavitj'', giving a convex outline to the superficial layer of the
posterior face of the bone. Anteriorly the articular region projects fur-
ther to one side than to the other, perhaps leaning to the external side.

3Ieasurements of the tibia. M.

- - ... ( anteroposterior (middle).. . .073

Diameters of head of tibia < . ^_^ . „„

I transverse 107

^. r. ■. n (anteroposterior 032

Diameters of shaft i ^ ^,o

( transverse 04o

The distal end of the fibula is robust. One face of the shaft is concave ;
the opposite one is convex. On the concave side, one-half the bone pro-
jects distad abruptly beyond the other half. On the convex side, the
edge of the articular extremity winds obliquely from the one level to the
other. This indicates the fact that the articular face forms a segment,

equaling three-fifths, of a spiral.

M.

T^. , Til 1 j.^1 1 (transverse (axial) 080

Diameters distal end of fibula -^ . ' .,„

(anteroposterior 048

The calcaneum has the form usual in crocodiles, and especially in Belo-
dontidtTC. It is wider and flatter than in any species known to me. The
external rim extends from the anterior to the posterior extremities, and
is quite expanded. The distal extremity is pyriform, and its recurved
edges bound posteriorly a deep fossa on both the superior and the inferior
aspects of the bone. These fossse' are continuous by the open concavity
of the internal margin. This margin is flared inwards in front by its
truncate anterior face, which bounds the astragaline fossa behind. The
latter is wider than deep. The articular surface is divided into two planes ;
a narrow interior for the tibia, and a wider exterior for the fibula. Both
are convex anteroposteriorly, and nearly plane transversely.

Measurements of calcaneum. M.

, , . . T . (longest 90

Anteroposterior diameters \ ° , ,- e ko

( at astragaline fossa 52

( anteriorly 50

Transverse diameters \ median (greatest) 91

i posterior 74

The dermal bones are of three types, of each of which I select an ex-
ample. They are all, or nearly all, furnished with a prominence of the
superior surface, which is more or less compressed, and which is abrupt
at one face, and produced into a keel at the other extremitj^ in the direc-
tion of the axis of the bone. All the bones preserved are unilateral in type.
The simplest form is oval-parallelogrammic, with a low obtuse median
keel, which rises at one extremity into a moderately compressed knob.

1887.] 217 fCope.

which terminates abruptly. Shallow grooves separated by ridges radiate
from this prominence in all directions. On its sides the sculpture becomes
smaller and more irregular. In the second type of bone, the median keel
is elevated into a crest which extends the entire length, and cannot be
distinguished at any point as a knob. The section of such a bone is tri-
radiate, and it is not always practicable to state which of the three laminte
is the free one. In any case the latter is not median on the fixed portion.
In the third type of dermal bone, the free keel is much developed and
rises into a tuberosity so produced as to be a well-developed spine. The
inferior surface of the bone is longitudinally concave. The section of
the spine is triangular, the apex being the sharp edge which is the con-
tinuation of the keel. The sharpness of this edge is such as to render it
probable that these spines constituted dangerous weapons of defense.
One side of the spine is nearly vertically over the edge of the base, while
the other is within the other edge. The surface of the bone is perfectly
smooth. None of the dermal scuta of Belodon described by Von Meyer
are developed into spines like those of this species.

Measurements of dermal hones.

No. 1. :m.

-r,. , (anteroposterior 100

Diameters \ ^ „„.

( transverse 070

Elevation of knob 031

from one end 080

Distances of knob , „ .i ., , n^«

from the other end 020

No. 2.
Length 085

Elevation of laminsii \ ^^ '

iNo. 2 016

No. 3.

■r,. ^ „ , f anteroposterior 096

Diameters of base \ ,

transverse 084

from lateral border 085

Elevation of spine , - . ^ .

I. from mferior groove (oblique) 053

TV. . c • , (anteroposterior 040

Diameters of spine at base - '

( transverse 020

4. Belodox buceros Cope. American Naturalist, 1881, p. 922.

Some years ago* I identified certain fossils discovered in North Carolina
by Emmons as Belodous ; and later.f referred a species found by Wheat-
ley in Pennsylvania to the same genus. I was subsequently able to prove
that the genus ranged over the Rocky mountains, and that there, as in
other parts of the world, it haunted the shores of the Triassic seas and
lakes. There are two species of Belodon in my New Mexican collections,

* Proceedings of Academy of Natural Sciences, Pliiladelphia, 1866.
t Transactions Amer. Philos. Soc, xiv, 1869.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 126. 2b. PRINTED JULY 8, 1887.

Cope.] '^J-*^ [April 15,

one as large as the gavial of India, the other smaller. In the former the
muzzle is keeled above, and rises into a crest in front of the nares. In the
other species the muzzle is subcylindric, and does not rise anterior to the
septum of the nostrils. The larger species I call Belodon buceros ; the
smaller one B. scolojxix, and define them below. Bones of the skeleton
and of the dermal systems of this genus are common in the New Mexican
beds, but I am yet unable to refer them positively to the species repre-
sented by the skulls.

C7iar. Specif. Size of the gavial. Muzzle slender, compressed, with a
narrow median superior ridge, rising at the middle of the length into a
compressed crest, whose summit is in the plane of the frontal region.
Nostrils a little further anterior to the orbits than the diameter of the lat-
ter, longer than wide, and separated by a thin septum. Orbits round,
looking a little upwards, the interorbital region a little narrower than
each orbit. Preorbital region compressed ; preorbital foramen large, in-
ferior. The quadrate bones are directed forwards, and then downwards,
and tlieir articular faces are in the transverse line of the two rather narrow
notches of the posterior outline of the parietal bone. The auricular meatus
is bounded posteriorly by a descending hook-like process ; and the
squamosal bone is continued still further posteriorly into a short triangular
acute horn. The superior surface of this bone, with the parietal and
frontal, are roughened with tubercles. The palate has a strong ridge
on each side, so as to be grooved. The posterior teeth have compressed
denticulate crowns. Tip of muzzle lost. Total length preserved, M. .700;
length of muzzle to posterior edge of nares, .420 ; do. from latter to lines
of anterior edge of orbits, .060 ; do. from do. to posterior parietal notch,
.160. Width at posterior border of quadrate condyles, .260 ; interorbital
do., .048 ; do. at slender part of muzzle, .045. Depth of slender part of
muzzle, .050 ; do. of elevated part, .120 ; do. at parietal region, .140.

This species is of the size of the B. kapfl Meyer, and is, in the form of
the muzzle, intermediate between that species and the B. plieningeri.

Foramina. The alisphenoid bones embrace the olfactory lobes of the
brain as far forwards as the middle of the orbits, when they contract to a
foramen of moderate size. The under face of the median line of the
frontal bones is openly grooved in continuation. The basioccipital has a
horizontal axis, and is about as long as wide, including the condyle. Its
anterior border has a median apex or proj ection on the sphenoid. The latter
forms a transverse band of small anteroposterior diameter to a sharp trans-
verse truncation or anterior border. Whether this is the boundary of this
element or not is uncertain. It is probably merely a transverse crest,
since in front of it the basicranial axis is continued. The latter is deeply
concave in the middle, but sends downwards a process on each side, which
fits into a notch of the posterior internal border of the pterygoids. Between
these notches the pterygoids underroof the axis, and unite on the median
line. This union has a less anteroposterior extent than is represented by

1887.] ^^'^ [Cope.

Von Meyer in the B. kapfi,- and the posterior nostrils, which commence
in front of this union, have a much greater anteroposterior extent than in
that species.

There is a fossa in the posterior part of the orbit which extends down-
wards and forwards. In the superior part of its fundus is the mouth
of a canal which extends from the pineal fossa of the brain case. I call
this the orbito-pineal canal. It will be again referred to in the description
of the brain. Below the anterior part of this fossa, and at the base of the
closed interorbital part of the brain-case, is the large optic foramen. It
looks outwards and forwards, and it is not certain that it is separated from
that of the other side by a septum. The lateral walls of the brain-case
are imperforate. There is no foramen for the trigeminus in the usual posi-
tion. A portion of the superior face of the sphenoid bone is split away,
and it may be supposed that the trigeminal foramen was at the base of the
brain on the line Avhere the lost portion joined the lateral walls. It must
have been of small size. A canal traverses the basioccipitalbone on each
side, commencing in conjunction with that of the opposite side, and ex-
tending outwards and backwards, and issuing on the suture joining the
basi- and exoccipital bones.

Brain. The cast of the brain-case presents several peculiarities of im-
portance. The size is a little greater than that of an Alligator mississippiensis
Avhose skull slightly exceeds that of the Belodon buceros. Thus the dimen-
sions of the former are, length 500 mm., width at quadrates 290 mm.; of
the B. buceros, length 700 mm., width 240 mm. The distribution of parts
is different. The prosencephalon is relatively and absolutely smaller in
the Belodon, and the mesencephalon is larger. The epencephalon is not
very different in the two, and the contraction on each side of it is apparent
in the one as in the other. Posterior to it, the medulla is contracted to
a still smaller diameter in a manner not seen in the alligator. This region
is longer in the Belodon than in the latter. The brain proper is thus
bunched up or shorter and more elevated in the Belodon than in the alli-
gator. The contraction to the rhinencephalon is more abrupt in the Belo-
don. What gives the Belodon its especial character is the presence of an
enormous epiphysis. Tliis body is subquadrale in form, and occupies a
large fossa in the cranial roof, which is, however, not perforate. On each
side of the anterior portion a process extends outwards and forwards,
occupying a corresponding anteroposterior fossa in the cranial walls. The
process is continued, horn -like, on each side, and the cast forms a continuum
through the orbitopiueal canal to the orbit. Whether this represents a
nervous or arterial canal can only be surmised, but from the size of the
process of the epiphysis which enters it, I suspect that a nerve formed
part of its contents. There is no median distinction between the halves
of the prosencephalon and mesencephalon in tlie brain-case, thus resem-
bling other crocodiles. The mesencephalic bodies were probably lateral,
judging from the greater width of the cast below at the middle, as com-

* Palffiontographica, Vol. viii.

Cope.] ^^^ [April 15,

pared with the contraction of the part behind the epiphysis. The hypoph-
ysis is distinct but not large, and occupies a fossa of the base of the
cranial cavity, very much shorter than that possessed by the Alligator
viississippiensis. The optic nerves issue immediately above and anterior
to it.

Comparison with the brain of Diadectes. In these Proceedings for 1885,
p. 234, I have described a cast of the brain- chamber of a species of the
Diadectidse from the Permian bed of Texas. As a successor of the Dia-
dectes, and as descendent of probably one of the Clepsydropidfe, consider-
able interest attaches to a comparison of the brain of Belodon with it.

The first point which arrests the attention in making the comparison, is
the similarly huge size of the epiphysis in the two types. A foramen on
each side of the base of the epiphysis in the Diadectes gave exit to a pro-
cess similar to that which enters the orbitopineal canal in the Belodon,
and which I called the lateral process of the epiphysis in the latter. (Plate,
figs. 1-3, 1 0- The processes are probably homologous in the two genera,
but In the Diadectes they did not extend to the orbit, unless they were
continued in membranous walls. There is little resemblance between the
two brains in other respects, but they agree in the small size of the pros-
encephalon, and in the complete enclosure of the rhineucephalon by
osseous walls. In the Diadectes there is no optic foramen, but a huge
trigeminus ; in Belodon, an optic foramen, and a very small trigeminus.

The presence of such a huge epiphysis in the Belodon as compared with
its very small size in modern crocodiles, is a point of much interest, and
points to its inheritance from the reptiles of the Permian. Bat if, as is
probable, it contained the pineal eye, the latter could not receive light
directly from above, since the parietal foramen is wanting. The presence
of a communication with the orbit becomes interesting in this connection.
A minute foramen passes from the base of the rhineucephalon into the
orbit in the alligator, but the homology with the canalis orbitopinealis
is by no means made out. The nervus orbitopinealis may have supplied
the lack of light due to the closure of the parietal foramen, but in what
way we are left to conjecture.

The equality of size of the brain of the Belodon to that of the existing
alligator is a point of interest.

There is some reason to suspect that the Diadectes relied exclusively on
the pineal eye for the sense of sight. The species of the family were
probably subterranean in their habits, since their humeri indicate great
fossorial power, resembling those of the existing monotremes, and even
the mole. The vertebra are locked together with the hyposphen beside
the usual articulations, and the arches of the neural canal form an
uninterrupted roof from the skull to the tail, of extraordinary thickness
and strength. That the species were not aquatic is rendered probable by
the fact that the orbits do not look upwards. Their superior borders are,
on the contrary, prominent and straight. Add to this fact the apparent

18S-.] 221 fCope

absence of optic foramina, and the probaljility that the Diadectidte were
blind and subterranean in their liabits becomes great.

5. Belodon scolopax Cope. American Naturalist, 1881, p. 923.

This species is represented by a snout, which includes the anterior bor-
der of the nares ; it is broken into five pieces, 'which should be connected
with intermediate fragments, which are lost. This muzzle is a little
shorter than that of B. pUeningeri, but is a good deal more slender, the
distal part having only half the diameter of the latter. Besides this char-
acter, it differs from that of B. iHieningeri in three others. The extremity
of the muzzle is not so much decurved. All the alveohe have a more
lateral exposure, and the lateral ridges of the palate are thus more dis-
tinctly seen from the side. The two teeth on the extremity of the muzzle
are closely crowded together, and their large alveohv are scarcely distinct.

The surface of the muzzle is distantly and weakly grooved and punc-
tate. The anterior alveolte are round, the posterior ones oval. Diam-
eters, an inch anterior to nares : transverse, .0230 ; vertical, .023o. Diam-
eters three inches from extremity : transverse, .019 ; vertical, .0145.

G. Tanystkoph.eds longicollis Cope. Calurus longicollis Cope.
American Naturalist, April, 1887 (pub. May 4th), p. 368.

Numerous fragments of this genus are in my collection from the
Triassic beds of New Mexico. The vertebnie resemble in various essential
characters those which are preserved and described by I\Iarsh as belong-
ing to the species of his genus Coelurus, and I therefore referred the
present species to that genus, as above cited. It is now clear to me that
the Triassic species must be distinguished from Ccelurus. Prof. Marsh
states that the anterior cervical vertebra of the latter have the anterior
articular surfaces convex, while the posterior are concave. In the Triassic
species the third cervical is concave at both extremities, thus resembling
the posterior centra. In searching for a name for the Triassic genus, I
find that the Tanystrophieus of Von Meyer will probably include the
American species iu question. This genus was established on caudal
vertebroe which nearly resemble those of the New Mexican species. For
the present then I will retain for them the generic name first given to the
Tanystrojyhmus conspicuus of the Trias of Wiirteniberg.

The bones in my possession are from all parts of the skeleton, excepting
jaws and teeth ; fragments of skull, if present, are not yet determinable.
These show that Tanystrophiuus with Ca?lurus,* must be referred to a
family of the carnivorous suborder (Goniopoda) of the order Dinosauria.
The acetabulum is widely perforate, its pubic and ischiadic processes
being widely separated from each other. The pubis has a slender shaft
directed downwards, as in Oompsognathus, and in Creosaurusf as figured
by Marsh, with an anteroposterior expansion proximally, but no sym-
physis distally. On the other hand the ischia have a symphysis. The

* Amer. Journal Sci. Arts, p. 339, Plate x.

t Amer. Journal Sci. Arts, 1884, PI. xi, 1. c, p. 310.

999

Cope.] ^— ' [April 15,

claws are compressed aud strongly curved, and capable of very extensive
flexion and extension. I cannot therefore agree with Prof. Marsh that
Ccelurus cannot be referred to any known order.:]: It is in fact allied
to Megadactylus (Hitchcock) from the Trias of 3Iassachusetts, differing
principally, so far as determinable, in the form of the condyles of the
femur. They are simple in Ccelurus, but in Megadactylus, the external
condyle has the double character seen in Megalosaurus.*

The vertebrae are all of slender proportions, especially those of the neck
and tail. These, with most of the bones of the limbs, are hollow, having
large central cavities surrounded by thin walls, as in Megadactylus. The
parapophyses are confined to the anterior parts of the centrum. In the
cervical and dorsal vertebrae there is a conical fossa at eacli base of the
neurapophj^sis, which unite by their apices in the cervicals, forming a
canal distinct from that for the vertebral artery. The zygapophyses are
partly interlocking, having convexo-concave oblique articular surfaces.
There are four vertebrte of the sacrum (in T. bauri), whose arches are
coossified as well as the centra. The anterior caudal vertebrae only have
chevron bones. Prof. Marsh says they are wanting in the genus Ccelurus ;
but he does not appear to have possessed the most anterior of the series.
In neither species is there a distinct third trochanter of the femur ; but
there is not far below the great trochanter on the anterior face, a low
longitudinal, ridge-like angle. The femoral condyles have but little antero-
posterior extent, which implies but little flexure of the knee.

The form seems to have been that of a terrestrial reptile which walked
readily on the hind legs, and was probably a great leaper. Tlie ex-
tremely long neck is a striking peculiarity, having proportions to the body
about like that of the swan. The habits were probably predaceous and
carnivorous.

Three species are indicated by my collections.

Char. Specif. Cervical vertebrae one-third longer than those of Ccelurus
fragilis Marsh, the sides of the centrum not sulcate, the anterior articular
face of an anterior centrum not convex. The faces are oblique, showing
that the head was carried above the level of the body.

M.
Length of body of ? third cervical vertebra 063

T^. , r . . (vertical 016

Diameters of posterior cup -^ ^.^

^ ^ (transverse 019

The dorsal centrum has subround articular faces, which are gently
concave, and a much contracted shaft. The section of the latter is sub-
round, a little flattened below. The inferior border of the neural arch
is coossified and extends well down on the side, its inferior border being
marked by an open longitudinal groove. On the superior border of the
middle of this groove is an indistinct tuberosity. Above this line at the
middle of the neural arch a thin longitudinal broken ridge probably repre-

* See Cope, Trans. Amer. Philosoph. Soc., xiv, 1870. PI. xiii.

1887.] -■ ^^ [Cope.

sents the base ol the diapophysis. It is bifurcate for more than one-third
of its length at each end, the bounding walls embracing a deep conical
fossa. The walls of the centrum are thin, including a large central cavity.

M.
Length of centrum of dorsal vertebra 043

Diameters of posterior face -^ ^ r,Z.

^ (.transverse 031

Elevation of centrum to middle of diapophysis 023

Transverse diameter of neural canal 006

A caudal centrum is much elongate and has somewhat oblique articular
surfaces, though they are not so strongly so as in the case of the cervical
vertebra. The arch is lost from the specimen, so that nothing can be
said of the diapophyses. The articular surfaces are distinctly concave,
and the anterior is a little wider than deep, while the posterior is as wide
as deep. The middle of the centrum is depressed, giving a well-defined
inferior lateral longitudinal angle. There is also a low median inferior
angle, which gives way posterior to the two ridges that terminate in the
chevron facets, which are separated by a groove.

M.

Length of caudal centrum 051

vertical 023

Diameters posterior face i ^ noi

(transverse 0-il

Another caudal vertebra is much smaller, and has no chevron facets.

It is more depressed than the larger one above described, and it has a

wing-like lateral angle which connects the superior parts of the articular

surfaces. Inferior surface flat, bounded on each side by a low angle.

Neural arch distinct. It is a question whether this vertebra belongs to

this species. It appears to me to be one of the terminal caudals.

M.

Length of centrum 035

_. ^ . . (transverse 0105

Diameters of posterior extremity -^ . , ^q^,-

The ilitun consists almost exclusively of a frame for the large acetabu-
lum, and supports for the pubis and ischium. The anterior and posterior
extensions are insignificant. The anterior process is somewhat depressed ;
the posterior is compressed. The external border of the acetabulum is
produced, forming a roof, which is continued nearly to the articulation of
the pubic process, and which ceases at a greater distance above the articu-
lation with the ischium. The inner acetabular border is produced down-
wards, partially closing the acetabulum at its fundus. The pubic articu-
lar surface is rather larger than the ischiadic, and has a gently sigmoid
longitudinal section, the middle being concave. The pubic surface is on
the contrary gently convex in all directions, its outline being triangular.
The apex of the triangle is continued into the posterior border of the ace-
tabulum. The sacral or internal side of the ilium is flat.

Cope.] ^£Al [April 15,

Measurements of ilium. M.

No. 1. No. 2.
Anteroposterior extent at articulations below. . . .065 .086

Depth at pubis 036

" " ischium 042

Anteroposterior diameter acetabulum 035 .049

Width above acetabulum 021 .034

The ilium No. 2 may belong to a species distinct from No. 1, as it pos-
sesses an anteroposterior crest continued upward from the interior or
sacral face, and the external roof of the acetabulum is sloped downwards
exteriorly. The question of distortion prevents me from deciding the
meaning of these differences at present.

The lyuhis is a very elongate bone, with a proximal extremity widely
dilated anteroposteriorly. The proximal end is fan-shaped, the expansion
from the axis being posterior. The proximal extremity is narrow, but is
widest anteriorly, and displays three surfaces. The anterior one is for
the ilium, the middle one is part of the acetabular border, and the poste-
rior and narrowest is for the ischium. The foramen for the internal fem-
oral artery is below the acetabular portion. The anterior border of the
pubis to the extremity is rib-like, while the posterior is laminiform. The
internal lamina is continued from the antero-internal face, and forms a con-
cavity with the postero-exterual. Its exact width is not determinable for
a good part of the length, for owing to its tenuity its edge is broken off.
The distal extremity does not appear to have been united to that of the
other side ; if it was it could only have been by the laminar edge. The
extremity is something like the head of a crocodile's humerus, the laminar
edge terminating in the usual position of a deltoid crest. The shaft of the
pubis is nearly straight.

Measurements of pubis. M.

Length of shaft (a small part wanting) 238

.,^. . „ (anteroposterior 057

Diameters proximally | ^^^^^^^^^^ ^^.^^^^^ 030

^. ,. ^ „ (anteroposterior 023

Diameters distally i , „,^

( transverse 012

The iseliiam is less perfectly preserved, the head and the distal parts

only remaining. The ischia form a long symphysis distally, but are not

suturally united or coossified. The distal end is moderately expanded

anteroposteriorly, and resembles in section a half ellipse. The proximal

end has the iliac face a little concave, and the acetabular surface oblique

to it, and more concave. The pubic contact is broken off.

Measurements of ischium. M.

Diameters proximally ]

anteroposterior ?

transverse 024

Diameters distally | ^"teroposterior 030

( transverse 014

1887.] ^^^ [Cope.

The confluent extremities of the ischium form a surface of contact with
the eartli on which the animal probably rested at times, as I have sus-
pected to be the case with the genus Megadactylus.* The pubes are
directed downwards, and being longer than the femora have projected
below the knees. It is probable that the animal rested on the apices of
these bones also, as suspected by Marsh in the case of the Goniopoda of
the Jurassic.

The/emw is remarkable for the incurvature of the proximal extremity,
so that it might be said to have a neck, but that there is no great tro-
chanter. This form is necessary to avoid contact witli the large pubic
region. The shaft is a slightly flattened cylinder at the middle, and is
a little flatter below. Rotular groove slight. Internal condyle narrower
than external, and produced a little farther posteriorly.

M.

Length of femur 215

-r^. . <• J 1 r anteroposterior 024

Diameters of condyles \ '

( transverse 030

Diameters of shaft at middle j anteroposterior 014

( transverse 016

Neither bones of the lower leg nor of the tarsus are certainly preserved.
A phalange is of considerable size, and indicates perhaps the first of the
internal digit, which is especially large in Megadactylus. The trochlear
surfaces are well marked and smooth, the proximal simple, the distal
hour-glass-shaped, and with well-marked lateral ligamentous fossae. The
two ligamentous insertions of the proximal extremity are well developed
and of unequal size.

M.
Total length 043

„. , . , fveitical 018

Diameters, proxunal \ ^ ^_^

(.transverse 015

Diameters, distal f P^«^™^1 013

( transverse 013

An ungual 2^hnlan(je is remarkable for its abrupt but regular curvature,
and its great compression. The superior edge is the arc of a circle whose
center is on the inferior edge just in front of the ligamentous insertions.
The latter form a ridge of each side, just in front of the articular face,
and are separated by a deep fossa. The insertion of the extensor liga-
ment is a concave triangular space above the articular surface. The apex
is lost.

Vertical depth of unguis 018

Width do. at base of articular face 010

This unguis is so proportioned as to have fit the penultimate phalange

* Trausac. Amer. Philos. Soc, 18G9, Plate xiii.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 126. 2c. PRINTED OCT. 20, 1887.

Cope] ^-^t* [April 15,

of the digit to which belonged the phalange previously described above.
It indicates powerful prehensile use of the feet.

The Tanystrophaas longicollis was about the size of a greyhound. Its
neck was like that of a swan, and its tail was of considerable length.

7. Tanystroph^us batjri Cope. Cailurus bauri Cope. American Nat-
uralist, 1887, p. 368.
Almost as much of this species is preserved as of the last. There are
no phalanges, but everything else is represented, including several cervical
vertebrae, none of which are complete. There is a probable head of a
tibia.

The differences are seen in the peculiarities of the cervical vertebrae and
of the femur, and in the inferior size. The sides of the cervical centra are
deeply and widely grooved on the posterior half, and the superior face of
the neural arch is strongly grooved on each side on the anterior half. The
femur is not so strongly grooved at the third trochanteric ridge on its ex-
terior side, as in the T. longicollis.

M.
vertical 010

Diameters of anterior face of third cervical , . . . _

transverse 0115

Width of do., including parapophyses 017

Diameters of cervical centrum, behind \ ^ „

(transverse 013

Length of dorsal vertebra 030

_-. ^ , . . 1 (transverse 015

Diameters do. posteriorly i . , ^^ .

^ •' [vertical 014

Length of sacrum 073

^. „ . , . . o A vertical . . . .014

Diameters of anterior sacral centrum, in front

pubis j

transverse. .015

^. ^ ^ 1, 1 <• T- , anteroposterior 032

Diameters of head of pubis \ ^ ...

transverse 010

„. ^ , 1 o • T_. (anteroposterior ? .023

Diameters head of ischium < '■ „^ „

•- transverse 013

_. ^ T^, 1. ,. (anteroposterior 020

Diameters distal end ischium \ ^ . . „

(. transverse 013

Transverse diameter of femoral condyles 022

-r.. ^ , 1 « ..,. (anteroposterior 024

Diameters head of tibia -^ ^ ^,„

( transverse 018

The head of the tibia is trilobate posteriorly. The outline is anteropos-
teriorly sigmoid, the spine turning outwards and forming an acute angle.
From this apex both borders are strongly sigmoid, the external com-
mencing with concavity, the internal with convexity. The distal end of
the ischium is oblique to the long axis of the bone, and its outline is tri-
angular ; the external convexity being stronger than in the T. longicollis.

The sacrum consists of four rather elongate centra, which have a sub-
quadrate vertical section. A portion of an ilium adheres to it in the speci-

1887.] 227 [Cope.

men, wliich is almost as large as that of the T. longieollis. If the ilium
belongs to the same individual as the sacrum, the latter must belong to
the T. longieollis ; but I suspect that the association is accidental.

The diapophyses for the ilia are on the second, third and fourth sacral
vertebra;. The second is directed forwards and upwards, the others back-
wards and upwards. There is a large deep fossa (or ? foramen) above
the posterior halves of the second and third centra. The coossitied bases
of the diapophyses form a thin overhanging ledge.

8. Tanystroph^us willistoni sp, nov.

This, the smallest of the species, is represented by an ilium, from which
the iscliiadic process has been broken away, and probably by some verte-
bra; and other bones. The latter can only be associated with the ilium
on account of their appropriate size, since they were found with those of
the two other species mingled together in one locality.

The ilium is at once to be distinguished from those of the species already
named, by the equal elevation of the internal and external superior bor-
ders of the acetabulum. The latter is as widely open internally as exter-
nally, which is not the case with the other species. The external superior
border, though more produced than the internal, is not so roof-like as in
the others. The anterior process above the pubic process is compressed.
The pubic surface is sigmoid in vertical section, even more strongly than
in the other species. The superior plate of the ilium is much compressed.

Width of roof of acetabulum 015

'• " pubic surface 0095

Length of " " 008

The dorsal centrum may be that of a young animal, since the neural canal
is larger than in the larger species, and the neural arch is not coossified.
The median portion is not so contracted as in the other species, and its
section is rounded quadrate. Articular faces a little wider than deep.

Length of centrum 019

^. , c , f vertical 008

Diameters of centrum \ ^ „^„

(. transverse 010

Dedicated to Professor S. W. Williston, of Yale College, the author of
numerous important works on vertebrate pala;ontology.

Remarks. — From the above determinations a close parallelism between
the Upper Keuper of Wiirtemberg and New ISIexico may be discovered. In
both the genera Belodon and Tanystrophieus are abundant, and the Aeto-
saurus of the former is represented by the Typothorax of the latter. This
association of such verj" diverse forms is good evidence of general identity
of fauna, and is a sufficient basis for asserting taxonomic identity of the
formations in the two regions.

Cope.] "^-^O [April 15,

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate I.

Bones of Typothorax coccinarum Cope, two -fifths natural size.

Fig. 1. A rib, from below.

Fig. la. The same with dermal bone, edge view.

Fig. \h. The same, view of fractured extremity.

Fig. 2. Another dermoosseous band, one end wanting, from above.

Fig. 3. Femur, right side, from behind.

Fig. 3o. Do., proximal view.

Fig. 3&. Do., distal view.

Plate II.

Casts of brain- cases of Belodon buceros and Alligator mississippiensis,
natural size.

Figs. 1-3. Belodon buceros.

Figs. 4-5. Alligator mississippiensis.

Fig. 1. Left side.

Fig. 2. Superior surface.

Fig. 3. Front view.

Fig. 4. Left side.

Fig. 5. Front view,

RE. Rhinencephalon.

PE. Prosencephalon.

ME. Mesencephalon.

Ep.E. Epencephalon (Cerebellum).

MO. Medulla oblongata.

Ep. Epiphysis.

Hyp. Hypophysis.

ii. Optic nerve ; v. Trigeminus ; vi. Abducens ; viii. Facialis ; viii. Audi-
torius.

OP. Orbitopineal process or nerve.

PLATE I.

V V

,--^JC

"^er

■-^-^s^

'IgSi,^;^^-

^.^

^^i^^^^v:^;

1887.] 229 [Brinton.

Were the Toltecs an Historic Nationality ?

By Daniel G. Brinton^ 3I.D.

{Read before the American PhilosopJiical Society, Sept. 2, 1S87.)

In the first edition of my Myths of the New World,* published
in 1868, 1 asserted that the story of the city of Tula and its
inhabitants, the Toltecs, as currently related in ancient Mexican
history, is a myth, and not history. This opinion 1 have since
repeated in various publications,t but writers on pre-Columbian
American civilization have been very imwilling to give up their
Toltecs, and here lately M. Charnay has composed a laborious
monograph to defend them.|

Let me state the question squarely.

The orthodox opinion is that the Toltecs, coming from the
north (-west or -east), founded the cit}"- of Tula (about forty
miles north of the present city of Mexico) in the sixth century
A.D. ; that their State flourished for about five hundred years,
until it numbered nearly four millions of inhabitants, and
extended its sway from ocean to ocean over the whole of Cen-
tral Mexico ; § that it reached a remarkably high stnge of culture
in the arts ; that in the tenth or eleventh century it was almost
totally destroj^ed by war and famine ; || and that its fragments,

* Myths of the New World. By D. G. Brinton. Chap, vi, passim.

t Especially in American Hero Myths, a Study in the Native Religions of the Western Con-
tinent, pp. 35, 64, 82, etc. (Philadelphia, 1882).

X M. Charnay, in his essay. La Civilisation Tolteqm, published in the Sevue d'Ethno-
graphie, Tome iv, p. 281, 1885, states his thesis as follows: "Jo veux prouver I'existence
du Tolti^qne que certains ont uii'e ; je veux prouver que les civilisations Americaines ne
sont qu'une seule et mome civilisation ; enfin, je veux prouver que cettc civilisation est
toltC'que." I consider each of these statements an utcer error. In his Anciames Villes
d?t Nouveau Monde, >!. Charnay has gone so far as to give a map showing the migrations
of the ancient Toltecs. As a translation of this work, with this map, has recently been
published in this country, it appears to me the more needful that the baseless character
of the Toltec legend be di.stiiictly stated.

§ Ixtlilxochitl, in his Jiclariones Historicas {in Lord Kingsborough's Antiquities of
Mexico, Vol. ix, p. 333), says that during the reign of Topiltzin, liist king of Tula, the
Toltec sovereignty extended a thousand leagues from north to south and eight hundred
from east to west ; and in the wars that attended its downfall five million six hundred
thousand persons were slain ! !

II Sahagun (Hist, de la Nuet^a Fspaiia, Lib. viii, cap. 5) places the destruction of Tula in
the year 319 B. C. ; Ixtlilxochitl (Historia Chichmera, iii, cap. 4) ))rings it down to 969
A. D. ; the Codex Ramirez (p. 25) to 1168 ; and so on. There is an equal variation about
the date of founding the city.

Brinton.] ^dU [Sept. 2,

escaping in sepai'ate colonies, carried the civilization of Tula to
the south, to Tabasco (Palenque), Yucatan, Guatemala and
Nicaragua. Quetzalcoatl, the last ruler of Tula, himself went
to the south-east, and reappears in Yucatan as the culture-hero
Cukulkan, the traditional founder of the Maya civilization.

This, I say, is the current opinion about the Toltecs. It is
found in the works of Ixtlilxochitl, Veitia, Clavigero, Prescott,
Brasseur de Bourbourg, Orozco y Berra, and scores of other
reputable writers. The dispersion of the Toltecs has been
oflFered as the easy solution of the origin of the civilization not
only of Central America, but of New Mexico and the Missis-
sippi valley. *

The opinion that I oppose to this, and which I hope to estab-
lish in this article, is as follows :

Tula was merely one of the towns built and occupied by that
tribe of the Nahuas known as Azfeca or 3Iexica, 'whose tribal god
was Huitzilopochtli, and who finally settled at Mexico-Tenochti-
tlan (the present city of Mexico) ; its inhabitants were called
Toltecs, but there was never any such distinct tribe or nation-
ality ; they were merely the ancestors of this branch of the
Azteca, and when Tula was destroyed by civil and foreign wars,
these survivors removed to the valley of Mexico and became
merged with their kindred; they enjoyed no supremacy, either
in power or in the arts*; and the Toltec " empire " is a baseless
fable. What gave them their singular fame in later legend was
partly the tendency of the human mind to glorify the " good
old times " and to merge ancestors into divinities, and especially
the significance of the name Tula, " the Place of the Sun," lead-
ing to the confoimding and identification of a half-forgotten
legend with the ever-living light-and-darkness myth of the gods
Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca.

To support this view, let us inquire what we know about Tula
as an historic site.

Its location is on one of the great ancient trails leading from

*Since writing the above I have received from the Comte de Chareneey a reprint of his
article on Xibalba, in which he sets forth the theory of the late M. L. Angrand, that all
ancient American civilization was due to two "currents" of Toltecs, the western,
straight-headetl Toltecs, who entered Anahuac by land from the north-west, and the
eastern, flat-headed Toltecs, who came 1)y sea from Florida. It is to criticise such vague
theorizing that I have written this paper.

1887.] Zoi [Brinton.

the north into the Valley of Mexico.* The rnins of the old
town are upon an elevation about 100 feet in height, whose
summit presents a level surface in the shape of an irregular
triangle some 800 3'ards long, with a central width of 300 yards,
the apex to the south-east, where the face of the hill is fortified
by a rough stone wall.f It is a natural hill, overlooking a small
muddy creek, called the Eio de Tula.X Yet this unpretending
mound is the celebrated CoalepetJ, Serpent-Mount, or Snake-
Hill, famous in Nahuatl legend, and the central figure in all the
wonderful stories about the Toltecs.§ The remains of the arti-
ficial tumuli and walls, which are abundantly scattered over the
summit, show that, like the pueblos of New Mexico, they were
built of large sun-baked bricks mingled with stones, rough or
trimmed, and both walls and floors were laid in a firm cement,
which was usually painted of different colors. Hence probablj^
the name PaZ/:)an, " amid the colors," which tradition says was
applied to these structures on the Coatepetl.|| The stone-work,

* Motolinia, in his Histnria de los Indios de Nucva Espana, p. 5, calls the locality " el
Puerto llamado Tollan," the pass or gate called ToUan. Through it, he states, passed
first the Colhua and later the Mexica, though he adds that some maintain these were
tlie same people. In fact, Colhua is a form of a word which mekns "ancestors;" colli,
forefather, no-col-hiian, my forefathers, Colhuacan, "the place of the forefathers," where
they lived. In Aztec picture-writing this is represented hy a hill with a bent top, ou the
"ikonomatic" system, the verb colna, meaning to bend, to stoop. Those Mexica who
said the Colhua preceded them at Tula, simply meant that their own ancestors dwelt
there. The Analei^ de Cuaufitillan (pp. 29, 33) distinctly states that what Toltecs survived
the wars which drove them southward became merged in the Colhuas. As these wars
largely arose from civil dissensions, the account no doubt is correct which states that
others settled in Acolhuacan, on the eastern shore of the principal lake in the Valley of
Mexico. The name means " Colhuacan by the water," and was the State of which the
capital was Tctzcoco.

t This description is taken from the map of the location in M. Charnay's Andennes
Villes du Nouveau Monde, p. 83. The measurements I have made from the map do not
agree with those stated in the text of the book, but are, I take it, more accurate.

t Sometimes called the Rio de Montezuma, and also the Tollanatt, water of Tula. This
stream plays a conspicuous part in the Quetzalcoatl myths. It appears to be the same as
the river ALoyac (= flowing or spreading water, all, loyaiia), or Xipacoyan (= where
precious stones are washed, from ziuill, paca, yan), referred to by Sahagun, Hist, de la
Nueva EKpana, Lib. ix, cap. 29. In it were the celebrated "Baths of Quetzalcoatl,"
called Atccpanamochco, "the water in the tin palace," probably from being adorned
with this metal [Anales de Cuauhtitlan).

g See the Codex Ramirez, p. 24. Why called Snake-Hill the legend says not. I need not
recall how prominent an object is the .serpent in Aztec mythology. The name is a com-
pound of c.oatl, snake, and tepetl, hill or mountain, but which may also mean towTi or city,
as such were usually built on elevations. The form Coatepec is this word with the post-
position c, and means "at the snake-hill," or, perhaps, " at Snake-town."

II Or to one of them. The name is preserved by Ixtlilxochitl, Relaciones Hifloricas, in
Kingsborough, Mexico, Vol. ix, p. 326. Its derivation is from paUi, a color (root pa), and
the postposition pan. It is noteworthy that this legend states that Quetzalcoatl in his

Brinton.] ^^^ [Sept. 2,

represented by a few broken fragments, appears equal, but not
superior, to that of the Valley of Mexico. Both the free and
the attached column occur, and figure-carving was known, as a
few weather-beaten relics testify. The houses contained many
rooms, on different levels, and the roofs were flat. They were no
doubt mostly communal structures. At the foot of the Serpent-
Hill is a level plain, but little above the river, on which is the
modern village with its corn-fields.

These geographical particulars are necessary to understand
the ancient legend, and with them in mind its real purport is
evident.*

That legend is as follows : When the Azteca or Mexica — for
these names were applied to the same tribe \ — left their early
home in Aztlan — which Ramirez locates in Lake Chalco in the
Valley of Mexico, and Orozco y Berra in Lake Chapallan in
Michoacan \ — they pursued their course for some generations in

avatar as Cc Acatl was boru in the Palpan, " House of Colors ;' ' while the usual story was
that he came from Tla-pallan, the place of colors. This indicates that the two accoxmts
are versions of the same myth.

* There are two ancient Codices extant, giving in picture-writing the migrations of the
Mexi. They have been repeatedly published in part or in whole, with varying degrees
of accuracy. Orozco y Berra gives their bibliography in his Hintoria Antigua de Mexico,
Tom. iii, p. 61, note. These Codices differ widely, and seem contradictory, but Orozco
y Berra has reconciled them by the happy suggestion that they refer to sequent and not
synchronous events. There is, however, yet much to do before their full meaning is
ascertained. ''

t The name Aztlan is that of a place and Mexitl that of a person, and from these are
derived Aztecatl, plural, Azteca, and Mcxicatl, pi. Mexica. The Azteca are said to have left
Aztlan under the guidance of Mexitl {Codex Ramirez). The radicals of both words have
now become somewhat obscured in the Nahuatl. My own opinion is that Father Duran
{Hist, de Nueva Expana, Tom. i, p. 19) was right in translating Aztlan as "the place of
whiteness," el lugar de blancura, from the radical tstac, white. This may refer to the East,
as the place of the dawn ; but there is also a temptation to look upon Aztlan as a syncope
of a-izta-tlah, = " by the salt water.' '

Mexicatl is a nomeii gentile derived from Mexitl, which was another name for the
tribal god or early leader Huitzilopoehtli, as is positively stated by Torquemada {Mon-
arquia Indiana, Lib. viii, cap. xi). Sahagun explains Mexitl as a compound of metl, the
maguey, and citli, which means hare and grandmother {Historia de JShieva Espaiia, Lib.
X, cap. 29). It is noteworthy that one of tlie names of Quetzalcoatl is Meconetzin. son of
the maguey (Ixtlilxochitl, Rel. Hist., in Kingsborough, Vol. ix, p. 328). These two gods
were originally brothers, though each had divers mythical ancestors.

I Orozco y Berra, Historia Antigua de Mexico, Tom. iii, cap. 4. But Albert Gallatin was
the first to place Aztlan no further west than Michoacan {Trans. American Kthnolog.
Society, Vol. ii, p. 202). Orozco thinks Aztlan Avas the small island called Mexcalla in
Lake Chapallan, apparently because he thinks this name means " houses of the Mexi ;"
but it may also signify "where there is abundance of maguey leaves," this delicacy
being called mncalli in Nahuatl, and the terminal a signifying location or abundance.
(See Sahagun, Historia de Nueva Espaiia, Lib. vii, cap. 9.) At present, one of the smaller
species of maguey is called mexcalli.

1887.] '^"*^ [Brinton.

harmony ; but fit a certain time, somewhere between the eighth
and tlie eleventh century of our era, they fell out and separated.
The legend refers to this as a dispute between the followers of
the tribal god Iluitzilopochtli and those of his sister Malinalxo-
chitl. We may understand it to have been the separation of two
" totems." The latter entered at once tlie Valley of Mexico,
while the followers of Huitzilopochtli passed on to the plain of
Tula and settled on the Coatepetl. Here, saj'^s the narrative,
they constructed houses of stone and of rushes, built a temple
for the worship of Huitzilopochtli, set up his image and those
of the fifteen divinities (gentes?) who were subject to him, and
erected a large altar of sculptured stone and a court for their
ball play.* The level ground at the foot of the hill they partly
flooded by damming the river, and used the remainder for plant-
ing their crops. After an indeterminate time they abandoned
Tula and the Coatepetl, driven out by civil strife and warlike
neighbors, and journeyed southward into the Valley of Mexico,
there to found the famous city of that name.

This is the simple narrative of Tulan, stripped of its contra-
dictions, metaphors and confusion, as handed down by those
highest authorities, the Codex Ramirez, Tezozomoc and Father
DuraiLJ" It is a plain statement that Tula and its Snake-Hill
were merely one of the stations of the Azteca in their migrations
— an impoi'tant station, indeed, with natural strength, and one
that they fortified with care, where for some generations, prob-
ably, they maintained an independent existence, and which the
story-tellers of the tribe recalled with pride and exaggeration.

How long they occupied the site is uncertain. | Ixtlilxochitl

* It is quite likely that the very stone image figured by Charnay, Aiicievnrs Villes die
Nouveau Monde, p. 72, ami the stone ring used in the tlachtli, liall play, wiiieh lie figures,
p. 73, are those referroil to in the historic legend.

t The Codex Bamiirz, p. 24, a most excellent authority, is quite clear. Tlie picture-
writing— wiiich is really phonetic, or, as I have termed it, /fo«oOTa</c— rei^resents the
Coatepetl lay the sign of a hill (tepetl) inclosing a serpent (c.oatl). Tezozomoc, in his
Cronira Mcxicana, cap. 2, presents a more detailed but more confused account. Duran,
Hinloiia lie las Indias dc Nucva Espana, cap. 3, is worthy of comparison. The artificial
inundation of the plain to which the accounts refer probably means that a ditch or
moat was constructed to protect the foot of the hill. Herrera says : " Cercaron de agua
el ccrro llamado Coatepec." Decadas de Indias, Dec. iii, Lib. ii, cap. 11.

I The Annals of CuauhtiUan, a chronicle writtim in the Nahuatl language, gives 30!)
years from the founding to the destruction of Tula, but names a dynasty of only four
rulers. Vcitia puts tlie Ibunding of Tula in the year IVo A. I >. {Ilisforia de Nucva JCspann,
cap. 23). Let us suppose, with the laborious and critical Orozco y Berra (notes to the
Codex Ramirez, p. 210) that the Mexl left Aztlan A. D. 648. These three dates would fit

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOO. XXIV, 136. 2d. PRINTED OCT. 20, 1887.

Brinton.] ^o4 [gept. 2,

gives a list of eight successive rulers of the " Toltecs," each of
whom was computed to reign at least fifty-two years, or one
cycle ; but it is noteworthy that he states these rulers were not
of " Toltec " blood, but imposed upon them by the " Chichi-
mecs." This does not reflect creditably on the supposed singular
cultivation of the Toltecs. Probably the warrior Aztecs sub-
jected a number of neighboring tribes and imposed upon them
rulers.*

If we accept the date given by the Codex Ramirez for the
departure of the Aztecs from the Coatepetl — A. D. 1168 — tlien
it is quite possible that they might have occupied the site for a
couple of centuries or longer, and that the number of successive
chieftains named by Ixtlilxochitl should not be far wrong.
The destructive battles of which he speaks as preceding their
departure — battles resulting in the slaughter of more than five
million souls — we may regard as the grossly- overstated account
of some really desperate conflicts.

That the warriors of the Azteca, on leaving Tula, scattered
over Mexico, Yucatan and Central America, is directly contrary
to the assertion of the high authorities I have quoted, and also
to most of the mythical descriptions of the event, which declare
they were all, or nearly all, massacred. f

The above I claim to be the real history of Tula and its
Serpent-Hill, of tlie Toltecs and their dynasty. Now comes the
question, if we accept this view, liow did this ancient town and

into a rational clirouology, remembering tliat there is an acknowledged hiatns of a
number of years about the eleventh and twelfth centuries in the Aztec records (Orozco y
Berra, notes to Codez Ramirez, p. 213). The Anales de Oiauhtitlan dates the founding of
Tula after that of Tlaxcallan, Huexotzineo and Cuauhtitlan (p. 29).

* As usual, Ixtlilxochitl coutradicts himself in his lists of rulers. Those given in his
Hisforia Chichimeca are by no means the same as those enumerated in his Relaciones His-
toricas (Kingsborough, Mexico, Vol. ix, contains all of Ixtlilxochitl's writings). Entirely
different from both is the list in the Anales de Cuauhtitlnn. How completely euheme-
ristic Ixtlilxochitl is in his interpretations of Mexican mythology is shown by his
speaking of the two leading Nahuatl divinities Tezcatlipoca and Huitzilopochtli as
"certain bold warriors" ("ciertos caballeros muy valerosos." Relaciones HistoHcas, in.
Kingsborough, Vol. ix, p. 326).

t See the note to page 3. But it is not at all likely that Tula was absolutely deserted.
On the contrarj', Herrera asserts that after the foundation of Mexico and the adjacent
cities (despues de la fundacion de Mexico i de toda la tierra) it reached its greatest
celebrity for skilled workmen. Decadas de Indias, Dec. iii, Lib. ii, cap. 11. The general
statement is that the sites on the Coatepetl and the adjacent meadows were unoccupied
for a few years— the Anales de Ciuxuhtitlan says nine years— after the civil strife and
massacre, and then were settled again. The Ilistoria de los Mexicanos por sus Pinluras,
cap. 11, says, "y ansi fueron muertos todos los de Tula, que no qued6 ninguno."

1887.] ^dO [Brinton.

its inhabitants come to have so wide a celebrity, not merely in
the m^'ths of the Nahuas of Mexico, but in the sacred stories of
Yucatan and Guatemala as well — which was unquestionably the
case?

To explain this, I must have recourse to some of those curious
principles of language which have had such influence in building
the fabric of mythology. In such inquiries we have more to do
with words than with things, with names than with persons,
with phrases than with facts.

First about these names, Tula, Tollan, Toltec — what do they
mean? The}' are evidently from tlie same root. What idea
did it convey ?

We are first struck with the fact that the Tula I have been
describing was not the only one in the Nahuatl district of
Mexico. There are other Tulas and Tollans, one near Ococingo,
another, now San Pedro Tula, in the State of Mexico, one in
Guerrero, San Antonio Tula in Potosi,* etc. The name must
have been one of some common import. Herrera, who spells it
jTuZo, by an error, is just as erroneous in his suggestion of a
meaning. He says it means " place of the tuna," this being a
term used for the prickly pear.f But tuna was not a Nahuatl
word ; it belongs to the dialect of Haiti, and was introduced
into Mexico b}^ the Spaniards. Therefore Herrera 's derivation
must be ruled out. Ixtlilxocliitl pretends that the name Tollan
was that of the first chieftain of the Toltecs, and that the}" were
named after him ; J but elsewhere himself contradicts this asser-
tion. Most writers follow the Codex Bamirez, and maintain
that Tollan — of which Tula is but an abbreviation — is from
tolin, the Nahuatl word for rush, the kind of which they made
mats, and means "the place of rushes," or, where they grow.

The respectable authority of Buschmann is in favor of this
derivation ; but according to the analogy of the Nahuatl Lin-
guage, the "place of rushes" should be ToUitlan or Tolinan^
and there are localities with these names.§

Without doubt, I think, we must accept the derivation of

* See Buschmann, L'eber die Aztekischen Ortsnamen, ss. 682, 788. Orozco y Berra, Geo-
grafia de laa Lenf/aas de Mejico, pp. 248, 255.

t Iliston'a de las Indias OcrUteid.(des, Dec. iii, Lib. ii, cap. 11.

X Rdaciones JKstoricas, in Kingsborough's Mexico, Vol. ix, p. 392. Compare his Hisloria
CIdchimeca.

I Buschmann, TJehcr die Aztekischen Orlsnamen, ss. G82, 797.

Brinton.] ZdO [gept, o,

Tollan given by Tezozomoc, in his Cronica Mexicana. This
writer, thoroughly familiar with his native tongue, conve3^s to
us its ancient form and real sense. Speaking of the early
Aztecs, he says : " They arrived at the spot called Coatepec, on
the borders of Tonalan, the place of the swn,"*

This name, Tonallan, is still not unusual in Mexico. Busch-
mann enumerates four villages so called, besides a mining town,
Tonailan.-\ " Place of the sun " is a literal rendering, and it
would be equall}^ accurate to translate it " sunny-spot " or
" warm place " or " summer-place." There is nothing very
peculiar or distinctive about these meanings. The warm, sunny
plain at the foot of the Snake-Hill was called, naturally enough,
Tonallan, syncopated to Tollan and thus to Tula, J

But the literal meaning of Tollan — " Place of the Sun " —
brought it in later days into intimate connection with many a
myth of light and of solar divinities, until this ancient Aztec
pueblo became apotheosized, its inhabitants transformed into
magicians and demigods, and the corn-fields of Tula stand forth
as fruitful plains of Paradise.

In the historic fragments to which I have alluded there is
scant reference to miraculous events, and the gods play no part
in the sober chronicle. But in the mythical cyclus we are at
once translated into the sphere of the supernal. The Snake-

* Cronica Mexicana, cap. 1. " Particroii de alii y vinieron .4 la parte que llaman
Coatepec, tL>rnilnos de Tonalan, lugar del sol." In Naliuatl tonallan usually means
summer, sun-time. It is syncopated from tonalli and tlan; the latter is the locative
termination ; tonalli means warmth, siinniness, akin to lonaiiiih, sun ; but it also means
soul, spirit, especially when combined with the possessive pronouns, as to-tonal, our soul,
our immaterial essence. By a further syncope tonallan was reduced to Tollan or Tullan,
and by the elision of the terminal semi-vowel, this again became Tula. This name may
therefoi'e mean "the place of souls," an accessory signification which doubtless had its
iniiuence on the growth of the myths concerning the locality.

It may be of some importance to note that Tula or Tollan was not at first the name of
the town, l>ut of the locality— that is, of the warm and fertile meadow-lands at tlie foot
of the Coatepctl. The town was at first called Xoeotitlan, the place of fruit, from xocotl,
fruit, ti, connective, and tlan, locative ending. (See Sahagun, Ilistoria de Niicva Espana,
Lib. X, cap. 20, sees. 1 and 12.) This name was also applied to one of the quarters of the
city of Mexico when conquered by Cortes, as we learn from the same authority.

t Buschmann, Ueber die AzteHschen Ortsnamen, ss. 794, 797 (Berlin, 1852).

t The verbal radical is tona, to warm (hazer calor, Molina, Vocabidario de la Lcngua
Mexicana, s. v.); from this root come many words signifying warmth, fertility, abun-
dance, the sun, the east, the summer, the day, and others expressing the soul, the vital
principle, etc. (Simt'on, Diet, de la Langue Nafumtl, s. v. tonalli.) As in the Algonkin
dialects the words for cold, night and death are from the same root, so in Nahuatl are
those for warmth, day and life. (Comp. Duponceau, Mcmoire sur Ics Langucs de I'Amcr-
ique du Nord, p. 327, Paris, 183G.)

1887.] ■^»^* [Brinton.

Hill Coatepetl becomes the Aztec Ol^-mpus. On it dwells the
great goddess " Our Mother amid the Serpents,"' Coallan Tonan*
otherwise called " The Serpent-skirted," Coatlicue, with her
children, The Myriad Sages, the Gentzon HuitznaJiua.f It was
her dut}' to sweep the Snake-Hill every day that it might be
kept clean for hei- children. One da}- while thus engaged, a
little bunch of feathers fell upon her, and she hid it under her
robe. It Avas the descent of the spirit, the divine Annunciation.
When the Myriad Sages saw that their mother was pregnant,
they were enraged, and set about to kill her. But the unborn
babe spake from her womb, and provided for her safety, until
in due time he came forth armed with a blue javelin, his flesh
painted blue, and with a blue shield. His left leg was thin and
covered with the plumage of the humming-bird. Hence the
name was given to him " On the left, a Humming-Bird," Huitzi-
lopochtli.| Four times around the Serpent-Mountain did he
drive the Myriad Sages, until nearl}- all had fallen dead before
his dart, and the remainder fled far to the south. Then all the
Mexica chose Huitzilopochtli for their god, and paid honors to
the Serpent-Hill by Tula as his birthplace. §

* Coatlan, to-nan, from coatl, serpent ; tla7i, among ; to-nan, our mother. She was the
goddess of flowers, and the florists paid her especial devotion (Sahagun, Historia, Lib. ii,
cap. 22). A precinct of the city of Mexico was named after her, and also one of the
edifices in the great temple of the city. Here captives were sacrificed to her and to the
Iluitznahua. (Ibid., Lib. ii, Appendi.x:. See also Torquemada, Mvnarquia Indiana, Lib.
X, cap. 12.)

t Ccntzon Huilznahua, "the Four Hundred Diviners with Thorns." Four hundred, how-
ever, in Naliuatl means any indeterminate large niunber, and hence is properly trans-
lated myriad, legion. Kahuatl means wise, sliillful, a diviner, but is also the proper name
of the Naliuatl-speakiug tribes ; and as the Nahuas derived their word for soutli from
hui-Jli, a thorn, the Iluitznahua may mean "the southern Naliuas." Suhagun had this
in his mind when he said the Iluitznaliua were goddesses who dwelt in tlie south (iZt.s-
toria dc Nutva E'-pana, Lib. vii, cap. 5). The word is talcen by Father Duran jis tlie
proper name of an individual, as we sliall see in a later note.

X HuitzilopocfUU, from huii-ilhi, hiunmiug-bird, opuchtU, the left side or hand. Tliis is
the usual derivation ; but I am quite sure that it is an error arising from the ikonomatic
representation of the name. The name of liis Ijrother, Huitznahua, indicates strongly
that the preflx of both names is identical. This, I doubt not, is from huitz-tlan, the
south ; ilo is from iloa, to turn ; tliis gives us the meaning " the left liand turned toward
the south." Orozco y Berra has pointed out that the Mexica regarded left-handed
warriors as tlic more formidaljle {Historia Anlir;ua de Mexico, Tom. i, p. 125). Along with
this let it be remembered that the legend states tliat Huitzilopochtli was bom in Tula
and insisted on leading tlio Mexica toward the south, the oppositi(jn to which by his
brotlier led to the msissacre and to the destruction of the town.

g This myth is recorded by Saliagun, Historia de Nticva Expana, Lib. iii, cap. 1, "on the
Origin of tlie Gods." It is i)reserved with some curious variations in tlie Historia dc los
Mcxicanos pur sas rinluras, cap. 11. AVhen the gods created the suu they also formed

Brintou.] ^rfb [Sept. 2,

An equally ancient and authentic myth makes Huitzilopochtli
one of four brothers, born at one time of the uncreated, bi-sexual
divinity, the God of our Life, Tonacatecutli, who looms dimly
at the head of the Aztec Pantheon. The brothers were the
black and the white Tezcatlipoca and the fair-skinned, bearded
Quetzalcoatl. Yet a third myth places the birthplace of Qaetz-
alcoatl directly in Tula, and names his mother, Chimalman, a
virgin, divinely impregnated, like Coatlicue, by the descending
spirit of the Father of AIL*

Tula was not only the birthplace, but the scene of the highest
activity of all these greatest divinities of the ancient Nahuas.
Around the Coatepetl and on the shores of the Tollanatl — " the
Water of Tula " — as the stream is called which laves the base
of the hill, the mighty struggles of the gods took place which
form the themes of almost all Aztec m3thology. Tulan itself is
no longer the hamlet of rush houses at the foot of the Coatepec,
surmoimted by its pueblo of rough stone and baked brick. It is
a glorious city, founded and governed by Quetzalcoatl himself,
in his first avatar as Hueman, the strong-handed. "All its
structures were stately and gracious, abounding in ornaments.
The walls within were incrusted with precious stones or finished
in beautiful stucco, presenting the appearance of a rich mosaic.
Most wonderful of all was the temple of Quetzalcoatl. It had
four chambers, one toward the east finished in pure gold, another
toward the west lined with torquoise and emeralds, a third
toward the south decorated with all manner of delicate sea-
shells, and a fourth to the north resplendent with red jasper and

four-hundred men and five women for him to eat. At the death of the women their
robes were preserved, and when the people carried these to the Coatepec, the five
women came again into being. One of these was Coatlicue, an imtouched virgin, who
after tour years of fasting placed a bunch of wliite feathers in her bosom, and fortliwith
became pregnant. She brought forth Huitzilopochtli completely armed, who at once
destroyed the Huitznahua. Father Duran translates all of this into plain history. His
account is that when the Aztecs had occupied ToUan for some time, and had fortified
the hill and cultivated the plain, a dissension arose. Que party, followers of Huitzilo-
pochtli, desire<l to move on ; the other, lieaded by a chieftain, Huitznaliua, insisted on
remaining. The former attacked the latter at night, massacred them, destroyed the
water-dams and buildings, and marched away (Hisforia dc las ladias dc Nueva Espana,
Tom. i, pp. 25, 26). According to several accounts, Huitznahua was the brother of
Huitzilopochtli. See my American Hero Mijths, p. 81.

* I have discussed both these accounts in my American Hero Myths, chap, iii, and need
not repeat the authorities here.

1887.] dJoJ [Brinton.

shells." * The description of other buildings, equally wondrous,
have been lovingly preserved by the ancient songs.f What a
grief that our worthy friend, M. Charnay, digging awa}^ in 1880
on the Coatepec, at the head of a gang of fort3--five men, as he
tells us,| unearthed no sign of these ancient glories, in which,
for one, he full}' believes ! But, alas 1 I fear that they are to bo
sought nowhere out of the golden realm of fancy and mythical
dreaming.

Nor, in that happj^ age, was the land unworthy sucli a glorious
city. Where now the neglected corn-patches suiround the
shabby huts of Tula, in the good old time " the crops of maize
never failed, and each ear was as long as a man's arm ; the
cotton burst its pods, not white onl}-, but spontaneously ready
dyed to the hand in brilliant scarlet, green, blue and j^ellow ;
the gourds were so large that they could not be clasped in the
arms ; and birds of brilliant plumage nested on every tree 1 "

The subjects of Quetzalcoatl, the Toltecs, were not less mar-
velously qualified. They knew the virtues of plants and could
read the forecasts of the stars ; they could trace the veins of
metals in the mountains, and discern the deposits of precious
stones by the fine vapor which they emit ; they were orators,
poets and magicians ; so swift were they that they could at
once be in the place they wished to reach ; as artisans their skill
was unmatched, and they were not subject to the attacks of
disease.

The failure and end of all this goodly time came about by a
battle of the gods, by a contest between Tezcatlipoca and Huit-
zilopochtli on the one hand, and Quetzalcoatl on the other.
Quetzalcoatl refused to make the sacrifices of human beings as
required by Huitzilopochtli, and the latter, with Tezcatlipoca,
set about the destruction of Tula and its people. This was the

* Tlie most liighly-colored descriptions of the mythical Tuhx are io be found in the
third and tontli book of Sahagun's Historia dc Nitcva Etfparia, in the Annies dc Cuaiihti-
tlan, and in the various writings of Ixtlilxochitl. Later authors, such as Veytia, Tor-
quemada, etc., have copied from these. I.xtlilxochitl speaks of tlie "legions of fables"
about Tulan and Quetzalcoatl which even in his day were still current ("otras tresci-
eutas fabulas (jue aun todavia corren," Hduehncs Ilislwicas, in Jvingsborough, Mexico,
Vol. ix, p. 33l>).

t In the collection of Ancient Knlmatl Poeui.s, which forms the seventh volume of my
Library of Aboriginal American Literature, p. 101, I have printed the original text of one
of the old songs recalling the glories of Tula, with its "house of beams," huapalcuUi, and
its " house of plumed serpents," coatlaquetzaUi, attributed to Quetzalcoatl.

X Les Anciennes Villcs da yuuvcau Mundc, p. 84 (Paris, 1885).

Briuton.] ^4X) [-ggpt^ o,

chosen theme of the later Aztec bards. What the siege of Troy-
was to the Grecian poets, the fall of Tula was to the singers and
story-tellers of Auahuac — an inexhaustible field for imagination,
for glorification, for lamentation. It was placed in the remote
past — according to Sahagun, perhaps the best authority, about
the year 319 before Christ.* All arts and sciences, all knowledge
and culture, were ascribed to this wonderful mythical people,
and wherever the natives were asked concerning the origin of
ancient and unknown structures, the^^ would reply," The Toltecs
built them."t

They fixedly believed that some day the immortal Quetzal-
coatl would appear in another avatar, and would bring again to
the fields of Mexico the exuberant fertility of Tula, the peace
and happiness of his former reign, and that the departed glories
of the past should surround anew the homes of his votaries.^

I have elsewhere so fully represented this phase of the mj^th-
ical C3'clus that I need not emphasize it further ; nor need I
explain the significance of these myths as revealed to us by an
application of the principles of comparative mythology ; for
that, too, would be repeating what I have already published in
ample detail.

What I wish to point out in clear terms is the contrast
between the dry and scant}^ historic narrative Avhich shows
Tula with its Snake-Hill to have been an earlj' station of the
Azteca, occupied in the eleventh and twelfth centur^^ by one of
their clans, and the monstrous m3'th of the later priests and
poets, which makes of it a birthplace and abode of the gods, and
its inhabitants the semi-divine conquerors and civilizers of
Mexico and Central America. For this latter fable there is
not a vestige of solid foundation. The references to Tula and

* Historia de Nueva Espana, Lib. viii, cap. 5.

t Father Duraii relates, " Even to this day, when I ask the Indians, ' Wlio created this
jiass in the mountains? Who opened this spring? Who discovered this cave? or, Who
built this edifice?' they reply, 'The Toltecs, the disciples of Papa.'" Historia de las
Iiidias de Nuei^a EspaTia, cap. 79. Papa, from papachtic, the bushy-haired, wa.s one of the
names of Quetzalcoatl. But the earUer missionary. Father Motiliiiia, distinctly states
that the Mexica invented their own arts, and owed nothing to any imaginary teachers,
Toltecs or others. "Hay entre todos los Indios muchos oficios, y de todos dicen que
fucron inventores los Mexicanos." Historia de los Indios de la Nucva Espana, Tratado iii,
cap. viii.

J Quetzalcoatl announced that his return should take place 5012 years after his final
departure, as is mentioned by Ixtlilxocliitl (in Kingsborough, Mexico, Vol. ix, p. 33:!).
This number has probably some mystic relation to the calendar.

1887.] ^41 [Brinton.

the Toltecs in the Chronicles of the Maxjas and the Annals of
the Kakchiquels are loans from the later mythology of the
Nahuas. It is high time for this talk about the Toltecs as a
mighty people, precursors of the Azteca, and their instructors
in the arts of civilization, to disappear from the pages of his-
tory. The residents of ancient Tula, the Tolteca, were nothing
more than a sept of the Nahuas themselves, the ancestors of
those Mexica who built Tenochtitlan in 1325. This is stated as
plainl}' as can be in the Aztec records, and should now be con-
ceded by all. The mythical Tula, and all its rulers and inhab-
itants, are the baseless dreams of poetic fancy, which we prin-
cipally owe to the Tezcucan poets.

In conclusion, I have no hesitation in repeatii^g the words
which I printed some 3'ears ago, and which gave considerable
offence in certain quarters : " Is it not time that we dismiss,
once for all, these American myths from the domain of historical
traditions? Wh}' should we try to make an enlightened ruler
of Quetzalcoatl, a cultured nation of the Toltecs, when the
proof is of the strongest that the}' are the fictions of m3-thol-
ogy ? Let it be understood hereafter that whoever uses these
names in an historic sense betrays an ignorance of the subject
he handles, which, were it in the better-known field of Aryan or
Egyptian lore, would convict him of not meriting the name of
scholar." *

* Antcrican Hero Myths, p. 35. The only writer ou ancient American history before me
who has wliolly rejected the Toltecs is, I believe, Albert Gallatin. In his able and
critical study of the origin of American civilization {Transactions of the American Ethno-
logical Society, Vol. i, p. 203) he dismissed them entirely from historical consideration
with the words : " The tradition respecting the Toltecs iiscends to so remote a date, and
is so obscure and intermixed witli mythological fobles, that it is impossible to designate
either the locality of their primitive abodes, the time when they first appeared in the
vicinity of the Valley of Mexico, or whether they were preceded by nations speaking
the same or different languages." Had this well-grounded skepticism gained the ears of
writers since 1845. when it was published, we should have been saved a vast amount of
rubbish which has been heaped up under the name of history.

Dr. Otto StoU {Guatemala; Reit'cn und Schilclerungen, ss. -108, 409, Leipzig, I8861 has
joined in rejecting the ethnic existence of the Toltecs. As in later Xahuatl the word
toltecatl meant not only "resident of Tollan," but also "artificer" and "trader," Dr.
Stoll thinks that the Central American legends which speak of " Toltecs" should be in-
terpreted merely as referring to i'oreign mechanics or pedlars, and not to any particular
nationality. I quite agree with tliis view.

PUOC. AMER. I'HIIiOS. SOC. XXIV. 136. 2e. PRINTED OCT. 22, 1887.

Kirkwood.] - ^4:Z [Se-pt. 2,

Biela's Comet and the Large Meteors of November 27-30. By Professor
Daniel Kirkwood.

{Bead before the American Philosophical Society, September 2, 1881.')

The well-known catalogue of Greg, published in the Report of the
British Association for 1860, p. 115 et seg., designates the last days of
November as one of the dates at which an unusual number of fire-balls
and meteoric stones had fallen since the commencement of the nineteenth
century. In the Danville Quarterly Review for December, 1861, the
gradual dissolution of Biela's comet was suggested as the source of those
periodic displays,* and the same theory was again advanced in the
author's "Meteoric Astronomy" (1867), pp. 54, 121, and 126-129. The
suggestion has also been made independently by others.

We give below the most distinguished star showers derived from the
scattered portions of Biela's comet : —

1798. 7 December ; recognized as Andromedes by Newton.

1830. 7 December ; Quetelet's catalogue.

1838. 5 to 7 December ; recognized by Newton.

1850. 29 November ; Quetelet.

1872. 27 November.

1885. 27 November.

From 1798 to 1885, we have eighty-seven years = 6.692 x 13 ; and the
series is harmonized in the following scheme : —

1798 to 1838 = 40 years = 6 x 6.66 +

1830 to 1850 = 20 " = 3 X 6.66 +

1838 to 1872 = 34 " = 5 X 6.80.

1872 to 1885 = 13 " = 2 X 6.50.

The dates, it will be observed, indicate considerable extension of the
cluster, or rather, perhaps, the existence of several groups.

The remarkable fall of meteoric iron during the shower of Bielids on
the 27th of November, 1885,f at once suggests the inquiry whether traces
of the same period can be found in the recurrence of fire-balls and aerolites
at the identical epoch. The following dates, except the last, are all
derived from the catalogue of Mr. R. P. Greg : —

1809. 29 November ; a fireball at Munich.

1810, 28 November, 9.30 p. m. ; an aerolitic meteor at Cape Matapan.

*" The division of Biela's comet into two distinct parts suggests several interesting
questions in cometary physics. * * * May not the force, whatever it is, that has pro-
duced o>ie separation, again divide the parts ? and may not this action continue until the
fragments become invisible? According to the theory now generally received, the ijeri-
odic phenomena of shooting stars are produced by the intersections of the orbits of such
nebulous bodies with the earth's annual path. * * * May not our periodic meteors
be the debris of ancient but now disintegrated comets whose matter has become distrib-
uted around tlieir orbits?" — Danville Quarterly Review, Dec, 1.S61, p. 637.

t Amer. Journ. of Sci., March, 1887.

1887.1 ^4d [Kirkwood.

1830. 29 November ; a very brilliant meteor at Cosenzo, Ionian Isles.

1821. 28 November; a fireball at Naples.

1821. 30 November ; a fireball at Delitzsch.

