Author: Fruit Growers Association of Adams County
Title: Proceedings of the. . .annual convention
Place of Publication: Bendersville, Pa.
Copyright Date: 1913

Master Negative Storage Number: MNS# PSt SNPaAg016.8

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THE

Fruit Growers Association

of Adams County

V

Pennsylvania

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ORGANIZED DECEMBER IS, 1903

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PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

NINTH ANNUAL CONVENTION

HELD IN

Fruit Growers Hall, Bendersville, Penna.

Wednesday, Thursday and Friday

December 17, 18, 19, 1913

Us

THE AMERICAN
AGRICULTURAL

CHEMICAL CC.

OF BALTIMORE, MD.

High-Grade, Reliable

Fertilizers for All Crops and for Permanent

Improvement of the Soil

WE JUSTLY CLAIM that there are
NO BETTER FERTILIZERSthan
ours, for they are as good as experience,
materials of the highest agricultural value,
unsurpassed facilities, and close and care-
ful attention to manufacturing can make
them. OUR FERTILIZERS ARE IN
FINE DRILLING CONDITION, and
are out up in GOOD, STRONG SACKS

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OFFICERS

President, Robert M. Eldon, Aspers

1st Viee President, Robert Garretson, Flora Dale

2d Vice President, C. A. Griest, Guernsey

2d Viee President, C. E. Raffensperger, Arendtsville

4th Viee President, E. P. Garrettson, Biglerville

Sth Vice President, W. E. Grove, York Springs

Recording Secretary, Chas. A. Wolfe, Aspers

Corresponding Secretary, Edwin C. Tyson, Flora Dale

Treasurer, Wm. S. Adams, Aspers

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

Robert M. Eldon, Aspers

Robert Garretson, Flora Dale

C. A. Griest, Guernsey

C. E. Raffensperger, Arendtsville

E. P. Garrettson, Biglerville

W. E. Grove, York Springs

Chas. A. Wolfe, • • Aspers

Edwin C. Tyson, Flora Dale

Wm. S. Adam s, Aspers

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Hill Top Orchards

Warehouse Company

Manufacturers of

LUMBER, LATH, SHINGLES

STAVES AND HEADING

APPLE BARRELS

Deal

ers in

Orchard Tools and Supplies

Spray Materials

SUSQUEHANNA FERTILIZERS

FLOUR, FEED AND GENERAL MERCHANDISE

W. S. ADAMS, Propr.

ASPERS, PA.

We have a lot of two-year old apple trees— all the lead
varieties. *

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Membership Roll

Adams, Wni. S., Aspers, Pa.

Adams, Mrs. W. S., \spei s, Pa.

Asper, D. C, Aspers, Pa.

Anstadt, Henry, Washington, D. C.

Anderson, H. . W., Stewartstown, Pa.

Anderson, Joseph W., Stewartstown, Pa.

Anderson, H. AL, New Park, Pa.

Bream, Samuel Biglerville, Pa.

Bream, Dill, Bendersville, Pa. '

Bream, C. D., Aspers, Pa.

Bream, :\I. F., York Springs, Pa.

Boyer, W. W., Arendtsville, Pa.

Black, Wm. H., Flora Dale, Pa.

Baugher, H. G Aspers, Pa.

Baugher, Ira, Aspers, Pa.

Baugher, Martin, Aspers, Pa.

Bucher, John, Bendersville, Pa.

Belt, J. E Wellsville, Pa.

Butt, J. L Gettyshurg, Pa.

Brough, Edward Biglerville, Pa.

Bingham, W. C, St. Thomas, Pa.

Boyer, George E., Arendtsville, Pa.

Bushman, S. F., Gettysburg, Pa.

Brame, Edw Aspers, Pa.

Blessing, David H Harrishurg. Pa.

Black, Moses Aspers, Pa.

Blair, C. I., Aspers, Pa.

Bream, W. A., Gettysburg, Pa.

Brinton, H. C, Hanover, Pa.

Brinser, E. C, Middletown, Pa.

Cocklin, B. F., Hechanicsburg, Pa.

Cook, Arthur E Aspers, Pa.

Carey, J. Calvin Gettysburg, Pa.

Carson, E. E., Bendersville, Pa.

Crouse, E. A., Gettysburg, Pa.

Cation, W. R., Orrtanna, Pa.

X)eardorff, Anthony Mummasburg, Pa.

Dock, Miss Margaret Fayetteville, Pa.

Dock, Miss Myra L Fayetteville, Pa.

Deardorff. W. B., Gettysburg, R. F. D. No. 5. Pa.

Dill, Dr. M. T., Biglerville, Pa.

Dull, Thomas Aspers, Pa.

THE " REITER

BOLSTER SPRING

JJ

See That Hanger ||

The best bolster spring made. Complete and ready for use as sold. War-
ranted and guaranteed in every way. These springs are just what FARMERS,

GARDNERS, FRUIT GROWERS, PEDDLERS, DAIRYMEN, and TEAM-
STERS want, as they will make their rough wagons ride as easy as any Spring
Wagon, thus saving them the cost of Spring Wagons and enabling them to
deliver Fruits, Vegetables, Eggs, etc., unbruised and unbroken from hauling
and in as good condition as when they left home.

With these Springs on wagons they

WITH

The Reiter Bolster Spring

ON THE

American Farm Wagon

you can haul or carry any and
everything equal to any spring
wagon and at one-half the cost.

will pull easier and last longer, har-
ness wear longer and horses work
easier.

These springs don't work on lop
of the bolster, like other Bolster
Springs, but on each side in shackles,
on the same principle as any high
priced Spring Wagon. These
Springs can't be broken by over-
loading or rebounding like a Spring
Wagon.

By overloading, the springs will work down on each side of the Bolster and
the wagon will become rough again. In fast driving over rough roads the
springs, not being attached to the bed or bolster, can't be broken by rebound-
ing or lifting up of the bed.

No one using a rough wagon should be without The Relter BDlster Spring,
as they will save the cost the first year. Remember they are warranted and
guaranteed in every way Made to carry from 1,000 to 10,000 pounds.
Measure your wagon between standards and order a set ; give them a fair
trial and let your neighbors, friends and the dealer you got them from know
what you think of them.

W. C. REITER, Sole Maker

Price on Application WAYNESBORO, PA.

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Dunlap, James AI Walnut Bottom, Pa.

Dougherty, Dorsey, Gettysburg, Pa.

Deatrick, H. G Hunterstown, Pa.

Diller, O York Springs, Pa.

Eldon, Robert M., Aspers, Pa.

Eldon, ]\Irs. R. M., Aspers, Pa.

Everhart, G. W., York, Pa.

Eby, Amos Alt. Joy, Pa.

Eiholtz, S. AJc Biglerville, Pa.

Eppleman, H. C, Aspers, Pa.

Estabrook, F. L-, Athens, Pa.

Fraim, Merritt L., Aspers, Pa.

Fohl, George E., Biglerville, Pa.

Fiddler, W. B., Aspers, Pa.

Felty, G. B. O., Millersvillc, Pa.

French, Albert, Montclair, N. J.

Fohl, Jas. O., Aspers, Pa.

Griest, C. Arthur, Guernsey, Pa.

Griest, Mrs. C. A., Guernsey, Pa.

Griest, C. S Guernsey, Pa.

Griest, A. W., Flora Dale, Pa.

Griest, Frederic E., Flora Dale, Pa.

Griest. G. G., 30 Church St., N. Y. City.

Griest, Alaurice, 105 W. 163d St., N. Y. City.

Griest, C. J., York Springs, Pa.

Garrettson, Frank Aspers, Pa.

Garrettson, Eli P., Biglerville, Pa.

Garrettson, Harriet, Biglerville, Pa.

Garrettson, J. B Aspers, Pa.

Garrettson, Robert, Flora Dale, Pa.

Garrettson, John, Aspers, Pa.

Garrettson, Eli, Gettysburg. R. F. D. No. 6, Pa.

Grove, W. E., York Springs, Pa.

Gillan, R. J St. Thomas, Pa.

Groupe, Foster C Idaville, Pa.

Gardner, L. AI., Jr., York Springs, Pa.

Gove, Alary E., Bendersville, Pa.

Howard, Jno. M., Aspers, Pa.

Harris, Aleriam, Bendersville, Pa.

Hoffman, Jas. O., Arcndtsville, Pa.

.Hoffman, E. N., Biglerville, Pa.

Hoffman, Daniel, Aspers, Pa.

Hoffman, George, Arcndtsville, Pa.

Hoffman, Willis H., Biglerville, Pa.

Harshman, U. W., Waynesboro, Pa.

Huber, Charles H., Gettysburg, Pa.

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What Does Your Spraying Cost?

Spray Material is not the Greatest Cost

C Good labor is becoming more scarce and more expensive
each year.

C, Would you like to cut your labor bill in half, and insure
better, cleaner trees and fruit ? Let us tell you how.

COne spray-tank full of *'SCALECIDF' will spray as
many trees as two spray-tanks full of Lime Sulfur, in each instance
spraying until every twig is covered and the trees drip.

C The N. Y. Experiment Station reports that 9 gallons of
**SCALECIDE" spray has the same covering power as 17 gallons
of Lime-Sulfur. We know of an orchard that required 25,000
gallons of Lime-Sulfur in 1911 and was sprayed in 1912 with less
than 11,000 gallons of ''SCALECIDE'' with better results.
Don't say you don't believe it until you have made a fair and square
test of it.

a Suppose that it takes 1-50 gallon barrel of **SCALECIDF'
to spray your orchard — what will it cost.f* What would it cost to
do the same work with Lime-Sulfur .^^

1 barrel '*SCALECIDE," making 800 gallons of spray 1 to 15,
will cost delivered in Pennsylvania and vicinity - $25.00
Cost of labor for applying at l/^c per gallon - 12.00

$37.00

It will require 1500 gallons of Lime-Sulfur to spray the same or-
chard, which will require 3/3 barrels of the best commercial Lime-
Sulfur 1 to 8, at g4.50 per barrel - - $15.00
Labor of applying 1500 gallons of spray at 1/^c
per gallon - - - - - 22.50

$37.50

which demonstrates that if you pay over $4.50 per barrel for Lime-
Sulfur (you cannot make it at home for that), you are paying more
than for ^^SCALECIDE" at $25.00 per barrel.

^^Scalecide" Costs More by the Gallon, but Less by the Orchard

C No spray is cheap that does not do the work.

C The Missouri Experiment Station reports that **SCALECIDE"
killed 100% of scale (by count) in five out of seven tests, while Lime-Sulfur
failed to do so once in ten tests in the same orchard.

C The finest and most productive orchards in the U. S. have never had
Lime-Sulfur on them, but **SCALECIDE" has been used exclusively as a
Winter wash since planting. We wiil take pleasure in referring you to them.

B. G. PRATT CO., 50 Church Street, New York City
E. C. TYSON- --Pennsylvania Agent — Flora Dale, Pa.

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Hartman, Geo. R., Biglerville, Pa.

Hull, D. W., Waymart, Pa.

Hummel, P. T., Harrisburg, Pa.

Hershey, C. A., McKnightstown, Pa.

Horting, John, Arendtsville, Pa.

Huber, Henry S Idaville, Pa.

Jacobs, Daniel C, Gettysburg, R. F. D. No. 5, Pa.

Keller, H. M., Gettysburg, R. F. D. No. 5, Pa.

Klinefelter, U. S., Biglerville, Pa.

Kane, J. A., Biglerville, Pa.

Kane, J. Lewis, Gettysburg, R. F. D. No. 6, Pa.

Knouse, J. A., Arendtsville, Pa.

Knouse, David, Arendtsville, Pa.

Koser, Rev. D. T., Arendtsville, Pa.

Koser, G. W., Biglerville, Pa.

Kunkle, John R., Gettysburg, Pa.

Knouse, Prof. Roy D., Arendtsville, Pa.

Longsdorf, C. L., Biglerville, Pa.

Lawver, Rufus W Biglerville, Pa.

Lawver, J. Edw., Biglerville, Pa.

Longsdorf, Dr. H. H., Dickinson, Pa.

Lady, Hiram C, Arendtsville, Pa.

Lupp, Reuben Biglerville, Pa.

Large, Mrs. E. S., Orrtanna, Pa.

Large, Aliss Katharine, Orrtanna, Pa.

Lower, Dr. S. E., Pittsburgh, Pa.

Alichener, Mrs. Chas., Bendersville, Pa.

flyers, George P., Biglerville, Pa.

Merz, Geo., Webster, N. Y.

McKay, Geo. H., Philadelphia, Pa.

Mayer, Dr. I. H Willow Street, Pa.

Morrison, :\Irs. W. S., Aspers, Pa.

Minick, D. N., Chambersburg, Pa.

Minter, Thomas L., Biglerville, Pa.

Musselnian, C. H., Biglerville, Pa.

Mussclman, J. Elmer, Gettysburg, Pa.

Minter, :\Irs. D. G Gettysburg, Pa.

Myers, Levi M Siddonsburg, Pa.

Miller, Robt. C., Gettysburg, Pa.

Miller, E. AI., Hanover, Pa.

:\Ioyer, Dr. H. B., Cape May, N. J.

Micklcy, J. W., Fairfield, Pa.

Musser, Will M Lampeter, Pa.

Maloney, W. J Dansville, N. Y.

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CL It is not only the growing of
the fruit that demands your atten-
tion, but the manner in which it
is packed as well.

Corragated (Caps

White Paper Caps

Cushions

G.P.READ

199DUANESt..NEWY0RK

BRANCH ALBION. N.Y.
MANUFACTUREIR AND
DEALER IN SUPPLIES
U5ED BY THE FRUIT
GROWER AND SHIPPER
FOR THE PICKING,
PACKING AND PROTECTING
OF HIS FRUIT.

Lace
Circles

C The use of my goods at the
time of packing increases the value
of your fruit 10%.

Send for booklet on Fruit Packing Supplies.
It is FREE.

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Newcomer, Aaron, Smithbiirg, Md.

Nissly, Christian L., Florin, Pa.

Nissly, Alvin R., Hanover, Pa.

Oyler, Geo Gettysburg, Pa.

Cyler, George C Gettysburg, Pa.

Orner, P. S Arendtsville, P'^.

Prickett. Josiah W., " Biglcrville, Pa.

Peters, Z. J., Guernsey, Pa.

Peters, H. W., Aspers, Pa.

Peters, W. V., Guernsey, Pa.

Peters, Curtis W Biglerville, Pa.

Peckman, Frank R., Gettysburg, Pa.

Pitzer, Harry C Aspers, Pa.

Peters, Geo. AL, Aspers, Pa.

Pratt, B. G., New York City.

Pitzer, Willis, ...Arendtsville, Pa

Raffensperger, Chas. K Arendtsville, Pa

Raffensperger, Roy Arendtsville, Pa

Rice. E. E., Aspers, Pa.

Rice, Waybrigbt, Biglerville, Pa.

Rice, C. vS., Arendtsville, Pa.

Rice, Oscar C, Arendtsville, Pa.

Routzabn, George R Bendersville, Pa.

Rinebart, E. S., Mercersburg, Pa.

Rinebart, J. J., Smitbburg, Md.

Rol)erts, Arthur, Gettysburg, Pa.

Reist. Henry G • • Schenectady, N. Y.

Repp. Albert T., (;iassboro. N. J.

Riddlenioser, H. E McKnigbtstown, Pa.

Rex, Raymond Idaville, Pa.

Stover, Dr. J. G., Bendersville, Pa.

Strong, Geo. C Orrtanna, Pa. .

Slayl)augb, Elmer Aspers, Pa.

Smith, G. Frank, Aspers, Pa.

Stephens, Henry M. Carlisle, Pa.

Stouffer. F. W Gettyslmrg, Pa.

Sheelv, Emory \rendtsville, Pa.

Sbull, Jno. A., •• • • • • McKnigbtstown, Pa.

. Sbull, Ro1)t. H McKnigbtstown, Pa.

Stewart, WiUiam Landisburg. Pa.

Spangler, George E Gettysburg, Pa.

Snvder, E. B Jack's Mountain, Pa.

Snvder, Tacob S Idaville. R. F. D., Pa.

Sn'vder, W. L., Bendersville, Pa.

Sachs, Edw. S Biglerville, Pa.

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Apple Trees That

Produce Big Crops

TT rE know of an apple orchard of i^ acres that has
produced in the past three years 1,945 bushels of
fruit, giving a net profit of $815. This is better than any
farm crop you ever grew — five times what you can get
from corn, or wheat, or potatoes.

Harrison Fruit Trees Are
Budded from Bearing Orchards

The^se trees have the bearing qualities of the parents
— that's one reason why our trees ''make good" under
the hardest conditions. Then, too, we sell only the trees
we grow — trees that are grown to produce big yields.

Our 1 9 14 Catalogue tells about our methods. Fifty
pages, many pictures, a book of facts for fruit growers.
Write today for a free copy.

Harrisons^ Nurseries,

J. G. Harrison & Sons, Props.

BERLIN, MARYLAND

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Stock, E. C 3^10 Clifton Av!, Balto., Md.

Strasbaugh, E. F., Orrtanna, Pa.

Sheffer, E. Kate Boiling vSprings. Fa.

Sheely, A. D., Arendtsville, Pa.

Stover, Mrs. Dr. J. G., Bendersville, Pa.

Tyson, Edwin C, Flora Dale, Pa

Tyson, Mrs. M. W., Flora Dale, Pa

Tyson, Chester- J., Flora Dale, Pa.

Tyson, Mrs. B. H., Aspers, Pa.

Tyson, Wm. C, Guernsey, Pa.

Tyson, :\Irs. M. E., Guernsey, Pa.

Taylor, Jacob F., Arendtsville, Pa.

Tyson, A. R., Norristown, Pa.

Taylor, Dan'l R Biglerville, Pa.

Tavlor, Henry, Biglerville, Pa.

Trostle, Francis, York Springs, R, F. D., Pa.

Thomas, Mrs. Annie M., Gettysburg, Pa.

Taughinbaugh, W. A., Gettysburg, Pa.

Taylor, Ralph S., West Chester, Pa.

Ullrich, L. L., Biglerville, Pa.

Weidner; A. T Arendtsville, Pa.

Wolfe, C. A., Aspers, Pa.

Wolfe, Harry E > .Aspers, Pa.

Wolff, Dr. W. E., Arendtsville, Pa.

Wolf, Charles M York Springs, Pa.

Weaver, Mrs. C. M., New Oxford, Pa.

Weaver, David I Biglerville, Pa.

Wilson, B. F., Biglerville, Pa.

Weaner, Chas. C, Bendersville, Pa.

Weaner, W. C, Aspers, Pa.

Wertz, D. M., Quincy, Pa.

Wible, R. E., Gettysburg, Pa.

Wickershani, Ruth A., Bendersville, Pa.

Wickersham, Robt. A., Bendersville, Pa.

Wright, Ryland, Aspers, Pa.

Wright, T. F., Aspers, Pa.

Williams, J. L., Gettysburg, Pa.

Walter, J. C, Biglersville, Pa.

Williams, M. I., Gettysburg', Pa.

.Wright, F. Walter, Bendersville, Pa.

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Feed the Tree!

C|| Dempwolf 's Spring Special Brand has proven highly
effective as a Fertilizer for orchards.

Analysis

Lininonia,

2%

Formula :

Ingredients Used for Ammonia:

Nitrate of Soda.

Ground Fish.

Dried Ground Blood.

High Grade Animal Tankage.

Dempwol(*s Special Ammonia and
Phosphoric Acid Compound.

Ingredients Used for Phosphoric
' Acid:

Dissolved Phosphate.

Ground Fish.

High Grade Animal Tankage.

Dempwolf*s Special Ammonia and
Phosphoric Acid Compound.

Potash (Soluble in water). 10% Ingredients Used for Potash :

Muriate of Potash.

Available Phosphoric Acid, 7 %

Ask Your Local Agent jot this Brand, or write direct to

York Chemical Works

YORK, PENNA.

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^ »

PLANT SCHELL'S

Highest Quality

Garden Seeds

They Grow Better They Yield Better

Absolutely the Best

You Fruit Growers

Can double your profits by growing a big crop of BEANS,
PEAS, BEETS, LETTUCE, MELONS, and other good,
quick selling vegetables. Wholesale or retail the whole crop
and have it sold and your money made before your fruit comes
in. Many of My Customers Are Doing This, Why Don*t You?