1822. 30 November, before sunset ; a fall of several aerolites at Futteh-
pore, Doab, India.

1823. 27 November ; a fireball at Naples.

1824. 27 November ; a fireball as large apparently as the moon, at
Prague.

1833. End of November ; a fall of aerolites bj^ which a person was
killed at Kandahar, Afghanistan.

1834. 29 November ; a stone-fall at Raflfaten, Hungary.
1834. 30 November ; a fireball at Naples.

1839. 29 November, before sunset ; a large fireball at Naples.
1842. 30 November ; a shower of meteoric stones ; specific gravity
3.36; N. E. of Ahmedabad.

1847. 29 November ; a brilliant fireball at Bonn.

1848. 29 November ; a fireball at Lincolnshire.
1850. 28 November ; a fireball at Nottingham.

1850. 29 November ; a fireball at London, Oxford, etc.
1850. 30 November ; a stone fall in India.

1859. 28 November ; a brilliant detonating meteor, S. W. of Bohemia.
1885. 27 November ; the fall of meteoric iron in Mexico (Am. Journ.
Sci., Mar., 1887).

These twenty falls may be arranged as follows : —

1809 to 1822 r= 13 years = 2

1810 to 1823 = 13

1820 to 1833 =13

1821 to 1834 = 13

1822 to 1842 = 20
1824 to 1850 = 26
1834 to 1847 = 13
1822 to 1848 = 26
1839 to 1859 = 20
1859 to 1885 = 26

The period is apparently well marked, though facts, as with the associ-
ated shooting stars, indicate the existence of several clusters moving in
Ox-bits very nearly identical. The period is short, thus aflfording frequent
opportunities for studying the group— one of the most interesting with
which we are acquainted. The next return may be expected in 1892. It
will, of course, be carefully observed.

The comet of Biela was first observed in 1772, but previous traces of its
debris may not be impossible. Instance the great meteor of December 5.
1702, and the fall of shooting stars on December 5, 1741, referred to in
Quetelet's catalogue.

= 2 X

6.50.

= 2 X

6.50.

= 2 X

6.50.

= 3 X

6.50.

= 3 X

6.66.

= 4 X

6.50.

= 3 X

6.50.

= 4 X

6.50.

= 3 X

6.60.

= 4 X

6.50.

stokes.] ■^"14 [Sept. 16,

Notices of NeiD Fresh-water Infusoria. By Alfred (J. Stokes, M.D., Trenton,

N.J.

{Read before the American Philoso2)hical Society, September 16th, 1SS7.)

Hexamita spiralis, sp. nov. Fig. 1.

Body elongate obovate, about four times as long as broad, the anterior
extremity rounded, the posterior obtusely pointed ; anterior flagella four
in number, vibratile, arising close together, their length diverse but ex-
ceeding that of the body, the two shortest extended opposite each other at
right angles to the body, their distal extremities curved forward ; the
remaining two extending backward, each forming a long, loose spiral ;
trailing flagella two, arising from the tip of the posterior extremity, and
exceeding the body in length ; contractile vesicles two, situated opposite
each other in the anterior body -half ; nucleus obscure. Length of body,
^250 inch. Hab. — The intestinal canal of the tadpole of the common
toad. Movements by rapid rotation on the longitudinal axis.

This differs from previously observed species in the presence of two con-
tractile vesicles, and in the spiral disposition of two of the anterior
flagella.

Petalomonas dorsaUs, sp. nov. Fig. 2 ; diagram.

Body broadly ovate or suborbicular, colorless, transparent, the length
but slightly exceeding the breadth ; the anterior extremity the narrower,
evenly or obliquely rounded, occasionally obliquely truncate ; posterior
border rounded, sometimes eraarginate ; dorsal surface longitudinally
traversed by a central, strongly compressed keel-like and upright plane,
or broad wing, the superior margin of which is evenly convex ; ventral
surface somewhat concave, a transverse optic section of the body present-
ing a triradiate appearance, the re-entering, dorso -lateral and ventral
angles rounded ; oral fossa conspicuous, from which apparently issues a
flagellum subequal to the body in length ; nucleus subcircular hi outline,
placed near the centre of the left-hand body margin ; contractile vesicle
single, small, located on the left-hand side of the dorsal ala near the body
centre ; endoplasm coarsely granular. Length of body, -gl^ to g^^ inch.
Hab. — Standing pond water.

This is readily recognizable from P. carinata, for -which it might per-
haps be mistaken, by its much larger size, and by the very conspicuously
developed centro-dorsal, upright plane. In P. carinata the dorsal eleva-
tion is low and ridge-like, and although the lateral surfaces of this part
are usually evenly sloping or slightly convex, they are at times notice-
ably concave. In P. dorsalis the dorsal ala is usually as high as one-half
the width of the body. The part seems especially liable to deformity,
often being observed to be variously indented, or distorted and developed,
to one side or the other of its normal central position.

Proceedings flmer, Philos, Soc

Firyh-waler /»A(.v'«'/a.— Stokes

1887.1 ^45 [Stokes.

Petalomonas sulcata, ?p, nov.

Body ovate, colorless, transparent, depressed, less than twice as long as
broad, the surface traversed longitudinally, sometimes in a slightly ob-
lique direction, by from eight to ten keel-like ridges, the intervening
spaces being concave ; anterior extremity narrowly rounded ; the poste-
rior truncate, with one, sometimes two, subcentral acuminations appa-
rently formed by the terminal union of the longitudinal carinations ;
flagellum subequal to the body in length ; nucleus and single contractile
vesicle on opposite sides of the anterior body-half; endoplasm granular
posteriorly. Length of body, yi^ inch. Hab. — Pond water. Movements
not rapid, the oral aperture usually in contact with the submerged object,
the flagellum directed in advance, the anterior extremity alone vibrating.

Urceolopsis (Urceolus ; o(/n^), gen. nov.

Animalcules free-swimming, flask-shaped, soft, flexible and elastic, the
entire cuticular surface more or less covered by adherent, irregular and
angular sand grains ; otherwise essentially as in Urceolus.

Urceolopsis sabulosa, sp. nov. Fig. 3.
Urceolus sabulosus, Stokes ; Am. Monthly Micr. Journ., vii, May, 1886.

Body flask-shaped, soft, flexible, elastic, normally compressed and some-
what gibbous, about twice as long as broad, widest centrally, obtusely
pointed posteriorly, the entire surface more or less covered, often almost
concealed, by adherent, irregular and angular sand grains ; anterior ex-
tremity constricted to form a short neck-like prolongation, the circular
border thickened, expanded, and obliquely truncate ; flagellum large,
equaling or exceeding the body in length ; nucleus not observed ; con-
tractile vesicle (?) single, laterally placed near the anterior extremity ;
pharynx apparently extending to near the body-centre. Length of body,
•jj^ inch. Hab. — Fresh water with Algie.

Traclielomonas urceolata, sp. nov. Fig. 4.

Lorica vasiform, about twice as long as broad, the lateral margins
slightly flattened, anteriorly produced in a short, subcylindrical neck, the
aperture slightly everted, truncate, not oblique ; posterior extremity not
inflated, produced in an acuminate, tail-like prolongation ; endoplasm en-
closing numerous, probably amylaceous, corpuscles. Length of lorica,
-Ij inch. JIab. — Pond water.

Trachelomonas verrucosa, sp. nov.

Lorica subspherical, colorless, the entire surface covered with minute,
hemispherical elevations ; anterior extremity slightly emarginate. Length
and breadth, jJjy inch. Ilab. — Pond water, with Algte.

stokes.] ^4:b [Sept. le,

Trachelomonas acanthostoma, sp. nov.

Lorica subspherical, brown, the anterior extremity bearing two more or
less irregular rows of short, conical spines encircling the orifice, which is
not produced, the remaining surface punctate ; endoplasm apparently
vacuolar. Length, ^ij inch. Bab. — Pond water.

Anisonema solenota, sp. nov. Fig. 5.

Body sub-elliptical, depressed, less than twice as long as broad, slightly
narrowed at the anterior extremity ; the posterior border rounded ; the
frontal margin slightly and narrowly truncate ; ventral surface flat, the
dorsal longitudinally traversed by a subcentral depression or groove ; oral
aperture distinct ; flagella diverse in length, the vibratile appendage about
as long as the body, the trailing twice tliat length ; contractile vesicle
double, situated opposite to each other in the anterior body-half, near the
median groove ; nucleus single, subspherical, subcentrally placed near the
left-hand body-margin ; endoplasm colorless, transparent. Length, y^J^^
inch. Hal). — Standing pond water.

Protoperidinium Umhatum, sp. nov. Fig. 6.

Carapace rhomboidal, depressed, little longer than broad, the postero-
lateral margins produced in two, short, acuminate, horn-like processes,
the posterior border concave ; ventral surface flattened, with a central,
longitudinal depression ; surface facetted and minutely reticulated, the
margins of the carapace and of the equatorial groove having a narrow,
colorless, projecting, flattened and reticulate border ; flagellum of the
lateral groove spiral. Length, 3^0 inch. Hah. — Marsh water, with
sphagnum ; color, yellow.

Holophrya ornata, sp. nov. Fig. 7.

Body obovate, compressed, slightly curved toward one side, less than
three times as long as broad, the anterior extremity rounded, the posterior
truncate ; cuticular surface not striate, entirely ciliate ; the cilia long and
fine ; oral aperture eccentric, the borders slightly protruding ; lateral mar-
gins and posterior extremity ornamented by two rows of cuticular,
rounded elevations, the series beginning at the middle third of one lateral
border, and continued through the middle third of the opposite region,
the constituent elevations of one series being alternate with those of the
other ; contractile vesicle single, large, near the posterior extremity ;
nucleus obscure ; endoplasm coarsely granular. Length, about ^-^^ inch.
Hab. — Standing pond water. Movements rotatorj'- on the longitudinal
axis.

1887.] 247 [Stokes.

SapropMlus {aa-po<pdoq), gen. nov.

Animalcules free-swimming, holotrichous, ovate, soft, flexible and
changeable in shape : general cuticular surface clothed with fine vibratlle
cilia, a single, long, flexible seta projecting from the posterior extremity ;
oral aperture ventral, supplemented by a vibratile and retractile hood-
like membrane.

SapropJiilus agitntus, sp. nov. Fig. 8.

Body ovate, compressed, about twice as long as broad, the posterior
extremity rounded, the antero-ventral border obliquely truncate ; cuticu-
lar surface longitudinally striate, the cilia short and fine ; oral aperture
ovate, ventral, at a short distance from the anterior extremity ; the hood-
like membrane narrow, widest posteriorly, narrowing to its anterior ter-
mination ; contractile vesicle single, in the posterior body-half; nucleus
subspherical, subcentrally placed. Length of body, yi^y to -^^^ inch.
Hab. — An infusion containing much decaying animal matter. Reproduc-
tion by transverse fission.

The hood-like velum resembles in character and function the oral
appendage of Pieuronema, widelj'- difi"ering, however, in its vibratile move-
ments, Pleuronema having only the power to lower and raise the organ,
while the present form possesses the additional ability to rapidly vibrate
the appendage. When retracted the latter is, similarly with the hood in
Pleuronema, folded and stowed away about the posterior and lateral mar-
gins of the mouth.

The body is extremely soft, and quite changeable in shape, the latter,
however, usually consisting chiefly in the assumption of a subspherical
form. It has the power to force itself through small orifices, the body-
sarcode flowing almost as freely as a semi-fluid substance.

These animalcules are essentially scavengers, greedily appropriating
decaying animal fragments, swarming in crowds around and within the
dead bodies of various small aquatic animals. Within the body of a dead
Gammarus they were crowded in profusion, there rapidly undergoing re-
productive fission, the process being probably hastened by the abundance
of stimulating food.

Bothrostoma (iSoO/xx; ; (jzo/ia), gen. nov.

Animalcules free-swimming, heterotrichous, ovate, soft and flexible ;
peristorae-field a more or less obliquely directed longitudinal depression,
situated on the left-hand side of the body, extending beyond the body-
centre, and continued inward as a short, ciliated, pharyngeal passage ;
the left-hand border of the peristome bearing a series of large cilia, the
posterior portion of the right-hand margin supporting an undulating mem-
brane; a cluster of long setose cilia projecting from the posterior ex-
tremity ; contractile vesicle and nucleus conspicuous ; anal aperture pos-
tero-terminal. Inhabiting fresh water.

stokes.] -^^O [Sept. 16,

Bothrostoma undulans, sp. nov. Fig. 9.

Body ovate, about two and one-half times as long as broad, colorless,
soft and changeable in shape, the anterior extremity obtusely pointed, the
posterior border truncate ; cuticular surface longitudinally striate ; peri-
stome-field extending obliquely inwards beyond the body-centre ; undu-
lating membrane large, often resembling a long anteriorly curved seta,
extending from the oral aperture to within one-third of the body-length of
the antei'ior extremity ; oral aperture at the posterior termination of the
peristome, ovate ; pharynx short, ciliate, infundibuliform ; posterior setose
cilia long and conspicuous ; nucleus ovate, situated in the anterior body-
half; contractile vesicle large, single, spherical, placed near the posterior
extremity. Length of body, ^\^ inch. Hah. — Standing pond water.

Hymenostoma magna, sp. nov. Fig. 10.

Body ovate, depressed, about twice as long as broad, the dorsal surface
convex, the ventral flattened and chiefly occupied by the wide, adoral
depression or groove which extends from the frontal border almost to the
posterior extremity, the latter slightly produced and truncate, a broad
tuft of larger cilia fringing the truncation ; anterior border narrow,
obliquely rounded ; left-hand margin of the peristome bearing a series of
long, fine cilia, directed across the adoral depression, the left-hand border
furnished with an undulating membrane, widest anteriorly and projecting
beyond the frontal body-margin as a sinistrally directed, concave acumi-
nation ; oral aperture near the posterior extremity of the peristome ; nu-
cleus ovate, slightly curved, located posteriorly on the right-hand side of
the body ; contractile vesicle double, one near the posterior extremity,
the other near the right-hand side of the body-centre, and formed, after
systole, by the coalescence of several small vacuoles ; cuticular surface
fine striate longitudinally. Length of body, 2I5 inch. Hab. — Standing
pond water. Movement a rapid often backward revolution on the longi-
tudinal axis.

This, the second known member of the genus, is readily distinguishable
from H. hyinenopliora by the larger body, it being about twice as large as
the last mentioned species, hj the posterior truncation with its ciliary
fringe, and by the form of the peristomal membrane, with its anterior
projecting acumination. As in H. hymenophora the food masses collect in
the left-hand side of the body.

Conjugation has been observed, union taking place between the ventral
surfaces of the right-hand body margins.

Vorticella 2nmlla, sp. nov. Fig. IL

Body conical- campanulate, less than twice as long as broad, widest an-
teriorly, tapering thence to the pedicle ; constricted immediately beneath
the peristome ; cuticular surface transversely striate ; peristome equaling

1887.] -^y [Stokes.

the body-centre in width, the border thickened ; pedicle from five to six
times as long as the body ; nucleus apparently ovate, anteriorly placed ;
contracted body subspherical, invaginating the extremity of the pedicle.
Length of extended body, j^'y^j inch. Hah. — Pond water; attached to
rootlets of Lemna. Solitary.

Voriicella mollis, sp. nov.

Body conical carapanulaie, somewhat changeable in shape, widest ante-
riorly, tapering posteriorly, the length scarcely exceeding the width ;
peristome broad, flattened, crateriform, equaling in width the body-
length, the border not revolute ; cuticular surface verj' minutely tubercu-
late ; contractile vesicle double ; pedicle from sixteen to eighteen times as
long as the body ; contracted body subspherical. Length of the extended
zooid, -j-J^ inch. Hub. — Pond water ; attached to rootlets of Lemna.
Solitary.

Voriicella aqua-dtilcis, sp. -nov. Fig. 12.

Body ovate or pyriform, very slightly changeable in shape, less than
twice as long as broad, slightly constricted beneath the peristome border,
the cuticular surface strongly and conspicuously striate transversely ;
peristome more than one-half the body-centre in breadth, but not equal-
ing it, the border thickened, not everted ; ciliary disc obliquely elevated ;
pedicle from two to three times as long as the body. Length of body, yi^
inch. Hub. — Fresh water ; attached to rootlets of Lemna. Solitary, or
few together. Contracted body obovate.

Vorticella platysoma, sp. nov. Fig. 13.

Body ovate or pyriform, less than twice as long as broad, the anterior
body region subspherical, the posterior tapering to the pedicle ; cuticular
surface transversely striate ; peristome equaling the body-centre in width,
the border revolute ; the ciliary disc not elevated ; nucleus band-like,
curved, transversely placed in the anterior body-half; pedicle seldom ex-
ceeding the body in length. Length of body, xiV? inch. Hab. — Pond
water ; attached to Alga;.

Oi')ercularia allensi, sp. nov. Fig. 14.

Bodies elongate-fusiform or subvasiform, more than three times as long
as broad, widest centrally, tapering posteriorly to the pedicle, constricted
beneath the peristome, the cuticular surface very finely striate trans-
versely ; peristome border everted, minutely crenulate ; ciliary disc very
obliquely exerted ; ciliary circles two ; membranous collar large and
conspicuous ; nucleus band like, short, curved, transversely placed in the
anterior body-half ; contracted zooid suddenly pendent, obovate, usually

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 126. 2F. PRINTED OCT. 22, 1887.

stokes.] ^50 [Sept. 16,

with two or more posterior annulations, and always exhibiting at the an-
terior border a short, but conspicuous snout-like prolongation ; pedicle
profusely and dichotomously branching, longitudinally striate, annulate
irregularly and at wide intervals, the ultimate divisions very short. Length
of body, ^lo inch ; height of entire colony, -^^ inch. Sab. — Pond water ;
attached to Algae and various aquatic plants.

At first glance this closely resembles 0. nutans (Ehr.) Stein, great dif-
ferences being discernible, however, on slight examination. In 0. nutans
the pedicle is strongly and conspicuously annulate ; here the annulations
are absent or few in number and irregularly placed. The zooids are here
transversely striate, while in 0. nutans they are presumably smooth. In
size the two forms are also widely and distinctly different, the bodies of
0. nutans measuring only ^^^ inch in length, while in 0. allensi they are
almost twice as large ; the height of the entire colony of the former is
from 2T to i inch, an enormous altitude in comparison with the -^^ inch of
0. allensi. In their contracted state their resemblance is very close.

Opercularia vestiia, sp. nov. Fig. 15.

Bodies elongate-conical, soft, flexible and somewhat changeable in
shape, less than three times as long as broad, tapering from the region
■ beneath the peristome to the pedicle ; cuticular surface, with the excep-
tion of the peristome border and ciliary disc, entirely clothed with a
coarsely granular, mucilaginous investment ; peristome exceeding the
body-centre in width, the border slightly revolute ; ciliary disc conspicu-
ously exerted, and obliquely elevated ; ciliary circles three ; vestibular
seta conspicuous ; contractile vesicle single, spherical, anteriorly placed,
apparently within the base of the ciliary disc ; nucleus band-like, broad,
short and curved ; endoplasm granular ; contracted body obovate, with
several posteriorly developed annulations, and an anterior, snout-like pro-
jection; pedicle tree-like, profusely and dichotomously branching, longi-
tudinally striate, becoming chestnut-brown with age ; primary pedicle
seldom exceeding in height twice the length of a single body, the ultimate
branches about one-fifth as long as the zooids, often curved, a single
animalcule being stationed on the extremity of each ultimate division.
Length of body, -gig inch ; height of the entire foot-stalk, exclusive of the
zooids, ^0 inch. Hab. — Pond water ; attached to aquatic plants.

T/iuricolopsis {Thuricola ; ofiq), gen. nov.

Animalcules loricate, the loricse as in Thuricola, with the addition of an
internal, narrow, flexible valve-rest, adherent to the lorica wall by one
extremity, and projecting arcuately across the cavity to receive and sup-
port the descended valve ; zooid posteriorly attached to the lorica by a
distinctly developed pedicle ; otherwise essentially as in Thuricola,

1887.] -"51 [Stokes.

Thuricolo^piis innixa. Fig. 16.

Thuricola innixa Stokes. Am. Monthly Micros. Journ., Oct., 1882.

Lorica subcylindrical, sessile, from four to five times as long as broad,
somewhat attenuate posteriorly, the base of attachment truncate ; the
frontal border even, sometimes slightly everted ; bearing internally, at
some distance from the orifice, a valve-like appendage as in Thuricola
vaUata, and an opposite, rigidly attached but distally flexible membranous,
setiform organ projecting arcuately inwards, and acting as a support to
the descended valve, the wall of the lorica being inflated immediately be-
hind this bristle-like valve-rest ; enclosed animalcule pedicellate, project-
ing, when extended, one-third of its entire length beyond the lorica aper-
ture. Length of lorica, jJ-y inch. Hub. — Pond water ; attached to
various aquatic plants.

Thuricolopsis KelUcottiana, sp. nov. Fig. 17.

Lorica subcylindrical, sessile, less than four times as long as broad, the
posterior region tapering, attenuate, subcylindrical and forming about one-
eighth of the entire length ; frontal border slightly everted ; posterior ex-
tremity truncate; valve and bristle like support essentially as in Th.
innixa, the lorica wall not inflated behind the valve- rest ; enclosed ani-
malcule, when extended, long and attenuate, about one-fourth of its length
projecting beyond the lorica aperture ; pedicle filiform, from one sixth to
one-seventh as long as the lorica ; cuticular surface smooth ; two zooids
frequently occupying the same sheath ; nucleus extremely long, narrow
and undulate ; endoplasm granular ; contracted body elongate obovate.
Length of lorica, yj-j- inch. Hab. — Pond water ; attached to various
aquatic plants.

This form was first observed by Prof. D. S. Kellicott attached to aquatic
plants, at Corunna, Mich. {Pi^oc. Amer. Soc. Micros., JSS4), and by him
referred to as a variety of T/i. innixa. It occurs sparingly in the writer's
locality in New Jersey, and seems sufficiently distinct to merit a specific
title and place.

Platycola calochila, sp. nov. Fig. 18.

Lorica broadly ovate, becoming brown with age, less than three times
as long as broad, dorsal surface convex ; posterior extremity rounded, the
anterior obliquely rounded or truncate, produced as a very short, vertical,
neck-like prolongation, the margins slightly everted, the aperture trans-
versely oval or subelliptical, laterally prolonged toward the ventral aspect,
presenting, in lateral view, the appearance of a deep, rounded excavation ;
zooid, when extended, protruding for a considerable distance beyond the
aperture ; nucleus long, narrow, band-like. Length of lorica, ^\^ inch.
JIab. — Pond water; attached to the rootlets of Lemna.

stokes.] -^5 J [Sept. 16,

Lagcnophrys patina, sp. nov. Fig. 19.

Lorica nearly orbicular, much depressed, upper surface slightly coavex,
the lower plane ; aperture circular, terminating a short, nearly perpen-
dicular neck-like prolongation, surrounded by a thin, apparently mem-
branous, horizontally projecting border, its margin irregularly and
minutely crenulate. Diameter of lorica, ^i^ to ^i^ inch. Hah. — Pond
water ; attached to the legs and branchial appendages of Gammarus.

In form and size this closely resembles L. ampulla Stein, but differs in
the absence of the everted and beaded rim projecting in front of the oral
aperture in the first-mentioned species.

Histrio eretJiesHcus, sp. nov. Fig. 20. •

Body subelliptical, less than three times as long as broad, both extremi-
ties rounded, the lateral borders flattened, nearly parallel ; lip semicircu-
lar ; peristome-field reaching to the centre of the ventral surface, the
right-hand margin bearing a membrane ; frontal styles nine, the three an-
terior ones largest, the three posterior smallest, setose, inconspicuous ;
ventral styles five, more or less clustered, two on the right-hand side
small, setose ; anal styles large, stout, usually rigid, only the second and
third on the right-hand side projecting beyond the posterior border ; mar-
ginal setie vminterrupted. Length of body, j-i^ inch. Hnh. — Shallow
pools, with Lermia and Algffi.

The animalcule's movements during forward progression are constant
but not especially rapid, nor long extended in one direction, but it has a
most annoying habit of suddenly darting backward, for a distance seldom
exceeding its own length, yet as it is impossible to anticipate the direction
of this erratic movement, and as the change of position is extremely rapid,
the eye fails to adjust itself soon enough to keep the creature distinctly
visible. The Infusorian continues these backward leaps incessantly when
not swimming forward, consequently it is a difficult animalcule to study.
Occasionally, especially after long confinement, two contractile vesicles
become apparent, a small vacuole developing near the centre of the left-
hand margin of the peristome, in advance of the large normal vesicle.

Solenophrya odontop>1iora, sp. nov. Fig. 21.

Lorica cup- or bowl-shaped, membranous, hyaline, the height about
equal to the breadth, the posterior extremity rounded, the anterior border
beneath the even, circular margin bearing from four to twelve attenuate,
hollow, variously and inwardly curved, tooth-like processes ; enclosed
animalcule not adherent to the lorica ; endoplasm finely granular. Height
of the lorica including the processes, jjVj inch ; length of the tooth-like
processes, -^^sq inch. Rah. — Pond water ; attached to Myriophyllum.

This form was first observed, and in considerable abundance, about four
years ago, but has not since been met with. All the inc^viduals then

1887.] ^^^ [Stokes.

noted had withdrawn the tentacles, and had become encysted within the
lorica. The tentacles have tlierefore never been seen. These encysted
forms were undergoing one stage of reproduction. The entire endoplasm
is subdivided into very minute, remarkably active, biflagellate germs.

Acineta bifaria, sp. nov. Figs. 23, 23, 24.

Lorica, in side view, oval, the longest diameter less than twice the
height ; seen from above orbicular ; the entire surface minutely tubercu-
late ; pedicle very short, often only a small, inconspicuous, button-like
projection ; enclosed body attached to the posterior extremity only of the
lorica, and divided into two unequal parts, the posterior region often en-
tirelj' filling the cavity of tlie sheath, occasionally only about one-half
filling it, the anterior portion sul)spherical, habitually extruded beyond the
lorica aperture, and bearing the scattered capitate tentacles, the posterior
or loricate portion often coarsely and longitudinally striate ; endoplasm
granular ; contractile vesicles two, spherical, one situated near the lateral
border of the anterior body-half, the other on the opposite side of the
posterior or loricated region ; nucleus apparently broadly ovate or sub-
spherical, anteriorly placed ; reproduction by transverse fission of the
extruded anterior region, the embryo hypotrichous. Diameter of the
lorica, ^^^ inch. Eab. — An infusion of hay.

The first noticeable sign of approaching reproductive fission consists in
an increased extrusion of the body substance, speedily followed by the
formation of fine cilia on the anterior surface, with the appearance of a
transverse constriction subceutrally situated on the extruded portion, as
in Fig. 23. This constriction deepens, the cilia increase in length, soon
entirely clothing the frontal region and one lateral margin, and, by the
time the division is completed, the posterior border as well. At the final
separation of the embryo it is ovate, coarsely granular, with a somewhat
conspicuous nucleus. It speedily becomes elongated and flattened, as in
Fig. 24, its length exceeding the height of the mature animalcule. The
cilia are confined to the extremities and the lower surface, while a few
short, capitate tentacles are scattered over the superior aspect. After the
departure of the embryo the remaining portion of the mature animalcule
withdraws itself into the lorica, as in Fig. 22, the anterior, subspherical
region remaining exposed and the tentacles protruded. The latter become
fevver in number, but are not entirely withdrawn during the reproductive
act. After it they become more numerous.

The presence of the short, button-like pedicle of some individuals gives
the lorica an appearance closely resembling that of Solenophrya, to which
genus they might readily be relegated if not seen scattered among the
more abundant and more distinctly pedicellate forms.

Acineta macrocauUs, sp. nov. Figs. 25, 26.

Lorica obovate or subspherical. Lorica obovate, the length only slightly
exceeding the width, flexible, continuous, taking the form of the enclosed

stokes.]

254

[Sept. 16,

zooid, the anterior border rounded, the lateral margins almost straight,
tapering to the pedicle. Lorica subspherical, the anterior border slightly
undulate, the anterior extremity of the pedicle suddenly expanded. Pedi-
cle from seven to nine times as long as the lorica, hollow, its cavity con-
tinuous with that of the sheath ; enclosed body usually entirely filling the
lorica, soft, changeable in shape, not attached posteriorly to the lorica;
endoplasm granular, enclosing numerous, large, refractive, probably
amylaceous corpuscles ; tentacles irregularly distributed at the anterior
border, distinctly capitate, exhibiting spiral folds during their retraction ;
contractile vesicle apparently single, posteriorly placed near one lateral
border ; nucleus not observed. Length, including pedicle, y^^ to -^J^ inch.
Hah. — Pond water ; attached to Myriophyllum.

Acineta acuminata, sp. nov. Fig. 27.

Lorica broadly vasiform, slightly longer than broad, the posterior bor-
der rounded, the anterior continuous, obliquely truncate on each side, and
produced centrally in a prominent acumination, the lateral angles also
often acuminately prolonged ; the anterior borders on each side separated
by a slit-like aperture, and the front wall bearing two narrow, anteriorly
converging fissures, for the passage of the tentacles ; pedicle hollow, from
one-third to one-half as long as the lorica and communicating with its
cavity ; enclosed body subspherical, attached to the lorica anteriorly only
and there taking the form of the sheath ; tentacles fine, capitate, scarcely
clustered ; contractile vesicle single, spherical, situated near one side of
the posterior extremity ; nucleus large, subcentral ; endoplasm granular.
Length of lorica, -ji^ inch ; of pedicle, j J^ ^ to -^-^^-^ inch. Hah. — Pond
water.

The lateral angles are sometimes produced, sometimes rounded ; and
occasionally one will be rounded and the other slightly produced. The
anterior central acumination has been present in all the forms observed.
That only one wall of the lorica should be pierced by the two converging
fissures is noteworthy. Corresponding lines on the opposite wall could
not be perceived, although careful search was made for them.

Explanation of the Figures.

Fig. 1. Hexamita spiralis.

2. Petalomonas dorsalis. Dia-

gram.

3. Urceolopsis sabulosa.

4. Trachelomonasurceolata.

5. Anisonema solenota.

6. Protoperidinium limbatum.

7. Holophrya ornata.

8. Saprophilus agitatus.

Fig. 9. Bothrostoma undulans.

10. Hymenostoma magna.

11. Vorticella pusilla. Pedicle

omitted.

12. Vorticella aqua-dulcis. Ped-

icle omitted.

13. Vorticella platysoma.

14. Opercularia aliens!.

15. Opercularia vestita.

1887.]

Fig. IG. Thuricolopsis innixa.

17. Thuricolopsis Kellicottiana.

18. Platycola coelocbila.

19. Lagenophrya patina.

20. Histrio erethesticus.

21. Solonophora odontopliora.

22. Acineta bifaria.

255

[Scott and Osborn.

Fig. 23. A. bifaria. Reproductive
fission.

24. A. bifaria. Embryo.

25, 26. Acineta macrocaulis.
Pedicle omitted.

27. Acineta acuminata.

Preliminary Report on the Vertebrate Fossils of the Uinta Formation,
collected by the Princeton Expedition of 1886. By W. B. Scott and Henry
F. Osborn.

{Bead before the American Philosophical Society, Sept. 2, 1887.)

The Uinta formation, which was first identified by Prof. Marsh, is one
of great interest, as it is just intermediate between the Bridger and the
White River groups. It has as yet been comparatively little explored, and
much r&mains to be done, but enough is now known to render possible
some account of this most important intermediate fauna.

Crocodilus, sp. indet.
Trionyx, sp. indet.

Hyopsodus gracilis Marsh.

Mesonyx uintensis Scott.

REPTILIA.

MAMMALIA.

Lemukoidea.

Creodonta.

Carnivora.

Amphicyon (?) vulpinum, sp. nov. — The probable existence of this
genus in the Uinta beds is indicated bj-- a lower premolar and lower sec-
torial molar. The premolar, probably the third, consists of a high, acute
and compressed cone, with rudimentary posterior heel ; a cingulum runs
entirely around the crown, and is most conspicuous on the anterior sur-
face. This tooth differs from the premolars of most of the European
species of Ampldcyon in the fact that the main cusp has no accessory
tubercles developed upon it. The sectorial molar is canine in character ;
the blade consists of three cusps, of which the external is the larger, and
the anterior is very low ; the sectorial blade is therefore much less devel-
oped than in Cynodietis, and hardly more than in Miacis ; the heel is low
and small and not very distinctly basin-shaped. These teeth are insuffi-

Scott and Osborn.] -^^ [Sept. 2,

cient for a final reference of the specimen, wliicli may possibly belong to
Miaeis, but for stratigrapbical reasons I think it more probably a species of
Amphicyon. Cynodictis it certainly is not.

Measurements.

M.

3d (?) lower premolar, antero-posterior diameter 010

" " " transverse " 004

1st lo\A"er molar, antero-posterior diameter

" " " transverse "

Another flesh-eater, exceeding the lion in size, is indicated by some
metatarsals and phalanges. These may belong to the very large species
of Mesonyx from the same beds, or to something quite different. No deter-
mination can be made at present.

RODENTIA.

Plesiaretomys sciuroicles, sp. nov. — Rodents have not as yet been an-
nounced from the Uinta deposits ; representatives of two genera were,
however, obtained by the Princeton party, one of which is the Plesiare-
tomys of the Wasatch and Bridger. In this species the molar formula is
J ; it differs from the other species of the genus which Cope defines as
having the transverse crests of the upper molars "obsolete or wanting,"
in the structure of the upper molars, which are entirely like those of
Sciurus, and consist of two external cusps, from which run two trans-
verse crests, meeting internallj' and forming a V. The first upper premo-
lar is very small and single-rooted. The lower molars are very like those
of the Bridger species ; there are four marginal tubercles surrounding a
median depression ; the antero-internal cusp is the highest ; a low trans-
verse crest connects the anterior pair of tubercles and a less distinct crest
the posterior pair. These crests are better marked than in most species of
Plesiaretomys. The skull has no post-orbital processes and a very large
infra-orbital opening ; the cranium is broad and flat, without sagittal
crest, the inion low and rounded, the zygomatic arches much depressed
and very thin , the cerebral hemispheres are entirely unconvoluted and
leave the olfactory lobes and cerebellum exposed completely. This species
is very small, less in size than Plesiaretomys delicatissimus.

Measurements.

M.

Length of skull 061

Breadth of skull, in front of orbits 025

Length of lower jaw 028

Length upper molar series 013

" lower " " 012

Lower incisor, anteroposterior diameter 003

" " transverse " 002

1887.] -^57 [Scott and Osborn.

A second species of rodent is represented by a lower incisor and part of
the mandible, but as no molars are preserved, the specimen cannot be
referred to any genus. The Incisor is very much larger than in any known
species of Plesiarctomys, and equals that of the beaver in size. It may
not improbably belong to some ancestral member of the Castoridm, as that
family is known to exist in the overlying White River beds.

Measurements.

M.

Antero-po.sterior diameter of lower incisor 008

Transverse " " " 0065

Artiodactyla.

Protoreodon parvus, gen. et sp. nov. (JAgrioclioeruslsl&r&Xx). — This genus
is of interest as being the direct forerunner of the Oreodontida, which are
so characteristic of the American Miocene formations. It differs from
Oreodon in the structure of the upper molars, which have five cusps, an
intermediate one appearing between the anterior pair. The crowns of the
upper molars are very wide and the internal crescents separated from the
external by a considerable interval, much as in Agriochoerus. Both upper
and lower premolars are somewhat simpler than in Oreodon, and the latter
are trenchant, as in Tragidus. It differs very radically from Agriochoerxis
in the character of the premolars as well as in the presence of the inter-
mediate cusp in the superior molars. The orbit is not enclosed behind,
the cranium is narrower and less rounded and the brain smaller than in
Oreodon. On the other hand, its relationship with that genus is incon-
testable ; the lower teeth form a closed series without any diastemata, the
lower canine has gone over to the incisor series, and the first premolar has
taken on the form and function of the canine, a peculiarity found only
among the Oreodontidai. As in that family, the mandible is short, deep,
and has an abruptly rounded chin.

The number of digits is uncertain, but is probably v-iv, as is unques-
tionably the case in Oreodon ; the magnum has not moved so far to the
radical side, but is more directly under the magnum than in the latter
genus. In the tarsus the external and median cuneiforms are fused
together as in Oreodon, but the line of union is much more plainly marked
than in that genus.

Protoreodon parvus : Upper molar series, natural size. Tlie inner cusp of the third
premolar has been broken away.

This species was of very small size, much inferior to Oreodon gracilis.

PKOC. AMER PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 126. 2G. PRINTED NOV. 2, 1887.

Scott and Osborn.] ^bo [Sept. 2,

3Ieasurements.

M.

Length upper molar series ? .053

" " premolar series ? .026

" " true molar " 027

Length lower molar series 054

" " premolar series 027

" " true molar " 027

Antero-posterior diameter, third upper molar 010

Transverse " " " " 008

Antero-posterior diameter, third lower molar 012

Transverse " " " " 006

Pi'otoreodon . {?) pumilus (Agriochoems pumilus) Marsh.* — Professor
Marsh has described a species of Agriochoerus from the Uinta beds, which
more probably belongs to Proioreodon ; but as the description given is
very brief and no mention is made of the very characteristic autero-
intermediate cusp on the upper molars, it may possibly be a member of
some other genus.

Leptotragulus proavus, gen. et sp. nov.^ — This genus resembles the White
River form Leptomeryx, but differs from it in the somewhat less complex
structure of the last lower premolar, and in the presence of a strong
accessory column between the external cusps of the lower molars. In all
probability also this genus had separate metapodials, while in Leptomeryx
there is a cannon bone in the hind foot. Apparently the nearest ally of
this genus is the Pi'odremotJierium of Filhol, with which indeed it may
prove to be identical ; at present, however, we have judged it best to sep-
arate the American species, as aside from the fact that Prodremotheririm
has cannon-bones ia both fore and hind feet, the last lower premolar,
judging from Filhol's figures,! is somewhat more complex in structure,
and less distinctly trenchant than in Leptotragulus. The latter is at once
distinguished from its cotemporary Protoreodon, by the form of the mandi-
ble, which is very slender, with tapering chin and diastema behind the
canine, while in Protoreodon the mandible is deep with abruptly rounded
chin and no diastema ; a further difference is found in the premolar for-
mula of the lower jaw, four in Protoreodon, three in Leptotragulus. The
premolars resemble most those of the tragulines ; the last one consists of
a high, sharp and compressed cone, with a very small autero-internal
cusp, and a narrow valley on the posterior edge enclosed between two
thin plates of enamel ; this valley is not complicated by the accessory
tubercles found in Leptomeryx.

The species L. proamis considerably exceeds in size the Leptomeryx
Evansi of the White River formation, and is somewhat larger than
Tragulus javanicus. The crowns of the lower molars are low and broad
in proportion to their length.

* Am. Jour. Sci. and Arts, 3d Ser., Vol. ix, p. 250.

t Rech. sur les Phosphorites du Querey, Figs. 265, 266.

18S7.] ^OJ [Scott and Osborn.

The systematic position of this genus can liardly be decided from tlie
material now at command ; it may be a forerunner of Leptomeryx, the
only genus of the White River formation which at all resembles it ; it
may be an ancestral type of the Cervidce, or a member of the traguline
series. These questions must for the present be left open.

Measurements.

M.

Length lower premolar series 021

Last lower premolar, antero-posterior diameter 007

" " " transverse " 003

First lower molar, anteroposterior diameter 008

" " " transverse " 005

Length lower true molar series (second specimen) 026

Third lower molar, antero-posterior diameter (second

specimen) 012

Professor Marsh has named three genera of Uinta ruminants, Eomeryx,
Oromeri/x and Parameryx*, with one of which Leptotragulus may be
identical. As, however, no definition of these names has as yet been
offered, they cannot be used.

Perissodactyla.
Epihippus uiniensis Marsh. f — This genus differs from the Bridger
Pliolophiis in having the last two inferior premolars of the molar pattern.

Epihippus grncilis Marsh. — Some beautifully preserved specimens of
this small species are in the collection and show interesting differences
from the Wasatch Ilyracotherimn. The characteristic equine cusps at the
inner angle of the Vs on the lower molars are more isolated and distinct ;
the limb bones are proportionately longer and more slender ; the carpus
is higher and narrower ; the magnum is more depressed and like that of
AncliUlie,rium in shape ; there are still four digits in the manus, but No.
V is very slender ; the ulna is still further reduced. Epihippus forms a
very interesting transition to the horses of the overlying White River
deposits.

Hyrachyas obliquideiu, sp. nov.— Specimens of this genus are not at all
uncommon in the Uinta deposits, but the only ones which can as yet be
satisfactorily determined belong to a species different from any of the
known Eridgcr species. This species is characterized by the last upper
molar, which has become exceedingly oblique and very like the corre-
sponding tooth of Aceratherium ; the antero-extcrnal lobe is greatly
reduced in size, the external wall of the crown is nearly parallel to the
posterior transverse crest and prolonged but little beyond it, so that the
posterior valley is almost obsolete, being even less developed than in

* Introd. and Succ. of Vert. Life in America, pp. 20, 30.
t Loc. cit., p. 24.

Scott and Osborn.] ^^^ [Sept. 2,

Hyracodon. The rest of the dentition shows no particular deviation from
the usual type, nor are important differences from the Bridger species
observable in the skeleton, except perhaps a slight reduction in the rela-
tive size of the lateral digits. In size this species about equals H. agra-
rius.

Prothyracodon intermedium, gen. et sp. nov. — This very interesting type
is apparently intermediate between Hyrachyus and Hyracodon. The
type specimen consists of a fragment of the superior maxillary contain-
ing the fourth premolar and second molar in place, with the alveolus of
the first molar. As in Hyrachyus the premolar has but a single internal
cusp and two transverse crests enclosing a valley. The external cusps are
like those of Hyracodon, the outer wall of the crown being nearly flat and
suhquadrate in outline ; the two constituent cusps are but faintly indicated,
but are somewhat more pronounced than in Hyracodon. An antero-ex-
ternal buttress or fold of the cingulum is present, as in both the Bridger
and White River genera.

The second molar is essentially the same as in Hyracodon ; the antero-
external lobe is much more reduced than in Hyrachyus, and the transverse
crests directed more obliquely inwards and backwards ; but on the other
hand, the projection from the anterior crest into the median valley which
is to be seen on all the molars of Hyracodon is here wanting.

The present species is quite small ; it is about the size of Hyracliyus
agrarius.

Measurements.

M.

Fourth upper premolar, anteroposterior diameter 010

" " " transverse " 014

Second upper molar, antero-posterior diameter 016

" " " transverse " 0175

Isectolophus annectens, gen et sp. nov. — This genus is closely allied to
Helaletes of the Bridger, but its dentition is one step nearer to that of the
tapir. In Helaletes the antero- external cusp of the upper molars is less
reduced and there is less difference between that and the postero- external
cusp, than in Hyrachyus. This tooth structure would almost suffice to
remove Helaletes from the Lophiodontido} as defined by Cope. In Isectolo-
phus this equality of the external cusps is still better marked, and, more
important still, the external wall is extended behind the posterior pillar
just as in the tapir, so that this pillar becomes a median thickening of the
posteroexternal cusp, instead of being a thickening of the posterior edge
of that cusp, as in Hyrachyus and Helaletes. The first and second upper
molars are thus almost exactly like those of the tapir ; the transverse
crests are low and thick, and a strong cingulum surrounds the crown.
The premolars are probably all simpler than the molars ; at all events
this is true of the third. The lower molars are like those of Helaletes, and
the last one has a well-developed heel or third crest ; there seems, how-

1887 ] ^Oi [Scott and Osborn.

ever, to have been a diastema between the canine and first premolar,
though this is not certain, which is not the case in Uelaletes.

The species is rather small, somewhat larger than Helaletea laiidens of
the Bridger.

Measurements.

M.

Length upper molar series 048

First molar, antero-posterior diameter (?) 015

" " transverse " (?) 015

Second" anteroposterior " 015

" " transverse " 014

Third " antero-posterior " 016

" " transverse " 018

Third upper premolar, antero posterior diameter 013

" " " transverse "

Third lower molar, antero-posterior " 033

" " " transverse " Oil

The study of this genus shows that Hyraehyus and Desmatotherium
cannot be placed in the direct line of tapir ancestry, as we were formerly
disposed to believe. Much more probably this line has come down
through the genera with trilobed last lower molar, and it is noteworthy
that the tapiroids from the White River beds have the third lobe or talon
present, though less distinctly marked. These animals have been
described by Dr. Leidy,* under the name of Lophiodon, from which
genus the known specimens do not appreciably differ. But, as Dr. Leidy
lias suggested, they probably belong to a very different genus, which,
when better known, will in all likelihood be found to be intermediate in
character between Isectolophus of the Uinta and Tapiravus of the Loup
Fork. According to this view the series of genera would be : Helaletes,
Isectolophus, the White River genus, Tapiravus and Tapirus.

Amynodon ]\Iarsh {Syn. ? Orthocynodon, nobis). — Professor Marsh's
description of this genus is as follows :f "The skull is intermediate in
form between tllat of a Tapir and a Rhinoceros, but the molar teeth are
entirely of the latter type. The premolars are all unlike the molars, and
the canines above and below are very large. The incisors are small and
the inner one in each jaw is lost in the present adult animal. The lower
canines are placed nearly horizontal, and, taken in connection with the
rest of the anterior dentition, they prove conclusively that the large lower
teeth usually regarded as incisors in Aceratherium * * * are really
canines." The number of digits is stated to be iv-iii. This description
is erroneous in most of the particulars, owing to the fact that it was drawn
up before the type specimen had been removed from the matrix and put
together, and in this way, even after examining the type ourselves, as

* Ext. Mamm. Faun, of Dak. and Neb., p. 239.

t Am. Journ. Sei. and Arts, Third Ser., Vol. xiv, p. 251.

Scott and Osborn.] ^^^ [Sept. 2,

Professor Marsh kindly allowed lis to do, we were formerly led to con-
sider the Bridger species as a distinct genus- {Orthocynodon).

The numerous specimens from the Uinta formation now in the Prince-
ton collection show that Ortliocynodon is very probably identical with
Amynodon. The premolars are not all unlike the molars, as the third and
fourth of the upper premolar series have all the molar elements, but are
somewhat smaller ; the incisors are present in their full number in the
upper jaw; the lower canines are not procumbent but fully erect. We
can therefore confirm Professor Marsh's statements only with regard to
the pattern of the molar teeth and probably also as to the number of
digits.

Amynodon advenus Marsh is the only species as yet known from the
Uinta beds, in which, especially in the higher strata, it is very abundant.

Diplacodon elatus Marsh. f — This animal, the largest yet known from
the Uinta, is of especial interest as being intermediate between the Cha-
litherioids of the Bridger (Palceosyops, Leurocephalus, etc.), and the gigan-
tic MenodontldcB of the White River, as was first suggested by Professor
Marsh. The dentition is like that of Palceosyops, but the premolars have
commenced to assume the molar pattern ; there are, however, no traces
of the horn-like processes so characteristic of Menodus. The skeleton,
which is very fully represented in the collection, is massive, and in many
respects closely like that of Menodus. The cervical vertebrse are short,
with opisthoca3lous centra and quite long spines ; the dorsal vertebrse are
heavy and in the anterior region have very long spines, which, however,
do not reach the extreme length found in Menodus; the lumbars are
rhinocerotic in character ; the ribs are long, flattened and heavy. The
scapula is, like that of Menodus, very rhinocerotic, long and narrow, but
with more abruptly rising spine and rudimentary metacromion ; the
humerus is very massive, with strongly developed deltoid hook and supin-
fitor ridge ; this humerus is a somewhat reduced copy of that of Menodus;
the ulna is stout for its entire length and has a very prominent olecranon ;
the radius diflfers in no essential except size from that of Menodus ; the
carpus is low and broad, the metacarpals and phalanges like those of
Palceosyops, only stouter. The pelvis is like that oi Palceosyops, with long,
pedunculate and plate-like ilium, which is not everted nearly so much as
in Menodus, and long, heavy and trihedral ischium ; Ihe femur is long
and massive, with very prominent third trochanter, and with the rotular
trochlea narrower and deeper than in Mtnodus ; the tibia is shorter than
the femur ; the calcaneum has a very long tuber calcis and a narrow
cuboidal facet, considerably narrower than in Palceosyops ; it appears also
to possess the distinct fibular facet which is found in Menodus ; the astrag-
alus is broader and shallower than in Palceosyops, and has a more exten-

* Bull. E. M. Museum, No. 3, pp. 1 et seq.

fAm. Jouru. Sci. and Arts, 3d Ser,, Vol. ix, p. 24C. Introd. and Succ. Vert. Life,
p. 27.

1887.] ^OrS [Sco^t and Osborn.

slve bearing upon the cuboid, while it is narrower than in Menodns, and
has a less extensive contact with the cuboid. Tlie number of digits is
apparently iv-iii.

The characters revealed by this skeleton abundantly confirm Professor
Marsh's view that Diplacodoti is to be regarded as the ancestor of 3/e«odws,
and as a descendant of the Bridger Chalicotherioids.

The Uinta fauna differs in many very important respects from that of
the Bridger formation, both in what it possesses and in what it lacks ; nev-
ertheless it is on the whole more closely akin to the Bridger than to the
White River fauna. The great Dinocerata seem to have completely dis-
appeared, as have also the Tillodonta ; rodents, lemiiroids, and creodonts
are very much less common than in the Bridger, and what seem to be the
first true American carnivores have appeared ; perissodactyls of chali-
cotherioid, lophiodont, equine and rhinocerotic types are still very numer-
ous. But the most remarkable and striking change consists in the extra-
ordinary increase in the number of selenodont artiodactyls, which are
exceedingly rare in tlie Bridger, but in the Uinta are perhaps more abun-
dantly represented, as far as individuals are concerned, than any other
group of mammals ; in character these artiodactyls are distinctly like
those of the White River epoch. As yet no bunodont artiodactyls haA'^e
been discovered, though they doubtless existed. With the possible excep-
tion of Agriochoerus (see p. 257), no genus is yet known which is com-
mon to the White River and Uinta formations, while several Bridger
genera are represented in the latter ; there are Plesiarctomys, Mesonyx,
Ilyrachyus, Amynodon, and perhaps others. No perissodactyl in which
the premolars have all taken on the molar pattern, and no artiodactyl
with coalesced metapodials, is known in this fauna, which thus has a dis-
tinctly older facies than the fauna of Quercy,* which, hop,'ever, agrees
witli it in the great increase in selenodonts. Schlosserf considers the Uinta
fauna as Oligocene, but, as we believe, without good reason, since not a
single Miocene genus has been found in it, the genera being all either com-
mon to the Bridger or peculiar to the Uinta. The term oligocene is much
more properly applied to the overlying White River beds, as has been
done by Messrs. Cope and Filliol.:]; It seems, therefore, best on the whole
to regard the Uinta as forming the summit of the eocene, as Professor
Marsh, who first described its fauna, has done.

Synopsis of the Uinta Fauna.

Genera. Species.

Rodentia 3 2

Lemur oidea 1 1

Creodonta 1 1

* Filhol Phosph. du Quercy, pp. 517-554.

t Morph. Jahrb., Bd. xii, p.

X Bibl. de I'Ecole d. Hautes Etudes ; Sect. d. Sci. Nat. T., xix, p. 21 (separatim).

Packard.] Zb4: j-ggpt o

Genera. Species.

Garnivora [?) 1 1

Artiodactyla 2 3

Perissodactyla 6 7

13 15

For the very extensive and valuable collections of Uinta fossils now-
preserved in the Princeton museum, of which a brief account has been
given above, we are chiefly indebted to the energy and skill of Mr.
Francis Speir, Jr., of New York, who was in charge of the expedition of
1886.

Geological Museum, Princeton, N. J., July 12, 1887.

On the Systematic Position of the Mallophaga. By A. S. Packard.
{Read before the American Philosophical Society, September 2, 1SS7.)

The true position of the bird-lice has been in debate for many years,
and it is only recently that, in the excellent essay of Grosse,* we have such
an exact account of the mouth- parts of these insects, as to enable us to
perceive that they have been wrongly referred to the Hemiptera. With
the new information aftbrded by Grosse, who does not himself add any
general conclusions as to tlie systematic position of the Mallophaga, be-
yond stating that they are not Hemiptera, nor allied to the true lice, we
have for our own satisfaction made some comparisons with the Psocidaj, to
which, among winged insects, the parasites in question seem nearest
allied.

The name Mallophaga was first proposed by Nitzsch in Germar's "Mag.
derEntomologie," iil, 270, 1812. f In Gerstaecker's "Arthropoden" of Peters
and Carus' " Handbuch der Zoologie" (1863), where this group is placed
with the lice among the Hemiptera, it is stated that Burmeister regarded the
Mallophaga as Orthoptera : "Zwiscben welchen und den Hemipteren sie
in Anbetracht ihrer Verwandtschaft mit den Lausen ein Uebergangsglied
abgeben, ohne fiiglich einer von beiden Ordnungen direct zugewiesen
werden zu konnen."

In our "Guide to the Study of Insects " (1868), and in subsequent
editions, influenced by general usage and also by Melnilcow's arguments,
based on embryological studies, we placed the Mallophaga among the
Hemiptera, next to the true lice. In most, if not all German, Dutch, and
French, as well as English text-books, the Mallophaga, if referred to, are
described with the true lice. But, in his article, "Insects," in the "Encyclo-

* Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Mallopliagen. Von Dr. Franz Grosse. Zeits. fiir wissen.
Zool., xlii, 1885, pp. 530-558. A lengthy illustrated abstract by Prof. G. McCloskey will
be found in the American Naturalist, April, 1886, pp. .340-318.

1 1 am indebted to Dr. Hagen for this reference to Kitzsch's paper.

265

[Packard.

psedia Biitannica, " Otliedit., Mr. R. McLachlan claimed that these insects
should be regarded as degraded Pseudoneuroptera. This view seems a
natural one. Struck by this suggestion, and before reading Nitzsch's
essay on the internal anatomy of Atropos, we had been led into compari-
sons with the Psocida?, particularly the wingless form Atropos, to which,
as we hope to show, with the aid of Grosse's results, the bird-lice are
more closely allied than to any other group of insects. Grosse himself,
unfortunately does not intimate what his views are as to the exact sys-
tematic position of the group under consideration, beyond affirming that
they certainly are not Hemiptera.

We will now turn to the conclusions of jNIelnikow,* derived from a study
of the embryology both of the Mallophaga and the true lice. In this
essay the author thus sums up his views as to the affinities of the Mallo-
phaga :

"The study of the embryology of the Pediculida? and Mallophaga
affords proof of a complete similarity in the mode of development of these
two groups of animals. We are convinced that the similarity urged is
seen not only in the identity of the formation of the primitive streak and
the relations of the embryonal membranes, but also in other more subor-
dinate features of the development. We have for example perceived that
in the lice as well as the Mallophaga a provisional mass of cells is formed
before the completion of the blastoderm ; that both have the provisional
membrane which the larva leaves behind it in the egg at the time of
hatching. Finally we are in a position to state that the beaks of both
groups of insects are independently formed of the appendages of the head-
segments.

"These, though subordinate processes of development, appear to us to
be of more value in the comparison of the insects under consideration than
the relations of the mode of formation of the primitive streak and of the
embryonal membranes, since the last without doubt is generally common
to those insects with an internal primitive streak, but the former must be
regarded as the distinctive feature of the insects under consideration.

"If we add to the results mentioned, the fact that the anatomical struc-
ture of the mouth-parts in the insects of the two groups agrees in all
essential points ; if we add the generally similar external form of these
insects, finally their ectoparasitic mode of life, then we need not hesitate
to recognize the close relationship of the lice and Mallophaga.

"This conviction is not insignificant, since it aftbrds us the possibility
of decisively answering the question as to the systematic position of these
insects.

"After the researches of Burmeister it was generally considered that
the Pediculidaj belonged to the Hemiptera. The structure of their mouth-
parts and the incomplete metamorphosis they undergo are the reasons
which confirm such a view.

* Beitriige zur embryonal Entwickelung der Insektcn. Archiv f. Natur-Gesch., xxxv
1869.

PUOC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIY. 126. 2h. PUtNTED NOV. 2, 1887.

Packard.] ZOO [Sept. 2,

"But the Mallopliaga were regarded by De Gear as a special group, and
by Nitzscli and others they were generally referred to the Orthoptera.
So far as I am aware, only Gerstaecker, in his "Handbuch der Zoologie,"
places the Mallophaga at the end of the Hemiptera ; still he is inclined to
consider the group as a special one, forming a sort of transition from the
Hemiptera to the Orthoptera, but without forming a direct connecting
link.

" Since until now, we knew only of the biting mouth-parts of the Mallo-
phaga, so the view that they were entitled to be regarded as Orthoptera
•was completely founded. In the Orthoptera we place those insects with
an incomplete metamorphosis and biting mouth-parts. But after the exist-
ence of a beak in the Mallophaga has been proved, it becomes evident that
they should be regarded as Hemiptera or bugs.

"This conclusion is wholly indisputable when we recall the above men-
tioned similarity of the Mallophaga with the genuine lice. As to the
completeness of this similarity, I will call attention again to the relations
of the mouth parts, which have been cleared up by our embryological
studies. We are thereby brought to the conviction that in the lice as well
as in the Mallophaga, in their adult condition, no underlip (labium) exists,
while the mandibles and maxilla3 are present. The only difference in the
mouth-parts of the two groups is this : that in the Mallophaga these head-
appendages are the functional parts of the mouth-apparatus, while in the
Pediculidse they become rudimentary.

"But such relative difierences do not have so great systematic value as
to lead us to place so nearly related animals in two different orders.

"From the reasons we have presented we adopt the Linnean view that
the'Mallophaga belong with the Pediculidaj ; we think we are right in re-
garding both groups as families of the Rhynchota."

From the foregoing facts and conclusions of Melnikow, we felt con-
vinced that he had demonstrated that the Mallophaga were Hemiptera and
nearly related to the Pediculidae. But after a, careful reading of Grosse's
memoir on the Mallophaga, translated by Prof. McCloskey, we think he
is right in considering that these biting lice are not genuine Hemiptera.
The very fact, admitted by Melnikow, that the mandibles and maxilife re-
tain their biting function and do not become rudimentary as in the Pedi-
culidse, and the fact pointed out by Grosse, that the second maxilhe do
exist in the Mallophaga, leads us to regard their louse-like shape as simply
adaptive, and that they belong to souie other group than the Hemiptera.

If we examine Melnikow's excellent figures we see that after the mouth-
parts of the embryo of both the genuine Pediculidie and Mallophaga are
developed, the embryos of the two groups follow different developmental
paths. The large clypeal region of the Mallophaga becomes still larger
and broader, overhanging and concealing from above the labrum, which
is short and broad ; on the other hand, in the Pediculus it becomes long,
narrow and slender. The mandibles become true biting jaws, while in
the Pediculus they become long and slender ; the maxillae become minute

1887.] ^^* 1 Packard.

and sliort, of the masticatory type in the Mallophaga, while in the Pedi-
culus they remain large and long (Meluikow, Fig. 371) and of the size and
shape of the mandibles ; the second maxilhc in Pediculusare, in this stage,
as large as iu the first maxillae, -while in the ]\Iallophaga they become minute.
After the stage indicated by Melnikow's Fig. 37 (Pediculus) and Figs. 32,
33 and 34 {Trichodectes canis) the ordmal differences become more
marked.

Among the Pscudoneuroptera of Erichson, a group which is so unnatu-
ral that it will have to be abandoned, we have after the elimination of the
Odonata and the Plectoptera or Ephemeridaj, the families of Perlida;,
Psocidiv, EmbidaJ, and Termitidoe, which we have associated together in
the order Plutyptera. It is to the wingless Psocidae that the Mallophaga
appear to bear the closest resemblance. If we compare certain 3Iallo-
phaga, especially those with a small prolhorax, such as Goniocotes, Doco-
phorus, etc., with the wingless Atropos, or the wingless young of Psocus,
there is a general similarity to the latter in the small thorax, the large
oval abdomen and the large head, with the small eyes. But these resem-
blances are superficial. But, however, with the aid of Grosse's figures
of the mouth-parts of the Mallophaga and Mr. E. Burgess' excellent fig-
ures of the mouth-parts of the Psocidai*, three of which we reproduce,
we find an unexpected homology, which shows that the Mallophaga are,
so to speak, degraded Psocida;.

One characteristic of the Mallophaga, in general, is the greatly enlarged
front or clypeal region of the head, which is vaulted and conceals from
above the mouth-parts, and sometimes even the antennae, with the occa-
sional exception of the labial palpi. In the bird-lice, the lower, rounded
edge of this circular clypeal region is applied to the surface on which the
animal rests, as seen in Figs. 1 and 5, the labium and mouth-parts not
being seen from above, except iu some genera where the maxillary palpi
project lateral lj\

In the PsocidiE the position of the head is vertical, as seen iu Fig. 10,
and the labrum is not covered by the clypeus ; but the ]\Iallophaga are
unlike these and other insects in having the labrum covered by the cly-
peus.

In the shape of the mandibles the Mallophaga closely resemble the
Psocidae, at least as much so as perhaps any oilier of the biting insects.

Mr. Burgess has figured and described the first maxillae of Psocus (Figs.
10 and 11) and Atropos (Fig. 12). The cardo and stipesare rudimentary ; the
latter bearlngbesides the four-jointed palpus a thick fleshy lobe homologous
with the galea or outer maxillary lobe of other biting, ametabolous insects.
He also describes at length the peculiar " fork," which has no homologue
in the Mallophaga any more than other insects, Mr. Burgess inclining to
the view that this is an independent organ. It is to be noticed that, with
the exception of the palpi, the maxillae of the Psocidae are much atrophied.

* The Anatomy of the Ilesid, and the Structure of the Maxilla in the Psocidte. By
Edward Burgess. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., xix, 291-29G, 1878.

Piickard.]

268

[Sept. 2,

In the Mallophaga they are excessively so, there being, if we accept
<xrosse's statement, apparently no palpi, and the maxilla being reduced to
a pair of minute conical appendages, divided into two segments. After
careful examination, Grosse says that he has never been able to find the
palpi of the first maxillse which Nitzsch ascribed to the Liotheidae.*

The labium or second maxillae of the Liotheidse, as described and fig-
ured by Grosse (Fig. 8), consists of two parts united by a transverse fold.
To the mentum are attached the four-jointed labial palpi. In front of the
mentuni is the ligula or glossa (</). In all Liotheidse, the interna of the
ventral end of the oral cavity forms a fold like duplicature, forming the
hypopharynx, Fig. 2 Tiy. In Laemobothrium and Tetrophthalraus this
extends forward over the labium, and its lateral borders are strongly
bent upwards (Figs. 1, 8 %y).

rmx-

Fig. 1.— Under side of head of Lsemobothriiun. X 30.

Fig. 2.— Median section through head of GoHforfes dissimilis. X 60.

The two-joinfed organs on the sides of the tongue or ligula are called
paraglossge by Grosse (Figs. 7, 8, 9 p). In Nirmus and other Philop-
teridaj there are no labial palpi, the paraglossa^ persisting (Fig. 7).

If we now compare the mouth-parts of the Mallophaga with those of
the Platyptera we shall find a more or less close homology. In the first
place the ligula appears as in the latter forms (Termes and Perlida?), to
be divided, as in Liotheidse, into four lobes, while the outer pair of lobes,
the paraglossiB, are usua ly, if not always, present, even when the labial

* Nitzsch figures them in Tnnotum conspiircatum, but this can scarcely be correct, for he
places the four-jointed papillse on the blade near its anterior border. In Tetrophthalraus
the palps belong, not to the first, but to the second maxillsc. The same is true of Menopon
pallidum, Colpoccphalum zebra, a Laemobothrium and a Triuotum, and probably is the
case with all the genera and species. McCloskey's Transl.

1887. J

269

[Packard.

Fig. 3.— Labrum of Govi-
odes dissimilis. X fiO.

Fig. 4.— Right aud left mandibles of Tetrophtlialmus. X 60. Fig. 5.— Head of Lrpeimcs
heterographas, seen from ])e\ow. X CO. Fig. 6.— First maxilla! of Tetrophthalmus. X 75.

Fig. 7.— Second maxillse of Nirmus. X 60. Fig. 8.— Second maxillseof re^TOivW/ia/wus
hilmsis. X 60. Fig. 9.— Second maxillae of Lsemobothrium. X 60.

Packard.]

270

[Sept.

palpi are atrophied. But while the second maxillae of the Termitidse and
Perlida3 are well developed, the degraded condition of those of the Pso-
cidaj affords a passage, though not a direct one to be sure (the labial palpi
in Psocus and Atropos being simply one-jointed and there being no para-
glosste), to the Mallophaga. We copy, however, the accompanying sketches
from Mr. Burgess' paper, so that the reader may compare the mouth-parts
of the Psocidse with those of the Mallophaga.

Figs. 10, 11.— Psocus. 10, side view of the head ; d, clypeus ; Ihr, labrum ; in, mandible ;
mx, maxilla ; /, fork ; c, cardo; 11, m, mentum ; Ip, labial palpus ; lig, ligula.
Fig. 12.— Atropos, labium. Ip, palpus ; mx, maxilla.— After Burgess.

In the general form of the body, especially the shape of the thoracic
segments as compared with the abdomen, the wingless Atropos shows a
decided resemblance to the bird-lice. In the first place,
the head is in both groups very large, while the thorax
shows a greater or less tendency to be merged into, or be
less differentiated from, the abdomen. The latter region
has ten segments both in Atropos and the Mallophaga.
In Atropos there are three, in the Mallophaga two tarsal
joints.

The eyes of Atropos are much reduced, there being
from three* to seven simple ocelli on each side ; in the
Mallophaga the greatest number is two on each side.

After the foregoing portion of this paper was written,
I read Nitzsch's paper (Germar's " Magazin der Ento-
mologie," Bd. iv, 276-290, 1821) on the internal anat-
omy of Atropos pulsaiorius, and found unexpected con-

FiG. 13. —Atropos finnation of the view we have taken as to the relation-
pulsaionus. Author

del. ship of the Mallophaga to the Psocidie. His observa-

tions, he says, were the result of researches carried on about the year
1814, at the time he was occupied with the study of the Mallophaga.
"I undertook," he says, "the dissection of 1 ho Psocus, because this in-

* Scudder found but tliree simple-eyes on a side in an Atropos he examined,
ii, 51.

Psyche.

1887.1 ^«1 [Packard.

sect has some external similarity with those parasites, and because I en-
tertained the idea, that the internal structure of tiie same might oflc'r
some points which would be of value in throwing light on the natural
affinity of the insect parasites, at least of the biting species." The fol-
lowing comparisons are taken from Nitzsch's memoir : —

"The digestive canal oi A. pulsatorius differs from that of the Mallo-
phaga only in the crop and the constantly present upper flap or diverticu-
lum of the stomach. There are four simple, unbranched ]\Ialphigian
tubes both in A. pulsatorius and in the Mallophaga. Of ovarian tubes
there are five pairs in A. pulsatorius, and jn Mallophaga from three {Lio-
theidce) to five pairs (Philopieridce)." After describing the ovaries and
oviduct, he goes on to say : "Herein appears an unexpected similarity be-
tween the Psocidae and the animal insect parasites, for the entire structure
of their uterus and the number of their ovarian tubes, also the shape of
the egg itself, is like that which had already been described by Swammer-
dam in the louse, and by myself in the genera Philopterus and Tricho-
dectes. In Liotheum and Gyropas, however, the number of ovarian tubes
is somewhat smaller."

In the nature of their food and their manner of taking it there is a close
resemblance between the Psocida^ and Mallophaga.

As is well known, the Psocidae occur on the trunks of trees, fences, old
walls, etc., and feed on decaying vegetable matter. " Atropos, as is well
known, lives on the paste in old books and boxes, as well as the speci-
mens of entomological cabinets" (Burgess). While the food-habits of
the Mallophaga are not fully known, Nltzsch stated that they eat the epi-
dermal products of birds and mammals, and sometimes blood. Grosse
found that blood is rarelj'^ taken, and only in cases where the hosts (birds)
are so injured or diseased as to have blood among their plumage. Leuc-
kart arrived at the same result as to Trichodectes canis of the dog. In
Li^cmobothrium, Grosse found the intestine filled with the limbs of its own
kind, as if it ate the product of its own moulting.

From the present state of our knowledge then, it seems reasonable to
infer that the Mallophaga are nearest allied to the Psocidae, and are de-
graded members of the order to which the Psocidae belong.

It now remains to determine the exact relations of the Mallophaga to
the order containing the families of Termitidae, Embida?, Psocidae, etc.,
and here we are confronted with the difficulty of limiting the order con-
taining these families, which were with other groups placed in the order
of Pseudoneuroptera by Erichson. In my essay on "The Systematic
Position of the Ortlioptera in relation to other orders of Insects,"* I
retained, though under protest, this order; at the same time stating, "It
is difficult, if not impossible, to satisfactorily characterize by a sharp-cut
definition this very elastic order. As regards the thorax, there is no uni-
formity in the structure that we have been able to discover, nor is there in

* Third Report U. S. Entomological Commission, 1883, pp. 286-345.

979

Packard.] ^ • ■^ [Sept. 2,

the structure of tlie ■wings, nor more than a general resemblance in the
mouth-parts." I provisionally divided the group into three suborders : —

1. Platyptera. Termitidse, Embidie, Psocidae, and Perlidse (= Corro-
dentia and Orthoptera amphibiotica in pai"t).

2. Odonata (Libellulidte).

3. Ephemevijia (Ephemeridoe).

I also added, "It is comparatively easy to give well-grounded differen-
tial characters for these three suborders. They are so distinct that they
may, perhaps, hereafter be regarded as entitled to the rank of orders, or
the Pseudoneuroptera may be dismembered into the Pseudoneuroptera
and Subulicornia (Odonata and Epheraerina)."

Without giving the wing characters and after describing on p. 291 the
second maxillae, the Platyptera are defined on p. 292, and the structure of
the thorax and abdomen described in some detail on pp. 322-329 (in the
latter pages the group is referred to as Corrodeutia).

Afterwards, in his Systematisch-Zoologische Studien* (1885), Dr. Brauer
boldly divides all the winged insects, the Synaptera (Thysanura) excepted,
into sixteen orders. He regards the Perlidse as the tj^pe of a distinct
order (Pleeoptera), while his order Oorrodeniia embraces the Termitidse,
Psocidaj and Mallophaga (the EmbidiE are referred to the genuine Orthop-
tera).