Special Prices for Quantities

I CAN FURNISH YOU

The Highest Quality Seeds

Such as will give you the very best crops

FANCY RED CLOVER, ALSIKE, CRIMSON, AL-
FALFA, VETCHES, COW PEAS, SEED
POTATOES, SEED CORN

Write me for what you want — Send for my Seed Catalogue

WALTER S. SCHELL

Quality Seeds

1307-1309 Market Street, HARRISBURG, PA.

lb

Get FIRS T Prize
For Your Fruit

Spray with Bowker's "Pyrox"

and secure fruit that is free from insect dam-
age and fungus disfigurement. "PYROX" fills
the Barrel with the kind they used to put on
top. Fifteen more perfect apples on the tree
pay the bill.

Bowker's Lime Sulphur

for all scale insects is made heavy and rich, and
for that reason is more effective than lighter
mixtures; and as a rule it costs no more. When
you clean up your trees with Lime Sulphur, be
sure to use Bowker's for it is the kind you can
rely on to do effective work.

WE SHIP FROM BALTIMORE

WRITE FOR AGENCIES TO

BOWKER

INSECTICIDE CO.

43 Chatham Street, Boston, Mass.

E. C. TYSON, State Agent, Flora Dale, Pa.

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CONSTITUTION

Preamble.

Being interested in fruit growing and believing that, by organization, we
may materially advance our common interests, we hereby adopt the following
Constitution and By- Laws.

Article I. — Name.

This Association shall be known as The Fruit Growers' Association of
Adams County.

Article II. — Object.

The object of this Association shall be to encourage the co-operation
of the fruit growers of Adams County for the protection and advancement
of their common interests.

1st. By securing and disseminating such scientific and practical informa-
tion as shall promote the general advancement of the fruit growing interests
in this county, and shall tend to the improvement of the quality and
quantity of our products.

2d. By securing such legislation as may be advantageous, and prevent-
ing that which may be detrimental.

3d. By securing such improved facilities in transportation as shall tend
to give us more expeditious and economical distribution.

4th. By endeavoring to secure a better and more uniform system of
packing and package.

5th. By devising some system of marketing our products which will
open up and develop the markets and give to the grower a fair and remunera-
tive return.

6th. And by endeavoring to obtain such improved systems of crop re-
porting as shall furnish, through co-operation with other similar Associa-
tions, accurate information concerning production; thereby enabling the
fruit grower to know the exact situation.

Article III. — Membership.

1st. Candidates for membership may be elected by a majority vote of
the members present, and upon the payment of $1.00 into the treasury shall
be entitled to membership until the next Annual Meeting.

2d. Any member may renew his membership by the payment of annual
dues, but upon failure to pay dues within three months after Annual Meet-
ing, shall require re-election.

3d. No member shall receive the benefit of commissions or of co-
operative buying by the Association, to an amount greater than $1.00 for the
term of one year after election to membership.

Article IV. — Dues.

The annual dues of this Association shall be One Dollar, ($1.00) pay-
able to the treasurer at the meeting immediately preceding the annual meet-
ing, for which the Treasurer shall issue a receipt, this receipt to constitute
a certificate of membership for the succeeding year.

Article Y.— Officers.

Its officers shall consist of a President, a First, Second, Third, Fourth
and Fifth Vice President, a Recording Secretary, a Corresponding Secre-
tary, and a Treasurer, all of whom shall be elected by ballot at each An-
nual Meeting, to serve for the term of one year or until their successors
shall be chosen. These nine (9) elective officers shall constitute an Execu-
tive Committee.

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I GET THE BEST^

•J- A Good Spra},^ Pump earns big profits and lasts for ^ears ±

% •^

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THE ECLIPSE

• • Is a good pump. As practical fruit growers we were using the V

i; common sprayers in our orchards, found their defects and then in- ••

•^ vented the Eclipse, Its success practically forced us into manufac- !•

M turing on a large scale. You take no chances. We have done all ;;

II the experimenting.
II Large Fully Illustrated Catalogue and Treatise on Spraying— FREE

ii MORRILL & MORLEY, MFG. CO., Benton Harbor Mich. |

I EDWIN C. TYSON, Distributor. Flora Dale Pa. y

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Articlk VI. — Quorum.

Five (5) members shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of
busmess.

Artici,u VII. — Amendments.

The Constitution and By-Laws of this Association may be amended at
any regular meeting by a two-thirds vote of the members present, a notice
of the proposed amendment having been presented in writing at a previous
regular meeting.

ARTICI.E Will.— Fruit Districts.

For the purpose of distributing the work of the Association and ex-
tending its scope, the County of Adams shall be divided into the follow-
ing seven (7) districts: District One, or North District, to consist of
Menallen Township; District Two, or West District, to consist of Franklin
Township; District Three, or Southwestern District, to consist of Highland,
Liberty and Hamiltonban Townships; District Four, or South District, to
consist of Cumberland. Freedom and Mt. Joy Townships, and that portion
of Straban Township lying south of the Western Maryland Railroad; Dis-
trict Five, or Eastern District, to consist of Germany, Union, Conowaga,
Mt. Pleasant, Oxford, Reading, Berwick and Hamilton Townships; Dis-
trict Six, or Northeastern District, to consist of Latimore, Huntingdon and
Tyrone Townships ; District Seven, or Central District, to consist of Butler
Township and that portion of Straban Township lying north of the West-
ern Maryland Railroad.

Article IX. — Committees.

The following five (5) committees shall be appointed annually by the
newly-elected Executive Committee and announced at the January meeting,
as follows : A committee on programs, a committee on membership, a
committee on statistics, a committee on exhibits and a committee on crop
reports ; each committee shall be composed of one or two members from
each of the seven (7) districts of Adams County, as designated in Art. 8,
and one or two from each of the Counties of York, Cumberland and
Franklin.

BY LAWS

Article I. — Duties of President.

The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association and have
a general supervision of its affairs.

Article II.— Duties of Vice Presidents.

The highest designated Vice President present at any meeting shall
preside in the absence of the President; all of the five vice presidents shall
serve on the Executive Committee in conjunction with the other elective
officers ; and, in addition, each vice president shall have special duties as
follows :

The First Vice President shall l)e chairman of the program committee,
anc4 be responsible for the preparation of a program for each regular meet-
ing, same to be announced at the preceding meeting.

The Second Vice President shall be chairman of the membership com-
mittee, and shall use every effort, personally and through members of his
committee, to extend the membership and secure renewals.

The Third Vice President shall be chairman of the committee on sta-
tistics, and shall be responsible for the preparation of statistics showing
number of orchards in Adams County, and, as far as possible, in Yprk,
Cumberland and Franklin Counties, with quantity, age, kind and variety of
trees planted therein, for the use of the Association, adding thereto as
new orchards are planted or old ones extended.

20

"Keystone Farm Right"

Djniamite

Should be used by

PROGRESSIVE ORCHARDISTS

It advances tree growth from one to two years,
over old planting methods.

Mellows the Soil
Desirous Harmful Insect Life.
Conserves Moisture Over T>rought Periods.
Loosens up Soil Around Old Trees, afford-
ing greater root expansion, thus bringing
orchard back l^ normal bearing.

^'Keystone Farm Right" Dynamite

is Valuable in Removing Stumps and
Boulders, Breaking up Hardpan and
Subsoil, T)igging Post Holes and Ditches,
T>raining Wet and Marshy Land,

Write for Illustrated Booklet, ^^ Farming with Dynamite*'

Keystone National Powder Co.

EMPORIUM, PA.

SOLD IN ADAMS COUNTY BY

Lower Bros. R. L. Nesbit & Co. Basehoar & Mehring

Table Rock Dilltburg Littlestown

"-fl^

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N-

I

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A W

21

^•w ^^^ Fourth Vice President shall be chairman of the committee on ex-
Hibits, and have entire charge of securing fruit for exhibits and displaying
same as directed by the Association.

The Fifth Vice President shall be chairman of the committee on crop
reports, and have entire charge of collecting and compiling same for use
CI the Association.

Artici^e: lll.—Duties of Recording Secretary.

The Recording Secretary shall write the minutes of the meetings of the
Association and have charge of its Records and Reports.

Artici^e: lY.~Duties of Corresponding Secretary. =

The Corresponding Secretary shall conduct the correspondence of the
Association and shall receive for so doing his necessary expenses for sta-
tionery postage, etc. He shall also act as Recording Secretary in the ab-
sence of that officer.

ARTICI.S v.— Duties of Treasurer.

The Treasurer shall receive and keep an accurate account of all moneys
belonging to the Association, paying out same on an order of the Association
signed by the President. He shall make a report of all receipts and disburse-
ments at the annual meeting or at any time at the request of the Associa-
tion. He shall mail a notice of dues to all members one week prior to the
November meeting, at which time all dues are payable, and shall issue cer-
tihcates of membership in exchange for all dues received. He shall also
keep a roll of members who have complied with Article IV of the Con-
stitution and embody same in his annual report.

Artici^e: YL— Duties of the Executive Committee.

The Executive Committee shall have general supervision of the affairs
ot the Association, auditing all bills and accounts and carryini? out the Dur-
poses of the Association. ^

Artici^s Vll.— Meetings.

There shall be a regular meeting of the Association on the second Satur-
day of each month at 7:30 p. m., unless otherwise ordered. The meeting
held in December to be regarded as the Annual Meeting. Special meetings
may be convened by the Executive Committee at such time as they may ap-
point. J ^

Artici^e: Vlll.—Initiation of Officers.

All new officers shall assume the duties of office at the opening of the
ineeting immediately following the one at which they were elected, except
that the newly-elected Executive Committee shall prepare and announce at
the January meeting the membership roll of the five (5) committees speci-
tied in Art. 9, and the chairman of program committee shall prepare a pro-
gram for the February meeting and announce same at the January meeting

1st.
2d.

3d.

4th.

5th.

6th.

7th.

Article: IX.— Order of Business.

Reading of minutes of previous meeting.
Nominations and elections.
Reports of committees.
Deferred business.
Communications.
New business.
Discussion of questions.

22

23

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II

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Proprietor

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A-

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PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

NINTH ANNUAL CONVENTION

OF THE

FRUIT GROWERS ASSOCIATION

OF

ADAMS COUNTY, PA.

The Ninth Annual Convention was called to order by the
President, Robert M. Eldon, at 2:00 p. m., Wednesday, December
17, 1913, in Fruit Growers' Hall, Bendersville, Pa.

The convention was opened with prayer by the Rev. D. T.
Koser.

Following a few well chosen words of welcome by the Presi-
dent, the program was proceeded with as follows :

SOME IMPORTANT INSECT PESTS AND THEIR

CONTROL.

By Dr. John P. Ste:wart, Experimental Pomologist, State College,

Pa,

The insects that we shall consider chiefly in this discussion are
the aphids and red bugs of the apple. All the fruit-growing regions
of America are affected by the apple aphids, while the red bug in-
juries are thus far largely confined to the Middle Atlantic States
and Ontario. The apparent absence of the latter insects from other
regions, however may be due to insufficient observation or reports.

These pests are not especially closely related though both are
sucking insects. Fortunately they appear at about the same time
and can be controlled with the same materials which may usually
be applied with the regular sprays already used in the best orchard
practice without increasing the number of applications.

The Apple Aphids.

Five species of aphids infest the apple. Their relative import-
ance varies somewhat with the locality and also with the age of
the trees. In the Eastern half of the country the species that are

25

26

usually worst are the woolly aphis, Schbonenra hmigera ; tht com-
mon apple aphis, aphis pomi; and the European grain aphis, 5//>/io-
coryne azmae. The rosy aphis. Aphis sorbi, is also becommg mi-
portant in some localities, and it appears to be the most serious form
in the apple growing sections of the Far West. Besides these the
clover aphis. Aphis hakeri, uses the apple, pear, quince and haw-
thorn as winter hosts, and occurs actively on them in late fall and
early spring. It has been noted especially in Colorado and the Far

West.

The wooly apple aphis is readily distinguished from the others
by the fact that it becomes practically covered with a bluish-white
waxv substance secreted from its abdomen. It also infests the roots
as well as the tops, which is not true of any of the other species
found on apples. It has been discovered very recently that the
apple, pear and hawthorn are really only the secondary or ^summer
hosts of this aphid— notwithstanding the fact that its "agamic"
forms usually remain on them throughout the year— and that the
elm is the real or primary host for the sexual generation and also
for the first two spring broods and part of the third, all of which
have been quietly operating for years under another name.

This is just the reverse of the host relation which the apple
bears to the four other species. It also makes evident the hitherto
unsuspected practical fact that both nurseries and orchards should
be kept at a safe distance from all susceptible species of elms, and
under no circumstances should such elms and apples be raised in
the same nursery.

The insect itself varies from a light green to a dark rusty-
brown color, and it attains a maximum length of about two milli-
meters, or a twelfth of an inch. As multiplication proceeds the
colonics gradually develop into small cottony masses, which are
fairly conspicuous above ground, where they occur especially on
succulent twigs or round abrasions or scars left by the pruning. In
these situations their feeding usually results in objectionable swell-
ings or calluses, which often distort the twigs and delays healing.

Their presence above ground almost always indicates that
others are feeding on the roots, where they develop conspicuous
gall-like swellings or knots. These knots usually result in the
death of the affected roots in a comparatively short time unless
the injury is checked. This injury is especially severe on young
trees, and the insect is usually distributed on nursery stock, by
means of which it has already been carried to practically every im-
portant apple-growing region in the world. For this reason all
such stock should be carefully inspected for the typical enlarge-
ments, especially on the roots and the diseased trees should either
by rejected or else all signs of infestation should be removed and
the remaining roots dipped or thoroughly sprayed.

This is probably best accomplished with a kerosene emulsion
diluted to contain about fifteen per cent, of kerosene, or with a
tobacco extract diluted at the rate of one part of the extract to ^wt

f
i

m

27

or six hundred parts of water. One or two minutes is sufficient for
the dipping, after which the trees should be spread out and dried
for a few minutes before planting or heeling in.

When this aphis becomes serious on the roots of trees already
planted the only method of control that has proved really effective
is partially to expose the principal infested roots by drawing the
soil away for a distance of two to four feet from the trunk, and
to saturate this area with kerosene emulsion at a strength of about
ten per cent, of kerosene. From two to seven gallons of emulsion
will be required to saturate properly such an area, and the soil
should be replaced immediately after the application. As indicated
by work in Georgia, where this pest is often very severe, the safest
and best time for these applications is apparently during the season
of active growth, and not later than the middle of July. In this
work the kerosene emulsion not only killed all the aphids wherever
it came in contact with infested roots, but its fumes remained in
the soil for several months and served as an effective repellant
against any return of the pest to the principal roots. Other ma-
terials which were found relatively unsatisfactory in this work were
tobacco dust and stems, carbon bisulphide, solutions of whale-oil
soap, kainit and common salt. Mr. Smith estimates the damage
caused by this aphis to ht about fifteen per cent., or $150,000, an-
nually for the state of Georgia alone.

This same treatment is likely to be effective against the root-
infesting form of the black peach aphis. Aphis persicaeniger. This
is a native species with habits similar to those of the woolly apple
aphis, but occurring on the peach, especially in the Middle Atlantic
states. The aerial forms oir both insects can be controlled by the
methods indicated for the aphids described later.

The Other Apple Aphids. — Unlike the woolly aphis the other
apple aphids confine their attacks almost wholly to the foliage
and tender shoots, though some of them also attack the young fruit
directly. These attacks result in curled leaves, stunted twigs, and
clusters of dwarfed, misshapen and worthless fruit. They also emit
considerable quantities of honeydew, which spreads over the foli-
age and fruit, attracting ants and furnishing the culture medium for
a black and sooty fungous growth. This growth is harmless, but is
nather disfiguring, and it is due to certain genera — Apiosorium, Cap-
nodium, etc., of the burnt-wood fungi, the Pyronomyostes.

Only one of these aphids remains on the trees throughout the
season. This is the common or green apple aphis, and it is appa-
rently confined entirely to the apple, pear and hawthorn. The
other three species use the apple merely as their winter and spring
host, developing only their first two or three broods on it. Then
they practically vanish, usually by the first of July or earlier. This
disappearance is simply a migration to other plants, on which the
summer generations are developed. In the case of the grain aphis
the summer host plants are the small grains and grasses, while those
of the clover aphis are the clover and alfalfa. The summer host of

"^mi:

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28

the rosy aphis is not yet known. In the fall, about with the earliest
frosts, winged forms of all these species again appear on the apple
and give rise to the true males and females, which in turn produce
the wintering eggs.

All five species pass the winter in the egg stage, though the
woolly aphis also regularly hibernates in the active stage on the
roots.' The eggs are small, black, shining, oval bodies,— those of
the common aphis measuring about .24 by .6 of a millimeter. They
are laid chiefly on the terminal twigs, except those of the woolly
aphis, which are occasionally found in crevices on the trunk near
the ground. Recent observations by Miss Patch in Maine and by
others in Oregon have shown that the elm is the regular winter
host for the eggs and attendant generations of the latter insect, and
the occurrence of its eggs on the apple is therefore probably acci-
dental and of no value to the species. The eggs of the other species
are readily found throughout the winter on apples or related trees,
especially round the buds or in the crotches and small crevices on

the twigs.

Characteristics of the Different Species.— It is rather hard
to distinguish the eggs of the different species. Those of the rosy
aphis are only about half as large as those of the common aphis
and are somewhat more pointed at the ends.

In the active stage the rosy aphis is probably best distinguished
by the presence of two pairs of minute tubercles on the segments
just above the tail. The mature wingless female is about a tenth of
an inch long. In color and general appearance this species varies
decidedly in the different seasons. In early spring the first broods
are greenish blue, covered with a white powder. About the first of
Tune pink or salmon-colored forms appear. With fuller maturity
these latter forms develop wing pads, whereupon they are called
pupae. Still later they change to brownish or black-winged mi-
grants. In late October the small, whitish, egg-laying females ap-
pear, and remain on the trees until killed by the more severe frosts,
usually in the latter part of November.

This species confines its attacks almost wholly to the leaves
and it seems to prefer those on the fruiting spurs. The injury to
these leaves is so severe that the adjacent fruit usually remains
small and becomes gnarled and deformed into the so-called gall
apples, which may stick to the tree long after the leaves have fallen.

The common apple aphis when full grown is about two milli-
meters, or a twelfth of an inch, long in all generations except the
first and last, in which the adults do not exceed a sixteenth of an
inch in length. The mature forms of all broods, except the males
and egg-laying females which appear in late fall, are light green,
with black antennae, head and thorax, and black honey-tubes or
cornicles. The m.ales are pinkish brown and wingless, while the
mature egg-laying females are lemon-yellow and also wingless.

The European grain aphis resembles the common apple aphis
in general appearance and color but the wingless females are dis-

r

i

\

!**

29

♦

tinctly smaller and have transverse, spindle-shaped bands of darker
^reen across the abdomen. Their cornicles are also shorter, lighter
•colored, enlarged at the middles and flared at the tips. The winged
forms are darker and lack the transverse ])ands, but they may be
•distinguished by the short outer fork in the median vein at the tip
of the fore wing.

The adults of the first brood of the clover aphis vary from a
dark green, streaked and mottled with red to a deep dark red.
The cornicles are very short and ])ale yellow. The second genera-
tion is light green or yellowish green, while the summer genera-
tions on clover are pink or yellowish, with a large, pale, orange-
colored spot round the base of each cornicle.

Methods of Control. — The eggs of most species begin hatch-
ing about as the buds start swelling, or slightly earlier. The aphids
immediately move to the tips of the buds and begin crowding and
w^orking their way down among the green unfolding leaves — a habit
which enables them to reach protected situations quickly. Now is
the psychological moment for their control. The young lice — or
stem-mothers, as this generation is called — are weakest and least
protected just at this stage, and they can now be destroyed most
readily by thorough applications of the proper sprays.

The most eft'ective material is probably a tobacco extract, al-
though a seven per cent, kerosene emulsion is also satisfactory,
especially if it is not combined with other material. Tobacco ex-^
tracts may apparently be combined with any of the lime-sulphur
sprays without reduction in the effectiveness of either constituent.
For the aphis a solution containing about .05 of one per cent, of
nicotine suli)hate is required. Hence such a preparation as ''Black-
Leaf 40," which contains at least forty per cent, of this sulphate can
he diluted at the rate of one to 800, or about a pint to 100 gallons
of spray mixture.

If these materials are to be used alone it is best to add a little
dissolved soap, at the rate of one or two pounds to fifty gallons of
spray material, to increase their spreading and wetting qualities.
If they are added to lime-sulphur, however, the soap is not needed,
and it may even be objectionable if arsenate of lead is also to be
used.

\\1iere the San Jose scale is present and the amount of spray-
ing is not too great per machine, it will probably be best to defer the
scale spray, and then use the combined sulphur and nicotine spray
in a single ap])lication for both scale and aphids, and also for apple
scab and the red bugs. As a rule the scale strength of lime-sulphur
— 1.03 s])ecific gravity — can be used on apples without material in-
jury, at least until the pink begins showing in the tips of the blos-
soms. This should allow several days for most effective and eco-
nomic spraying. If the scale is absent or otherwise provided for,
the present period can be devoted to scab, aphids and red bugs, and
the lime sulphur strength reduced to about i.oi.

The necessity for extremely thorough work against the aphids

li

I

30

may be understood when it is realized that all the individuals ni the
spring and summer are agamic females. These forms reproduce
without fertlization, the young being born alive and numbering from
fifty to one hundred from each individual. The latter reach ma-
turity in about two or three weeks in the earlier broods, and in a
week or ten days during the summer. The earlier broods are
usually wingless, although winged forms may often appear in the
second or third generation, and they become more common as the
season advances or as the necessity for migration arises. A single
escaping insect in the spring may therefore be represented by many
colonies and many millions of descendents before fall.

The Apple Red Bugs.

The apple red bugs are about a quarter of an inch long in the
3dult stage, and range from 1.2 to 4.3 millimeters long in the va-
rious nymphal stages. There are two species affecting the apple,
one of which is called the red bug and the other the false red bug
although the latter is the redder.

The nymphs of both species are a brillinat tomato-red at first,
with a few dusky markings. The latter becomes more prominent
with increasing maturity, especially about the thorax and head in
the case of the red bug. This insect in its adult stage may become
nearly black over the fore part of its body, while its dorsal surface
is covered with white scalelike hairs. The false red bug lacks these
hairs and its beak is light colored or translucent, w^ith a dusky tip.

The eggs of both species are laid in twigs, preferably in two-
vear-old wood, late in June or early in July. Those of the red bug
are inserted in slits made in the bases of fruit spurs ; those of the
other bug are inserted in pairs in the lenticels. The former begin
hatching soon after the fruit buds open and are through when the
blossoms open. The latter hatch about a week later.

The young nymphs are rather shy, but are very active. The
first indication of their presence is likely to be the clusters of minute
reddish dots on the voung leaves, caused by the punctures of their
needle-like beaks. Their presence may be determined earlier by
placing branches of bearing wood in water any time after March
1st, to fore out the buds. If present the brilliant-red nymphs should
appear soon after the leaves.

As soon as the fruit is set they begin feeding on it. The fruit
punctured most severely usually drops ; that remaining on the tree
may mature, but it becomes dwarfed, knotty and practically worth-
less. I have found a reduction of more than sixty-one per cent, in
the size of infested apples.

The habits of the bugs, together with experiments and com-
mercial practice in New York, indicate that the best times to spray
for these insects are : t. Between the opening of the buds and petals
for the red bug. 2. Immediately after petals fall for the false red
bug and for stragglers from the earlier species. Nicotine solutions

31

- the -engtjs i^^u;-^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ z^'SlJr:^:^:^

f te :;" cliun I on^o; iLe'-sulphur. and if scale is not m^
^ 1 .H hTs forn is probal^ly best for both sprays. The usual lead
I^sl'nate tr the appfe wornfcan be added in the second spray w:th-
out reduction in efficiency.

Scale Parasites.

,, this- connection I have been ^^^^^ ^^ ^J^^^^l

present status of the scale Pf =^f t^^;, T.*?'^ '^^^ " >een four species
U so far as I have been aJ>le to lear.. here ha e be. ^^^^ P,^^;^

of internal parasites of ^V.^^S^j^J^;™" identified by Dr. L. O.
dnrinc the past season. 1 hese species, as i"JC"i' j

Howard'of\he Bureau of Entomology W
ported in the Tribune-Farmer oi Nm. 23, 1913^

Aphelinus fuscipenms (Howarcl).

Prospaltella perniciosi (Tower).

Signiphora negrita (Ashmead).

their exact -"elation to the s ak is not so we ^^ especially

The first one, ^^M^^^"^/' ^,'£,7 w G Johnson, in 1898, and
abundant m Maryland ^Y .P'^o^^^f^'^ it is eiven in bulletin No. 57-

an account of 1^^ '^''^^''^■"''7:. brieflv reported in bulletin No. 62
of the Maryland Station, ^fl^lso briefly repom yj^^ed in

of the Federal Bureau of/"«^f°fy^JtS a number of species
1906. This bulletin also gives a bnet accoum ui

of internal parasites of the scak f^^ as de-

None of these ^P^c'es therefore is ^^f^ J , ^^„,^,„, ,/,,>.
termined at i^resent, and ,n one '"^f!*""^ \'^^; ' , or. Henry Skin-
itus. it is held by some t-ntomol«^^^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^is

ner. of the Academy of Natural be ene .^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^_

species is not a parasite of the ^^^^'e ^t ^u. o ^^^^^ -^ ^

asite probably infesting the eggs of ^^^e f 'e para ^^^^

friend rather than an enemy of the '-j';- ^'^J; ,,„til the exact
sible danger of a wule transfer of ^^^^^^f^;^*^/ determined,
nature of the parasites on them has been oe y ^^^^^^^ ^^^^

Also, notwithstanding the fact that ' 7^, .%. parasites during
undoubtedly been obtained, from Uiyvorkoni^^^^ ^^J^

the past season. It is inadvisable ^ pl^ee to° m ^^^^^^^

insects until their activities have been observea o^ ^hundant

asites extending over a number of seasons.

!

PROBLEMS OF AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE.

Hrnry T. Cox, Geneseo, N. Y.

I am -lad to 1)e with you and to present a paper on the subject
of drainage, with emphasis on its benefits to the fruit grower.

IntelHeent agricultural pursuits bring men m closer ouch with
nature and nature's forces, than does any other occupation extant
and he of a thoughtful mind and keen habits of observation must

"^" wite'r'tTe mMrtt^continual change^ Look which way
we will, the evidence is before us. There is "« be;7/l^l";tration of
this than we have in the tree, the bare branch, the buds, the leat,
the blossom, and the matured fruit.

We often think that we start something, when a little study
will convince us that we have only stepped on the moving platform
of change, and have done our little part, sometimes with satisfac-
tory results, but often by neglecting the rule of the forge to weld
the iron when the heat is right." we fail to reach the success that

'' ^"ef natural forces the earth's surface conformation is contin-
ually undergoing changes, as is the soil conditions. The earth in
Its primitive state, that which was not under water, was covered
with either tree or other lesser vegetable growth, in either case the
soil and subsoil was penetrated by innumerable root growths, and
the earth was enriched with the annual supply of humus, afforded
bv the decay of vegetation. After it becomes necessary to bring the
soil under ailtivation. the process destroyed all this root growth in
the soil, leaving it filled with innumerable small passages. These
admitted of drainage in a measure, and also aeration. After
generations of tillage, in a great majority of our soils the store of
humus has been too heavily drawn upon, the soil has become more
compact, the natural drainage referred to has become inoperatrve
both bv natural process, as well as by shallow plowing and tilling
the soil when it is too wet. a process that is apt to create the plow
soil" that we read about. In all this, capillary attraction has been
sadly interfered with, and soil conditions are far from normal.

I was converted to the economy and profit of tile drainage ot
land when vet a mere lad. The transformation of acres returning
meagre crops, often showing more loss than gain, into acres that
produced magnificent crops and big profits, was. to me. an object
lesson I have never forgotten. Early impressions thus compel ed
me to become a disciple of drainage, and later a missionary in the

' The practice is much more prevalent than formerly. An old
Scotch weather prophet once met Lord Balfour and said : My lord,
we are going to have a long rain ; it's going to rain seventy-two

32

33

davs " "Come come," said the statesman, "the world was entirely
floSed when it rained for^t^^^jlays. .^'^^r' ^'' '^' '"'^P"""'

"''"'But Sh'lrthaTLt been done in "h^ way of farm drainage
a beginning has just been made. Thousands of acres of wha could
be Se our best and most profitable land lays entirely waste, and
moHiousands of acres are being cultivated at a loss because the
whole or parts of fields are too wet to be prepared properly for a
Top in season for planting or sowing, the sodden and lumpy con-
didon of the seed bed rendering impossible a profitable crop.

Yet thaVland is not poor though it produces very ."different
crops on the contrary, it is rich in elements o plant food. These
elements however, are under lock and key. The lock is the excess
ofTater' in Ihe sdl and subsoil: the key is t^.e J.le cl;ain^ An^
man k the annointed agent to manipulate the key. It is strange tnai
r does not no "often avail himself of this method and enter into
tt stSehouse of plenty, over which nature stands guard wUh ,^ k-
nninp- hand to him who has the password. Ihe longer our neiu;,
and farms have l,een under cultivation, the more need of drainage.
There^s more profit from a small acreage made thoroughly pro-
iSve than can result from a much larger proposition from which

P'''TrrrospSttr''agriculture and fruit production in this coun-
try wa n^er'more pro^mising than at the present time, ^mmigra-
tinn is attracted towards us from the four corners of the earth.
The demlnd for the necessities of life is on the increase, for a large
oercentTge of th s vast multitude that is steadily pouring in upon
ETo7the° consuming class, the factories of ;fecit,.t^e mining
inrlimtrv etc absorb ng the greater share. btiU, it w 11 oe genera
t^nf before ;il our lands that can be utilized for agricultural pur-

P'^'i^'JS owircoS; oTSngston and Monroe, which lay in
that section oT vestem^New York that holds an enviable record in
IgHculurand fruit raising, there are '-"^J-^^^f ,frund ; a^^^^
could be made our most productive lands that are not ""(!«'• tin
Sat on a^all and more hundreds of acres that are under tillage
hat ?ould be made doubly productive by P-P- /XTthe fir

ac?Sanyhig advantage each year of larger crops raised at less
pers<!n,ro£rSion, and in n,a„y of which I have g.v.n personal

IT

I

34
supervision, where for generations the fields and buildings had

f ihtndor-, z:^^:rs!^^!^z^

^"^ \rifn^'radSTlt is absolutely impossible to obtain satisfac-
tory'r^esuUri/thTfand is overcharg'ed with wate^.^ven or a part
r ii ^« TVi^ mpncrre retums received irom sucn laiiu wuuivi

""1^^'t £,j\tS*reTrl«n.ion. . .n, gomg ,o cUe
,w„ S,«^nci one of the latt of drainage, the other where dram-
age haf been erplojed. in apple orchards that have come under

'"'' S™ d'Jhttn-a'reTact was always referred ,o « the "Welch

?"„S^t l1;l:e;-v^f^.°'iir;S Jrf ;;ad^pd3

Id th s kept the whole lot cold and wet. This tract was bought by
Mr notv the oroprietor of Marlborough farm, and thor-
oughb dra'^nl tt >S?n' line of tile through the rim of the ba.n
beinJ over six feet deep for quite a distance. The crops that th s
faTdVar^roduced since'its drainage would be a story by .self bu
it is the orchard that I am gomg to tell about This was at me
front and on land somewhat higher than the level of the fie d The
varieties were Baldwins, Greenings, and R"sse s. The trees had
TsVck v desolate and abandoned appearance. What little fruit that
LTirownon it was. for quantity and quality, hardly worth pick-
ing upTor cider apples. \he orchard was thoroughly drained
mfni re was applied and it was brought under cultivation, witl the
Tesutthlt after one year's treatment it has produced annually a
fu crop of the finest apples grown in our Genesee Valley-and
that's '^oing some." The orchard, I may add, has received proper

'^'^^he other instance I have in mind is the twenty-acre orchard
Inown as the "Murphy Orchard." It was practically all Baldwins
pSed on a sandy!^ loamy soil with a clay and hardpan sub-soil
which was wet, although there was a gradual slope to the north and
Tast After coming into bearing it produced two or three fair crops
of apples bu? as the trees became older and the demands on the

».»

35

soil for sustenance increased the trees began to take on an appear-
ance of a seedv tramp orchard, and the production of marketable
fruit ceased. At this stage, a man who thought he knew how to
handle such an orchard, but who had been running a hardware
store, and reading orchard literature, rented the orchard for a term
of years, and began to fertilize, spray and plow the orchard He
had large ideas. The writer told the owner, at the time, that the
land that the orchard occupied was worth more for general agri-
culture that it would ever be worth for profitable apple production^
The result was, that the lessee lost his money, for the orchard
had stood so long with wet, cold feet that every tree was diseased
at heart, the branches and parts of the trees dying out every year-
and now they are planning to pull it out If this orchard had been
drained before it had become so reduced in vitality it could have
been brought back by the methods that were applied when it was

*°° My own orchard in Monroe County, which is on soil varying
from heavy Dunkirk clay to heavy loam, and all with a hardpan
subsoil, was drained by the former owner before planting the trees,
over thirtv years ago, it was wet land although sloping. Since my
ownership, it has been regularliy sprayed and pruned. but not as
thorough y cultivated as it should have been. \ et it has a great
record one year one thousand barrels of fruit and nearly two cars
of drops This year the crop, which was a light one as it was an
off year.' brought $1000. This six acres is the most profitable part
of the farm and thorough drainage must have the credit. For it
matters not that we buy the best trees plant with care manure and
spray and prune if drainage is not present either natural or ar-
t ficial failure is stamped on the venture from the beginning.

Mv paper thus far has treated the subject in a general way,
touching on needs, practice and results. We will now take up the
s^; ectin a more detailed way The appearance of trees and crop
growth will indicate where drainage is necessary. / J^ave seen
many fields where the wet parts have drained and after this had
been done these parts were dry and fit to work so much sooner than
ie parts that had been considered dry enough, that eventually the
whofe area was drained. It is a well-known fact that well drained
Ta d gets rid of the excess of water quicker and retains the nec-
esarv moisture longer than is the case where the land is nc^ dramed
but where the water must soak away or evaporate. A study ot the
iav of the land should be made as to best outlet, grade and depth
surface and subsoil conformation. I have studied some fields two
years or more before beginning operation, where conditions were
difficult. The watershed to be taken care of as we" as the general
erade of this watershed must be considered This to determ ne
fhe size of tiles to be used, as well as the distance apart of the
drains and their depth. In clay and hardpan subsoils 24 to 26
Tnches is deep enotigh for best results, while in easily drained soils
• Se depth can be greater. The distance apart of drams is to be

mm

36

governed by conditions. This will ^^^y/Xeraircomiecdng omo
location of the main and the angle of h^J.^^^f'^.^Thi? angle

times less. My experience has been that ''^^ Tf ^1 J^Xe by an

tained by running '^^^'^^Jl^^^^^^'Se T^Z^lreW
angle greater or less according to the siope. i ^^.,.,,^-p(| niore

JiJ: or soil water comine down th. f"!'"-. "' ''V„'^''''„tere if
rea<l,ly where ,he <'™''; ^/J J^J U* leTownt'tween

f-tIrsi^"r4"':?atr■°ret5;l\l;:;r;:w;,»l?«1esao

hS.ar filling in being done with plow and team. ^- -ds ,^ he

-" -nr ift gSiiifrtni-L^rs-:^^^

r'sXSoo 1 vd' 'a?l that is necessary, if water is rnnn.ng
;li leveT is neVessary. bt,t water makes a messy bottom, and the

"^''VrhavTd^^onltr't'ed t?our own satisfaction, that a machine
.nulled bv horse power which loosens up the dirt and throws i
I! Zf he'ditch atTe same time is a practical and economical
\uA ThP Cvclone Ditcher is the one referred to. It is operated
wfth° ix o?eiglS^ Worses If .ix. they must be good ones. They
with SIX oi^^ ^ , , evener. one team on either side of

Te'^di"; mS?of^thVrt'that is thrown out by the machine.

*I

37

The machine has a long axle so that the carrying wheels are directly
behind the teams. The cutter, which is similar to the one described
in the Junior plow but heavier, is raised and lowered by a screw
gear operated by the man on the seat, with a steering wheel in
front of him. The ditch is dug by passing back and forth o^•er it
a number of times, or, better yet. by going up one ditch and coming
back on another, thus saving short turning at the ends. The depth
of each cut is regulated by the man at the wheel, according to the
density of the soil and the strength of the teams. Two hundred
rods can easily be dug in a day to a depth of from twenty-four to
twenty-six inches, and in some instances even 300 rods, where the
drain J are laid out the whole length of the field. When a stone is
encountered it has to be removed with a pick or bar by a m^n jdio
follows the machine; then the loose dirt finally left in the bottom
is thrown out with rounder scoops made for the purpose. 1 o ope-
rate the machine requires two drivers, the man on the niach.ne
and the man that follows to remove stones. Where rocks are en-
countered, dynamite is used to remove them

The expense of the machine is $250. It will pay for itself m
one season's work, and there is practically no wear on the machine
excepting in the cutter, which is easily replaced. By its u e a fie d
can be fi^nished up quickly and in time ^o get the crop pant dm
season In steam or gasoline driven machines the Buckeye takes
he ?ead The machines cost from $.,500 to $2,500. can dig four
feet deep and fourteen inches wide, with the larger machines com-
pleting the ditch by once passing over it. so the tile can be la,d di-
?ec ly^)ehind the machine. The grade is kept accurate by targets or
TghL that are set along the line of the ditch. One hundred to
one hundred and fifty rods can be dug m a day.

Now as to the material in tile to be used. Formerly it was be-
lieved th^t porosity was essential in drain tile, that water migh
more readil^ enter the drain by filtering through the tiles. This
Seorv has long since been proven fallacious, as the water enter, at
he joints TUes made of clay and burned are porous and often
contains more or less of a lime deposit. When these pores fill with
wTter and freezing occurs and the lime slacks, expansion occurs and
Te tiles areTable to crumble. You will notice that where day tiles
av o fexposed to water and freezing they often crumble The hard
burne 1X0 shale tile are acknowledged to be the best for all pur-
noses although they may cost a little more. Are used for all
ate'al coSions. 'aH oints are fitted as close as possMe^

A ffood outlet to a drainage .system is of prime importance
If potfSe ha e a drop at thi.s point to allow of a free egress of
water The last six feet of an outlet should be sewerpipe. cemented
at the joints to prevent the water seeping out under the ties and
eventuih indermining the foundation. The outlet should be built
u fof cl-rete or stones laid in cement, with a foundation deep
e loueh to prevent heaving and consequent breaking up.