In his .description of the Corrodentia, Dr. Brauer frequently refers ta
the Mallophaga, especially referring to the similarity between the thorax
of the Atropina and Mallophaga.

As will be remembered, Burmeister's order Corrodentia included the
families Termitidse, Embida3, and Psocidae. Under these circumstances
the name Corrodentia should be restricted to a subdivision of the order
Platyptera.

In 1886, in the fifth edition of our text-book on Zoology,! we added the
Mallophaga to the Platyptera, which thus included the groups of ]\Iallo-
phaga, Perlidse, Psocidas, Embidoe, and Termitidtc. Although Dr. Brauer
(following Burmeister who proposed the order Pleeoptera for the Perlidse)
separates thePerlidai from the Corrodentia as restricted by him for thereason
that the former (Perlidse) have numerous Malphigian tubes, are hemimet-
abolous and perennibranchiate, we are not yet prepared from a study
of the trunk characters and of the shape of the second maxillce, as well as
the wings and their mode of folding, to separate the Perlidse from the
other Platyptera.

But once within the limits of the order, it is evident that the Mallophaga,
even if degraded Platyptera, should occupy a space distinctly separate
from the winged members of the group ; in fine, they should be referred
to a distinct suborder, equivalent to all the winged forms taken together.
Hence the Platyptera may be divided into two suborders : —
I. Mallophaga.

II. Platyptera genuina : Superfamily 1, Pleeoptera (Perlidse) ; Super-
family 2, Corrodentia.

* Aus dem XCI. Bande der Sitzb. der Kais. Akad. der Wissensch. I. Abth., INIai-Heft.
Jalirjang 1885.
t See also American Naturalist, Sept., 1886, p. 808.

1887.] 273 [Gannaii.

On the Reptiles and Batrachians of Grand Cayman. By Samuel Garman,
Cambridge, Mass.

{Read before the American Philosophical Society, October?, 18S7.)

Grand Cayman island is situated in the Caribbean sea, south of Cuba — in
round numbers— about two hundred miles, west north-west of Jamaica
about the same distance, and not far from four hundred miles east of
Yucatan. It is a comparatively recent coral formation and rises but little
above the sea. In total length it approaches twenty-five miles, but in
width it is less than three.

Consideration of the origin, size and position of Grand Cayman, together
with the directions of its currents, winds and traific, prepares us for the
conclusion, reached from study of a portion of its terrestrial fauna, that
it has received its land animals, not so very long ago, from the neigh-
boring large islands.

The collection on which this notice is based, purchased by the Museum
of Comparative Zoology, from Mr. W. B. Eichardson, contained one
hundred and five specimens, representing in all six species : three lizards,
one snake, one toad and one treefrog. One of the lizards, a little Anolis,
is nearly related to a species from Jamaica ; another, a Gecco, belongs
to a Jamaican species, and is hardly distinct enough to rank as a variety ;
and the third forms a species nearest to one described by Professor Cope
from Navassa (eastward from Jamaica) and close to another from Cuba.
The snake and the treefrog belong to Cuban species. And the toad
ranges from Jamaica to Brazil. There might be more hesitation in call-
ing one of the forms distinct if it were not for its complete isolation.
It is because of tliis, and, also, because of the likelihood that the differ-
ences are becoming greater and more numerous with time, that the details
of description are so much dwelt upon. Besides, the closeness of the
affinities, with forms belonging to the other islands, makes it the more
necessary to deal with particulars.

The list includes the following :

Anolis conspersus, sp. n.
Liocephalas varius, sp. n.
Aristelliger prasicjnis Hallow.; Cope.
Alsop7iis caymanus, var. n.
Bufo marinus Linn. ; Schneid,
Hyla septentrionalis Tschudl. ; Blgr.

Anolis conspehsxjs, sp. n.

Head large, about one and threes fourths times as long as broad, longer
than the tibia. Forehead concave. Frontal ridges low. Occiput con-
cave. Scales on the sides and top of the head with low blunt keels.

PROC. AMEK. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 126. 2l. PRINTED NOV. 19, 1887.

Garman.] ^'^ [Oct. 7,

Scales of the supraorbital semicircles enlarged, separated mesially by a
single series of scales. Ten to fifteen enlarged keeled, supraocular scales,
the largest of which is separated from the supraorbitals by a single series
of granules. Occipital small, about the size of the ear-opening, separated
from the supraorbitals by three or four series of scales. Canthus rostralis
sharp, prominent ; canthal scales four. Loreal rows five. Six labials to
below the centre of the eye. Ear-opening small, vertical diameter much
the greater. Gular appendage rather large, the fold reaching as far back-
ward as the axil, less developed in the female. Gular scales flat, with
faint indication of an obtuse keel. Body not compressed ; a slight nuchal
fold in the male ; no dorsal fold. Dorsal scales small, granular, smooth
or obtusely keeled, a little larger in several of the vertebral rows; ven-
tral scales larger. Limbs moderate ; the adpressed hind leg reaches the
orbit ; digital expansions moderate ; lamellae under phalanges ii and iii
of the fourth toe twenty-four. Tail twice as long as head and body, com-
pressed, less in female, edged above with a series of strongly keeled
scales. Male with enlarged postanal scales.

Adults yellowish-green to olivaceous, thickly sprinkled with small spots
of light color, reddish or brownish in life ; tail more uniform ; belly
bluish, presenting a clouded appearance toward flanks and chin. Goitre
blue or purple.

Very young ones are light ashy or grayish on the back, white beneath ;
somewhat clouded with darker on flanks, limbs, chin and throat. The
light spots or freckles first appear on the top and sides of the head, thence
gradually spreading backward. Above the pelvis on the back there is a
band of light color which narrowing backward extends to the middle of
the tail, where it fades. On one specimen there is a small dark blotch
at each side of the pelvic band ; on the middle of the body there is a
small transverse hour- glass-shaped blotch with a smaller rounded spot of
white at each side of it on the mesial line ; it has a similar mark above the
axils, and a dark spot on the occipital shield. On many individuals, old
and young, the forehead and cheeks are brown.

This species is closely allied to A. graJiami as accepted by Dr. Bou-
lenger, whose form of description we have followed, more or less nearly,
to facilitate comparisons. A. conspersus has a much smaller occipital
scale, its canthal and frontal ridges are sharper, it has a' single series
between the supraorbitals on the crown ; it has not the lilac color on tail
and limbs, and its goitre is dark blue or purple, instead of crimson with
yellow or white margin.

LlOCEPHALUS VARIUS, Sp. n.

Upper head-scales large, smooth or faintly striate ; nasal in contact
with the rostral ; supraorbitals in contact on the median line ; supraocu-
lars six to eight, the majority of which are separated from the supraor-
bitals by a single series of small scales. Parietals two pairs in one row,
the outer of each pair being nearly twice the size of the inner ; the inner

1887.] -<5 [Garman,

elongate, narrow, twice as long as broad, separated on the mesial line by
the interparietal and, in cases, by a small scale behind it. In front of the
interparietal there is a pair of small shields, and in front of them one or
more small ones. The number of plates between the supraoculars and
interparietal varies from three to five. Two pairs of the supraorbitals are
in contact across the forehead behind the frontal. Three cross-rows of
plates behind the internasals. Frontal medium, hexangular. A pair of
larger prefrontals, in front of which there is a second pair of smaller
ones, the two pairs being sometimes separated at their inner angles by a
small lozenge-shaped plate. Internasals elongate, narrow, with the acute
posterior extremity directed obliquely outward. Auricular scales two to
three, broad, upper largest. Scales in front of ear moderately large,
smooth. On the sides of the neck the skin is strongly folded, covered
with keeled small scales. Dorsal crest low. Dorsal scales mucronate,
the keels obliquely turned toward the vertebral line. The scales of the
flank are smaller and rather abruptlj^ turned upward. The ventrals are
about as large as the dorsals, smooth, broader than long, and rounded on
posterior margin. There are forty- one to forty-three rows of scales, count-
ing around the middle of the body. The adpressed hind limb does not
reach the eye. Tail feebly compressed, more than one and one-half times
as long as the body, with a crest a little stronger than that of the back.

Olive brown, with a metallic lustre, clouded with dark brown, which in
earlier stages was apparently arranged in transverse bands. Faint indica-
tions of a light band on the upper edge of each flank. Olivaceous beneath,
lighter backward and sprinkled or clouded with mauj- small spots of
white. 1 ail ringed with brown, about seventeen rings. Chin and throat
clouded or reticulated with olive and white. A light band from the hinder
angle of the eye to the angle of the mouth. Lighter scales sprinkled over
the body and limbs, both above and beneath.

This species is allied to L. eremitus Cope from Navassa, and with it to
L. carinnfus of Cuba and the Bahamas, more than to the others. The
distinguishing characters appear in the scales of the head, in the relative
sizes of those of the body, and in the coloration.

Aristelliger pr.,esignis Hallowell ; Cope.

Total length of the largest specimen six and a half inches ; snout to
vent two and a half

Half-grown examples are grayish-brown to brownish-gray, white be-
neath. Tlie top of the head is nearly uniform brown. From each nos-
tril through the eye to the shoulder there is a lighter edged brown band ;
these bands converge in approaching the shoulders. From the shoulders
backward there are brownish darker edged blotches, each of which pre-
sents an angle toward the vertebra', thus enclosing lozenge-shaped lighter
spots on the median line. On the sides of the tail these lateral blotches
alternate, or, meeting, form transverse bands of brown. Labials brown,
with or without whitish spots. Chin mottled with brownish. The color

Garmau.] -"'t) [Oct. 7,

is darker on tlie largest specimen ; the light spots of the back continue
beyond the base of the tail ; but anteriorly the ground color has become
so dark that the spots and bands are obscured.

Hallowell's specimens, from Jamaica, were "uniform brown above
with no lines or spots." The circular pupil and the clawless thumb were
probably oversights. Such measurements as he gives would make his
types smaller than the largest described above. Dr. Boulenger's descrip-
tion, also taken from Jamaican specimens, answers much better to those
from Grand Cayman.

Alsophis caymanus.
A. angulifer Bibr. ; Cope, var. n.

Body moderate, blunt-angled at the edge of the abdomen ; head dis-
tinct, narrowed in front, subquadrangular in transverse section, flattened
on the crown ; tail nearly one-third of the total length, slender. Eye
moderate. Teeth small, longer and farther apart backward. Scales with
two pores, smooth, in seventeen rows ; dorsal longer than broad, outer
and caudal as broad as long. Ventrals broad ; in five specimens they
number 167, 170, 171, 173, and 175 respectively. Anal bifid. Subcau-
dals in two series ; in three specimens there are 125, 127, and 129 pairs.
Crown-shields nine ; internasals moderate, narrower forward ; prefrontals
broader than long, bent downward, and shortened, at the loreal ; frontal
about twice as long as broad, truncate in front, narrower and having par-
allel sides behind the middle, acute-angled between the parietals ; supra-
oculars large, broad posteriorly ; parietals very large, outer anterior angle
in contact with the lower postorbital. Rostral medium, hardly reaching
the top of the snout, in contact with six plates. Nostril between the
quadrate halves of the small nasal. Loreal small, quadrangular, hinder
lower angle acute. One anteorbital, reaching the top of the head, not in
contact with the frontal. Two postorbitals ; lower in contact with the
fifth and sixth labials and the temporal ; upper meeting the supraocular
and the parietal. Temporal large, narrow anteriorly, bounded by the
lower postorbital, the posterior three labials, and two post-temporals. Of
the latter the upper is the larger. Labials eight, third, fourth and fifth in
orbit, sixth and seventh very large. Lower labials ten, first pair meeting
behind the mental, first six in contact with the submentals, fifth and sixth
largest. Mental small, triangular. Submentals two pairs, posterior much
longer, each of the anierior meeting five, and each of the posterior meet-
ing two of the lower labials.

Large specimens have a ground color of reddish brown, and the greater
number of the scales black-edged or black-tipped ; backward they have
irregular spots of dark including one to several scales ; and the belly ap-
pears to have been a brick-red in life. The larger ones have transverse
blotches of brown under the tail, and numerous white-edged scales similar
to those of Liophis cobella. Some have vertical bands or blotches of brown
anteriorly on the flanks ; farther back these meet on the vertebral line and
become transverse bands.

1887.] — ' * [Carman.

Very young ones are ashy or grayish, with brown puncticulations ; the'
head and posterior margins of ventrals and subcaudals are darker ; a
white-edged brown band passes from the nostrils, spreading to include the
eye, to the eighth labial ; and cliin, throat and lips are mottled with
brownish.

Half-grown are less uniform, and more brown ; they have scattered
whito-bordered scales in the anterior half of the length, faint indications
of transverse dorsal bands of brown, and an indefinitely margined brown
baud across the head from the hinder edges of the orbits.

BuFO MARiKUS Linn.; Schneid.

A single quite young individual appears in the collection. Compared
with many others of the same size from Jamaica, it is rather more smooth
and of lighter color. The Jamaican examples are rouf;;hened with sharp
points and in general color are dark brown ; the spots on the ventral sur-
face are numerous and dark. On the Cayman specimen the color is ashy
or grayish, and the spots beneath have a faded olivaceous tint. Spots,
glands and warts have similar positions and shapes in both cases.

Nothing can be said of the place whence this species came, it is so gen-
erally distributed among the West Indies, from Jamaica southward, and
along the coasts of South and Central America.

Hyla septentrionai.is Tschudi ; Blgr.

In very large specimens the habit is massive and much like that of the
toad ; the skin is glandular, and, in some, covered with large smooth
■warts. On young ones the skin is quite smooth. A male, less than one-
fourth the size of the females, has a blackish rugosity on the inner side of
the first finger.

The color varies from grayish olive to brown, irregularly marked with
darker on the back. Ventral surface whitish, with or without spots or
cloudings of dark anteriorly. Limbs with transverse bands of brown. In
the folds in front of the shoulder the brown takes the form of narrow ver-
tical lines. Behind the thighs and along the flanks there are irregular
small spots or reticulations of brown. On small ones there is a white band
on the posterior half of the upper lip, a brown one behind each eye
through the tympanum toward the shoulder, and a transverse band, con-
cave forward, across the head between the eyes.

No diflferences are noted between these and others from Cuba.

Mr. Richardson states that the natives reported a crocodile in the
swamps. This might be expected from the presence of two species on
Cuba, one of which appears also on Jamaica and San Domingo. In com-
pleting the list of the Grand Cayman reptiles it will, no doubt, be neces-
sary to add the names of the marine turtles. Thalassochelys cephalo,
Chelonia mydas, Eretmochelys imbricata, and Dermatochelys coriacm.

Garman.] -^7 o [Oct. 7,

On West Indian Reptiles in the Museum of Comparative Zoology, at Cam-
bridge, Mass. By Samuel Qarman.

{Read before the American Philosophical Society, October 7, 1SS7.)

The following list includes the snakes, turtles and crocodiles of the
collection. A large proportion of them was collected by the writer, on
opportunities provided by Prof. Alex. Agassiz ; the remainder was
secured by purchase from different collectors. Among the species there
are a number not previously recognized ; the ranges of others have been
extended by the localities represented in the series.

In the snakes it is found necessary to place more than the usual stress
on variation of the number of rows of scales, or of the number of scutes
in the ventral and subcaudal series, since the representatives of a single
species on one or another of the small islands may be distinguished by a
couple of dorsal rows more or less, or by a few scutes more or less on the
lower surface ; variations that would have comparatively little value on
the mainland, but which here derive importance from their fixity, a conse-
quence of isolation. Alsophis cinereus, as compared with A. rufiventris,
furnishes a good illustration.

Typhlops richardi D. & B.

A specimen from St. Kitts island has twenty rows of scales, in 321 -(-13
transverse series. In squamation it differs little from the species as de-
scribed from St. Thomas.

Stenostoma albifroks Wagl.

One taken at Trinidad has its scales in fourteen rows, in 194 -\- 19 trans-
verse series. It disagrees with others from Para in having two broad
shields cross the back immediately behind the first three of the median
series, which are of the average size.

Boa constrictor Linne.
Trinidad.

Boa diviniloquax Laur. ; Dum. & Bibr.

On a couple of these boas from Dominica the transverse series number
sixty-five in each case.

Ungualia melanura Schleg. ; Gray.

Cuba. Scales in twenty-seven rows, the outer five of each side smooth ;
transverse series 214 -f- 41.

Ungualia maculata Bibr. ; Gray.

Cuba. According to Bibron this form has twenty-five rows of scales,
iu 200 + 35 to 40 transverse series.

1887.] 279 [Garman.

Ukgualia haetiana Cope.

Hayli. Scales in twenty seven rows ; ventral scutes 193 + 38. Loreals
and anterior pair of prefrontals fused.

Ungualia uurta, nom. sp. n.

U. maculata Cope, not of Bibron. Cuba. Scales in twenty-five rows ;
ventrals 154 + 27. Loreals fused with the anterior prefrontals. Prof.
Cope's specimens gave the species twenty-three to twenty-five rows, and
143 to 150 ventrals. The markings of this snake are somewhat like those
of U. maculata. In the dorsal series the blotches have white lateral margins.

Xiphosoma iiortulanuji L. ; Fitz.

Trinidad, Grenada, St. Vincent, Petit Martinique, Grenadines. The
total length of the largest is six feet thr6e inches, of which the tail is thir-
teen. J]xcessive variations in color are shown by these examples ; one from
Trinidad is light yellowish olive clouded with brown, with edges of scales
brown, and ventrals yellow blotched with darker. The markings are
obsolete on others not nearly so large. One from Grenada has the marks
very distinct, black with light borders ; a second is similar as regards their
shapes but the spots are faint ; and a third is nearly uniform brownish,
with yellow ventral surface, and an indistinct trace of a blotch here and
there. A St. Vincent type is very dark ; the blotches are large, black,
and continued down the flank as rather broad vertical bars ; the top of the
head is vermiculated with brown. That from Petit Martinique is very
distinctly marked ; the ground color is grayish and the blotches are black,
with white margins. One from the Grenadines is of the average, another
is a uniform dingy yellow, as if the brown pigment had entirely disap-
peared, leaving no traces of the markings. Dorsal rows 39-43 ; ventrals
256-285, subcaudals 107-117.

Epicrates cenchria L. ; Wagl.

Trinidad. One of these has a single labial in contact with the eye on
each side ; on the left it is the sixth and on the right the seventh.
Another has the sixth and seventh in the orbit on one side and the
seventh and eighth on the other. The markings are very indistinct.

HOMALOCHILUS STRIATUS Fisch.

llayti.

HOMALOCUILUS STRIGILATUS CopC.

Andros island, Bahamas.

Chilabothrus IN0RNATU8 Reinh. ; D. & B.

Bayamon, Porto Rico. This species is very common along the streams
on the branches of the trees. It is easily taken by means of a slick bear-
ina; a noose of strong twine.

Garman.] — oO [Oct. 7,

Rhabdosoma lineatum.

Dumerll & Blbron, 1854, Erp. Gen., vii, 105, describe this species from
Java. There is no doubt that the specimens described below came from
Trinidad ; they were taken by the writer near Port of Spain. Prof. Jan
has already questioned the locality given by Dum. & Bibr., most likely
with reason. Prof. Cope tells me he also has noted the species from Trini-
dad. The individual variations are so great that we may yet have to in-
clude Jan's B. punctivittatuvi.

Body stout, cylindrical ; head not distinct from neck, subconical,
slightly depressed; tail short, thick, pointed. Eye small, pupil round.
Crown-shields nine; internasals small, short ; prefrontals large, long,
narrow in front, broad behind, entering the orbit ; frontal subtriangular,
as broad as long, acute-angled between the parietals ; supraoculars small,
broad ; parietals large, wide ; nasals divided, nostril in the anterior half,
both anterior angles acute. Loreal widest in front, long ; entering the
orbit in one specimen, not fused with the anteorbital in another. Post-
orbitals two ; temporals 1 + 2, upper elongate. Labials eight, first small,
eighth large, fourth and fifth in orbit. Lower labials eight, fourth and
fifth largest ; submentals one pair, large, in contact each side with first
four lower labials, separated from the small nieutal by the first pair.
Scales smooth, broad, in fifteen rows. Anal entire. Ventrals 146, 136;
subcaudals thirteen pairs in one, eighteen in the other. Total length 8.5,
tail 0.5 inches.

Color light reddish brown, puncticulate with brown. A median nar-
row streak of brown from the occiput, another on the upper edge of the
third and lower edge of the fourth, and another on the upper edge of the
first and lower edge of the second rows. Belly white (? red or yellowish
in life). Head darker, clouded. On one specimen the edges of the
scales are darker.

LioPHis cobella L. ; Wagl.

Trinidad. Rows 17 ; ventrals 157 ; anal bifid ; subcaudal 63 pairs.
Dromicus dumerilii.
Calamaria dumerilii Bibr.
Urotlieea dumerilii Bibr.
Rows 17 ; ventrals 153 ; anal bifid. The specimen agrees well with the
description except in the number of ventrals, which was 138, twenty-five
less than in the present.

Dromicus cursor LaC.

Martinique. Scales in seventeen rows, with one pore. Ventrals 194,
191, 191, 186, 185. Anal bifid. Subcaudals 106, 103, 101 pairs.

The name cursor was given to this species by LaCepede in 1789, Quad.
Ovip. et Serp., ii, pp. 96, 380, PL xiv, f. 3. Doundorft' from this figure and
description renamed iifugitiviis in 1798, Zool. Beytr., iii, 206.

1887.] .^i [Carman.

Dromicus cursor, var. pleii.
Dromicus pleii D. & B.

Martinique, in the low-lands near Fort de France. Rows 17 ; veutrals
195, 193, 192, 190 ; anal bifid ; subcaudals 107, 104, 101 pairs.

These specimens are much lighter-colored than those from the heights ;
the colors are more olivaceous, and the bands are as in the original
description.

Dromicus cubensis, nom. sp. n.

Cuba. This is the D. cursor of Bibron, but not of LaCepede. Rows
17 ; ventrals 149, 145, 145, 142, 140 ; anal bifid ; subcaudals 87, 92, 94, 106
pairs. Near the base of the tail some of the scales bear two pores ; far-
ther forward but one may be discovered, and anteriorly they become
obsolete.

Dromicus jult^ Cope, sp.

Dominica. Rows 17 ; one pore ; veutrals 157, 161, 162 ; anal bifid ;
subcaudals 77, 84 pairs.

On a variety of this species fuund in Marie Galante the marks are not
so black as on those from Dominica. Instead of a bright yellow spot
near the middle of the scale, the lighter portion is more olive and the col-
oring is more irregularly placed. Ventrals 161, 164 ; subcaudals 82, 81
pairs.

Dromicus ornatcs, sp. n.

St. Lucia. Roves 17 ; one pore ; ventrals 190, four 191 each, 194 ; anal
bifid ; subcaudals 86, 85, 88, 86, 91 pairs.

This handsome serpent is much like the Couresse of Martinique. Its
tail appears to be a trifle shorter ; its colors distinguish it very readily.
From nock to end of tail it has a median band of brown, which on the
body is about six scales wide and which contains two rows of round or
squarish spots of white larger than a single scale and separated from each
other by spaces of like width. On the third row there is a dark stripe in
which the scales are marked with a yellow spot. The anterior edges of
the ventrals are black. A black band behind the eye ; a yellow spot on
the lateral edge of each parietal ; two or three transverse yellow streaks
on the snout. Ground color of labials and lower surface yellowish or
white. D. cursor has a white vitta at each side of a black band of five
or six scales in width ; anteriorly the vitta is more or less broken into
spots but the included band lacks the two series of spots.

Dromicus temporalis Cope.

This appears to be the species figured by Jan and Sordelll under the name
of D. nuntlus. The specimen which served as type of D. temporalis has
the locality Cuba. It has seventeen rows ; pores not visible ; ventrals
166 ; anal bifid ; loreal and anteorbital fused on both sides.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 126. 2j. PRINTED NOV. 19, 1887.

Garman.] Zo^ [Oct. 7,

Dromicus parviprons Cope.

Hayti. Jeremie, Hayti. Rows 19 ; no pores ; ventrals 143 ou each of
three specimens, 143 ; subcaudals 113, 118, 113, 119 pairs.

Dromicus melanotus Shaw, sp.

Trinidad ; Grenada. Rows 17 ; one pore ; ventrals 147, 149, 153, 149 ;
anal bifid ; subcaudals 59, 62, 59, 65 pairs.

The dorsal black band is five whole and two half scales in width ; the
white line at each side of it is two half scales wide, as also the black line
on the flank ; the yellow or pinkish of the abdomen extends over three
and a half of the outer rows. Anteriorly the lateral black lines are
broken into spots and in the black vertebral baud there are small whitish
spots.

Dro.micus exiCtUus Cope.

St. Tliomas. Rows 19 ; ventrals 139, 140 ; anal bifid ; subcaudals 80,
83 pairs. One has the prefrontals fused on the median line.

Alsophis ater Gosse ; Cope.

Kingston, Jamaica. Rows 17 ; pores 3 ; ventrals 171, 180, 185 ; anal
bifid ; subcaudals 163, 149, 144 pairs.

Alsophis antillensis Schleg. ; Fitz.

St. Tliomas; Hayti. Eight specimens at hand have nineteen rows
each ; 173 to 181 ventrals ; and the subcaudals range from 134 to 143
pairs.

Alsophis angulifer Bibr., sp.

Cuba ; Havana, Cuba. Rows 17 ; ventrals 164, 167, 169, 167 ; subcau-
dals 103, 114, 108, 108 pairs.

Alsophis catmanus Garm.
Grand Cayman. A variety of the preceding.

Alsophis rupiventris D. & B.

St. Kitts ; Saba ; Nevis. On each of twenty-two specimens the num-
ber of rows is twenty three ; the ventrals range from 308 to 330, and the
subcaudals 114 to 133. • On nine the tail is mutilated. Apparently there is
a special cause for the prevalence of the mutilation in particular localities.

Alsophis cinereus Garm.

St. Barts; Anguilla. Six from St. Barts have the scales in twenty-one
rows; the ventrals ranging from 303 to 207, and the subcaudals from 115 to
123. They are darker than the following. Six from Anguilla have twenty-
one rows each ; ventrals 301 to 303, and the subcaudals 99 to 115. These
are more ashy in color than those from St. Barts, which are darker than

1887 ] ^OO [Garman.

the allied species from St. Kitts, Saba and Nevis. They form a variety
of the preceding.

Alsophis sibonius Cope.

Dominica. Rows 19 ; pores two ; ventrals 198.

This specimen disagrees in several particulars from the original descrip-
tion. The agreements, however, are so exact, when occurring, that tlie
variations are most likely to prove individual. The temporals are 1-1-2-3,
the anterior on each side being divided vertically in such manner as to
leave a short piece in contact with the orbitals; the seventh labial is large ;
each parietal has five or six scales in contact with its outer border. In
color it is almost black. A black band waves from side to side on the
back, its concavities being marked by triangular spots of white. A series
of black spots on the middle of the flank, much fused ; a series of smaller
ones on the outer edges of the ventrals and on the first row of scales.
Forward the ventral surface is yellow with black specks ; behind the
middle the white disappears on back and belly in a uniform black.

Alsophis melanichnus Cope.

Bayamon, Porto Eico. Rows 17; pores two ; ventrals 169, 170; sub-
caudals 125, 129; loreal pentagonal ; lower postorbital very narrow, about
one-third as large as the upper ; temporals 1-2-3. ^ The narrowness of tlie
lower postorbital is a good distinguishing character. On young specimens
the dark-bordered scales are distributed in such way as to form irregular
transverse bands, more indistinct in larger ones.

Alsophis pulcher, sp. n.

Testigos island. Rows 17 ; two pores ; ventrals 190; anal bifid. Head
distinct, broad behind ; body slightly compressed ; tail mutilated. Labials
nine, fourth, fifth and sixth in the orbit, eighth largest ; lower labials
eleven, sixth largest. Loreal low, upper edge horizontal. One anteorbi-
tal ; two postorbitals. Snout rounded, rostral, internasals, and prefrontals
convex. Prefrontals bent down to meet the loreal. Loreal region con-
cave. Temporals irregular 2-2-2. Frontal broad and truncate anteriorly,
narrow and rounded behind.

lirownish-yellow, darker in front, with a median black edged band of
yellowisii-brown on the back, five scales and two halves in width. At
each side of this there is a yellow band, one scale and two half scales in
width, margined by a dark streak. On the flank the yellow band is mar-
gined by a dark streak occupying half of each of the second and third
rows. Each ventral is marked on its outer-anterior edge by a black spot,
which forms a zigzag line along the edge of the abdomen. Belly yellow ;
chin and throat blotched with dark brown. A dark streak from the nos-
tril through the eye. Toward the neck the amount of black on the scales
is much greater and the dorsal band appears as if composed of three.

Garmaa.] ^o4: [Oct. 7,

Ialtris vultuosus Cope.

Jeremie, Hayti ; types. Rows 19 ; two pores ; veatrals 182-188 ; anal
bifid ; subcaudals 105, may be a little shortened.

Hypsirhynchus scalaris Cope.
Jeremie, Hayti ; type. Rows 19 ; one pore ; ventrals 16G ; anal bifid.

Herpetodryas carinatus L.; Bole.

Kingston, St. Vincent. Two specimens. Rows 12, outer smooth ; ven-
trals 173, 164 ; anal bifid ; subcaudals 162, 158 pairs.

Herpetodryas bodd.ertii Seetz. ; Schleg.

Kingston, St. Vincent ; Trinidad. Rows 17 ; pores two ; ventrals 191,
195, 202, 204, 200, 194, 196, 204; subcaudals 118, 105, 110, 118, 122, 124,
127, 118 pairs.

Urokacer oxtrhynchus Dum. & Bibr.

Hayti. Rows 19 ; ventrals 200 ; anal bifid. The bluish-green of the
back shades gradually into the light color of the belly ; there are no punc-
ticalations ; the white line on the flank is narrow, obsolete on the anterior
third of the length, distinct on the remainder of the body and the base of
the tail. The snout is less sharp than in the variety.

Var. A.. Samana, San Domingo.

Rows 19 ; ventrals 192 ; anal bifid ; subcaudals 199 pairs. Snout acute.
Color grass-green ; white band on the outer row occupies nearly the
whole scale, is very distinct and extends over half the length of the tail ;
abdomen gray, puncticulate with brown, and with a few scattered small
spots of black.

Uromacer inornatus, sp. n.

Jeremie, Hayti. Four examples. Rows 17 ; ventrals 182, 184, 188, 190 ;
anal bifid ; subcaudals 301 on the only entire. Snout more blunt than
U. oxyrhynchus. Color nearly the same on back and bell}^ ; bluish-green
puncticulate with brown.

Uromacer catesbti Schleg. ; D. & B.

Jeremie, Hayti. Rows 17 ; ventrals 163 in three and 165 in the fourth ;
anal bifid ; subcaudals 181 pairs in one, 206 in another.

Dryiophis ^neus Wagl. ; Cuv.

One specimen of five from Trinidad has fifteen rows of scales ; the
others have seventeen. Ventrals 193, 187, 177 ; subcaudals 177, 164, 163
pairs. One from Testigos islands has nine labials, the fifth and sixth in
the orbit ; it lias seventeen rows, and 181 ventrals.

1887.]

285

[liannan.

Leptodeira annulata L. ; Fitz.
Trinidad. Rows 19 ; ventrals 178 ; subcaudals 90 pairs.

DiPSAS CENCHOA L.; Wicd.

Trinidad. Rows 17 ; ventrals 247, 233, 247 ; subcaudals 158, 160, 1G5
pairs.

SCYTALE COKONATUM Schneid. ; D. & B.

Grenada. Ventrals 195, 188, 186 ; subcaudals 73, 86, 85.

OxYHiiOPUS PLUMBEUS Wagl. ; Gthr.

Grenada. Rows 19 ; ventrals 233.

St, Lucia. Rows 17 ; ventrals 233, 232 ; subcaudals 71 pairs.

Elaps rush Jan.

Trinidad. Ventrals 184, 186, 184 ; subcaudals 3 + 42 pairs, 17 -f 25
pairs, 45 pairs ; bands 30 -|- 9, 25 + 11> 25 -j- 10. Two postorbitals.

Elaps lemniscatus L. ; Schneid.

Trinidad. Ventrals 221 ; subcaudals 36 pairs ; bands 36, eleven groups
of threi!.

Trigonocephalus lanceolatcs Oppel.

Martinique. Rows 31, 32, 33 ; ventrals 217, 220, 223 ; subcaudals 53,
68, 59 pairs.

Trigonocephalus caribb^us, sp. n.

St. Lucia. Labials 7 to 8 ; lower labials 8 to 11. Rows of scales 25,
27, 27 ; ventrals 197, 206, 209 ; subcaudals 64, 69 pairs. This serpent is
more slender than that from Martinique ; it has narrower scales and not
nearly so many of them. In color the tendency is toward olive, more or
less uniform ; the brown blotches being almost obsolete in cases. Belly
whitish to yellowish, with few or no puncticulations. Individuals vary
from light olive with white belly to dark olive-brown with yellowish
ventrals.

The Martinique serpent is brown rather than olive ; the brown blotches
are more distinct, and the puncticulations on dorsals and outer portions of
ventrals are abundant ; the bellies are yellow. Individuals vary from
yellow to black.

This is the Craspedocephalus atrox of Lieut. Tyler, 1849, Pr. Zool. Soc.
Lond., 100, but is not that species, as found on the mainland, to which tlic
name was originally given by Linne, Laurenti, Gray, Filzinger and others.

Garman.] ^oO [Oct. 7,

TESTUDINATA.

Testudo tabulata Walbaum.

Abundant in the market at Port of Spain, Trinidad. Secured also at
St. Vincent and St. Lucia. It feeds readily in captivity and is I^ept about
the iiouses and carried from place to place much as the more common
domestic animals.

Emys rugosa Shaw ; Gray.

From the markets at San Juan, Porto Rico, and from Cuba.

CiNOSTERNUM sp.

A small turtle, sent by Prof. Felipe Poey, of Havana, possesses charac-
ters that separate it from both of the species, C. pennsylvanicum and C.
leucosto'inum, which it approaches most nearly.

It is elongate ; the snout is narrower and more pointed than that of the
first mentioned species. The greatest length of the carapace is exactly
four, its greatest width two and three-fourths, behind the middle, the
greatest length of the plastron three and nine-tenths, and the width of the
plastron across the pectoral shields is one and nine-tenths inches. Ante-
riorly the plastron is rounded ; posteriorly it is truncate, with a shallow
notch between the anal shields. The pair of pectoral shields, like the
pair of preanals, meet on the median line in a suture of about three-eighths
of an inch. A single pair of barbels close together under the lower jaw.

Color light yellowish-olive with darker margins to the shields. Head
sprinkled with light spots. A narrow streak of light color passes around
the snout on the rostral angle above the eye and along the side of the
head to the neck.

Chelonia mydas L.; Schweigger.

At certain feeding grounds among the leeward islands a great many of
these turtles are taken for shipment to various ports. In the same resorts
"Loggerheads," "Shell turtles," and "Trunkbacks " are said to occur.

CROCODILIA.

Crocodiltjs rhombifer Cuv.
From Cuba.

Crocodilus americanus Schneid.
The collections contain specimens from Jamaica, Hayti and Cuba.

1887] -^^7 [Garrett.

Memoir of Pliny Earle Chase. By Philip C, Garrett.

{Read before the American Philosophical Society, October 21, 18S7.)

Pliny Early Chase was a native of the old Puritan Commonweallh
which has probably contributed more than any other to the intellectual
life of this country. He was born at Worcester, Mass., on the 18th of
August, 1820, and was descended on both sides from the hardy and intel-
ligent yeomanry of Xew England, most of his ancestors in this country
having been farmers. His father, Anthony Chase, wa5 for thirty-four years
Treasurer of the county of Worcester and for tlnrly years President of
the Worcester Mutual Fire Insurance Co., and died as recently as 1879
at the advanced age of eighty-eight years. His mother was Lydia Earle,
of the neighboring town of Leicester. Her father, Pliny Earle, "made
the first cards ever propelled by mechanical power in America, and
invented a machine by which the manufacture of them was greatly facili-
tated ;" Dr. Pliny Earle, one of the most distinguished alienists of this
countrj^ was her brother ; another was Thomas Earle, an eminent philan-
thropist, member of the Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention of 1887
and candidate of the Liberal Party for the Vice-Presidency in 1840 ; a
third, John Milton Earle, was for many years Editor of the Massachusetts
"Spy."

The subject of this Memoir was of the eighth generation in descent from
Ralph Earle, who " was on the island of Rhode Island in 1638, was one
of the petitioners to the King for permission for the formation of a 'body
politic' on that island, and was subsequentlj^amember of their legislative
Assembly."

Pliny Earle Chase's earl}^ education was received at the Worcester
Latin School, the principal of which, at that time, Hon. Charles Thurber,
afterwards member of the Massachusetts Senate, preceded his distinguished
pupil to the " Silent Land " only a few days. Ex-President John Adams
had been a teacher in the same school. Pliny afterwards attended the
Friends' School at Providence, R. I., and entered Harvard in 1835, gradu-
ating from that University in 1839 with the degree of A. B., and receiving
that of A. M. in 1844. "As a boy, he was bright, intelligent, apt and
quick in the acquisition of knowledge, but without special precocity. He
was always one of the best scholars, but there was nothing that indicated
the profundity of intellect manifested in his later years.'.' In a letter to
his uncle, he writes, in his Freshman year : "I am chiefly guided in the
path which I intend to pursue by an aspiration after such honors as are
calculated to be of lasting benefit in forming an acquaintance with the ways
of the world and in acquiring honorable fame."

He was then only fifteen years of age, but his career would indicate that he
kept this honorable ambition of his boyhood constantly in view throughout
life. Edward Everett Hale, who was a Harvard classmate, informs that
he was " distinguished for scholarship, especially for mathematical scholar-

Garrett.] ^0*5 [Oct. 21,

ship, in his class at Cambridge. He was one of a special advanced section
in mathematics, of which no member had had to take a lesson a second
time. They were therefore so much in advance of the great body of the
class that, at the end of the mathematical course, they had the advantage
of special instruction from Prof. Peirce in higher mathematics. He was
interested in all branches of physics. I remember him especially," writes
Mr. Hale, "as one of eight observers who made some of the first observa-
tions which are on record of the shooting stars. The record will be found
in the ' American Journal of Science,' of 1837, and I believe of the ' Comptes
Rendus ' of the French Academy of the same year. He was a quiet, unob-
trusive young man, but a favorite with the class from his uniform cour-
tesy, and a rare sense of humor, which never left him through life."
Upon taking his degree at Harvard, he immediately entered the pedagogic
profession, at first in district schools in Leicester and Worcester, then in
1840-1 as Associate Teacher in the Boarding-school at Providence, in
which he himself had prepared for College. In 1841-2 he taught at
Friends' Select School on Cherry street, in Philadelphia, and, from 1843 to
1844, conducted a private school in the latter city. On the 28th of June,
1843, he married Elizabeth Brown Oliver, of Lynn, whose brother. Prof.
James E. Oliver, of Cornell University, was a man of kindred tastes to his
own. The following two years were spent in New England, where he
prepared for publication his first book, the "Elements of Arithmetic,
Parts I and II," afterwards published by Uriah Hunt & Sons, of Philadel-
phia. This was followed, in 1848, by "The Common School Arithmetic."
In the course of 1850, in connection with Horace Mann, he prepared and
published " Mann & Chase's Arithmetic, practically applied," remodeling
the 1st and 2nd parts of the "Elements of Arithmetic" into a new
series, which was published by E. H. Butler & Co., Philadelphia.

Dr. Thomas Hill, ex-President of Harvard University, bears the follow-
ing testimony to the value of his arithmetical works : "Chase's Arithmetic
was the best I ever saw. The two books 'Chase' and 'Chase & Mann, ' as we
called them, were worth all other arithmetics that I ever saw put together.
When I first introduced ' Chase ' into the public schools of Waltham, I
had a hard battle with the committee and with the teachers. They
thought it too difficult, etc., but, in less than one year, all were satisfied, and
at the end of three years, all enthusiastic. No schools in Massachusetts,
and I believe none in the world, equaled our Waltham schools in
arithmetic. But the publishers sold the plates to a Boston firm, who had
another and inferior book to push, and they melted up the plates of Chase, to
my intense indignation." Stronger proof of their merit could scarcely be
given. Dr. Hill regarded them not as compilations, such as the common
run of arithmetics, but as original contributions to pedagogy, and
"classed Mr. Chase not with mere compilers, but rather with the origina-
tors, whose work is more akin to Pestalozzi's, and who deserve to rank
very high ;" and probably no higher testimony could be produced than
Dr. Hill's, on this point.

1887.] -^oJ [Garrett.

la the fall of 1845, Mr. Chase returned to Philadelphia and conducted a
private school for girls, at the same time giving lessons in other schools
and in families. In all probability, he would have continued uninter-
ruptedly in the pursuit of that profession, in which he was beginning to
earn a measure of the "honorable fame " to which he aspired in his boy-
hood, had not severe haemorrhages of the lungs, occurring three years
later and continuing, with diminishing frequency, for ten years, compelled
him to relinquish teaching. His physicians recommended a life which
would allow of more out-door air and exercise, and he entered into a
manufacturing business, under the name of North, Harrison & Co.

Two years later, John Edgar Thomson, President of the Pennsylvania
Railroad Company, joined the firm as special partner, and a younger
brother of Mr. North as general partner, under the firm name of Norths,
Harrison & Chase, who conducted a large foundry at Wilmington, Del.,
with sales-rooms in Philadelphia. In the following year, Mr. Harrison
died, and the name was changed to North, Chase & North, and eventually
Chase became the head of the firm of Chase, Sharpe & Thomson, the
junior of which was Edgar L., a nephew of President Thomson. But
although their house engaged in an extensive wholesale trade extending
to foreign countries, tiie practical business element was somewhat deficient
in the head of the house, who greatly preferred intellectual pursuits, and,
after suffering heavy losses, he finally, in 1866, after having wasted
eighteen precious years in uncongenial occupations, sold out his interest
in the foundry business. He was at this time forty-six years of age.
Prof. Chase has been criticised for too much diversification of pursuits. It
was characteristic of this tendency, that for six or eight years prior to
abandoning mercantile life, he had given private lessons in the then
famous school for young ladies of Prof. Charles Dexter Cleveland ; and
five years earlier bad actually bought the furniture and good-will of
Prof. Cleveland, upon the hitter's retirement from teaching. This course,
while more to the taste of so intellectual a man, did not conduce to the
success of the foundry business which he was conducting, and which
afterwards, in the hands of a former employe, proved exceedingly profitable,
although the closing years of Prof. Chase's connection were the lucrative
years of inflation caused by the war of the Rebellion. In the very same
jj^ear, he also gave up the finishing school for young ladies, his own
impression being that "the breaking out of the war interfered with private
schools." He did not, however, abandon teaching, and from this time
until his death adhered to his chosen profession, pursuing it continuously,
if we except two visits to Europe, on the first of which, in 1870, he accom-
panied a party of young ladies who had been his former pupils and who
sought the benefit of his familiarity with the European languages, as well
as his agreeable companionship. The second visit was made in the sum-
mer of 1883 with members of his own family.

His later da3's were certainly his best days as a teacher, and while a
natural modesty stood in the way of ambition, and he preferred a quiet

PROC. AMEU. PlIILOS. SOC. XXIV. 126. 2k. PRINTED NOV. 31, 1887.

Garrett.] -^''^ [Oct. 21,

and unobtrusive life, yet lie attained a highly creditable standing in
the profession. On the sixteenth of January, 1863, he was elected a
member of the American Philosopliical Society, to whose Transactions and
Proceedings he afterwards became a diligent contributor. He occupied
for a time the Chair at the University of Pennsylvania, rendered vacant
by the death of Prof. Fraser, and, in 1871, became Professor of Natural
Sciences in llaverford College, and remained a member of the faculty of
that congenial institution until his death, occupying, after 1875, the Chair
of Philosophy and Logic, then established. In 1876 he received the hon-
orary degree of LL.D. from Haverford, on the ground of "his attain-
ments and original researches in Mental and Physical Philosophy," Two
years later, in the summer of 1878, after a severe illness, which resulted
in the partial paralysis of one foot, and sensibly abated his physical vigor,
he removed from Philadelphia to reside in the cottage on the beautiful
grounds, in a bit of natural forest, adjoining the magnificent avenue of
maples which forms the approach to Haverford College, On this charm-
ing spot, in the midst of sweet pastoral scenes, abounding in vegetable
life, he had an excellent opportunity to indulge his taste for botany, a
favorite pursuit. In 1884 lie received the appointment of Lecturer on
Psychology ^and Logic at Bryn Mawr College for Women. He prepared
the syllabus and notes for the first course of lectures, which he was to have
delivered in the winter of 1885-6, but was never able to deliver them,
being overtaken by his final illness during that season. A sharp attack of
pneumonia sapped the foundations of a vitality already much undermined,
and although he partially recovered and resumed his duties at Haverford,
the end was evidently drawing near. During the brief interval of life
that remained and in consequence of the absence in Europe of his brother
Thomas, who was President of Haverford College, he was made Acting
President of that Institution, and held that position when death came,
presiding at the Annual Commencement of 1886. His name had been
prominently mentioned for the Presidency of Bryn Mawr College at the
time of its organization, but the precarious state of his health forbade,
although his eminent scholarship, the variety of his learning, and his pre-
vious experience in Young Ladies' Schools, strongly commended him for
that position.

As a College Professor, he was clear in his demonstrations and attractive ;
and many are the testimonies of affection and respect borne by his former
students, accompanied by acknowledgments of the important influence
of his teachings upon their lives. As a disciplinarian, he was mild and
easy, inspiring his pupils with love rather than fear ; indeed the latter was
not an ingredient in his system at all ; he governed purely by gentle
suasion.

Such is the simple record of a quiet life, the annals of which display no
startling passages. If modesty were the opposite of greatness, then he
was not great. But there was an unusual combination of great and good
qualities in his mind and character, and one of its most conspicuous traits

1&S7.] 291 [Garrett.

was a rare simplicity, indeed genuine modesty and humility, which is
oftenest closely allied to a true greatness in the soul, unconscious of itself
and busied with lofty studies of omnipotent power and sublimity. It was
through this beautiful quality, wliich was perfectly natural and unassum-
ing, that he endeared himself much to all of his intellectual associates,
whether pupils or companions of his own age.

lie had a singularly versatile mind, and a comprehensive and richly
furnished memory. His writings included a wide range of subjects, upon
each of which he displayed much erudition, and they were full of sug-
gestivencss. It is seldom that a like capacity is found in one mind, both
as a linguist and as a mathematician. He read with the help of dictiona-
ries, and was more or less familiar with one hundred and twenty-three
languages and dialects, and claimed thorough acquaintance with thirty of
them. His knowledge of these was not profound, nor was it marked by
the accuracy, in pronunciation and otherwise, which familiar conversation
requires. Yet his attainments as a linguist afford a remarkable indication
of the scope of his mind and the extent of his memory, and therefore
throw an important light upon our estimate of the value of his deeper and
more characteristic productions. Occasional contributions to the Proceed-
ings of the American Philosophical Society were made on subjects in
Comparative Philology, as the paper "On Radical Etymology, " that on
the "Mathematical Probability of Accidental Linguistic Resemblances,",
on "Sanscrit and English Roots and Analogues," on the "Comparative
Etymology of the Yoruba Language," and others. His reputation as an
analyst was sufficient to induce the sending to him of an obscure cipher
from the War Department for translation during the Rebellion, and, on
another occasion, of a Coptic inscription. But although his philological
attainments were in no wise mean, his pen was most fertile in other
directions. Of over 150 papers contributed by him to various learned
bodies, most of them to this Society, not more than one-tenth were philo-
logical, and the remainder mostly in meteorology, cosmics and physics.
Many of these were fragmentary, — studies, as it were, of great themes, —
and in undigested groups ; they were unfinished, like Michael Angelo's
marble groups, and needed the master's hand to give them the perfect
expression intended. As he grew older, they took more and more a
cosmical direction, and his mind struggled to demonstrate from the har-
monies of the universe, as the geologist does from the marvelous narrative
of the rocks, a cosmical evolution. Going back to the very sources of
development with daring genius, he sought, through proofs of the
"Quantitative equivalence of the different forms of force which we call
light, heat, electricity, chemical affinity, and gravitation," and original
theories of nodal accumulation, the truth of which time may affirm, to
establish a common law that "All physical phenomena are due to an
Omnipotent Power, acting in ways which may be represented by harmonic
or cyclical undulations in an elastic medium." A peculiarity of his mental
operations was a singular capacity for seeing harmonies and analogies

Garrett.] ■^•-'-' [Oct. 21,

which did not attract the attention of others. His methods of thinking
were swift, and led him to undemonstrated skips in his reasoning which
made it difficult to follow him. In the ordinary processes of addition, he
footed up columns of eight or ten nvimbers, extending into trillions,
instantaneously, setting down the result from left to right, ending with
the units. A certain instinctive or intuitive faculty pervaded his demon-
strations, interrupting their purely mathematical character, and making
many mathematicians and physicists plausibly skeptical as to the value of
his theories.

An eminent scientist at one time spoke of him as "the Kepler of this
century," and there was a certain resemblance, in the tentative methods
pursued by him, to those by which his great prototype discovered the
astronomical laws upon which his fame is based.

Prof. Kirkwood writes : " The just value of his contributions to science
caiinot at once be determined. It must be said, however, that his hypo-
thetical conclusions were so often in close agreement with well-known
facts, as to leave the impression that his theories must have a foundation
in truth."

Prof. Herschell, referring to his paper on "The Results of Wave Inter-
ference," bears this testimony : "From a direction of research probably as
distant and distinct as pcssible from the late Prof. Chase's, at least in its
origin, I have reached results which the contents in this case, of Prof.
Chase's papers, confirm and corroborate so amazingly, that all question
of the real validity of views, however incongruous they may perhaps
be to each other in particulars, by which identical results of such surprising
characters have been arrived at by us both, in perfect independence, is
banished completely and forever from my mind. Prof. Chase's writings
and discoveries will constantly gain in note and consequence by wider and
longer consideration and perusal ; and they will surely never cease to have
leading uses for consultation and for purposes of instructive study, among
those who aim and strive to unmask more laws of energy's unitary opera-
lions, if possible as prominent and predominating as those which his
discoveries have disclosed."

An American philosopher, who, while somewhat uncertain how to esti-
mate him, says he is hopeful that the future will reveal the value of Prof.
Chase's labors, speaks thus of his later work : " It may prove prophetic
of developments that will take us a long step below our present philos-
ophy of things — or it may not. Time will show. If the new develop-
ments do come, my feeling is, that they will help to bring the heavens and
the earth nearer together, by showing that beneath the seemingly ulti-
mate facts of matter, gravitation, conservation of work, things that may
seem to pertain to no other life cf ours than this— tliat beneath these,
and nearer to the ultimate reality, there lies an order of things that may
well serve as the physical basis of this and the next life alike."
Prof. Chase, although, as we have already said, very modest in his esti-

1887.] -"^"^ [Garrett.

mates of himself, was confident that his conclusions pointed in the right
direction. Yet he did not claim matliematical demonstration for his
theories, and while his papers abounded in formulae, they were only partly
mathematical even in form. There was an element of imagination, of
speculation and of intuition. The harmonies are not always perfect, links
are missing ; very probably some of them will prove to be accidental,
while others, with their profound inductions, will remain firmly planted
upon the rock of truth. Indeed, they have claims, not only to coincidence
with the conclusions of other philosophers, derived from different data, and
reached through other channels, but even to verification as tiredictions.
Dr. Chase regarded the series of twelve papers contributed to the London,
Ediuboro' and Dublin Philosophical Magazine as containing, to quote his
own words, some of his "most important discoveries in confirmation of
the nebular hypothesis, including nine verifications of intra -mercurial
planets and of harmonies of solar and planetary rotation that he had pre-
dicted some years prior to the discovery." These " verifications of intra-
mercurial planets " should rather be designated " Confirmations from other
sources of liis opinion predicting them." These special articles comprised
the 1. Cosmical Activity of Light ; 2. Equilibrating Forces of the Solar
System ; 3. Planetary Interaction ; 4. Our Binary Star and its Attendants ;
5. Correlations of Central Force ; 6. ^therial Nodes ; 7. Momentum and
Vis viva ; 8. Undulation ; 9. Criteria ; 10. Radiation ; IL Watson's Intra-
mercurial Planet ; and, 13. Predictions. The titles of these papers suffi-
ciently indicate their cliaracter and his claims of original discovery, which
are further elucidated by such others, appearing elsewhere, as "The
Gamut of Light," "The Music of the Spheres," "The Beginning of
Development," "Planeto-taxis," and "Photo-dynamic Notes." Regarding
light as the primal manifestation of force, and the Almighty fiat, "Let
there be light " as the order for movement in the cosmic element, out of
which all the complex development of the universe has grown, he felt
after and sought to discover the fundamental laws whose universal applica-
tion might pervasively explain all material forms and forces. Thus his
investigations were not limited to the relations of the great forces of light,
gravity, electricity, etc., but his speculations on the harmonies extended to
the laws which govern chemical affinity and to ordinary material things.
This much may be said as to these investigations : that

1. Whatever may be the ultimate conclusions of Science as to the precise
nature and extent of the evolution, there has been an evolution from the
simpler and more comprehensive conditions of matter, into the more com-
plex and multiform.

2. It is reasonable to suppose that this entire evolution has been in accord-
ance with some general law.

3. The discovery of that law is probably within the reach of the human
mind.

It was after this law that Prof Chase was searching ; the character of his

Garrett.] ^ J4: [-q^^ 21,

mind was one that eminently fitted it for the investigation ; and future
researches may show his work to have been founded in fact and correct
inference, and that he was in advance of his age and above the heads of
his critics. The respect in which his writings have been held in Great
Britain has been attested by their publication in the "Philosophical Maga-
zine." His essay on "The Numerical Relation between Gravity and
Magnetism" received, in 1864, the Magellanic Premium from this
Society.

The detached and fragmentary character of his scientific productions,
their real profundity, and the limited number of those who could follow
him in his rapid evolution of tl\ought on these subjects, have led many
scientific men to regard his speculations with doubt, and some, who had
little or no personal acquaintance with their author, accord them no
scientific value. But Prof. Chase was least of all a hypocrite or a charla-
tan, and those who knew him best will most unhesitatingly recognize his
deep sincerity. lie was an humble seeker after truth, with the lamp of a
strong intellect. The obscurity of his logic belongs not altogether to the
writer, but to his theme. There was nothing obscure about his ordinary
style. When he wrote upon familiar topics it was clear and cogent, rising
sometimes into flights of eloquence. It is to be regretted that he has not
himself been able to put into compact and comprehensible form his studies
on cosmical and molecular forces as applied to astronomical and inter-
planetary relations, and no less the profound, though fragmentary notes,
which his mind threw off in later scintillations. But they were not
completed, and though much more than gropings after the facts of infinity,
can not lay claim to perfect and final demonstration. Whatever title his
name has to rank among the greatest on the rolls of science, however, no
one who knew his work will deny him an eminent place.

The loftiness of conception and inspiring suggestiveness of his writings,
his extensive learning, his great industry and productiveness, his boldness
and success in dealing with the problems of the unknown world, entitle
him to distinction. Aside from his deeper and favorite themes, the range
of subjects ably treated by his pen was notable. Among these may 1)e
remarked such familiar topics as Bricks, Paper, Ink, Ceramics, Artificial
Iron Works.

Some of his rules for weather prediction were embodied by the U. S.
Signal Service in its " Manual for Observers," and the observations of the
Bureau have indicated the importance of anti-cyclonic storm centres, to
which he first called attention. He claimed the discoveries of "a para-
bolic connection between the nearest fixed star and the solar system, of
harmonic undulations which have influenced the arrangement of planets
and of spectral lines, and of the quantitative equivalence of the different
forms of force." He made many observations upon rainfall, and in a
series of papers, "demonstrated the meteorological influence of the moon,"
regarding "the evidence of important lunar modifications, both in the
amount and in the frequency of rain, as unmistakable."

1887.] -^"^ [Garrett.

A leading characteristic of Prof. Ch'ise was the quiet and unwavering
faith with which he adhered to the Bible record, and to Evangelical Christi-
anity. Through all mutations, throughout his active studies of the material
world, and of the great forces of Nature, he was unshaken in his belief in
the spirituality of religion, and its real and necessary relation to the same
Omnipotent Power, who originated the cosmos. He accepted the
Christian theory of salvation absolutely and without qualiticatiou as
Divine. That which many scientists are led to doubt, seemed clear to him,
and all f\icts were of necessity parts of one stupendous whole. He was
a religious man, not only ])y intellectual conviction ; but the fruitsof piety
\tere manifest in his daily life, especially towards its end, in an unaffected
gentleness and sweetness of temper, a freedom from assumption, and a
general submission of his actions to the Divine government and guidance.
Wealth had few attractions for him, his tastes inclining him to count it
loss if it interfered with science and religion, even if he had had any gift
for accumulating, which he had not. Born in the Society of Friends, he
held throughout life their belief, and of later years frequently preached to
the little congregation at Radnor, of which the Haverford students and
Professors formed a part. Nor was his pen idle upon religious themes,
and those affecting the prosperity of the sect he loved. He read an able
paper before this body on "The Philosophy of Christianity," and his
lecture "On Denominational Education in the Society of Friends" was
a lucid argument of much power in its favor. He was wont to press the
view that God was ever acting on the soul of man to give it right direction,
as well as in the phenomena of nature. His faith was not so much in
doctrinal propositions, as in God himself, as revealed in Christ, in Nature,
in History, and in Man's reason and conscience. But while firm in his
own convictions, he was broad and charitable to others, and sought to find
any ground of common truth upon which he and those who differed most
widely from him could stand. His opinion was candid, and open daily,
like Dr. Arnold's, to change with the advances and discoveries of science ;
yet he always retained an abiding confidence that Science and Revelation
would be found really to harmonize. His personal trust in a present
Omnipotence enabled him to meet all the vicissitudes of fortune with a
more than philosophic composure and content. While his philosophy
was pervaded with religion, his religion was no less filled with philosophy,
and the lustre of his life presents a shining example to those who survive
him of evolution "more and more unto the perfect day," when at
last the " mortal shall have put on immortality."

Taylor.] -^96 [Oct. 21,

Octonary Numeration, and its Application to a System of Weights and
Measures. By Alfred B Taylor, A.M., Ph.M.

{Read before tlie American Philosopliical Society, October 21, 1S87.)

For many years strong and persistent efforts have been made by tbe
advocates of tbe French metrical or decimal system, to have its use made
obligatory in the United States, to the exclusion of the heterogeneous
tables of weights and measures now existing. Its use has been legalized
in Great Britain since 1864, and in the United States since 1866.

" On the first of January, 1879, a new Act went into force," (in Eng-
land) " by which it is made unlawful to buy or sell by other than impe-
rial measures, and no provision is made for the adoption of the metric
system."*

Its progress in either country has been very slow.

At the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Sci-
ence in 1887, Mr. Ravenstein, of the Geographical section, while strongly
advocating the metric system, stated that "while the English foot is used
by 471 millions of people, the metre is used by only 347 millions of peo-
ple." But the selection of a system evidently should not be made be-
cause a greater number of people use the one or the other, nor on account
of the cost of the change in money or in temporary inconvenience, but it
should be made on the intrinsic merits of the system.

The zealous votary of the metric S3^stem can acknowledge no defects ;
the offspring of the world's best science, it must be as perfect as it is beau-
tiful, and only prejudice, ignorance and stolidity can stumble on obstruc-
tions, or refuse entire allegiance to its beneficent sway. The real difficul-
ties in the way of its success are fully realized alone by those who have
given a careful and unbiassed attention, not merely to the various schemes
proposed for simplifying or harmonizing national weights and measures,
but to the practical operation of such reforms when actually applied to the
daily life of human masses. And thus it occurs that what to the enthu-
siast is the foremost virtue of the French system, is, in the view of the
thoughtful student of facts, its most insuperable disadvantage.

The objections to it have been suflicient up to the present time to pre-
vent its adoption, and it is the opinion of very many persons that it can
■ never be satisfactorily adopted.

Many different projects in remedy of the existing and acknowledged
evils have been suggested ; some more practicable, others more systematic ;
and unfortunately these two classes appear to bear an inverse ratio to each
othei".

The substitution of decimal multiples aud divisions, conformably to our
established arithmetical notation, has been advocated ; and various stand-
ards or units have been proposed, such as the inch, the foot, the grain, the
* " New Remedies," Vol. viii, p. 192. New York, 1879.

1887.] 297 [Taylor.

pound, the pint, tlie gallon, the cubic inch, the cubic foot, etc., but none
of these projects has met with much favor.

The most feasible plan for arriving at a satisfoctory and authoritative
determination of so vital an issue would appear to be the appointment of
an international commission, with England, Russia and the Germanic States
(with France as well, if practicable), comprising the highest representa-
tive talent, not alone from the ranks of the physical philosopher and geo-
metrician, but as well from the classes of merchants, machinists and civil
engineers ; from those most interested and most skilled in the subject, for
the purpose of organizing and developing an acceptable and permanent
sj'stem of weights and measures.

Among the labors of such a commission, a very needful one would be
to institute a careful and impartial investigation into the exact state and
working of the metric system among those nations which had tried it.
Assuming nothing, rejecting nothing, accepting nothing, as the ground-
work of the future, the commission should endeavor, from a comprehensive
survey of all the conditions and all the possibilities involved, to elaborate
a scheme best suited to the wants of man, and therefore best entitled to
the acceptance of the nations.

If the final verdict were in favor of a uniform octonary system, it would
not be difficult to establish it. If, on the contrary, such a commission
should agree to adopt the present French system, their decision would go
far to silence all further discussion ; the result would be well worth the
labor and delay it might cost. No people would receive the system with
greater alacrity, or master its details with more facility and promptitude
than those of the United States ; not merely from their general intelligence
and mental versatility, but from their long training in the use of their
decimal monetary system.

Such a conference among nations having so manj^ fraternal ties, seems
to be eminently proper in every sense, and surely will not be regarded, at
this day, as a visionary or illusive expectation.

The origin of weights and measures is not known, and can be only con-
jectured. Their need was contemporaneous with the inflmcy of the
human race.

Man in a slate of nature w^ould, in his strife for existence, seek food,
clothing and shelter from the inclemency of the weather. He would kill
animals for their flesh, and use their skins for clothing. Tlie adaptation
of skins to this purpose would require measures of some kind to be used.
Those naturally suggesting themselves would be the finger, the breadth
of the hand, the span, the cubit (or extent from the tip of the elbow to
the end of the middle finger), the arm, and the fathom (or extent from the
extremity of one middle finger to that of the other, with extended arms).
So in the construction of a habitation, however rude, whether of logs, or
of earth and stones, he would find need for the use of measures, and some
of the above would no doubt suppl}^ his needs. Distances traversed in
his walks about his habitation would naturally suggest to him measures

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 126. 2l. PRINTED NOV. 21, 1887.

Taylor.] '^"t> [Oct. 21,

of length, and none of those mentioned would conveniently supply liis
want. Here he would probably use the foot or the pace, and it would not
naturally occur to him to use the same measure, or the same scale of pro-
portions and numbers to clothe his body and to mark the distance of his
walks. Here, then, is a source of diversity in the standards of linear
measure, flowing from the difference of relations between man and physi-
cal nature. It would be as inconvenient and unnatural to measure a bow
and arrow, for instance (among the first implements of solitary man), by
his foot or pace, as to measure the distance of a day's journey, or a morn-
ing's walk to the hunting ground, by his arm or hand. These natural
standards are never lost to individual man in any stage of society. There
are probably few persons living who do not occasionally use their own
arms, hands and fingers to measure objects which they handle, and their
own pace to measure a distance upon tlie ground.

The need of measure^ of capacity would not be felt at quite so earlj' a
period of man's history as measures of length, yet they would be rendered
necessary by the nature of liquids, and for the admeasurement of those
substances which nature produces in multitudes too great for numeration,
and too minute for linear measure ; of this character are all the grains and
seedSj which from lime to time, when man becomes a tiller of the ground,
furnish the principal materials of his subsistence. But nature has not
furnished him with the means of supplying this want, in his own person,
and as his first measures of capacity he would probably employ the egg
of a large bird, the shell of a mollusk, or the horn of a beast. The want
of a common standard not being yet felt, these measures would be of vari-
ous dimensions ; nor is it to be expected that the thought would ever
occur to tlie man of nature, of establishing a proportion between the size
of his arm and his cup, of graduating his pitcher by the size of his foot,
or equalizing its parts by the number of his fingers. The necessity for the
use of weights comes still later. It is not essential to the condition or
comforts of domestic society. It presupposes the discovery of the prop-
erties of the balance ; and originates in the exchanges of traffic after the
institution of civil society. It results from the experience that the com-
parison of the articles of exchange, which serve for the subsistence or the
enjoyment of life, by their relative extension, is not sufficient as a crite-
rion of their value. The first use of the balance and weights implies two
substances, each of which is the test and standard of the other. It is nat-
ural that these substances should be the articles most essential to subsist-
ence. They will be borrowed from the harvest and the vintage ; they
will be corn and wine. The discovery of the metals, and their extraction
from the bowels of the earth, must, in the annals of human nature, be
subsequent, but proximate, to the first use of weights ; and when dis-
covered, the only mode of ascertaining their definite quantities will soon
be perceived to be their weight. That they should themselves immedi-
ately become the common standards of exchanges, or otherwise of value
and of weights, is perfectly in the order of nature ; but their proportions to

1887.] ^y«^ [Taylor.

one another, or to the other objects by which they are to be estimated^
■will not be the same as standards of weight and standards of value. Gold,
silver, copper and iron when balanced each by the other in weight will
present masses very different from each other in value. They give rise to
another complication, and another diversity of weights and measures. The
balance, or scales, in a rude form, are known to have been in use from
very early times. The Greeks, as appears from the Parian chronicle, be-
lieved weights, measures, and the stamping of gold and silver coins to
have been alike the invention of Pliidon, ruler of Argos, about the mid-
dle of the eighth century B. C.

The weights or counterpoises used in weighing were probably obtained
by taking equal bulks, roughly determined, of some material of compara-
tively uniform density, such as brass or iron ; but to render them more
accurate and definite it became necessary to call in the aid of more accu-
rate measures of capacity ; and the weight of a known volume of pure
water, at a known density, is now the criterion universally resorted to for
determining the standard of weight. This supposes that the volume or
cubic contents are correctly known ; and since contents or capacity can be
practically expressed onlj^ in terms of the cube of a length, and area in terms
of the square of a length, it follows that to obtain exact units of measure of
all kinds, it is necessary first to fix, and then to be able to reproduce with
the greatest possible exactness, the unit of length. Absolutely invariable
standards of weight and measure have not been, and in the nature of the
materials to be dealt with, cannot beattained ; while to secure and reproduce
measures of given sorts, the results of which shall be correct and uniform to
within the least practicable degree of variability, is a problem upon which
a vast amount of scientific research, ingenuity and labor has been ex-
pended.

When the legislator has the subject of weights and measures presented
to his contemplation, and the interposition of law is called for, the first
and most prominent idea which occurs to hira is that of uniformity ; his
first object is to embody them into a system, and his first wish to reduce
them to one universal common standard.

In England, from the earliest records of parliamentary history, the
statute books are filled with ineffectual attempts of the legislature to es-
tablish uniformity.

Of the origin of their weights and measures, the historical traces are
faint and indistinct ; but they have had from time immemorial, the pound,
ounce, foot, inch and mile, derived from the Romans, and through them
from the Greeks, and the yarcl, or (jirth, a measure of Saxon origin, but as
a natural standard diflereut from theirs, being taken not from the length
of members, but from the circumference of the bod}"-, and hence a source
of diversity. The yard, however, very soon after the Roman conquest, is
said to have lost its original character of girth ; to have been adjusted aa
a standard by the arm of King Henry the First ; and to have been found

Taylor.] dUU [Oct. 21,

or made a multiple of the foot, thereby adapting it to the remainder of the
system.

In 1266, the first positive attempt was made to change the common
weight into the troy,* under the name of the weight of assize ; a statute
51. Henry III enacted "tliat an English penny called a sterling round,
and without any clipping, shall weigh 33 grains of wheat, from the mid-
dle of the ear, and 20 pence to make an ounce, 12 ounces a pound, 8
pounds a gallon of wine, and 8 gallons of wine a bushel of London,
which is the eighth part of a quarter." This penny weight was divided
into 24 grains.

But neither the present avoirdupois, nor troy weights, were then the
standard weights of England. The foundation of the sj^stem of 1266 was
the penny sterling, which was the 240th part of the tower pound ; the
sterling or easterling pound which had been used at the mint for centuries
before the conquest, and which continued to be used for the coinage of
money until the eighteenth j'ear of Henry the Eighth, 1527, when the troy
pound was substituted in its stead. Tlie tower pound weighed 3G0 grains
(or y\^) less than the pound ivoj, and the penny, therefore, weighed 22^
grains troy.

Tlie philosophers and legislators of Britain have never ceased to be
occupied upon weights and measures, nor to be influenced by the strong
desire for uniformity. They found a great variety of standards differing
from each other, and instead of searching for the causes of these varieties
in the errors and mutabilitj^ of the laws, they ascribed them to the want
of an immutable standard from nature. They felt the convenience and the
facility of decimal arithmetic for calculation ; and they thought it suscep-
tible of equal application to the divisions and multiplications of time,
space and matter. They despised the primitive standards assumed from
the stature and proportions of the human body. They rejected the sec-
ondary standards taken from the productions of nature most essential to
the subsistence of man ; the articles for ascertaining the quantities of
which weights and measures were first found necessary. They tasked
their ingenuity and their learning to find, in matter or in motion, some
immutable standard of linear measure which might be assumed as the sin-
gle universal standard, from which all measures and all weights might be
derived. In France their results have been embodied into a great and
beautiful system. England and America have been more cautious.

Among the earlier measures of length used by various nations are
found such as the "finger's length," the "digit" (second joint of the
forefinger), the "finger's breadth," the "palm," the "span," the
" cubit" (length of forearm), the "nail," the " orgyia " (stretch of the
arms), the "foot," the "pace," etc., and the names of these measures,

* When the troy weight was introduced into England is not known. It was iutrod-jced
into Europe from Cairo in Egypt about the time of the Crusades, in the 12th century.
Some suppose its name was derived from Tmyes, a city in France, which first adopted it ;
Others think it was derived from Troy-novant, the former name of Loudon.

1887.] «jOJ- [Taylor.

their almost constant recurrence among different nations, and the close
approximation in length of such as have, like the foot, more nearly' ac-
quired tiie cliaracter of arbitrary measuree, alike establish the fact tiiat in
its origin, measurement of length was by the application of parts of the
human body. In some parts of the East the Arabs, it is said, still mea-
sure the cubits of their cloth by the forearm, with the addition of the
breadth of the otlier hand, which makes the end of the measure ; and the
width of the thumb was in like manner formerly added at the end of the
yard by the English clothiers. Tlie advantages of such measures for pop-
ular use are that they are known by observation and readily understood,
and in an average way always capable of being recovered, when more
arbitrary standards might be wholly lost. But their great disadvantage is
extreme variableness, especial!}'- when directly applied ; and in the grad-
ual progress of men's minds toward exactness of conception and reason-
ing, three successive plans of insuring greater accuracy have been devised,
and two at least have secured permanent adoption.

The first is that of obtaining a uniform standard by exchanging the
measures by parts of the body for conventional or arbitrary lengths, which
should represent the average, and which were to be established by law.

The second plan is that of making accurate comparisons of the various
standards of each given sort in a country. Attempts of this kind appear
in England to have been commenced under the auspices of the royal
society in 1730 and 1742 ; in the former year by a comparison of the En-
glish, French and old Koman standards ; and in the latter by the deter-
mination (by George Graham) of the length of a pendulum beating sec-
onds at London, to be equal to 39.1393 inches, and the construction of a
standard j'ard. Of this, under the direction of the House of Commons,
Mr. Bird (a celebrated optician) prepared two accurate copies, respectively
marked "standard yard 1758" and " 1760," and intended for adoption as
the legal standards. He determined and prepared also the pound troy, the
original of that now in use. Of these two standards, no intentional alter-
ation has since been made ; so that these or their derivatives are now in
use in England and the United States.

The third proposed step toward rendering measures exact has reference
rather to the means of making the standards recoverable in case they
should be lost. In the definite pursuit of this purpose the French philos-
ophers of the time of the Revolution took the lead, and devised the metric
system, in which the unit of length is derived from the dimensions of tlie
earth, and the units of capacity and weight are made dependent upon the
former, while the whole has decimal multiples and subdivisions. The
celebrated commission concentred within itself the physical and mathe-
matical science of France, but there was one science unfortunately not
there represented ; the science of human nature. Looked at from a purely
aritlimetical standpoint, the problem of measures suggested but one solu-
tion, tliat of the decimal digits. Abstract mathematics could furnish no
inducements to binary or octonary divisions or progressions.

Taylor.] ^^-^ [Oct. 21,

So early in our national existence as the year 1790, the illustrious Jeflfer-
son, then Secretary of State, in obedience to a resolution of Congress call-
ing upon the Secretary to propose a plan or plans for establishing uni-
formity in the currency, weights, and measures af the United States, pre-
sented a report recommending a decimal system of metrology, and its
derivation from a natural and permanent standard of length.

Instead of taking the ordinary pendulum of 39 inches, he proposed the
second's rod of 5 feet, then generally known as Leslie's pendulum rod.
A simple straight rod, without the bob or ball, suspended at one end, has,
as is well known, its centre of oscillation at a distance of two-thirds of its
length from its point of suspension ; or, in other words, is one-half longer
than the common loaded pendulum vibrating in the same time. Such a
rod vibrating seconds is 58.72368 inches long ; dividing this into five equal
parts, Mr. Jefferson took this fifth part, or 11.744736 inches as the length
of the new "foot," and from this by decimal multiples and subdivisions
he presented a series of tables of weights and measures.

When we reflect that the system of metrology here displayed was per-
fected by Mr. Jefferson before any steps had been taken by the French
government toward the decimal re-organization of weights and measures
in that country, we must regard it as a memorial in the highest degree
creditable to the judgment and contriving skill of its author ; and as one
of many illustrations of the varied activity of his mind, and of the in-
terest he ever felt in all schemes for human improvement. The great
superiority of his proposed scales of measure, to those in common use,
cannot be questioned ; and their adoption would have been a signal public
benefit. The tables presented by him form a connected and complete sys-
tem, each depending directly upon the one preceding, and necessarily
flowing out of it, and all determined from a single and invariable natural
standard by a very simple and beautiful mode of derivation.

In this respect, however, the French system is by far the best of all that
have yet been devised. Starting with a carefully measured quadrant of
the earth's meridian, and dividing it into ten million parts, this system
presents us with a "metre "* as a universal standard to which all others
may be referred. Indeed, if a decimal system of weights and measures is
to be ultimately adopted, there appears to be none that has such just
claims to our acceptance as that of the French ; and although it would be
much more difficult of popular introduction than a simple decimalization
of our own divisions, and therefore less "practicable," there can be no
doubt that it would be in every way superior, both in regard to the pre-
cision of its measures, and the simple and philosophical character of its
divisions ; besides all which it has the immense advantage of being already
introduced and in successful practical operation throughout the great Re-
public of France ; and every extension of its use would be an important
step in the progress toward a uniform system among all nations.

* Equal to 39.3707SS inches ; very nearly the length of the second's pendulum, and not
much longer than our yard.

1SS7.] 'J'-'^ [Taylor.

Beautiful and simple as this system appears, and clear as its nomencla-
ture is to those familiar with the Greek and Latin tongues, it is j-et open
to animadversion on practical grounds, in that its language is that of the
philosoplier, and not of the tradesman or the business man. To all but
classical scholars — that is, to the large majority of men — the terms used in
the French tables are difficult and unmeaning ; to be acquired and appre-
ciated only by a laborious effort of abstract memory, and even when thus
acquired, constantly liable to be confounded and mistaken. Its metres
and litres, its myriametres and myrialitres, its decigrammes and decagram-
mes, are admirably contrived to bewilder the uninitiated, but of all possi-
ble devices are the least adapted to the common uses of daily life. To
obtain a ready and direct apprehension of the valuesof different denomina-
tions of measure, it is necessar}' that each should be recognized as an in-
dependent unit, without reference to its fractional or multiple derivation.
Thus, "ounces" or "inches" are at once seized upon by the mind as dis-
tinctive standards of value ; and the fact that these terms both signify
"twelfths" (.being derived from the Latin "uncia") never enters into our
contemplation when using them. The coin a "cent" has come to signify
a "one" and not a "hundredth." "What is really needed then for the
popular service, is a set of names, brief, easj^ and distinctive by a wide
separation of sound, however arbitrary or unmeaning may be their origin.
In this view of the matter, the rude and indefinite vulgarisms of "grains"
and "scruples," "feet" and "rods," "gills" and "gallons" are in-
finitely preferable to the scientific jargon of centigrammes and milUrjram-
mes, and hectogrammes and kilogrammes. In fact, the French system has
totally ignored all units, excepting the single one selected as the standard
for each table. Thus in weight, the P*rench cannot be said to have any
other measure than the gramme ; and instead of resorting to the dead
languages for so familiar a thing as a simple numeration table, it would be
much better to speak of and write down, the multiples or divisions of this
weight as a thousand or a hundred grammes, or as so many hundredths
or thousandths of a gramme. This, in plain English (or plain French),
would be understood by every one, and would just as conveniently ex-
press everything that is contained in the high-sounding terms we have
characterized as "scientific jargon."*

An almost unmanageable difficulty in the introduction of the French

* While lluiti strongly e.xpressinf? our objection to the nomcndalarc of the French tables
(whose very fault is its excess of system), it would be unjust not to acknowledge, and
ungenerous not to admire, the catholic sentiment which dictated it. The eminent
philosophers to whom belongs the honor of developing a metrology by far the most per-
fect that has yet been devised, felt as if they were legislating for the civilized world.
Desirous that all might have the benefit of their labors, they rejected all the familiar
terms emi)loyed in France, and naturally re.-orted to the great storehouse from wliich
the scientilic world has ever lieeti accustomed to ilraw its technical phraseology ; exhibit-
ing in this, their anxiety to adopt a language which might be acceiitable to all nations.
Unfortunately it is suited to none. The language of science cannot be that of the shop
and the market-place.

Taylor.] dU4: [Oct. 21,

system liiis been found in the adoption of tlie nomenclature ; there is a
natural aversion in the mass of mankind to the adoption of words, to
which their lips and ears are not from their infancy accustomed. Hence
it is that the use of all technical language is excluded from social conver-
sation, and from all literary composition suited to general reading ; from
poetry, from oratory, from all the regions of imagination and taste in the
world of the human mind. The student of science in his cabinet easily
familiarizes to his memory and adopts without repugnance words indica-
tive of new discoveries or inventions, analogous to the words in the same
science already stored in his memory. The artist, at his work, finds no
difficulty to receive or use the words appropriate to his own profession.
But the general mass of mankind shrink from the use of unaccustomed
sounds, and especially from new words of many syllables.

Should these measures be therefore introduced, we should strongl}^ urge
the entire abolition of the French nomenclature, and the complete natu-
ralization of the dift'erent scales by the substitution of more familiar terms
from our vernacular tongue.

In tlie advancement of physical science no nation has taken a higher
position, or exhibited a more fertile activity, than France. Hence it has
become necessary for every English and American physicist to familiarize
himself with the French units and standards of scientific research and
discovery, if he would avail himself of their benefits or information.
This again has induced a considerable employment of the same scales by
the English and American savants, in repeating or extending the foreign
experiments. It is not remarkable, therefore, that the scientific world
generally, both in this country and in England, sliould desire to see this
system universally prevail. Very few scientific men have given the sub-
ject of popular weights and measures any special attention, and of those
who have, it is believed that a very small proportion will be found to ad-
vocate the unqualified adoption of the metric system.

A decimal system applied to weights and measures must result in failure
as regards the convenience of such a system or its adaptation to popular
wants, and this want of adaptation arises, not from any defect in the plan
on which it is established, but from inherent defects in tlie decimal system
of numeration.

The introduction of any new system of weights and measures, to take
the place of one long established and in general use, will be found a trou-
blesome and difficult exercise of legisUitive authority. There is indeed no
difficulty in enacting and promulgating the law, but the difficulties of car-
rying it into execution are always great.

Of all the diffi( ulties to be overcome, however, perhaps the greatest is
the abandonment of old and familiar units or standards.

" Weights and measures maybe ranked among the necessaries of life
to every individual of human society. They enter into the economical
arrangements and daily concerns of every family. They are necessary to
every occupation of human industry ; to the distribution and security of

1887.] ^t)5 [Taylor.

every species of property ; to evehy transaction of trade and commerce ; to
the labors of the husbandman ; to the Ingenuity of the artificer ; to the
studies of the phih^sopher ; to the researches of the antiquarian ; to the
navigation of the mariner, and the marches of the soldier ; to all the ex-
changes of peace, and all the operations of war. The knowledge of them,
as in established use, is among the first elements of education, and is often
learned by tho.se who learn nothing else, not even to read and write. This
knowledge is rivetted in the memory by the habitual application of it to
tlie employments of men throughout life. Every individual, or at least
every family, has the weights and measures used in the vicinity and recog-
nized by the custom of the place. To change all this at once, is to affect
the well-being of every man, woman and child in the community. It en-
ters every house, it cripples every hand."

The failure that attends the introduction, and the objections that have
so far prevented the adoption of the metric system in Great Britain and
in the United States, notwithstanding the strenuous and untiring efforts of
its advocates, sufficiently attest the need of some other scheme, which,
while possessing the advantages claimed by that, may be free from its dis-
advantages and defects.

Great Britain has shown such a determined opposition to the metric sys-
tem, that, in the International Monetary Conference held in Paris in 18(i7, she
refused even to negotiate in reference to unity of coinage, and her dele-
gates stated 'that until it should be incontestably demonstrated that the
adoption of a new sj'stem offered superior advantages justifying the aban-
donment of that which was approved by experience and rooted in the hab-
its of the people, the British government could not take the initiative in
assimilating its money with that of the Continent."

She maintains the most complex system of measures, weights and coin-
age now In use among civilized nations ; she persistently rejects the deci-
mal system and adheres to the complex division of pounds, shillings and
pence, a system abandoned by the United States in their rejection of col-
onial dependence.

A very strong objection to accepting the metre, either directly or indi-
rectly, as our national standard of length is the want of absolute precision
in the rule itself. It has been shown by the investigations of able mathe-
maticians, that the metre is not an exact expression of its theoretical
value, and as the result of more extended geodetic measurement up to
1875, that the quarter of the meridian is equal to 10,001850 metres,
and that consequently the metre is too short by ^^^q part of its length.
This unfortunate and vital defect in the French metre nullifies almost en-
tirely its value as a natural standard, and defeats the principal object of
its establishment — the facility of its perfect restoration in all future time
should the existing material standards be destroyed. The metre is just as
arbitrary a standard as the yard ; the only real thing about it is the plat-
inum rod in the public archives in Paris, and this has no advantage over
the English standard kept in the British exchequer.

PROC. AMER. pniLos. 80C. XXIV. 12G. 2m. printed NOV. 21, 1887.

Taylor.] ^^^ [Oct. -11,

The kilogramme has in like manner been found to differ from its assumed
value by some small fraction, in consequence of the great difficulty at-
tending exact determinations of this kind.

Our weights, measures and coins at present correspond much more nearly
with the English than with the French standard. Our commerce with
Great Britain is very much greater than with any other nation, and we
should certainly commit a great error in adopting the metric system unless
Great Britain should consent to adopt it also.

Our adoption of the metric system, and the consequent change of our
linear unit, would sever our uniformity with Great Britain, a country
with -v^hich perliaps three-fifths of our foreign commerce is transacted,
besides whicli it would entail great inconvenience and much greater ex-
pense than is generally imagined. The measurements of every plot of
ground in the United States have been made in acres, feet and inches, and
are publicly recorded with the titles to the land according to the record
system peculiar to this country. What adequate motive is there to change
these expressions into terms which are necessarily fractional, and in which
those foreign nations, whose convenience it is proposed to meet, have no
conceivable interest? What useful purpose is subserved by designating a
building lot 20 X 100 feet in the form 6.095889 X 30.479448 metres?

Besides this, the industrial arts during the last fifty years have acquired
a far greater extent and precision than were ever known before. Take,
for instance, the machine shop, in which costly drawings, patterns, tajis,
dies, rimers, mandrils, gauges and measuring tools of various descriptions,
for producing exact work, and repetitions of the same with interchange-
able parts, are in constant use. It has been calculated that in a well-
regulated machine shop, thoroughly prepared for doing miscellaneous
work, employing two hundred and fifty workmen, the cost of a new outfit
adapted to new measures would be not less than one hundred and fifty
thousand dollars, or six hundred dollars per man.*

Supposing full consent were obtained for using metric measures in all
new machinery, how slow and difficult would it be to make the change.
A very large proportion of work consists in renewing worn parts ; where,
then, are the new measures to come in ? The immense plant of railway
motive power in the United States is all made to inches and parts. At
what time can a railway company afford to change the dimensions of the
parts of a locomotive engine? At no time, because the change would
require to be simultaneous in the whole stock. It is true that the old
dimensions might be adhered to, and called by metric names, putting
0.0254 metres, or 25.4 millimetres for one inch ; but this would be only an
evasion, not a solution of the problem.

A practical defect in the working of this system, which has been demon-
strated by experience, is its incapability of binary divisions ; a defect
which of course attaches equally to every decimal scale ; and one which

* "The Metric System in our Worksliops," etc., by Coleman Sellers. Journal of the
Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, June, 1874.

1887.] ^^' [Taylor.

has always strikingly displayed itself wherever this scale has been brought
into popular use, for the estimation either of lengths, bulks, weights or
values. In our own country'' the decimal scale has been applied only to
the currency, and we find that in spite of the legal division of the dollar
into tentlis, and its seeming establishment by the coinage and circulation
. of dimes, tlie people persist in cutting it up into quarters, eighths, six-
teenths, and even thirty-seconds, to the utter neglect of the coins actually
established by law, and to the inconvenience, confusion, and loss, result-
ing from the necessary involvement of interminable and unmanageable
fractions.

For all the transactions of retail trade the eighth and sixteenth of a
dollar are among the most useful and convenient divisions, and although
our government has never coined them, their want has been continually
felt, thereby showing the insufficiency of our much admired and boasted
decimalization of moneys to meet the actual wants and necessities of trade
and daily business life. So far, therefore, from our decimal currency pos-
sessing the excellencies that have so often and so inconsiderately been
ascribed to it, it has but the single merit of facility of computation. A
single division of the number 10 brings us at once upon a prime number;
and as the twelve pennies of the English shilling are far more convenient
to the tradesman, than the 10 cents of the American dime, so the 12 inches
of our present foot can never be usefully replaced b}^ the 10 centimetres
of the decimetre.

Many have supposed that this is all a matter of practical indifference,
and that it merely requires the decisive sanction of legislative authority to
accustom a people to any set of subdivisions. Such an opinion, however,
exhibits both a blindness to the lessons of all experience, and an inatten-
tion to many of the most important and subtle theoretical considerations
affecting the relations of value and our apprehension thereof.

Binal progression may be regarded as pre-eminently the natural
scale of division. This fundamental fact is indeed illustrated in the very
origin of the word division. The binary scale is in the first place the
lowest and simplest of all tlie geometrical progressions. It is that of
which we have the most ready and precise conception ; indeed, it may be
said to be the only one of which we have any accurate appreciation be-
yond the second or third term.* It is that by which we most rapidly
and nearly approach any vague quantity we may desire to employ ; hence
its universal use in trade. It is that which in any system of indepen-
dent units of measure (as in weights, or coins) furnishes us with the
means of representing the greatest range of particular values, by the
smallest number of pieces. It ia that which aUbrds us the easiest prac-
tical measure ; thus we can fold a string, a sheet of paper, or any other
flexible material, or we can cut an apple, or a loaf bread, at once and

* Thus, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, etc., cfiii be readily apprehended as repeated doublings,
while 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, etc., leave the mind confused in the attempt to follow up successive
triplings,

Taylor.] ^^8 [Oct. 21,

with great precision into halves, quaiters, and eighths, while we should
have to make repeated trials to divide the same into thirds or fifths, and
then attain the result only tentatively and approximately. And lastly,
it appears to be the most natural of scales, from the very common use
of the two hands in separating objects into pairs.*

Such being the claims, then, of the binary scale of geometrical progres-
sion, and such its obvious advantages over all others, it is not surprising
that this should be found to be practically the prevalent mode of distribu-
ting the more common weights and measures throughout the world, what-
ever may be the multiples or divisions enacted by law.

The .Roman weights in general use throughout the empire (that is,
throughout the civilized world) for some centuries after the Christian era,
were by means of intermediate subdivisions (introduced by the common
consent of traders) practically distributed upon a binary scale. So with
the divisions in universal use at the present day ; we find that a nest of
avoirdupois weights comprises ^ oz., ^ oz., 1 oz., 2 oz., 4 oz., 8 oz. and
16 oz., or 1 pound, and sometimes a 2-pound weight and a 4-pound weight ;
and by this scale of binal progression or division, almost everything is
purchased at retail. Our yardsticks are found to be divided not into the
legal feet and inches, but into halves, quarters, eighths and sixteenths.
Precisely so with the inch, which is never divided into its primitive
"three barleycorns," but almost always, like the yard, by the binal scale
into eighths and sixteenths, though occasionally divided for particular
purposes into twelfths, or into tenths. The operation of this great law is
quite as strikingly exhibited in France, where the popular necessities have
compelled the introduction of binal divisions, not recognized by the estab-
lished decimal scales, nor, indeed, strictly compatible therewith.

Mr. Peacock, in his admirable treatise on "Arithmetic," in the Encyclo-
pedia MetropolUana, thus sums up his review of the French system :
" The decimal subdivision of these measures possessed many advantages
on the score of uniformity, and was calculated to simplify, in a very
extraordinary degree, the arithmetic of concrete quantities. It was
attended, however, by the sacrifice of all the practical advantages which
attend subdivisions by a scale admitting of more than one bisection, which
was the case with those previously in use ; and it may well be doubted
whether the loss in this respect teas not more than a compensation for every
other gain." This deliberate judgment is from the author of perhaps the

* " The classification by pairs which nature points out would suggest the simplest mode
of reckoning. Counting these pairs again by two, and repeating the procedure, we arrive
by progressive steps at the radical terms, 4, 8, 16, etc." {Edinburgh Revinv for May, 1811,
Vol. xviii, p. 185).

The celebrated Leibnitz, so eminent as a mathematician as well as a philosopher,
struck with the simplicity and peculiar capabilities of this scale, proposed and strongly
urged the introduction of Binary Arithmetic. He showed that the Binary system, in
addition to its extreme facility, possessed peculiar value in discovering the properties of
numbers, and in constructing tables, etc. He did not, however, recommend it for gene-
ral use, from the increased number of figures required to express ordinary amounts.

18S7.] <^0" [Taylor,

most thorough and philosophical treatise on arithmetic in our language,
and such a statement certainly deserves our most serious consideration.

The masterly and comprehensive report on the suhject of weights and
measures, made to Congress in 1821 by Mr. Adams, when Secretary of
State, contains the following judgment : "The experience of France has
proved that binary, ternary, duodecimal and sexagesimal divisions are as
necessary to the practical use of weights and measures, as the decimal
divisions are convenient for calculations resulting from them ; and that no
plan for introducing the latter can dispense with the continued use of the
former. * * * From the verdict of experience, therefore, it is doubt-
ful whether the advantage to be obtained by any attempt to apply deci-
mal arithmetic to weights and measures, would ever compensate for the
increase of diversity which is the unavoidable consequence of change.
Nature has no partialities for the number ten ; and the attempt to shackle
her freedom with them will forever prove abortive."

So in the interesting paper of Dr. Ellis (in the American Journul of
Pharmacy, Vol ii, page 202), the French decimal system is thus referred
to : "Everyone is struck, at the first glance of this system, with the
beautiful simplicity which it derives from decimal arithmetic. It appears,
however, to have been overlooked, that, afthough decimal arithmetic is
admirably designed to facilitate the calculation of mere number, it is not
equally well suited to the divisions of material things."

Much to the same effect has been the result of the commission appointed
lately in England to consider the subject of a decimal coinage. The com-
missioners, after a full discussion and investigation of the subject, have very
recentlj^ reported against any change ; their report being drawn up in the
form of a series of twelve resolutions. The seventh resolution is as fol-
lows : "That as regards the comparative convenience of our present coin-
age, and of the pound and mill scheme, for the reckonings of the shop
and the market, and for mental calculations generally, the superiority
rests with the present system, in consequence, principally, of the more
convenient divisibility of 4, 12, and 20, as compared with 10, and the
facility for a successive division by 2 ; that is, for repeated halving, in cor-
respondence with the natural and necessary tendency to this mode of sub-
dividing all material things ; and with the prevalence of binary steps in
the division of our weights and measures."

In the view, then, of this pervading law or principle of all human me-
trology, so well established, and so distinctly recognized, it becomes an
obvious necessity, in adopting a decimal scale, to engraft upon it, the
divisions of halves and quarters, at least (and in the case of the more
commonly employed units, of eighths), if we would adapt it to the de-
mands of the people, or if we would hope for its permanent establish-
ment. It is true that this would involve a considerable number of sub-
ordinate divisions between one denomination of measure and the next be-
low it, as it would be requisite to have separate and distinctive weights,
for instance, for the unit (whatever it might be) for one and a quarter of

Taylor.] olO [Oct. 21,

the unit ; for two, for two and a half, and for five ; and it is also true that
the fractional values thus introduced would not be directly referable to the
ordinary computations of decimal arithmetic — thus adding, somewhat, to
the complexity and trouble of otherwise very simple calculations ; but
this is a fault, not of the binary divisions themselves, but resulting from a
radical and incurable defect in the decimal system. So long as we con-
tinue to count, to add, subtract, multiply, and divide by tens, so long
must we submit to this inconvenience (undoubtedly a serious one) or we
must choose the greater evil of abandoning all attempts at uniformity and
consistency of system, and continue, as heretofore, to measure and to
weigh by heterogeneous tables, while we perform the necessary opera-
tions of comparing, compounding, and distributing these values, by a
method or ratio entirely dissimilar ; entailing upon ourselves the waste of
time, labor, and patience, consequent upon a petty scheme of eternal and
superfluous reductions.*

This horn of the dilemma is that which has been accepted by the coin-
age commission of England, to which a reference has just been made.
The eleventh resolution of the Commissioners' Report is : "That the ad-
vantages in calculation and account keeping, anticipated from a decimal
coinage, may, to a great extent, be obtained without any disturbance of
our present coinage, by a more extensive adoption of the practice now in
use at the National Debt Ofiice, and in the principal assurance oflQces, viz.,
of reducing money to decimals, performing the required calculations in
decimals, and then restoring the result to the present notation," With
our experience of a decimal coinage (notwithstanding its imperfections),
this is not the horn likely to be selected 1)y Americans in attempting a
reform in weights and measures.

An expedient has been suggested by some, for facilitating division in
decimal notation, which is ingenious, and deserves a notice. The project
is to adopt a uniformly decimal system of weights and measures, but to
estimate entirely bj' "cents" — by simply suppressing every alternate
denomination ; thus, while reckoning decimally, we should traffic only
centesimally. Our practical application of this method in all our money
transactions, in which dimes are entirely suppressed in the market (though
still having their place in the columns of the ledger) and our estimates
made In dollars and cerits, familiarizes our minds to the process, and ena-
bles us to see how such a system might be indefinitely extended, by the
simple device of counting by double places of figures. The French table
of weights would stand thus :

100 deci-milligrammes make 1 centigramme.

*" Perhaps it may be found by more protracted and multiplied experience, that this is
the only ' uniformity ' attainable by a system of weights and measures for universal use ;
that the same material instruments shall be divisible decimally for calculations and
accounts ; but in any other manner suited to convenience in the shops and markets ;
that their appropriate legal denominations shall be used for comiiutation, and the trivial
names for actual weight or mensuration " (Adams's Report).

1887. J 311 [Taylor.

100 centigrammes make 1 gramme.

100 grammes . " 1 hectogramme.

100 hectogrammes " 1 myriagramme.

This suppression of the alternate denominations would have the advan-
tage of abolishing the very objectionable terms decigramme and deca-
gramme. Instead of the extreme awkwardness of taking one quarter of
a gramme (2^ decigrammes), we are furnished with the value in whole
units, by taking twenty-five centigrammes, just as we say twenty-five
cents instead of two and a half dimes.

Simple and taking as this proposal is, it is not free from serious objec-
tions. It. in fact, complicates rather than simplifies, by giving a very
wide range for estimating values. While it thus multiplies the units, and
enlarges the interval between them tenfold, it only furnishes us with a
single additional bisection, namely, the quartering. An eighth would still
require a fractional expression. Its benefit, therefore, bears no propor-
tion to the increased trouble and confusion involved. The necessity uni-
versally felt for quaternal and octaval divisions, would infalliblj^ operate
here as it has in our currency ; and we should constantly hear of 37^
hundredths of a pound ; 02^ hundredths of a pint, etc., which would be,
in no respect, better than 3| tenths, or %\ tenths. The truth is, we need
more frequent denominations than decimal ones, rather than more distant
stepping-stones ; and for some purposes, even the binary ratio of progres-
sion is not too slow.' In looking over the various tables of weights and
measures prevailing throughout Europe, it will be found that a large ma-
jority of the factors are 2, 4, and 8, with occasional resort to 3 and 6 — the
number 4 being, perhaps, the favorite number for the more customary de-
nominations.*

Amid the conflicting claims of the numerous plans proposed for simpli-
fying and uniting our incongruous metrology, there appears, at first sight,
so much of irreconcilable contrariety, that it might be concluded that a
combination of the respective advantages contemplated was hopeless and
impossible ; and that we were only left to a choice of evils. A more care-
ful scrutiny will however discover a pliilosophy in these very discrepan-
cies, and furnish the elements of a practical concord. On the one side, the
convenience of a system of divisions or multiples conforming exactly to
that by which we are compelled to perform all arithmetical operations, is
so obvious, and so universally recognized,! that the advocates of an entire
decimalization are certainly justified in their zeal. On the other hand, the
necessity of biual progression and division, though not so generally ack-

* This is rendered very apparent on turning over the pages of Woolhouse's little work
on the " Weights and Measures of all Nations." No. 101, of Weale's Rudimentary Series.

t " The great improvement of having but one arithmetical scale for reckoning integers
and fractions of every kind. * * * is one so obvious, and, Mithal, so little difficult, that it
is a matter of surprise that it should not have been attempted till near a thousand years
after decimal arithmetic was first introduced into Europe" {Edinburgh Review for Janu-
ary, ISO", Vol. ix, page 373).

Taylor.] OU [Oct. 21.

nowledged, is by all who have given the subject a careful study, so fully
appreciated, as being, at least, as fundamental as that of the decimal scale,
that those who urge the retention of all such denominations as are mea-
sured by the powers of 2, are no less justified. Which policy must, then,
be sacrificed ?

"The elementary principle of decimal arithmetic," says Mr. Adams,
"is supplied by nature to man within himself, in the number of his fin-
gers. Whatever standard of linear measure he may assume in order to
measure the surface or the solid, it will be natural to him to stop in the
process of addition, when he has counted the tale equal to that of his fin-
gers. * * * But while decimal arithmetic, thus for the purposes of
computation, shoots spontaneously from the nature of man and of things,
it is not equally adapted to the numeration, the multiplication, or the
division of material substances either in his own person, or in external
nature. The proportions of the human body, and of its members, are in
other than decimal numbers. The first unit of measures for the use of the
hand is the cubit, or extent from the tip of the elbow to the end of the
middle finger ; the motives for choosing which are, that it presents more
definite terminations at both ends, than any of the other superior limbs,
and gives a measure easily handled and carried about the person. By
doubling this measure, is given the ell, or arm, including the hand and
half the width of the body, to the middle of the breast ; and by doubling
that, l\ie fatJiom, or extent from the extremity of one middle finger to that
of the other, with extended arms — an exact equivalent to the stature of
man, or extension from the crown of the head to the sole of the foot. For
subdivisions, and smaller measures, the span is found equal to half the
ciibit, the palm to one-third of the span, and the finger to one-fourth of
the palm. The cubit is thus, for the mensuration of matter, naturally
divided into 24 equal parts, with subdivisions of which, 2, 3, and 4, are
the factors ; while for the mensuration of distance, the foot will be found
equal to one-fifth of the pace and one-sixth of the fathom " {Adams's
Beport).

"The fingers," says Dr. Lardner, "were naturally the first objects
which presented to the mind the idea of number ; and they furnished,
also, a set of natural counters by which the number of things might be
marked and expressed. The fingers, being continually in view, familiar-
ized the mind with the contemplation of every number of objects not
exceeding ten. It was natural, therefore, that ten should be adopted as
the number of objects to form the first group. * * * Although
ten has been so generally adopted as the radix of systems of numera-
tion, as to leave no doubt of its origin, yet it is not the only one which
has been used, nor is it the only radix having a natural origin. The
fingers of one hand rendered the number five familiar to the mind, before
the conception of ten as a distinct number presented itself. It was even
more natural and obvious, that the fingers should be contemplated aa

1887.] *^1^ [Taylor.

two groups of five, than as a single group of ten" (Treatise on Arit7i-
metic. Book i, chap, i, p. 5-6).

The gradual and successive development of these scales, is so well set
forth in Mr. Peacock's valuable treatise, that perhaps no apology is neces-
sary for a somewhat lengthened extract from it, even at the cost of some
repetition.

"The decimal scale of numeration is not the only one which may be
properly characterized as a natural scale. In numbering with the fingers
we might, very naturally, pause at the completion of the fingers on one
hand ; and registering this result by a counter, or by any other means,
. we might proceed over the fingers of the same hand again, or with the
fingers of the second hand, and register the result by another counter,
or replace the former by a new counter which should become the rep-
resentative of ten. * * * Again, the scale of numeration by
twenties has its foundation iu nature, equally with the quinary and
denary scales. In a rude state of society, before the discovery of other
methods of numeration, men might avail themselves, for this purpose,
not merely of the fingers on the hands, but likewise of the toes of the
naked feet ; such a practice would naturally lead to the formation of a
vicenary scale of numeration, to which the denary, or the denary with
the quinary, or the quinary alone, might be subordinate. * * *
Of other systems of numeration, the binary might be considered as
natural, from the use of the two hands iu separating objects into pairs,
and from the prevalence of binary combinations in the members of the
human body ; but the scale of its superior units increases too slowly to
embrace within moderate limits the numbers which are required for the
ordinary wants of life, even in the infancy of society. * * *

As the necessity of numeration is one of the earliest and most urgent of
those wants which are not essential to the support and protection of life,
we might naturally expect that the discovery of expedients for that pur-
pose should precede the epoch of civilization, and the full development
and fixing of language. That such has been the case, we shall find very
fully and clearly established, by an examination of the numerical words
of diflferent languages ; for, without any exception which can be well
authenticated, they have been formed upon regular principles, having
reference to some one of those three systems which we have character-
ized as natural ; the quinary scale, whenever any traces of it appear,
being generall}' subordinate to the denary, and, in some cases, both the
quinary and denary scales being subordinate to the vicenary. In some
cases, also, we shall find, from an examination of primitive numerical
words conveying traces of obsolete methods of numeration, that the
quinary, and even the vicenary scales have been superseded altogether
by the denary" (Encyclopedia Meti'opoUtana, art. "Arithmetic," Vol. i,
p. 371).

Decimal arithmetic thus appears to be coeval and coextensive with the
human race. It is, indeed, perhaps, the most universal of human insti-

PROC. AMER, PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 12G. 2n. PRINTED NOV. 21, 1887.

Taylor.] dl4: [Oct. 21,

tutions — at least as universal as language itself. From this universality,
most writers have called it the "natural " system; but on examining
the question whether the number ten possesses any intrinsic excellence
or convenience to recommend it — any peculiar fitness as a ratio of geo-
metrical progression, we find but one answer — it has none. It differs
from any other number only in quantity, not in quality. So f\ir from its
presenting any merit or advantage over its compeers, it is almost the last
number which a true science of arithmetic would have selected for the
important function of a radix of numeration. Its universality flows sim-
ply from the fact that the necessities of man impelled a selection,
in the very earliest infancy of the race, long before the invention of
letters, and while yet a language was but slowly being formed ; and the
selection comes to us stamped with the crude impress of a most irrelevant
accident. Had the six-fingered giant slain by Jonathan (2 Samuel xxi,
20) lived early enough to be the father of the first unreasoning tribes, we
should have had a duodecimal arithmetic ; or if, like the fowls of the air,
we had usually but four toes to our extremities, we should now have
been able to calculate only octavally ; and in either event we should have
been much more skillful computers than we are at present. *

Decimal numeration is "natural " then, only in the sense that ignorance
is natural. The fingers have no more real or "natural" relation to the
properties of number, than have any other organs or divisions of the
human body ; and mathematically or philosophically considered, the digit
is, therefore, no more a typical unit than a tooth (of which therp are
thirty-two), or the leg of a spider (of which there are eight), or the
petal of a flower (of which there may be any number). Nor have any
but the most ignorant races — those without a literature and an alphabet —
ever occasion to group and tally by their fingers. Only from unlettered
savages could such a scale, therefore, have deen derived.

It has been a favorite theory with a certain class of thinkers that
primitive man was a highly civilized being — "a scholar and a gentle-
man ;" and that the decay of states, and the decline of civilizations so
unfortunately frequent in his history, but manifest his prevailing ten-
dency to degeneration. Our universal arithmetic furnishes us with one
of the most striking refutations of such a fancy. Wherever over the
broad earth, the decimal scale exists, there have we the enduring monu-
ment of the ancestral savage — counting by his fingers or his naked toes.f

* " There can be no doubt that if man had been a twelve-fingered animal, we should
now possess a more perfect system of numeration tlian we do. Whatever he the radix
of the scale, it would always be a convenience to be able to subdivide it with facility,
without resorting to the more refined expedient of fractional language'-' {Lardner's Arith-
metic, chap, i, p. 21).

t The German word for ten— se7«e;i— signifies "toes," being the plural of the word, x?ic.
We do not generally or readily recognize this intellectual association in our own language;
and yet the Saxon word— <o— a " toe," is in the plural tan. The daktal (^daKTU?.o<;^
of the Greeks, and the digit (digitus) of the Romans, which signified either " finger" or
"toe," appear evidently affiliated to the deka (osKa^ of the one and the decern of the

1887.] ^1^ [Taylor.

Had any intelligent forethought ever presided over the inception of a
numerical scale — had any comprehensive conception of the uses aud pur-
poses of figures, in any single instance guided the selection of a ratio
for their multiplication — that ratio must inevitably have been something
else than ten; the duplication of an odd number — incapable of any other
division — neither a square, a cube, nor other power of any integer — and in
its successions among the most inefficient for the expression of fractional
values, or for the extraction of roots. And if among the patriarchs of
the human family, a rational scale had ever been so devised, some traces
of this wiser S3'stem must have been found, to give a "sign" and me-
mento of man's pristine elevation.

"The number ten," remarks Mr. Anderson, in his treatise on Arith-
metic, "has been adopted by every civilized nation for the radix of the
numerical scale. It has no peculiar advantages to recommend it, and
seems to have been selected for that important function, merely because
it expresses the number of the human fingers. We must regret that a
circumstance so totally unconnected with every scientific consideration,
should have determined an elemental principle, of the last importance
to one of the most abstract, as well as one of the most useful of all the
sciences ; and that the decimal notation should still be retained, not-
withstanding its evident imperfections, and the superior claims of other
scales" {Edinburgh EncydoiJedia ; edited by Sir David Brewster, art.
"Arithmetic," Vol. ii, page 411).

An able and philosophical writer in the Edinburgh Meview holds very
similar language. "Ten has indeed," he observes, "no advantage as the
radix of numerical computation ; and has been raised to the dignity
which it now holds, merely by the circumstance of its expressing the
number of a man's fingers. They who regard science as the creature
of pure reason, must feel somewhat indignant that a consideration so
foreign and mechanical, should have determined the form and order of
one of the most intellectual and abstract of all the sciences" {FJdin-
burgh Review, for January, 1807, Vol. ix, page 376).

A large number (perhaps even a large majority) of the well-educated
have been accustomed to regard the decimal system as possessing a
peculiar beauty and expressiveness, from the great facility with which the
ordinary operations of arithmetic are performed by it. Indeed, after
laboring at the tedious aud troublesome reductions of compound num-

other ; although the scuealogy (as in English) was probably more ancient than the lou-
giiages tliemselves. So uniform are the laws of mind and matter, tliat we have only to
select some rude and Isolated tribe of modern savages to discover witli a naturalist's
confidence, the exact process of development in numeration, with tlie aborigines of our
race, milleniums on milleniiuns ago. Klaproth, in speaking of tlie inhabitants of the
peninsula of Kamtschatka, says; "It is very amusing to see them attempt to reckon
above ten ; for having reckoned the fingers of both hands, they clasp tliera togetlier,
whieli signifies ten ; they tlien liegin at tlieir toes and count to twenty ; after whicli they
are (piitc confounded, and cry '• Matcha,' ' that is, where shall 1 take more ?" {Sprachat-
las, page 16.)

Taylor.] <jlv) [Oct. 21,

bers (consequent upon other scales of progression) unfortunately so often
required to be made, the relief of a simple addition or multiplication in
the homogeneous units of our common scale, is too striking not to excite
a feeling of admiration for the easier process. It appears not to be gene-
rally considered, however, that this facility of computation is in no respect
due to the series of "tens" by which we count, but is derived exclusively
from the admirable notation in which the series has been clothed, and
through which alone, we are in modern times made acquainted with it ;
and from the perfect conformity of the notation to the series. Any other
scale will be found to exhibit an equal facility, if the same notation be
employed, and made to correspond strictly with the selected scale. If,
like the old Arabian philosophers, or like the ancient Greeks and Romans,
we were compelled to calculate by a set of alpJiahetic numerals, we
should be able to better realize how much we are indebted to that simple
and yet grand invention of India, the "cypher figures," or the set of
figures with the device of local value.* This system of numerical lan-
guage presents us with a formula of geometrical progressions, so illimit-
able in range, and j^et so perfect in its conciseness and distinctness, that it
transcends all conception that the ingenuity of man in all coming time
shall ever be able to improve it.

Though from a remote antiquity familiar to the Hindoos (that wonder-
ful people from whom the civilized world has derived so much), it was
wholly unknown to the nations of the earth until comparatively modern
times ; having been first introduced into Arabia, less than a thousand
years ago, and from thence by slow and successive centuries into the
various languages of Europe.

However much the Arabian philosopher to whom belongs the honor of
having first transplanted the Sanscrit Arithmetic into his own country,
may have been impressed with its great power and beauty, he could hardly
have appreciated, to its full extent, the importance and magnitude of the
gift he was instrumental in presenting to the civilized world ; a transfer
which Sir John Bowring in his "Decimal System" (chap, ii, p. 22) has
characterized as " the greatest step ever made towards the introduction of
a universal language among the nations of the world." The Hindoo
numerals, from the channel of their introduction into Europe, were gen-
erally called the "Arabic figures" — a title they still commonly retain,
though it is one hardly just to the people with whom these figures had
their origin.

Now although this Hindoo notation has never been popularly applied
to any other than the decimal scale, it is obviously a formula of universal
applicability ; and if made use of to express a system of figures with any
other radix than ten, would give the same facility to all calculations per-
formed by that system.

Abstracting, for a moment, all specific value from the terms "units,"
"tens," "hundreds," and "thousands," and regarding them merely as

* See note A, page 367.

1887.]

317

[Taylor.

symbols of local value (designating only the orders of units), we may ex-
hil)it in a tabular form, a series of scales, with the successive increments
of value for each place, according to the radix, or ratio of geometrical
progression selected. In the following table the letter "U" in the top
line denotes a "unit;" that is, any figure which may occupy a single
place :

Table of Arithmetical Scales.

Hindoo Notat'n

U.

UO.

uoo.

uooo.

Scale.

Units.

Tens.

Hundreds

Thousands.

Radix

Logar' m

Places

Binary

1

1—2

1—3

1—4

1—5

1—6

1—7

1—8

1—9

1—11

1-13

1—15

1—17

1—19

1—29

1—39

1—49

1—59

2— ' 4—

8—

27—

64—

125—

216—

343—

512—

729—

1000—

1728—

2744—

4096—

5832—

8000—

27000—

64000—

125000—

216000—

2
3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

12

14

16

18

20

30

40

50

60

.301

.477

.602

.699

.778

.845

.903

.954

1.000

1.079

1.146

1.204

1.255

1.301

1.477

1.602

1.699

1.778

ft

3
9

a'o

T7

20

1

2 5

57
50
Z7

1 0

T.T

2 5
37

5

8
1 0
17
50
8?

Ternary

Quaternary

Quinary

Senary

3—
4—
5—
6—

7—
8—
9—
10-
12—
14—
16—
18—
20—
30—
40—
50—
60—

9—

16—

25—

36—

49—

64-

81—

100—

144—

196—

256—

324—

400—

900—

1600—

2500—

3600—

Septenary

Octonary

Novenary

Denary

Duodenary'

Quaterdenary.. .

Senidenary

Octonidenary. . .
Vicenary. ..'....

Tricenary

Quadragenary. .
Quinquagenary.
Sexagenary ....

The number of places for each scale is inversely as the logarithm of
the radix.

The most striking feature displayed by such a comparison of the differ-
ent scales is the rapid increase of value in the higher ratios, as compared
with the lower. While the ternary scale, for example, requires four fig-
ures to express so small a number as 27, the tricenary scale expresses one
thousand times as many, by the use of no more places. The very first
inquiry would, therefore, naturally be (in the absence of any other con-
sideration), which would be found more convenient — a very small radix, or
a very large one.

The first and lowest scale of the series — the Unary — presents, with some
disadvantages, many very remarkable advantages. In the first place it
requires but a single figure, 1 (together with the cipher for determining
its place), to express with facility and precision all the values within the
reach of figures.* According to the law of the Hindoo notation, by

* It was in reference to this curious property of the scale, that a medal .struck in honor
of Leibnitz, and to commemorate his invention of the binary system, bore on its re-
verse, the striking inscription : "Omnibus ex nihilo ducendis suflicit Unum." Unity
being very commonly regarded as the symbol of the Deity {Peacock's ArithincUc, Eucy-
clopcdia Metropolitaua, Vol. ii, page 392).

Taylor.] dio [Oct. 21,

■which every zero multiplies all the value that precedes it, by the amount
of the radix, it results that the addition of a cipher to the figure 1, would
of course multiply it by two (instead of by ten as in our common sys-
tem)— the addition of two ciphers, by two times two, or four (instead of
by a hundred) — the addition of 3 ciphers, by eight ; of 4 ciphers, by six-
teen ; of 5 ciphers, by thirty-two, etc. The first fifteen numbers would
read thus : 1, 10, 11, 100, 101, 110, 111, 1000, 1001, 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101,
1110, 1111.* The present year, 1887, would require eleven places of fig-
ures to express it; namely, 11101011111. Fifty places of figures (or 1
and 49 ciphers) in the binary system, would require but fifteen places of
figures in the decimal system. One hundred places of the binary (1 and
99 ciphers) would require thirty places of the decimal. So that the for-
mer system would involve, on an average, the constant employment of
about three and a third times more figures in all our arithmetical opera-
tions, than the latter system, or that in common use. This increased
expenditure of time and manual labor would evidently be a very serious
inconvenience. On the other hand it must be considered that the writing
down of any given mass of figures, in only two characters (always either
1, or a cipher), would be much more easy and expeditious than if the
mass consisted of ten different characters ; so that the actual increase of
trouble should be set down at probably not more than double that we
have at present. This much quantitatively. But in the quality of the
work done, the difference will be found immensely in favor of the binary
scheme. In the first place no tables would be required to be committed
to, and retained by, the memory ; either of addition, of subtraction, of
division or of multiplication ; not even the fundamental " twice two make
four." Every form of calculation would be resolved into simple numera-
tion and notation. In fact, calculation as an effort of mathematical
thought, might be said to be entirely dispensed with, and the labor of
the brain to be all transferred to the eye and the hand. A perfect
familiarity with the notation of the scale, and with the simple rules of
position, would enable the operator to determine in every case by mere
inspection whether the next figure should be a 1, or an 0. It follows
that the only errors possible in such a work would be the merely clerical
ones of the eye or hand ; and when we reflect that a large majority of the
arithmetical errors committed are usually those of the brain, fatigued or
bewildered by the constant strain upon the attention and memory, this
consideration of the increased accuracy of such a system is one of the
very first importance in estimating its value. To manj', the relief it
proffers in exchanging head-work for hand-work will appear no trifling
recommendation ; and it may well be doubled, whether in all important
and l&ngthy calculations, the binary system would not be found to afford
a real economy of labor, instead of an increase as has been generally
supposed.
It has been previously noticed, that the great Leibnitz, the rival of
* See note B, page 359.

1887.] 'JU _ [Taylor.

Newton in the invention of the " DlfTerential Calculus," proposed this
system and zealously urged its adoption ; although he thought that for
more common purposes it would be found too prolix. " De Lagny
took the trouble of constructing logarithms on the principles of this arith-
metic, as being more natural than those usually employed. * - *
He even proposed to substitute binary arithmetic for logarithms, afflrni-
ing that it was more simple and expeditious, and conducted to the object
in view in a less indirect manner" {Anderson' s ■ Article on Arithmetic,
in Brewster's Edinhurgli Encyclopedia, Vol. ii, pp. 376 and 409). The
same writer adds that " Dangicourt has applied the binary notation with
greater success to progressions, and proved that the laws of a series
may be detected by it more easily than by any other scale." This results,
it maybe as well to state, from the fact that " circulating periods " of
figures return far more frequently in this scale than in any other.

The Ternary scale, although it is also a very simple scale, has nothing
else to recommend it ; being incapable of integral bisection, and having
very nearly the redundancy of the binary scale, without one of its advan-
tages. It may be regarded as one of the most objectionable of all the
scales ; and indeed none of the odd numbers could, for a moment, be
accepted as a suitable radix of notation.

The Quaternary scale, as derived from the second power of the binary
scale, has many of its excellences. While it employs less than half the
number of digits, of the common or denary scale, to task the memory
and attention, it requires only about five places of figures, for three of the
latter. It combines, therefore, great simplicity of structure, with a mode-
rate range of notation, and would form a very convenient and practicable
system of numeration ; while it would furnish an admirable scale of
division for weights and measures of all kinds. It is said by Balbi, that
a very low and ignorant tribeof Indians in South America — the Guranos —
had names for only four digits, and that after counting these a second time
(to eight) they were unable to proceed any further. The correctness of
this account appears, however, to be exceedingly doubtful. It is remark-
able, too, that Aristotle mentions a tribe of Thrace as being unable to
count beyond four — a statement equally incredible.

Tlie Quinary scale, whose notation would require ten places for seven
of the denary, has nothing to recommend it ; and yet from the accident
of man being afllicted with five fingers, it has generally formed the basis
of the scale in common use, and traces of it are to be found in perhaps a
majority of the nations of the earth. The numerals of Malay and Java
were anciently , for the most part, quinary, in subordination to the vice-
nary grouping. A trace of this system is also seen among the ancient
Greeks, in their word -s/x-a^soOui (to count by fives) ; as it is among the
Romans in their notation of numbers above 5, 15, etc. The Persian term
for "five" is pendj(t ; and pentcha signifies the expanded hand. Among
the South Sea Islanders, the inhabitants of New Caledonia and the Hebri-
des, as Avell as the barbarous tribes of Northeastern Asia, the quinary

Taylor.] ^^^ [Oct. 21,

scale appears still to prevail. The central tribes of North America show
also traces of this digital period ; and they are frequent among the innu-
merable languages of Africa. Thus with the Jallolfs, the word for
"fiYQ^'—juorom — signifies the "hand." So with the Foulahs, the Jal-
lonkas, the Fellups, etc. There are no examples, however, of the num-
ber five ever having been used as a true radix of notation ; that is, as a
direct ratio of continued progression ; 5 — 5x5 (25) ; — 5X5x5
(125), etc. The quinary scale has seldom gone further than 20.

The Senary scale would require about seventeen places of figures for
thirteen of the common scale ; and its notation would therefore have
about a one-third greater extent. Though not one of the most desirable
scales, it would be much superior to the denary system. The simplifica-
tion arising from the reduction of its digits, would much more than coun-
terbalance the extension consequent on the increase of its places. Like
the denary scale, it admits of but one bisection ; but it possesses the great
superiority of admitting at the same time of a trisection. No examples of
this scale are to be met with ; although it is said to have been at one time
decreed in China, by the caprice of an Emperor, who had conceived
some astrologic fancy for the number six.

The Octonary scale approaches very nearly to the common scale in its
capability of expression, as it requires on an average but one-ninth more
places of figures to represent any given amount ; that is, ten places of
this scale would be equivalent to nine places of the denary. Being de-
rived from the third power of the binary scale, it possesses most of the
advantages of that system ; though not its admirable simplicity. Like the
quaternary, it admits of continued bisection down to unity ; and, of
course, of indefinite bisection below 1, by the simple expedient of an in-
verted, or negative notation (as in decimal fractions). As a perfect cube,
it has peculiar advantages both as a radix of numeration, and as a ratio of
progression or of division for weights and measures ; and in the latter
respect particularly, there is, perhaps, no other number that would so
well express the average range of a convenient metrical multiple.

The Denary scale* may be said to present a tolerably convenient mean
between the prolixity of a very small radix, and the intricacy of a very
large one ; besides which, it possesses the immense advantage of a uni-
versal establishment. But beyond this, there is nothing to be said in its
behalf. Intrinsically, it is one of the most imperfect and troublesome
scales which could be selected. Still, the inconveniences of the system
should be very serious and very apparent, and the claims of any rival
scheme very unquestionable, to justify the advocacy of a change, which

*The name " Decimal," by which our present system of arithmetic is commonly des-
ignated, appears not to have a perfect propriety. The terms " Octaval," "Nonal,"
" Decimal," " Duodecimal," etc., are derived from the Roman " ordinals," and belong to
the series Primal, Secundal, Tertial, Quartal, etc. The idea really involved is not that
of relation to a tenth, but of a relation to a grouping by ten^, and would require the term
" denal" or " denary "—from the Roman " distributive " numerals, of which the terms
"binary," "ternary," etc., commence the series.

1887.] ^^1 [Taylor.

would root up all our established forms and habits of calculation — which
would destroy the accumulated products of centuries of industrious
thought and toil — which would entail upon us generations of new labor
to attain even the same standard of tabular detail, and statistical informa-
tion, now possessed ; and which, more than all, would wholly demolish,
and perhaps hopelesslj% that uniformity so essential to the language of sci-
entific investigation, and so universally conceded to be one of the most
important aims and results of every project of metrical or numerical im-
provement.

Upon this basis must the question of so radical a revolution rest. But
if it is shown that uniformity in many other relations than those of simple
number, and no less vital to the interests and welfare of the race than this
boasted uniformity of figures, has constantly and irretrievably been sacri-
ficed to this great idol — if it is established by the voice of all experience
that neither national nor international standards of length, of weight, of
area, of volume, or of value, of any single subject, in short, to which
these figures cau be usefully applied, have ever the slightest hope of ob-
taining a general authority under the dynasty of this "universal" power
— then must it be dethroned, for very uniformity's sake, and a new dis-
pensation introduced, developed from such principles, and invested with
such attributes, that it may rationally be expected to gain at length a uni-
versal ascendancy, through the concurrent approval and adherence of all
intelligent nations. For the attainment of a real uniformilj^, there seems
no other process or alternative ; and for such an attainment, no sacrifice
of temporary convenience could be held to be too great. The faults of
the denary system are too radical to be amended — too obnoxious to be en-
dured. Sheltered by the inertia and conservatism of inveterate habit, it
has been tolerated already much too long. The unskillful contrivance of
an early age, it is all unsuited to the wants or uses of an adult manhood
of the race.

The Duodenary scale has over the denarj^ the advantage of allowing two
bisections, and, at tlie same time, like the senary scale, of admitting of a
trisection. Its variety of factors, 2, 3, 4, and 6, give it a much greater
power of expressing fractional values than any scale below it, or imme-
diately above it ; and it has accordingly been always found a conve-
nient and favorite number for metrical divisions. The acres, the feet, and
the pounds of the Romans were all divided by 12 ; as are the foot, and
the Troy pound, still with us. The signs of the Zodiac, the months of
the year, and the hours of the day, have illustrated the number from the
remotest antiquity. In the old French measures of length, not only the
foot was divided into 12 inches, but the inch into 12 lines, and the line
into 12 points. The "dozen,'' the "gross" or (12') and even tlie "great
gross" (or 12') are widely used in trade at the present day for the
package of a variety of articles. From the many acknowledged advan-
tages of the duodenary scale, it has found frequent and warm advo-
cates for its adoption as a system of numeration. In the necessity of

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 126. 2o. PRINTED DEC. 5, 1887.

Taylor.] <J^^ [Oct. 21,

two additional integers, it would offer however a considerable increase
of complexity and mental labor ; while the economy of places in nota-
tion could scarcely be regarded as appreciable — 25 of the duodenary
being required for 27 of the denary. As compared with the octonary,
it would require 5 places, where the latter would require 6 ; so that
while its digits are more by fifty per cent, the excess of the other in
places is only twenty per cent. But there are far more important con-
siderations than these, whicli unfortunately opppse themselves to the
adoption of this system, as the best substitute for the denary, notwith-
standing its admitted features of superiority.

The most fatal objection to the radix 12, is that it permits only a single
bisection beyond that given by the radix 10. The quality of continued
divisibility, we regard as paramount to all others ; not merely for the
convenience of art and trade, universal as their requirements are, but
even for many scientific purposes ; and however valuable the property
of a varied subdivision (as that furnished by the duodenary scale), ex-
perience has fully demonstrated, what is clearly seen by theory, that no
aliquot parts can ever be as widely useful as the binal fractions. An-
other objection to the 12 scale, somewhat allied to this, is that the num-
ber is not a power of any integer — a point, as we shall discover, of no
slight importance. In this respect, it may be remarked, the number nine
(awkward and inconvenient as it undoubtedly would be as the basis of
an arithmetic) would have several advantages over the number ten,
and even over the number twelve. A third objection to the scale under
consideration, which, though not so striking, is yet no less real : the radix
is too large. On the simple score of size, there must be somewhere in
the indefinite range of scales, a point where we should expect to find
the most convenient medium between the inexpediences of opposing diffi-
culties ; and although this most advisable limit of magnitude may not
admit of very precise determination, the question is one of too great con-
sequence in the comparisons we are making, not to deserve a special
attention.

The Seni-denary scale presents many excellent points, the number 16
being both a square, and a fourth power, and admitting of indefinite
division by two. Its only disadvantage is the incommodious number of
digits it would require ; while its notation would yet economize only a
single place of figures in every six places required by the denary scale.

The Vicenary scale furnishes no single point of merit which could rec-
ommend it to our acceptance, unless its divisibility by four should be
regarded as giving it a superiority to the denary. "With an exceedingly
troublesome and unwieldy range of digits, it would reduce the extent of
our common notation only from 13 to 10 places. Man was, however, un-
fortunately born with 20 extremities, or branches to his limbs, and hence
traces of what may be designated a rudimentary vicenary scale, are to be
met with among many nations, both ancient and modern. In ancient
Phoenicia and Palmyra, the system of numbering by twenties, as far as

1887.] ^-^^ [Taylor.

the hundred, prevailed ; and from these nations it was derived by the
Celtic languages, in all of which its remains are still found. Among the
Scandinavians, also, is found a vicenary numeration. The Greenlanders,
having counted fingers and toes in periods of five, designated the num-
ber 20 by the word innuk, which signifies a " man." If they have occa-
sion to proceed higher, the expression for 4Q is innuk arlak — "two men" —
etc. A similar method existed among the Aztecs of ancient Mexico ; as
well as among the tribes of South America. The Teutonic races retain
in their languages the traces of the ancient "score," and in parts of
England, counting by scores, or twenties, is still quite usual. The trans-
lators of our Bible have frequently (though by no means uniformly) in-
troduced this mode of enumeration. Thus we have "three-score and
ten" (Ps. xc, 10) — "three-score and twelve'' (Numb, xxxi, 38) — "three-
score and fifteen" (Acts vii, 14) — "three-score and seventeen" (Judges
viii, 14), etc., etc. The mode of numbering still in common use in
Fiance also exhibits a very remarkable retention of the antiquated vice-
nary system.*

This scale is not, as might be supposed, an extension of, and attempted
improvement upon, the decimal system. On the contrary, it almost uni-
versally preceded it ; and its employment belongs to the very earliest and
rudest stage of barbarian society. It betrays a period of human intelli-
gence, so destitute of all resource, that fingers and toes must all be pressed
into service, to meet the common wants of number ; and when these have
been exhausted, there has been found among some tribes, no power of
thought or word or symbol for aught beyond. It indicates a period long
before a conception of any expedient for numerical expressions had
dawned upon the savage brain ; and hence there is no example of the
vicenary scale having ever been extended even as far as to the second
place of figures, or to 20 times 20 ; nor probably even beyond one hun-
dred. It is evident that when the necessity for expressing larger num-
bers began to be felt, the cumbrous scale of added "toes." must soon be
dropped, and the range restricted to the more manageable mechanism of
the ten "fingers." And, accordingly, we find the imperfect vicenary to
be always overlaid by the denary, with glimpses of the former still appear-
ing through its supplanter.

The Sexagenary scale deserves notice only from its historical interest in
having been from a very remote antiquity employed for particular pur-
poses among the people from whom we derive our arithmetical notation —

* " The French nomcDclature is for the most part purely decimal. The decuual sys-
tem is observed from twenty {vingt) to sixty (aoixante); here we find a vestige of an old
vicenary scale. Seventy, instead of being neptunle, as the decimal system would require,
is soixante-dix (sixty-ten); seventy one, soixatitc-onze, (sixty-eleven); seventy-two, sou:ante-
doitze (sixty -twelve), etc. Eighty, instead of being octon^e, is quatrc-vingl, or four twen-
ties, and ninety is quatre-vingl-dix (four twenties ten); ninety-one, quatn-vingt-onze (four
twenties eleven), etc. Thus twenty becomes the. radix of the system from sixty to a
hundred." {Lardner's ArUhmellc, page 11.)

Taylor.] "^4 [Oct. 21,

an employment which has been perpetuated throughout Europe and
America, to the present, in the smaller divisions of time and of the circle.
This scale is of course far too cumbrous in the range of its units to have
ever had a true notation, or to be ever possible as an actual system,
founded on its own radix. With its enormous complication of figures, it
would still require about y\ (or more than half ) of the places of the com-
mon system to express its values. It has been found very useful, how-
ever, in its limited application, both from the rapidity of its progressions,
and from the remarkablj' varied range of divisibility it permits. The
number 60 is divisible by 2, by 3, by 4, by 5, by 6, by 10, by 12, by 15, by
20, and by 30 ; and has indeed the greatest number of aliquot parts of any
number below 96.

Our "minutes" and "seconds" of the degree and of the hour have
thus an Oriental origin. In India, however, from whence the scale was
derived, these divisions, as applied to time, had not the same value as with
us ; as there the day itself was divided into 60 parts, called guries (hours
of 24 minutes), each gurie into 60 parts, called polls (minutes of 24 of our
seconds), and lastly each poll into 60 mimiks, or twinklings of an eye
(four-tenths of a second). It is believed that this division of time is re-
tained by the Hindoos to the present day. They also employ a period of
60 years, as we do the century.

In its astronomical application this scale has been found exceedingly
useful. The properties of the circle require that it should frequently be
divided into sixths, as well as into quarters ; the sixth being, as is well
known, the radial arc, or that whose chord is exactly equal to radius. The
zodiacal or ecliptic circle of the heavens had, from the earliest antiquity,
been divided into twelfths, a period representing approximately the move-
ment of the sun during one lunation. As this comprised very nearly 30
days, the "sign" became naturally divided into 30 degrees ; and this ex-
presses so closely the arc of the earth's orbit described in one mean solar
day, that when the earth is moving slowest (or at its aphelion), it falls but
three minutes within one degree, and when it is moving fastest (or at its
perihelion), it exceeds the degree by only a single minute. The radial
arc of two " signs," or 60 degrees, suggested its own subdivisions. Hence
was derived the table of 60 seconds to the minute, 60 minutes to the de-
gree, and 60 degrees to the sextant — 6 of these completing the circle.
This system, answering so well the requirements of various division, was
introduced from India into the Alexandrian school by the illustrious
Ptolemy,"" who did so much toward giving astronomy a scientific form.
The sexagenary scale has never, however, been computed by any other
than a denary radix. It must excite surprise, therefore, that the Hindoo
notation of the scale was nqt also introduced by Ptolemy at the same

♦Although the sexagesunal arithmetic is commonly ascribed to Ptolemy, it is probably
an Eastern invention. The Indians, to this day, employ the sexagesimal division of
time" {Edinburgh Encydoiiedia, art. "Arithmetic").

1887.] *^^^ [Taylor.

time ; and the world llms put in possession of this grand invention eight
centuries earlier than it was by the Arabic importation.*

In our survey of the principal scales, fnun which alone a selection
could be made for popular uses, we liave found that there are certain in-
cidental, but opposing advantages, incompatible with each other ; and
that no scale, therefore, could possibly furnish a maximum of every con-
dition that might be thought desirable. Thus the binary scale affords so
admirable a simplicity, beauty and facility, that it would have to be re-
garded the perfect system, if its redundant employment of figures (the
necessary consequence of its simplicity), did not render it unsuited to the
small and constant calculations required in the daily course of trade. On
the other hand the manifold divisions permitted by the sexagenary scale
give it convenient qualities, impossible to the lower scales ; but here we
find a complication so onerous that it would appall the most inveterate of
calculating monomaniacs.

The conditions, however, that are really most essential to an arithmeti-
cal radix, are so few and precise, and their requirements so imperative,
that there is little difficulty in deciding upon "the best possible scale of
numeration." The first consideration would naturally have regard to the
size of the radix, in order to assign certain limits within which our scale
is to be found. To realize a maximum convenience, it must be neither too
large, nor too small. We have seen that while the notation of places (and
the consequent labor of transcription) diminishes very slowly with the
ascending scales — the tax upon the mental faculties increases in a far
more rapid ratio. The labor of mere calculation, which may be estimated
at zero for the binary scale, advances materially, and in a compound ratio
with every figure added to the radix. Were we then required to choose
between any two scales — separated by a considerable interval, that is, be-
tween a very small one and a very large one (no other insuperable objec-
tion being supposed), we should adopt, unhesitatingly, the smaller one.
The advantage imagined by some, of the great expressiveness of a rapid
increase of value, is wholly illusory. It needs comparatively very few
figures, in any case, to carry us not only beyond all true conceptions of

*Thc Greeks, like the Hebrews, Arabs, and all other nations excepting the Hindoos,
employed an alpliabetic numeral ; and it is a somewhat curions circumstance that our
modern character for the cipher was derived not from India or Arabia, but from Alex-
andria. Tlie Hindoos indicated thecij)her place by a simple dot (.), and the Arabians, in
■borrowing their system, did the same; until the sexagenary system, introduced by Ptolemy
so many centuries before, supplied tliem with a new character. This philosopher, find-
ing a frequent occasion to mark the absence of a particular denomination (as " no miu-
utes," or " no seconds "), in order to avoid mistake employed the first vacant letter of the
alphabet for that purpose. As the Greek numeral for 60 is the letter c, all those which
followed would be useless for the sexagenary scale ; Jieuce the next letter, o (omicron),
naturally became the empty counter. This notation became established by long habit
among the astronomers of Alexandria, Constantinople, and Arabia ; and tinally crept
into the IHndoo system of numerals. Thus to the accidental position of tlie Greek letter
omicron, which happened to represent seventy, we are indebted for the present form of
our modern cipher as a circle, instead of a decimal period.

Taylor.] ^^^ [Oct. 21,

magnitude, but beyond all rational requirement of any real calculations
we can devise. There is, in the law of continued georaelrical progression,
even on its lowest scale, a power so overwhelming, that we feel we have
no extra wonder or admiration left to spare, upon these "infinites of
higher order," and confess to a predilection not to travel at such dizzying
speed.

The world has had some centuries of experience in the denary arithme-
tic. We are all familiar with the laborious and tedious discipline by
which its practice is acquired ; and we are all conscious of the exertion of
thought demanded to perform a lengthy operation in figures. When we
consider the amount of time bestowed in training youth in this branch of
learning (and yet the fact that not one-half so trained are really expert in
calculation), we must record it as our deliberate conviction, that the denal
radix is too large. We believe that a lower figure would give the true de-
sideratum— the minimum of labor. Nay, as between the scale of ten and
that of six, we incline to the opinion that the latter would be found the
more convenient notation. Its labor, both of acquisition and of exercise,
would certainly be far less than half, while its figures in use would be
only about a third more. A priori, we might expect that a scale estab-
lished in rude and inexperienced times (were it not that it was really de-
termined by an arbitrary and extraneous circumstance) would be too large
in its ratio of progression — rather than too small ; and that a more en-
lightened age would find it convenient to reduce it ; just as we have seen
to occur with the vicenary and the denary scales, in their early history.

The second essential that should be demanded in a radix is that it must
admit of indefinite bisection, or, in other words, that it must be found
among the powers of two ; namely, 4, 8, or 16. As 4 is probably too
small, and 16 certainly too large, we have the octonary scale alone left to
satisfy our most vital two conditions of a medium size, and a complete divisi-
bility. The concurrence of these qualities in any one scale, and in that
one alone, is sufficient to establish its claims against all competitors.
There is but one scale which could have any pretensions to be consid-
ered a rival, or which would be likely to find intelligent advocates ; and
that is the duodenary. Much stress has been laid upon the number of
its aliquot parts. That this quality is a higlily useful one, we frankly
acknowledge, but yet, as we maintain, not nearly so useful as that other
quality this radix lacks, the facility of successful halving. The number
12 is not a power ; the number 8 is a cube ; an important advantage in
several respects, but particularly in the application of this scale to a
system of metrology, from the simple relations thereby established be-
tween the measures of length and those of volume — by which both
weights and measures of capacity are determined. All that has been said
on the subject of the denary being too large a scale, applies with much
greater force against the duodenary. And, finally, we believe that a large
majority of the mathematicians would give their vote unhesitatingly in
favor of the octonary arithmetic. It appears to combine advantages of

1S87.] ^-' [Taylor.

the very first importance, and those impossible in any other scale. While
perfectly adapted to the highest requirements of science, it is as exactly
suited to the- trivial wants and petty occasions of our daily life. It pos-
sesses a degree of simplicity the most attainable without a sensible in-
crease of figuring. The simple suppression of the largest two digits of
our common system (8 and 9) throughout every place of figures, would
be found to reduce the working labor by at least one-half. In choosing
between a radix of a second power (as 4), and one of a third power (as
8), the latter would for several reasons be preferred. It would undoubt-
edly be advantageous for it to be at the same time both a square and
a cube. But unfortunately we can meet with no such favored number,
until we reach the period 64. Our octonary radix is, therefore, beyond all
comparison the "best 2^ossible one" for an arithmetical system.

After this somewhat tedious preparatory exposition, we now propose to
briefly develop the scale of numeration thus selected ; and to derive from
it an ideal sj'stem of measures, based throughout upon the leading ideas of
the French system ; availing ourselves, as we believe, of every beauty and
refinement offered by it, and avoiding every difficulty and defect inherent
in it. Let us attempt to employ our proposed scale of number in the first
place, by putting it in an intelligible form. Although we might readily
discriminate between the octonary and the denary notation by the simple
expedient of using a somewhat different tyj:)e, of our common figures
(suppressing the 8 and the 9), j'et even with this device, the association
of local value is so strong that it would not be easy to avoid confusion
of idea in attempting to read and understand the unfamiliar conversion.
It will be found much easier, therefore, to devise a set of characters for
the octonary scale ; which should be entirely distinct both from the letters
of the alphabet, and from our ordinary figures. To assist us still more in
reading them, these characters might be made significant symbols, by the
number of lines employed in the construction of each, though this would
be a matter of very little importance in a form of character that should be
permanently adopted. The characters should all be simple ; they should
all have the same size, for the obvious convenience of typographic
"dress;" and they should be so distinctive, that no one could easily be
mistaken for anotlier. Let us then represent one by L; tico by C; tliree by
6; four bj'' P; five by P; six by B; and seveti hy B; the cipher having no
intrinsic value, may very well continue to be still represented by Q- Onr
eight dirjits, then (if we must still use so barbarian and unmathematical
a designation),* would stand thus : 0LC6FPGB.