A heavy galvanized door or floodgate should be placed over

hi

38

TViic U made bv taking a piece of heavy gal-
the outlet opening. This is made i)y w s onening when bent
vanized sheet iron large enough to ^*^^ ^^ J^f ^ J^ ,t ?f the center
double, and riveting these together, ^ P/f ^^;%'; ^^ ^rd is passed .
where it doubled over and a lo"g ?>" ^^^ '^s doubled ovL and
through. Then another p.ece >" '^^J^j;^ J £lt into the con-

"•"^"^ '"/'^nrthcM''- In at nS Hl^L a big hinge.. It is self

Crete on top of the lie. /"J^^V opening when no water is running

acting, '■^"^^'"'"g f/; °;:;t rinrr.^^^^^ ^"^1 fl«^^'"g '"^ '^''

to prevent animals trom entermg, anu &

iall, leX'-l.a,. t^ll b. near .l,e oml.t o,, 0„ «,a. ^^;^'^^J^'\l
"'" '!;;l„* " „r„„8 ,»int is .0 have a^,/- ""''"^.f .Stwh.-

o„ ,l,e bottom of 'l- <l"f* 'X''y,t,: i'f^nJH IVn fill i"
t es over joints of the toaras. >-yi>"" 1; . ,.., • j; properly

:;S,tn'r;si';r':vr:!l f 5r ™ S»ne i'hii

osity and retards drainage. . ^ ^,^^i„

. ,.i;, ^f -r iri""'fi,tlr If,:. Itso,,. ...iciah, ,„ has,.,

X?rovrr.?>;\r™sStS%. |so^^^^^

be hncil with plank or cen.enl «ith the top e>.tenat g "»
six inches alx've the surromKhng gro.n,, , his 1"' ^="' »\^,
with cobblestones to ••», toP; an.l ronn.l >l up No" ;<^ fi« '
ntaterial h. the water will settle o ^iJe H « »'■ " IJ' » ;„,„ ,|,e

riihK-e a"'4 ^" 1""° s!' s"iir;t"So;!;'"i;;.au." h. 'i;i:

i !~5i=t^^i^Mi;^--^^

lis ivrLiii/-ins "»" • . 1 ^ 4-Uo f^rtiliiv rtishes awav witn tne

f :r,?ow"1«s! '.r^:.': «; laml /re'^JpidlyVlliiig up vvitb the

direct iiow, basin tracis di ^^^^^ ^ith the runoff from

annual accumu ation of . t'- ^^ -^Son and loose, as well as
Stdtn th:wsTn^t spring when the ground is thawed out

■■►

M

39

for an inch or so in depth, and the snow water passes off rapidly,

this filling up is augmented. • . , j • „,i .ir^^'t mn

In case there is a low wet spot that is to be drained, don t run
directly through its center, but skirt its upper side, capturing the
wSer before it gets to the low point and getting better depth for
the drain. A friend of mine had done some drainage on his farm
He had run the line of tiles up through the center of a hollow. He
wanted to know why the slope above was still wet. and why when
he dug test holes in the ground a short distance f'-o'" the drain up
the slone thev filled up with water. I told him that if the dram
was at ?h; upper edge o' this slope and fairly deep 't wou d dry bo h
slope and hollow. And it always does. In running a drain up
through a gully, have it, if possible, a little to one side of the old
water courfe for the dirt that has been dug out and rep aced is
TlwavsToo'e and surface water runoflf will soon cause erosion that
wHl eat its way right down to the tiles. It is best in such case to
plow down from either side until the center is raised so much that
the surface water will be divided and pass along the sides.

The cost of ordinary drainage per acre, that ,s under average
conditions, with hand labor and placing the laterals three rods apart
wo be from $40 to $45- By using the plow as have descnbed
earlier in this paper, the labor can be materially reduced, and when
Se Cydone Ditther is used the expense or initial investment in

'"■^•Tmartho'lmLri'nds the great mechanical and chemical
change that occurs in the soil after drainage can ever say that he
cannot afford the expense, for it is "O^ an expense atal, but a
investment— and a better one is hard to find. The nan who is
progress' ve enough to drain his land usually follows up the work by
fhorough preparation of his fields for cropping, and m using the
ece° ary 'fertilizers. He now gets bigger crops, more hay and

Xr fodder and grains, ^^^-^^^^^r'^,''^ ^^^^^i i Uo
lowed by more manure for fertilizer, etc., etc. He has worked into
a hKl of circle that under wise management, never |-ws less In
the orchard, tile drainage means more and larger fruit of better
color and qualitv, and this gives the orchard a reputation, a point of

utmost importance to the fruit grower. r.^.^^n ^re ^

The present prices for .Irani tile delivered at Geneseo are 3

inch $17.60: 4 i"ch $24.50: 6 inch $50.75: a"d 8 '"^^ $7f 70.

\Vet land is the poor man's opportunity, and the rich man s

snoil Past generations have been leaving the annually increasing

supply of pla^it food in the soil and this is now a valuable asset to

the nresent owner. Will he avail himself of it

'The earth fresh from a wise Creator's lavish hand was perfect
Here man was given charge that he by proper methods should

the elements develop and combhie that sustenance might be provided

for rrenerations to come.

"l will tell you to-morrow of some great contrasts m crop pro-
duction from the same land, before and after drainage.

Thanking you for your close and respectful attention, I am
ready to attemin to answer (|uestions.

Corn Growing and Improvement.

Prof. Frank D. Gardner. Department of Agronomy, Pennsyl-
vania State College.

An average acre of corn in Pennsylvania produces more food
valne than an equal area of any other staple crop, exceptnig pota-
toes Corn fits into our rotation without conflictmg very seriously
with other crops for labor for men and teams. It has a wide range
of adaptation/ so far as soil is concerned. It has a long growing
season; and therefore, fully occupies the soil and utilizes the p ant
foods which become available throughout the season of plant
erowth These are some reasons why corn is a good crop to grow
in Pennsylvania. When we compare the production of corn per
acre between the corn growing states and Pennsylvania, we hnd
that corn in Pennsylvania gives us on an average better yields than
it does in the grain growing states where corn is the dominant crop.
When we compare the cost of production and returns per acre in
Pennsylvania with oats, wheat and hay. we find that corn gives a
larger net return per acre, and the chart which I have here bears
directly upon these facts. In the year 1909 the Bureau of Statis-
tics of the United States Department of Agriculture secured from
all over the United States a large number of careful estimates on
the cost of producing crops. These were tabulated and reported
in the Crop Reports 191 1. As a result of between three and four
careful estimates in Pennsylvania where all items under cost of
production have been taken into account, we get facts as sum-
marized in Table I which follows :

Table I.— Cost of Production and Profit per Acre on Staple

Crops.

Pennsylvania N. Atl. State's

Oats Wheat Corn Potatoes

Value of Laml $60. i5 $62.38 $62.00 $62_ 07

Yield per Acre, 35-6 l>u. 19^8 bu. 41 -7 Im. 138.0 bi .

Value per Bu $ -48 $1.02 $ .69 f o3

Value Grain per A '7-2i 20.10 2«.77

Value bv-products 3 -.34 i-^7 4 •2.-,

Total Value 20. 55 23.97 32.02 73-14

Tot.-.1 Cost '.}-89 16.68 17.W 38.82

Profit per A 6.66 729 "5.09 .34..32

(1909 crop) Crop Reporter 1911.

No report of the cost of production of potatoes in Pennsyl-
vania is given, but we do have the cost for the North Atlantic states.
It is probably not much different from the cost in Pennsylvania. It
costs a little more to produce an acre of corn than to produce an
acre of wheat or oats. The table shows a profit of $6.66 an acre

40

^

41

for' oats, $7.29 for wheat, and $15.09 in the case of corn, which
shows up decidedly in favor of corn, so far as profits are concerne
I gi^e ySu these figures to emphasize the statement that I made m
the very beginning-we should increase the acreage of corn rather
than ^clitninish^it^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^^^ .^^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^ ^^^,^^^ i,^„

otherwise, the next question is how can we improve the corn along
wi h the ncreased acreage. The first thing that the farmer needs
o do especially if he is not well provided with his own seed corn
is to secure new seed. Many Pennsylvania farmers have sent far
away f o"" ed corn, frequently sending out into the corn belt and
as / rule have been very much disappointed with the result, it
T. generaily much better to secure seed of a reliable grower who
grows it not too far away and under soil and climatic conditions
fhat are similar to those on which you expect to grow the croix If
von secure £rood seed grown under such conditions the chances are
IZ yoJ wiKt be dfsappointed in it. It i4?->-f y best to P-

chase seed corn in the ear. so that you can see '^^ ''/'TXaracter
to be in regard to type and uniformity and all of the ear character

''^'"After having the best seed that it is possible to start with, the
next sep is to improve that seed and make it still more desirable
for the locality This brings us to the question of seed selection-
how to e ec seed and what kind of seed to select under your con-
dhTons to improve that corn and make it more productive. The
clSrtbefoe^you shows the result of two methods of selection;
that is selection from the plant in the field as compared with selec-
t 01 Ster the corn is husked. It is easier to select fine ears of corn
from the corn after it is husked than it is to go out in the
fiekT and make the selection there, but we lose m our effort to
inmroJe co"n by selecting in the former way. because we can see
o TyTe ear ami cannot ie the stalks on which they grow nor the
conditbns under which they grew. We do not know whether the
^3 ear of corn came from a stalk that stood out by itself on a
go that was unu.sually fertile and consequently was large or
Kther it came from a hill where there were two or three^atk
under normal conditions: but if we select '^";>1^ .'?"/'', ^'^J^^^
An Tn that case we avou selecting ears from stalks especially
ftore becaise from such a selection we are uncertain whether
itrmTaiit we 'ee is inherent in the plant, or whether it is simply
due to f?vo able conditions. If we are selecting in the field, and
sTect fine ears under normal conditions, then we have reason to
iVope those Tars will prove to be larger an.l better producers than
those with which they come into coini)etition.

Table II.— Plant versus Ordinary Selection of Seed Corn.

^ ,. 68.64 bu.

Ordinary, 76.57 bu.

^ ,.P'a"t' 68.53 bu.

Ordinary '^ 70. 56 bu.

Plant. '

wmr^tu^mm

I ;
! i

H

.1

42

^ ,. 69.07 bu.

Ordinary, ^ 71.43 bu.

Ordmary ' -i ,43 bu.

Plant, ' ^^

Average for Plant Selection 72-49 bu.

Average for Ordinary Selection, ^9- 23 'hi.

Gain for Plant Selection, ^^'"^ ^O. A. E. S

The results in Table IT are not Pennsylvania figures but come
fronVthe oi^ Experimetit Station. In the ordn.ary selection we
£r in each compa'rison a lower yield than in i^nt -lect-^^
wA talp an averaee we have an nicrease ni yield ot 3.2.-, busneis pei
Tren favor o 'election from the plant, showing that there was
some nl^rent novve? in the ears selected under normal conditions
Xhtre good ears, and they had a tendency to produce more
Torn than equally good ears selected without that knowledge.

Table III -Influence of Previous Environment on Corn Yields.

VioUis when Crown^Three Stalks per P-uous pCondiUon^^ of

,906 1907 '908 Ave.

64 s 65. .1 55-8 61.8

2 (^o 66.1 54.6 62.2

We have here another chart showing the i"fl"f "^•^. "^ ,;'\^;';;j;^
I have heen speaking about, that is the environment. W e ha^e here
I instance in which corn was planted at the rate of one. two and
fhree ernel to the hill, seed being selected from each of these
ttee lot of cor and the seed was planted for three succeeding
years afterward, of course selectingeach year the best ears ha
were available for the following year's planting. For the first year
The vSw of corn from seed selected from plat having one stalk to
he hill wa 64.5 bushels per acre. From two stalks per I11I 1 wa
Sb 'he s per acre, and in the case of three stalks to the hill it was
TO Sisl els per .ere. What does this mean ? It means simply this
ihi tiie looc ears selected where the corn was planted at the usual
raJe of Plan ing were inherently good: those from one sta k per
hiU were goo chiefly becau.se of favoral>k conditions. As it was
folo'S up. planting good corn from each -- ,f ^^ f ^ J«^ J' ^f^
yea, the diflference seemed to dimini.sh. and in the third year there

'^ '^r sdSing conrSfneed. t^rst. to have the type in mind, just'
as we do in .selecting apples. Jersey cows or a certain breed of
swine We should have in mind certain characteristics that are typ-
cal That type is presumed to be the best of its kind. For med-
um maturii e dent corn the stalks should be 8, 9. and perhaps, 10
feTt Tl e'ght : iie ears should be borne at a height of approx.-

1.5

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too much uncovered co

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^ ,. 69.07 bu.

Ordinary ^ -.j ^^ l^^i

,, ,P^^"t' 70. Ss bu.

Ordinary ' ' i\.x^ 1)U.

Plant ' ^^

Average for Plant Selection, 7- -49 ||^-

Average for Ordinary Selection ZlZt—-—

Gain for Plant Selection '^''^^ ^'o. A. K. S

The results in Table IT are not Pennsylvania figures but come
f ronAt 01 i^ ExpeH^^^^^^ Station. In the orditutry -lectK>n we
^"in Lch compiison a lower yield than in pktnt -1^ ^^J^^
o fnl-.. -m nver-icre we have an ncrease ni vield of ^.2^ DuMitis pei
I^e ; i "vo o t ction from the plant, showing that there wa^
^ome nhe-e. t power in the ears selected under normal conditions
Z-h ve e go <1 ears, and thev had a tendencv to produce more
corn than equally good ears selected without that l<nowle<lge.

Table III.— Influence of Previous Environment on Corn Yields.

o. 11 ,. .^ Previous Condition of

Vi.Ws -.vlu.,, Croun Throe St,-,lks ,kt t,_>^;^>o^ ,.,^^^^^^ ^^^^ ,,(„

lllll.

,906 1907 '908 Ave.

2 <>6.o 6f..i .■^4'' "-•-

^^•e have here another chart showing the i"^"^'"-'.!;^;';^!;!;;?
T Irive l)eeu sneaking about, that is the environment. W c h.uc Here
I list- me in which corn was plante.l at the rate of one. two and
X -e e to the hill, see.l being selecte.l from each of these

ree 1< t^ of corn, an.l the seed was plante.l for three succeeding
^rV tervard, of course selecting. each year the best ears tla
were available for the following year's planting, hor the first ta
he v-e d of corn from see<l selecte.l from plat having ""e j^t;'" ^ ^"

e li va! 64.; bushels per acre. From two stalks per In i w >
66 1,1 s ,.er acre, an.l in the ca^e of three stalks to the hil it wa.
-o r bushels ner ;.cre. What does this mean 1 Tt means simply this
(ivit t he "ood ear> selecte.l where the corn was plaiite<l at the usual
rate of pluinug were inherently good: those from one stalk pei
hil urn goo.l chietlv because of favorabk conditions. .\.s U was
fil.:wed up. Plauting good orn from each '.- .;'^ ^^ ^.^ J^ ^^ ;'
year the difference seemed to dnuinish. and m the thud >ear tiitic^
is nracticallv no ditterence. . • i •,,.."

' ,1 sc' ecting corn we need, first, to have the type m niiiid. us
-IS we do in selecting apples, Jersey cows or a certain bree.l of
swi e We should have in' min.l certain characteristics that are typ-
ica Tl at tvpe is presumed to be the best of its kmd. I'or me.l-

um ma nil g dent 'corn the stalks shoul.l be 8. 9. and perhaps. .0
fee in height: the cars should be borne at a height of approxi-

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INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

Ill

44

mately four feet, and should be attached to the stalk by shanks that
are neither too long, too short, too large or too small. A short
shank is inclined to keep the ears too erect, and there will be a ten-
dency for the rain to get into the tip and cause damage to the corn.

If husking corn standing in the field, the average husker would
prefer ears that are on shanks of medium length and not too large.
Ears on such shanks break oflf more readily than if the shank is
too large. The stalks, of course, should be free from any diseases,
such as smut or rust. Diseased plants are less resistant than those
free from disease. The nodes should be short, for at each node a
leaf is borne. The more leaves the greater power of the plant to
convert the elements of air and soil into corn. Furthermore, when
we use the plant as a by-product, the leaves are the most palatable
and nutritious part of the plant, consequently the value of the by-
product is thereby increased.

The ears should be cylindrical in shape, with well filled ti])s and
butts. For a medium maturing variety of dent corn ears from
eight to ten inches long are eood size. An ear ten inches long should
be about seven and one-half to eight inches in circumference, two-
fifths the distance from butt to tip. The kernels of such an ear
should have a depth equal to one-half the diameter of the cob; in
other words, if the cob is broken in cross section and kernels on
opposite sides are tipped over, the crowns of the kernel should meet
at the middle of the cob. This chart will probably help us in our
discussion of the character of kernels we should find in a good ear.
(Chart omitted from report.)

Here we have kernels that are undesirable because they are
sharp-pointed and weak, and do not fully occupy the space around
the cob. Here are kernels much better in form because they fully
occupy the space around the cob, and also because the tips are full
and strong, thus indicating vitality and high feeding qualities. Here
we have kernels that are too shallow or too short. An ear of that
character would not shell out a high per cent, of kernels. Looking
at the kernels from the edges, we frequentlv find spaces between the
kernels in the row, which is also undesirable.

The largest percentage of ])rotein lies in the embryo of the
kernel. \Mien the embryo extends well U]) into the crown we know-
such kernels have more protein than those that have a small embryo.
When used as a stock food we have to supplement corn with foods
that are higher in protein. The protein content of corn is therefore
important from the feeding standi)oint. The hardness of the kernel
is also an indication of protein content. The hard kernels are a
little higher in protein than those that are soft and starchy. Furth-
ermore, the embryo is rich in fat, and fat is a little more valuable
weight for weight than starch.

So much for the characteristics of the corn. When we have
made a selection of choice seed ears from good strains, we should
then take good care of it. It should be stored where it will become
thoroughly dry before cold weather comes on and should be pro-

45

I

Plate H -Typical varieties of dent corn grown in Pennsyl-
vania i Southeastern Pennsylvania, White Cap Dent 2.
Sorheastern Pennsylvania, Yellow Dent. 3- ^J^J^^^^^^^^^

Pennsylvania, ^^^^^^^' ^' ^:;.trZ^.
Pennsylvania, White Cap uem. 3.

Early Huron Dent.

1 . ti.P ravages of rats and inice. If corn is thoroughly
tected from the ra\ ages 01 i^"^* , , j^^ tempera-

dried before cold weather con.es t^Htan^ ve y ^^^l^^.

ture without bemg injured. .,|f " P^^^'^ '"^; j^, ..jtality and may
of the water in the kernel wtll njure « ^^J^^^ ^^^e amount of

wholly destroy ^^^^^^^X^^^.^'u^^^^^^ ^^^^l^ ^^"'':

lir tS w^re ^^ l^:f il- :^:^:--i^^:^-^

rsS-t^^erroin'^tlS rr S^^^^^^^^ wen taken care of

may be seriously mjured.

Table IV -Effect of Method of Storage Upon Vitality of Seed

Corn. Pa. 1912. ^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^

Stored No. of Lots Germinating

In Crib with Other Corn 3^ gg;^

In Dwelling-Housc |; 8q.6

In Room with Heat : 84.2

In Out-Building "^^

Pa. Experiment Station.

ft::;.

45

44

niately four feet, and should he attached to the stalk by shanks that
are neither too long, too short, too large or too small. A short
shank is inclined to keep the ears too erect, and there will be a ten-
dency for the rain to get into the ti]) and cause damage to the corn.

if husking corn standing in the held, the average husker would
])refer ears that are on shanks of medium length and not t(Mi large.
Ears (Ml such shanks break off more readily than if the shank is
too large. The stalks, of course, should be free from any diseases,
such as smut or rust. Diseased i)lants are less resistant than those
free from disease. The ncxles should be short, for at each node a
leaf is borne. The more leaves the greater i)ower of the plant to
convert the elements of air and soil into corn. Furthermore, when
we use the plant as a bv-])roduct, the leaves are the most palatable
and nutritious ])art of the plant, conseijuently the value of the by-
product is thereby increased.

The ears should be cylindrical in shape, with well filled tips and
butts. For a medium maturing variety of dent corn ears from
eight to ten inches long are sfood size. An ear ten inches long should
be about seven and one-half to eight inches in circumference, two-
hfths the distance from butt to tip. The kernels of such an ear
should have a depth equal to one-half the diameter of the cob: in
other words, if the cob is broken in cross section and kernels on
o])])osite sides are ti])i)e(l over, the crowns of the kernel should meet
at the middle of the cob. This chart will i)robably help us in our
discussion of the character of kernels we should find in a go(xl ear.
(Chart omitted from report.)

Here we have kernels that are undesirable because they are
sharp-pointed and weak, and do not fullv occupy the s])ace around
the cob. Here are kernels much better in form because they fully
occu])y the s])ace around the cob. and also because the tips are full
and strong, thus indicating vitality and high feeding (jualities. Here
we have kernels that are too shallow or too short. An ear of that
character would riot shell out a high i)er cent, of kernels. Looking
at the kernels from the edges, we frecjuentlv hnd s])aces between the
kernels in the row, which is also undesirable.