In reading these octonary numbers, a distinctive name for each, as

* It has been sometimes remarked by advocates of the octonary arithmetic, that if our
stupid ancestors had only used their thumbs as the counters of the digits, they would
have found that they had but eight fingers, and we should then have had the octaval
period—" founded in nature." It may be supposed from the preceding discussion of this
subject, that we attach but little importance to such a consideration.

Taylor.]

328

[Oct. 21,

well as for the places occupied by them, would become even more
necessary than a distinctive form. The terms "ten," "hundred,"
"thousand," especially, are too essentially decimal in their origin, and
too ineffaccably stamped by usage in their significance, to permit their
use in any novel application. The names, like the symbols, should be
both as simple and as distinct as possible. The simplest name is a mono-
syllable, containing but one consonant and one vowel sound. Let this
then be the rule of our numerical vocabulary. It will be convenient and
even advisable to preserve a resemblance to the popular numerical lan-
guage, that the analogy of structure may be the more apparent. The word
one will naturally give us the French " un ;" two will give us "du;"
three will give us " the ;" the consonant sound being really a simple one,
although requiring two letters in our language. The word "tre " would
have been better, as being very near the Latin tres, the Greek treis and the
original Sanscrit tri ;* but the double consonant excludes it under our rule.

* It is a matter of curious philological interest to trace the Sanscrit or ancient Indian
parentage of all our modern European languages, especially in the names of the numer-
als. In this particular the different vocabularies of the numerous and wide-spread
race's,— of the Celtic, the Romaic, the Sclavonic and the Gothic, with its two great fami-
lies of the Scandinavian and the Teutonic, appear only as dialects of each other. The
names of the first ten numbers, in a few languages, are here selected, mainly from the
Introduction to Bosworth's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary :

Sanscrit.

Persian.

Greek.

Roman.

Welsh.

Gothic.

German.

Saxon.

English.

Aika

yika

eis, en

unus

un

ains

ein

an

one

Dwau

du

duo

duo

dau

tvai

zwei

twa

two

Tri

seh

treis

tres

tri

threis

drei

threo

three

Chatui

chehaur

tessares

quatuor

pedwar

fidvor

vier

feower

Jour

Pancha

pendj

pente

quinque

pump

flnf

fi'»f

fif

five

Shash

s?!esh

hex

sex

chwech

saihs

sechs

six

six

Saptan

heft

hepta

septem

saith

s-ibtin

sieben

seofen

seven

Ashta

hesht

okto

odo

wyth

ahtan

acM

eahta

eight

Navan

nuh

ennea

novem

nan

niun

neun

negon

nine

Dashan

deh

deka

decern

deg

taihun

zehen

tyn

ten

That these Sanscrit terms should have been so widely diffused, while yet no traces of
the Hindoo arithmetical notation should ever have been found outside of India, would
seem to show that this derivation was antecedent to the formation of a written language,
or, at least, prior to the invention of the cipher. A nomenclature may be easily trans-
mitted orally by tradition ; a notation could be communicated and preserved only by
records.

To the Sanscrit we are indelsted for the denominations of our lowest two coins. From
the Sanscrit Safa or Shatum (a hundred), through the Latin centum, we obtain our
"cent;" and from the Sanscrit Dasa or Dai^han (ten), through the Latin decern and the
French disme or dime, M'e obtain the name of our "ten-cent piece."

1«87.] d-jJ [Taylor.

The word/owr will give us " fo ;" but for five, in order to avoid a conso-
nant recurrence, we shall have to resort to the original Sanscrit, pancha,
which will give us " pa." Our six will give us "si" or " se ;" but for
our next number, as we can derive no satisfactory help from English or
Latin, Greek or Sanscrit, we arc driven to some arl)itrary syllable. As
seven is the last of our series, we may accept the single independent term
with less reluctance ; and that its sound may be as distinctively marked
as possible, let us call it " ki."

Here, then, we have assigned for each of the numerals "a local habita-
tion and a name."

L U,i; C D't; 6 The; P i^o; P Pa ; ^ Se ; ^ Ki.

Our decades — twenty, thirty, forty — offer us the very suitable and sim-
ple sufhx " ty " to designate our octades. Our hundred suggests the syl-
lable "der" as a convenient designation of the third place of figures ; and
our thousand will give us "sen." And here we may improve upon our
present mode of expressing "places " by employing these distinctive suf-
fixes as independent nouns, significant of a particular order of units, with-
out reference to any special or intrinsic value. Thus a simple unit would
indicate any figure occupying the first place ; a Ty would indicate any
figure occupying the second place ; a Der any figure occupying the third
place, etc.

But mindful of that prudent law — "economy of means " — and not to
burden our infant scheme with too great a load of unfamiliar nomencla-
ture (always the greatest obstacle to the reception of any novel system),
let us resort to combinations of these simple suffixes, instead of applying
a new term to each new place of figures. By this means we shall be re-
quired to introduce new terms only at the successive and advancing pow-
ers of each great unit. Thus using "Ty" for the second place, and
" Der " for the third place, we may very well employ the word " Ty-der "
for the fourth place, "Sen" for the fifth place, " Ty-sen " for the sixth
place, " Der-sen " for the seventh place, and " Ty-der-sen " for the eighth
place. Here is a pause ; and to do honor to the number eight, this should
comprise one independent period of figures ; to be followed by a new
term, the analogue of our JMillion.* We cannot derive a convenient suf-
fix, however, from this term ; we shall therefore have to coin a new one.
Let us call our great figure Kaly. We have thus the progression : One
"Ty " squared is one " Der ;" one " Der " squared is one "Sen ;" one
"Sen" squared is one "Kaly ," the intermediate places being expressed
by the obvious compounds of these words. Or to illustrate the series pro-
posed by our own decimal terms, it is as though having assigned eight places

*0\\T Million, the square of the Roman Mille, is a comparatively modern word; and
useful as it is now universally esteemed, it appears on its first introduction to have met
with but little favor. "Bishop Tonstall, wlio has discussed at great length the Latin
nomenclature of numbers, speaks of the term miUion as in common use, but he rejects it
as barbarous" (Peacock's Arithmetic).

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 12G. 2p. PRINTED DEC. 5, 1887.

Taylor.]

330

[Oct. 21,

of figures instead of six for our million origin, we should reach it by this
scale : Tens, hundreds, ten-hundreds, thousands, ten-thousands, hundred-
thousands, ten-hundred-thousands, millions ; the " ten-htindreds " and
the "ten-hundred-thousands" being interpolated places.

Words manulactured to meet a new want have always a somewhat
barbarous and uncouth sound, until familiarized by custom ; and are
usually received but slowly and with reluctance. Unless they can boast
a pedigree and a history, they must expect from the world, like other par-
venus, no very cordial greeting. From the habits of thought of a very
large majority of mankind, it is found so much easier to use old words in
a double sense, than to accept the precision of a new phraseology, that
there is little doubt the octonary notation could be much more readily
taught (except to children) by simply erasing the figures 8 and 9, from the
common arithmetic. That it is more philosophical, however, to assign
to everything its own appropriate name, can scarcely need a formal
statement ; and if the system now proposed have the high claims and
merits we have represented, no apology is required for the attempt to
clothe it in a fitting garb. "We here present accordingly the numeration
table, as resulting from the names we have just above suggested :

Numeration Table.

L, Un

= 1

LL, Unty-un

= 9

CL, Duty-un

= 17

BL, Thety-un

= 25

C, Du

= 2

LC, Unty-du

= 10

CC, Duty-du

= 18

ec, Thety-du

= 26

e. The

= S

LB, Unty-the

= 11

Ce, Duty- the

= 19

ee, Thety-the

= 27

F, Fo

= 4

LP, Unty-fo

= 12

CP, Duty-fo

= 2U

eP, Thety-fo

= 28

P, Pa

= 5

LP, Unty-pa

= 13

CP, Duty-pa

= 21

eP, Thety-pa

= 29

B, Se

= 6

LB, Unty-se

= 14

CB, Duty-se

= 22

eB, Thety -se

= 30

B, Ki

= 7

LB, Unty-ki

= 15

CB, Duty-ki

= 23

6B, Thety-ki

= 31

LO, Unty

= 8

CO, Duty

= 16

60, Thety

= 24

FO, Foty

= 32

FL, Foty-un

= 33

PL, Paty-un

= 41

BL, Sety-un

= 49

BL, Kity-un

= 57

FC, Foty-du

= 34

PC, Paty-du

= 42

GC, Sety-du

= 50

BC, Kity-du

= 58

Fe, Foty-the

= 35

Pe, Paty-the

= 43

Be, Sety-the

= 51

Be, Kity-the

= 59

FF, Foty-fo

= 36

PP, Paty-fo

= 44

GF, Sety-fo

= 52

BF, Kity-fo

= 60

PP, Foty-pa

= 37

PP, Paty-pa

= 45

BP, Sety-pa

= 53

BP, Kity-pa

= 61

FG, Foty-se

= 38

PB, Paty-se

= 4G

BB, Sety-se

= 54

BB, Kity-se

= 62

FB, Foty-ki

= 39

PB, Paty-ki

= 47

GB, Sety-ki

= 55

BB, Kity-ki

= 63

PO,Paty

= 40

GO, Sety

= 48

BO, Kity

= 56

LOO, Under

= 64

1

It will be seen by this table that we have no peculiar word corre-
sponding to the "ten" of the denary scale ; and this is regarded as an

1887.]

131

[Taylor.

advantage, not only in being more systematic, but in giving greater pre-
cision of expression and idea. Instead of using the same word to indicate
both a place, or local value (as the "ten-place") and a specific number,
we are furnished with two distinct words — "Ty" designating the place
and "Unty" specifying one in the ty-place, as "Dutj^" specifies
two in the ty-place. All that is needed to carry out this system is to add
a table of places.

Notation Table.

Units.

Ties.

Ders.

Tj'ders.

Sens.

L Un
C Du
e The
P Fo
P Pa
B Se
B Ki

LO Unty LOO Under
CO Duty COO Duder
60 Thety i 600 Theder
FO Foty 1 FOO Foder
PO Paty POO Pader
EO Sety BOO Seder

BO Kity B30 Kider

1

LOOO Untyder
COOO Dutyder
6000 Tlietydcr
FOOD Fotyder
POOO Patyder
BOOO Setyder
BOOO Kityder

L.OOOO Unsen
C,0000 Dusen
6,0000 Thesen
P.OOOO Fosen
P.OOOO Pasen
B,0000 Sesen

B.OOOO Kisen

1

Tysens.

Dersens.

Tydersens. Katies.

L0,0000 Untysen
CO, 0000 Dutysen
60,0000 Thetysen
FO.OOOO Fotysen
P0,0000 Patysen
B0,0000 Setysen
BO.OOOO Kitysen

LOO, 0000 Undersen
COO, 0000 Dudersen
600,0000 Thedersen
FOO, 0000 Fodersen
P00,O0CO Padersen
600,0000 Sedersen
BOO.OOOO Kiderseu

L000,0000 Untydersen I L,0000,0000 Unkaly
COOO.OOOO Dutydersen C,0000,0000 Dukaly
6000,0000 Thety dersen 1 6,0000,0000 Thekaly
FOOO.OOOO Fotydersen P.OOOO.OOOO Fokaly
POOO, 0000 Paty dersen ! P, 0000. 0000 Pakaly
6000,0000 Setydersen 6,0000,0000 Sekaly
B000,0000 Kityderscn B,0000,0000 Kikaly

The Unkaly is the eighth (or untieth) power of Unty. Its value is
16,777216; and it requires but one more figure to express this large
amount, than is required by the denarj"- scale. A second place of figures
is not lost by our new system — that is, its notation does not exceed that
of the common system by two places, until the number 8589,934593 is
reached ; these 10 figures requiring 12 (namely \j and eleven ciphers) in
the octonary scale to represent their value. If this should appear sur-
prising to any, it must be remembered, that although at 8, and at 64, an
additional figure is required by the octonary system, yet after 10, and 100,
the denary also requires this additional figure ; and considering this, we
shall find that the two scales are equal in the number of places occupied —
from 1 to 7, inclusive — from 10 to 63, inclusive — from 100 to 511 — from
1000 to 4095— from 10.000 to 32,767— from 100,000 to 262,143— from
1,000000 to 2,097151— from 10,000000 to 10,777215— from 100,000000 to

Taylor.]

332

[Oct. 21,

134,217727— and for the last overtaking, from 1000,000000 to 1073,741823.
After this long-continued chase, the octonary scale at the next figure, or
1073,741824 (Under-Kaly) loses a place which is never regained. It
may not be uninteresting to add, that this scale does not obtain an excess
o? three places until it reaches the enormous number of 9 trillions, 223372
billions, 036854 millions, 775808, these 19 figures being expressed by (_,
and 21 ciphers. This amount diminished by a single unit, or by the last
figure 8 being exchanged for a 7, is expressed in the octonary system by
21 Ms (0) which would be an excess of only hco places of figures.

Turning from this comparison of the relative powers of the two scales,
to their relative simplicit}^ as exemplified by the octonary multiplication
table, we shall find the contrast here as striking as was their parity on the
other hand remarkable.

Multiplication Table.

c

c

p

e

P

P

G

Q

e

G

LL

F

LO

LP

CO

p

LC

LB

CF

6L

G

LP

CC

eo

66

pp

0

LG

CP

6P

pe

PC

GL

The mere inspection of this table is sufl3cient to' show, that the time
and labor of acquiring it would not be half that required for committing
to memory our received form ; and this facility of acquisition would in-
clude almost a corresponding degree of readiness in its use. Figures, like
furniture stored in the chambers of the brain, require a constant attention
and arranging, to be kept in state for use ; and the amount of care and
trouble unconsciously bestowed upon them, must be proportioned to the
number of the pieces after which we have to look. It is no idle boast,
therefore, to say that a child could be taught a thorough knowledge of the
four great rules of arithmetic, and a ready skill in their practical applica-
tions, through the octonary system, in one-half the time required for
obtaining an equal knowledge and skill by the common system. Nor is
this simplification of arithmetical operations its only merit. The danger
of error increases rapidly with the increasing complexity of the numeric

1887.] '^'^^ [Taylor.

scale ; and there is no doubt that our new system would ensure an increase
of accuracy, at least equal to its ratio of simplicity. And if to this were
added the facility which would result from constructing all our tables
of weight and measure upon this scale (a scale so admirably suited to
them)— and thereby entirely discarding the whole tedious and troublesome
practice of "reduction," from our Arithmetic — the economy of time and
labor would be something quite astounding.*

Our exposition of the subject of numeration has been so extended that
neither time nor space will now permit us to illustrate the practical work-
ing of the aritiimetical system here proposed. It is evident, however,
that we are here equipped with a mechanism fully adequate to the resolu-
tion and expression of all arithmetical operations. Framed by a strict
analogy with our present system, it affords us every facility and advantage
that this can boast ; and differing from it onlj'' in the number of its inte-
gers, it relieves us entirely from the difficulties and embarrassments which
have ever been the opprobrium of our decimal scale. Merely to exhibit
the form and method of our scheme, we may here indicate that the pres-
ent year, "1887," would, in the octonary style be expressed 6P6B — Thety-
pader and tliety-ki. The diameter of the earth (7925 miles) would be ex-
pressed L.BGBP— f^«««^. -S'% theder setypa ; or in feet (41,847,188)
C 6BP0 FBCF — JDukaly, thety Jcider patysen, foty seder duty-fo.

We now proceed as rapidly as possible to the application of this im-
proved numeration to the determination and distribution of a sj'stem of
weights and measures. Of all the systems of metrology yet perfected, or
even proposed, that of the French is, in the philosophical character of its
standards, as well as in the ingenuity, simplicity and precision of its de-
tails, undoubtedly by far the most admirable and the most worthy of our
imitation. "The French System," says Mr. Adams in the excellent
Report on Weights and Measures from which we have already more than
once had occasion to quote, " embraces all the great and important prin-
ciples of uniformity which can be applied to weights and measures. But
that system is not yet complete ; it is susceptible of many modifications and
improvements. Considered merely as a labor-saving machine, it is a new
power offered to man incomparably greater tlian that which he has ac-
quired by the new agency which he has given to steam. It is in design
the greatest invention of human ingenuity since that of printing. But

* " It is impossible to estimate witli any degree of accuracy," says Mr. Kichol, " the
amount of labor annually thrown away by the nation at large, while persisting in per-
forming the manifold comjiutations necessary to its gigantic commerce and industry, by
means of a series of tables so needlessly complicated and imperfect as those now in use.
But the waste of time and loss of money must be sometliing quite enormous, while every
day it becomes greater and greater. Were the diflerent denominations of weights,
measures and money brought into harmony with the fundamental principle of our
common arithmetic, it may be safely affirmed that the labor.of commercial and profes-
sional calculations would be reduced much below one-half of what is now expended
in this direction, while the risk of errors would be diminished in a still greater ratio"
{Encyclopedia of the Physical Sciences, art. "Weights and Measures," page 778).

Taylor.] Od4: [Oct. 21,

like that and every other useful and complicated invention, it could not
be struck out perfect at a heat. Time and experience have already dic-
tated many improvements of its mechanism. But all the radical principles
of uniformity are in the machine. * * * Uniformity of weights and
measures — permanent, universal uniformity, adapted to the nature of
things, to the physical organization and to the moral improvement of man
— would be a blessing of such transcendent magnitude, that if there
existed upon earth a combination of power and will adequate to accom-
plish the result by the energy of a single act, the being who should exer-
cise it would be among the greatest of benefactors of the human race.
The glory of the first attempt belongs to France. France first surveyed
the subject of weights and measures in all its extent and all its compass.
France first beheld it as involving the interests, the comforts and the mor-
als of all nations, and of all after ages. * * * In freely avowing the
hope that the exalted purpose first conceived by France may be improved,
perfected and ultimately adopted by the United States and all other
nations, equal freedom has been indulged in pointing out the errors and
imperfections of that system, which have attended its origin, progress
and present condition."

Looking at the French metre simply as a practical material standard, the
first criticism we would naturally have to make upon it, is that it gives us
a measure most unfortunate in its size.

In selecting a standard of measure (without any reference to its ideal
derivation) two considerations of very obvious and primitive notice im-
pose a tolerably definite limit as to what should constitute the length of a
useful, popular measuring rule. The first is that it should be conveniently
portable,* if not in a pocket, at least in a satchel, or upon the thigh ; the
second is that when held by one hand in careful and precise position for
taking or giving measures its two ends should each be distinctly within
accurate view, and within easy reach of the free hand for minute mark-
ing without any constraint or efibrt of the body. These two conditions,

*" Perhaps for half the occasions which arise in the life of every individual for the
use of a linear measure, the instrument to suit his purposes must be portable and fit to
be carried in his pocket * * * For all the ordinary purposes of mensuration, except-
ing itinerary measure, the metre is too long a standard unit of nature. It was a unit
most especially inconvenient as a substitute for the foot, a measure to which, with
trifling variations of length, all the European nations and their descendants were accus-
tomed. The foot-rule has a property very important to all the mechanical professions
which have constant occasion for its use ; it is light and easily portable about the per-
son. The metre, very suitable for a staff, or for measuring any portion of the earth, has
not the property of being portable about the person ; and for all the professions con-
cerned in ship or house building, and for all who have occasion to use mathematical in-
struments, it is quite unsuitable. It serves perfectly well as a substitute for the yard or
ell, the fathom or perch, but not for the foot. This inconvenience, great in itself, is made
irreparable when combined with the exclufeive principle of decimal divisions. The
union of the metre and of decimal arithmetic rejected all compromise with the foot.
There was no legitimate extension of matter intermediate between the ell and the palm,
between forty inches and four. This decimal despotism was found too arbitrary for en-
durance " {Adams' s Report on Weights and Measures).

1887.] 335 [Taylor.

which would both be assigned on perhaps one-half the occasions of its
familiar use, render it tolerably manifest that its length should be not less
than twelve inches, and while certainly excluding the yardstick and the
metre, would probabl}', designate the carpenters' two- foot rule as reaching
the maximum limit of practicable length. Both the French metre and
our yardstick are very awkward and inconvenient standards, being too
long for all ordinary purposes of mensuration, excepting itinerary mea-
sure, and as a popular standard utterly worthless except on the counter of
the draper. Moreover, we would naturally select such a rule as we would
measure our houses by, or the furniture within them ; such a rule as the
carpenter would cut off or lay off his boards by ; such a rule as the
mechanic could use in his workshop or the machinist handle in fitting his
engines. Theoretically it matters little whether our unit of reference be
the inch or the mile, but for tiie practical business of daily life it becomes
a matter of the very highest importance that our unit of measure should
be such a one as shall have the most convenient and universal appli-
cation.

Two standards only have ever had a general use and currency — the
cubit and the foot. Both derived from the human person, it is natural
they should be found the most useful measures for the common wants
of the person. The cubit may be said to be almost a natural standard ;
and it is the most ancient of measures, while it is still prevalent through-
out the orient. Universal, or nearly so, throughout the nations of an-
tiquity— it was the common measure of the Israelites, and is referred to in
their earliest records. The ark is measured in cubits (Gen. vi, 15), and
the height of the flood is in cubits. Goliath's height was six cubits and a
span. The temple of Solomon is measured in cubits ; and walls of cities
are measured by the same (2 Kings x\v, 13). The foot appears to be a
much later standard of measure. Introduced by the Greeks and Romans,
it has prevailed in modern times wherever the Roman influence has been
felt.

If the foot has been found a more manageable multiple of both the pace
and the fathom or its half — the ell — than the cubit, we are disposed to
regard the latter as the more beautiful and useful rule, and the more con-
venient unit of length. Certainly the occasions are not unfrequent, when
we need the addition of a few inches to our foot-rule to measure common
objects. At all events, in selecting a standard, adapted to the popular
wants, it may be regarded as tolerably manifest that its length should not
be less than a foot, and that it should not exceed two feet — the common
carpenters' rule. The cubit is the mean between these extreme limits.

This consideration brings us to the derivation of the standard. " In all
the proceedings," says Mr. Adams, "whether of learned and philosophical
institutions, or of legislative bodies, relating to weights and measures
within the last century, an immutable and invariable standard from
nature, of linear measure, has been considered as the great desideratum
for the basis of any system of metrology. It is one of the greatest merits

Taylor.] OOD [Oct. 21,

of the French system to have lurnished such a standard for the benefit
of all mankind. * * * In the establishment of the French system, the
pendulum, as well as the meridian, has been measured ; but the standard
was, after a long deliberation, after a cool and impartial estimate of the
comparative advantages and inconveniences of both, definitively assigned
to the arc of the meridian, in departure from an original prepossession in
favor of the pendulum." A writer in the Edinburgh Review for January,
1807, remarks: "Three different units fell under the consideration of
these philosophers, to wit, the length of the pendulum, the quadrant of
the meridian, and the quadrant of the equator. If the first of these was
to be adopted, the commissioners were of opinion that the pendulum vibra-
ting seconds in the parallel of 45 degrees deserved the preference, because
it is the arithmetical mean between the like pendulums in all other lati-
tudes. They observed, however, that the pendulum involves one element
which is heterogeneous, to wit, time ; and another which is arbitrary, to
wit, the division of the day into 86,400 seconds. It seemed to them better
that the unit of length should not depend on a quantity, of a kind differ-
ent from itself, nor on anything that was arbitrarily assumed. The com-
missioners therefore were brought to deliberate between the quadrant of
the equator, and the quadrant of the meridian ; and they were determined
to fix on the latter, because it is most accessible, and because it can be
ascertained with the most precision" {Edinburgh Review, Vol. ix, p. 379).*

That this selection was wise at the time it was made, cannot be doubted.
That it would be wiser now to select the equator, can, perhaps, be made
equally evident. By the modern methods of electro-magnetic determina-
tion of longitude, an arc of the equator could now be ascertained with as
much accuracy, as one of a meridian, and perhaps with even greater pre-
cision. A national, or what would be far nobler, an international com-
mission, liberally endowed with every needed equipment, for measuring
in South America, and in Africa, arcs of the equator — if possible entirely
across either continent ; and also (what would be very important) one
through the opposite island Borneo — is an enterprise due to the enlightened
spirit and scientific progress of the age, and would be one worthy of the
united wisdom and resources of the three greatest nations of the world.
The determination of the precise figure and dimensions of our globe — that
fundamental problem of practical astronomy — is one of such transcendent
importance, that no outlays should be regarded as injudicious or misap-
plied that would ofler the prospect of even a slight improvement in the
accuracy of our results.

The equator is, in the first place, undoubtedly the true girth and measure
of the earth ; and the circumference should always be understood to be
this natural measure, unless otherwise specified. In the next place, the
meridian not being a circle (owing to the polar flattening of the earth) no
two degrees of its quadrant have exactly the same value ; which renders
the estimates of its degrees exceedingly awkward. According to the com-

* See note C, page 360.

1887.] 337 [Taylor.

putations of Mr. T. J. Cram (Silliman's Journal of Science for 1837, Vol.
xxxi, page 230), one degree of latitude at the pole is equal to 69.397.19375
miles, while one degree at the equator is only 68.70859375 miles — a differ-
ence of more than two- thirds of a mile ! In addition to all this there is
some reason for doubting whether different meridians are uniform in
length and curvature. An arc of the meridian south of the equator,
measured in 1752, by Lacaille (at the Cape of Good Hope) gave very un-
satisfactory results.

But through the reductions of various eminent mathematicians we have
now the equatorial circumference of the earth as well and accurately
determined as any other measure of it. The two best and most recent
determinations of the earth's equatorial diameter, are those of Bessel and
Air}', who, by independent calculations, agree in the value 7925.6 miles,
and differ only by 234 feet ! Bessel making it 41,847,192 feet, and Airy,
41,847,426 feet. The mean of these results will give us 131,467,196 feet,
as probably a very close measure of the earth's equator. We have every
reason, therefore, for deducing our standard of measure from this line —
the only true circle by which the earth is circumscribed ; we have none
for going back to the irregular meridian.

In no particular has the decimal principle of the French system proved
so signal and utter a failure as in its application to the division of the cir-
cle. We have already noticed that the sixth part of the circle is one of its
fundamental divisions — one which cannot be neglected for any theoretical
advantage of adherence to system. We have seen, moreover, how admi-
rably our present division of the quadrant into ninety parts or degrees
answers all the various purposes required. lu adding ten more degrees to
the whole, so as to make an even hundred, the French philosophers sacri-
ficed completely its primarj'^ and beautiful relations. The sextant no lon-
ger had a possible expression in the centesimal scale. A verj^ brief exper-
iment demonstrated what should have been cleaily anticipated without it,
that the new degrees were wholly impracticable. This part of the system
was therefore speedily and universally abandoned,* and yet this was really
a surrender of the very foundation of the metrical division.

The metre had been made the 10 millionth part of the quadrant, that the
new degree might represent just 10 myriametres ; but the abolition of this
ideal degree left the myriametre (and with it of course the metre) a most
inconsequential and unmeaning unit. So that now the kilometre no lon-
ger represents a minute, and the decametre a second, as w'as its original
plan and purpose.

The selection of the meridian necessarily involved a reference to its nat-
ural fraction, the quadrant — the distance from pole to equator ; but had

• " The new metrology of France, after trying it [the principle of decimal division] in
its most universal theoretical application, has been compelled to renounce it for all the
measurcsof astronomy, geography, navigation, time, the|circlc and the sphere ; to modify
it even for superficial and cubical linear measure, and to compound witli vulgar fractions
in the most ordinary and daily uses of all its weights and all its measures" {Adams's
Report).

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 126. 2q. PRINTED DP:C. 3, 1887.

Taylor.] ^''O [Oct. 21,

the equator been the standard chosen, inasmuch as it has no such natural
measure, the sextant of it might just as properly have been made the
starting unit as its quadrant. And this would have escaped the principal dif-
ficulty ; for the sextant will easily supply us with a multiple of the quadrant,
though the latter may not conversely so readily commensurate the former. ■
Instructed by such distinguished failures, let us then start with the sex-
tant of the equator as our prime unit of measure. We shall thus be able
to select a final modulus or rule, mainly with reference to its most desira-
ble length — no longer trammeled by the compounding of binary and ter-
nary divisions. Ten million metres made the quadrant. Our octonary
scale is also furnished with its grand unit (the eighth power of the octade),
which for want of a better name we have christened unJcaly (L,0000,-
0000)- The sextant of the equator is 21,911199i feet, or 262,934893
inches. This divided octavally into unkaly parts, gives us the quotient,
15| inches, almost exactly our ideal measure! Midway between the two
great rival standards of olden time, the cubit and the foot, it seems the
very compromise of differences, the harmonizer of conflicting systems,
and supplies us with a "module" perfectly suited to every requirement of
popular mensuration. It needs but the application of octonary multiples
to complete a metrology simple and unexceptionable.

Before giving the table, however, it will be proper to suggest a slight
modification in the divisions of the circle, as a subject controlling, to some
extent, the details of our linear measures. Should the degree retain its
present value as the 360th part of the circle, we should advocate strongly
the employment of this unit of the equatorial circle, as the origin of our
new standard of measure. Dividing the degree into undersell parts
CLOO 0000). ■"'G should have a module about one inch longer than that
previously obtained, and somewhat nearer, therefore, to the ancient cubit.
Its exact length would be 16.717 inches.

The number 60, however, approaches so near to the octonary under
(64) that the temptation would be very strong to reduce degrees, minutes
and seconds to the simplicity of the general notation, unless there ap-
peared some strong reason for retaining the present sexagenary scale. But
there is no special occasion for dividing small arcs into thirds or sixths,
that gives this ancient and venerable system any advantage comparable
to that we should have of adding up or subtracting degrees, minutes and
seconds by a single operation, instead of resorting as now to reduction.
On the contrary, the need of frequent binal division is here, as with other
values, very apparent ; and in this respect the number 60 is very defec-
tive, as it permits but two bisections. The mariners' compass affords us a
good illustration of the convenience experienced in a continued bisection
of angles.* There would therefore be a positive benefit in substituting

* The cardinal points dividing the circle into quarters— each quadrant is divided into
halves or octants, each octant into halves and quarters called "rhumbs" or "points"
(8 in the quadrant), and finally each of these points into halves and quarters ; the rhumb
or point being 11° 15', and the quarter rhumb or point 2° 48' 45".

1887.]

339

[Taylor.

the number G4 for 60. This woukl interpolate 4 degrees into the sextant,
or 6 degrees into the quadrant ; malting the right angle to be expressed by
96° instead of 90^ as at present. This, then, is the table we should pro-
pose ; in which, it will be seen, the present values of arc are not so altered
as to disturb appreciably our long-established ideas of degree, minute and
second.

Divisions of the Ciucle.

LOO

(G4)

tertials make 1 second

=

0". 823974

LOO

(64)

seconds "

1 minute

=

52".734375

LOO

(04)

minutes "

1 degree

z=

(if)Oor56'15"

LOO

(64)

degrees

1 sextant

=

GOO

LFO

(96)

degrees '

1 quadrant

=

90O

eoo

(192)

degrees '

the semicircle

=

180O

BOO

(384)

degrees "

the circle

=

360O

■ - 1

One obvious advantage of this scale, in addition to its simplification,
would be to bring the azimuth compass into harmony with the mariners'
compass, by giving them common measures. As the latter divides the
quadrant into 8 "points" or "rhumbs," each of these would be (jpo
(12 degrees) instead of 11° 15', as at present ; and the quarter-point would
be e° (3 degrees) instead of 2° 48' 45".

Tlie zodiac, or ecliptic circle, has from time immemorial been divided
into 12 "signs." This would be found a very convenient unit to be ap-
plied to such arcs generally, as would also the smaller unit of its quarter,
or LjQO the eighth part of the sextant. As there is no name for this, let
us give it the name of "arc " (made technical and specific), a name not
inappropriate, since it is about the smallest arc we can readily distinguish
from a straight line. This would give us the following scale :

LO^ (8 degrees)

=

1 arc

=

70 30'

PO^ or 4 arcs

=

1 sign

=

300

GO^ " 0 arcs

=

1 octant

=

450

L00° " 8 arcs or 2 signs

=

1 sextant

=

GOO

LPO^ " 12 arcs or 3 signs

=

1 quadrant

=

90O

Should the above scheme of graduation for the circle be accepted, it

Taylor.]

340

[Oct. 21,

•will give an admirable simplicity to our table of lengths, which -withGut
further preface is herewith subjoined :

Table of Linear Measure,

1 point =

Uh inch nearly)

0.0038 ins.

LO (8) points make 1 line =

(3V "

" )

0.03

LO (8) lines

' 1 dent =

(I "

" )

0.24.5 "

LO (8) dehts

' 1 digit =

(2 inches

" )

1.959 "

LO (8) digits

' 1 MODULE =

(15f "

" )

1 ft.

3.672 "

LO (8) MODULES '

' 1 rod =

3 yds.

1 ft.

5.37

LO (8) rods

' 1 chain =

27 yds.

2 ft.

7.

LO (8) chains

' 1 furlong ==

222 yds.

2 ft.

8.

LO (8) furlongs

' 1 mile =

1 mile,

23 yds.

0 ft.

5.

LO (8) miles

' 1 league =

8 miles,

1 yds.

0 ft.

3.

LO (8) leagues

" 1 degree =

64 miles,

1480 yds.

2 ft.

5.

LO (8) degrees

" 1 arc =

518 miles.

1286 yds.

1 ft.

11.

LO (8) arcs

' 1 sextant =

4,149 miles.

1493 yds.

0 ft.

4.

G (6) sextants

" the circumference ^

24,899 miles,

158 yds.

2 ft.

The table of lengths proper terminates with the league ; the denomina-
tions following being those of arc. From the derivation of the standard,
however, they coincide with precise measures, and are therefore properly
included in the table.

The "point" gives a dimension about equal to that of a section of a
human hair, or of a very fine grain of sand, and may be considered about
the limit of visible magnitude. It is therefore a very suitable origin of
linear value, while it is an equally appropriate point of departure for
microscopic measurements. The "dent" and the "digit" would be
convenient measures for small articles. While this new metre gives us
one of the most convenient rules that can be devised, the "rod" fur-
nishes us with a highly useful ten-and-a-half foot measuring pole, and
eight times this measure gives us the best "chain." But the peculiar
beauty of the new Module is, that it precisely corresponds with the tertial
of the new degree. Under Modules make one second (the "chain");
Under seconds make one minute (the "mile ") ; Under minutes make one
degree ; and Under degrees— the Sextant. Or, progressing by the succes-
sive squares— Unty Modules make the rod ; Under Modules make the
chain ; Unsen Modules make the mile ; Unkaly Modules make the
Sextant.

As referred to the French measures, we have for the value of our prin-
cipal new denominations the following ; the "line " = 0.77746 millimetres;
the "dent " = 6.31975 millimetres ; the "digit " = 4.9758 centimetres; the

1887.]

341

[Taylor.

"module" = 3.98064 decimetres ; the "rod" = 3.18451 metres ; the
"chain" = 2 Ml Gl deccnnetres ; the " imlong" = 2.0d80d Jiectometres ;
the "mile" — l.GoOil kilometres ; and tlie "league" = 1.30437 myria-
metres.

For those measures in most common use, that is foi' those clustering
immediately around the Module, it v.-ould doubtless be found highly con-
venient to give denominations to the halves and quarters ; and thus con-
form them to the universal popular tendency to binary divisions. "We
therefore propose the following supplementary table ; not to be on any
account incorporated with the preceding, nor in any respect to modify it ;
but to retain always its subordinate character.

2 dents

make 1 nail

0.48975 ins.

2 nails

" 1 inch

0.9795 "

2 inches

" 1 digit

1.959

2 digits

" 1 hand

3.918

2 hands

" 1 span

7.836

2 spans

" 1 Module

15.672

2 Modules

" 1 ell

2 ft.

7.844

2 ells

" 1 fathom

Sft.

2.688

2 fathoms

" 1 rod

10 ft.

5.376

Our tables of area, or surface measure, would of course be derived
directly from our linear measures, by the familiar law of squares.

Table of Square Measure.

LO (8) digits square,

or LOO (64)

square digits, make 1

square

Module:

LO (8) Modules "

" LOO (64)

" Modules, " 1

<<

rod:

LO (8) rods

" LOO (64)

" rods, " 1

"

chain:

LO (8) chains

" LOO (64)

" chains, " 1

"

furlong:

LO (8) furlongs "

" LOO (Gl)

" furlongs, " 1

<(

mile.

For popular purposes, however, it would be necessary, or convenient, to
have more numerous denominations of area measure ; and a less rapid
progression than that of unders, given in the above merely geometrical

Taylor.]

342

[Oct. 21,

table of perfect squares. We therefore propose to insert iuterraediate
values, so as to give our table the systematic or octonary form.

Table of Area — or Surface Measure.

1 sq. Module =

Mile

Acres

Yards

Feet

Inches.

1

101.615

LO (8) square Modules,

make 1 lot, =

1

4

92.92

LO (8) lots.

" 1 sq. rod, =

12

1

23.364

LO (8) square rods,

" 1 2)laf, =

97

0

42.9

LO (8) plats.

" 1 sq. chain, =

776

2

55.3

LO (8) square chains,

" 1 aa-e, =

1

1370

1

10.42

LO (8) acresi,

" 1 sq. furlong, =

10

1280

8

83.4

LO (8) square furlongs.

" 1 district, =

82

567

5

91.27

LO (8) districts,

" 1 sq. mile, =

1

16

4541

0

10.

The intermediate (alternate) denominations of this table are not perfect
Squares ; hence it was thought more correct to assign terms to them indica-
tive of their superficial character without the use of the prefix "square."
We observe here one advantage that would result from the radix of nume-
ration being a perfect square. The square root of 8 is 3.828427124 ; or

/[jQ z= C.BPOL.L0L.FB • bence th's value would represent in any given
units, the side of a square equal to LQ (8) of the square units. Thus the
side of a square "lot" would be C Modules, B digits, p dents, Q lines,
and [j point. The side of a square "plat" would be C rods, B Modules,
P digits, 0 dents, L line, and \jj;>oint. The side of a square "acre" would
be C cliains, B rods, P Modules, Q digits, L. dent, L line, and B points.
And the side . of a square "district" would \)e [^ ftirlongs, B cliains,
P rods, 0 Modules, \j digit, (j dent, B lines, and |j jyoint. A very simple
parallelogram is however afforded us, which gives with precision the
dimensions of these respective areas. Thus a " district," as a land meas-
ure, is a rectangular ^Dace of ground, measuring two furlongs in one
direction, and four furlongs in the other; an "acre" a similar space of
ground measuring two chains in one direction by four chains in the
other; a "plat," a space measuring two rods in one direction, by four
rods in the other ; and a " lot " is in like manner a surface of two Modules
by four Modules. This table presents, therefore, the simplest ratios of
superficial measure which could be devised ; and would be found admira-
bly adapted to every purpose of mensuration. For smaller surfaces, it is
probable that the following supplementary table would prove a useful
resort :

1887.]

343

[Taylor.

4 square

dents make

square nail =:

Yards

Feet

luches.

0.230858

4

nails "

" inch =

0.959433

4

inches ' '

" digit =

3.837735

4

digits "

" hand =

15.350941

4

hands "

" span =

61.403766

4

spans "

" Module =

1

101.615

4

Modules "

" ell =

6

118.460

4

ells "

" fathom =

3

0

41.841

4

fathoms "

' ' rod =

13

1

23.364

For measuring volume, we would naturally employ simply the cubes of
the preceding denominations ; while the contents of such cubic metres
respectively, of distilled water at its maximum density, would as obviously
furnish the measures of weight. Throughout these deriyative tables,
we propose to adopt the Module as the universal standard. In this re-
spect our linear unit is very greatly superior to the Metre, which, from
its inconvenient size, has been made practically a standard only of
lengths. The Are (the unit of surface) is derived, not directly from the
Metre, but from the Decam/itre ; the Litre (the unit of capacity) is derived
from the cube of the Decimetre; and lastly, the Gramme (the unit of
weight) is derived from the cube of the Centimetre. The greater sim-
plicity of our project is manifest in this contrast.

Table op Volumes.

1 cubic dent

Cubic Feet.

Cubic Inches.

0.01468

LO (8) cubic dents

make 1 " nail

=

0.11747

LO (8) " nails

" 1 " inch

=

0.93977

LO (S) " inches

" 1 " digit

=

7.51817

LO (8) " digits

" 1 " hand

=

60.14537

LO (8) " hands

" 1 " span

=

481.16296

LO (8) " spans

" 1 " Module

=

2.22760

LO (8) " Modules

" 1 " ell

=

17.82085

LO (8) " ells

" 1 " fathom

=

142.56680

LO (8) " fathoms

"1 " rod

=

1140.53441

Taylor.]

344

[Oct. 21,

This simple scale of volumes or bulks, derived directly from our
smaller linear table, gives a good illustration of the great beauty and con-
venience flowing out of the employment of a radix of numeration which
is a perfect cube. Each of the cubic measures of the above table has
for the dimensions of its side two of the linear values above it.

The practical conveniences of simple and direct relations between
lengths, weights, and measures of capacity are certainly too obvious and
too great, to be lightly thrown away. Thus, where we are furnished with
a measure, the root of whose cube is precisely a measuring rule in com-
mon use (one of the many advantages which result from an octonary
scale of weights and measures), the benefit is by no means trivial ; the
farmer can always, without any calculation, make himself a cubical box
(whether to supply, or to verify a measure) whose capacity shall bQ fully
as accurate as the "bushel" he may purchase — even admitting that
such a process may not have the precision that would satisfy the ex-
perimental philosopher. And this is a benefit which would attach equally
to every unit of measurement in the scale. Whenever so radical a change
is contemplated as the introduction of new divisions or denominations of
measure, the importance of adopting at the same time the most useful or
convenient standards that can be devised, is too eminent to justify a
moment's hesitation in throwing aside everything that has not some
intrinsic value to plead for its preservation.

Table op Derivative Measures.

The

cubic dent

gives

the

, morsel

measure

and the carat

weight.

"

" nail

"

ligule

tt

scrap

" inch

((

cup

((

semy

"

" digit

"

gill

"

unce

" hand

<c

quart

<(

libra

" span

"

octa

(1

stone

"

" Module "

"

MODIUS

"

PONDUS

<<

" ell

<<

"

pipe

"

ton

"

" fathom

((

"

butt

i(

load

'«

" rod

<i

1 1

hold

"

keel

This table furnishes us with a complete system. It needs but a simple
calculation to exhibit our weights and measui'es in full. Our measures
of capacity with their respective values are as follows :

1887.]

345

Table of Capacity Measure.

[Taylor.

—

Galls.

Pts,

Oz.

Drs.

Minims.

1 parvum

.488

LO

{^)

parvums make 1 morsel

=

3.905

10

(8)

morsels '

1 ligule

=

31.244

LO

(8)

ligules '

1 cup

=

4

9.955

10

(8)

cups '

Igill

=

4

1

19.64

LO

(8)

gills

' 1 quart

=

2

1

2

37.

LO

(8)

quarts '

' 1 octa

=

2

0

10

4

56.

LO

(8)

octas '

1 MODIUS

=

16

5

4

7

35.

LO

(8)

MODIUSES '

1 pipe

=

133

2

7

4

44.

LO

(8)

pipes

1 butt

=

10C6

3

12

5

56.

LO

(8)

butts

1 hold

=

8531

6

5

7

28.

Our language is unfortunately but very poorly supplied with terms ex-
pressive of capacity ; and as the existing names for the smaller liquid
measures used by the apothecary ("fluid-drachm" and "fluid-ounce")
are exceedingly objectionable, from their reference to the incongruous
standard of weiglit, we are compelled to reject them, although we have
no appropriate denominations to substitute. The word "morsel" is per-
haps sufliciently indeterminate to answer the purpose ; and the Roman
ligula, a small measure of about a spoonful, supplies a convenient term,
having the same recommendation. The "cup," which is equally indefi-
nite, represents about a half-ounce. The AIocUus of the Romans was
about the quarter of a bushel ; the term has been selected as a suitable
one for indicating a standard measure, and also as suggesting its dimen-
sioo, as the cube of the Module. The circumstance that.it is here applied
to a much larger volume tlian it was originally is comparatively unim-
portant.

As referred to our common table of "dry measure," as it is called, the
new "quart" is equal to 1.79 pints ; the "octa" is equal to 7 quarts and
one-third of a pint, or about one-twelfth less than a peck ; the new " Mo-
dius" contains 3849.8 cubic inches, and is therefore equal to one bushel,
3 pecks, 1 quart and half a pint, or to very nearly If bushels, the U. S.
bushel containing 3150.4 cubic inches; the new "pipe" is equal to 14
bushels, 1 peck, 2 quarts and half a pint, and the new " butt " is equal to
114 bushels, 3 pecks and 3 quarts.

In the French measures our "quart" is very nearly equal to the litre,
being .9855 of a litre; our "octa " = 7.884 litres, and our " Modius " =
63 litres.

It may not be out of place to mention here (as exhibiting an interesting
and very early anticipation of our octonary scale of measures in England)

PROC. AMER. PHILOS, SOC. XXIV. 126. 2r. PRINTED DEC. 3, 1887.

Taylor.]

346

[Oct. 21,

that by the act of 51st Henry III (1266), it was declared that "8 pounds
[of wheat] do make the gallon of wine, and 8 gallons of wine do make
a London bushel, and 8 London bushels do make the quarter,"

Our proposed system of weights forms but a corollary from the preced-
ing table of capacity measures ; a Modius of pure water forming the stan-
dard unit, which we therefore call our Weight or Pondus. Taking the
value of the cubic inch of distilled water at maximum density at 252,745
grains (the weight adopted by Mr. Hassler for the U. S. standard), the
Modius or cubic Module would weigh 972891.328 grains, or 138 pounds,
15 ounces, 329.22 grains avoirdupois. This will give us the following
table :

Table of Weights.

Av. lbs.

Oz.

Grains.

1 mite =

0.464

LO (8) mites make

1 carat =

3.711

LO (8) carats

1 scrap =

29.69

L.0 (8) scraps

1 semy =

237.52

LO (8) seniles "

1 unce =

4

150.178

LO (8) unces "

1 libra =

2

3

326.42

LO (8) libras

1 stone =

17

5

423.91

LO (8) stones

1 Pondus =

138

15

329.22

LO (8) PONDUSES "

1 ton =

1111

14

8.76

LO (8) tons

1 load =

8895

0

70.08

LO (8) loads

1 keel =

71160

1

123.14

"While the "Pondus" is the standard of determination, the "libra," as
the unit of weight in most common use, would be the secondary or deriv-
ative standard. Since Tinder "libras" make the "Pondus," this corre-
sponds to our present hundred-weight. The new " ton " is not quite half
a ton, and the " load " is very nearly 4 tons.

The " keel " is one-half larger than the English keel (a weight used
only for coal), which is equal to 21 tons 4 cwt., and of which twenty make
a "ship load." Or the English keel is two-thirds of our "keel," as above
given.

Estimated by the French weights, our "scrap " = 1.924 grammes ; our

18S7.] <^4:7 [Taylor.

"seniy " = 1.5393 decagrammes; our " unce " = 1.3314 Jiectogrnmmes,
and our " libra " = .98514 kilogramme.

It would probably be found convenient to distribute the more popular
or frequently used weights (those from the "scrap " to the " libra ") upon
the binary scale ; but as the divisions of halves and quarters practically
accomplish Ibis, it seems hardly necessary to suggest a series of interme-
diate denominations.

In the new standard of length here proposed and developed, w^e believe
that every excellence of the French standard has been carefully preserved,
and all its imperfections as successfully avoided. Starting from the same
general principles by Avhicli that was obtained, we have made no depart-
ure from the details of its derivation, not required by the plainest and
soundest deductions of experience, philosophy and common sense. Does
the French method propose an agcjravated yard as a convenient unit, we
show the superiority of the cubit. Does it (on good grounds at the time)
select an elliptical meridian, as its origin of measure, we show still bet-
ter grounds for preferring the equatorial circle. Does it look (almost ne-
cessarily) to the quadrant as a natural unit, we show the greater propriety
of the sextant. Does it rest on a thoroughly decimal basis, we show the
most cogent reasons for adopting an octonary distribution. Does it find a
fitting divisor only in the seventh power of its decimal radix, we accident-
ally tind it in a great arithmetical unit — the eighth power of the octade.
Does it finally give as its finished product, an imperfect Metre, we offer
for acceptance a perfect Module.

The system of metrology derived from this new standard has in it noth-
ing that is arbitrarily assumed. Each part of it is dependent upon every
other, and each part flows from each, by a logical and systematic neces-
sity. The whole is thus a perfect unit, simple and complete — compre-
hending every relation of dimension and of weight, and adequate to every
purpose of precision, the minutest as well as the grandest.

We have thus endeavored to unfold with as much conciseness as was
compatible with a clear presentation of the subject, what is regarded as
the best possible method of fulfilling all the varied and difficult conditions
required in an acceptable system of weights and measures, as well as the
most effectual means of promoting that great desideratum of international
commerce, an ultimate uniformity of standards among the nations of the
earth. The serious and radical defects of our existing systems have been
briefly noticed, and from the experience thus acquired the essential and
practical wants of the community have been incidentally pointed out. As
the result of this investigation, it is believed that there is no other practi-
cable solution of the problem ; for the attainment of a real uniformity,
there seems to be no other process or alternative. No disadvantage would
follow the adoption of this plan, save that of the disturbance and confu-
sion necessarily consequent upon every change, and which must form the
price of every valuable reform.

If it be urged that the introduction of still another system of weights

Taylor.] o4:0 |-Oct. 21,

aud measures, and one having no common unit with either the French or
the English system, would be only adding to the existing diversity of
standards, instead of tending to that great scheme of uniformity so cher-
ished by the philanthropist, we have to reply that, if the sj-^stem proposed
be really of all the best adapted to the needs not only of one, but of all
nations, then is the prospect of a general uniformity most reasonably to
be anticipated /ro?rt its introduction. If nehher the metrology of England
<which is also ours), nor yet that of France, is ever likely to obtain a uni-
versal conquest, some better scheme alone remains to give us a hope of
ultimate success. Such a scheme is here presented. Founded upon the
simplest and yet most comprehensive basis, it contains nothing that could
be regarded as in any respect peculiar to one locality or latitude, or more
suitable for one nation than for any other. Encumbered by no abstruse no-
menclature, it aims at no superfluous verbal uniformity, but leaves each
people to employ such designations of its units as may ajDpear to each
most easy and familiar.

Mr. Adams, after his unequaled analysis of the English system of
measures, in view of its close agreement with our own, discountenances
all attempts at a premature innovation. Without approving in his report
of the introduction of the French system, he thinks it would afford the
best prospect of securing "uniformity;" and remarks, "were it even
possible to construct another system on diflFerent principles, but em-
bracing in equal degree all the great elements of uniformity, it would
still be a system of diversity with regard to France, aud all tlie followers
of her system. And as she could not be expected to abandon that which
she has established at so much expense, and with so much dlflBculty, for
another possessing, if equal, no greater advantages, there would still be
two rival systems with more desperate chances for the triumph of uni-
formity."

On the contrary, it is believed, that provided a new system could be
framed, which Jiad demonstrably "greater advantages" than her own,
France would be among the first of nations to hail its advent and to wel-
come its adoption. A nation to which belougs the honor aud the glory of
having been the first to invite the fraternal co-operation of other powers,
and the first to work out with unwearied science, skill and labor, a com-
prehensive organization of that ideal metrology— unrivaled in its philo-
sophy and symmetry — cannot be the last to appreciate any real improve-
ment of that economy ; or to submit to any sacrifice which should promote
the realization of such improvement. Nor could the entire abandon-
ment of that which has cost so much be accounted too great a sacrifice,
if only through it could be accomplished that magnanimous design to
which it owed its origin. It would have to be looked upon as a costly
but invaluable experiment — as a great aud necessary progression to an
end, by which alone was rendered possible any higher attainment. The
system here elaborated is but a development of that.

A project which contemplates the entire subversion of the existing

1887.] ^*^ [Taylor.

arithmetic, Tvith its immense stores of foct and formula, is certainly a
most startling proposal ; and is one which will doubtless be regarded by
the majority of persons as a scheme chimerical and impossible. We are
impressed with a calm conviction that it does not even offer any real diffi-
culty. The enormous labor of reconstruction involved, we seek not to
deny or to underrate. But this is a trouble which must alwaj'^s be com-
mensurate with the greatness of the reformation. This necessity would,
however, most probably stimulate to the development and perfection of
that most uselul ally, tiie calculating machine. Rendered simpler in its
construction by the very system which should require its services, and
made popular and general by the new demand, it seems not improbable
that a single century of theoclonary empire would place the world on a
higher platform than it would even reach without it. Such has been
the usual history of difficulty and of success. A national government
has but to will it to ensure its establishment ; and after the first impedi-
ments of custom were surmounted, we nothing doubt, that the facility
and manifold conveniences of the new regime would form its most power-
ful support, and its surest recommendation to popular favor.

If the octonary system have the germ of vitality, here imagined, its
adoption by any one of the great nations of Christendom would as surely
pave the way to its universal prevalence, as did the introduction of the
Hindoo notation, and of the Gregorian calendar. Nor are the obstacles
which so long delayed those great reforms, either as numerous or as
serious at the present day, as they were in by-gone centuries. The tone
and temper of the times — intellectual, moral, and political — differ widely
from those of our ancestors ; and in our common school sj'stem we have
a moral mechanism for the inoculation of new truth, untried and un-
known in all past ages.* Whenever the octonary numeration should be
definitely established by political authority, we would immediately have
all young children instructed for a year or two, only in the octonary
arithmetic — as furnishing the easiest and most rational introduction to
the knowledge of figures. And not until after a complete mastery of this
arithmetic should they be taught the use of decimals — still required for
a considerable period to enable reductions to be made from the old style
to the new. This would be attended with no more labor than is the addi-
tional study now of ordinary Algebra ; while in the distinctive languages
of the two scales would be found a safeguard against all danger or diffi-
culty, in confounding the one value with the other.

* In the interesting report made to the Secrctarj' of the Treasury, Dec. 30, 18.56, by Prof.
Bache, Suiierintendcnt of Weights and Meu.sures, it is well remarked in rehition to the
facility of introducing a decimal system, that "One generation would nearly suffice to
ehect this change, if, as in Holland, the new weights and measures were introduced
through the schools. The children of the country becoming familiar with them in the
primary schools, seeing the actual material standards of length, cajiacity and weight
at frequent and stated times in early youth, and retaining that familiarity as they
passed into the higher schools, would be readily prepared for their universal use wheji
reaching mature life."

Taylor.] OOO 1-^^^ 21,

The economy of time and labor wbich the system of octonary compu-
talion would infuse throughout the myriad commercial details daily en-
tering into the life of a busy and enterprising people, cannot be estimated,
and could not easily be exaggerated. The popular wonder would be no
smaller under the daily workings of this wiser system, that decimals
could have prevailed so many centuries — than is our wonder now that
the demands of trade could possibly have been satisfied by the awkward
and complex Roman scale of numeration.

The objections naturally brought against any disturbance of the exist-
ing order of accountancy (backed on the other hand by the indolent and
dilatory plea that we and our ancestors from earliest time have found it to
answer quite "well enough") are precisely those which have uniformly
opposed and retarded the introduction of every improvement. We are
informed by Sir John Bowring, in his interesting sketch of the Ex-
chequer system of England, that in quite recent times. Lord Granville
strongly resisted the abolition of the Latin phraseology, and the substitution
of the Hindoo numerals for the Roman, in the keeping of the public
accounts, on the ground that the continuance of the accustomed system
was necessary to preserve the comprehension of preceding records !*

The only question upon the subject that can be acknowledged as worthy
of discussion, is that which regards the beneficial character of the revolu-
tion. " Is, or is not, the change proposed a real improvement?" If it be
— if it be not onlj^an iiuprovement, but of all projected schemes the best —
then we assert the bolder logic — Us adoption is only a question of time !
Prejudice, timidity or indolence, insensibility to the interest of the future,
or superstitious reverence for the gray-haired follies of the past, may each
or all oppose their inefiectual resistance ; they may indeed postpone for a
century or two the benefit to be enjoyed ; they may indeed throw in the
scale the added labor of accumulated work to be undone, but what is
y best" shall surely, in the end, secure its empire.

To the objection urged by some that the advantages to result are too
remote, and that even were the new arithmetic now inaugurated, the
present generation could not expect to have the full and peaceful enjoy-
ment of its alleged conveniences, we would reply that such has been the
case with every really great reform. The rewards of far-reaching bene-
factions are never for the present. We are in possession now of many

* " It is indeed scarcely credible, that the perplexing and entangled manner of keep-
ing accounts by the Roman numerals in the same barbarous style which was practiced
before the Norman Conquest, was maintained at the Excliequer almost down to the
present day ; and the introduction of the English language and the Arabic numerals
was successfully resisted by no less a personage than Lord Granville, on the ground that
if the barbarous usages of our ancestors were reformed, it would be difficult to under-
stand the accounts, and the records of departed time ; and hence he argued for the
necessity of perpetuating a system of complication, confusion and imperfection, not
on the common plea of the superior wisdom of our ancestors, but in full acknowledg-
ment and appreciation of the ignorance of the custom which was originally instituted,
and which had continued to reign triumphant among the Exchequer records" (Bow-
ring's Decimal System, Chap, vii, page 124).

1887.] ^^1 [Taylor.

priceless blessings whose first and feeble preparations were planned in
former, unenjoying ages. Shall we reap the rich fruits grown from the
unselfish providence of ancestral culture, and shall posterity be less
favored ? Patriotism and humanity reject the doubt. The octonary algo-
rithm is pregnant with such great and widespread benefits — benefits to
extend throughout all coming time, that its acquisition should be estimated
as cheaply purchased by whole generations of transitional confusion.

The measure thus imperfectly advocated is by no means a new one. It
is an incident of the highest interest and moment in the reign of that dis-
tinguished monarch, Charles XII of Sweden, that he not only contem-
plated the introduction of an octonary arithmetic, but that he commis-
sioned Swedenborg (at that time celebrated for his scientific and mathe-
matical attainments) to draw up the necessary details of the plan for
establishing this system, together with an octonary scale of weights, mea-
sures and coins throughout his kingdom.* It appears that the premature
death of the liing very shortly afterward, alone prevented the consumma-
tion of this most sagacious and philosophic enterprise. But for this unto-
ward circumstance this admirable meclianism would have thus been put
into practical operation more than a century and a half ago ! Had it
proved as successful as there is every reason to suppose it would, who can
estimate the influence this engrafting would have had upon the present
mathematical condition of Europe? Might we not now have been in the
full and assured enjoyment of that happier system? The subject of this
improved numerical notation had doubtless often occupied the minds of
mathematicians long before this time, but this is probably the first occa-
sion on which a deliberate and well-designed attempt was ever made to
give it a practical existence and establishment. As such it is an event of
no trivial importance, and must be I'egarded as ever memorable in the his-
tory of arithmetical reform.

In contemplating the practical working of this untried system, and
forming an estimate of the character of the change required in the popu-
lar habits of thought, comparison and judgment, there can be no doubt
tliat the octonary scale could be generally introduced with far greater
facility, and made thoroughly familiar in a much shorter time, in its appli-
cation to the divisions of money, weight and measure, than it could be in
its more abstract application to the operations of universal numeration ;
that in advance of the arithmetical reformation, it would be found highly
expedient to introduce the simple and convenient system of weights and
measures here proposed, as the best preparation for the successful intro-
duction of the other.

Even were the octonary arltlimetic (with all its own intrinsic excel-
lences) not to be adopted, we still urge that these measures would be worthy
of an independent establishmeat. After the variety of arithmetical reduc-
tions to which we are now accustomed under our present incongruous

* See note D, page 364.

Taylor.] OD'Ji j-q^j 21,

tables, the uniform reduction of a single scale, which would alone be re-
quired in the new order, would give a very great simplification and relief,
and would in every i^robability be found upon the whole to entail less
inconvenience than that which would remain, with even the perfect deci-
malization of our various measures. So that even under the disadvan-
tages of a decimal dispensation there can be little doubt it could easily be
shown that our new system would still, in view of all the circumstances,
be the "best possible " one for popular use, and would most completely
furnish the elements of a perfect uniformity.

The system in use in this country has three units : The Yard, consist-
ing of 36 inches ; the Troy pound, consisting of 5760 grains, and the
Wine gallon, containing 231 cubic inches ; these units being entirely inde-
pendent of each other. Upon these units our various tables of weights
and measures have been constructed without regard to regularity or fit-
ness for the practical purposes to which they must be applied, or without
any approach whatever to uniformity or similarity in the various multiples
or divisions of the units.

Any comprehensive and strictly philosophical system, as before stated,
can have but one unit, which must give law throughout. That unit will
most naturally be a linear measure, and whatever its derivation, where a
change is made, "the coincidences between the old and new ratios will
necessarily be rare. The best that can be done is to choose such a unit as
will produce the most of these. ''

In consideration of the strong desire of very many persons to retain our
present units, or at least the unit of measure, it is believed that the adop-
tion, as our standard, of the English inc/i or multiple of it, the inch being
the thirty-sixth part of the standard yard, which is also our standard yard,
with an octonary distribution of the various tables of weights, measures
and coins, although less philosophical and scientific than the plan just pro-
posed, would be much more readily accomplished. This would leave un-
disturbed all linear measures of Great Britain and of the United States,
and would possess all the essential elements for a successful adoption by
both countries.

A specified number of inches might be taken as the standard, and from
this all other measures, including those of surface, capacity and weight,
derived ; or if it should be considered preferable to retain the grain weight
instead of the linear unit, the side of a cube containmg a weight of water
equal to a specific number of grains, might be taken as the standard.

The grain is a standard so widely used, and in medicine especially is
one of so great value as the exponent of so much knowledge and expe-
rience, that it should not be lightly set aside, and its surrender is a sacri-
fice which ought to be compensated by very undoubted advantages. So
far as medicine and pharmacy are concerned, it would seem to be the
most important unit to be preserved. Not only is it at present the recog-
nized measure of the physician and pharmacist throughout a great por-
tion of Europe, that in which chiefly is embodied the long acquired

1S87.] 'JOD [Taylor.

experience and accumulated knowledge of the healing art, the laboriously
ascertained anrl accurately observed relations and values of all ihe more
active portion of the ^lateria Medica, but it is the measure which, outside
of the medical and pharmaceutical professions, is the one almost univer-
sally employed as the unit of comparison for all minute investigations and
precise determinations.

If either one should be adopted, the other would have to be abandoned ;
and upon a careful consideration, notwithstanding the great importance
of the grain, it is believed that the inch would be retained with less dis-
turbance and witli much greater advantage than the grain. Should the
metric system be adopted, both the inch and the grain must be discarded.

Within a few years past various schemes have been proposed for pro-
moting uniformity, but unless some one of them could be universally
adopted, the confusion and complication would be increased instead of
being diminished.

Prof. Oscar Oldberg has proposed for adoption by pharmacists and phy-
sicians, a new system based upon the " Ornmme ;"* he proposes to divide
the gramme into sixteen parts called " grains," thus making a new grain,
a little smaller than our present grain ; four grammes to make a drachm,
8 drachms to make an ounce, and 16 ounces to make a pound ; the pound
would thus consist of 8193 new grains, or about 7900 troy grains.

Even if this scheme should be adopted universally by pharmacists and
physicians, which does not appear probable, it would but increase the
difficulties under which we are now laboring ; it would only add one
more to our already long list of tables of weights and measures to be
learned.

There is no good reason why pharmacists or jewelers, or any other class of
individuals, should have a special scale of weights and measures ; many
of the evils experienced by them are those prevailing in all departments,
and no improvements or reform can be either efficient or enduring which
do not look to the welflire of the whole. It will be found impossible to
give exclusive and confined attention to the weights and measures of any
one profession ; there is absolute necessity of conformity among all the
measures of trade and commerce, and of the reference of all to common
laws and to a single standard.

These remarks will also apply to the scheme proposed by Mr. Wm. L.
Turner for the use of pharmacists, published in the Proceedings of the
Pennsylvania Pharmaceutical Association, 188G.

Mr. Turner proposes to divide the " Gramme" into 15 parts called
" grains;" to make the ounce equal to 500 of these grains, and the pound
equal to 14 ounces, or equal to about 7200 troy grains.

Before attempting any change it should be well considered whether we
have attained all the benefit within our reach, or whether at no greater
cost we might not reap the advantages of a far more perfect sj'stem.

♦Manual of "Weights and Measures. By Oscar Oldberg, Pharm. D. Second edition.
Chicago, 1887.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 126. 2s. PRINTED DEC. 2, 1887.

Taylor.] dD4 [Oct. 21,

We would therefore propose to select for our " Module '•' a 16-inch rule
instead of one of 15.672 inches, as suggested on page 338 ; all the tables as
before given would remain unchanged in regard to their divisions and pro-
portions, but of course the values would be slightly modified.

The Table of Measures of Capacity, and Weights, on page 855, shows the
divisions and multiples of the "]\Iodius" based upon this 16 inch Jlodule,
with their equivalents in Apothecaries' or Wine measure, and in cubic
inches; also the divisions and multiples of the "Pondus," with their
corresponding Avoirdupois weights, and the connection between the
measures and weights.

A great beauty resulting from the use of a cube number for a metrical
radix, with octaval divisions, is shown by this table. It will be observed
that the Modius and all of its multiples and divisions are perfect cubes ;
and each one has a precise linear standard for the side of its cube ; thus,
the Modius is the cube of the Module (or 16 inches); the Octa is tlie cube
of 4 digits (or 8 inches) ; the Quart is the cube of 2 digits (or 4 inches) ;
the Gill is the cube of 1 digit (or 2 inches); and so it is with every ascend-
ing or descending measure of capacity ; and the weight of the contents of
these measures gives us a precisely corresponding series of weights.

To illustrate the contrasted awkwardness and complexity of a decimal
system of mea*sures, let the French "Litre" be selected. The Litre is the
cube of the decimetre. Ten litres make one dekalitre, and if we would
seek the cubic measure of this quantity, we shall find by a troublesome
process of extracting the cube root, that 2 decimetres, 1 centimetre, 5
millimetres, and a decimal fraction .44347, and so on interminably, will
give us an approximation to the length of the side, within an assignable
limit of error. In other words, although there certainly is a cubic vessel,
that shall contain exactly 10 litres, it is not within man's art of mensura-
tion to tell precisely what the size of that cube must be. If, on the other
hand, it were required to find the dimensions of a vessel holding exactly
8 litres, we know that a cube of 2 decimetres will give the measure with
absolute precision ; or, if on the descending scale, it were required to find
the size of a vessel holding exactly one-eighth of a litre, the cube of 5
centimetres gives us the perfect solution.

By the simple device of using multiples of one, two, and four times the
size of such of these weights or measures as may be desirable, the use' of
fractions is entirely avoided, and a perfect system of weights and measures
is supplied, by which any conceivable amount can be easily and accurately
weighed or measured. Another beauty in our system is that it gives a
maximum range of expression with the minimum number of pieces.

Of the weights in our table, those in ordinary use by the pharmacist,
jeweler, etc., would be the mite, the carat, the scrap, the semy, and the
unce. Weights of once, twice, and four times the quantity of each of
these, or in all 15 weiglits, would enable us to weigh any possible quan-
tity of mites, from one (which is less than half a grain) to 16170 grains ;
that is to say, we could weigh 32760 different quantities ; these 15 weights

1887.]

355

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would take the place of the following 19 weights, which are now used to
accomplish nearly an equivalent purpose, viz : | gra;in, 1, 2, 3, 4, H, 6, 10,
20, 30, 40, 60, 120, and 240 grains troy together with avoirdupois weights
of 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16 ounces. These 19 weights make a total of 14104 grains,
and would consequently be sufficient to weigh any number of half
grains from 1 to 282u8.

Upon examiuation of the above table, it will be seen that the viite is
very nearly equal to half a grain, the did'erence being xotVoo- ^^ about
3;igth of a grain ; two mites being about y\th less than one grain ; one
carat is very nearly equal to 4 grains, being about 2^ grain less. One
scrap is about 1^ grains more than the half drachm. One semy is 34
grains more than half an ounce avoirdupois, or 12J grains more than half
an ounce troy ; while four utices are equal to 18^ ounces avoirdupois nearly.

Of tlie fluid measures the Ugule is equal to half a fluid-drachm and 3.2
minims ; two Ufjules being 6.4 minims more than a fluid-draclim, or the
medicinal teaspoon ful ; the cup is equal to 4 flaid-ounces and 3:^ fluid-
drachms ; 4 gills are equal to 1 pint and If fluid-ounces, and the new
quart is equal to two pints and 3^ fluid-ounces.

The smaller of these weights and measures assimilate so nearly with our
present divisions, that for most practical purposes in medicine, pharmacy,
etc., the difference would be inappreciable. It is true that all the valuable
knowledge that clusters about the grain weight, in statistics of all kind,
would have to be recalculated in the new weights, but as has before been
stated this is a necessary consequence of any alteration in our unit.

If instead of retaining our linear unit, the inch, we had selected the
grain weight, all of our weights would have been in even grains, while
our measures would have been fractional quantities ; in this case, instead
of taking the inch, we would take the length of one side of a cube of
water weighing at its greatest density 256 grains ; such a cube would vary
very slightly from a cubic inch ; its side would measure 1.004334 inches ;
sixteen times this length would give us a "Module" equal to 16.069344
inches, and our " Fondus" would weigh 149 lbs., 12 oz. and 336 grains ;
our "scrap" would be exactly 32 grains, our "carat" exactly 4 grains,
and our "mite" exactly half a grain.

It is believed that the scheme here proposed, independently of its merits,
would less disturb our present system of weights and measures than any
that has yet been proposed, and would be, therefore, more easilj'' intro-
duced and willingly accepted.

And has not the time arrived in the general progress of commercial and
international intercourse, and the rapid advance of our country in science,
wealth and power, when her voice should be heard in an important mat-
ter like this ! Should not our Congress invite all nations to appoint suit-
able persons to be their representatives in a universal convention to be as-
sembled for the purpose of devising and establishing a system of uniform
weights and measures, practically applicable to the need and use of all
peoples of the earth ?

1887.] «>57 [Taylor.

Such action could not fail to meet with a response due to the importance
of the subject ; and if the great object be attained, to lead to results pro-
ductive of vast and lasting benefit to the human race.

These suggestions are offered for the purpose of promoting discussion,

investigation, and consideration of the subject in all its bearings, in the

liope that when the time arrives in which a change must be made, and

such a time will inevitably come, that a system may be adopted which

has been, or can be demonstrated to possess the greatest advantages, and

is admitted to be, of all schemes proposed, the truest, the wisest, the

best.

Note A.

"The triumph of the art of calculation, and that to which mainly the
modern system of numerical computation owes its perfection, consists in the
'device of place,' by which all necessity for distinguishing the nature of the
units signified by any symbol is superseded. Like many other inventions of
the highest utility this, when known, appears to aiise so naturally and neces-
sarily out of the exigencies of the case, tiiat it must excite unqualified as-
tonishment how it could have remained so long undiscovered. » * * That
the honor of the invention of a system which produced such important
effects as well on the investigations of science as in the common concerns of
commerce, should be claimed by many contending nations, is what would
naturally be expected. * * * All Arabian authors on arithmetic appear
to agree that the first writer of that country upon this system of arithmetic
was ^lohamnied ben Mnza, the Khuwarezmite, who flourished about the year
DOO. This writer is celebrated for having introduced among his countrymen
many important parts of the science of the Hindoos, to the cultivation of
which he was devotedly attached; and among other branches of knowledge
thence derived, there is satisfactory evidence that this species of arithmetic
was one. From the time of Mohammed ben Muza the figures and modes of
calculation introduced by him were generally adopted by scientific writers
of Arabia, although a much longer period elapsed before they got into com-
mon popular use, even in that country. They were always distinguished by
the name Ilindasi, meaning the Indian mode of computation. * » At
the beginning of the eleventh century the use of the Arabic notation had be-
come universal in all the scientific works of Arabian writers, and more espe-
cially in their astronomical tables. The knowledge of it was of course com-
municated to all those people with whom the IMoors held that intercourse
which would lead to a community of scientific research. In the beginning of
the eleventh century the Moors were in possession of the southei n part of Spain,
where the sciences were then actively cultivated. In tins way the use of
the new arithmetic was received into Europe first in scientific treati.ses. A
translation of Ptolemy was published in Spain in 1130, in which this notation
was used ; and after this period it continued in general use for the purposes of
science. Xotwitiistanding the knowledge and practice of this superior notation
by scientific men, the lioman numerals continued to be used for purposes of
business and commerce for nearly three centuries, and it was only by slow and
gradual steps that the improved notation prevailed over its clumsy and incom-
modious predecessor. The first attempt to introduce it for the purposes of com-
merce was made by a Tuscan merchant, Leonardo Pisano, in 1202. Having

Taylor.] 358 |-Oct. 21,

traveled in Barbary, he there learned the method of Hincloo arithmetic, and,
struck with its superiority over that to which he had been accustomed, he
determined that his countrymen should no longer be deprived of the benefits
of it. He accordingly published his treatise in the Latin language ; in which
he professes to deliver a complete doctrine of the numbers of the Indians.
« » ■;■:- ^ considerable period, however, was necessary to introduce this
system into the common business of life. The extensive commerce main-
tained by the Italian States directed their attention to the subject at au
earlier period than other nations ; and although, for scientific purposes, the
date of the introduction of the Arabic numeration into Spain is earliei- than
that of its appearance in Italy, yet its use for the common business of life
prevailed at a much earlier period among the Italian States than in any other
nation of Europe" {Lardner's Treatise on Arithinetic, Book i, cli. ii).

The Hindoo numerals are found in various manuscripts of Italy bearing
the dates 1212, 1220, 1228. But none are found in England till nearly two
centuries later. Chaucer, the 'poet, who died in 1400, alludes to them in one
of his poems as " the figures neice."

According to Sir John Bowring (" Decimal System," pages 23-30), the first
calendar in the English language in which the Hindoo numerals are era-
ployed, bears the date of ='1431," and the earliest date known on a tombstone
in these figures is "14.54," the tombstone being that of "Elen Cook," in the
church at Ware. The first English book which bears its date in these figures
is the " Bhetorica Nova, Gulielmi de Saona, 14V8." And in seals only one
example has been found anterior to the sixteenth century, which bears the
date 1484. "The Roman figures lingered longer in England," adds Bow-
ring, "than in any other part of the European world, having found an asy-
lum in the dark and dull regions of the Exchequer" (page 26). "It is in-
deed scarcely credible that the perplexing and entangled manner of keeping
accounts by the Roman numerals, in the same barbarous style which was
practised before the Norman Conquest, was maintained at the Exchequer
almost down to the present day. * * » In addition to this strange and
absurd system of Exchequer book-keeping, tallies continued to be used down
to the year 1782. It was only in the year 1831 that the Committee on Public
Accounts, of which I was the secretary, recommended the utter and com-
plete abolition of the ancient system and the adoption of the Indian numer-
als. It Avas in consequence of this change that in the year 1835 the tallies
were ordered to be burnt ; a conflagration which led to the destruction of
both Houses of Parliament — the Exchequer in which the tallies were kept
having formed a part of the ancient edifice of St. Stephen's" {Sir John
Boicring's Decirnnl System, pages 124-125).

Delambre regards it as a fact humiliating to the pride of himian genius
that the discovery of the true notation of numbers by nine digits and zero
shoidd have escaped the sagacity of the illustrious geometei s and mathema-
ticians of ancient Greece. "The Hindoos," says Peacock, "consider this
method of numeration as of divine origin. The invention of nine figures
with the device of place being ascribed to the beneficent Creator of the uni-
verse. Of its great antiquity amongst them there can be no doubt, it having
been used at a period certainly anterior to all existing records" {Encyclope-
dia Mctropolitana). It can be traced back with certainty at least four
centuries before its appearance among the Arabs, and as Lardner well re-

1887.]

359

[Taylor.

marks, since "none of these Hindoo authors claim either for themselves or
their predecessors the invention of this method of enumeration, but always
mention it as being received from the Deity, we may infer that it was prac-
tised in that country beyond the limits even of tradition." The Indian ori-
q,m of our numerals being thus so well established, there is a manifest im-
propriety in continuing to designate them as the " Arabic figures," as is con-
stantly done in our scliool arithmetics. Let as give honor wiiere honor is
due.

Note B.

It is remarkable that this binary system, according to the opinion of many,
was used in China, four thousand j'ears ago, by Fohi, the founder of the
empire. A tablet of great but unknown antiquity, called the Cova of Fohi,
marked with a series of variously broken lines, and held in superstitious
reverence by the Chinese, as containing the mystery of a divine wisdom, has
been found to be comi:)leteIy deciphered by the notation of binary arithmetic.
When Leibnitz had extensively circulated his scheme or invention through
the various scientific journals, and by means of his own correspondence — it
appears to have found its way even to China, and to have attracted the
attention of a Jesuit missionary at Pekin, named Bouvet. This ecclesiastic,
engaged at the time in the study of the Chinese antiquities, discovered and
immediately communicated to Leibnitz, with much exultation and enthusi-
asm, the surprising fact that his system furnished a perfect kej' to the mys-
terious lines upon the ancient Cova — hitherto inscrutable, or interpreted only
by the speculations of the most extravagant mysticism. The lines of Fohi
are arranged in an octagonal form, so as to make the ends approach ; each
set of the eight series being disposed on a side of the octagon.

These lines transferred from the Cova tablet, and placed in a straight line,
are here represented. The row of figures in front expresses the value of each
compound symbol, the other figures, which represent
the binary notation, manifestly exhibiting a perfect
correspondence with the symbols throughout.

"These figures of eight cova," says Mr. Peacock,
(in the Encyclopedia Met roj)oUtana), "are held in
great veneration, being suspended in all their temples,
and though not understood, are supposed to conceal
great mysteries, and the true principles of all philoso-
phy, both human and divine."

This inscription is exceedingly interesting as ex-
hibiting a true example of that philosophic notation,
the device of the cipher— and the determination of
value by place. The absence of any other traces of
such a notation in China, and its well-known anti-
quity in India, where it had been so fully elaborated,
would lead to the suspicion that it was to this latter
country that Fohi was indebted for this curious record
of ingenious thought. It apjiears that Bouvet was
fortunate enough to find, subsequently, a Great Cova,
in which these markings were carried to a period
eight times the extent of the Small Cova. In the Edinburgh Encyclopedia

0

1 1 1

000

1

1

001

2

010

3

on

4

! 1
1 1

100

5

1

101

6

110

7

111

Taylor.] 360 [Oct. 21,

(Article " Arithmetic"), it is stated in reference to this subject, tliat Fatlier
Bouvet, wlio first sugge.sted tliis explanation and communicated it to Leib-
nitz, afterward procured, during his residence in China, the Great Fi(jiir& of
Fold, which extends as far as Gi. The exact coincidences which he still
found to prevail between the combinations of these lines and the figures of
the binary notation, left no doubt with regard to the justness of his conjec-
ture ; and we cannot help remarking that the restitution of the true sense of
those characters, after so long an interval of time, is a very singular fact in
the history of science.

Note C.

It is interesting to trace the history of the gradual development, in modern
times, of the grand but difficult project of obtaining from nature a constant
and universal standard of length. It is obvious that no such objects of ulti-
mate reference as the human foot, or arm, or cubit, or as "thirty-six barley
corns round and dry," can be regarded as natural standards, since they are
wholly useless for tlie purpose of any precise determination. And all meas-
ures derived from them are purely arbitrary, as their authority is obtained
from positive enactment, merely, and not from any agi-eement with their
nominal originals. Hence it is not at all surprising that "cubits" and "feet"
come to signify anything the civil power may enact ; the former of these
denominations ranging through every gradation of value, from the covid of
Wy^ inches to the royal Egyptian cnhit of 253^ inches, and the latter from the
Pythic foot of 9% inches, to the Geneva foot of 19 inches. Nor would it
ever be possible from such sources, to reproduce a lost standard, with even
the rudest approach to exactness. As Mr. Adams has well remarked, "For
all the uses of weights and measures in their ordinary application to agricul-
ture, traffic, and the mechanic arts, it is perfectly immaterial what the natural
standard to which they are referable may be. The foot of Hercules, the arm
of Henry the First, or the barley-corn is as sufficient for the purpose as the
pendulum, or the quadrant of the meridian" {Report to Congress).

" The first attempt at fixing such a standard as should be accurate and
universal, both as to place and time, is due to the inventive genius of the
celebrated Iluyghens. That philosopher demonstrated that the times of the
vibrations of pendulums depend on their length only. ® * •■■ Hence he con-
ceived that the pendulum might afford a standard or unit for measures of
length " {Edinburgh Eeview, Vol. ix, page 373). It was in his " Horologium
Oscillatorium" (published about 1G70), that Iluyghens proposed the use of
the seconds' pendulum as a universal and perpetual measure ; this length to
be divided into three equal parts ; and this third part (about 13 inches) to be
called the horary foot.

The celebrated Picard, who first measured from Paris to Amiens in 1669,
an arc of the meridian in France, making the degree equal to 68.94.5 miles (a
measurement memorable as having furnished Newton with the means of
verifying his grand theory, incapable of determination from the pre-existing
data), also proposed in 1671, in agreement with the idea of Iluyghens, that
the pendulum beating seconds should be adopted as the unit of length.
Picard has the merit of having first thrown out the suggestion that the diur-
nal rotation of the earth ought to affect the oscillation of the pendulum, and

1887.] ^^1 [Taylor.

that it ouglit to vibrate more rapidly toward tlie poles than toward tlie equa-
tor. He accordingly tried the pendulum at Uranibourg, at Paris and at
Cette, but wab not fortunate enough to discover any sensible difference.
Eoemer also found the length the same at London.

Richer, however, in the same year, 1671, or early in 1672, wliile engaged in
the duties of his commission at Cayenne, on observing the length of the sec-
onds' pendulum at this place (lat. 4° 56' north of the equator), found it sen-
sibly shorter than at Paris (48° 50' north), the difference being about aline
and a quarter. Picher's discovery that the pendulum varied in length with
the latitude, deprived it of that uniform character considered so necessary in
a linear stdndard.

The Abbe Gabriel Moiiton, a distinguished mathematician who flourished
at the same time, appears to be the first who suggested a measure derived
from the earth. He proposed, almost simultaneously with the publication of
Huyghens, a decimal system of measit res hKsed on the value of a minute of arc,
as derived from Piccioli's length of a degree. This minute of the degree he
called a miliare, the thousandth part of which he called a virrja, equal to 5
feet 4'^ inches. We have here the germ of the present French metrology.

Cassini, who in 1718 repeated the measurements of a meridian made by
Picard (extending his arc, however, further south, namely, from Paris to
Dunkirk, and making the degree 69.119 miles), proposed the earth's radias
as the unit of length. He afterward in his book, " Be la Grandeur de la
Terre," proposed as a unit the six-thousandth part of a minute of a degree
of a great circle of the earth, a measure very nearly equal to the foot.

In 1748 M. de la Condamine (who had recently returned from measuring a
degree at the equator in Peru), in a memoir read before the Academy of
Sciences, resumed the idea of the pendulum as the unit of length, proposing
that it should be taken as beating seconds at the equator, as the most notable
line of latitude, and as one likely to avoid all the prejudices which might arise
from national jealousy were the latitude of any particular place selected.
"We see from this the anxiety felt to secure a standard whicli might be com-
mon and uniform among nations.

On the 15th of January, 1790, in accordance with President Washington's
recommendation, the House of Pepresentatives

"Ordered, That it be referred to the Secretary of State to prepare and
report to this House, in like manner, a proper plan or plans for establishing
uniformity in the currency, weiglits and measures of the United States."

On the 15th of July of that year the House of Representatives received
from the Secretary of State (Mr. Jefferson) his report of the proper plan for
establishing the desired uniformity, as requested by the House.

In this elaborate report the Secretary proposed " that the standard of mea-
sure be a uniform, cylindrical rod of iron of such length as, in latitude 45°,
in the level of the ocean, and in a cellar or other place, the temperature of
which does not vary through the year, shall perform its vibrations in uniform
and equal arcs in one second of mean time."

Starting from this standard, he proposes two distinct plans for the consid-
eration of the House, that they might, at their will, adopt the one or the
otlier exclusively, or the one for the present and the other for the future time,
when the public mind may be supposed to have become familiarized to it.

The first plan was to define and render uniform and stable the existing sys-

PROC. AMEB. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 136. 2t. PRINTED DEC. 2, 1887.

Taylor.] ^^^ [Oct. 21,

tern; to make the foot to bear a definite ratio to tlie standard penduhim rod ;
to reduce the dry and liquid raeasure.s to corresponding capacities by estab-
lishing a single gallon of 270 cubic inches, and a bushel to be eqnal to eight
(8) gallons, or 2,1G0 inches— that is, to one and one-fourth cubic feet; to
make the ounce to be the weight of one-thousandth part of a cubic foot of
water ; to retain the more known terms of the two kinds of weights in use,
reduced to one series ; and to express tlie quantity of pure silver in the dollar
in parts of the weight so defined.

The second plan was to reduce " every branch to the same decimal ratio
already established in coins, and thus bring the calculation of the principal
affairs of life within the arithmetic of every man who can multiply and
divide plain numbers."

Except in the length of the fundamental unit, and in the nomenclature,
this was essentially that of the metrical system of France.

Tliese two plans were sharply opposed to each other, and it was to be ex-
pected that the desire for a decimal division, and symmetry of system on the
one hand, and the reluctance to make a violent change on the other, shouljl
elicit no little discussion.

This report was communicated to the Senate in December of that year
and referred to a committee. That committee reported on the 1st of March,
1791, that, " as a proposition has been made to the National Assembly ,of
France for obtaining a standard of measure which shall be invariable, and
communicable to all nations and at all times; as a similar proposition has
been submitted to the British Parliament in their last session ; as the avowed
object of these is to introduce an uniformity in the measures and weights of
the commercial nations ; as a coincidence of regulation by the Goveinment
of the United States on so interesting a subject would be desirable, your
committee are of opinion that it would not be eligible, at present, to intro-
duce any alteration in the measures and weights which are now used in the
United States." This report was adopted.

In 1790, Talleyrand proiwsed to the constituent Assembly of France, that
in view of the great diversity and confusion in the weights and measures of
the country, a commission should be appointed for the purpose of consulting
with a similar commission from the English Government, upon the subject of
establishing a uniform international system of metrology, founded upon a
single and universal standard. The proposal alluded to the only two natural
standards which presented themselves, viz., the measure of the earth and the
pendulum, and expressed a decided preference for the latter. The result of
this movement was the appointment of Borda, Lagrange, Laplace, Monge,
and Condorcet, as commissioners to examine into and report upon the sub-
ject. After a careful consideration of the three plans submitted, namely, the
pendulum, a quarter of the equator, and a quarter of the terrestrial meridian,
they very judiciously agreed in decidedly recommending the latter ; regard-
ing the pendulum as an unsuitable standard, whether taken at forty-five
degrees of latitude or at the equator.

The attempt to enlist the co-operation of England proved abortive. " The
operation of changes of opinion there," says Mr. Adams, "is slow — the aver-
sion to all innovations deep. More than two hundred years had elapsed from
the Gregorian reformation of the calendar, before it was adopted in Eng-
land. "•■■• * * After a succession of more than sixty years of inquiries and

1887.] ^t)D [Taylor.

experiments, the British pavlianient have not yet acted in the form of law "
(Reijort to Congress).

Just five hundred years after the statute of 17th Edward II (A.D. 132-t),
enacted that " three barley-corns round and dry, make an inch— twelve inches
make a foot," etc., the first change was made in the legal definition of the
foot. By the act of 5th George IV, c. 71 (1824), it is declared "the standard
yard is the distance between the centres of the two points on the gold studs
in the straight brass rod now in the custody of the Clerk of the House of Com-
mons, whereon is engraved 'Standard yaid, 1760,' the brass being at the tem-
perature of 62 degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer." "The Yard, if lost,
defaced, or otherwise injured, may be restored by comparing it with the pen-
dulum vibrating seconds of mean time in the latitude of London, in a vacu-
um, on the level of the sea, the yard being in the proportion of o6 inches to
39.1393 inches of the pendulum." This was the first attempt to refer the
English foot to a natural standard.

Ten years afterward, or in 183-4, the contingency provided for by this sta-
tute actually occurred by the burning of the Houses of Parliament ; in which
conflagration the celebrated brass standard of Bird was destroyed. Although
the only actual legal standard was thus lost, no attempt was made to restore
it by the pendulum, as provided by law ; but the mean of several different
standards, including one belonging to the Royal Astronomical Society (for-
tunately the Astronomical Society had procured a most carefully prepared
copy of the imperial standard yard, and the Mint was in possession of an
exact copy of the pound), was selected as giving the nearest approximation
to the legal standard yard.

A commission was appointed by the British Government, in 1888, " to con-
sider the steps to be taken for the restoration of the Standards of Weight
and Measure." The commissioners in their report, made in 1841, say : "We
are of opinion that the definition contained in the Act 5, Geo. IV, c. 74, ss. 1
and 4, by which the standard yard and pound are declared to be respectively,
a certain brass rod and a certain brass weight therein specified, is the best
which it is possible to adopt. Since the passing of the said act, it has been
ascertained that several elements of reduction of the pendulum experiments
therein referred to are doubtful or erroneous; thus the reduction for the
weight of air was erroneous ; the specific gravity of the pendulum was
erroneously stated, the faults of the agate plates introduced some degree of
doubt, and sensible errors were introduced in the operation of comparing the
length of the pendulum with Shuckburgh's scale, used as the representative
of the legal standard. It is evident, therefore, that the course prescribed by
the act would not necessarily reproduce the length of the original yard.
Several measures however exist, which were most accurately compared with
the former standard yard. And we are fully persuaded that, with reasonable
precautions, it will always be possible to provide for the accurate restoration
by means of material copies which have been carefully compared with thorn,
more surely than by reference to any experiments referring to natural con-
stants." And the report concludes by recommending " that the standard of
length be denned by the whole length of a certain piece of metal or other
durable substance, supported in a certain manner, at a certain temperature ;
or by the.distance between two points or lines engraved upon the surface of
a certain piece of metal or other durable substance, supi)orted in a certain

Taylor.] 6b4: [Oct. 21,

manner and at a certain temperature ; but that the standard be in no way
defined by reference to any natural basis, such as the length of the pendu-
lum vibratirxg seconds in a specified place. •■■ * * That the standard of
weiglit be defined by a certain piece of metal or other durable sub-
stance," etc.

It thus appears as the result of this last commission in England, that the
people of that country are disposed to abandon all attempts at obtaining a
natural standard, and to recur to the authority of an arbitrary rod or piece
of metal, whose length has been derived from prescriptive custom. It should
be considered, however, that after a natural standard has been obtained, we
still have all the means of its material perpetuation, suggested in the com-
missioners' report. And no foreign community is ever likely to accept as an
authoritative unit of measure, a certain brass rod manufactured in England,
and incapable of any more precise definition.

Mr. Baily was selected to prepare the new standard, having five copies of
the preceding on which to base his comparison ; on liis death, in 1844, Mr.
Sheepshanks continued the necessary observations. Of several standard
copies finally prepared by him, each being a square inch bar, of a bronze
consisting of copper with a small percentage of tin and zinc, 38 inches in
length, with half inch wells sunk to the middle of tlie bar, one inch from
•eacli end, in which the lines defining the yard are drawn on gold plugs — six
were finally selected and reported by the commissioners in March, 1854. Of
these, the one marked " Bronze 19 "^was selected as the parliamentary standard
yard, the remaining five" being deposited, along with copies of the standard of
weight, with as many public institutions and scientific bodies. These stand-
ards were legalized in July, 1855; and in case of loss of the parliamentary
€opy, it was provided that the standard should be restored by comparison of
the other selected copies, or such as might be available.

Bronze bar No. 11 which has the standard length at a temperature of 61.79°
has been presented to the United States, and is the actual standard of com-
l^arison.

In addition to the difficulties of obtaining from the pendulum the recon-
struction of a lost standard, as above indicated, it is not unimportant to note
that tliere is an original uncertainty in the determination of its length, of
nearly the thousandth part of an inch. " We cannot venture to say that the
clock's rate in a given day, can be determined certainly to within one-tenth
part of a second, although the comparisons have been made at an interval of
24 hours. Seeing then that the free pendulum is compared with the clock
only over a small fraction of the day, it is a great deal to expect that its daily
rate can be ascertained to within one second of time. A change of one
second per day in the I'ate of a clock, corresponds to a change of ^j^q,
in the length o| the pendulum, which is about ^J^ ^ of an inch, or Jg- of a
millimetre; and therefore we may regard this distance as indicating the
probable limit of exactitude" {Encyclopedia Britannica, 8th edition, Vol.
xvii, page 384, article "Pendulum," by Edward Sang).

Note D.
The only account we have been able to obtain of the important movement
of Charles XII toward superseding tlie decimal by the octonary system,
throughout Sweden, is that contained in a volume entitled " A Compendium

1887.] 'J^^ [Taylor.

of the Theological and Spiritual Writings of Emanuel Swerteuborg " (royal
octavo), published at Boston by Crosby & Xichols, 1854. In the life of Swe-
denborg, prefixed to the "Compendium," it is said: "In 1719 he published
four works ; first, 'A Proposal for Ji. ring the value of Coins and determining
the Measures of Sweden, so as to suppress fractions, and facilitate Calcula-
tions.' After which he was commanded by his Sovereign to draw up an
Octonary Computus (a mode of computing by eighths), wliich he completed
in a few days, with its application to the received divisions of Coins, Weights,
and Measures ; a disquisition on Cubes and Squares, and a new and easy way
of extracting Eoots; all illu.strated by appropriate examples " (Life, p. 'J).
As Swedenborg devised for his " Octonary Computus," both a set of charac-
ters and of new names, we were exceedingly anxious to have enriched this
Paper with tlieir representation. We have tailed, however, to find any clue
to these early publications in any of the public libraries or private collections
to wliich we have had access. The only additional reference to the subject
in the volume above referred to, is contained in a letter from Swedenborg to
M. Xordberg, written after the death of Charles XII, wliich appears to
detail the monarch's first conception of the project of a reformation in the
popular system of numeration. An extract giving all that relates to the
subject of octonary computation, is here copied :

Letter of J/. Swedenhorg, Assessor of the Board of Mines, to M. JSfordherg,
AutJior of the History of Charles XII.

"Sir: — As you are now actually engaged upon tiie Life of Charles XII,
I avail myself of the opportunity to give you some information concerning
that monarch, which is perhaps new to you, and worthy of being transmitted
to posterity. * Conversing one day with the King upon arithmetic,

and the mode of counting, we observed that almost all nations, upon reaching
ten, began again ; that those figures which occupy the first place, never
change their value, while those in the second place were multiplied ten-fold,
and so on with the others; to which we added that men had apparently begun
by counting their fingers, and that this method was still practised by the
people ; that arithmetic having been formed into a science, figures had been
invented which were of the utmost service ; and, nevertheless, that the
ancient mode of counting had been always retained, in beginning again after
arriving at ten, and which is observed by putting each figure in its proper
place.

The King was of opinion that had such not been the origin of our mode of
counting, a much better and more geometrical method might have been in-
vented, and one which would have been of great utility in calculations, by
making choice of some other periodical number than 10. That the number
10 had this great and necessary inconvenience, that wiien divided by 2, it
could not be reduced to the number 1, without entering into fractions. Be-
sides, as it comprehends neither the square, nor the cube, nor the fourth
power of any number, many difficulties arise in numerical calculations.
Whereas, had the periodical number been 8, or 16, a great facility would have
resulted, the first being a cube number of which the root is 2, and the second
a square number of which the root is 4 ; and that these numbers being divided
by 2, their primitive, the number 1 would be obtained, which would be highly

Brinton. ^"^ [Nov. 4,

useful with regard to money and measures, by avoiding a quantity of frac-
tions. Tlie King, after spealcing at great lengtli on tliis subject, expressed a
desire tliat we sbould mal^e a trial with some other number than 10. Having
represented to him that this could not be done unless we inventednew figures,
to which also names altogether different from the ancient ones must be given,
as otherwise great confusion would arise, he desired us to prepare an example
in point. We chose the number 8, of which the cube root is 2, and wliich
being divided by 2, is reduced to the primitive number 1. We also invented
new figures, to which we gave new names, and proceeded according to the
ordinary method ; after which we applied them to the cubic calculations, as
well as to money, and to measures. The essay having been presented to the
King, he was pleased with it" [Appendix to Life, etc., pp. 123, 124) .

On the so-called Alaguilac Language of Guatemala.

By D. G. Brinton, 3I.D.

{Bead before the American Philosophical Socieli/, Nov. 4, 1887.)

In his valuable treatise on the ethnography of the Republic
Ouatemahi , Dr. Ofcto Stoll classes the Alaguilac language, once
spoken by a tribe resident on the Motagua river in that country,
among the languages of unknown affinities, Sprachen unbekann-
ter Stellung ; and he also adds, that at the time of his visit to
the vicinity — now about Sve years ago — the tongue was entirely
€xtinct, being supplanted by the Spanish.*

It were greatly to be regretted that any language or dialect
should perish completely, leaving no record behind it b}^ which
we can assign its place in the linguistic scheme. I am happy to
say, this is not the case with the Alaguilac. I have in my hands
materials from several sources from which to identify this now
extinct tongue, and also to cast some interesting glimpses on the
ancient civilization of the tribe w^hich once spoke it. These
sources are : —

I. Four leaves in folio, originals, from the archives of the
Parish of San Cristobal Acasaguastlan, dating from 1610 to
1637, in bad condition, but mostly legible.

II. A collection of words and phrases obtained in 1878 by
Francisco Bromowicz from an Indian woman at the village of

*• Stoll, Zur EtJinographie dcr Repuhlik Guatemala, s. 172. Also, Guatemala, Reisen unci
Schilderuncjcn, s. 30J.

1887.] ^^* [Briiiton.

San Aiigiistin Acasaguastlan, named Dolores Corral, then sup-
posed to be one hundred 3'cars old or over, and the last of her
tribe who could recall the native tongue. Bromowicz appears
to have visited the village on the instigation of Don Juan Ga-
varrete, the well-known Guatemalan antiquary, or of Dr. C.
H. Berendt, or of both,

JII. Several infornies of Don Eligio Pais, municipal judge of
Chiquimula, and of the cura or parish priest of San Cristobal
Acasaguastlan, Don Jose Inocente Cordon, dated in 18T8.

With these means I am enabled to throw sufhcient light on
the affinities of the Alaguilac language, and add something to
our knowledge of the archaeology of the locality.

First, a few words on its geographical location.

The parish of San Cristobal Acasaguastlan is situate on the
Motagua river in Guatemala, department of Chiquimula, fort}'-
five miles northwest of the citj- of Guatemala. Its dependen-
cies are the hamlets of Chimalapan, Usumatlan and Tecolutan.
About eight miles to the east of it, is the parish of San Augus-
tin Acasaguastlan, wdiose inhabitants formerl}' spoke the same
tongue.

In the letter descriptive of this region sent to the Kiiig of
Spain, in 15lG,bythe Licentiate Diego Garcio de Palacio, he
says briefly, " in the valle}' of Acacevastlan is spoken the Tlaca-
cebastleca."* In the list of languages current in Guatemala as
given by the historian Juarros, at the beginning of this century,
no such tongue is mentioned, but in place of it, apparently, he
names the Alaguilac.f The ordinary native tongue of that part
of the vallej^ is the Chorti, a dialect of the Ma^^a of clear affinities,
and all the surrounding tribes belong to the Maya stock.

At present, as we have seen, travelers agree in the statement
that all the Indians of Acasaguastlan speak Spani^:.h only, and
the Alaguilac is reckoned therefore among the extinct tongues
of America.

The place-names mentioned in these accounts are clearly of
Nahuatl origin. Acasaguastlan| is a slight modification of acaga-

* Carta de Garcia Diego de Palacio, p. 20. Ed. Squier.

t Ilidoria de Guatemala, Tom. ii, p. 35.

I The term given by Palacio— Tlacacebastleea— is a derivative under the ordinarj'
rules of Nahuatl grammar from Acaoacatlan, the termination era being the plural of the
suffix genlilis, ecatl, and the preJix tla, meaning here the thing possessed by or i)eculiar to
these people.

Brinton ] "^" [Nov. 4,

callan the place of rushes or reeds ; Chimalapan is compounded
of c7izmaZ/z, a shield, with the post-position |:)an, in or at ; Usuma-
tlan means the place of monkeys, from ozumatl, monkey, and
tlcm, locative ending; and Tecolotan, the place of owls, from
tecolotl, owl, and tlan. The word Alaguilac is stated in the MSS.
before me to be tlie Mexican name of a species of edible fruit ;
thougli were it not for this autliority, one might suppose it to
be from the nomen gentile^ atlacuilecatl, which means " the people
who live at the place of drawing water " {all, water, c»i, to take,
ecatl, terminalio gentilis).

Evidently, therefore, we find ourselves in a Nahuatl colony,
one of those which were scattered through Central America, like
tiie Pipiles of Escuintla, and the Nicaraos in Nicaragua. It has
been shown recently that this active race extended its settlements
almost to the isthmus of Panama, and established a colony on
the borders of the Chiriqui Lagoon.*

Everywhere they carried with them remini^cences of that
advanced culture which thej^ had developed in the Valley of
Mexico. Tills is manifest to-day by the superior make of pot-
tery and the fragments of stone and brick edifices which mark
the site of their ancient abodes.

Acasaguastlan is no exception to this rule. In the informe
of the worthy cui'a above mentioned, he writes as follows: —

" At the confluence of the Rio Grande de Acasaguastlan [?. e.,
the Motagua river] with that of Teculutan, which is to the east
of this parish, there are some prominent and remarkable relics
of a dense native population, which prove this to have been the
capital of a province. There are neat, level pavements which
lead from the buildings to the river. The buildings themselves
indicate that they were towers or pyramids. The base is circular
and they must have had an altitude of fifty Spanish yards (varas).
At present they are covered with lofty trees, and the ruin on the
promontory, now the highest, is sixteen or twenty 3'ards in
height. In the midst of these edifices, at the place named, there
is a large open space, circular in form, like a plaza. A continu-
ous row of mounds extends from these edifices and pyramids, on
both sides of the main river, to the village of Acasaguastlan.

* A. Pinart, in the Bcvue d'Ethnogmphie, Tome vi, p. 121, identifies tlie Seguas Indians
of the Chiriqui Lagoon with the Nahuas.

1887.] «^0y [Brinton.

One of these has been demolished, and proved to be of stone,
yielding as much as two hundred perches, without counting the
cement. Each of them contains an arch either complete or in
ruins. In the one mentioned, three small arches were found,
constructed with some symmetry, but it was not ascertained
whether the material was joined by lime, as at present it looks
more like cla3^ Portions of the wall were smoothly plastered
and some nearly erased paintings were visible. In the structure
were found earthen pots, some roughly made, others of excellent
workmanship, and with them incense burners, such as the Indians
use at the j^resent day in their Brotherhoods (cofradias). There
were also found pieces of brick, much like foreign brick, meal-
stones in the shape of large shells, arrow points of glass [i. e.,
volcanic glass, obsidian], and human bones. No one has taken
special interest in investigating these remains, and I have known
persons who seemed quite intelligent pass by them without
awarding them the least attention, and as if they did not see
them. Finallj^, I add that I am assured that no precious metal
has been discovered in them, although they may have had anti-
mony, which the Indians used to polish their earthenware as it
is quite lustrous."

Such is the interesting description furnished by the parish
priest, and it reveals plainly that the ancient race of Acasaguas-
tlan belonged among the more highly cultivated nations of the
continent.

I have not found in the historians of Guatemala the records
of the first exploration of this portion of the valley of the Mota-
gua, nor in later travelers the account of any visit to these ruins.
It would be of especial interest to determine whether they ap-
proach the distinctively Mexican or the Maji'a style of architec-
ture. The presence of the arch points to the latter, but this
architectural element was not altogether foreign to the former.

Fifty miles as the bird flies, lower down the Motagua river,
are located the remarkable ruins of Quirigua, with their elabo-
rately carven monoliths, twenty feet or more in height. Accord-
ing to the most recent observers,* these relics present evidences
of an antiquity greatly exceeding that of Copan or Palenque,
both which venerable sites had long been deserted at the period

* See Copan unci Quirigua, by Heinrich Meye and Dr. Julius Schmidt, Berlin, 1883.
PKOC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 126. 2U. PRINTED NOV. 29, 1887.

Brinton.] €)7U [Nov. 4,

of the Conquest. The valle}^ of the river Motagua, therefore,
was probably one of the centres of Central American civiliza-
tion, and a study of its archaeology might prove peculiarly pro-
ductive.

The reduction and conversion of the tribe dwelling at Acasa-
guastlan probably took place before the middle of the sixteenth
century. The intelligent members of the community were taught
to read and write their native tongue, and the records in my
hands are by native scribes, wlio kept these notes or accounts in
order to submit them from time to time to their civil or ecclesi-
astical superiors.

These records are in a dialect of Nahuatl closely akin to that
of the Pipiles of Escuintla and the neighborhood. Both dialects
are but slight modifications of the tongue as spoken in its purity
in the Valley of Mexico. Perhaps much of the apparent differ-
ence is due to an uncertain orthography and the inexpertness of
the writers.

The subjoined extracts from the archives under the dates
1610, 1634, 1636 and 1637, will show conclusively that the Na-
huatl was the current tongue of the parish at that time. The
entries relate to fines which were imposed on the natives for
various misdemeanors, and of which the civil officers were obliged
to pay a portion from time to time to their superiors. The re-
ceipts of these superiors are entered in Spanish in the archives
and present the honored autographs of Juan de Montoya and G.
de Mendieta.

Although various Spanish words occur, and the imperfect
handwriting as well as the poor condition of the MSS. render
these specimens less satisfactory than could be wished, it will
nevertheless be apparent at a glance that the dialect is a toler-
abl}^ pure Nahuatl, such as was common in Mexico a century
after the Conquest.

Extracts from the Parochial Archives of San Augustin Acasa-

guastlan.

Y nipan 20 de Octubre 1610 anos niman in teguantin S'"' Don
Fra" Castro Bernabe de Chaves Christobal Hernandez attos Ju"
Perez nico Melcjior Perez tiri Caspar Lopez Chuvuru Augustin
Hernandez rexidorcs nican vticchiuaque condenat j^ei tupilhuaA

1887 ] Oil [Brinton.

ypanpa onomictique (two words illegible) ica ce ciuat itoca Mag-
dalena ica iztaea tihi vqnichiuaque yuan nican Catalina Curmi
quezqui ipanpa vticpenaltique vquitali ome tostones Gaspar ci
timal vquitali chiquacen toraiii Catalina Curmi yuan Di" Salu-
altierra vquitali chiquacen tomin quezquiz 3'panpa vneci nican
macuili tostones.

Y nipan ome tonalli mesti de Mayo 1634 aiios ticpenaltique yei
ciuatlque ipanpan omoqualantique ypan ytequiuh yquiti ce yc xi
ticraati ypalta ermita sancta vueci nican m'' Ju 'na ce j^namic Fr""
cucu, ce ynamic P" mendes ce ynamic X"bal Her'^'' yuqui ticpen-
altique vneci nican matlaeti tomin Andres Mendes Alcalde
Gaspar Lopez Cliucuru Alcalde Dg" her'*''^ D" Felipe Regidores
noyxpaii neuatl Baltasar de Gabes escribano cabildo.

1636 anos.

Y nipan 24 de Abril 16.>6 afios ypan vticpenaltique ome
tupiluan omo tatani Justia ypanpa omohaci ychau nican ciuatl
vquitatani Justia X'ual permesso 3'uqui vneci yea auilnemiliz
yeuatl ipanpa vticpenaltique X°ual Ruy mucuc yuan bernaldina
yuqui ypanpa vneci nican chiquacen tostones teuantin alcaldes
Fr™ caynac Diego Felipe yuan Regidores Anton mucho x"ual
br"^bico Miguel Estorca Regidores.

Y nipan 23 tonali mesti de Junio 1 63 T auos ypan vticpenal-
tique ome tupiluan omotatani Justi"" nican X°ual axpal ypanpa
can qui talili y ciuauh yuqui vtictatanique ytic nican tu cabildo
auin quitoua X°bal ypan vniquita vquia ce tacatl nochan ayac
vniquixmati quitoua vqui melaua nican y ciuauh melauac yeuat
X°bal her*^"^ ypanpa yeuat niquixmati opa espa ni mauilli yuan
quitoua to yxpan teuantin altos Regidores yuqui j^panpa ticpenal-
tique vneci nican naui tostones can ixquich nican timoticmatique
x°bal cliururu Diego Felipe alcaldes gaspar macaua Ju" lopezalo
cauil Ju'' basqz Regidores no yxpan neuat B.iltesar de Chabes
es° cabildo.

The words collected by Mr. Bromowicz number about 150, and
according to the informes accompanying his report, were obtained

Brinton.]

372

[Nov. 4,

from the only person then living in the region who could recall
the tongue of former generations. In the ten years which have
elapsed since his visit, Dolores Corral has, doubtless, been gath-
ered to her fathers, and the words of this vocabulary remain to
us as the sole monument of the original speech of her tribe.
Fortunately they are sufficient in number and clear enough in
their affinities as to leave no doubt concerning their linguistic
affinities. I present them in one column, arranged in alphabetical
order, and by their side, their correspondents in the pure Nahuatl
of the Valley of Mexico.

Gomparative Vocabulary of the Alaguilac and Nahuatl.

Alaguilac of San Augustin
Acasaguastlan.
Achko, above,
achpoco, much,
achtko, monkey,
aktakaki, deaf,
aschka, day,
at, water,
atemet, a louse,
atenko, spring, well,
atschi, man (vir.),
checheltek, red,
cholo, toad,
chuvechka, far,
culut, a scorpion,
echegat, wind,
este, blood,
iagak, nose,
ictle, good,
ikschi, foot,
ima, hand,
imits, leg,

imperao, bad (Span, imperito),
inachtaval, wing,
inagas, ear,
inenguajo, root,

Nahuatl.
aco
ixachi

quauhchimal
nacatzatza
tlacatli
atl

atemitl

(atenco, full of water)
oquichtli
chichiltic
tama-9olin
uehca
colotl
ehecatl
eztli
yacatl
yectli
ixitl
maitl
metztli

atlapalli
nacaztli
nelhuayotl

1887.]

373

[Brinton.

ischko, eye,

isehte, thread (Span, pita, the thread

obtained from the Manguey),
isoko, nest (of a bird),
istak, white,
istat, salt,

istet, nail (of fingers or toes),
isutschio, flower,
itckses, egg,

ixtololotli

iti, mouth,

itscha, house,
itschkat, cotton,
itsulteko-kali, roof,

kaits, shoes,
kiskuetspal, iguana,
koehko, horn,
koets, naguas (skirt),
kot, tree,

kotoschte, skin, leather,
kott, firewood,
kuat, snake,
kujol, jakal, co^^ote,
kumit, pot, jar (olla),
kusti, yellow,
meste, moon,
metat, metate,
mischte, clouds,
misto, cat,
munantse, mother,
muss, fire,
musta, to-morrow,
mutuchtse, squirrel,
mutsungal, hair,
nagat, flesh, meat,
nekte, sweet,
neschta, ashes,
jiiamigi, thirsty,

ichtli

9olli

iztac

iztatl

iztetl

xochitl

tetototl (from tetl^ stone,

tototl, bird)
from itia, to drink. The
Nahuatl for mouth is camatl
chane
ichcatl
ceuacaltia {lit.^ to shade

the house, calli)
cactli

quaquauitl

cueitl

quauitl

cuetlaxtli

quauitl

coatl

coyotl

cumitl

coztic

meztli

metlatl

mixitl

miztli

mo-nantzin (thy mother)

tlecocomoctli, flame

moztli

mo-tzuntli, thy hair

nacatl

necutic

nextli

ni»amiqui, I am thirsty

Briiiton.]

374

[Nov. 4,

nimikukua, sick,
notapetschlvo, bed,
numitscbi, fisli,
numpa, near,
nupiltsi, son,
nusiguapiltsi, daugliter,

ni-mocuiqui, I am sick
no-ilapechtli, my bed
no-michin, my fisli
ompa

no-piltzin, my son
no-ciua-piltzin , my female
child

pallo, dog (Spanish,

perro),

piltzinte, child.

piltzintli

pisti, hungry,

napizti

pittatsi, father,

tatzin

pokte, smoke.

pochotl

pnran, plantain (Spanish, platano),

sachti, wax,

sagat, leaf of a tree,

zacatl, straw, grass

sajuli, a mosquito.

cayulin

schali, sand.

xalli

schigal, jicaro,

xicalli

schinamit, town,

chinamitl

schuguscho, sour,

chichic

schupanta, rain,

cliachapani, to rain heavily

schuschuk, green.

xoxoctic

sesek, cool.

cecec

sigwat, woman,

cihuatl

sinti, maize,

cintli

soguitz, mud,

coquitl

tali, earth, ground.

tlalli

taloa, yesterday,

3'alhua

taschi, tortilla.

tlaxcalhuia

tecumat, calabash.

tecomatl

tekpe, flea.

tecpin

temesch, lime,

tenextli

teng-uej, very big,

cenca-uej'

tepitschi, little.

tepiltan

tepitschil, grown-up

child.

tepiltzin

teschuste, coal of fire.

tlexochtli, a spark

tet, stone,

tetl

tiltek, black.

tliltic

timaga, bat.

temutalpa, a bee,

temoli

1887.]

375

[Briatou.

teug-totonki, very warm,
tepitschi, small,
totonki, warm,
tscliikaguaste, comb,
tschitscbik, bitter,
tsigat, an ant,
tusclite, rabbit,
tutuli, a chicken,
tiitumuschti, ear of corn,

uchte, path, road,

uej, big,

uiste, tliorn,

umasat, deer,

nmit, bone,

unka, to-day,

tsotsogal, water pitcher,

tsunteko, head,

tuak, night,

tucha, leaf of maize,

tutot, bird,

tugat, a spider,

tun, sun.

cenca-totonia

totonia

tziquauaztli

chichic

tzilazcatl

tochtli

tototl

totomochtli (the dried

husk or shuclv of corn)
otli
huey
uiztli
mezatl
oraitl
axcan
tzotzocolli
tzontli
youalli
tocyzuatl
tototl
tocatl
tonatiuh

Phrases in Alaguilac.

Unka at, there is water.
Akten at, there is no water.
Schiwaka, come here.
Kapatia, Where goest thou?
Schuiesmaga muss, Give me some fire.
Qualiga taschi, Bring tortillas.
Qualiga se plato, Take the plate.
Queschki que tscho, How much is it ?
Kalen-it agua, I want to eat.
Schitagua, Eat.

Brinton.] OiO [Nov, 4,

Numerals.

ilaguilac.

Nahuatl.

1. se

ce

2. umi

ome

3. jei

yei

4. nagui

nahui

5. makuil

macuilli

6. tschikuasi

chiquace

T. tschikume

chicome

8. tschikwei

chiculy

9. matakticumi

chicunaui

10. matakti

matlactli

20. sempual

cempvalli

The Nahaatl which I have placed in the comparative list rep-
resents that tongue in its oldest and purest form as given in the
Dictionary of Alonso de Molina, printed in 1571. The compari-
son leaves no doubt whatever, that the Alaguilac was a quite
pure form of the Nahuatl, and when we allow for the difference
in the orthography of Bromowicz, who writes as a German, from
that of Molina, the variation is surprisingly little. In the
phrases the schi represents the usual Nahuatl imperative form xi,
the X in that tongue having the sound of the German sch and
the English sh in " she."

The only cliange which has taken place in the numerals is in
the number nine, the substitution for chicunaui^ " one hand and
four fingers," of niatakticwmi ; but I have no doubt this was a
piece of forgetfulness on the part of the venerable Dolores, and
that she gave the word for twelve, matlactUome (10 + 2), instead
of that for nine.

Two questions will arise in the mind of the critical reader :
1. Did any other -language exist at Acasaguastlan to which the
name Alaguilac could have been applied? If not, and allowing
it to have been merely a slightly altered form of the Nahuatl,
was it introduced into that locality before or after the Conquest ?

To the first of these questions, we may safely reply with a
clear negative. There is not a native proper name in the vicinity
but belongs either to Nahuatl or Chorti. There is not the slightest

1887.] 377 [Cope_

evidence in the Nahuatl vocabulary of the influence of any ter-
tiiim quid. We may positively exclude the supposition of a
third, wholly lost and unknown tongue, and unhesitatingly
identify the " Alaguilac " of Juarros, with the " Tlacabastleca "
of Palacio, and both with the ordinary Nahuatl.*

With this identification the last remaining problem in the
aboriginal linguistics of Guatemala is solved. We may now
confidentlj' say that there was not a tribe found anywhere on its
surface by the first explorers of whose linguistic affiliations we
are ignorant. Every one can be assigned to its proper ethno-
graphic group so far as this is practicable by a knowledge of its
dialect.

As to the second query, whether this Nahuatl colony immi-
grated before or after the Conquest, we are without positive
evidence. But the letter of Palacio, written in 1576, from
observations extending over years previous to that date, indicates
distinctly that the language of Acasaguastlan had a recognized
and independent existence in his day, and, therefore, that the
people who spoke it had been found in place when the Spaniards
first mapped out the land.

This colony of Nahuas, which had wandered into the upper
valley of the Motagua river, was probably an off-shoot from the
extensive settlements which their kindred possessed on the Pa-
cific slope in the present Department of Escuintla, some eighty
or ninety English miles distant.

The Classification and Phylogeny of the Artiodactyla. By E. D. Cope.

{Bead before the American Philosophical Society, October 7, 1S87.)

This suborder is well defined, and embraces numerous forms, many of
which are living. Although it includes much variety of type, the differ-
ences shade into each other so that there is considerable difficulty in ex-
pressing the natural system in form. The usual division is into the Om-
nivora and Ruminantia, which are, in the language of Kowalevsljy, the

* The language called the " Apay" mentioned by Palacio as spoken at Acasaguastlan
has been identified by Dr. Stoli as the Chorti {Ziir Ethnogmphie der Eep. Guatemala,
p. 106).

PROC. AMER. PHIL09..S0C. XXIV. 126. 3v. PRINTED NOV. 29, 1887.

Cope.] OiO [Oct. 7,

Buuodonta and Selenodonta. The latter names are very expressive of the
dental characteristics of the two groups (tubercle and crescent bearing),
but not having priority, they have come into use as the adjectives buno-
dont and selenodont, to describe the types of molar crowns to which they
refer. But the divisions themselves can no longer be maintained, in view
of the numerous extinct forms now known to connect them. Not only
do transitions occur, but they occur at different points. Thus Dichobune
is the bunodout which corresponds with the selenodont Csenotherium ;
and Chojropotamus corresponds in the same way with Hyopotamus, An-
thracotherium standing between. If it be desirable to name the natural
groups into which the families fall, names enough exist in works on the
subject, but the divisions they have been applied to are not exactly in
accordance with the present writer's views of their true relations. These
are presented in the following table. In this work I have been much
aided by the Papers of Turner and Flower, which appeared in the Pro-
ceedings of the Zoological Society, of London, for 1850 and 1875 ; and of
Gill in Smithsonian Miscell. Collec. 1873.

Before presenting the tables and phylogenetic diagrams, the author
wishes to make an explanation. Statements as to the phylogeny of a given
group, as family, or genus, are intended to apply to them as defined in the
present paper in the tables ; in other words, the phylogenies represent the
history of particular structures. There is a tendency among writers, even
with some of the best, in considering questions of phylogeny, to restrict
their attention to some particular species of a genus, or genus of a family,
and to consider all the minor peculiarities of said species or genus, whether
appropriate to the wider question before them or not. In brief, I have not
attempted to present any phylogeny of species. It will be long before we
have the necessary material for that.

I. Superior molars tritubercular (Pantolestoidea).

Molars bunodout ; four digits Pantolestidm.

II. Superior molars quadritubercular with an intermediate fifth.

I. Three digits (Anoplotheroidea).

Intermediate tubercle anterior Anoplotheriidoi.

II. Two or four digits (Anthracotheroidea).
A . The intermediate tubercle posterior.

Four digits ; molars bunodout JDkhobtinido'.

Four digits ; molars selenodont GcenotJieriidce.

AA. The intermediate tubercle anterior.

Four digits ; one series of V's below AntJiracotheriida!.

Two or four digits ; two series of V's below XiphodontidcB.

III. Superior molars quadritubercular, without an intermediate fifth.
A. Molars bunodont (Suoidea).

Four digits ' Smdm.

Two digits ElotheriidcB.

1887.] ^"^^ t^oP^-

A A. Molars with cross-crests (Listriodontoidea).

Premolars differeut from molars Listriodontidw..

AAA. Molars selenodont (with four crescents above).
a. Inferior molars with one series of crescents (Merycopotamoi-
dea).

Premolars unlike molars Merycopotcmiid^.

aa. Inferior molars with two series of crescents.
• /?. Superior premolars (except premolar four) with one crest
(Cameloidea).
y. "Fourth premolar like molars below, with three crests
above."

Two digits only (four? in Agriochcerus) Dicliodontida.

yy. Fourth premolar entirely different from molars.
d. Navicular and cuboid bones distinct from each other.
£. Superior incisors present.

No cannon bone ; a vertebrarterial canal Oreodontidai.

No vertebrarterial canal ; no cannon bone PoebrotheriidcB.

No vertebrarterial canal ; a cannon bone Protolahidida,.

es. No superior incisors (except incisor three).
No vertebrarterial canal ; a cannon bone ; superior p. m. iv with external

and internal crests Camelidw.

Like Camelidse, but superior p. m. iv a simple cone Eschatiidce.

80. Navicular and cuboid bones coossifled.

All premolars but No. iv without internal crescent Tragulidw.

[il3. Superior premolars 2-3-4 with internal as well as external
crest ; a naviculocuboid bone ; no superior incisors
(Booidea).

Superior p. m. ii without internal crescent Mosclddcc.

Superior p. m. ii with internal crescent.

Horns permanent, originating distinct from skull Giraffidos.

Horns permanent, processes of the skull Bovidm.

Horns periodically shed Cervidm.

Of the preceding sixteen families, ten are extinct. The six families
with living representatives are the Suidae, the Tragulidte, the CamelidiB,
the Moschidai, the Cervidae, the GirafHdae and the Bovidoe.* Thus none
of the primary divisions, I and II, have recent representatives. But few
of them in fact (some Cienolheriidae and Anthracotheriidic) survived the
Eocene epoch. Division III is, on the other hand, characteristic of Mio-
cene and recent time, except that some specimens of Gelocus of the Tragu-
lidse have been found in Upper Eocene beds. Several genera of Tragulidoe,

* Antilocapra is sometimes separated from the Bovida; as the type of a family, because
it is said t« sometimes shed its horny horn-sheath. This character, were it really nor-
mal, has no significance sufficient for the establishment of a family division.

Cope.] ^"0 [Oct. 7,

with Elotheriiim and Poebrotherium and Oreodon, belong to Oligocene
beds.

Tubercular or bunodont molars are of prior age to selenodont molars,
phylogenetically speaking. Of the former, the tritubercular type, it has
already been shown, is ancestral to the quadritubercular type. Panto-
lestidse are then clearly ancestral to all known Artiodactyla, and are
themselves probably the descendants of the lost Amblypoda Hyodonta,
whose existence I have anticipated on hypothetical grounds. Of the
remaining families which are constructed on the quadritubercular basis,
there are two types, as represented in divisions II and III of the pre-
ceding table. The intermediate or fifth lobe is especially characteristic
of Eocene Artiodactyla. The intermediate tubercles exist in the Pan-
tolestidaj, and one of them is preserved in the families of division II ;
but in group A it is the posterior one, and in group A A it is the
anterior one. In the Suidse and Elotheriidae, which are permanently
bunodont, the intermediates are either lost or so divided as to lose
their distinctive character. In Elotherium traces of both the interme-
diates are visible, but they are obscure. The genetic relations of the
families with five lobes to those with four are supposed by Schlosser to be
direct and ancestral. This looks probable in the case of the Merycopo-
tamida: of the latter group, which has inferior molars like those of Hyopota-
mus of the former group. Whether the remaining families of division
III AAA (see table) (four-lobed) came off from the families of division II
(five-lobed) is uncertain. It is probable that the fifth and si::th (or inter-
mediate) tubercles were present in all primitive Artiodactyla, but they
may have been lost, as in the Suida3, in the bunodont stage, wliich gave
origin to III AAA, so as to be wanting from the earliest four lobed seleno-
dont ancestors. Of the two types of II, the division A (Dichobunoidea)
is supposed by Schlosser to have been the ancestor of the true selenodonts
(III AAA), but excepting in the case of Merycopotamidge this has not yet
been demonstrated. Scott suspects with reason that the quinquetubercu-
lar Protoreodon is the ancestor of the quadritubercular Oreodon.

Leaving this debatable question, I refer to the family of the Anoplo-
theriidae. The remarkable structure of the feet discovered by Gervais, and
shown by Schlosser to belong to this family, distinguishes it at once from
all families of this and all other orders.

The second digit is well developed in both feet, and stands inwards
at a strong angle to the other toes. A rudimental fifth is present in
the manus, but not in the pes. The latter is therefore tridactyle.
The third and fourth digits are equal in the pes, but the third exceeds
the fourth in the manus, giving an entirely perissodactyle character.
Some didactyle forms have been placed in this family, but this is inadmis-
sible on ordinary taxonomic principles. The divergent inner toe is sup-
posed to have supported a web, useful in an aquatic life. As remarked by
Schlosser, the origin of the Anoplotheridse is entirely obscure as yet, the
only ancestor yet known being the Pantolestidae. It is probable that some

1887.] *^"-^ [Cope.

unknown member of the Antliracotheroidea, which had bunodont teeth,
may form one of the missing links. Cebochoerus offers the proper type
of dentition, and the number of toes (four, Schlosser) is also appropriate,
but whether there are any structural obstacles to its being ancestral to the
Anoplotheriidse I do not know.

Anthracotheriid?e can be properly supposed to have descended from a
type of Pantolestidge with well-developed lateral toes, by the addition of
the fourth tubercle, and the loss of the posterior intermediate ; while the
Dichobunidte have had the same origin, the posterior intermediate cusp
being preserved. The Xiphodontidse may be supposed to have come oflE
from the Anthracotheriida3 by the usual process of diminishing the lateral
digits and developing both sets of crescents in both superior and inferior
molars. This family carried the specialization of the five tubercled type
farther than any other.

The Suoidea have come off from the Pantolestoidea by the addition of
the fourth (posterior internal) tubercle to the superior molars. Some
genus with better developed lateral (second and fifth) digits than Panto-
lestes must have been the ancestor. Such a form will be discovered. It
has been already anticipated by Schlosser.*

It is evident that the Listriodontidae form a special short side branch,
with a type of molar teeth, especially in the lower series, resembling some
of the Perissodactyla. The nearest approach to it is seen in the genus
Platygonus of the Suidoe, which has more complex premolars. Here the
four cusps of the quadritubercular bunodont type are fused together into
transverse crests. The limbs of Listriodon are unknown.

It is a circumstpnce confirmatory of the view that the Cameloidea and
Booidea are descendants of the Anthracotheroidea rather than of the Suo-
idea, that no genus of the latter superfamily shows the least tendency to
assume a selenodont structure of the molars. It is therefore not unlikely
that the two groups named may have had the history of the Merycopo-
tamoidea already referred to. They did not probably come from the Mery-
copotamoidea themselves, since the geological age of the latter is too late.
Of course, however, members of this group may be yet discovered in
earlier formations.

The problems of the phylogeny of the remaining groups are less diffi-
cult, and have been largely solved by the investigations of Kowalevsky
and Schlosser. Tragulidae have been derived from OreodontidiB with
simpler premolar teeth than the typical forms, [e. g. Dorcatherium and
Lophiomeryx). In turn they have given origin to primitive Bovidaa
(Cosoryx) through Gelocus, which have then branched off" into specialized
Bovidse on the one hand, and Cervidoe on the other. The Poebrotheriidse
have originated from some family with diminished lateral digits, perhaps
the Dichobunidse, various intermediate genera being yet unknown. They

* Jlorphologisches Jahrliucli, 188G, p. 77,

Cope.]

382

[Oct. 7,

are ihe direct ancestors of the Protolabidid;^, the camels, and the Escha-
tiidae. These relations may be expressed in the following table :

H

Ph

8

•^

s

o

3

TS

tsD

o

Of Pantolestid^ but one genus is known. The premolars are all
simple in the upper jaw, except the fourth, which has one external and
one internal tubercle.

The structure of the premolars in Anoplotherium is complex for so
primitive a type, and the third superior has an internal crest as well devel-
oped as in some of the Booidea. To the Anoplotheriid^ are referred,
besides Anoplotherium, Diplobune of Fraas and Dacrytherium, Mixto-

1887.] ^^^ [Cope.

theriuin and Mixochcerus of Filhol. But the structure of the feet of the
latter geuera is unknown. In Mixtotherium the fourth premolar is more,
and the others less complex than in Anoplotherium.

The known genera of Dichobunid.e are Dichobune of Cuvler, with
Spaniotherium and Dilotherium of Filhol, in which the. intermediate tu-
bercles are less developed than in Dichobune. They are related to the
two selenodont genera of C^notheriid^, Ca^notherium and Muillacthe-
rium. Tlie latter differs from the former in the absence of the intermediate
crescent from the last superior molars. The species of Ca?notherium differ
in the absence or presence of a short diastema in the dental series, and in
its position in the lower jaw, whether behind the first or second premolar.

The Dichobunid bunodout geuera are ancestral to the Ca3notheriid sele-
nodont genera in the following fashion :

Cajnotherium Muillactherium

Spaniotherium
Dilotherium

Dichobune

This family terminated with the selenodont genera, which, as Schlosser
remarks, left no known descendants.

The ANTHRACOTHEniiD^ present but few variations. Four genera are
known, which differ as follows :

Entirely bunodont ; no diastemata ; canines developed. Geboch(Krus Gerv,
Cusps of superior molars little flattened ; diastemata ; canines large

Choiropotamus Cuv.
Cusps of superior molars flattened ; no diastemata ; canines large

Anthracotherium Cuv.

Cusps of superior molars crescentoid in section ; diastemata ; canines large

in males Hyopotamus Owen.

The three genera last named cannot, as Schlosser remarks, be related in
direct lines, but through cbmmon ancestors ; as may be shown thus :

Hyopotamus

Anthracotherium
Choeropotamus

Cebochcerus

Cope.] 384 [Oct. 7,

The ancestral geuus is bunodont, without diastemata, and with well-
developed canines. The hypothetical genus (1) is selenodont, with short
diastema, and well-developed canines.

The certainly known genera of the XiPHODONTiDiE are four, which
differ as follows :

Molars bunodont ; diastemata ; canines large Rhagatlierium Pict,

Molars selenodont ; diastemata ; canines nxG^ixxm.. Xiphodontotlierium Filh.
Molars selenodont ; no diastemata ; canines not distinct in form

Xiphodon Cuv.

Molars selenodont ; no diastemata ; superior canine developed; inferior

p. m. 1 functioning as canine Protoreodon S. & O.

Cryptomeryx Schl. prbbably belongs here.

The relations of these genera are clearly somewhat like those of the
preceding family. The bunodont condition of the molars of Rhagathe-
rium is primitive, while its diastemata are the reverse. The continuous
dental series of Xiphodon is primitive, while the detailed structure of the
molars is advanced. These relations may be thus shown : •

Xiphodontotherium
Protoreodon y

Xiphodon

Rhagatherium

The hypothetical genus 1 is simply a bunodont without diastemata, and
with well-developed canines.

The pigs, SuiD^, are an old family, although no genus is known prior
to Miocene time. The genera present considerable variety among them-
selves, but some of the existing genera differ very little from some of the
earliest. The greatest diversity is seen in the modifications of the incisor
and canine teeth. ■ The following represents the characters :

I. Metapodials fused proximally (Dicotylinte).

a. Premolars like molars.

Premolars | ; cusps of molars separate Dicotyles Cuv.

Premolars f ; cusps of molars united into partial cross-crests

Platygonus Lee.

II. Metapodials distinct (in some unknown) ; molars without cement-

um ; incisors normal (Suinse).

a. Fourth premolar with one external tubercle.

Four superior premolars Thinohyus Marsh.

Three superior premolars ... Ohmnohyus Cope.

aa. Fourth superior premolar with two external tubercles.

1887.]

385

[Cope.

y?. Superior canines decurved.
Superior canines small Hyotherium Von Myer.

/?/?. Superior canines recurved.
Molars with four much plicate tubercles on each. .HippoJiyus Cautl. Falc.
Molars with numerous irregular accessory lobes ; premolars |. .Bus Linn.
No accessory lobes ; premolars f Bahirussa Cuv.

III. Metapodials distinct ; superior incisors reduced in number ; mo-

lars reduced in number, and the valleys filled with cement
(Phacochoerime).
Superior incisors one ; premolars none ; molars |, with numerous tuber-
cles ; superior canines recuived Phaeochc&rus Cuv.

IV. Metapodials distinct, distally keeled behind only ; inferior in-

cisors straight, subcylindric (Hippopotaminse).

Six lower incisors ; orbit closed Uexaprotodoii Caut. Falc.

Four lower incisors ; orbit closed Hippopotamus Linn.

Two lower incisors ; orbit not closed Chceropsis Leidy.

The absence of intermediate types renders the determination of the
phylogeny of the genera as yet impracticable. The main features may
however be foreshadowed. The most generalized form is Thinohyus,
since its dentition is in all respects the most simple, while it preserves the
full number of teeth. It may readily have given origin to the Dicotyline
line on the one side, and Sus and its immediate allies on the other. Babi-
russa is another derivative from the same center. Phacochcerus may have
come from some ally of Sus, since it carries to a great extreme the pecu-
liarities of the latter genus. The ancestry of Hippopotamus is less easily
determined. Its imperfect distal metapodial keels, which only exist on
the posterior face of the condyle, bespeak for it an ancient ancestor. Its
molar type is merely a complication of the quadritubercular, while the
characters of its canines are an exaggeration of those of the primitive
forms already mentioned. Several other genera, as Dicotyles and Sus,
display the decumbent incisors which prepare the way for the remarkable
straight digging incisors of Hippopotamus. The genus Chceropsis eases
the passage backwards. These relations may be expressed as follows :
Chceropsis Phacochcerus Platygonus

Hippopotamus

I
Hexaprotodon

Dicotyles

Babirussa Sus

Chaenohyus

Thinohyus

PKOC. AMER. PIIILOS. SOC. XXIV. 12(3. 2w. PRINTED DEC. 3, 1887.

Cope.] ^ob [Oct. 7,

But one genus of Elotheriid^ is known. The character of the feet,
reduced to but two metapodials in a bunodont genus of the Lower Mio-
cene or Oligocene, surprised Kowalevsky, wlio first determined the fact,
and has excited simihir feelings in otlier naturalists. But the precocious
diminution of the lateral digits has been already observed in various
primitive genera, as Pantolestes and Dichobune, and from one or perhaps
both of these forms Elotherium was derived. In its dental characters it
is of the simple suilline type. The type early ceased to exist, its latest
forms being American, and some of them rivaled the rhinoceroses in
dimensions.

The Ltstriodontid^e and Merycopotamid^ include but one genus
each, though others probably will be discovered. I therefore turn to the
Oreodontid^ which embraces a larger number of forms. Its characters
are as follows :

Dentition : superior incisors present ; molars selenodont. Cervicals
with the transverse processes perforated by the vertebrarterial canal. No
alisphenoid canal. Ulna and radius, and tibia and fibula distinct. Meta-
podial bones four on each foot, with incomplete distal trochlear keels.
Lunar bone not supported by magnum. Navicular and cuboid bones dis-
tinct. The details of the structure express various affinities. The axis is
intermediate between that of the suilline and ruminant Artiodactyla ; the
otlier cervicals are suilline, while the remaining vertebrae are ruminant.
The scapula is ruminant, not suilline ; while the humerus is like Anoplo-
therium. The radiocarpal articulation is intermediate between that of
hogs and ruminants. The unciform supports the lunar bone. The sacrum
is ruminant, the ilium suilline. The femur and tarsus are much like those
of the peccary.

The known genera of this family are the following :

A. Orbit complete ; premolars four, the fourth with one external
crescent. First premolar below functioning as canine.
a. No facial vacuities.
Premaxillaries distinct ; otic bullae not inflated ; five digits in manus

Oreodon Leidy.
Premaxillaries distinct ; otic bullse inflated ; four digits in manus

Eucrotaplais Leidy.

Premaxillaries coossified ; otic bullae inflated Merycochosrvs Leidy.

aa. Facial vacuities present.
Premaxillaries coossified, dentigerous ; vacuities prelachrymal only

Merychyus Leidy.
Incisors six above, persistent ; vacuities prelachrymal and prefrontal ;

nasal bones much reduced LeptaucJienia Leidy.

Incisors very few, caducous ; vacuities very large Cyclopidius Cope.

A A. Inferior premolars three. True inferior canine functional.
Inferior incisors one on each side Pitliecistes Cope.

1887.]

387

[Cope.

Starting from Oreodon as the ancestral form, Eucrotaphus follows at a
little distance. The presence of the pollex observed by Scott in Oreodon
proves that it must be referred to a five-toed common ancestor with Dor-
catherium. The enlarged bulla? are added in Eucrotaphus, and the coos-
sified premaxillaries in Merycochcerus and Merychyus. The latter com-
mences the facial vacuities, which reach such huge proportions in
Leptauchenia and Cyclopidius. The loss of the incisor teeth from both
jaws, and diminished size, indicate that decadence is going on in Cyclo-
pidius, but the last term is reached in Pithecistes. Here not only incisors
but a premolar disappears. This family, once powerful in numbers, size
and strength, disappeared with the Upper Miocene period in North Amer-
ica. These relations may be thus displayed. A common ancestor with
Dorcatherium is assumed. This will be a genus like Protoreodon S. &0.,
but without the caniniform inferior p. m. i of that genus, and probably
with the fifth crescent of the superior molars. Agriochcerus may have
been derived from the same,

Pithecistes

Coloreodon

1
Agriochcerus

Dichodon \

Cyclopidius

I
Leptauchenia

i
Merychyus

1
Merycochcierus

I
Eucrotaphus

I
Oreodon

(Tragulidae)
Dorcatherium

Cope.]

388

[Oct. 7,

The geological positions of these genera are as follows :

Oreodontince.
Oreodon Leidy

03
JO

'o

CO

Cl-I

o

d

3
3
8
6
3
2
3

John Day
Epoch.

CO

D

o g^

Loup Fork
Epoch,

Eucrotaphus Leidy

Merycochoerus Leidy

Merychyus Leidy

Leptauchenia Leidy

Cyclopidius Cope

Pitliecistes Cope

The D1CHODONTID..E are allied to the Oreodontidse and Tragulidfe in the
simple form of the premolars, excepting the fourth in both jaws. These
resemble, according to Schlosser,*the milk teeth of other ruminants in the
genus Dichodon. For the present I associate with this European genus,
the American Agriochoerus and Coloreodon, in which the last lower pre-
molar resembles a true molar, and the last upper has two external Vs as
in a true molar. The structure of the feet in these genera is unknown,
but in Dichodon they are supposed to consist of the two median digits
only, which do not form a cannon bone.f It is safe to conclude that the
American forms do not possess a cannon bone, and as the presence or
absence of lateral digits is not always a family character, I leave them
provisionally in the DichodontidtB to which they are in any case nearly
allied. They agree also in the resemblance of the inferior canine to an
incisor tooth, but the first premolar is caniniform in the American genera,
which it is not in Dichodon. The genera differ as follows :
I. First inferior premolar caniniform.

Premolars three Coloreodon Cope.

Premolars four Agriochcerus Leidy.

IL First inferior premolar not caniniform.
Premolars four Dichodon Owen.

In this instance the genus of more modern type, Dichodon, is the oldest
in time (Upper Eocene), the other genera being Lower Miocene. These
types have been derived from some common ancestor of the family of
Oreodontidie as here defined. Dichodon may be a descendant of Lophi-
omeryx, and Agriochoerus be derived from an ancestor in common with
that genus and Dorcatherium (for diagram see under Oreodontidiie).

The Tragulidje has a good many extinct genera, and the genus Tragu-
lus is represented by several living species. It is difficult to separate this
family from the Oreodoutidte, and the only character which appears to be

* Beitriige z. Kenntniss d. Stammesgeschichte d. Hufthiere u. Versuch einer System der
Paar- u. Unpaarhufer. Morphologisches Jahrbuch, 1S86, p. 56.
t The Diplopus of Kowalevsky is supposed to be Dichodon, by Schlosser.