The largest ])ercentage of ])rotein lies in the embryo of the
kernel. When the embryo extends well U]) into the crown we know
such kernels have more pn^tein than those that have a small embryo.
AMien used as a stock food we have to su])])lement corn with foods
that are higher in ])rotein. The ])r()tein content of corn is therefore
im])()rtant from the feeding stan(l])oint. The hardness of the kernel
is also an indication of protein content. The hard kernels are a
little higher in ])rotein than those that are soft and starchy. Furth-
ermore, the embryo is rich in fat, and fat is a little more valuable
weight for weight than starch.

vSo much for the characteristics of the corn. When we have
made a selection of choice seed ears from good strains, we should
then take good care of it. Tt should be stored where it will become
thoroughly dry before cold weather comes on and should be pro-

I

p, ,,., 11 _TM,ical varieties ..f <lent corn grown in ?«""«>•»-
vana^ Sou. , eastern Pennsylvania. White Cap Dent 2.

S ::;;;eastern Pennsylvania. Yellow Dent ^^-^^;^:
PennsvlvaniH Improved Learning. + Central ami Northern
Pinnsy \dni.i. Northern Pennsylvania,

Pennsylvania. Wnitc v^ap I'lm- .-)•

Ivirly Huron Dent.

tl,P r-ivisres of rats and mice. If corn is thoroughly
tected from the ra\ages oi lai. tempera-

dried before cold weather ^-'"f^, •\; . ,^t jt wil cause freezing
tttre without benjg injured. 1 ^ f ^'''^f^;';^, jt, vitality and may
of the water m the keniel will mji re °[ °^,^^[„L ^,„ t,,e Amount of
wholly destroy Us S^^-^^^^^^;,^^:^^;^:^. weather condi-
x.^-tter present. W e have h..d. '"™ -• ^j; , ^„a ,vhile we have not

rr ''''"' :id' w'^lha- 'if r. -d J^v" "Vy com weather coming

of sSni; s-d'corn'tliat has not been very well taken care of
mav he seriously mjured.

Table IV.-EfTect of Method of Storage Upor. Vitality of Seed

Corn. Pa. 1912.

Stored

In Crib with Other Corn,

In l)\velliiiii-n<>^^^<-'

In Room with Meat, . ..
In ()iit-lUii1(linti

No. of Lots

\2

45

Average Per cent.
Oenninating

65.1
S6.4
8q.6
84.2

Pa. Kxperinient Station.

"'r.?.'''r' ■>.-<■

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

46
Last year the Department which I represent sent to every county

in the state of Pennsylvania letters of '"^l^'^^'.^.^^jl'^S ',^'"' ^di's
as able, to men who are growing corn, and askmg them to s^'id us
six kernels taken from each of 25 representative ^ars of the-r seed
corn Out of 2^0 to 260 inquires we had 150 replies and 130 sam
pie of corn so that nearly every county in the state was repre-
Sed We'took those 25 samples from each locality and made a
eerminPtion test of them. There were 31 men who sent in con
S was stored in the crib with other corn, .the average germinat on
of which was 65.1 per cent, too low to be suitable for eed -^orn- Ut
the lots which were in dwelling-houses there ^^%^. ^h rty-three a,
the average germination was 86.4 per cent The >ots stored in
rooius with heat, numbered twelve only, and germinated 89.6 pe
cent or nearly 90 per cent. That was the best seed corn that we
found that which was stored in houses where there was heat^ That
wikh was sTored in outbuildings germinated 84.2 per cent, showing
Uiat the best germination took place where the seed corn had been
cared for.

Table V.— Effect of Method of Storage Upon Vitality of Seed

Corn. Pa. 191 2.

No of Lots in 100 with Per cent.
Method of Storage. ' No. of Lots. Germination

91-100 81-90 71-80 51-70 Below so

In Crib with other Corn, 31 '3 16 I9 23 29

In Dwelling-House, 33 61 8 9 9 3

With Heat ■•• 13 02 ^5 i5

Spread out in Out-Buikhng, .... 45 40 -9 ^^^ j,^y g^^^.^^^

On this table we have the results taln.lated in a dififerent way
In case of corn stored with heat there is one more sample than
before With com that was stored in the cnb, 13 out of .00 sam-
ples gave a germination of 91 to 100 per cent This w-ould be con-
?Sr?d good seed corn. There were 16 out of 100 that gave a ger-
Sation of 81 to 90 per cent.; 19 that gave a germination of 7J
to S per cent., and 51 lots, or more than half of the corn thus stored
that fell below 71 per cent, in germination.

Here is another chart showing restilt of experiments on the
effect of warm and cold storage on seed corn and the yield that
residted from the two methods of storing. This is an experiment
So r own Experiment Station, conducted for two years. During
I9IO we had 80.6 bushels per acre from warm stored seed as com-
pared with 76 bushels, where it was cold stored. An average of
two years gave 73 bushels per acre in one case and 68.8 in the
oTher a difference of 4-2 bushels per acre in favor of seed corn tha
Sad been Stored where it was warm. We found that the corn that
had been stored where it was warm germinated more quickly and
gave more vigorous sprouts than that which had been stored where
ft wa^very cold, and probably that is the chief reason why we get
a better yield.

47

Table VI.— Effect of Method of Storing Seed Upon Yield of

Corn.

Shelled Corn

Stover Lbs.

bu. per A.

per A.

80.6

5436

65.4

4369

73.0

4903

76.4

3789

61. 1

3789

68.8

4471

Pa.

Experiment Station

Warm Stored Seed, 1910,
Warm Stored Seed, 191 1,
Average,

Cold Stored Seed, 1910, .
Cold Stored Seed, 1911,
Average,

C. J. Tyson. If that corn had been planted with a planter the
usual distance there probably would have been a greater difference.

Prof. Gardner. There probably would have, although we did
not find very much difference in the per cent, of germination. It
was largely a question of vigor. The corn stored where it was cold
was sufficiently dry before cold weather came on, so was not, winter-
killed but was weakened.

The importance of having a full stand of corn cannot be over-
estimated, and few of us realize how far we fall short of having a
full stand until we actually go into the field and make a count of the
missing hills or missing plants. If 80 per cent, of a stand will give
40 to 45 bushels to the acre, what would 100 per cent, of a stand
give? We at least ought to have 90 or 95 per cent, of a full stand
of corn if we take the proper precautions, and the first step in se-
curing that is the seed that we use. Seed, although well cared for,
should be tested for germination before planting time, because we
can never tell by inspection whether the seed is going to give a per-
fect germination or not. There is only one correct way to make a
germination test of corn. It will not help you any to shell the corn
and test the bulk seed. You cannot improve it after it is shelled and
is all mixed together, so there is only one satisfactory way, and that
is to test each ear separately and find out which ears are deficient
in germination and discard them. In that way you eliminate the
poor seed and improve the germination of the seed you are going
to use. This may seem like too much work, but when we go at it
systematically 6 or 7 bushels of corn can be tested in a day by one
man. A bushel plants 5 or 6 acres, so that it is not an expensive
proposition. The way to do this is to have the seed corn ears laid
out in a row, or if you store them on racks in rows it will not be
necessary to remove them from the racks except to remove about
five or six kernels from each ear, after which it is returned to the
rock Have small trays about 18 inches square and two and one-
half or three inches deep of ordinary lumber. Fill these trays about
two-thirds full of wet clean saw-dust, loam or sand. Take a piece
of muslin as wide as the Iray and twice as long and rule off one-
half into checks, preferably making ten checks to the eighteen inches,
one and three-quarters to each check. That will give you just
100 checks in the tray. Number those and then put the six kernels

r~"

\

48

1 ^ .1- \Tn t etc When all checks are
taken from ear No. i. m check No. i. f^; \; j ^^^.^^ ^ith

filled fold the blank end o ^e nnislni over tl e cor a ^i^^^ ^
a wet hag or saw dust. Keep ma ^^rm lace for h ^^^y^^

The germination test w.ll f «- ^^^ ^fi^^'^.^^.oisture. air and
are three requisites necessary f"'^^ f «/" ;7;°f ^he ordinary living-
the proper temperature. The temperature 01 t j/f

room, provided it is not lo-^-" ^ -" 5° at .^^^ ^^^^^^^^ .,,iJ„,e

mination of corn. You ^''V\vhere the temperature runs about
to complete the germination. Whee he t^ ^1^^^ germinated suf-

70 degrees, m five or six ^'^y^tne co ^ j,, jf any ears are

ficiently for you to make examination an^ asc^rtau y ^^^^^

not giving satisfactory germination^ hen ^"^ J^ J,^^ „f ^11
pencil go over these trays o conn an^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^i„^^, ^^

numbers that do not give full germination. You > ,^ ■.

justified in saving an ear where o"ly J^^^ ^s bette 1 to discard every
nate but ordinarily we will not do that it is liettei 10
ear ihat does not give us full germination

If the corn is not uniform in regard to size o "^erne
to grade it. You should abo remove the^'P "d In^tt^kenj^ ^^^^^^^^_

ears before shelling for '7. If "'^^^^^ up to standard but we have
in experimenting, have failed to eome up i .^^^^

are discarded. ,,niformitv of kernels it should be

J'. *'n' 7de tt efr L or ym, sh 11 them, placing ears with
graded. Dnide the ears nejorc y .„,„iipr kernels in another

large kernels in one pile and those ^'^^^"^'^^ea.^^^^^ corn of

-^-itr having your se.d -" -ed -d graded the^ jext^step

On fertile soil we can grow a few m^^^^^^ Sd stHve to get about
is not so fertile but oj; -" ^^e^J^ Ltributed. One kernel every
TO.ooo plants to the acre, pu)pcii;> u<.,„pis pverv fortv-two nches
fourteen i"ches in the row. or three kerne s^ ^ ^.^^,^ .^_

makes practically "o^'ffere'Ke n y ^^^ ^^^^_^ ^^

crease in y\f;f,;" ^cW^s we can cultivate both ways in order to
plan ed in hills and checks we c ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^1^^^

X- we%::fp.anViro::iCth thicker than if planted for

grain.

49
Table VII.— Relation of Stand to Yield.

Drilled 42 in. by 14 in. between Stalks in Row.
Hills, 42 in. by 42 in. 3 Stalks per Hill.
Number of Pl.ints per Acre— 10,665.

I lb. Ear to the Stalk, Perfect Stand, 152.4 bu.
1 lb. Ear to the Stalk, 80% Stand, 121. 9 bu.
Xi lb. Ear to the Stalk, 80% Stand, 91.5 bu.
]/2 lb. Ear to the Stalk, 8o7c Stand, 60.9 bu.
4.0 oz. Ear to the Stalk, 80% Stand, 36.8 bu.
^ ' Penn. State.

Should we have corn planted in drills 42 inches apart with
14 inches between the stalks or planted three kernels to the hill
with hills 42 inches apart, the number of plants per acre would be
1066s If we secured a one-pound ear, and that would not l)e ex-
cessive, on each stalk, this would give a yield of 152.4 bushels per
acre If we had only 80 per cent, of a stand and had one pound
ears we would have 121.9 bushels per acre. When we take the
average yield of corn in Pennsylvania. 36.8 bushles per acre it
seems that the average weight of ears is 4.9 ounces, so it is not nec-
essary to grow big ears to produce a good yield provided we have
a full stand. Some of our farmers go too far in that direction,
trying to grow a varietv of corn with great big ears, and conse-
quently many times their corn does not mature and their seed corn
is a failure. They may also frequently have corn of poor quality.
So much then for the question of the improvement of corn, and se-
lecting and testing of seed and securing a full stand in the held.
This is -something every farmer can do. but it is not necessary where
corn is not extensively grown for every farmer to go to all this
trouble, but there shoiild l>e a few in every neighborhood who are
interested in the improvement of corn to supply their neighbors. A
bushel of seed will plant about six acres and if it is superior in
quality it should command a price of three to five dollars per

'""^ When it comes to the question of improving corn by breeding
it is first and foremost a question of finding out what ears or strains
have inherent in them the power of producing larger yields and
perhaps a better quality of corn. The only way we can do this is
to test under field conditions the choice ears. Suppose, tor ex-
ample we select 100 choice ears of seed corn, as a basis for im-
provement. We will need to plant each ear in a separate row in
order to observe its performance. Now instead of planting the
full ear and losing all that seed, we will plant a portion of it. Sup-
pose we use 200 kernels. An ear has 800 to i.ooo kernels on it.
Plant those 200 kernels in a separate row. Make notes during the
growing season relative to the character of plants in each row and
their freedom from disea.se. etc. At the close of the season harvest
each row separately and determine yield of corn and note char-
acter and quality. This test shows which ears were superior. Save
the remnants of ears which produced 10 to 15 of the best rows
The following year these remnants may be shelled together and

? J

50

planted in a patch by itself as a source of seed for the general crop
the following year.

C. J. Tyson. \Miat do you think of the advisability of select-
ing for two ears on a stalk?

Prof. Gardner. Under certain conditions, especially on the
sandy soils of the south, two-eared strains are thought superior.
In the corn growing states and in Pennsylvania such strains have no
advantages. Yields have been, no larger than with single eared
varieties. It requires more time to husk two small ears than one
large one. Unless increased yield can be secured such strains have

no advantage.

C. J. Tyson. In attempting to make a selection of the plants
is there any indication you can go by without actually husking the

ear

Prof. Gardner, ^^ou cannot see the characteristics of the ear
of course without removing the husk. If corn is a little too late
we will select from the early ripening stalks, or if it ripens unnec-
essarily early, then we will select from stalks late in maturity. Such
characters are visible without husking the ear.

R. M. Eldon. Could we help the corn by removing the tassels

of the weak stalks?

Prof. Gardner. Yes, undoul)tedly. If we find barren stalks
in the field I l)elieve it would pay to remove the tassels from those
stalks. This removing of tassels is also another factor which comes
in to the breeding problem, that of cross-pollenation.

R. M. Eldon. Could we grow Flint corn in this County?
Prof. Gardner. Yes, but the advisability of growing flint corn
depends upon locality and length of season. In the northern coun-
ties I believe the Flint is the most profitable to grow. Unless the
yields are larger there is little in favor of flint corn. With long
growing seasons, dent varieties generally yield best.

R. M. Eldon. Is there any difference in the color, that is, any
difference in the amount of protein of the different kinds of corn?
Prof. Gardner. No, there is not. When comparing the anal-
yses many samples, there is no difference: they average up about
the same. In certain localities where the season is not very long the
yellow may have a little more protein than the white, or the flint
may be a very little higher in protein than dent corn.

^ C. J. Tyson. The white varieties are usually the longer sea-
son varieties?

Prof. Gardner. As a rule, yes. The white varieties have dom-
inated in the South, the yellow^ varieties in the North.

R. M. Eldon. You would not advise getting seed corn from
Ohio, for instance, to be planted in southern Pennsylvania?

Prof. Gardner. That will dei)end upon your knowledge of lo-
calities. If in the same latitude and similar soil it might be all
right, but generally your chances are best in getting corn nearh.y.
R. M. Eldon. A number of us would appreciate knowing the
names and addresses of men in the same latitude as this locality.

E. C. Tyson. If you will kindly give me this list it will be
published with the Proceedings.

\

A New Method of Developing and Utilizing Water from

Springs and Streams for Farm Use in Connection

With Agricultural Drainage.

Henry T Cox, Considtinq Engineer on Farm Drainage, Geneseo,

' N. Y.

I Have been very much interested in Professor Gardner's ad-
dress on corn, having done some experimenting along this Ime my-
self, in the way of improving the crop by seed selections. We
are reminded that back of the crop is the seed, back of the seed is
the soil, back of the soil is the man, and back of the man is the

Creator. ^ , , .

Drainage is the foundation of successful crop production.
My work has led me into a good deal of experience along that line.
And it is my wish that some of this experience may prove of help

to you. . 1 • ..I.- 1

I will outline a little as to how I became interested in this work

which has led up to that feature heading this address.

\t the age of twenty-five, I married the only daughter of a
farmer having previously prepared a home about two miles away.
Her parents concluded that this was too far, and that there was
land enough in the home farm for all. There were forty acres at
one end of this farm, which because so much of it was wet and
part swampy, it had lieen used mostly for pasturing Father B^
thought that from my previous experience on my Father s tarm, 1
could make good land of this. The first year'.s crops were very
poor, so poor, that when the threshers came to thresh out my little
stacks of oats and wheat, (for the barns had not yet been built),
they charged me 1)y the job. They would not thresh as for others,
bv the Inishel. I want to say right here, that such and is the poor
man's opportunitv and the rich man's spoil." We of en fail to
realize this until it is too late. If we want to do something m this
life to be remem1)ered l)y. we want to do it for iwstenty, and i do
not know where this can be better accomplished than by improv-
ing soil conditions. I told this thresher that I \yas going to raise
just as good crops as my neighbors, and he would not get the job
of threshing. After drainage, this tract of land proved the most
productive in that section. It was a tough proposition as there
was poor outlet, and a large water shed to take care of After out-
growing this place, a larger farm which had already been drained
bv the former owner was purchased, which because of a breakdown
in mv health, is now under tenant management, and I am devoting
mv time to the drainage and water supply problems

Referring to tlie map before you, I want to tell you a little
about the crops on this farm before and after drainage. This
basin lot for instance, was previously waste land. After drainage,

SI

w

i i

52

the first crop which was beans, was so heavy that it paid the whole
cost of reclamation. And since that, there have been grown on that
field, two of the heaviest crops of ensilage corn that I ever saw
^rown anywhere. The land is improving every year. Many other
fields have as good a record, and the springs are harnessed up to a
useful purpose. This map represents the draniage and sprmgs de-
veloped up to two years ago. t 1 r . t

I now want to tell you about the sprmgs. In the first place,
'^why and what is a spring." We may have found water bubblmg
out of the ground, but really we have just found where the sub-
tranian stream has met an impossible barrier, and is forced up to
the surface. This has been going on for so long a period of years
that there is a greater or less area of swale and muck caused by
decay of the rank growths, natural to such conditions. If we trace
a spring to its source, we may have far to go. It may have its
origin at the foot of some mountain range or from the seepage from
lake or river. Wherever its source may be, the water percolates
down through the ground until it encounters a layer or strata of
gravel or other water bearing material. This is always underlaid
with an impervious sub-strattum in its course it may meet with ob-
structions which will cause it to seek a channel to the right or left,
or rise above the obstruction, thereby refilling the back reservoirs,
then continuing on, it mav encounter a seam or fault in the under-
Iving sul)-strattum, which causes it to seek a new level. But its
course is ever onward until it meets an obstruction that causes it
to rise to the surface of the ground ; and we have the spring, i he
si)ring is there b.ecause the barrier to its further i)rogress was
there And right in this clay or hard pan barrier is where I place
this spring developer or pipe and the tile connection with over-flow
all underground, a model of which I have here. By its use the
water can be carried in a pipe along down to where it is needed for
farm use. It is often dift^cult to locate the exact spot where the real
spring or springs are, where the swampy tract is quite large. 1 his
is done by running a drain across the foot of the tract and carry-
ing this to a good outlet. Then by extending short laterals from
this main up across the tract beginning at one side and placing these
drains twenty feet apart, it is an easy matter to locate the source
of the water when it is diverted from this point to a point where it
can be utilized, two very important things have l)een accomplished.
First, a valuable asset has been added to the property by the water
supply and second, the field has been doubled in value, by now
being'tillablc over the whole surface. By this method of developing
si)rings there is no cistern in the field as is so often the custom.
Where ever I have found these reservoirs in use, I have found
lizards and other creeping things in the water, and often silt and
other undesirable material will find its way in. These conditions
cannot exist where the developer I have shown you is employed. I
will try and describe this device, which when once installed, is
self regulating, perpetual and sanitary. We will follow the main

53

trench that runs across the foot of the tract and on up to and

(through the spring. Trenches are dug and tiles are laid in these as
far as there are indications of water rising from beneath, these all
converge at a point in the impervious barrier that has caused the
spring to break out at that point. At this point a length of sewer
pipe is placed, having a Y. The Y. turned off to one side at about
a forty-five degree angle. This is the over-flow. The iron service
pipe enters the end of the sewer pipe through a copper plate against
which clay is placed so firmly that all water coming down from the
spring to this point must enter the iron pipe. From the overflow
Y. a line of tiles is laid bending down until it is on the level with
the iron pipe at the bottom of the trench. This overflow is so
placed that if at any time the water comes faster from the spring
than the pipe can take it, it backs up and passes off through this
Y. and into the regular farm drainage system. It is best to build
a cement slab or square over the spot where the developer is buried,
and also to have a cut-off at the pipe line at this point, so that at
any time the water could be shut off entirely and all pass out by
the over-flow. In the case of the spring shown on the map before
you, the pipe line is over 3,000 feet in length, the reservoir is lo-
cated above the barns at a little elevation, the fall from the spring
to the reservoir is about sixteen feet, this small spring coming so
far through a one-inch pipe supplies water for the large herd of
cows kept at these dairy barns besides other stock. And the pas-
ture fields are supplied with water from other springs as has been
described. The windmill at the well has been taken down and the

pumps are idle.

One large spring that I developed on another estate covers
about two acres of land. The service pipe in this instance is two-
inch and delivers under normal conditions, 10,000 gallons every
twenty-four hours. The proprietor has erected extensive and ex-
pensive barns this past season and the water is to be piped through
the buildings. This was the worst and the most difficult spring job
that I ever encountered owing to sub-soil conditions and the -large
spring area, for it was all one vast spring. The surface is not yet
dry enough to cultivate, but the water supply is invaluable. An
undeveloped spring in a field is a detriment to the property. The
same spring properly developed is a double asset. The field is now
clear for cropping and the water supply is of great value. I have
been in many sections where small running streams abound and cat-
tle are allowed to wade in these to drink. This causes pollution of
the water at all times and in the winter when in many localities
cattle are driven to the stream to drink and they are liable to in-
jury from slipping on ice that forms on the edge. If a trench is
dug parallel to the stream and a short distance from it, coming up
to the edge of the stream at the upper end and tile be laid in this,
the upper end being filled in with stones to allow the water to enter.
In this way the water can be switched off to one side in the tiles for
a short distance then connect the iron pipe and carry it gradually in

• I

54

the trench off to the high and dry ground farther down the stream,
there it can come up into the tank which should have an over-How
connection with an underground tile drain which extends back to
the stream a^ain. This arrangement would give running water at
all seasons, with no wet or muddy place at the tank where the stock
comes to drink and it would never freeze in the coldest weather, in
many instances water can be carried right into the buildings in this
way bv simple gravitv, if not as in the case with some springs, the
water 'can be delivered as near as possible to the buildings and a
small gasoline engine be installed to pump it up. I have now told
you of some of my experiences with springs, and without occupy-
ing further time, 1 am ready to try and answer questions that you

may have in mind. t -u- «■

' Mr. Eldon. If you were taking water to a building or a set
of buildings, would you avoid all syphoning in the pipe 1 Did you
use the same sized pipe, the whole length ?

Mr. Cox. In this case, we did not, there was only one high
point, and on this we placed a hydrant. We used larger pipes part
of the way in one instance. .

It would be better to use the larger pipe at the spring encl._^

R. S. Taylor. Do you leave the hydrant open all the time .

Mr. Cox. No, the hydrants are open along the line when
water is needed, but the water runs continually in the pipe line.
When we are back in the fields and want water to drink or for

the horses, we open them. ,,,• . .i

G. G. Strong. When your barn is considerably higher than

the spring, what is the best way to get the water to the barn ^

Mr. Cox. If vou have water enough to operate a ram, that is

the most economical method. The Goulds people have a good

ram. ... . ^

G. W. Strong. How much fall is required to operate a ram .

Mr. Cox. Each foot of fall will raise the water ten feet. It

takes considerable water to operate a ram so in most instances, a

gasoline engine is the thing. One man over in New York on a

large farm, had a great deal of trouble in getting a water supply for

his stock and after spending much money drilling wells, finally

had me come over and get levels on a water supply about two miles

distant. There was plenty of water in evidence, but it was too far

from the barns to be available. On the way home he said: '*I

want to drive down to the back end of my farm and show you

some water I have there.*' About a mile from his buildings in a

deep gully, was that same supply that we had seen up above, and •

right on his own farm. It had disappeared and come underground

until it struck a rock barrier, when it came out again in this gully.

He is now laying pipes to the buildings and will always have a good

supply of water. A small engine will be used for pumping the

water up. . .

Question. Do you notice any difference in your pipe summer

and winter?

55

Mr. Cox. In the summer when the springs get low, air gets
into the pipe, and when the water supply increases, this air gets
imprisoned at the highest point and the hydrant has to be opened to
let it out or there would be an air lock. As soon as the weather
gets cold, we have no trouble all winter. The pipe line is about two
and a half feet under ground.

Question. Are there any places on those high points allowed
\ for ventilation?

Mr. Cox. Not at all of them. It is only necessary at the
highest point. There is always air in water, and that air becomes
separated under certain conditions and collects in these bends and
sometimes the change of temperature in the soil allows it to sep-
arate more in some seasons than in others. It collects in these up
bends in the pipes and we get a cut-off or air lock.

E. C. Tyson. How much fall would be required for the ope-
ration of a dynamo?

Mr. Cox. That I do not know. We have not experimented
with that at all. Do not know anything about it. It would depend,
I suppose, a good deal on the size of the dynamo and amount of
water it would take to turn it.

E. C. Tyson. I thought perhaps you might have had some
problems like that to solve.

Question. What kind of pipe do you use in your pipe lines?
Mr. Cox. The best galvanized iron pipes we can get. It is
best to have the galvanized. When I had the pipes put in at my
own farm we used black iron pipe, last fall when arranging for a
dairy they came to this pipe and it was all gone. It had been there
about twelve years.

Question. Were they steel or iron?

Mr. Cox. I understood they were iron pipe. The galvanized
iron is the best. The steel pipe is a poor proposition. It is best to
get the very best wrought iron pipe you can.

R. M. Eldon. I sent an inquiry to the Scientific American,

asking about the i)robable life of black iron pipe in the soil, and the

answer was if the water was pure it ought to last for fifty years.

Mr. Cox. Of course that has a good deal to do with it. Water

laying around the pipe will corrode it.

R. M. Eldon. The surface water filled with decayed vegetable
juices would attack the pipe outside.

R. M. Eldon. How large pipe would you use if you wanted
convenient delivery at t,ooo or t,200 feet, and would you use more
than one-inch pipe?

Mr. Cox. We used an inch pipe over 3,000 feet. It was all
the same size and it works all right.

R. Garretson. If you wanted to use a larger size pipe at the
spring end, what size would you use in connection with the inch

pipe?

Mr. Cox. That would vary, from i]4 to ij^ would probably
be enough. There is a rule to go by in that, but I never i)aid any

5C>

attention to it. The practical thing in our case is, we are getting
the water by using the same sized pipe all the way.

R. Garretson. Do you think it might be possible if you start
with the inch pipe, instead of putting the large pipe at the spring
end, that it would increase the flow?

Mr. Cox. The large pipe is always used at the inflow end.

R. Garretson. That was something new to me. I heard an
argument not long ago that if you used a larger pipe at the out-
flow it would increase your supply.

Mr. Cox. It gets away from the smaller pipe faster when
the larger pipe is at the upper end. In drainage the reverse is the
case. We did not change the size and are getting all the water
that flows from the spring.

C. J. Tyson. I do not believe it would work that way. I
think the reverse would be the case.

Mr. Cox. We get the best pipe from a firm in Buffalo. It is
galvanized iron. There is a lot of difference in pipe.

Mr. Anderson. I do not think anybody can give the life of
a pipe. It depends on the water that goes through it.

Prof. Gardner. Just a word in connection with what has been
mentioned here. It has been found that bacteria causes a great
deal of the rust of iron pipe, and it is not a chemical content of the
water at all.

Mr. Cox. Now a word as to the shape and lasting qualities of
tile. I believe a six sided tile preferable to the round tile. The
round tile is liable to get a little out of place before the earth gets
firmly settled around it. When you lay the six-sided tile, it is going
to stay where you put it. If they are not hard burned, they are
liable to crumble by frost actions.

E. C. Tyson. Wouldn't you fmd difticulty in making a good
joint ?

Mr. Cox. No, you have six chances to turn this and you can
always find one side that will fit close.

J. W. Prickett. Do you close up the joints when you fill it?

Mr. Cox. Yes, and we put the top soil on first and keep the
clay away from it. To take earth out and put it back again in the
trench makes it porous, and draws the water readily into the drain.

A. W. Griest. What do you find is the cost per rod of dig-
ging with the ditching machine?

Mr. Cox. We have not gotten it down right to the cent. We
have a great deal dug by hand and find that we get the cost down
to less than half with the machine. They claim they can dig a
ditch for six cents a rod, 300 rods a day or no sale. It can be done
but we want to make a lot of allowance I think on their claim.
When you have dug 200 rods a day you have done pretty good
work.

C. J. Tyson. What depth do you have in mind when you are
speaking of that?

Mr. Cox. The depth depends on the kind of soil you have to

57

drain, twenty-four to twenty-six inches. In the majority of our
drainage in hard subsoil that is the depth we go, and some places
a little shallower.

C. J. Tyson. Does the ditching machine work very well where
the ground is soft and swampy?

Mr. Cox. It will not do as well under such conditions as big
tractor machines with caterpillar tread. They can go through every-
thing. The ground must be solid enough so that the teams can
work. Six horses have to get right down to business on this ma-
nine and therefore cannot work in muck and mire. If the land is
iirm enough for horses to walk on, you can work the machine.

Fig. 7.— Average size specimens, from an unthinned peach
tree (on the left) and from a tree thinned 4 inches apart (on
the right).

i

■JMi

56

attention to it. The practical thing in our case is, we are getting
the water by using the same sized pipe all the way.

R. Garretson. Do you think it might be possible if you start
with the inch pipe, instead of putting the large pipe at the spring
end, that it would increase the flow ?

Mr. Cox. The large pipe is always used at the inflow end.

R. Garretson. That was something new to me. I heard an
argument not long ago that if you used a larger pipe at the out-
flow it would increase your supj)ly.

Mr. Cox. It gets away from the smaller pipe faster when
the larger pipe is at the upper end. In drainage the reverse is the
case. \\^e did not change the size and are getting all the water
that flows from the spring.

C. J. Tyson. I do not believe it would work that way. I
think the reverse would be the case.

Mr. Cox. \\'e get the best pipe from a firm in Buffalo. It is
galvanized iron. There is a lot of difference in pipe.

Mr. Anderson. I do not think anybody can give the life of
a pipe. It de])ends on the water that goes through it.

Prof. Gardner. Just a word in connection with what has been
mentioned here. It has been found that bacteria causes a great
deal of the rust of iron ])ipe, and it is not a chemical content of the
water at all.

Mr. Cox. Now a word as to the shape and lasting qualities of
tile. I believe a six sided tile preferable to the round tile. The
round tile is liable to get a little out of i)lace before the earth gets
firmly settled aroimd it. When you lay the six-sided tile, it is going
to stay where you put it. If they are not hard burned, they are
liable to crumble by frost actions.

E. C. Tyson. Wouldn't you find difficulty in making a good
joint?

Mr. Cox. No, you have six chances to turn this and you can
always find one side that will fit close.

J. W. Prickett. Do you close up the joints when you fill it?

Mr. Cox. \'es. and we put the top soil on first and keep the
clay aw^ay from it. To take earth out and put it back again in the
trench makes it porous, and draws the water readily into the drain.

A. W. Griest. What do you find is the cost per rod of dig-
ging with the ditching machine?

Mr. Cox. We have not gotten it down right to the cent. We
have a great deal dug by hand and find that we get the cost down
to less than half with the machine. They claim they can dig a
ditch for six cents a rod, 300 rods a day or no sale. It can be done
but we want to make a lot of allowance I think on their claim.
When you have dug 200 rods a day you have done ])retty good
work.

C. J. Tyson. What (lei)th do you have in mind when you are
speaking of that?

Mr. Cox. The de])th depends on the kind of soil you have to

57

drain, twenty-four to tw^enty-six inches. In the majority of our
drainage in hard subsoil that is the depth we go, and some places
a little shallower.

C. J. Tyson. Does the ditching machine work very well where
the ground is soft and swampy?

Mr. Cox. It will not do as well under such conditions as big
tractor machines with caterpillar tread. They can go through every-
thing. The ground must be solid enough so that the teams can
Avork. Six horses have to get right down to business on this ma-
nine and therefore cannot work in muck and mire. If the land is
nrm enough for horses to walk on, you can work the machine.

■p]c,. 7. Average size specimens, from an unthinned peach

tree (on die left) and from a tree thinned 4 inches apart (on
the right).

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

I

Long Term Fertilizer Experiments at Pennsylvania Experiment

Station.

Prof. Frank D. Gardner, Department of Agronomy, Pennsylvania

State College.

Farming is a serious business and the farmer of to-day needs
to be a combination of scientist, mechanic, laborer, and business
man. There perhaps is no other calling which really calls for so
much, so broad a training as that called for to be a successful
farmer. We hear a great deal in these days about country uplift.
How we should have better roads, and better schools, and better
churches, and more conveniences in the home, and while these are
all desirable things, I want to say to you there is an element of hot
air in this talk we hear about it. We can get these things if we suc-
ceed in a sufficient degree, and I believe that as farmers we are glad
and willing to have these things for our betterment just as rapidly
as we can afford it. And in order to afford them it all hearkens
back to the soil and to the business management of the farm.

Farming to-day is not all a matter of production, but it is also
a matter of organizing the business of the farm and selling the pro-,
duce of the farm.

At our Experiment Station we are fortunate enough to have
organized an experiment which is to-day recognized as the longest
continuous fertilizer experiment in America, and this experiment is
to American agriculture what the famous Rothamsted experiments
are to Great Britain's agriculture. This experiment was started by
a man who is still active in experiment station and agricultural in-
vestigation work. I refer to Dr. W. H. Jordan, Director of the
Geneva Experiment Station, N. Y. Dr. Jordan started this ex-
periment in 1881. On several occasions it has been threatened with
abandonment, but fortunately had tided over those threats and is
still in existence, and I may say frankly to you there is no danger
of its being abandoned now or at any time in the near future. It
was my good fortune, during the summer of 1908, to attend the
Graduate School of Agriculture at Ithaca, N. Y., where Director
Hall delivered a course of lectures on the Experimental Works of
the Rothamsted Station. In discussing the results of those experi-
ments before a body of scientific men, among the many good things
he said he made this remark ''that if they had drawn conclusions
frorn those field experiments at the close of thirty years, the con-
clusions would have been very different from the conclusions drawn
at the close of sixty years." I think we are fortunate in having in
Pennsylvania this experiment about which I am to tell you this
afternoon.

The first chart gives you a little idea of the lay-out of these
plats. There are 144 of them, each one-eighth of an acre in extent,
so that the whole experiment included eighteen acres in plats, to

=;8

59

say nothing of the divisions between the plats and the waste lands
about them. The plats are laid off into four tiers of 36 plats each.
The crops planted on these plats are corn, oats, wheat and mixed
timothy and clover, so arranged that each crop is represented every
year. The results I shall present are for the first thirty years.

The fertilizers are applied to the corn and wheat, but not to
the grass or oats. In other words, they are applied every other
year. There are certain plats to which nothing has ever been ap-
plied, which are used as check plats, nvmibers i, 8, 14, 24, and 36
in each one of the tiers, making 20 plats in all used as check plats
and they have never had any fertilizer, manure or application of
any kind.

Any fertilizer treatment that falls upon a particular plat falls
likewise on the corresponding plat number of each one of the four
tiers; and in several cases there are duplicate, and in one case
quadruplicate plats in each tier ; for example in case of the mineral
fertilizers alone there are four different plats in each tier having
identical treatments. The duplication of certain treatments, and
having the four tiers covering so long a period of time gives av-
erages which practically eliminate the errors that come in through
individual years where some particular plats may not be quite up to
standard.

The Soil.

The soil on which this experiment is conducted is a residual
Ilagerstown limestone soil varying in texture from a clay loam to a
silt loam. The soil is well drained and yet the sub-soil is suf-
ficiently heavy to retain both plant food and moisture very well.
Leaching is reduced to a very low degree.

Table I. — Single Fertilizer Ingredient.

Alternate Years Pounds Value

None $60.02

Phosphoric Acid (P2O5). 48 69.05

Potash (K2O) 100 56.05

Nitrogen (N), 24 55-94

Average Value of Products from 30 Years' Rotations. The Pennsyl-
vania Experiment Station, State College, Pa.

Now, as I said, I shall speak of results as averages rather than
in detail. The purpose of the experiment is, first, to compare the
effects of individual or single fertilizer ingredients. I will speak
of this before taking up the other points. On plats Nos. 2, 3, and
4, in each one of the tiers we have nitrogen, phosphoric acid and
potash, used separately in the order named. Table I gives the rate
of application and the value of four crops on one acre, as compared
with the plats that had no treatment. In assigning values to the
several products we have taken the December Tst price on these
crops on the farms in Pennsylvania for a ten year period ending

I

f^W»MLllW-t-.H

OkaBi

fliii

60

V

1906. These prices assigned are as follows: Corn, 50 cents a
bushel; wheat, 80 cents; oats, 32 cents; hay, $10 per ton, and straw
and corn stover, $2.50 per ton.

TViose are rather low prices compared with those that have pre-
vailed for the past five or more years, and if we should take. present
prices our profits would be somewhat larger. We are therefore
using very conservative figures in comparing the increase or profit
of the several treatments. Notice that when nothing was applied
a gross return of $60.02 per acre for four crops was secured. This
represents an average for thirty years. Remember that there has
been nothing whateve applied to that soil, not even the straw and
corn stalks going back into the soil. Everything is taken oft and
nothing goes back. In the beginning the value of crops per rotation
was $75, now it is down to less than $45. Now when we apply
phosphoric acid alone we get a return of $69.05 per acre, or $9.03
more than when nothing was applied. Putting it in another way,
we get a return of about 100 per cent, profit on the cost of the ap-
plication, not counting the work or labor of applying. When we put
potash on alone at the rate of 100 pounds K2() per acre, we actually
had a smaller gross return than we had when we used nothing.
In other words, it has not done a bit of good. The soil has not
responded at all to potash. When we put on nitrogen at the rate
of 24 pounds per acre every other year the same thing is true, our
yield in fact is lower than when we used no fertilizer at all, and
if we were to stop right now we would come to the conclusion that
the soil needs only one thing, and that is phosphoric acid. At any
rate, we seem safe in drawing the conclusion that the dominant
fertilizer requirement of this soil is phosphoric acid:

Table II. — Two Fertilizer Ingredients.

Alternate Years ^^^"^

None ?^-^^

p 69.05

p' & k '. ^3.93

r&n:; 7838

N. & K 61.73

PK. & N., 91 . 1 1

Average Value of Products from 30 Years' Rotations.

The Pennsylvania Experiment Station.

Proceeding further and looking into the returns from plats re-
ceiving two fertilizer constituents, we find that phosphorus which
gave us a gross return of $69.05 per acre when combined with
potash, gives a return of $83.93 per acre, or an increase of nearly
$15.00 for the potash applied, which shows that as soon as we have
met the soil requirement for one constituent then something else be-
comes a limiting factor for crop production, but potash is no good
until we have applied phosphorus and satisfied the want for that.
When we applied nitrogen with the i)hosphorus we got an increase,
but not as large as we got with the potash. When we put the ni-

'^r'

:-ir

A.,

r

61

trogen and potash together and leave out the phosphorus we get
just a little bit more than we got by using nothing, showing again
that neither nitrogen nor potash will give any results on this soil
until we have supplied the limiting factor, phosphorus.

It teaches us that this is a fact not only borne out on this
soil, but shows how you must experiment on your soil to find out
what your fertilizer requirements are. There are limestone soils in
many parts of Pennsylvania, and we believe the results are appli-
cable to practically all limestone soils. There is always a limiting
factor in crop production. It need not necessarily be a plant food.
It may be water, a lack of moisture, in which case the fertilizer will
not amount to much, no matter how much is applied. It may be
some other factor, such as want of lime or soil acidity. Some plats
in this experiment have l)ecome so sour that crops fail, yet the soil
is full of plant food in a soluble form, and as soon as we correct the
acidity then those plats will become the most productive. Not long
ago, a gentleman, speaking of how farmers had to contend with con-
ditions that men of other occupations did not have, cited the fact
that insufficient rainfall was often the cause of crop failure. He
said he had a friend who had been having a good deal of trouble in
growing potatoes, but that this Fall he had solved that problem
by i)lanting onions between the rows of potatoes. The onions
made the eyes of the potatoes water so that he did not give a darn
whether it rained or not.