1887.] ^"J [Cope.

available is the development of a naviciilocuboid bone in the posterior
foot. If this character be not used, then the two families will form a sin-
gle natural division. This definition includes in the Tragulida^ the Gelo-
cidfo of Schlosser, a result inevitable on any exact system. The genera
remaining, of which the limb structure is known, are defined as below.
Several other genera are known from teeth, as Micromeryx, Phanero-
meryx, Rutitherium, etc., but since their feet are not described, I am com-
pelled to omit them.

I. Both metatarsals and metacarpals distinct ; molars brachyodout

(Hypertragulinse).
«. Lateral toes behind.
Anterior internal crescent of inferior molars represented by a conical

cusp LopMomeryx Pom.

Interior crescents of inferior molars developed Dorcatherium Kaup.

(j.a. No lateral toes behind.
Diastcmata in botli jaws Hypertragulus Cope.

II. Metatarsals forming a cannon bone ; metacarpals distinct ; molars

brachyodont (GelocinaO-

a. Lateral digits of the manus, none of the pes.
Superior premolars with a small internal tubercle Leptomeryx Leidj'.

aa. No lateral digits.

Four lower premolars Gelocus Aym.

Three lower premolars Bacliitherium Filhol.

III. A metatarsal cannon bone ; metacarpals forming a cannon bone ;

molars brachj'odont (Tragulinae).
a. Lateral digits well developed.

Premolars entirely simple Tragulus Brlss.

aa. Lateral digits weak.
Four inferior premolars, the posterior with branch ridges ; superior pre-
molar 3 with strong cingulum Ampldtragulua Pomel.

Three inferior premolars, the posterior with branch ridges ; superior pre-
molar 3 with strong cingulum, e\ongn{e . ProdremotJierm^n Filhol.

IV. Metatarsals and metacarpals unknown ; molars hypsodont

(Hypisodontinae).
A diastema behind p. m. 2 ; canines not distinct Hypisodus Cope.

Of these genera, those with the metatarsals separate, and the simplest
premolar teeth, must be the most primitive and nearest the Oreodontida^.

Dorcatherium, also an existing genus, has four well-developed digits,
and is nearest the Oreodontida3. The only difference between that family
and the present one being the presence and absence of the naviculo-
cuboid bone respectively, Dorcatherium must be placed on the Trag-
ulid side of the line. Probably extinct genera will be found which
will connect this genus more intimately with the Oreodontida?, for
the slight complication of the premolars of the extinct genera of the lat-
ter, testify to earlier members with simpler ones. Lophiomeryx and

Cope.] *>"^ [Oct. 7,

Hyperlragulus must be associated with Dorcatlierium on account of
the lack of cannon bone. Lophiomeryx has an inferior type of inferior
true molar, and like Dorcatlierium has four toes on all the feet. Hyper-
lragulus displays greater specialization in the absence of lateral digits from
the posterior feet. The ulna is also coossified with the radius, and there
is a naviculocuboid bone. The premolar teeth are nevertheless very sim-
ple, and are separated by diastemata in both jaws. It must be regarded
as a modified descendant of Dorcatlierium on one side of the main line of
descent.

In the next group the metatarsals have united while the metacarpals re-
main separate. This is the case in Leptomeryx of the American Oligo-
cene. In Tragulus the premolars are much simpler than those of the
other genera of Section III, and simpler than those of Leptomeryx, so that
these two forms must have been derived from an ancestor which combined
the simplicity of both forms. For this we must again recur to Dorcathe.
rium, and I therefore insert this genus at the base of the following dia-
gram. With its entirely prismatic molars Hypisodus has one element of
superiority, but the number of its superior premolars is unknown.

Prodremotherium Bachitherium

y

Amphitragulus Gelocus

\
\

Tragulus Leptomeryx

/ Hypertragulus

Dorcatherium

I
Lophiomeryx

Of the PoEBROTHERiiD^ there are two genera. These differ as fol-
lows :
First premolar of upper jaw elongate and with two roots

Poebr other ium Leidy.
First upper premolar short and with a simple conic root

GompJiotJierium Cope.

The phylogenetic relations of these genera correspond with their rela-
tive geological positions. In Gomphotherium from the John Day (Mid-
dle) Miocene, the first premolar is much reduced, probably soon to be
aborted, as is the case in later genera of the line, among the Camelidte.
In Poebrotherium it displays an unusual development, like that of some
Tragulida3.

With the Poebrotheriidse we commence a series of families characterized
by the absence of the vertebrarterial canal, or the line of the camels
proper.

1887.] ^♦^J- [Cope

The direct connection with the f^imilies previously described is not yet
known. The indications point to the Oreodontidfc, but no approach to
the cervical vertebrae of the Poebrotheriidi3e has yet been found in that
family.

Messrs. Scott and Osborn have described a mammal, from the Bridger
Eocene of Wyoming, as a probable member of the camel series, under
the name of Ithygrammodoti cameloides. It is only known from two pre-
maxillary and a part of one maxillary bones. The former are slender and
bear a complete set of incisor teeth, which ai'e followed by a large canine.
It is probable that this genus belongs in the camel series, but it cannot
yet be positively affirmed.

Ancestral to the Camelida; is the genus Protolabis Cope, which agrees
with Procamelus, the earliest genus of that family in most respects, but
differs decidedly in having a full set of superior incisor teeth. In this
genus we reach the stage, in tracing back the ancestry of the camels,
which we find represented by Oreodon, or the Gelocus in the line of the
cattle and deer. It is probable, though not certain, that in Protolabis the
metapodial bones are combined into a cannon bone as in the Camelidae.
If so it differs materially from its predecessor, the genus Pcebrotherium,
and must be regarded as the type of a special family, the Protolabidi-
D^. But one genus of this family is known up to the present time. Its
remains occur in the Ticholeptus beds of Oregon and the Loup Fork beds
of Nebraska and Kansas.

In the Camelid^ we begin to realize the characters of the latest Artio-
dactyla, the ruminants. But they diflfer from the typical forms of these,
the Booidea, in three important points of the osteology, viz., in the
absence of a canal of the cervical vertebrce which in other Mammalia en-
closes the vertebral artery ; the presence of an incisor tooth on each side
of the upper jaw ; and thirdly, the incompleteness of the keels of the dis-
tal ends of the metapodial bones. This character and that of the presence
of incisors, are primitive conditions common to all the early Mammalia.
The peculiar cervical vertebrsE constitute a specialization, but whether
degenerate or progressive remains to be ascertained. In one respect this
line exhibits a high specialization, which is present at the earliest known
period of its history. This consists in the reduction of the lateral (ii and
v) metapodial bones, so that but two functional toes remain. This condi-
tion has been reached by the more typical artiodactyles after a much
longer lapse of time, for most of the extinct and recent types display lat-
eral digits in a well-developed or rudimentary condition ; in but few of
them have they totally disappeared. In another respect the line of the
camels attains a higher specialization than that of the typical ruminants,
although its beginning is that which is common to the entire suborder.
This is in the dentition. The reduction in numbers of teeth shown by
Owen to characterize the historical succession of all Mammalia, is carried
further in the molar series of camels than in any hoofed order ;- for in the
final term or genus, Eschatius (Cope), there is but one premolar left in the
upper jaw, and that is reduced to a simple cone. The true molars never

Cope.] 332 fQ(,t -_

reach the complexity of those of the other line, of the Bovida^ or oxen,
nor do they become prismatic as iu that family, but retain the short crown
well distinguished from long roots, which belongs to all the earlier Mam
malia.

The successional reduction in the numbers of premolar teeth in the
family of the Camelid* is shown in the following table.* There is seen
in the genera Protauchenia and Palauchenia a tendencj'' to an increase of
complication of the fourth inferior premolar :

I. Premolar teeth |.

Premolar i separated by diastema Procamelus Leidy.

II. Premolar teeth |.

Premolar ii below wanting PUauclienia Cope.

III. Premolar teeth f.

Fourth inferior premolar triangular Camelus Linn.

Fourth inferior premolar composed of two crescents, which enclose a lake

(an inferior premolar three ?) Palauclienia Owen.

Fourth inferior premolar composed of two crescents, with two posterior

tubercles behind them Protauchenia Branco.

IV. Premolar teeth f .

Fourth premolar below triangular Auchenia Illiger.

V. Premolar teeth \.

Fourth superior premolar composed of two crescents. . Holomeniscus Cope.

The only genera which include existing species are Camelus and Au-
chenia, the camels and llamas respectively. It may be remarked that the
latter genus, which is confined to the new world, is more specialized than
Camelus, which is restricted to the old world.

The succession of these genera in connection with the two preceding
families, may be presented as follows :

No cannon bone. Cannon bone present.

Incisor teeth present. Incisors one and two wanting.

4 premolars. 3 prem's.f 2 prem's. 1 prem'r.

Lower Miocene I Gornpliotherium

fProtolabis
Pi'ocamelus
PUauchenia

Camelus
Pliocene and recent

Auchenia
This table shows that geological time has witnessed, in the history of

*Froin Proceedings Amer. Philosoph. Soc, 1884, p. 16.
fin lower jaw.

1887.]

393

[Cope.

the Cainelidne, the consolidation of the bones of the feet and a great
reduction in the numbers of the incisor and pi'emolar teeth. The embry-
onic history of these parts is as follows : In the fcetal state all the Ru-
miuantia (to which the camels belong) have the cannon bones divided as
in Poebrotherium ; they exhibit also incisor teeth, as in that genus and
Protolabis. Very young recent camels have the additional premolar of
Pliauchenia. They shed this tooth at an early period, but very rarely a
camel is found in which the tooth persists. The anterior premolar of the
normal Camelus is in like manner found in the young llama (Auchenia),
but is shed long before the animal attains maturity. I may add that in
some species of Procamelus caducous scales of enamel and dentine in
shallow cavities represent the incisor dentition of Protolabis.

In greater detail, the extinct American forms of this line are distributed
as follows :

Eocene.

Miocene.

Pliocene.

White

John

Ticholep-

Loup

Wasatch.

Bridger

River.

Day.

tus.

Fork.

Equus.

Pantolestes Cope

5

1

Ithygrammodon S. 0.

1

? Slibarus Cope

1

Poebrotherium Leidy

2

Gomphotherium Cope

1

Protolabis Cope

1

2

Procamelus Leidy...

6

Pliauchenia Cope

2

Holmeniscus Cope. . .

3

Eschatius Cope

i

2

The total number of genera, nine ; of species, twenty-six.

The development of the brain displays the same progress that has been
shown by Lartet and Marsh to have taken place in other lines of Mam-
malia. The figures which I have given of the brain, show that while Proca-
melus occidentalis is inferior to the camel in the size and development of
the convolutions of the hemispheres, it is in advance of the Poebrotherium
vilsoni in these respects.

The development of the camels in North America presents a remark-
able parallel to that of the horses. The ancestors of both lines appear
together in the Wasatch or lowest Eocene, and the successive forms de-
velop side by side in all the succeeding formations. Camels and horses
are standard types in all our Tertiary formations ; and they must be
learned by any one who wishes to distinguish readily the horizons one
from the other. The horse-forms are more numerous in all the beds, in
individuals as well as in species. Both lines died out in North America,
and of the two, the camels only have certainly held their own in South
America. The history of the succession of horses in Europe, although
not as complete as that in America, extends over as wide a period of time.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 126. 2x. PRINTED DEC. 3, 1887.

Cope.] ^^^ [Oct. 7,

Not so witli the camels. There is no evidence of the existence of the
camel line in the old world prior to the late Miocene epoch ; and so far as
the existing evidence goes, the new world furnished the camel to the old.

CamelidiB only appear in South American palaeontology in the genus
Auchenia, in Pliocene time, in the Pampean beds. The best known spe-
cies are Auchenia weddellii and A. intermedia of Gervais. It is curious
that M. Ameghino, in his report on the fauna of the Miocene age found on
the River Parana, which contains the ancestors of so many Pliocene
genera, finds none that stand in that relation to the llamas.

The EsCHATiiD.'E includes a single genus represented by large species
of North America and Mexico.

We now reach the division of the Artiodactyla, which is especially
characteristic of the present period ; the Booidea, or, as it is sometimes
called, the Pecora. It embraces more numerous species than any existing
division of the Ungulata, and presents considerable difficulties to the
zoologist who would represent the relations of its contents. As a division
it is however well defined by the following peculiarities.

The third and generally the second superior premolar teeth possess
an internal crest as well as the fourth. The inferior premolar teeth have
oblique transverse crests. The keel of the distal extremity of the meta-
podial bones extends to the front of the condyle. The lateral metapodials
are represented by their extremities only, the middle portion having dis-
appeared. The median pair are united into a cannon bone. There are no
superior incisors, The odontoid process of the axis vertebra is trough-
shaped. The stomach is divided into three or four parts.

The lowest family of the series is that of the Moschid^. In its hard
parts it differs from the other Bovidse in the simplicity of the anterior
(second) superior premolar, which is without the internal crescent found
in the other Booidea. In this respect it is intermediate between that divi-
sion and the Cameloidea, where the fourth premolar only possesses the
internal crescent. But two genera of Moschidoe are known, Dremothe-
rium from the Lower Miocene of France, and the living Moschus. Both
lack horns and have well-developed canine teeth. The origin of this
group is clearly from the Tragulida^, and the genus of that family which
approaches nearest to it is Amphitragulus, which indeed only difiers
from it in dentition in the imperfection of the internal crest of the third
superior premolar. In turn, Dremotherium must be regarded as ancestral
to Palieomeryx, the most primitive genus of the Bovidoe.

The GiRAFFiD^ differ (see table of families) in the mode of attachment
of the horns. These are originally separate from the skull, but become
attached to it like the epiphyses on the extremities of the bones of the
skeleton. Their dental characters are like those of the Cervidse and the
lower Bovidse, the molars being short crowned or brachyodont. It
may be that the condition of the horns in Giraffa represents the mode of
origin of the horns of the Bovidae, and that the genus is simply to be
reckoned a primitive type in that family. The specialization of the long

1887.] ^*^^ [Cope.

neck and fore legs would not exclude it from that family. It is merely an
adaptation for the habit of browsing on the foliage of tall trees. In the
extinct species of its single genus, GirafFa, these characters are found in a
less degree than in the existing one. The most obvious distiucliou between
the BoviD^ and the Cervidie is in the differing character of the bony pro
cesses of the skull, used for ofiense and defense. But where horns are
•wanting, as is the case with some genera, these distinctions fall to the
ground. The horn-type of the Bovidte is more primitive than that of the
Cervidaj, since the horny process is permanent in the former, and is shed
and reproduced annually in the latter. The dental type is, however,
never so specialized in the deer, as is the case with the nighcst genera of
Bovidse, remaining always distinctly rooted, while in Bos and some other
genera of the latter they become prismatic. But the lower genera of
Bovidse do not differ from Cervidae in this respect.

In accordance with these fixcts the bovine ruminants appear a little be-
fore the cervine, though authors generally refer the earliest genera to the
latter division. Such are the genera Dicrocerus and Cosoryx,* which
appear in the latest Miocene beds. Dicrocerus only diflers from Palae-
omeryx in the possession of horns, which resemble those of deer, but
which were, according to Schlosser, never shed, a fact which compels its
location in the Bovidie. In Cosoryx the horns have the same charac-
ter in this respect, but the teeth are antelopine, or prismatic. It is clearly
to be placed in the Bovidai with Antilocapra (the prong-horn), and it is
closely allied to Dicrocerus. Here we see that the point of origin of the
two families was from a common ancestor, and that this ancestor was, as
has been -already expressed by Schlosser, the genus Pala^omeryx. Nearly
related to this point of departure are the Sivatherium, Bramatlierium, and
Hydaspidotherium. As they do not shed their horns, they cannot be re.
ferred to the Cervidse. In their covering with the integument, Cosoryx
probably possessed a character of Giraffa, which is a primitive stage of the
essential character of the horns of the Bovidix;. Perhaps the retention of
the primitive dermal character of this investment, instead of its metamor-
phosis into horn, might be regarded as a basis for a distinct family, the
CosorycidfB. But it is highly improbable that this covering remained in
Sivatherium and Bramatherium, whose horns were apparently perfectly
naked. It is doubtful whether all these animals can be retained as distinct
from the Bovidaj, and I therefore place them in two subfamilies of that
family. The Cosorycinaj, which will include Cosorj'x and Blastomeryx,
are characterized by the sheath of the horns being dermal ; the Sivathe-
riinne by the absence of any sheath whatever. The synopsis of genera
will then be as follows :

I. No horns in the male.
Molars brachyodout Fakeomery.v\ Von Meyer.

* Leidy, Cope ; Procervulus Gaiidry.

t Should P. eminens, type of Palceomeryx, have possessed horns, as suspected by
Schlosser, the generic name must take the place of Dicrocerus below, and be replaced
by one of the various names which apply to hornless species.

Cope.] "*'o [Oct. 7,

II. Horns covered willi skin (Cosorycinpe).

Teeth bracliyodont ; no frontal excrescence Blastomeryx Cope.

Teeth prismatic ; no frontal excrescence Cosoryx Leidy.

III. Horns naked (Sivatheriinfc)-

Teeth bracliyodont ; two pairs of horns, all separate

Sivathermm Cautl. Falc.
Teeth brachyodont ; two pairs of horns ; those of the anterior pair from

a common base Bramatherium Cautl. Falc.

Teeth brachyodont ; one pair of horns, from a single base

Hydaspitlierium Lydd.
Teeth brachyodont; one pair of horns, from distinct bases

Dieroeerus Lart.

IV. Horns covered with a horny sheath ; teeth hypsodont (Bovinte).
a. No internal column of true molars.

/9. 1^0 lateral ungues. (Nasal bones normal ; postzygapophyses
single.)

Horn-sheath furcate Aniilocapra Ord.

Horn-sheath simple Nanotragus Sund.

j?/?. Lateral ungues present.

y. Nasal bones separated from maxillary and lachrymal bones.

Horns simple, one pair Saga Gray.

yy. Nasal bones more or less in contact with lachrymal or
maxillary bones.
d. Posterior postzygapophyses single. (Numerous species
not examined.)
£. Inferior premolars three.

Horns one pair •. Antidorcas Gray.

££. Inferior premolars four.

Horns two pair Tetracerus H. Smith.

Horns one pair ; last inferior molar with four columns. .Neotragus* Gray.
Horns one pair ; last inferior molar with five columns. . . . Oms\ H. Smith.
od. Posterior postzygapophyses double.

Horns one pair ; inf. mol. 3 with five columns Capra Linn.

aa. One or more superior true molars with a median internal
column.

Dorsal postzygapophyses single JEgocerusX H. Sm.

Dorsal postzygapophyses double Bos \\ Linn.

A great number of names have been given to groups of species of the
BovinfE, especially within the limits of the genus Ovis of H. Smith.
Here the various forms of sheep and antelopes have been distinguished

* N. snUianus type. This character is derived from authority to which I cannot now
refer. I have not seen it.

■f- Includes the following supposed genera : Antilope, Gazella, Cervicapra, Oreotragus,
Cephalophus, Strepsicerus, Damalis, Alcelaphus, Nemorrhsedus, Rapicapra, Caloblepas,
Haplocerus, Ovibos, Ovis, and Anoa.

X Includes the following supposed genera : Eleotragus, iEgocerus, Oryx, Addax and
Portax.

II In Bos americanus the postzj'gapophyses are single except on the last lumbar.

1887.] 397 [Cope.

as genera and named accordingly. So far as concerns the skeleton,
further subdivisions than those indicated in the above table do not
appear to exist, and none have been pointed out. The divisions proposed
appear to be rather those of one extensive genus. The modifications of
tlie skull have reference to the position of the horns. These are processes
of the frontal bones, and are placed at points from above the eye to the
posterior angle of the facial plane of the skull. In the latter case this
angle approaches very near to the supraoccipital crest or inion, and the
parietal bone is reduced to an exceedingly narrow band between the
frontal and occipital bones (Riitimeyer).* Forms with anterior horns and
well-developed parietal bone are Ocis gazella and Tetrarerus quadricornis ,
"while the Ocis gnu displays the parietal extremely reduced, and become
chiefly lateral in position. As regards the forms of the horns themselves,
they present no important differences, but are angular and revolute in the
section Ovis, and cylindric in the division Antilope. In the latter they
vary in direction from straight to spiral or curved in different directions.
Within the genus Ovis the end of the muzzle is naked or hairy, the latter
in the typical forms and in those inhabiting northern and alpine localities
generally. Those species that inhabit grassy or desert plains have the end
of the nose naked.

Within the genus Bos modifications are observed parallel to those in the
genus Ovis. The frontal bones with the horn processes are produced
more and more posteriorly until the parietal bones are reduced to a narrow
band across the posterior part of the skull. The bisons have the horns
most anterior ; then follow the buffalos, and the extreme is reached in the
true oxen, of which the domesticated animal is the type.

The following'table will give an idea of the phylogeuy of the Bovidse :

Ssega Bos Tetracerus Sivatheriinne CervMae

Ovis Antilocapra Dicrocerus

. Cosoryx Blastomeryx

Palieomeryx
The hornless Palteomeryx has given origin to the horned BoiJidea ; on
the one hand to the brachyodont (Blastomeryx, etc.), and on the other to
the hypsodonts (Cosoryx, etc.). A cornification of the integument in a
fork horned Cosoryx produced Antilocapra, while the same process in a
simple-horned Cosoryx produced Ovis. The development of this tj'^pe
has undergone the three principal modifications indicated by the three
genera which succeed upwards. In Sajga an extraordinary development
of the muzzle takes place, which causes a change in the relations of the
nasal bones. In Tetracerus another pair of horns is developed in front of

*Die Kinder der Tertiiir-Epoclie ; Abli. Scliweiz. Pal. Gess., v, 1878.

Cope.] ^'^O [Oct. 7-

the usual pair. Bos develops complications of the molar teetb in both
jaws.

On the brachyodont side the development of the dermal covering of
the horns of Blastomeryx is arrested, and naked horned types follow. In
the Sivatberiine grouj) no further change follows except complication of
the horns. In the Cervine group, on the contrar}^ the habit of shedding
them becomes fixed, and a new family has its origin.*

Of the Cervid^ or the Booidea which shed their horns, the genus Cervus
is one of the earliest with which we are acquainted. Undoubted speciea
of the genus occur in the Pliocene, and Upper Miocene species are also
referred to it. As species from the Lower Pliocene (C matJieroni Gerv.)
are referred to Capreolus, those of the Miocene may not be true Cervi.
Their structure is not sufficiently known to determine this point. The
arrangement of the genera is as follows. The three primary divisions
were established by Brooke.

I. Lateral metapodials complete only distally, and supporting deer

claws (Telemetacarpi).
a. Nasal passages posteriorly two, separated by vomer (Cariaci)

Horns simple spikes Coassus Gray.

Horns more or less furcate Gariacus Gray,

Horns palmate Bangifer H. Smith

aa. Nasal passage posteriorly one, not divided (Oapreoli).

No horns Hydropotes Swinh.

Horns furcate ; no postantler Capreolus Gray.

Horns palmate ; no postantler Alces H. Smith.

Horns palmate ; a postantler Gervalces Scott.

II. Lateral metapodials represented by proximal splints only ; nasal

passage not divided (Plesiometacarpi). (Cervi.)

Frontal cutaneous glands ; horns furcate Cervulus Blv.

No frontal glands ; horns simple Elaphodus M. Edw

No frontal glands ; horns furcate Gervus Linn.

No frontal glands ; horns palmate Dama H. Smith.

Horns furcate ; brow antler greatlj'^ exceeding beam, (Gill)

Elapliunis M. Edw.

The phylogeny of these genera cannot be fully known until the skele-
tons of the extinct genera and species have been obtained. It is, however,
certain that the short series of genera included in each of the three
divisions (II a and «a, and HI), are genetic series ; and also that division
I is ancestral to both II and III, although perhaps by an extinct genus
differing in some respects from Moschus. These relations can be thus
expressed :

* I have described the probable mode of origin of the deciduous horns of the deer in
Eeport U. S. G. Survey, W. of 100th Merid., iv, p. 348, 1877.

1887.]

399

Capreoli

Cariaci

Cosorycina?
Moschinse

Or thus :

Rangifer

Cervalces

Alces

[Cop

Cervi

Dama

Cariacus Caprcolus Cervus Cervul

Coassus Hydropotes Elaphodus

Moschus

Each of the genetic series commences with a genus with no or very
simple horns. The next genus or stage presents branched horns, some -
times of great complexity. The last term in each is the palmate horn,
where a greater or less number of the tines unite to form a plate. These
series, as is well known, correspond with the history of the growth of the
horns in successive years of the life of each species.

None of the genera of this family are extinct except Cervalces Scott.

The following series may approximate a correct representation pf the
phylogeny of the genus Bos, expressed in genera.

Bos

'

Ovis (sens, lat.)
Cosoryx

1

Bovidre.

Pala3omeryx

1
J

Dremotherium

Moschidtie.

Amphitragulus

Gelocus
Leptomeryx

.

Tragulidic,

Dorcatherium

■Sf-

^

Anthracotherium
Cebochoerus

■5f

j"

Anthracothei

Pantolestes

PantolestidjE,

Leidy.] ^"^ [Nov. 18,

In conclusion I would remark the fact that the gradual approaches in
character to the Bovidas by the recent and extinct genera and families,
furnishes one of the most admirable illustrations of the law of progressive
specialization by evolution known to me.

Note. — Pi'ofessor Gill has presented in his system of the Mammalia
some reasons why the Suidoe should be more exactly defined than I have
given above. In the Suina? and Phaochoerin* the postglenoid process is
wanting or rudimental, and the mandibular condyle is flat and triangular.
In the Dicotylinaj and Hippopotaminai the postglenoid process is well de-
veloped and the condyle is subcylindric, as is also the case in Elotherium.
I therefore place the two subfamilies named in a family separate from the
Suidfe, under the name Hippopotamidae, to which it is possible that Elo-
therium should be united as a third subfamily.

Biographical Notice of Isaac Lea, LL.D. By Josepli Leidy, M.D., LL.D.
{Read before the American Philosophical Society, November IS, 1SS7.)

In accordance with the custom of this Society, which requires that a
record shall be made of the claims of its deceased members to remem-
brance, at the request of our President, I have prepared a brief sketch
of one who was distinguished among us, our late much respected fellow-
citizen and friend, Isaac Lea, LL.D. A more detailed memoir than the
one I offer seemed supererogatory from the fact that only a short time
previous to his death, there was published in the Bulletins of the United
States National Museum, a volume containing a Biographical Sketch of
Mr. Lea, comprising fifty-nine pages ; and a Bibliography of his publica-
tions with a synopsis of the material therein contained, comprising 278
pages, prepared at the request of the Smithsonian Institution, by Mr. N.
P. Scudder. To this source I have conveniently applied for much of the
information of my notice.

Isaac Lea was born March 4th, 1792, in Wilmington, Delaware. His
grandparents, John and Elannah Lea, came from Gloucestershire, Eng-
land, and accompanied William Penn in his second visit to this country.
They were members of the Society of Friends, among whom they were
noted as ministers. The father, James Lea, was a merchant, and at the
age of fifteen Isaac went to Philadelphia to engage in a similar pursuit.
In 1814, the country being at war with England, Isaac joined a volunteer
'rifle company, which oftered its services to the Governor of the State in
case of need. As the services were not required, the company was soon
disbanded ; but in consequence of Isaac joining it, he lost his birthright
in the Society of Friends.

At an early age Isaac showed a love for natural history, in which he
was encouraged by his mother, who was herself fond of botany, and in-

1887.] 'Ik) I [Leidy.

terested her children ia its study. At an early period also he became
acquainted with Lardner Vanuxem, who had similar tastes, and together
the young men studied mineralogy and geology, in the pursuit of which
they made frequent excursions.

In 1815 Mr. Lea was elected a m(*mber of the Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia, which had been founded only three years pre-
viousl3\ lie subsequently from time to time took an active part in the
affairs of the institution ; and from his ample pecuniary means he liber-
ally contributed towards its objects in the promotion of natural history.
From 1853 to 1858 he occupied the position of President of the Academy.
In 1817 he published in the Journal of the Academy the first of his nu-
merous communications on natural history, entitled "An account of the
minerals at present known to exist in the vicinity of Philadelphia."

In 1821 jNIr. Lea was married to Miss Frances A. Carey, an accomplished
lady, the daughter of Mathew Carey, a well-known publisher and a writer
on political economy. He also became a member of the firm of M. Carey
& Sons, which at that time was the most extensive publishing house in
the United States ; and he continued with this and the successive firms
until he retired from the business in 1851. Mr. Scudder remarks that few
men have been more happy in their married life, which reached through
fifty-two years, when the death of jMrs. Lea occurred, leaving her greatly
afflicted husband together with two sons and a daughter.

In 1838 Mr. Lea was elected a member of the American Philosophical
Society, in which for many years he took an active part'; for some time
serving as one of its Vice-Presidents and as Chairman of the Publication
and Finance Committee.

In the spring of 1833, together with his family, he went to Europe and
visited England, France and Switzerland; returning the following
autumn. In June, 1852, in company with his wife, daughter and sister,
he again went to Europe, visited England, France, Germany, Austria and
Italy, and returned in November, 1853. In these trips, while taking ad-
vantage of the opportunity to examine and study the favorite subjects of
his special research in the great museums, he was everywhere received
with the most friendly attention by eminent naturalists and others.

In 1853 Harvard University honored Mr. Lea with the title of LL.D.
In 1860 he presided at the meeting of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science, held at Buffalo, N. T. As an evidence of his
continued interest in all that concerns the cause of natural science, when
upwards of ninety-two years of age, at the nieeting of the Association
and its guests of the British Association in Philadelphia, in September,
1884, he invited the members to visit him at his summer residence at Long
Branch, N. J., where he had the pleasure of receiving and entertaining
about two hundred.

Mr. Lea, as usual with men of distinction who have made themselves
known by their scientific labors, was enrolled as an associate in numer-
ous learned societies abroad and at home.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. 80C. XXIV. 126. 2y. PRINTED DEC. 6, 1887.

Leidy.] 40^ [Noy. is,

He reached the advanced age, within a few mouths, of ninety-five
years, retaining to tlie last his intellect and his interest in his family, in
science and everything that had rendered him happy during life. He
died December 8lh, 1886.

Mr. Lea was an enthusiastic student and an ardent lover of nature, and
though like most other people occupied for many of the best years of his
life with the exacting cares of business, he always found leisure success-
fully to pursue his studies and investigations in natural history. He was
especially interested in mineralogy, geology and palaeontology, but above
all delighted in and devoted most time to the study of the fresh-water
Mollusca, for which a favorable opportunity was afforded in the foct that
the great rivers of this country are particularly rich in these animals and
had been but imperfectly explored at the time of his taking up the study.

To all the subjects. indicated and to others Mr. Lea has contributed to
our knowledge ; but to the last one in an eminent degree not excelled by
other naturalists. The record of this knowledge is contained in numer-
ous communications, for the most part published in the Transactions of
the American Philosophical Society and the Journal of the Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Mr. Lea was a most acute and accu-
rate observer and a most painstaking and conscientious investigator. Of
the fresh-water and terrestrial Mollusca, Mr. Lea has described upwards
of sixteen hundred new species of about fifty genera. The descriptions
are given in the most comprehensive manner with exhaustive detail, and
are accompanied with admirable illustrations. He was enabled to make
this large contribution to our knowledge from the fact that his name be-
came everywhere known as the leading authority in this department of
concliology, and collectors in every land eagerly submitted to him all
specimens supposed to be new or otherwise of scientific interest which
came into their hands.

Of Mr. Lea's labors relating to the extensive family of freshwater
Mollusca, the Unionidic, Prof. Owen, of England, has expressed himself
in the following words : "You have set a noble example of iDcrsevering
devotion to the elucidation and making known to j^our fellow-men, of the
portion of God's creation selected by your judgment, taste and opportu-
nities for your studies. You will leave a grand and enduring monument
of what one man may accomplish under such conditions, and I trust you
may enjoy many years cheered by the retrospect of past labors, and by
the grateful estimation in which they are held by the naturalists and lov-
ers of science in both hemispheres."

Mr. Lea's chief contributions to geology and palaeontology are found in
the following works :

Contributions to Geology. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1833 ; 227 pages and
228 figures. This is one of the earliest and most extensive contributions
to a knowledge of the geology and fossils of the Tertiary formations of
this country. The work relates to the formations of Alabama, Maryland

1887.] 403

and New Jersey, and contains descriptions of two hundred and twenty-
eight new species of fossil Mollusca, together with a few other fossils.

Notice of the Oolitic Formation in America, with descriptions of some
of its Organic Remains. Published in the Transactions of this Society in
1841. It relates to the formation in New Grenada and Cuba, and con-
tains descriptions and figures of upwards of twenty new species of Am-
monites, Trigonia, Terebratuhi, etc.

On Fossil Footmarks in the Red Sandstone of Pottsville, Pa., published
in the Transactions of this Society in 18.53. An earlier notice is given in
the Proceedings of 1819. In this is described the tracks of an amphibian
vertebrate to which Mr. Lea gave the name of Sauropus primcBons. The
fossil was discovered by Mr. Lea in the Red Sandstone of Formation No.
11, below the Coal Measures, of Roger's plan, of the Geological Survey
of Pennsylvania. Tlie report of tlie discovery at the time excited consid-
erable interest among naturalists from the circumstance that the specimen
was the earliest evidence of the existence of air-breathing vertebrates.

Description of a Fossil Saurian of the New Red Sandstone Formation
of Pennsylvania. Published with illustrations in the Journal of the
Academy in 1853. This gives a description of a saurian reptile to which
Mr. Lea gave the name of Glepysaitrus peunsyUanicus, based on some
fossil bones discovered at Milford, Lehigh county. Pa., the first at that
time found in the Triassic formation of this country.

Mr. Lea took the advantage of his opportunities to make a full collec-
tion of the objects of his study and investigation, and this, with the ex-
ception of the collection of Tertiar}'' fossils, which was presented to the
Academy of Natural Sciences during his life-time, he has bequeathed to
the National Museum at Washington, where it will be preserved for the
study and admiration of future naturalists.

Stated Meeting^ September S, 1887.

Present, 9 members.

President, Mr. Fraley, in the Chair,

Correspondence was submitted as follows :

Letters of envoy from the Madras Observatory ; Physika-
lisch-Central-Observatorium, St; Petersburg ; K. P. Akademie
der Wissenschaften, and Physikalische Gesellschaft, Berlin ;
Acadetnie Royale des Sciences, Lettres et Arts, Modene; Mu-
see Guimet, Paris; Meteorological Office and Statistical So-
ciety, London; Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass.; United

4^4 [Sept. 2,

States Geological Survey and Smithsonian Institution (Bu-
reau of Ethnology), Washington ; Observatorio Meteorologico
Central, Mexico; California Academy of Sciences, San Fran-
cisco.

Letters of acknowledgment from the Institut Egyptien,
Cairo (123, and asking for 86, 87, 88); Natural Hictory Society,
Odessa (96-123) ; Comitc Geologique, St. Petersburg (123);
Observatoire de Tashkent (96-121); Deutsche Geologische
Gesellschaft, Berlin (120-123) ; Naturwissenschaftlicher Yerein,
Bremen (12 1-124); Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Emden (124);
Prof. Dr. Paul Albrecht, Hamburg (124) ; Naturhistorische
Gesellschaft, Niirnberg (121-123) ; Verein flir vaterliindische
Naturkunde in Wiirtemberg, Stuttgart (117-121); Istituto
Veneto d Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, Venezia (114-116); R.
Acadeniia de la Ilistoria, Madrid (123, 124) ; Academic Poy-
ale des Sciences de Lisbonne (115, 116, 117); Observatorio
Astronomico jSTacional Mexican©, Tacubaya (124) ; Canadian
Institute (125); Horatio Hale, Clinton, Canada; Geological
Survey of Canada, Ottawa (125) ; Society of Natural History,
Portland, Me. (125); New Hampshire Historical Society,
Concord (125) ; Prof. C. H. Hitchcock, Hanover (125); Bos.
ton Athenaeum, Society of Natural History, Historical So-
ciety, Public Library, American Academy of Arts and
Sciences- of Massachusetts, Messrs. S. P. Sharpies, D. Hum-
phreys Storer, Boston (125) ; Museum of Comparative Zoiilogy,
Mr. Robert N. Toppan, Cambridge (125) ; Free Public Library,
New Bedford (125); Dr. Pliny Earle, Mr. Benj. Smith Ly-
man, Northampton (125); Essex Institute, Salem (125); Ameri-
can Antiquarian Society, Worcester (125) ; Rhode Island
Historical Society, Franklin Society, Providence (125) ; Con-
necticut Historical Society, Hartford (125) ; Yale College
Library, Prof. Eli as Loomis, New Haven (125); New York
State Library, Albany (125) ; Buffalo Library, Society of
Natural Sciences, Buffalo (125); Dr. Edward North, Clin-
ton, N. Y. (125) ; Profs. T. F. Crane, B. G. Wilder, Ithaca
(125) ; New York Hospital, Astor Library, Historical Society,
Columbia College, University of the City of New York, Prof.

1887.J 405

John I. Stevenson, Prof. Henry M, Baird, Messrs. James Doug-
las, John Ericsson, New York (125) ; Oneida Historical So-
ciety, Utica (125) ; United States Military Academy, West
Point (125); Messrs. J. C. Martindale, William John Potts,
Camden (125) ; New Jersey Historical Society, Newark (125) ;
Dr. G. H. Cook, New Brunswick (125); Prof. W. H. Green,
Princeton (125) ; Historical Society of Pennsylvania, College
of Pharmacy, Numismatic and Antiquarian Society, College
of Physicians, Library Company of Philadelpiiia, Hon. Wm.
D. Kelley, Revs. Geo. D. Boardman, Jesse Y. Burk, H. Clay
Trumbull, Drs. F. A. Genth, Wm. H. Greene, G. H. Horn, W.
W. Keene, Isaac Norris, Jr., C. Newlin Peirce, Ruschenberger,
W. H. Wahl, Profs. John Ashhurst, Jr., F. A. Genth, Jr., S.
W. Gross, H. V. Hilprecht, J. P. Lesley, John Marshall,
Messrs. W. S. Baker, Edwin A, Barber, John H. Brinton,
Isaac Burk, Thos. M. Cleemann, Wm. Morris Davis, Patterson
DuBois, H. H. Houston, Wm. W. Jefteris, Francis Jordan,
Jr., G. deB. Keim, A. E. Lehman, A. S. Letchworth, Thos.
Meehan, C.Stuart Patterson, Robert Patterson, Henry Phillips,
Jr., Franklin Piatt, Theo. D. Rand, G. B. Roberts, L. A. Scott,
Henry D. Wireman, Jos. Zentmayer, Philadelphia (125); Dr
Robert H. Alison, Ardmore (125); Prof. Jas. C. Booth, Haver-
ford College (125); Mr. P. F. Rothermel, Linfield (125); Dr.
Chas. B. Dudley, Altoona (125) ; Rev. Jas. A. Murray, Car-
lisle (125) ; Rev. Thos. C. Porter, Prof. J. W. Moore, "^Easton
(125); Pennsylvania State Library'-, Harrisburg (125); Mr.
Ario Pardee, Hazleton (125) ; Mr. John Fulton, Johnstown
(125); Linnasan Society, Lancaster (125) ; Mr. John F. Carll,
Pleasantville (125); Messrs. P. W. Sheafer, Heber S. Thomp-
son, Pottsville (125) ; Dr. F. A. Randall, Warren (125); Hon.
Washington Townsend, Mr. Philip P. Sharpies, West Chester
(125); Wyoming Historical and Geological Society, Wilkes-
Barre (125) ; United States Naval Institute, Annapolis (125) ;
Maryland Institute, Prof. H. B. Adams, Baltimore (125);
Smithsonian Institution (91, 93, 104, 125 and two cases of ex-
changes). United States Geological Survey, Signal Office, Sur-
geon-General's Office, United States Naval Observatory, Patent

406 [Sept. ?.

Office, Gen. M. C. Meigs, Drs. J. S. Billings, J. H. C. Coffin,
Albert S. Gatschet, Asaph Hall, C. Y. Eilej, Messrs. Chas. A.
Schott, Wm. B. Taylor, Washington, D. C. (125) ; Virginia
Historical Society, Richmond (125) ; Leander McCormick
Observatory, Prof. J. W. Mallet, University of Virginia (125) ;
Elliott Society of Sciences and Art, Charleston (125); Georgia
Historical Society, Savannah (125); Prof. E. W. Claypole,
Akron, 0. (125) ; Cincinnati Observatory, Society of Natural
History, Prof. J. M. Hart, Cincinnati (125) ; Rev. Henry S.
Osborn, Oxford, O. (125) ; Dr. Robert Peter, Lexington, Ky.
(125); Prof. J. L. Campbell, Crawfordsville, Ind. (125) ; Prof.
Daniel Kirkwood, Bloomington, Ind. (125) ; Chicago Histori-
cal Society (125); Rantoul Literary Society (125); Profs.
Henry S. Frieze, Alexander Winchell, Ann Arbor, Mich. (125) ;
State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison (125) ; Kansas
Historical Society, Topeka (125) ; University of California,
Profs. John and Joseph LeConte, Berkeley (125) ; California
Academy of Sciences, Prof. George Davidson, San Francisco,
(125).

The following societies, etc., were at request placed upon the
Exchange List to receive the Society's Proceedings from No.
96:

Natural History and Antiquarian Society of Penzance ;
Physiological Society of Berlin ; Royal Library, Brussells ;
Vereinfiir Erdkunde, Metz; Wagner Free Institute of Science,
Philadelphia ; Voigtlandischer Alterthumsforschender Verein,
Hohenleuben, Saxony ; Linnean Society of New South Wales,
Ehzabeth Bay.

A letter was read in relation to a portrait of Humboldt,
ofiered for sale to the Society, and the President was author-
ized to appoint a committee to ascertain what members are
desirous of subscribing to the purchase of same for presenta-
tion to the Society.

The Observatorio Meteorologico Magnetico Central, Mexico,
requested by letter Proceedings 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 108,
116; on motion the request was granted.

Letters accepting membership were read from :

Dr. Henry Kiepert, Berlin.

1887.]

407

Miss Helen C. de S. Abbott, Pliiladelphia.

Mr. Joseph S. Harris, Philadelphia.

Mr. William Henry Rawle^ Philadelphia.

Prof. Albert H. Smyth, Philadelphia.

Prof. James Tyson, M.D., Philadelphia.

Prof. William Powell Wilson, M.D., Philadelphia.

Mr. Henry D. Wireman, Philadelphia.

Mr. Wm. T. Barnard, Baltimore, Md.

Circulars were presented as follows:

From Dr. A. de Bausset, Chicago, in relation to his proposed
aerial polar voyage in June, 1888,

From the Australasian Association for the Advancement of
Science, to be held November 10, 1886.

From the Academia Eegia Nederlandica enclosing its Pro-
gramma Certaminis Poeticos, 1888, with award of prizes.

From the Committee -on the Centennial Celebration of the
settlement of the Northwest, to be held at Marietta, Ohio,
April 7, 1888.

A communication was presented from Dr. Genth, enclosing
corrections of some errata that had occurred in printing his
paper.

Accessions to the Library were reported from the Asiatic
Society of Japan, Yokahama ; Physikalische Gesellschaft,
Deutsche Geologische Gesellschaft, K. P. Akakemie der Wis-
senschaften, Berlin; Prof. H. Carvill Lewis, Heidelberg ; K.
Siichsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Leipzig ; Deutsche
Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologic, etc., Geographische Geeell-
schaft, Miinchen ; Verein fiir vaterliindische Naturkunde in
Wiirtemberg, Stuttgart; Prof. F. Sandberger, Wiirzberg;
Societo Helvetique des Sciences Naturelle, Geneve ; Socicte
Vandoise des Sciences Naturelle, Lausanne ; Academic E. de
Copenhagen ; K. Zoologisch Botanisch Genootschap, 'S. Grav-
enhage ; Societe Malacologique de Belgique, Bruxelles ;
Academic R. des Sciences, etc., de Modena ; Societa Toscana di
Scienze Naturali, Pisa ; R. Comitato Geologico d'ltalia, Eoma;
R. Istituto Veneto di Scienze, etc., Venezia ; British Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science, Zoological Society, Lon-

408

[Sept. 2,

don ; Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian Society,
Plymouth ; Koyal Dublin Society ; Soutli African Philosophi-
cal Society, Cape Town ; Poyal Society of Canada, Montreal ;
American Oriental Society, Boston ; Albany Institute ; Mete-
orological Observatory, Academy of Sciences, American
Chemical Society, New York ; Franklin Institute, Prof. Ed-
win J, Houston, Mr. Henry Phillips, Jr., Mr. E. V. d'Invilliers,
Philadelphia ; United States Geological Survey, United States
National Museum, National Academy of Sciences, Dr. Francis
Wharton, Washington, D. C. ; Wisconsin Historical Society,
Madison ; Editor of " The American Antiquarian," Chicago ;
University of California, Berkeley ; Deutsche Wissenschaft-
Verein zu Santiago de Chili.

Photographs for the Album were received from Prof. Giuseppi
Sergi, Eome; Prof Henry M. Baird, New York ; Prof Edward
North, Clinton, N. Y. ; Rev. George Dana Boardman, Drs.
Isaac Norris, Jr., Wm. Thomson, and Mr. Patterson DuBois,
Philadelphia.

The committee to examine the paper on the Daiames Ifayna,
reported it worthy of publication, and was on motion dis-
charged.

Announcement was made of the deaths of the following mem-
bers :

Prof S. F. Baird, Washington, D. C, August 19, 1887, a^t.
65.

Charles Rau, Washington, D. C, July 25, 1887, iet. 61.

Jean Victor Duruy, Paris, August, 12, 1887, cet. 76.

Alvan Clark, August 22, 1887, Cambridgeport, Mass., a3t. 81.

Rt. Rev. William Bacon Stevens, Philadelphia, June 11,
1888, a3t. 73.

Dr. N. A. Randolph, Philadelphia, August 21, 1887, set 30.

On motion, the President was authorized to appoint suitable
persons to prepare the usual obituary notices of Dr. Randolph
and Bishop Stevens. [Subsequently the President appointed
Rev. Jesse Y. Burk for Bishop Stevens and Dr. Rothrock for
Dr. Randolph.]

1887.] ^^'^

Communications were presented through the Secretaries as
follows :

1. "OnBiela's Comet and the Large Meteors of November
27-30," by Prof. Daniel Kirkwood, Bloomington, Ind.

2. '' Ou the Systematic Position of the Mallopliaga," by
Prof, A. S. Packard, Providence, R. I.

3. " Preliminary Report on the Vertebrate Fossils of the
Uinta Formation Collected by the Princeton Expedition of
1886," by Profs. W. B. Scott and Henry F. Osborn, Princeton,
N.J.

Dr. D. G. Brinton read a paper entitled " Were the Toltecs
an Historic Nationality?"

Pending nominations Nos. 1156, 1159, 1164, 1169 and 1170
were read.

The President reported that he had received and paid over
to the Treasurer $132.11, the July interest from the Michaux
legacy.

Mr. Price offered the following resolutions, which were unani-
mously adopted :

Resolved^ That J. Sergeant Price, Treasurer, be authorized
to assign and transfer unto the Board of Reconstruction Trus-
tees of the Philadelphia & Reading Railroad Co., and The
Philadelphia & Reading Coal and Iron Co., the loans of The
Schuylkill Navigation Co., belonging to the American Philo-
sophical Society and to the Trustees of the Building Fund of
the American Philosophical Society, in accordance with the
terms and conditions of the proposition of June 22, 1887.

Resolved^ That the Treasurer be and he is hereby author-
ized to receive payment of one thousand dollars, of the loans
of the City of Philadelphia, now standing in the name of the
Society, and belonging to this Society, and maturing July 1,
1887.

And the meeting was adjourned by the President.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 12G. 2z. PRINTED DEC. 6, 1887.

41-0 [Sept. 16,

Stated Meeting, September 16, 1887.

' Present, 5 members.
President, Mr, Fraley, in the Chair.

Letters of envoy from Socictc de Litterature Finnoise, Hel-
singfors ; Voigtliindischen Alterthumsforschenden Vereins,
Hohenleuben; K. Sachsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften,
Leipzig ; Statistical Society, London ; California Academy of
Sciences, San Francisco ; Observatorio Meteorologico Central,
Mexico ; Observatorio Nacional Argentino, Cordoba.

Accessions to the Library were reported from the Societe de
Litterature Finnoise, Helsingfors ; Societe Imperiale des Natur-
alistes, Moscow ; Comite Geologique, Academic Imperiale des
Sciences, St. Petersburg ; Prof. G. vom Eath, Bonn ; Garten-
bauverein, Darmstadt ; Senckenbergische Naturforschende Ge-
sellschaft, Frankfurt a. M.; Yoigtlandischer Alterthumsforschen-
der Yereiu, Hohenleuben ; Zoologischer Anzeiger, Leipzig ;
Yerein fiir Erdkunde, Metz ; Academic E. de Belgique, Brux-
elles ; E. Accademia dei Lincei, Eome ; Societe de L'Enseig-
nement Saperieur, Paris ; Philosophical and Literary Society,
Leeds; Eoyal Cornwall Polytechnic Society, Falmouth ; Eoyal
Society, Eoyal Statistical, Geological, Astronomical, Meteoro-
logical Societies, Society of Antiquaries, Linnean Society,
London ; American Philological Association, Boston ; Ameri-
can Antiquarian Society, Worcester ; " American Journal of
Science," New Haven ; Historical Society, College of Pharmacy,
Library Company, Publishers of "The American Naturalist,"
P. H. Law, Henry Phillips, Jr., Philadelphia ; Johns Hopkins
University, Publishers of " American Chemical Journal,"
"American Journal of Philology," Baltimore ; United States
Naval Institute, Annapolis ; Bureau of the Mint, Bureau of
Labor, United States Geological Survey, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, Washington, D. C. ; California Academy of Sciences, San
Francisco ; Publishers of " Boletin de Estadistica del Puebla."

1887.]

411

A letter was read from the Academy of Fine Arts, request-
ing the loan of portraits for its approaching exhibition.

On motion, it was

Resolved, That the Curators be empowered to loan to the Academy of
Fine Arts, such paintings as it may desire for its Exhibition of Historical
Portraits, talsing proper guarantees for tlie safe keeping and safe return of
the same.

A paper was presented, through the Secretaries, by Dr. A.
0. Stokes, of Trenton, N. J., on some " New Fresh Water Infu-
soria."

Pending nominations Nos. 1156, 1159, 1164, 1169 and 1170
were read.

A communication from the Committee on Library, on the
subject of modernizing the Library, was presented, and, on mo-
tion of Mr. Law, it was resolved, that the Committee on Fi-
nance be requested to incorporate into its estimates for the
coming fiscal year an appropriation -of five hundred dollars, to
be expended in the purchase of modern works of reference
and value.

On motion of Dr. Euschenberger, the Society ordered that
the building of the Society should be kept locked on Septem-
ber 16, 1887, to avoid danger to the property of the Society
from the vast crowds likely to be assembled in Independence
Square to witness the closing exercises of the Centennial Cel-
ebration of the Adoption of the Federal Constitution.

The President reported that he had appointed as the Com-
mittee on the Purchase of the Ilumboldt Portrait, Messrs.
Philip 0. Garrett, D. G. Brinton and Horace Jayne.

On motion of Mr. Phillips, the Society requested the Presi-
dent to prepare for the Records of the Society a minute that
should commemorate the celebration that had taken place in
Philadelphia, on September 15, 16, 17, 1887, of the Centennial
of the Adoption of the Federal Constitution.

And the Society was adjourned by the President.

412 ,oct.7.

Stated Meeting, Octoher 7, 1887.

Present, 20 members.

Vice-President, Dr. Euschenperger, in the Chair.

Dr. Tyson and Mr. Harris, newly elected members, were pre-
sented to the Chair and took their seats.
Correspondence was submitted as follows :

Letter of envoy from L' Academic E. des Sciences, Amster-
dam.

Letters of acknowledgment from L' Academic E. des Sciences,
Amsterdam (122, 128); Eoj^al Society, Eoyal Institution,
Linn^an, Eoyal Meteorological, Chemical, Geological Socie-
ties, London; Geological and Natural History Survey, Ottawa,
Canada; Prof. 0. C. Marsh, New Haven, Conn.; Prof C. A.
Young, Princeton, N. J.; Prof C. H.F. Peters, Clinton, N. Y.;
Vassar Brothers' Institute, Pougkkeepsie, N. Y. ; Eev F. A.
Muhlenberg, Philadelphia ; Profs. Lyman B. Hall, Isaac Sharp-
less, Haverford, Pa. ; Lackawanna Institute, Scranton, Pa. ;
Prof M. H. Boye, Coopersburg, Ya. ; Mr, Horatio Hale, Clin-
ton, Ontario, Canada; Mr. Everard F. im Thurn, Pomeroon
Eiver, British Guiana (125).

Accessions to the Library were received from Government
Botanic Garden, Adelaide ; Prof. Clemens Winkler, Leipzig ;
Publishers of "Der Naturforscher," Tubingen; K. Akademie
van Wetenschappeu, Amsterdam ; Societe Hollandaise des
Sciences, Harlem ; Osservatorio di Torino ; Sociedade de Geo-
graphia, Lisboa ; British Government, Meteorological Office,
London ; Prof. Joseph Prestwich, Oxford ; Prof. H. Carvill
Lewis, Manchester, Eng.; Natural History Society, Montreal,
Canada ; Brooklyn Entomological Society ; New Jersey His-
torical Society, Newark ; University of Pennsylvania, D. G.
Brinton, William Pepper, Henry Phillips, Jr., Philadelphia ;
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore ; United States Fish
Commission, Department of State, War Department, Hydro-

1887.] 4: Id

graphic Oflfice U. S. N., Public Opinion Co., "Washington, D. C;
Leander McCormick Observatory, University of Virginia •
Col. Charles C. Jones, Jr., Augusta, Ga.

A photograph for the Society's Album was received from
Dr. C. A. Oliver.

Prof. Cope presented a communication for the Proceedings
upon the " Classification and Phylogeny of the Artiodactyla."

The Secretaries presented two communications from Mr.
Samuel Garman (Cambridge, Mass.), on the "Reptiles and Ba-
trachians of Grand Cayman " and on " West Indian Reptiles
in the Museum of Comparative Zoology (Cambridge, Mass.)."

Pending nominations No. 1156, 1159, 1164, 1169 and 1170
were read.

A communication was read from the Committee on Library,
in reference to the operation of the resolution of the Society,
of January 7, 1887, and on motion of Dr. Horn, the Society
resolved that the resolution of request of January 7, 1887,
should be rescinded.

Mr. Ames suggested that in the absence of papers intended
for the Proceedings or for the Transactions, the meetings of the
Society should be enlivened and enriched by unwritten com-
munications ; that members should report the best results of
their reading and reflections on subjects of science and phil-
osophy.

Mr. Fraley, in reply to a question, described the social and
conversational features of the Society's meetings after adjourn-
ment in earlier times.

Mr. Ames made reference to the recent address of the Presi-
dent of the British Geological Society, on " The Relations of
Mind and flatter," after which a discussion ensued, participated
in by Messrs. C.G. Ames, Philip H. Law and Prof. E. D. Cope.

And the Society was adjourned by the President.

414 [Oct. 21,

Stated Meeting, October ^1, 1887.

Present, 26 members.

President, Mr. Fraley, in the Chair.

Prof. Smyth, a lately elected member, was presented to the
Chair and took his seat.

Correspondence was submitted as follows :

A letter, dated September 10, 1887, from the Geographical
Society of Lisbon, announcing the death of its President, M.
d'Aguiar.

Letters from Prof. Joseph Prestv/ich and Sir Richard Owen,
giving change of address,

A letter from the New York Academy of Medicine, asking
exchange of publications, which on motion was granted.

A letter of envoy from the Meteorological Office, London,
Eng.

Letters of acknowledgment from R. Saxon Society of
Science, Leipzig (125); Philosophical Society, University Li-
brary, Cambridge, Eng. (125) ; Yorkshire Geological and Poly-
technic Society, Halifax, Eng. (125) ; Royal Statistical, Society
of Arts, London, Eng. (125) ; Zoological Society of London
(122-125) ; William Crooks, Sir Richard Owen, Loudon, Eng.
(125) ; Sir Henry W. Acland, Oxford, Eng. (125) ; Society of
Antiquaries of London (125); Royal Dublin Society (125);
Prof. W. P. AYilson, Philadelphia (125) ; Col. Garrick Mallery,
Washington, D. C. (125).

Accessions to the Library were received from the Linnrean
Society of New South Wales, Sydney ; New Zealand Insti-
tute, Wellington ; Serge Nikitin, St. Petersburg ; K. K. Uni-
versitats Sternwarte, Prag ; Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologic,
Ethnologie, etc., Berlin ; G. vom Rath, Bonn ; Silesian Botani-
cal Exchange Society, Plancgg ; K. Nordiske Oldskrift Sels-
kab, Copenhagen ; Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Emanuele,
Rome; Societe de Geographic, Paris; Meteorological Council,
Cobden Club, London ; American Academy of Arts and

1887.] 4:l0

Sciences, Boston ; H. W. Conn, Middleton, Conn.; New York
Academy of Sciences ; Irish. Benevolent Union of the United
States, Rev. Charles G, Ames, Dr. Frazer, Martin I. J. Griffin,
Philadelphia; Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore ; Univer-
sity of California, Sacramento.

Pursuant to appointment, Mr. Philip C. Garrett read an
obituary notice of the late Pliny Earle Chase, LL.D., a Vice-
President of the Society.

This being the stated meeting for the balloting for candi-
dates for membership, an election was held and the following
persons were declared to have been duly elected members of
the Society :

No. 2145. Prof. Guiscppe Menenghini, Pisa, Italy.

No. 2146. Prof. Edgar F. Smith, Springfield, Ohio.

A paper was presented, through Vice-President Buschenber-
ger, for the Proceedings, by Alfred B. Taylor, on " Ootonary
Numeration and its Application to a System of Weights and
Measures."

Prof, Cope made some remarks on the " Phylogeny and Clas-
sification of the Artiodactyla ;" after which Dr. J, Cheston
Morris spoke of the remarkable resemblance between Devon-
shire sheep and goats; that both ewes and bucks had horns,
and like the goat they had more than one period of repro-
duction in the year ; that they seemed to be something be-
tween sheep and goats.

The President reported that he had received and paid over
to the Treasurer the sum of $131.80, being the interest on the
Michaux legacy, due October 1, 1887,

On motion of Prof. Snyder, the President was authorized to
appoint a committee of three members to inquire into the
scientific value of the newly invented language, VoIa2niJc, and
to report thereon to the Society. [The President subsequently
appointed Messrs. D. G. Brinton, Henry Phillips, Jr., and Mon-
roe B. Snyder as the Committee.]

And the Society was adjourned by the President.

4ivJ [Nov. 4,

Stated Meeting^ Kovernber 4^, 1887.

Present, 16 members.

President, Mr. Fraley, in the Cliair.

Correspondence was submitted as follows :

Letters of envoy from the Meteorological office, London ;
New York Academy of Medicine ; New York State Library.

Letters of acknowledgment from the K. K. Sternwarte in
Prag (124) ; Anthropologische Gesellschaft, Berlin (125) ; Dr.
Paul Albrecht, Hamburg (125) ; Societu d'Emulation, Abbe-
ville (125); Societo de Borda, Dax (125); Professor Geikie,
Edinburg (125); New York Academy of Medicine (96-125);
Franklin Institute (Laws and Eegulations), Mr. Charles Bul-
lock, Philadelphia (125) ; Kansas Academy of Science, Topeka
(125).

A photograph for the Society's Album was received from
Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart., Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Accessions to the Library were received from the K. K.
Geologische Eeichsanstalt, K. K. Zoologischbotanische Gesell-
schaft, Wien ; Gesellschaft f'iir Erdkunde, Berlin ; Naturwis-
senschaft Gesellschaft " Isis " in Dresden; Naturforschende
Gesellschaft, Emden ; Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Freiburg,
i. B. ; Oberhessische Gesellschaft fiir Natur- und Heilkunde,
Geissen ; Oberlausitzische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften,
Gcirlitz ; Physikalisch-Oekonomische Gesellschaft, Konigsberg ;
Societe Historique Littcraire, Artistique et Scientifique du
Cher ; University Library, Cambridge, Eng. ; Canadian Insti-
tute, Toronto; Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge,
Mass.; Boston Society of Natural History; Academy of Medi-
cine, State Library, Mr. Theodore Sutro, New York; Geologi-
cal Survey of New Jersey, Trenton ; Mercantile Library, Dr.
C. M. Cresson, Mr. Henry Phillips, Jr., Philadelphia ; Histori-
cal Society of Delaware, Wilmington ; Society of Natural
History, Cincinnati ; University of California, Berkeley.

1887.]

417

The deaths of the following members were announced :

Gustav Kirchhoff, Berlin, October 17, 1887, set. 63.

Thomas M. Walter, Ph.D., LL.D., Philadelphia, October 30,
1887, set. 83.

Alfred Mordecai, Philadelpliia, October 23, 1887, set. Si.

And on motion, tlie President was authorized to appoint
suitable persons to prepare the usual obituary notices of Messrs.
Walter and Mordecai. [Subsequently the President appointed
Dr. Hays for Major Mordecai and Dr. Eothrock for Dr. Ran-
dolph,]

Dr. Brinton read a paper on the "so-called " Alaguilac lan-
guage of Guatemala.

Prof. Cope made an oral communication on the mechanical
causes of the structure of teeth in certain mammalia groups.

New nomination 1171 was read.

The Society authorized the President, Secretary and Treas-
urer to receipt for the legacy of $2000 from the estate of
Henry Seybert, deceased, now ready to be paid over.

The Committee on the Purchase of the Humboldt Portrait
reported progress.

An invitation to attend the lecture on " Rapid Transit in
Cities," by Prof. Haupt, at the Franklin Institute, on Friday,
November 11, 1887, was given to the Society.

And the Society was adjourned l>y the President.

Stated Meeting November 18, 1887.

Present, 31 members.

President Fraley in the Chair.

Messrs. W. F, Norris and G. DeBenneville Keim took their
seats.

Correspondence was submitted as follows : A letter from
Prof. Edgar F. Smith, of Springfield, Ohio, accepting mem-
bership.

A circular from the New York Academy of Sciences, asking

PROC. AMER. I'lIILOS. SOC. XXIV. 126. 3a. PRINTED DEC. 7, 1887.

41o [Nov. 18,

contributions to a memorial monument to Jolin James Audu-
bon, to be erected in the city of New York.

Letters from the Geographische Gesellschaft, Munich, and
also one from the Colorado Scientific Society, of Denver, re-
questing exchanges, which requests, on motion, were granted.

Letters of envoy from the Eoyal Statistical Society and
Meteorological Office, London.

Letters of acknowledgment from the Royal Society of New
South. Wales (123); K. K. Central- Anstalt fhr Meteorologie
und Erdmagnetismus, Wien (125) ; Naturforschende Gesell-
schaft, Emden (125) ; Prof. Adolph Bastian (125), and Meteo.
rologisches Institut, Berlin (117-125, etc.); Prof. G. vom Rath,
Bonn (125) ; Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein zu Bremen (125) ;
K. Sternwarte, Munich (125) ; Societe Historique Litterataire,
etc., du Cher (125); Societe Geologique de France, Victor
Duruy and Prof. Abel Hovelacque, Paris (125) ; Mr. L. A.
Scott, Philadelphia (125 and all previous numbers).

Accessions to the Library were reported from the Geograph-
ische Gesellschaft in Miinchen ; Prof. Henri de Saussure,
Geneve ; Prof. G. Sergi, Rome ; R. Academia de la Historia,
Madrid; Meteorological Council, R. Statistical Society, Sir
Lowthian Bell, London ; Historical Society, Commission of the
State Reservation at Niagara, Buffalo ; Prof, J. S. Newberry
and publishers of " The Cosmopolitan," New York ; Publishers
of " The Medical and Surgical Reporter," and Mr. Henry Phil-
lips, Jr., Philadelphia ; Bureau of Education, Washington,
D. C; Washburn College, Kansas State Society, Topeka ; Col-
orado Scientific Society, Denver ; Observatorio Astronomico
Nacional de Tacubaya, Mexico ; Repiiblica Argentina, Amer-
ica del Sud-Buenos Aires.

A photograph of Prof. F. Max Miiller, of Oxford, was pre-
sented by himself for the Album of the Society.

An obituary notice of the late Isaac Lea, LL.D., by Prof.
Joseph Leidy, was read.

The Proceedings of the Officers and Council were submit-
ted, and the Clerk of the Council transmitted the Report of the

1887] 419

Special Committee appointed by the Society on May 20, 1887,
to examine into the merits of a communication for the Magel-
lanic Premium, signed " Magellan,^^ upon " The Physical Phe-
nomena of Harbor Entrances; Their Causes and Eemedies;
Detects of present Methods of Improvement," and with the
same the statement that the Council approved of the recom-
mendation that the Magellanic Premium should be awarded
therefor. .

A paper entitled " Notes on the Ethnology of British Co-
lumbia," by Dr. F. Boas, was presented through the Secre-
taries.

Dr. Brinton read a paper on " An Ancient Human Foot-
print from Nicaragua," of which he exhibited a specimen, and
in the discussion that ensued Prof. Heilprin stated that in his
opinion the deposit in which it occurred was not of the Eocene
period, but was Post-pliocene.

Prof. E. F. Smith (Springfield, Ohio) presented (through the
Secretaries) a paper on "Electrolysis of Lead Solutions."

Pending nomination No. 1171 and new nomination No. 1172
were read.

Prof. Edwin J. Houston made the following oral communi-
cations :

On a Non-Magnetizable Watch.

C. A. Paillard, of Geneva, Switzerland, after some fourteen years' ex-
perimentation, has succeeded in producing a watcli that is entirely desti-
tute of any magnetizable material.

The rapid growth of electric lighting and electric railways renders the
magnetization of watches a matter of frequent occurrence, and the injury
to the accuracy of time-pieces occasioned by inadvertently entering the
magnetic field of the dynamo-electric machines, or motors producing the
current, is well known.

Heretofore a magnetic shield, consisting essentially of an iron-encasing
box, has been employed to protect the works of the watch against the in-
fluence of an external magnetic field. Such shields are, for the greater
part, clumsy and heavy.

Mr. Paillard's invention effects the protection of the watch in a much
more thorough manner, and does so without rendering it any heavier.

It will be seen that the problem Mr. Paillard set himself to solve, was

■i^^ [Nov. 18,

to produce an alloy or metallic substance that possesses the following
properties, viz :

1st. It must be non-magnetic.

2d. It must resist rusting and oxidation.

3d. It must be permanently elastic.

These properties he has obtained in an alio}' of palladium.

By the combination of two alloys containing different quantities of pal-
ladium, Mv. Paillard has succeeded in obtaining accurate compensation for
changes of temjierature in the balance wheels of his watches.

On the Gramophone.

Mr. Emil Berliner, of Washington, D. C, has recently made improve-
ments in the speaking phonograph that, it would seem, will probably
bring this instrument into everyday commercial use. These inventions are
of such a character as, possibly, to a great extent, to render phonography,
or short-hand reporting, one of the lost arts.

There have been two causes for the failure of Mr. Edison's phonograph
to come into extensive use. These are briefly :

1st. The perishable nature of the phonogram record, w^hich, being made
on a sheet of tin-foil, was capable of reproducing the original sound a
limited number of times only.

2d. The inability of the phonograph, as originally constructed, to cor-
rectly reproduce the sounds spoken into it. The pitch or tone was cor-
rectly reproduced, provided the point attached to the diaphragm of the
receiving instrument was moved over the phonogram-record at the same
velocity that it had while in the receiving instrument. The quality of the
tone, on the preservation of whicli the ability to distinguish the speaker's
voice depends, could not, however, be obtained to the extent a practical
instrument demands. This arises not only from the fact that the original
instrument failed to correctly impress on the phonogram-record the rela-
tive intensities of the over-tones, on which the quality depends, but also
on the fact that the receiving instrument was unable, from the relative
positions these impressions bore to the surface of the phonogram-record, to
always correctly reproduce them.

These difficulties Mr. Berliner has, to a very great extent, overcome in
an instrument called by him the gramophone.

The direction in which these improvements have been made is mainly
in the manner in which the receiving diaphragm of the instrument is
caused to leave an impression of its movements on the phonogram-record.
In the Berliner instrument, unlike the original Edison instrument, the to-
aud-fro movements of the diaphragm are received by the plate in a direc-
tion parallel to its surface, and not in a direction at right angles thereto.
By this change the movements are recorded as a sinuous line of even
depth, instead of a sinuous line of varying depths.

It results from this difference that the resistance offered by the plate to
the free movements of the transmitting diaphragua is reduced to a mini-

1887.] 421

mum, thus permitting much greater accuracy of the record received. At
the same time the point attached to the receiving diaphragm has a positive
motion in both directions, and can thus more correctly reproduce the
characteristic quality of the spoken words.

In any phonogram record made in a direction at right angles to the
record surface, the fact that the resistance to impression does not increase
in the same proportion as the depth of the impression will prevent the
record from agreeing closely with the original tones. Loud tones must
therefore fail to impress their characteristic quality on the phonogram-
record, as correctly as more feeble tones.

Mr. Berliner prepares his receiving surface as follows ; A plate of glass
is covered with a layer of printers' ink, and then held in the smoky flame
of a coal oil lamp and covered with a uniform layer of soot. On the sur-
face thus prepared the stylus or point attached to the transmitting dia-
phragm, makes its record of a uniform depth. It then only remains to fix
the record so obtained. This is accomplished by the simple expedient of
flowing the plate with any ordinary quick drying varnish. From this
plate the sound can be directly reproduced, or a copy of it can be made
on any desired metal.

There are three ways in which the reproduction may be made, viz :

1st. By the simple process of mechanical engraving.

2d. By chemical deposition.

3d. By photo-engraving.

This latter process is preferred by the inventor, the chromo-gelatine
process being generally adopted.

The Committee on the Michaux Legacy presented a report,
accompanied hy the following resolution, which was, on mo-
tion, adopted:

" Resolved, That the sum of $200 be expended under the supervision of
the Michau.K Committee, for the expenses of lectures of Prof. Rothrock,
to be delivered in the Chapel of the University of Pennsylvania."