Table III. — Different Forms and Amounts of Nitrogen.

Alternate Years 24 Libs. 48 Lbs. , - 72 lbs.

Dried Blood, $84.22 $90. 57 $92-49

Nitrate of Soda Qi.n 9373 94-75

Sulphate of Ammonia 87.55 88.04 80.77

Average Value of Products from 30 Years' Rotations.
Pennsylvania Experiment Station, State College, Pa.

Now in addition to having the fertilizer element in different
combinations, we have nitrogen in different forms and in different
amoimts. Nitrogen, as dried blood, sulphate of ammonia and ni-
trate of soda, has been used at the rate of 24, 48 and 72 pounds of
nitrogen per acre. In other words, we have doubled and trebled the
initial amount to see what the effect would be. At the same time
we comi)are the l)enefits derived from different forms of nitrogen
used in conjunction with the mineral fertilizers. Table III gives
the average value of the products per acre received from the dif-
ferent forms of nitrogen used along with mineral fertilizers. We
find that there is onlv a little difference, but the difference seems
to be in favor of nitrate of soda. We, as users of fertilizers, are
all familiar with this form, for it is perhaps more extensively used
than any other form of nitrogen. Coming next to this we have,
for the 24 pound application, sulphate of ammonia. Dried blood,
seems to be a little less efficient than the other forms when used at

•-vmiHTk^-tf'

Taj'i-jrMfiMMiwi mttmtmm>mi»i^mmm

62

this rate. Comparing the 48 pound rate of appHcation, dried blood
ranks second, and sulphate of ammonia third. For the seventy-two
])ound rate of application, dried blood is far ahead of sulphate of
ammonia. ' Why is the difference so great, and why do we get less
return with this large application than we do with the lighter ones?
In the beginning we did not, but it is a condition that has gradually
come a])out. This form of nitrogen, sulphate of ammonia, causes
the soil to ])ecome sour, and the soil of those plats treated with
seventy-two pounds of sulphate of ammonia is now so sour that
clover fails absolutely and red top and sorrel comes in and takes its
place. Corn, wheat and oats, in case of the heavy application, are
also failing, not absolutely, but they are \'ery much reduced in yield.
In case of the forty-eight-pound application, clover has failed
and the other crops are just beginning to show the effects of it.
With twenty-four pounds of nitrogen the soil has not become suf-
ficiently sour to prevent the growth of clover, showing that that is
the reason that sulphate of ammonia in large applications has be-
come so ineffective.

Table IV. — Commercial Fertilizers vs. Yard Manure.*

Increase
Alternate Years Value Cost Pert. Less Cost

None, $60.02

P 6Q.05 $4.80 $4.23

P. & K 83.93 12.80 II. II

P., K. & X Qi . II 21 .44 9.65

Yard Manure (6 Tons), 88.91 12.00 16.89

"^Estimated at $1.00 per ton. Average value of products from 30 four-
years' rotations. Pennsylvania Experiment Station, State College, Pa.

Ta1)le I\' gives the comi)arative value of the crops from the
several treatments, as follows : Nothing, $60.02 : phosphoric acid,
$69.05: mineral fertilizers, $83.93; complete fertilizer, $91.11, and
barnyard manure, $88.91, the latter being a little less than we got
with a complete commercial fertilizer. It is rather significant that
we have been able during a i)eriod of thirty years, to more than
maintain the fertility of this soil without the use of any manure.
All crops— hay, stover, and straw — are removed and no crop res-
idues returned.

The value of increase less cost of fertilizer treatment gives
the following values. Phosj)horus alone, $4.80; phosphorus and
potash, $11.11: a comi)lete fertilizer, $9.65, and barnyard manure,
$16.89. Of course, in case of fertilizers, they are figured at what
they actually cost. In the case of barnyard manure, it is necessary
to attach some nominal value to it. In this case we have placed
upon it a valuation of $1.00 per ton. This may be too low, but on
the above basis we have for two applications, or $4.80 worth of
j)hosphorus in the form of dissolved bone black, an increase above
its cost amounting to 88 per cent, j^rofit. In the case of mineral
fertilizers the per cent. ])rofit is 86, and with the complete fertilizers.

r

>;

63

which cost $21.44, very much more than the other, because the
nitrogen is the expensive ingredient, we get a profit of $9.65, or
less than we had with the mineral fertilizer without nitrogen. This
is only forty-five per cent., and if we are to draw any conclusions,
it must be that it does not pay to apply nitrogen, at the rate of
twenty-four pounds or more for these crops at the prices that we
have received for them. If we had received fifty per cent, more
for our hay, straw, wheat, oats and corn, it would add fifty per
cent, to .our profit, and we would probably be justified in using ni-
trogen.

Let me i)ause here just a minute to say that the amount of
fertilizer you can use on any crop or any soil, depends, first and
foremost, 'on the value of that crop. That is to say, if we get a
50 per cent, increase from a certain fertilizer that cost us a certain
amount, we are justified in applying that to the soil in larger
amounts for a valuable crop than we will for a crop that is low in
price. For example, tobacco, which is worth 10 cents a pound,
brings large returns per acre, so that we can use a larger amount of
fertilizer per acre than we could for a croj) of low value. This
blue print (not reproduced in this report) gives us the results ex-
l)ressed graphically by five year periods. That is, here are repre-
sented the total yield in pounds of produce per acre for each four
years' rotation. The open line represents the yields from untreated
plot, and you will notice from i\\e year period to five year period,
that yield has been steadily going down. The dotted line represents
the yields from phosphorus alone, and these also decline but not so
rapidly as where nothing was applied.

After this experiment has been going on fivt or six years they
seriously thought of abandoning it. Phosphorus gave no mcrease
during those first fwQ years, but since then has shown a marked
effect. You will see as you proceed from fivt year period to five
year period (represented by the diamond-shaped line), that we have
been al:>le to keep up the yield with phosphorus and potash. In
other words, we have been 'maintaining the fertility of the soil for
thirty years by use of the mineral constituents and without the
use of 'nitrogen, but remember that this is a four years' rotation
and includes clo\ er once every four years, and that clover, like all
legumes, has the power of getting all the nitrogen that is needed in
this rotation. That is a very important thing for every farmer to

bear in mind. .,. , 1 .1 • ^ i.

A man high u]) in counsels of soil fertility has made this state-
ment • "The pressure of atmosphere on each square inch of the
surface of the earth is 15 pounds. Four-fifths of that pressure,
or twelve pounds, is due to the nitrogen in the air. At a conserva-
tive valuation of i^ cents per pound the nitrogen is worth about
$11000,000 per acVe," and vet we pay 20 cents per pound for
nitrogen to apply to our crops in the form of a fertilizer, when, in
most cases, we should be getting it without cost.

Comparing the lines representing the complete fertilizers (rep-

64

resented by the squares) we find that we have not only maintained
[he oil feTti ity b U have actually increased it As we proceed from
period to period the line gets higher and h^her. g.ving "« a total
Troduction'of 20,000 pounds of produce to the acre •"; -^^^'°" ^^^^
the last five years, compared with 18,000 for the first hve years.
The y eld from manure is represented by the white hne wh.ch fol-
lows the preceding line very closely in the hfth period becoming a
little higher, Init in most cases falling a little behind.

Table V —Light Application Yard Manure.

None Six Tons Eight Tons Ten Tons

ir ■^■^^■■^:^^^:"|| 11 B 11

:gr ■■^:;;:;;:::: ii H |S ■«
',^7-,,, :. u^^ _«8o2 ^9^ 96.58

,882-1911. 60.02 88.9. 89.62 92.68

W^here we have used six tons of barnyard manure we have a
very uniform return. With eight tons of manure every ot^ier year
or sixteen tons in a rotation, we have increased the yield very
slightly. With the larger application of ten tons every other year
we eet a larger return on an average. Although we did not get
Tlafger reuirn the first five years, we have increased the fertility
of the soil somewhat, for it is better now than it was in the be-
g nn ng a indicated by the larger average yield for the later period.
\V1 ile we get a good increase, we do not get a suthcient in-
crease to give us an efiually good return on the unit of manure ap-
pHed brother words. Jhen we apply six tons of manure our
?cturn per ton is consideral>ly larger than when we apply eight or
'len ton In the case of the six-ton application, the return per ton
has been $..41 ; in the case of the eight ton app icatic.. our retivri
ner ton has been $\.8'-,. and with ten tons it has been $1.63. What
oesXt mean fo? actual farm practice? Few farmers have enough
manure to cover all their land, even once in a rotation. C^ood
practice demands that the manure spreader be used, and the manure
made to cover as large an acreage as possible. . ^ ,„

'Phere is another comparison that I do not have a chart to
cover and that is lime. Burnt lime has l)een applied at the rate of
two tons per acre once in each rotation, and that is tt) the corn
ground, and pulverized limestone applied at the same rate every
She vear to the corn and wheat. In the case of burnt lime we
have not seen any increase in yield. In the case of limestone we
have a small increase but no profit.

N'ou may ask, what conclusions can we draw from the results
of this fertilizer experiment, relative to the treatment of soils.-'
\ow then, we know that the potash used in this experiment is an
uirecessaHly large amount, and as a result of --^f. J-lj' J^
have these suggestions to make : that in rotations, say of four years,

65

where you have corn, oats, wheat, clover, and timothy, each one
year we would suggest that manure be used on the corn at the rate
of six tons per acre, plowed under, and a commercial fertilizer used
on the wheat.

Year

Table VI. — A Seven Course Rotation.

Crop

1 Corn

2 Corn

3 Oats

4 Wheat

5 Clover and Timothy

6 Timothy

Fertilizer

Amount

Yard Manure

6 Tons

Yard Manure

6 Tons

Nothing

Acid Phosphate

350 Lbs.

Muriate of Potash

100 Libs.

Nothing

Nitrate of Soda

150 Lbs.

Acid Phosphate

150 Lbs.

Muriate of Potash

50 Lbs.

Nitrate of Soda

150 Lbs.

Acid Phosphate

150 Lbs.

Muriate of Potash

50 Lbs.

Timothy

I realize that the question of soil fertility is fundamental, but,
as I said in the beginning, is only part of the game. We know it
is important to increase the production of our soil and take cog-
nizance of the disposition of our crops and get what they are worth.
We need also to recognize that the chief factors in the cost of pro-
duction are the labor of men and teams and use of equipment, and
that in order to make farming pay we must fully utilize these fac-
tors of production. We cannot afford to maintain horses on a
farm at a cost of $130 a year each unless we better utilize them, or
extend their work over a longer period of time. Many farmers, by
a readjustment of the farm enterprises, could cultivate the same
area of land with a less number of horses than they now use.

Now we hear a great deal about a little farm well tilled. It
sounds very nice and reads well, but investigations seem to indi-
cate that after all the important thing is the return per man rather
than the return per acre. How much can you make as a farmer?
How large does your farm need to be in order to make a reasonable
labor income? A farm may be too small to make it possible to
make it pay. The size will be determined chiefly by the kind or
type of farming. The small farm has many disadvantages; dis-
advantages from the standpoint of small fields, which cost more per
acre to cultivate and fence. The equipment and the buildmgs cost
more per acre than on larger farms.

Question. What is the value of hydrated hme as compared
with ordinary limestone?

Prof. Gardner. Hydrated lime is water-slaked or caustic
lime. It is in a convenient form to handle, but the price of hy-
drated lime is always so high that we cannot recommend it for ap-
plication to the land where other forms in equivalent amounts can
be secured more cheaply. That seems to be the difficulty with
hydrated lime. It is too high in price.

T

T

66

Question. What about the cost of raw phosphate as compared
with acid phosphates?

Prof. Gardner. The cost is very much lower. I am sorry
that we do not know a Httle more than we do about the relative
merits, but we know that in some of the states where the soils are
well supplied with organic matter, or where it is used in conjunc-
tion with green manure crops it is the cheapest source of phos-
phorus to use.

R. M. Eldon. Is ground limestone effective like burnt lime-
stone? , rr • •

Prof. Gardner. Yes, but in order to be equally effective it
should be finely ground and thoroughly mixed with the soil.

Question. Is it equal to a ton of hydrated lime if finely

ground ?

Prof. Gardner. No, it is not. The ground limestone is car-
bonated lime and lOO pounds of that is equal to 74 pounds of hy-
drated lime, three-fourths as valuable. It must be finely ground in
order to be as valuable. It is more agreeable to handle ; it is not
caustic. There is a great deal of interest in pulverized limestone,
more and more of it being used. But the important thing is getting
the lime on the land as cheaply as possible to correct the acidity of
the soil. Lime may have other functions in the soil in which the
caustic form may be more effective than the neutral or carbonate
form, but the one thing that stands out is the correction of sour-
ness of the soil, and I do not know of anything that can be used
as cheaply as lime for this purpose.

Question. Is ground lime much easier to handle than burnt

lime ?

Prof. Gardner. It requires handling a larger weight of ma-
terial to meet a definite need than would the other forms, but it is
less disagreeable to handle than the caustic forms and can be spread
with a lime spreader with less difficulty than air-slaked burnt lime.

Question. Suppose w^e tried to get the ground in condition
for vetch and clover, would not ground limestone act as quickly and
give as good results.

Prof. Gardner. It would. Now, let me tell you just what we
have done. We have used the two in several hundred pots on very
sour soil. We put the pulverized limestone and the caustic lime side
by side ten days before putting in the clover, and the clover came
up at once and made a good growth. We tested the soil for acidity
at close of the test and found where the ground limestone had been
applied in quantity just sufficient to meet the lime requirement, that
we still had 28 per cent, of acid, that had not been satisfied, and
with burnt limestone 29 per cent had not been satisfied. Of the.
original soil acidity 72 per cent, was corrected by ground limestone,
and 71 per cent, corrected by caustic or burnt lime.

How Trees Grow.

Proi^. C. R. Orton, Plant Pathologist, Department of Botany,

Pennsylvania State College.

Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen: I feel greatly hon-
ored to-day in being invited by your Secreatry to speak before this
Association of Fruit Growers' not only ])ecause' I know that it is a
very active and wide awake organization but because this is the
first opportunity I have had to address any public meeting of
practical men since coming to this State in the early part of the

present vear.

The subject assigned to me for this address is not perhaps
just what you might expect a plant pathologist to be most familiar
with but let me assure you that the whole subject of plant diseases
depends most fundamentally upon a thorough understanding of
normal life processes of plants and so I may confidently say that
this subject is of as vital importance to me as it is to you who gain
a livelihood if not wealth from the fruit of the tree.

General. There are two ideas involved in plant growth; in-
crease in size and the formation of new organs. In this discus-
sion I shall try to bring out as clearly as possible the various steps
by which a tree attainst these two forms of growth.

All plants have more or less definite periods of growth both
in size and in form. These periods occur only once in the case of
annual plants, twice in biennial plants which live two years, and
year after year in perennials to which class our trees belong .

Phases: There are three recognized phases in the develop-
ment of every plant whether annual, biennial, pr perennial. The
first may be called the formative phase ; the second, the phase of
enlargement and the third, the phase of maturity. Let us take up
each phase separately and see how it develops.

Formative Phase.— This is the earliest phase. It finds its be-
ginning in a group of cells in the seed. These cells divide many
times during germination and from them are diff'erentiated the
three growing regions of our trees. These three regions are (i)
the tips of stem and branches; (2) the tips of roots and (3), that
portion of the tree just beneath the bark which botanists call the

cambium. 1 • 1 ^ r

From the growth of the tips of buds we get length or height ot
body and the spreading of the top by lateral branching. This is
the most visible phase of growth.

From the tips of roots we get practically the same development
under ground that we get above ground. These two forms of
growth are very similar but physically the opposite as one is par-
tially positive and the other negative to the force of gravity. There
is also a peculiar sympathy between these widely separated grow-

67

■=^.J

68

ing points manifested by an adaptation of each to the needs or re-
quirements of the other.

From those cells of the tree lying between the bark and wood
we get the third formative phase o fgrowth. This phase which goes
on periodically year after year results in increase in diameter of all
woody parts of the tree. This growth is the result of one or two
layers of cells (the cambium) dividing lengthwise, forming new
wood on the inside and new bark on the outside. Everyone is
familiar with the gross effect of this form of growth, namely, the
annular rings seen in a transverse cut through a tree.

Phase of Enlargement.— As the new cells, formed by the
division of previous existing cells in the growing points, grow older
they enter upon the second growth phase — that of enlargement. In
this period the last formed cells increase in size, sometimes a thou-
sand fold but usually much less, especially in trees where the cells
are of a woody nature. On examining these cells it is found that
a large part of their contents is water, with a relatively small
amount of living protoplasm lying adjacent to the walls. Hence
we see that this condition necessitates a large amount of water avail-
able in the soil in order that the enlargement of cells may progress
normallv. A lack of water during the growing period results ni
dwarfing, a phenomena with which every fruit grower is familiar.

This phase of enlargement is not constant through the grow-
ing season. It starts slowly, gradually increasing in rapidity until
it reaches a maximum and then gradually stops and comes to an
end. It may last only a few days or may extend over a month or
so, governed by conditions. This makes it extremely important
that we conserve the food and water necessary for the tree during
the growing season in order that this rate of growth shall be normal.
The rate of growth during the period of enlargement varies greatly
in different trees and under different conditions such as mentioned
above. We all recognize that growth is much more rapid when
trees are well nourished and properly cultivated to conserve the soil
moisture. It, however, does not follow that rapid growth is to be
desired in our fruit trees for it is often noted that trees which
have undergvone very rapid development are not so hardy as others
which have developed more normally. We should aim for normal
development in all cases for any deviation from normal develop-
ment often results disastrously in the end.

Phase of Maturity. — We shall now consider very briefly the
last phase of development in the tissues of a tree. This is the
phase when enlargement of the cells has ceased. This condition is
to be found in the heart wood of the tree which is composed of
cells usually with thick walls, but containing no living matter (pro-
toplasm). These cells remain in place and give much stability and
strength to the tree but do not possess any life of their own. From
the lumberman's point of view it is this portion of the tree which
furnishes the most durable lumber and is consequently most sought
for and most valuable.

<
r

69

Formation of New Organs. — This is the second idea involved
in growth, the visible evidences of which are the production of new
branches. The process of forming these new organs is somewhat
similar in the roots to the process as it takes place in the top of
the tree. These new organs arise from an actively growmg pomt »
either in the cambium as in the case of new branches, or in the
pith as in the case of new roots. At this point certain cells start
active division in both planes which results finally in the forcing of
such cells through the softer parent tissues to the surface where
they appear as new buds or roots. From this point on their growth
is exactlv like previously existing organs.

The" stimuli and conditions necessary to bring about the forma-
tion of new organs are similar to those of growth in general, which
will now be discussed.

Conditions of Growth.— We are now ready to consider some
of the more important conditions of growth. Perhaps the most im-
portant agent of growth, especially in enlargement, is water. With-
out water the cells of the three growing points cannot divide. This
condition even if only temporary results in stunting of the tree as
before mentioned. If this lack of water is prolonged, death may

result. 1 r

The next most important condition is a sufficient supply ot
food materials which the tree uses for making new cells and the
re^^ulting tissue. These food materials are of a chemical nature.
They are taken in by the roots, after being dissolved in soil water,
and by the leaves in the form of gas (CO2) from the atmos-
phere and made over into the living matter of the growing tissue or
a portion of it may be stored in certain cells of the tree for future
use We call this last food, reserve, or storage fopd. It is made up
largely of starches, sugars, fats and proteins. In other words, chem-
ical compounds which are largely made up of carbon and hydrogen
are manufactured by the ])lant within its own tissues and stored
awav until it is needed by the tree to mend broken tissue or to man-
ufacture new tissues. Light is of the greatest importance in the
manufacture of these food materials and will be considered later.

The third most important of the factors favorable to growth
is oxygen This element is obtained from the carbon dioxide in
the air and is necessary in order that respiration and other vital
processes within the tree may proceed without interruption. Growth
in the absence of oxygen is practically inhibited.