The committee appointed October 21, 1887, to examine into
the scientific value of the newly invented language, Yolaplik,
and to report thereon, presented its report, which, after dis-
cussion, was, on motion of Mr. Wmsor, made the special order
for the next meeting of the Society, and the Secretaries were
requested to have it printed and distributed among the resident
members for inspection.

And the Society was adjourned by the President.

Boas.] 42^ [jjoy 18^

Notes on the EiJinology of British Colvmbia. By Dr. F. Boas.

{Read hefore the American Philosophical Society, November 18, 18S7.)

Note.— The Indian words are spelled according to the system used by the Bureau of
Ethnology : q is the German ch in Bach ; c is the English sh.

In the following remarks I intend to give a brief summary of the results
of my journey in British Columbia. The principal purpose of my re-
searches was to study the distribution of the native tribes, their ethnologi-
cal character, and their languages. I arrived in Victoria in September,
1886, and spent most of my time among the natives of the east coast of
Vancouver island and of the mainland opposite ; but in the course of my
journeys I came in contact with several individuals of the Tlingit, Tsimp-
shian, and Bilqula tribes, and I studied particularly the language of the
last, of which I had obtained a slight knowledge from a number of men
who w'ere brought by Captain A. Jacobsen to Berlin. Among the linguistic
results of my journey the tnost interesting are the discovery of three
unknown dialects of the Salish stock and the establishment of the fact
that the Bilqttla, who are of Salish lineage, must have lived at one time
with other Salish tribes near the sea.

Though the culture of these tribes seems very uniform, closer inquiry
shows that they may be divided into four groups — the northern one com-
prising the Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimpshian ; the central comprising the
Kwakiutl and Bilqula ; the sottthern comprising the different tribes of the
Coast Salish ; and the tribes of the west coast of Vancouver island. All
these tribes are divided intogentes ; but, while among the northern tribes,
the child belongs to the gens of the mother, among the southern ones it
belongs to that of the father. The arts, industries, folk-lore, and other
ethnological phenomena of these groups are also different, and the groups
have evidently influenced one another.

I shall first show some of these differences by considering the folk-lore
of a few of these tribes.

The principal legend of the Tlingit is the well-known raven myth. It
is not necessary to dwell upon this myth, as it is known by the reports of
many travelers. Vemiauow, who lived for a long time among the Tlin-
git, considers the raven as their supreme deity. It appears from the
myths which I collected that besides the raven the eagle is of great im-
portance. One of the legends tells how the raven obtained the fresh
water from a mighty chief called Kanuk. This Kanuk is identical with
the eagle. Traces of the raven legend are found among all tribes as far
south as Koraoks. The Kwakiutl consider the raven the creator of the
sun, moon, and stars.

The raven legend is not found among the Salish tribes ; their supreme
deity is the sun, who is called by the Skqomic the great wandering chief,
and a greatnumberof myths refer to him. Among the northern tribes of this
group and among the Kwakiutl the identity of the sun and the deitj^ is not

1887.] 4-0 [Boas.

SO clear ; they call the latter Kants'oump (that is, "our father"), or Ata
("the one above "), or Kikarae ("the chief"). His son, Kanikila, de-
scended from heaven to the earth, and was born again of a woman.
When he was grown up, he traveled all over the world, transforming men
into animals, and making friends with many chiefs. The same legend is
known to the Salish and the West Vancouver tribes. The Komoks call
the deity Kumsnootl (that is, "our elder brother ") ; the Kauitcia, Qiils ;
the West Vancouver tribes. Alls. He is their culture-hero. In the south-
ern part of Vancouver island it is said that he gave men the fire. The
Kwakiutl say that he created the salmon, and gave the law of the winter
dance.

These two traditions — the raven legend and the legend of the sun and
the son of the deity — are mixed in numerous tribes, particularly among
the Kwakiutl. The Bilqula, on the other hand, have both these legends,
but a third oAe in addition. They say that four men — Yulatimot, Mas-
masalaniq, Matlapalitsek, Mallapeeqoek — descended from heaven after the
raven had liberated the sun. Then the tradition goes on : And Yulati-
mot thought, "Oh, might INIasmasalaaiq carve men out of cedar !" and
Masmasalaniq carved men ; and Yulatimot thought, " Oh, might Masmas-
alaniq make a canoe !" and Masmasalaniq made a canoe, etc. Yulatimot
gives Masmasalaniq his thoughts, and Masmasalaniq accomplishes them.
Thus these two spirits created men and gave them their arts. It is
remarkable, however, that by some individuals Yulatimot is described as
the raven himself, and he is represented in this way in masks, paintings,
and carvings.

From these few remarks it will appear that the mythology of each tribe
can only be understood by studying it in connection with that of his
neighbors.

Certain mythological ideas, however, are common to all tribes of the
north-west coast. The myth of the creation of the world is very uniform
among all tribes. The northern group say that in the beginning it was
dark until the Raven liberated the sun. The southern tribes say that
there was a sun from the beginning, but that daylight was kept in a box
by the chief of the sun, and that it was liberated by the Raven. After it
had become light, the earth, trees, fire, and water were made. It is
remarkable that all these were obtained from some chief who retained
them for his own use. Nothing was created. Thus the earth was pre-
pared for man, who descended in the shape of birds from heaven. When
they arrived on the earth, the' birds threw off their skins and became
men. These became the ancestors of the genles, and each of them
received a certain tract of land when the great transformer, Kanikila, met
him. Subdivisions of the gentes derive their origin from one of the de-
scendants of these first men. It is told, that in olden times certain men
descended into the sea, or went up the mountains, where the}'^ met with
some kind of spirit, who gave them his emblems. Thus they became the
ancestors of subgentes.

Boas.] 4-i4: j-j^oy 18,

Before Kanikila's arrival, animals had the shape of men ; but even after
they were transformed they were able to appear in the shape of men by
taking off their blankets. The northern tribes who do not know the great
transformer, say that men were transformed into animals at the time of
the great flood.

All tribes consider the sky a solid vault, which can be reached in the
far west. After having crawled through a hole in the sky, another land
is found, with forests, mountains, ponds, and lakes, in which the Sun and
many other spirits live. There is another very remarkable way of reach-
ing this land. Tlie man who intends to go there takes his bow and shoots
one arrow into the sky ; then he shoots another one, which sticks in the
lower end of the first one ; and so he goes on shooting until a chain is
formed reaching from heaven to earth. I believe that this tradition be-
longed originally to the tribes of the Salish stock. The Okanagan myth
told by Gatschet in Globus, 1887, Vol. 52, No. 9, belongs to this group of
legends. It is told in a great number of modifications among the tribes of
Vancouver island and the neighboring coast. One of the most important
of these is : How the Mink, the son of the Sun, visited his father. This
tradition is told by the Kwakiutl and Bilqula. Mink made a chain of
arrows reaching to the sky, and climbed up. When he arrived in heaven
he found his father, an old man, sitting near the fire. The fiither was
glad to see him, and asked him to carry the sun in his stead. Mink com-
plied with this request, and next morning his father gave him his nose
ornament, the sun, and said to him, "Do not go too fast, and don't stoop
down, else you will burn the earth." Mink promised to obey, and
ascended slowly his path ; but when it was near noon, clouds obstructed
his way. He got impatient, and wanted to see what was going on, on the
earth. He began to jump and to run and stoop down ; then the earth
began to burn, the rocks to crack, and the ocean to boil. When IMink's
father saw that his son disobeyed his orders, he pursued him, tore him to
pieces, and cast him into the ocean. There he was found by two women.

Another interesting tradition is told by the Komoks, which in some
respects resembles a well-known myth of the Tlingit. In olden times
the gum was a blind man. He used to go out fishing during the night,
and early in the morning his wife called him back. One day, however,
she slept too long, and when she came down to the shore the sun was
high up in the sky. She called her husband, but before lie could return
he had melted. His sons wanted to revenge his death, and made a chain
of arrows reaching from heaven to earth. They climbed up and killed
the Sun with their arrows. Then the elder brother asked the younger
one, " What do you intend to do?" He said, "I will become the moon ;"
the elder one said, "And I will become the sun."

Another remarkable tradition is told by the same tribe. The sou of the
Sun ascended a chain of arrows into heaven, and married Tlaiq's daugh-
ter. Tlaiq tried to kill his son-in-law, but did not succeed in his attempts.
The latter, in revenge, killed Tlaiq. I consider the last-mentioned tradi-

18S7.] 425 [Boas.

tions of great importance, as both evidently refer to tlie killing of the old
sua and the origin of the new one.

Visits to the Sun, or to the deity which lives in heaven, are frequent in
the folk-lore of all these tribes. The Kwakiutl, for instance, tell of a
chief 's son who ascended to heaven and married the deity's daughter.
Their son was the Eaven.

The fact that the same mythical beings are known to a great number of
tribes shows that the folk lore and myths of the tribes of the north- west
coast have spread from one tribe to another. The raven legend seems to
have belonged to the Tliugit and their neighbors, but traces of it are found
far south. On the other hand, the sun legend seems to have originated
with tribes of Salish lineage ; but parts of this tradition are at the present
time told by their northern neighbors, and faint traces are even found
among the Tsimpshian and the Tlingit.

A number of spirits occur in the folk-lore of most of the tribes of North-
west America. One of these is the Tsonokoa, who is evidently a mythi-
cal form of the grizzly bear. She is a woman living on high mountains,
or, in some instances, in heaven. She visits the villages in order to steal
fish, which she puts into a basket that she carries on her back. One tra-
dition says that a man wounded and pursued her. At last he arrived at
her house in heaven. He was called in in order to cure her, and did so by
extricating the arrows, which none of her companions were able to see.
In reward she gave him her daughter, the wate;^- of life, and the fire of
death, and on his return he became a mighty chief. Another spirit, which
is known from Komoks to Bilqula, is Komokoa, a water spirit, the
father of the seals. Many legends tell of men who visited him, or of his
visits to villages where he married a woman and became the ancestor
of certain gentes. The Sisiutl, a double-headed snake, is known to all
tribes from Puget Sound and Cape Flattery to the northern tribes of
the Kwakiutl. It is the emblem of many gentes, and its most remark-
able quality is that it can assume the shape of any fish or snake.

I have to say a few words about the dances, particularly the cannibal
dances, of these tribes. The legend ascribes the origin of the latter
to a spirit, Baqbakualanusiuae. This being lived in the forest. Once
a man came to visit him, and when the spirit was about to devour him, he
made his escape, Baqbakualanusiuae pursuing him. When the spirit had
almost reached him, he threw a stone behind him, which was transformed
into a large mountain. The pursuer had to go all around it, but again
he approached. Then he poured out a little fishoil which he chanced to
carry. It was transformed into a lake. Again the spirit approached, and
now he threw down his comb, wliich was transformed into a forest of
young trees. He reached his house, and locked the door. When the
spirit arrived, he gave him a vessel filled with dog's blood, and said,
"Come in. This is my son's blood. You may eat him. " But when the
spirit accepted the invitation, he threw him into a pit, which he filled with
fire, and thus killed him. His ashes were transformed into mosquitoes.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 126. 3b. PRINTED DEC. 7, 1887.

Boas.] 4-0 ^-^Qy^ Ig^

Besides this spirit, tlie crane, and the so-called "Hatnaa, " can become
the genii of the cannibals. The right to become cannibal is hereditary in
certain gentes, but every individual has to acquire it by being initiated.
For this purpose he goes into the woods, where he lives for three or four
months. After this time, he approaches the village, whistling and sing-
ing ; then the people know that he has become a cannibal (Hamats'a).
The next morning they go into the woods in order to fetch him back.
They sit down in a square and sing four new songs which are composed
for the occasion. The first song has a slow movement, the second is in a
five-part measure, while the third and fourth have a quick movement. As
soon as these are sung, the new Hamats'a makes his appearance. He is
surrounded by ten men, who carry rattles, and is accompanied by them
to the village. All those partaking in the ceremony wear head-rings and
neck-rings made of hemlock branches. Four nights the new Hamats'a
dances in the house of his father. On the fourth night he suddenly leaves
the house, and after a short time returns, carrying a corpse. As soon as
the old cannibals see this, they rush forward and cut the corpse to pieces,
which they devour. This custom is principally practiced among all tribes
of Kwakiutl lineage ; but it is also found among the Bilqula and Komoks,
who have evidently adopted it from the Kwakiutl. Similar customs pre-
vail among the Tsimpshian. G. M. Dawson says that they have four
dilferent systems of rites of religious character, which he calls Simhalait,
Mihla, Noohlem, and Hoppop. The third of these are dog-eaters, while
the last are the cannibals.

According to my inquiries, this refers to the following tradition : A man
went out hunting. After some time he saw a white bear, and pursued it
until it disappeared in a mountain. The hunter followed him, and saw that
it was transformed into a man, who led him through his house, which
stood in the interior of the mountain. There he saw four groups of men,
and what they were doing. The first were the Meitla, the second were
the Nootlam ("dog-eaters"), the third were the Wihalait (" the canni-
bals"), and the fourth were the Semhalaidet. Four days the man staid
in the house. Then he returned ; but when he came to his village, he
found that he had staid in the mountain four years. The bear had told
him to do as he had seen the men in the mountain doing. Since that
time the Tsimpshian eat dogs and bite men. There are no reports that
cannibal ceremonies exist among the Haida and Tliugit.

The masks which all these tribes use in their dances represent spirits or
some of the heroes of their legends. Most of the winter dances are pan-
tomimical performances of their traditions. At the great feasts other
masks are used, which refer to the tradition of the gens of the man who
gives the feast. The use of masks is most extensive among the northern
tribes. The variety of masks of the Haida, Tlingit, Tsimpshian, and
Kwakiutl, is wonderful, but the more southern tribes have only a very
limited number. Among the Nanaimo their use is the privilege of certain
gentes. The Lkungen of Victoria use only very few masks, which they
destroy by fire as soon as a death occurs in their tribe.

1887,] 4^7 [Boas.

Besides the dances and the use of masks, other customs are common to
all tribes of the noith-west coast. One of the principal of these is the
use of copper-plates. These have frequently been described as being used
instead of money, but this is not the case. Tliey are manufactured from
copper found on the upper Yukon, and given as presents by one tribe to
another. The Indians value a copper-plate the more, the more frequently
it has been given as a present. Every single plate has its name and its
own house, and is fed regularl3^ No woman is allowed to enter its house.
Almost every tribe has a tradition referring to their origin. Some say that
a man who visited the moon received it from the man in the moon. Others
say that a chief living far into the ocean gave it to a man who came to
visit him, etc. Similar legends refer to the Haliotis shells which are used
for ear and nose ornaments and bracelets.

The so-called Potlatch is a feast celebrated by all these tribes. A chief
invites all his neighbors, sometimes to the number of a tliousand and more,
to his house, and presents every one with blankets, skins, and nowadays
even with money. The Salish tribes have a kind of scaffold in front of
their house, which is used at these festivals. The chief and two of his
slaves are standing on it, and distributing the blankets among the guests.
Small festivals of this kind are celebrated very frequently. An Indian
who has been unsuccessful in hunting, and feels ashamed on this account
or for any other reason, gives such a festival to restore his honor.

In the beginning of these feasts four songs are sung, and four different
kinds of dishes are served. Then one of the guests stands up and praises
the liberality of the host, who, in his turn, replies, praising tlie deeds of
his ancestors. In this speech he frequently uses a mask representing one
of his ancestors.

I mentioned above that the social institutions of the northern group and
those of their southern neighbors are different ; therefore their mortuary
customs and marriage ceremonies are also different. The northern tribes
burn the corpses of all men except medicinemen. These are buried near the
shore, and the corpse of the son is always deposited on top of the corpse of
his father. It seems that some of the Kwakiutl tribes used to burn their
dead ; but by far the greater number of tribes of this stock either hung
up the dead in boxes in top of trees, the lower branches of which were
removed, or deposited these boxes in burial-grounds set apart for this pur-
pose. Chiefs are buried in a separate place. Food of all kinds is burned
for the dead on the shore.

I shall describe their mourning ceremonies as illustrative of those in use
of most of the coast tribes. The mourning lasts for a whole year. For
four days the mourner is not allowed to move. On the last of these days
all the inhabitants of the village have to take a bath. On the same day
some water is warmed and dripped on the head of tlie mourner. For
the next twelve days he is allowed to move a little, but he must not walk.
Nobody is allowed to speak to him, and they believe that whosoever dis-
obeys this command will be punished by the death of one of his relatives.

Smith.] "^y [Nov. 18,

He is fed twice a day by an old woman, at low water, with salmon
caught in the preceding year. At the end of the first month he deposits
his clothing in the woods, and then he is allowed to sit in a corner of the
house, but must not speak to the other people. A separate door is cut, as
he is not allowed to use the house door. Before he leaves the house for
the first time, he must approach the door three times and return without
going out. Then he is allowed to leave the house. After four months
he may speak to other people. After ten months his hair is cut short,
and the end of the year is the end of the mourning period. After the
death of a chief, his son gives a great festival, in which he takes the
office and name of his father. At first, four mourning songs are sung,
which have a slow movement, and then the son of the chief stands up,
holding the copperplate in his hand and saying, " Don't mourn any
more. I will be chief. I take the name of my father."

The marriage ceremonies of the Kwakiutl tribes are very remarkable.
The dowry of the bride consists of bracelets made of beaver toes, copper-
plates, so called " button- blankets, " and the Gyiserstal. The latter is a
board, the front of which is set with sea-otter teeth. It is intended to
represent the human lower jaw ; and the meaning is, that the bride will
have to speak or be silent, as her husband may desire. Before and after
the marriage, the sou-in-law gives many presents to his wife's father.
If the woman intends to return to her parents, her father must repay all
he has received from his son in-law. This is done frequently, in order to
give an opportunity to the father-in-law to show his liberality and wealth.
As soon as he has paid the husband, the latter repurchases his wife. The
use of the Gyiserstal is very limited. I found it only among the Kwakiutl
proper and Nimkish.

I do not intend to describe the houses, the hunting and fishing, and
industries of all these tribes, neither will I attempt to discuss the character
of the art products of the different groups. I Jiave endeavored to show
in my remarks that the culture of the Northwest American tribes, which
to the superficial observer seems so uniform, originates from many differ-
■ent sources, and that only a thorough knowledge of the languages, folk-
lore, and customs of these tribes and their neighbors will enable us to
trace at least part of their obscure history.

Electrolysis of Lead Solutions. Determination of Boric Acid. Dihnlogen
Derivatives of Salicylic Acid. Barite. By Edgar F. Smith.

(Bead before the American Philosophical Society, Nov. ISth, 1SS7. )

The following is a report of work prosecuted in the laboratory of Wit-
tenberg College, Springfield, Ohio, during the past year, partly by myself
and partly by students under my supervision :

I. Electrolysis of Lead Sohitions.

Lead is one of the metals which has given analysts considerable trouble

1887.] 4:2J [Smith.

to estimate eleclrolyticallj^; cousequently, many suggestions have been
oifered, as to the best course to pursue in determining it in this manner.
In this note I purpose giving some results obtained by using an alkaline
solution of lead containing a phosphate. Employing a lead solution witli
an unknown quantity of lead, I took from it, 5 c.c, to which I added an
excess of disodium phosphate, dissolving the precipitate formed in sodium
hydroxide, then subjected the liquid to the action of a current derived
from three small Grove cells, for a period of two hours, after which the
action was interrupted ; the deposit of metallic lead was washed with
water, alcohol and ether, then carefully dried and weighed. In tliis man-
ner I obtained .0105 grs. Pb. A second experiment conducted under like
conditions gave a similar result. With 10 c.c. of the lead solution the
following amounts of lead were obtained :

1. .0210 grams Pb. 3. .0213 grams Pb.

2. .0215 " " 4. .0210 "

The same current strength was used in all these determinations, but the
time varied from two to four hours. In all instances, the precipitated
metal showed a regular, compact appearance.

I analyzed another lead solution of unknown strength, using, as before,
sodium phosphate and hydroxide, and obtained :

.0225 grams ) p,^
.0217 " /

The current was from three small Grove cells. Time, 3^ hours.
Subsequently, I dissolved 8.7815 grams of lead nitrate in 350 c.c. water,
and treated as follows :

1. One c.c. of the solution was precipitated by sodium phosphate, the
precipitate dissolved in sodium hydroxide and the solution exposed to the
action of a current from two Grove cells for two hours. In this way I
obtained a lead deposit equal to .0215 grams Pb. The metal, after being
■washed with water, was dried in a current of hydrogen. This seemed
necessary and was done in the following determinations :

2. Same as in 1 ; obtained .0220 grams Pb.

3. Same as in 1 ; obtained .0213 grams Pb.

4. Same as in 1 ; obtained .0220 grams Pb.

The theoretical amount of lead in the electrolyzed solution was .0219
grams.

These experiments indicate that the metal can be deposited in good form
from an alkaline phosphate solution, but to insure satisfactory results,
great care must be exercised in the drying, as the moist metal oxidizes
readily.

II. Experiments in the Determination of Boric Acid. By E. B. Enerr.

It was observed that a considerable quantity of uranium nitrate could
be added to a borax solution containing potassium ferrocyauide before the

Smith.]

430

[Nov. 18,

characteristic red-brown precipitate of uranium ferrocyanide appeared.
Tliis suggested the possibility of obtaining a quantitative method for the
estimation of borii acid. I, therefore, dissolved 4.18 grams of uranium
nitrate in one litre of water, and 1.16 grs. of well- crystallized borax in
250 c.c. water. The uranium solution was then placed in a burette and
carefully added to definite portions of the borax solution until a drop of
the mixture, added by means of a thin glass rod, to a drop of a concen-
trated potassium ferrocyanide solution, on a porcelain plate, gave a red-
dish-brown color. The first distinct coloration was regarded as the final
reaction. The following results were obtained :

1. 5 c.c. of the borax solution required 8.8 c.c. uranium nitrate.

8.9 "
3.
4.
5.

6. " •' " " 8.8 "

7.

10. 10 c.c.
11.

^.8 "

17.7
17.6

A second uranium nitrate solution, containing 8.6267 grams nitrate in
500 c.c. of water, was standardized as above with a borax solution (con-
taining .9051 grams borax in 250 c.c. water). The results were as
follows :

1. 5 c.c. borax solution required 1.85 c.c. uranium nitrate.

2. "
3 ,.

4. "

5. " " " " " "

From this we discover that 1 c.c. of uranium solution equaled .004917
grams B2O3.

To test the accuracy of the method, I dissolved 1.1762 grams freshly
crystallized borax in 250 c.c. of water, and titrated portions of it with the
above standardized uranium solution:

1. 10 c.c. of borax solution required 4.0 c.c. uranium solution.

3.5 "

3. " " " 3.4 "

4. " " " 3.5 "
5.
6.
7.

1887.] 431 [Smith.

Taking 10 c.c. of the borax solution as equivalent to 3.5 c.c. of the
uranium solution, we Iiave the 250 c.c. of the borax solution equal to 85
c.c. of the uranium solution ; but the 85 c.c. represent 85 x .004917 grms.
B^O., = .43023 grms. B.A or 36.57%. The theoretical amount of boric
acid in 1.1767 grms. borax is .48114 grs. BjOg or 36.64%.

Free acid very materially affects the results. Extremes of dilution also
influenced the same to a certain degree.

I next endeavored to ascertain how ferric salts would act upon
borax. At first, potassium ferrocyanide was employed as an indicator,
but was later rejected. On substituting potassium sulphocyanide for it, a
few drops of the same were placed in the vessel containing the borax.
The first decided "blush" which came over the solution was counted as
the end of the reaction. I standardized a definite amount of ferric ammo-
nium sulphate with a definite quantity of borax, finding that one c.c. of
the iron solution was equivalent to .004479 grams B.fi^. I then dissolved
1.2651 grms. of borax in 250 c.c. of water, and titrated a number of por-
tions with the standardized iron solution. The results were 36.73% B^Oj,
instead of 36.64% bj- theory.

Upon standardizing a new quantity of iron salt, instead of adding the
sulphocyanide solution directly to the borax solution, a few drops of it
were placed upon a porcelain plate, and as the end reaction was approached,
portions of the liquid were brought in contact with the sulphocyanide
by means of a glass rod. In this way the following numbers were ob-
tained ;

1. 10 c.c. borax solution required 1.05 c.c. iron solution.

3. 5 c.c. " " 0.5 "

4. 10 " " " " "

5. 5 " " " 0.5 "

6. 10 •" " " 1.05 "

7. " •' " " " "

8. 20 " - " 2.10 "

9. " " " " " " "
10. 40 •' " '• 4.20 "

Thus, I found that one c.c. of the iron solution was equal to. 00967
grms. B2O3.

The following tests were then made with the iron solution :

1. 2.2741 grms. borax were dissolved in 250 c.c. of water, and portions
of it titrated :

10 c.c. borax required 3.40 c.c. iron solution.

20 " " " "

This gave 36.14% BA ; theory 36.64%.

Smith.] 4:0 J ^^^^^ 18_

2. Six determinations were made with a solution containing 2. 1490 grms.

borax in 250 c.c. water.

Found 36.40% B.fi^, instead of 36.64%.

3. With a solution containing .0865 grms. of borax, I obtained 86.89%

B2O3.

4. .0254 grms. borax, dissolved in water and titrated, showed 86.46%

B2O3, instead of 36.64%.

5. .0104 grms. borax gave 37.50% B2O3.

6. .0198 grms. borax, titrated as before, gave 36.35% BjOj.

A number of determinations showed that sodium salicylate can also be
advantageously employed as an indicator.

For rapid work, where approximate results are sufficient, the foregoing
methods will no doubt be of service. Free acids should always be avoided.

I have also experimented with tuogstic and molybdic acids in the same
manner, and while the results are very promising, I prefer reserving an
account of the same until the details have been fully worked out.

III. Dihalogen Derivatives of Salicylic Acid. By W. S. Uoskinson.

In the American Chemical Journal, Vol. viii, No. 2, Smith and Knerr
described metachloriodosalicylic acid and* its derivatives. Pursuing a
somewhat similar line of research, I prepared a brom chlor acid, and
an iodo-brom -salicylic acid, as well as derivatives of the same. Below
I give a brief description of these new compounds.

Bromclilor-salicylic Acid.

CgH^ OH BrCl COOH.

To obtain this acid I used a definite quantity of metachlorsalicylic acid
(m.p. 172° C), and dissolved the same in alcohol. To this solution was
gradually added a corresponding, equivalent amount of bromine ; the
flask in which the reaction was performed was kept cool. When the
entire quantity of bromine was added, the alcoholic solution was evapo-
rated to dryness upon a water-bath. The residue was boiled with water
and barium carbonate, the liquid filtered and allowed to cool. The barium
salt separated in bushy needles. Its solubility in water is about 1 : 100.
The sodium salt was prepared from the barium salt, and from it the acid
was liberated by hydrochloric acid. The free acid forms small, white
needles, nearly insoluble in boiling water, but soluble in alcohol. In its
pure state it melts constantly at 229° C.

The barium salt [(CgH, OH BrCl CO)^ Ba + 4HjO] forms long bushy
needles, soluble with difficulty in boiling water. An analysis of it gave
10.02% HjOand 21.20% Ba. The formula given requires 10.14% HjO and
21.48% Ba.

The sodium salt (CgH^ OH BrCl COONa + 1^ H^O) appears in beau-
tiful bunches of white needles, which are very soluble in water. An

1887.] ^^^ [Smith.

analysis showed 9.09% H,0 and 8.25% Na ; theory" requires 9.89% HjO
and 8.40% Na.

The calcium salt is anhydrous. Its analysis gave 7.42% Ca, while
theory requires 7.39%.

The zi}ic salt forms small crystals, much like fish-eggs. It dissolves
with difficulty in hot water. When analyzed it gave 13.91% HjO and
12.24% Zn ; the theoretical figures are 14.06% H2O (5 molecules), and
11.94% Zn.

The magnesium salt does not crystallize well. It is not readily soluble,
even in hot water. It contains six molecules of water of crystallization.
Upon analysis I obtained 17.19% HjO and 5.33% Mg. The calculated
percentages of waler and magnesium are 17.03% and 4.79%.

The cadmium salt forms beautiful crystals.

The silver salt was obtained as a white precipitate insoluble in water.
I employed it in preparing the methyl and ethyl esters.

MetJiyl Ester [C^U^ OH BrCl CO OCE^). This was obtained by the
action of methyl iodide upon the silver brom-chlorsalicylate. It forms
beautiful needles, dissolving with difficulty in both alcohol and ether. It
melts at 126-127° C. This ester was burned with lead chromate, and
gave good results. The etiiyl ester, also prepared, was not further studied.

The free brom-chlor acid was burned with lead chromate. The result
showed 33.07% carbon and .96% H. Theory requires 33.46% C and
1.53% H.

lodo-hrom-salicylic Acid.
CfiH^ OH IBr COOH.

Metabrom-salicylic acid was first prepared, and then iodated by the
method of Weselsky. Little heat was evolved in the reaction ; sometimes
this was added by means of the water-bath. When the reaction was com-
plete the alcoholic solution was removed to an evaporating dish and run
down to dryness. The residue was boiled with water and barium car-
bonate ; from the hot filtrate the barium salt crystallized out, but it was
immediately converted into the sodium salt, from which I set the acid free.
The latter forms small, beautiful needles, dissol"v^ing with difliculty in hot
alcoholic water. It melts at 208-209° C. A combustion of the pure acid
gave 24.17% carbon and 1.30% H, instead of 24.48% C and 1.17% H.

The barium salt contains three molecules of water. It forms branched,
purple-tinted needles. An analysis gave 6.48% HjO and 15.55% Ba, in-
stead of 6.27% H2O and 15.65% Ba, as required by theory.

The sodium salt contains one molecule of water. It forms nodules,
consisting of silky needles, very soluble in water. When analyzed it
yielded 5.20% H2O and 6.08% Na ; theory requires 4.70% H^O and
G.30% Na.

The calcium salt resembles the barium salt in form ; it is possibly some-
what more soluble in hot water. It contains four molecules of water. Its

PROC. AMER. n'HILOS. SOC. XXIV. 126. 3C. PRINTED DEC. 29, 1887.

^04: [■j)ec_ 2,

analysis gave 8.04% HjO and 5. 65% Ca, instead of the theoretical 8.01%
HjO and 5.53% Ca.

The cadmium salt forms beautiful needles, readily soluble in water. Its
analysis showed 8.21% HjO and 14.13% Cd, instead of 8.29% HjO and
14.19% Cd.

The zinc salt consists of indistinct needles, readily soluble in water. Its
analysis showed the presence of five molecules of water, and 10.51% Zn.

The methyl ester crj^stallizes in beautiful needles, which melt at 104-
105° C. By its combustion I obtained 26.23% C and 2.15% H. Its for-
mula requires 26.86% C and 1.68% H.

The study of other mixed dihalogen derivatives of salicylic acid is being
carried forward in this laboratory, the results of which will be published
later.

IV. Barite from Ludlow Falls, Miami County, Ohio.
By Charles H. Ehrenfeld.

This mineral was found in the summer of 1886, the chief interest in
connection with it being that it is the first time barite has been found in
this locality. It is white, semi-transparent and massive, and it occurs in
the Niagara limestone, associated with small crystals of pyrite, the surface
of which is brown owing to oxidation. The average of four sp. gr. deter-
minations of the barite is 4.48.

An analysis showed the following composition :

BaSO^ 91.10 %

SrSO, 7.63 "

CaSO, 98 "

Total 99.71%

Chemical Laboratory op Wittenberg College,
Springfield, Ohio, Nov. S, 18S7.

Stated Meeting., December 2, 1887.

Present, 3-i members.
President, Mr. Fraley, in the Chair.

Dr. Morton W. Easton was presented to the Chair and took
his seat.

Correspondence was submitted as follows : Letters acknowl-
edging receipt of diploma from Messrs. R. N. Toppan, Cam-
bridge, Mass.; William John Potts, Camden, New Jersey;
Charles A. Oliver and Henry Reed, Philadelphia.

1887.]

435

A letter of envoy from Das K. Wiirtt. Statistische Landes-
amt (Stuttgart).

Letters acknowledging the receipt of the Proceedings, No.
125, from : Bibliotheque Imperiale Publique, Library of the
Academy of Sciences, Coraitc Geologique de la Eussie, Obser-
vatoire Physique Central, Prof. Serge Nikitin, St. Peters-
burg ; K. Bibliothek, K. Geologische Landesanstalt and Berg-
akademie, Berlin ; Verein fiir Thiiringische Geschichte und
Alterthumskunde, Jena ; Publishers of " Natur-Forscher,"
Tubingen, Wiirtemberg ; Prof. Remi Simeon, Paris ; Amer.
Statistical Association, Boston ; Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Wien ; Dr. Hugo von Meltzel, Hungary ; Messrs. Friedliinder &
Sons, Berlin; K. Siichsischer Alterthums Verein, Dresden;
Yerein fiir Thiiringische Geschichte und Alterthumskunde,
Jena ; Deutsche Gesell. fiir Anthrop., etc., Miinchen ; K. Wlir-
tembergisches Statistisches Landesamt, Stuttgart ; Nassauischer
Verein fiir Naturkunde, Wiesbaden ; Institut R. Grand Ducal
de Luxembourg ; Soc. R. Malacologique de Belgique, Acad.
R, des Sciences, etc., Bruxelles ; Instituto y Observatoire de
Marina de San Fernando, Madrid ; Publishers of " Nature,"
London ; Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass. ;
Vassar Brothers' Institute, Poughkeepsie ; Messrs. Wm. M.
Meigs, Henry Phillips, Jr., Richard Vaux, Philada. ; Johns
Hopkins University, Baltimore ; U. S. Commissioner of Fish
and Fisheries, Bureau of Navigation, U. S. Department of Ag-
riculture, Washington ; University of California.

A letter was read from Professor Rothrock, enclosing tickets
for his Free Michaux Forestry lectures under the auspices of
the American Philosophical Society and the Pennsylvania
Forestry Association, at the University of Pennsylvania.

Circulars Avere read as follows : From Prof. Antonio Favardi,
of Milan, Italy, announcing the preparation of a new edition
of the works of Galileo. From the "Record Society," Pen-
sarn, Abergele, North Wales, in reference to its publication of
original documents relating to Lancashire and Cheshire. From
the publishers of " The American Geologist," announcing the
issue of a new journal under that title.

4 'in

Kirkwood.] "iOvJ [Dec. 2,

Prof. Daniel Kirkwood (Bloomington, Indiana) presented,
through the Secretaries, a communication, entitled, " Note on
the possible existence of Fireballs and Meteorites in the Stream
of Bielids."

The Eeport of the Committee on Volapuh was read, after
which a discussion upon the subject-matter of the Report en-
sued, participated in by the members, and ultimately, on mo-
tion of Mr, McKean, the whole subject was recommitted.

The Report of the Treasurer was presented and referred to
the Finance Committee, and the Society was adjourned by the
President.

Note on tJie Possible Existence of Fireballs and 3Ieteorites in tJie Stream of
Bielids. By Daniel Kirkwood.

{Bead before the American PhilosopJdcal Society, December 2d, 1SS7.)

A revision of my paper on this subject, read September 2d, 1887, sug-
gests the following modifications :

1. Before 1832, the earth passed the comet's node early in December.
The first eight meteors of the list should therefore be rejected.

2. In Greg's Catalogue the circumstances which indicate the radiant are
not generally given ; the probability that the meteors belong in part to the
stream of Bielids must be judged by a comparison of their relative num-
bers with the mean number during a specified time. In the thirty years
from 1831 to 1860, the list gives seven hundred and twenty-one fireballs
and meteorites, or six for any three days of the year taken at random.
The number for November 28-30 is twelve, or twice the average. Of these,
one is the meteorite which fell during the shower of Bielids on November
27th, 1885 ; one is the conformable fireball of November 28th, 1850, the
date of a well-marked shower of shooting stars ; three (1839, 1848, and
1850, Nov. 30) are non-conformable ; and the directions of the remaining
seven are unknown, at least to the writer. Mr. Greg calls attention to
November 27-30 as an aerolitic epoch coincident with one of shooting
stars.

8. The attempt in my paper of September 2d, to trace a period approxi-
mately equal to that of Biela's comet was probably premature.

Proceedings llmer. Philos. Soc,

1887.] 4d7 [Briiiton.

On on Ancient Human Footprint from Nicaragua.

By D. G. Brinton, M.D.

{Read before the American Philosophical Society^ Nov. 18/^,1 SSt.)

The discovery of human footprints in volcanic rocks near the
shore of Lake Managua, Nicaragua, under circumstances which
seemed to assign them a remote antiquity, has been announced
for several years.* We owe thanks especially to Dr. Earl Flint,
of Rivas, Nicaragua, for information about this discover^', and
for sending several specimens to the United States. Four of
these are in the Peabod}^ Museum of Archaeology, Cambridge,
and recently, I have myself received one from Dr. Flint, to-
gether with several letters describing the locality. The posses-
sion of this material has induced me to present, along with its
description, a general review of the subject.

The surface of the Republic of Nicaragua presents in nearly
all parts the signs of enormous volcanic activity. It is broken
by a complex series of mountain ranges whose sides are scored
wnth vast lava streams. Frequent earthquakes attest the con-
tinued energy of the subterranean forces and prepare us for
incidents of elevation and subsidence on an uncommon scale.

The great lakes of Nicaragua and Managua are divided by a
low plain through which flows the river Tipitapa connecting these
sheets of water. South of this lowland rises a mesa or table-
land 400 or 500 feet above the level of the lakes, and upon this
stand the volcanic cones of Mombacho (4588 feet) and Masaya
(2972 feet). Beyond these, the land still rising, reaches its
height in the Sierras de Managua, presenting the craters of the
extinct volcanoes of Tizcapa, Nezcapa (Nehapa^,and- Asososco ;
and further to the north-west, immediately upon the shores of the
Lake Managua, the still smoking peaks of Chiltepec (2800 feet)
and Momotombo (6121 feet).

The last named (Momotombo) was active in 1852, and Masaj-a
in 1858 and 1872, w4iileMombacho,though quiet, so far as we know,
since the conquest, according to tradition, destroj^ed an impor-
tant town just before that epoch, and its sides still reveal signs

* The following are the p'iiicipal references : Letter of Dr. Flint, dated Jan. 7, 1884, in
the American Antiqnwinn, March, 1881 ; Vith Report nf the Peahody Museum for 1884, page
356; 18</i -Report of the same, 18 i), page 411; Proceedings of the American Antiquarian So-
cietij, 1881, p. 92. Letter of Dr. Flint in American Antiquarian, May, 1885.

Brinton] 4:00 [Nov. 18,

of terrific outbursts at no distant date. In tlie eruption of
March, 1872, Masaya vomited a lava stream two miles in width.*

I quote these facts to show the volcanic character of the
countr}^ and the powerful agencies at work there.

For our present purpose, we have to confine our attention to
the extinct volcano of Tizcapa. Like its neighbors, the cones
of Nezcapa and Asososco, it has long since burnt out its fires,
and all three have chany,ed their flaming craters into deep and still
lakes, encircled by precipitous walls of congealed masses. Tiz-
capa is about two and a-half miles from the shore of Lake Mana-
gua, and in ancient times its molten streams found their way
into the waters of the lake. Its eruptions were irregular, and
evidently long periods of quiescence intervened between those of
violent action, periods extended enough to sUow the earlier tufa
beds and lava streams to become covered with A'egetation, the
relics of which we find imbedded beneath later overflows. How
much time this would require is a vital question in deciding the
age of the footprints. These are found on the surface of the
ji7-st or lowest tufa bed, which itself rests upon a bed of 3'ellow
sand.

Before proceeding to a discussion of the antiquity we may
fairly assign to the relic, I shall insert Dr. Flint's description
of the locality, and add a vertical section of the cutting in the
quarry on the lake shore, in which the footprints are found.
Both of these he has kindly sent me in a recent letter.

" The Cordilleras east of Lake Nicaragua are a continuous
succession of low mountains, spread out and gradually diminish-
ing to the depression, where the outlet of Lake Nicaragua passes
seaward by the San Juan river. In past ages the spur west of
the lakes Nicaragua and Managua (formerly part of an ocean
inlet) was the theatre of volcanic action seldom exceeded ; and
its latent fires, out of the axial line, at Ometepetec and Momo-
tombo, still smoke. These magnificent cones may continue to
burn for ages, until they disappear, like their neighbors, leaving
like tliem, an abyss to mark their location.

" Zapatero has its deep lake, whose surface is but slightly above
the waters of the one surrounding it ; north-west and near
Granada, we look down from the edge of the old crater on a

* See Pablo Levy, Notas sobrc la Bepublica de Nicaragua, pp. S3, 84 (Paris, 1873), and A.
Schiftman, Una Idea sobrc la Geolojia de Nicaragua, p. 125 (Managua, 1873).

1887.] ^Oif [Brinton.

placid lake, whose four square miles of water are seldom stirred
by the wind, and whose depth has not yet been fathomed.
When were the fires of this immense crater extinguished?

" Lake Masaya far exceeds that of Apoj-o ; as we descend the
deep ravines cut through the tufas to its margin, we see the work
of centuries carryin-j; back this detritus to refill the abyss, and no
perceptible diminution is noted. Passing on, we find the lakes
Nehapa, Asososco, and Tizcapa, under similar conditions ; the
latter near Managua, furnished the material forming the tufas
on which the footprints occur.

" These lakes at the time of the Spanish occupation, now nearly
four centuries, presented nearly the same aspect as they do now ;
their rock-bound shores were covered with inscriptions, of which
no tradition could be obtained of the tribes then occupying
this region. The countr^^ was clothed with impenetrable forest
that had sprung up on these arid wastes of tufa. We dig below
this fertile soil, and after removiu'- five well-marked beds of tufa,
including a lower one of pure ash, we encounter a deposit of
clay, a soil of other times, accumulated under circumstances
familiar to that now on the surface. It also had its phmts and
trees. Among the former we see long liriaceous leaves impressed
on the friable deposit. We ask, is this the soil of the first in-
habitants? Before deciding, we dig below, through four more
deposits, with other accumulations in the seams, of pumice and
volcanic sand. We reach a thin friable tufa., nearly black, about
two inches thick ; removing it, we find a heavy deposit of tufa
lying on j'^ellow sand. This is the last in the series ; on its
upper surface we find innumerable footprints of a [)eople who
had passed over it, at different times, when in a plastic state.
Some sank deep in the mass, wliile others left superficial impres-
sions. Now and then, a stray leaf of that horizon was trodden
into the imprints ; others are on the friable under-surface ; the}^
seem to difl'er from those above under the ash."

Dr. Flint sends me a vertical section of the quarry from which
the present specimen was taken. The location is about 300 feet
from the shore and close to the town of Managua. At that
point the overl^nng strata present a thickness of twenty-one feet
beneath the surface soil, the most of the mass being compact
tufti, similar in general appearance to the block bearing the im-
print.

Brintoii.]

440

[Nov. 18,

Vertical section, 21 feet in depth, of a Quarry on Lake Managua, showing
strata overlying human footprints.

1. Surface soil, about 18 inches.

2. Compact tufa, 20 inches, separated from No. 3, by a sand

seam.

3. Compact tufa, 20 inches, separated from No. 4 by a sand

seam.

4. Compact tufa, 17 inches, separated from No. 5 by a sand

seam.

5. Compact buikling tufa, 28 inches, resting on a seam of

bUxck sand.

6. Solid, daik-blue ash, 14 inches.

7. Hard clay, 12 or more inches, its surface presenting nume-

rous leav^es (impressions, fossils), and remains of the
mastodon.

8. Pumice, about two inches, unequally distributed.

9. Sand drift, supporting the clay.

10. Compact building tufa, 47 inches, separated from No. 11
by a sand seam.

11. Compact tufa, 5 to 7 inches.

12. Black sand, 1 inch.

13. Dark, friable tufa, 2 inches.

14. Volcanic sand, containing fossil leaves, 1 inch.

15. The dotted line shows the horizon of the foot-

prints impressed upon number

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15
16

17

16. Compact building tufa, 47 inches.

17. Yellow sand, believed to be Eocene (?) of undetermined
thickness, containing numerous small shells.

18S7.] 441 [Brinton.

Beginning with the lowest stratum, tlie yellow sand, the only
clue offered to ascertain its age, believed by Dr. Flint to be
Eocene, is the shells which it offers in abundance, but apparently
only of one species. They are small and well preserved. Dr.
Flint transmitted a number of tliem for examination to Prof.
Newcombe, of Cornell TJniversit}' , who considered them a new
species, and has called them provisionally Pi/rula nicaraguensis,
and adds that the genus is represented in North America by but
one other species, P. nevadensis Stearn.

I submitted a number of them to my collengue at the Academy
of Natural Sciences, Prof. Angelo Heilprin, wlio writes me : —
" I should not like to pronounce positively upon the age of the
deposit represented b}^ the Nicaraguan shells, as by themselves
they scarcely give direct evidence. But I should incline to the
opinion that the deposit in question is more nearly Post-pliocene
than Eocene, the specimens having a decidedlj^ new look, and
lacking the Eocene teitiar^^ characters."

Dr. Flint sent to the Peabody Museum a number of leaves
from the deposit marked 1 4 on the section ; and I have recently
inquired of the authorities of the Museum whether their age
and character have been determined. They repl}', that these
characters have not yet been made out.

The hard clay deposit, No. 7 of the plan, increases in thick-
ness in other localities to ten or twelve feet. It is considered by
Dr. Flint to represent a period of repose of many centuries,
and on its surface, bones of the mastodon have been found at
other points along the lake. It is the only deposit in the section
which seems to demand considerable time ; and even here, the
question will suggest itself whether a submergence of the lake
shore for a few centuries or less might not be sufficient to pro-
duce this deposit. The presence of the mastodon bones is no
evidence of great antiquity. That huge herbivore lived in
tropical America almost in historic times. A complete skeleton
of one was found not long since in an artificial salt pond, con-
structed by the Indians, near Concordia, Colombia. The pond,
with its bottom of paved stones together with the animal, had
been entombed by a sudden landslide.*

* See R. B. White, "Notes on the Aboriginal I^aces of the Northwestern Provinces of
Soutli America," in the Jonrnnl of the Ant/iwpologiritl Institute of Great Britain, February,
1884, p. 244.

PKOC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXIV. 126. 3d. PRINTED DEC. 29, 1887.

Brinton.] 44 J [Nov. 18,

The deposit of ashes, No. 6 on the section, is held by Dr.
Flint to mark a period of volcanic energy of wide extent and
important consequences in modifying the physical geography of
the region. It led to the elevation of the coast range and the
separation of Lake Nicaragua, previously a bay of the ocean,
from the sea. Dr. Flint's expressions are :

" West of Jinotepe a well was sunk one hundred and nineteen
varas in search of water ; there this ash deposit is fifteen feet
thick, at least twenty miles from the nearest crater.

" We see many proofs, that the cataclysm enclosing Lake Nica-
ragua (formerly salt water) was at the time of this ash erup-
tion; while the tufas, previously ejected^ pushed over the sea
inlet at Tipitapa, enclosing that of Managua ; they were not
broken up by the cataclysm, nor those at the quarry, and all on
the northern slope ; nor the slip of coast north and south of
San Kafael."

Passing to a study of the tracks themselves, they are described
by Dr. Flint as quite numerous and passing in both directions,
that is, to and from the lake shore, from which the average dis-
tance of those found is about 300 feet. The maximum stride
was 18 inches, and the longest foot measured 10 inches.

The specimen which he has sent me, and which is offered for in-
spection [specimen presented], is the impression of a left foot.
The total length of the impression is 9i> inches, the breadth at the
heel 3 inches, at the toes 4i inches. The apparent length of the
foot itself was 8 inches. The instep was high, and the great toe
large, prominent and exceeding in length the second toe. This
last peculiarity has been by some considered of ethnic import-
ance.* The greatest depth of the impression is at the ball of
the foot, the weight being evidently thrown forward as in vigor-
ous walking. At this part the maximal depression below the
plane of the superfices is 2 inches.

The footprints on the tufas at Managua are not the onl}^ ones
discovered in tiiat Republic by Dr. Flint. Others were seen on
the southern slope of the Sierra de Managua, near the town of

*See J. Park Harrison, " On the Relative Length of the First Three Toes of the Human
Foot," in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain, February, 1884. The
general conclusion seems to be that a long second toe indicates a lower stage of develop-
ment .

1887.] 44d [Brinton.

San Rafael. The character of this horizon is thus described by
Dr. Flint in a letter to me :

" Collateral evidence touching man's antiquity here, not less
weighty, is found in the neighborhood. The eruptions covering
the south-west slope, and the disturbance caused by one, along
the ocean beach, elevating the coast range, affords us indisput-
able evidence of Pliocene man. In descending the slope through
immense ravines formed b}' the annual floods, we see enormous
blocks of tufa, isolated by the removal of the material surround-
ing them, showing that they had been uplifted by some mighty
force and re-embedded in the resultant debris.

" In 1875-8 and 1883, I spent over a month visiting the coast-
hills to the south-west about San Rafael, seeking out the limits
of the cataclysm.

" A strip of land, commencing at Bocano, extends along the
coast about forty miles and widens out about San Rafael, termi-
nating some eighteen miles above the latter place, at the base of
the old primitive range. South-east of the town, a notable break
in the upheaval shows that this strip was undisturbed, while the
succession of hills to the east and south-east widens out and
extends to the south at San Juan del Sur, and thence to Salinas
bay. The force culminated against the south-west slope of the
old primitive volcanoes mentioned, also shown north-west of San
Rafael, where the tufa of the first eruption, on the slip of land
mentioned, was unbroken, while in ravines near, the ocean sedi-
ment of the upheaval overrides it, forced over it as the rise
occurred near b}'^ to the east.

" This sediment has been carried seaward by the rivers since
formed. As they removed the debritus from the tufa, these were
found covered with footprints of animals and man. One of these
(sandal shod) was forwarded to the Peabody Museum.

" Where the rivers have cut through the old sea sediment down
to the primitive rock, we see beds of shells of many species,
among them enormous oysters of an oblong figure, perfect fossils,
yet unnamed. They are in situ. Their contents resemble slaked
lime. All this shows a sudden elevation. A few can be seen at
the National Museum with the fossil leaves in the rock above
them, similar to those on the Managua clay under the ash erup-
tion. The latter eruption broke up the clay and elevated the

4i4 [Dec. IG,

coast range. On the neigliboring hills innumerable shells are
adherent to the fractured limestone, and south to those west of
Rivas ; from there the limestone dips to south-east and is only
about sixty metres above the sea between San Juan and Virgin
bay, while part of the Rivas plateau was undisturbed."

It will be observed that one of these footprints indicates the
use of sandals or moccasins by the pedestrians of that day.
None of this character have been reported from Managua, Un-
doubtedly a society which wears shoes cannot be assigned to the
earliest stages of human culture. Many of the natives of Cen-
tral America to this day never protect the feet in any manner.

In conclusion, I should say, that there can be no doubt of
these being genuine human footprints. They are not of that
mythical origin which the fancy of savage nations delights to
imagine,* nor can there be the least doubt of their authenticity.
Their antiquit}^ remains uncertain. In regions at once tropical,
fertile and volcanic, we may expect sudden upheavals and sub-
sidences, and the ravages of the most violent outbursts are re-
paired by a luxuriant vegetation with surprising rapidity. My
own opinion is, that there is not sufficient evidence to remove
them beyond the present Post-pliocene or Quaternaiy period.

Stated Meeting^ December 16^ 1SS7.

Present, 27 members.

President, Mr. Fraley, in the Chair.

Correspondence was submitted as follows : Letters of envoy
were received from Societe R. des Sciences a Upsal ; Fonda-
tion de P. Teyler van der Hulst a, Harlem ; Societa Italiana
della Scienze, Torino; Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty,
London ; U. S. ISfaval Observatory, U. S, Geological Survey,
Washington, D. C.

A letter from Lord Rayleigb, London, acknowledging re-
ceipt of bis diploma.

A letter was read from Prof. March, Eastou, Pa., in refer-

* See Dr. Richard Andree, ou " Fussspuren," in his Ethnogmphische Parallden und Ver-
gleiche, s.94 (Stuttgart, TSTS).

1887.] 445

€1103 to the lately-appointed commission to determine upon a
uniform mode of spell'ng in public documents, etc., of the State
of Pennsylvania.

The American Association for the Study of Modern Lan-
guages was invited to visit the Society's Hall during its ap-
proaching session in this city.

Letters of acknowledgment from Imperial Kussian Geo-
graphical Society, St. Petersburg (125); Prof. Otto Donner,
Helsingfors (125) ; Societe R. des Sciences, Upsal (123, 124
and List of Members) ; Captain Richard Temple, Mandalay
(125).

Letters were read from the Engineers' Club of Philadelphia,
inviting the officers of the Society to be present at its Recep-
tion, December 17, 1887, the Decennial Anniversary of the
Foundation of the Club ;

From the Rutland County (Vermont) Historical Society,
requesting Constitution, Laws, etc.;

From the Smithsonian Institution, announcing the election
of Prof. Samuel P. Langley, LL.D., as Secretary ;

From the Oneida County Historical Society, in reference to
a celebration of the New Hartford Centennial.

A circular was read announcing the proposed issue of a new
journal to be called Tlie American Anthropologist.

Accessions to the library from Royal Society of Tasmania ;
Geological Survey of India, Calcutta ; Naturforschender Verein,
Riga; K. B. Akademie der Wissenschaften, Miinchen ; Soci6te
R. des Sciences, Upsal ; Fondation de P. Teyler van der Hulst,
Harlem ; Societii Italiana della Scienze, Torino ; Publishers
of "Cosmos," Paris; Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty,
London ; Philosophical Society, Cambridge ; Radcliff'e Obser-
vatory, Oxford ; Philosophical Society, Glasgow ; Messrs.
Henry W. and Henry Y. Poor and Charles E. Sprague, New
York; Mr. Heilry Phillips, Jr., Philadelphia; Johns Hopkins
University, Baltimore ; U. S. Geological Survey, U. S. Naval
Observatory, "Washington, D. C. ; Prof. J. W. Mallett, Uni-
versity of Yirginia.

4:4:0 [Dec. IC, 188".

The death of Dr. M-dclleton Goldsmith (Rutland, Vermont),
on November 26, 1887, ret. 70, was announced.

This being the evening for the consideration of communica-
tions pending for the Magellanic Premium, the Society dis-
cussed the claims of one signed " Magellan " on the " Physical
Phenomena of Harbor Entrances ; Their Causes and Remedies ;
Defects of Present Methods of Improvement," and on being put
to a vote it was unanimously resolved that the Society would
consider the claims of the said paper.

Upon the question then recurring as to whether the said
communication was worthy of the proposed premium, a vote
was taken and the Society unanimously resolved that the said
communication was v/orthy of the premium, and that the Ma-
gellanic Premium should be awarded therefor.

The sealed letter accompanying the crowned performance
was then ordered to be opened, which was done by the Secre-
taries, and the name of the author. Prof. Lewis M. Haupt, of
the University of Pennsylvania, was announced as the person
entitled to the said premium. On motion, the President was
authorized to appoint at his leisure a committee of three mem-
bers to attend to all the details connected with the preparation
of the medal, etc. [The President subsequently appointed
Messrs. J. Sergeant Price, R. M. Bache and Henry Phillips,
Jr., as such committee.]

The Secretaries presented a communication by Rev. Charles
W. King, entitled " The Epitapb of M. Verrius Flaccus."

Prof. Houston exhibited a Palladium Hair Spring of a non-
magnetizable watch and mentioned the experiments he had
already made and was making on it.

The Finance Committee presented its Annual Report, and
the appropriations for the ensuing year were passed.

The Committee on Volapiik reported progress, and the re-
port was made the special order for the next meeting.

This being the regular meeting for balloting-for candidates,
a ballot was gone into, and Mr. Samuel Castner, Jr., of Phila-
delphia, was declared duly elected a member of the Society.

And the Society was adjourned by the President.

NDEX TO VOL XXIV.

Stated Meetings Held.

1886,
18S7,

1887,

December 17 184

January 7 187

January 21 190

February ■! 192

February 18 195

March 4 196

March 18 198

April 1 199

April 15 201

May 6 203 i

New Members Elected.

Page. Page.

May 20 206

September 2 403

September 16 410

October 7 412

October 21 414

November 4 416

November 18 417

December 2 434

December 16 444

December 17, 1SS6.

Morton AV. Easton 185 i

William F. Norris 185 j

James McAlister 186 !

Charles S. Dolley 1S6 '

John A. Ryder 186 I

Hermann V. Hilprecht 186 !

George W. Childs 186

W.B.Scott 180 i

Henry Sumner Maine 186

Monier Monier-Williams 186

Hugo Von Meltzel 186

Paul Hunfaivy 186

G. Weil 186

Henri Kiepert 186

Adolph Bastian 186 1

February

John S. Billings 196 1

May 20,

Joseph S. Harris 208

William Powell Wilson . . . •. 208 i

James Tyson 208

William Henrj' Rawle 208

Henry D. Wireman 208 !

Friederich Mueller 186

Matthjeus Much 186

Albert Reville 186

Paul Topinard 186

Remi Simeon 186

Conrad Leemans 186

George Curtius 186

Julius Platzmann 186

Lucien Adam 186

Guido Cora 186

Crescencio Cartillo 186

Juan de Dias de la Rada y Delgada. . . 186

Hyacinthe de Charency 186

G. A. Hirn 186

IS, 1S87.

Henry F. Osborn . .

1SS7.

Albert H. Smyth .
H. C. de S. Abbott. .
Henry H. Houston .
William T. Barnard

196

208
208

Guisfeppe Menenghini

October 21, 1SS7.
... .415 I Edgar F. Smith.

December 16, 1SS7.
Samuel Castner, Jr., 446.

Decease of Members.

Isaac Lea 185 I

Pliny Earle Chase 188

Bernard Studer 207

John T. Napier 207

S. F. Baird 408

Charles Rau 408

Alvan Clark 408

Wm. Bacon Stevens 408

N.A.Randolph 408

Gustav Kirch hoff 417

Thomas M. Walter 417

Alfred Mordecai 417

Middleton Goldsmith 446

448

Papers Presented. P<^9e-

Barker, George F.

On the Henry Draper Memorial Photographs of Stellar Spectra 166

BiiAsius, William.

The Signal Service Bureau, its Methods and Results 179

Brinton, Daniel G.

Critical Remarks on the Editions of Diego de Landa's Writings 1 '

Were the Toltecs an Historical Nationality 229

On the so-called Alaguilac Language of Guatemala 366

On an Ancient Human Footprint from Nicaragua 437

Claypole, E. W.

Organic Variation Indefinite not Definite in Direction— an Outcome of Envi-
ronment 113

Cope, E. D.

Synopsis of the Batrachia and Reptilia obtained by H. H. Smith in the Province

of Mato Grosso, Brazil 44

Contribution to the History of the Vertebrata of the Trias of North America. . 209
Classification and Philogeny of the Artiodactyla 377

Frazer, Persifor.

Remarlis on Dr. Barker's paper on Stellar Spectra 171

Oarman, Samuel.

On tlie Reptiles and Batrachians of Grand Cayman 273

On West India Reptiles in the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge,
Mass 278

Garrett, Philip C.

Memoir of Pliny Earle Chase 287

Genth, F. a.

Contributions from the Chemical Laboratory of the University of Pennsylvania.
No. XXIX. Contributions to Mineralogy 23

Houston, Edwin A.

On a Non-magnetizable Watch 418

On the Gramophone 420

KiRKWooD, Daniel.

The Relations of Aerolites to Shooting Stars Ill

Biela's Comet and the Large Meteors of November 27-30 242

Note on the Possible Existence of Fireballs and Meteorites in the Stream of
Bielids 436

Leidy, Joseph.

Biographical Notice of Isaac Lea, LL D 400

MooNEY, James.

The Medical Mythology of Ireland 136

OsBORN, Henry F.

The Triassic Mammals, Dromatherium and Microconodon 109

Packard, A. S.

On the Systematic Position of the Mallophaga 264

ScOTT, W. B., and Osborn, Henry F.

Preliminary Report on the Vertebrate Fossils of the Uinta Formation collected
by the Princeton Expedition of 1886 255

449

Smith, Edgar F. page.

Electrolysis of Lead Solutions. Determination of Boric Acid. Dihalogeii De-
rivatives of Salicylic A-cid. Barite 428

Stevenson, John J.

A Geological Reconnaissance of Bland, Giles, Wythe, and portions of Pulaski
and Montgomery Counties, of Virginia 61

Stokes, Alfred C.

Notices of New Fresh-water Infusoria 244

Stowell, T. B.

The Facial Nerve in the Domestic Cat 8

Taylor, Alfred B.

Octonary Numeration and its Application to a System of Weights and Measures. 29G

Vaux, Richard.

Obituary Notice of James R. Ludlow li)

Miscellaneous Business.

Committees, Standing, appointed ; . . 191, 194

Reports of. 185, 189, 191, 192, 411, 413

Special 201, 203, 205, 2U8, 415, 417, 421, 43t>

Council Minutes submitted 19(5, 197, 418

Recommendations of 1%, 197, 418

Exchanges ordered 185,406,414,418

Humboldt portrait, presentation of 406, 411, 417

Librarian nominated 189

Elected 191

Members take their seats 187,190,195,196,206,412,414,417,434

Nominations of, read 185,186,196,208,409,411,413,417,419

Elected 185, 186, 196, 208, 415

Michaux Legacy received 194, 205, 409, 415

Expended 192, 421

To be re-invested 197, 205, 208

Lectures 43-5

Magellanic Premium, communication for, signed "Baboika." .197,199,207

Signed " Magellan " 207,418

Award recommended by Council to " Magellan " 419

Officers elected 188

Photographs received from members 185, 1S7, 200, 413, 41H, 418

Report of Treasurer 447

Trustees Building Fund 203

Finance Committee 446

Seybert Legacy to be receipted for 417

Society subscribes to E. Muybridge's work 191

Loans portraits to Academy of Fine Arts 411

College Physicians 184, 193

Invites Society of Naturalists to visit its Hall 185

Invites American Association for the Study of Modern Languages to visit its Hall. 445

Volapiik, Committee on, appointed 415

Reports 421 , 436

Erratum.
On page 201, " Pseudo-maple Mimetites" should read " Pseudo-morphic Mimetites."

/

/L^,/ff7 PROCEEDINGS

^ ^ ^ OF THE

AMERICA]^ PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA. FOR PROMOTI\G USEFUL OOWLEDGE.

Vol. XXIV. January to June, 1887. No. 125.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Critical Remarks on the Editions of Diego de Landa's Writings.

By Daniel O. Brinton 1

The' Facial Nerve in the Domestic Cat. By T. B. Stowell {with a

plale) 8

Obituary Notice of James R. Ludlow. By Richard Vaux 19

Contributions from the Chemical Laboratory of the University of
Pennsylvania. No. XXIX. Contributions to Mineralogy. By

F. A. Qenth {with one phototype plate and three wood-cuts) 23

Synopsis of the Batrachia and Reptilia obtained by H. H. Smith, in

the Province of Mato Grosso, Brazil. By E. D. Cope 44

A Geological Reconnaissance of Bland. Giles, Wythe and portions
of Pulaski and Montgomery Counties of Virginia. By John J.

Stevenson {with a map and two plates') 61

The Triassic Mammals Dromatiierium and Microconodon. By

Henry F. Osborn (with a plate) 109

The Relation of Aerolites to Shooting Stars. By Daniel Kirkwood. Ill
Organic Variation Indefinite not Definite in Direction — an Outcome

of Environment. By E. W. Claypole 113

The Medical Mythology of Ireland. By James Mooney 136

On the Henry Draper Memorial Photographs of Stellar Spectra. By

Oeorge F. Barker (with a plate) 166

Notes on the Surface Geology of South-west Virginia. By John J.

Stevenson 172

Tlie Signal Service Bureau. Its Methods and Results. By William

Blasius 179

Stated Meeting, December 17, 1S86 184

Stated Meeting, January 7, 1S87 187

Stated Meeting, January 21, 1SS7 190

Stated Meeting, February 4, 1887 192

Stated Meeting, February 18, 1887 195

Stated Meeting, March 4, 1887 196

Stated Meeting, March 18, 1887 198

Stated Meeting, April 1, 1887 199

Stated Meeting, April 15, 1887 201

Stated Meeting, May 6, 1887 203

Stated Meeting, May 20, 1887 206

t^" It is requested that the receipt of this number be acknowledged.

It^" In order to secure prompt attention it is requested that all corre-
spondence be addressed simply "To the Secretaries of the American
Philosophical Society. 104 S. Fifth St., Philadelphia."

Published for the American Philosophical Society

BY

MacCALLA & COMPANY,
NOS. 237-9 DOCK STREET, PHILADELPHIA.

Extract from the By-Laws.

CHAPTEK XII.

OF THE MAGELLANIC FrND.

Section 1. Johnllyacintli de Magellan, in London, having in the year
1786 offered to the Society , as a donation, the sum of two hundred guineas,
to be by them vested in a secure and permanent fund, to the end that
the interest arising therefrom should be annually disposed of in pre-
miums, to be adjudged by them to the author of tlie best discovery, or
most useful invention, relating to Navigation, Astronomy, or Natural
Philosophy (mere natural history only excepted) ; and the Society
having accepted of the above donation, they hereby publish the condi-
tions, prescribed by the donor and agreed to by the Society, upon which
the said annual premiums will be awarded.

CONDITIONS OF THE 3IAGELLANIC PREMIUM.

1. The candidate shall send his discovery, invention or improvement,
addressed to the President, or one of the Vice-Presidents of the Society,
free of postage or other charges ; and shall distinguish his performance
by some motto, device, or other signature, at his pleasure. Together
with his discovery, invention, or improvement, he shall also send a
sealed letter containing the same motto, device, or signature, and sub-
scribed with the real name and place of residence of ihe author.

2. Persons of any nation, sect or denomination whatever, shall be ad-
mitted as candidates for this premium.

3. No discovery, invention or improvement shall be entitled to this
premium, which hath been already published, or for which the author
hath been publicly rewarded elsewhere.

4. The candidate shall communicate his discovery, invention or im-
provement, either m the English, French, German, or Latin language.

5. All such communications shall be publicly read or exhibited to the
Society at some stated meeting, not less than one month previous to the
day of adjudication, and shall at all times be open to the inspection of
such members as shall desire it. But no member shall carry home with

^

PROCEEDINGS

OP THE

iMERICAX PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA, FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

^Z.¥f

Vol. XXI¥2 July to December, 1887. No. 126.

X»vivi:<rr

TABLE OF CONTENTS.'

PAGE.

A Contribution to the History of the Vertebrata of the Trias of

North America. By E. D. Cope {icith two plates) 209

Were the Toltecs an Historic Nationality? By Daniel G. Brinton. 229
Bicla's Comet and the Large Meteors of November 27-30. By

Daniel Kirkwood 242

Notices of New Fresh water Infusoria. By Alfred C. Stokes {icith

a plate) ? 244

Preliminary Report on the Vertebrate Fossils of the Uinta Forma-
tion, collected by the Princeton Expedition of 1886. By W. B.

Scott and Uenry F. Oshorn (icith a cut) 255

On the Systematic Position of the Mallophaga. By A. S. Packard

( tcitJt. thirteen cuts) 264

On the Reptiles and Batrachians of Grand Cayman. By Samtiel

Oarman 273

On West Indian Reptiles in the Museum of Comparative Zoology,

at Cambridge, Mass. By Samuel Garman 278

Memoir of Pliny Earle Chase. Bj Fhilip O. Garrett 287

Octonary Numeration and its Application to a System of Weights

and Measures. By Alfred B. Taylor 296

On the so-called Alaguilac Language of Guatemala. By D. G.

Brinton 366

Tlie Classiflcation and Phylogeny of the Artiodactyla. By E. D

Cope 377

Biographical Notice of Isaac Lea, LL.D. By Joseph Leidy 400

Stated Meeting, September 2, 1887 403

Stated Meeting, September 16, 1887 410

Stated Meeting, October 7, 1887 412

Stated Meeting, October 21, 1887 414

Stated Meeting, November 4, 1887 416

Stated Meeting, November 18, 1887 417

Notes on the Ethnology of British Columbia. By P. Boas 422

Electrolysis of Lead Solutions. Determination of Boric Acid. Di-

halogen Derivatives of Salicylic Acid. Barite. By Edgar F.

Smith 428

Stated Meeting, December 2, 1887 434

Note on the Possible Existence of Fireballs and Meteorites in the

Stream of Bielids. By Daniel Kirkwood 436

On an Ancient Human Footprint from Nicaragua. By D. G.

Brinton {with a plate) 437

Stated Meeting, December 16, 1887 444

llt^° It is requested that the receipt of this number be acknowledged.

IW In order to secure prompt attention it is requested that all corre-
spondence be addressed simply "To the Secreta,ries of the American
Philosophical Society. 104 S. Fifth St., Philadelphia."

Published for the American Philosophical Society

BY
MacCALLA & COMPANY,

NOS. 237-9 DOCK STREET, PHILADELPHIA.

Extract from the By-Laws.

CHAPTER Xir.

OF THE MAGELLANIC FUND.

Section 1. John Hyacinth de Magellan, in London, having in the year
1786 offered to the Society, as a donation, the sum of two hundred guineas,
to be by them vested in a secure and permanent fund, to the end that
the interest arising therefrom should be annually disposed of in pre-
miums, to be adjudged by them to the author of the best discovery, or
most useful invention, relating to Navigation, Astronomy, or Natural
Pliilosophy (mere natural history only excepted) ; and the Society
having accepted of the above donation, they hereby publish the condi-
tions, prescribed by the donor and agreed to by the Society, upon which
the said annual premiums will be awarded.

CONDITIONS OF THE MAGELLANIC PREMirM.

1. The candidate shall send his discovery, invention or improvement,
addressed to the President, or one of the Vice-Presidents of the Society,
free of postage or other charges ; and shall distinguish his performance
by some motto, device, or other signature, at his pleasure. Together
witli his discovery, invention, or improvement, he shall also send a
sealed letter containing the same motto, device, or signature, and sub-
scribed with the real name and place of residence of the author.

2. Persons of any nation, sect or denomination whatever, shall be ad-
mitted as candidates for this premium.

3. No discovery, invention or improvement shall be entitled to this
premium, whicli hath been already published, or for which the author
hath been publicly rewarded elsewhere.

4. The candidate shall communicate his discovery, invention or im-
provement, either in the English, French, German, or Latin language.

5. All such communications shall be publicly read or exhibited to the
Society at some stated meeting, not less than one month previous to the
day of adjudication, and shall at all times be open to the inspection of
sucli members as shall desire it. But no member shall carry home with

3 2044 093 310 647

Date Due

J '\