The fourth and last condition necessary for growth is a suitable
temperature. Investigations have shown that trees must have an
optimum temperature lying between 75 and cjo degrees F. From
this it is easily understood why cold summers or very hot summers
are unfavorable for growth. •

\ny one of these conditions may vary greatly without ap-
preciably affecting the other three and yet whenever any one factor
remains for anv length of time, at an unfavorable point, growth
ceases From this we can see that a tree is an extremely sensitive

-jm

aaaaeaaMiiJiw.>i"">

70

organism which is even more responsive to conditions than animals
and for this reason may be more susceptible to unfavorable con-
ditions than the latter. . , . ^u

Formative stimuli.— We have thus far considered growth
simply as such without especial regard to the ultimate result. We
must now consider various agents which curiously enough are nec-
essary for normal development yet are in themselves unfavorable
to growth. The first of these agents is light. , . , ,

You are all familiar with the rapidity with which the sprouts
from potatoes develop in darkness. The most distasteful work of
my boyhood consisted in sprouting potatoes in the home cellar and
I often wondered why in creation potato stems grew so blamed
fast" in the cellar. That condition has now ceased to be a mystery
to me but its disappearance has in no way decreased the haunting
fear of going into my cellar and finding the potato sprouts have
grown several inches since I last saw them. If there is much light
in the potato bins the sprouts will be much shorter and will not

develop so rapidly. . , ,. 1

Light influences growth in various ways ; it retards the elonga-
tion of rapidlv growing organs and it aflfects profoundly the form
of the tree the relation lietween light and growth has been care-
fully studied and it has been found that growth during the brightest
period of the day graduallv decreases until about six o clock at
night when it is at its lowest point. From this hour it gradually
increases until it reaches its maximum at about four o clock in the
morning when it begins to decrease again. In nature this phenom-
enon of the eflfect of light upon growth is closely associated with
temperature which in turn is closely correlated with evaporation
from the tree. The inter-relation of these agents and their effect
upon growtli is an intricate problem which need not be discussed

here. , . • ^ „4.

• The effect of light upon the form of a tree is a very interest-
ing and instructive problem. In general it may be .stated that light
retards elongation of organs and stimulates growth in breadth and
thickness An instance of this may be seen when a section ot a
leaf is made which has been exposed to light during much of its
development. Here it is seen that those cells on the uijper surface
of the leaf are longer in their vertical axis than m their longitudinal

V)n the other hand the tree seeks to ol)tain for itself as nnich
light as it needs in order to carry on its vital activities. Ihis
is seen bv noting how a large proportion of the leaves and branches
of a tree point towards the direction of most eHicient light. 1 his
phenomenon however is not directly one of growth but is one as-
sociated with the manufacture of food for the tree which has been
previously mentioned. It is unquestionable that light exerts a large
influence upon the form of a tree as well as upon its reproductive
processes shown during blooming and setting of fruits.

Less important as agents in growth but of a similar etiect upon

71

the plant are electric waves. It has been shown conclusively that
the germination of seeds is hastened by electric stimuli and that
the growth of the seedlings is also accelerated for some time by

such treatment. . -

Chemical agents may be much more important in the growtn
of a tree than we have supposed. We are all familiar with the
fact that trees need certain chemical elements for food but per-
haps' you are not so familiar with the negative eflfect of chemical
compounds which may act as poisons to the plant and cause stunted
growths in a similar wav as does the lack of water. Stunting
may also result and perhaps more often does result from the lack
of sufficient chemical food with which the tree may manufacture
new tissue and reserve food, than it does because of toxins.

Injuries are important as agents in growth. Tissues may by
various sorts of injury, be made to develop abnormally. Ad-
vantage is made of this fact rather constantly by fruit growers and
is of great importance in grafting and budding trees.

Somewhat closely related to injury is the reciprocal influence
seen between similar organs when accidents occur to one of them.
For instance the removal of one or more branches from a tree may
stimulate the development of new flower and leaf l)uds on sonie
other branch, or at some other point on the tree. Every orchard-
ist knows how to take advantage of this close relation by proper
pruning to induce new growth where it is most desirable, by such
methods the entire form of a tree may be changed.

We have now considered rather briefly the three phases of
growth, the four important conditions of, or agents in growth and the
more important stimuli acting upon the form of growth. Several
points of more than passing interest have been touched upon, most of
which have to do with the physiological activities of a growmg tree.
I have thought best to reserve the discussion of these points tor
the last part of this paper. They may perhaps best be brought out
by a number of questions such as: How do trees take in water?
What becomes of this water after it enters the tree? How much
water does a tree take from the soil? How does the tree manufac-
ture food within its tissues? I have enumerated what seem to be
the most important and interesting from the practical standpoint
and I win trv to make these points clear in the brief time allowed.
You are^all no doubt familiar with the fact that near the tips
of growing roots there are many very fine root hairs. These root
hairs are verv important to the growth and life of the tree for
they possess the power not only of absorbing water but also ot
selecting or rejecting certain materials necessary or undesirable for
the tree as the case may be. It is a sufi^cient answer to the first
question to say that these root hairs are the principal organs
through which water is taken into the plant. ^

After this water enters the tissues of the roots by osmosis it
is carried to the aerial parts of the tree. It travels upward within
certain elongated cells in the sap wood which we call ducts or ves-

-im

BB

—^—■tw^i^tTgTrBg]

f

/

72

sels and which are continuous the entire length of the tree and
branches and extend into the leaves. Within the leaves part of
this water is used by the tree as an agent in the production of food.
After this food is manufactured in the leaves it passes back
through the inner bark-cells, down the branches and trunk to
furnish food to the cambium and roots. We know this to be true
because a girdled tree dies from root starvation if only the bark is
cut away. It may be stated here that only a very small amount of
the water taken in by the roots remains in the tree or is used in
the manufacture of food. Probably 90 per cent, or more of it,
which passes up through the vessels into the leaves is from them
evaporated into the air.

The amount of water which a tree takes from the soil vanes
greatly according to temperature and the season of the year. It
is much greater during the growing season and may be measured
approximately by the amount of water evaporated from the leaves.
This amount varies of course with the age and number of leaves
on a tree. It has been carefully estimated that a beech tree fifteen
years old evaporates about twenty gallons of water daily during
the months of Tune to September inclusive. This is no inconsid-
erable amount and one hardly understands where the tree obtains
such an amount of water, over such a long period. In a dry season
this amount is without doubt considerably lessened, a fact which
makes it important for orchardists to conserve as much of the soil
moisture as possible by methods of soil mulching.

The process by which a tree manufactures food for itself is
extremely complex and is not known with exactness. The hypoth-
esis generally accepted is that the green coloring matter of the
leaves absorbs sunlight and that the energy obtained in this manner
is used by the living matter, which is called protoplasm, to unite
the water brought up by the roots with the carbon dioxide taken
into the leaves from the air. The result of this union, in whatever
manner it takes place, is the formation of starch and later sugar
which composes a large part of the food of plants. There are many
other matters which might be properly discussed in connection with
the manufacture of food by the plant. By-products, such as gases
and acids are important and interesting but lead off into discus-
sions not exactly pertinent to our subject.

If I have been successful in making clear to my audience some
slight idea of how trees grow I shall feel that I have not only ren-
dered a service to my listeners but also to the science of fruit-
growing in particular, for much of success in your field of work
depends upon a clear understanding of the life processes of your
trees.

PEACH GROWING FOR MARKET.

S H Fulton, Manager Sleepy Creek Orchards, Sleepy Creek,

IV. Va.

Next to the apple, the peach is the most important orchard
fruit produced in the United States. There are more than half as
many bearing peach trees as apple trees in this country and the
value of the peach crop averages about one-third that of the apple
crop. While not so widely grown as the apple the peach is, never-
theless, cultivated over a great range of territory and is produced
in all except the coldest portions of the United States. For nearly
seven months of the year, peaches may be found upon any of the
large city markets. In April small white peaches of the Peen-
To and Honey types begin to arrive on the northern markets from
Florida, followed shortly in order of ripening by Greensboro,^ Car-
man, Elberta and other varieties from Georgia and Texas. Before
these latter states are through shipping, the crop from Arkansas,
Missouri and the Carolinas begin to move. These sections are in
turn followed by the Virginias, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Ohio,
Michigan and New York State. Many other states aside from
these mentioned also produce a good many peaches. Late varieties
from the Allegheny Mountain sections and the Great Lakes region
round out tht season during the month of October.

Georgia ranks first among the states of the Union in number
of bearing trees, having in 1910 over 10,000,000 trees. Next, in
the order named, follow Texas, California, Arkansas, Missouri, Ok-
lahoma, Kansas, Alabama, Tennessee, Ohio, Michigan, Illinois and
Pennsylvania, making Pennsylvania the thirteenth state in number
of bearing trees. In value of crops produced however, Pennsyl-
nania takes higher rank. In 1909 which was a good average year,
California ranked first, followed by Georgia, New York, Michigan,
Arkansas and Pennsylvania in the order named, placing Pennsyl-
vania sixth in the value of the peach crop.

In planting peaches for commercial purposes in any given sec-
tion, the grower should aim to plant varieties which will ripen at
a time when there will be the least competition from other sections.
No peach ripening before the Georgia season is over should be
planted to any extent commercially in this latitude. Late varieties
mav be expected to come into competition with fruit from
Michigan and New York State. In the eastern pan-handle of West
Virginia we have found varieties ripening between the northern
and southern crops most profitable. Such varieties ripen in August
and include Carman, Champion, Belle of Georgia. Reves Favorite
and a half or more of the FJberta crop. Among late varieties, we
grow Fox, Stevens, Smock, W onderful, Salway and Bilyeu. If
the northern crop is not too heavy these late varieties pay us well.

73

74

Varieties of good size and good color are to be preferred Small
fruit is likely to be discriminated against ])y buyers especially in a

full crop year. v .. t -^^

Spraying is essential for scale, brown rot, scab, etc Lime-
sulfur is the best preparation known for San Jose Scale )ils are
dangerous, often killing the fruit buds and sometimes killing the
new wood. For the Lecanium or Terrapin scale the writer has had
good success with soluble oil, one to fifteen applied just before the
Trees bloom. For brown rot and scab self-boiled lime-sulfur or a
proprietary remedy known as '^Atomic-sulfur give excellent re-
sults Even at high altitudes where diseases of the fruit are not
expected to be troublesome, it will pay to spray. Two applications
are usually necessary. In the first, it is well to use al^out one and
one-half pounds of arsenate of lead to fifty gallons of the spray

mixture for the curculio. ^ , i j

In our early experience at Sleepy Creek, we lost a good many
trees from borers. Later we learned that it was necessary to go
over the trees twice in the spring of the year. The first time over
we remove the earth from the base of the trees and take out all
the borers that can ])e found. The second time over, any borers
which were overlooked the first time are removed and the earth
shovelled back al^out the collar of the tree. If the earth is re-
moved trees wormed and dirt put back all at one operation enough
borers will be overlooked to kill a good many trees on soils where
the insects are very numerous. On badly infested areas, we usually
worm young trees again in the fall of the year. The tntomologists
of the West Virginia Experiment Station are experimenting with
a variety of remedies for the borer but thus far have reported no
satisfactory line of treatment other than removing the worms with
a knife or other pointed instrument. _ , . r

Pruning should be done with a view to admitting plenty ot
lidit and air to the tops of the trees. Personally the writer likes
low open centered trees with only three main branches. Careful
systematic pruning will do much to keep the tops within manageable
bounds and will prolong the profitable life of the trees. Trees in-
iured by winter freezing or stunted through overbearing or lack ot
plant food can be thrown into vigorous growth by moderately severe

^^^^"pfach trees are rank feeders and must be fertilized for profit-
able results particularly on thin land. On light soils plenty of nitro-
gen should be supplied for wood growth and bud formation. Potash
may or may not be needed. Acid phosphate is usually essential. A
test of different fertilizer ingredients alone and in combination is
almost certain to prove valuable in any peach orchard. A test
by the West Virginia experiment station in our Sleepy Creek orch-
ards disclosed the fact that nitrogen was the limiting factor in the
fertilizing formula we were using and potash was needed only in
a verv limited way if at all. We had been using large amounts of
potash on the theory that potash increased the fruitfulness of the

U,

75

trees, and aided in the development and coloring of the fruit. The
test above referred to indicated that there is already sufficient
potash in our soils as applying or withholding potash made no dif-
ference in the tree or crop. The peach grower should mix his own
fertilizers. He can easily pre])are a formula to suit the needs of his
trees, he will know exactly what he is using and will save several

dollars; per ton.

Harvesting in this section from which a number of large city
markets can be reached in about twelve hours by express or from
twenty-four to forty-eight hours by refrigerator cars, need not be
performed until the fruit is well colored and fully developed. No
indication of softening, however, should be apparent at picking
time. Half bushel round oak baskets with drop handles are very
convenient for picking and hauling to the packing house. Low-
down wagons with bolster springs and double deck beds, holding
about fifty baskets, are very convenient for hauling from the or-
chard to the packing shed. ,

At the packing house the fruit should be graded into from two
to three sizes for carriers. Second grade fruit, consisting of small
size and misshapen specimens, pack to advantage in this section in
round half bushel baskets commonly called ^'Delawares." All over
ripe and unsound fruit should go into the cull baskets. Women
usually make better graders than men and are to be preferred for

this work. .

For packing we use home help together with a number ot
expert packers from the South. We pay the home help two cents
per carrier and the southern packers two dollars per day with
board and railroad fare one way from the last point in the south at
which they worked. We find the southern packers economical help
to employ and believe it will pay peach and apple growers in this
section to encourage the coming of these young men who follow
packing the year around and become very expert.

Usually the peach grower finds the marketing problem the
tno^t serious one with which he has to contend. The great bulk of
the peach crop of the countrv is shipped on consignment to com-
mission houses in the large cities. A relatively small portion of
the crop is sold to buyers, f. o. b. the shipping point while a very
small quantity is sold direct to the retail or consumer. Shipping on
consignment is fairly satisfactory if the grower is in touch with
eood reliable commission houses. However, fruit shipped in this
waygoes only into the regular channels of trade and at times when
there is a glut in the market as occurred last fall when the New
York state Elbertas were in season, prices were very low.

Selling f. o. b. or shipping direct to the consumer takes the
fruit out of the regular channels of trade to a certain extent and
often means better prices. Track sales in sections where orchards
are isolated and buying is not a common practice do not, however,
always work out well. Usually the buyer insists on receiving the
fruit before settling for it. Meanwhile, in case the market lowers,

>

■i- f,
__ .. V i" . . ■, , .

•Jl \'

76

the grower is likely to have trouble in getting full settlement. Track
sales of peaches should always be on the ])asis of settlement before
the car rolls. Here is where an organization or association of
growers comes into play as concerted effort on the part of the
growers of a given section is necessary to bring about desired con-
ditions in the way of compelling buyers to meet the requirements of

the growers.

For the small grower or the large grower with plenty ot help
for performing extra work involved in shipping small ordiers in
the way of bookkeeping, sending our bills, collecting, etc., dealing
direct with the consumer may work quite satisfactorily for dispos-
ing of at least a considerable portion of the crop. Such sales usually
mean larger profits for the grower. In past years the handling of
small shipments by express has often been very discouraging to the
grower on account of double charging and bad handling by the
express companies. With parcel post rates increasing and charges
lowering, this svstem of transporting is being watched with keen
interest by fruit growers and it is to be hoped parcel post will
shortly aid materially in the problem of distributing the fruit crop

of this country.

Mr. T. H. Arnold, Agriculturist of the Office of Farm Man-
agement,'United vStates Department of Agriculture, has made a
careful study of the peach growing industry m eastern West Vir-
ginia and has published some interesting facts and figures in Bulle-
tin No. 29. Mr. Arnold found the average cost of producing
peaches in this section over a ten-year period to be about sixty-
three cents per basket. The average price received, for the same
period was between sixty-seven and seventy-four cents per basket.
The average net profit, therefore, was between four and eleven
cents per basket. While these figures are not strictly accurate as
they are obtained by compiling data furnished by a considerable
number of growers who as a rule do not keep accurate account of
all orchard transactions, nevertheless, they are doubtless approxi-
mately correct and serve to show that for the average peach grower
no w'ide margin exists between profit and loss. In every peach
growing section there are plenty of examples of unprofitable peach
orchards. Among commercial peach growers, only men can be ex-
pected to succeed who give careful, persistent attention to the many
problems surrounding the selecting of varieties, planting of trees,
cultivating, spraying, pruning fertilizing, worming, removing dis-
eased trees, harvesting and i)acking with an unusual share of atten-
tion and energy when it comes to marketing.

THE NEWER DISEASES OF FRUIT TREES AND LAT-
EST DEVELOPMENT IN THEIR TREATMENT.

Prof. C. R. Ortox, Plant Pathologist, Department of Botany, Penn-
sylvania State College.

In the application of the subject of fruit diseases we have a
variety of conditions to contend with, not only as to the methods
and treatment of our experimental work, but also in furthering the
practical side such as the fruit grower has to deal with. We have
on the apple in this state about twenty diseases, all but one or two
of which are of a fungous nature. Most of these are more or less
of serious importance, and perhaps there are about five or six
of them which you might call of newer origin.

Now just what do we mean by newer diseases? Ordinarily we
mean the diseases which have been introduced into the state more
recently. That does not mean necessarily that these diseases have
suddenly come into existence. It simply means that they have prob-
ably existed somewhere else indefinitely and have been introduced
here recently from other localities ; or at least if they have not been
recently introduced, they have only recently been brought to our
attention. As an instance of this I will cite the chestnut blight
fungus which you have all heard so much about. That has been
supposed by some to be a disease which was present in this country
for a good many years, but which only recently attained very much
importance. That is, some pathologists thought it had been present
upon the chestnut trees for years, but owing to certain conditions in
the cultivation of the chestnut the trees were weakened in such a
wav that they became subject to the attack of this fungus.

More recently, however, it has been proven conclusively that
the chestnut blight fungus was imported from China. It was
probablv brought over here on imported chestnut trees from China
which were planted in the vicinity of New York City, and as soon
as the disease came into contact with the American chestnut, which
is very susceptible, it attacked it and caused great devastation.

I am going to take up first some of the newer diseases and
treat them a little more fully, and if I have time will take up some
of the more famihar ones/ We have among the newer fungous
diseases bitter rot, (Olomerella rufomaculans) although possibly
it should not be called a new disease in Pennsylvania. It is per-
haps better known than blotch, fruit spot, and Illinois apple canker.
Among the bacterial diseases not so well known we have collar
Might and crown gall and in the physiological diseases we have
fruit pit and water core.

We will take up first bitter rot. It is primarily a disease of
southern and middle western orchards, and it has become probably
the most serious apple disease in certain of those fruit growing
regions. Now it is becoming a very serious menace in the Penn-

77

7S

sylvania orchards. On the fruit it is characterized by producing a
brown decay in the center of which appears a pinkish mass of
spores. These spores usually appear in circles, originating from a
small infection spot. Fig. i. On the branches and twigs it forms
a canker. There are a variety of cankers on apple trees. Bitter
rot forms a canker somewhat similar to fire blight on limbs and
trunks. In fact, it is pretty difficult to tell it unless you find the
fungus on it. There is usually one difference however; in the
bitter rot cankers there is usually more cracking of the bark than
you would find in a fire blight canker. It usually cracks down into
the sap wood. So then, you have these two effects of bitter rot,
one on the fruit and one on the limbs.

Fig. I. BriTEK Rot (Glomorella rufomacularis), Showiiso the SpokE
Masses Arranged in Concentric Circles.

Now in the control of this disease there are two things to take
into consideration. There is a summer spore stage and a winter
spore stage. On the fruit only the summer spore stage is pro-
duced. These spores spread the disease rapidly from one fruit
to another during certain weather conditions. This usually takes
place in July or August when warm, humid conditions prevail.
On the branch the fungus brings about the production of the
winter spore stage which is able to live through the winter in the
cankers and is resistant to the cold. The spores from this stage
germinate in the summer and re-infect the fruit that season.

In the control of this there are two things to do ; first, to spray
the tree to prevent infection of the fruit in the summer, and second,
to cut out the cankers in order to eliminate the source of infection.
The most important by far, I believe, is the removal of these
cankers for they are the source of contamination year after year
from the same place. Unless you remove these you are constantly
increasing the liability of infection of your fruit.

In cutting out it is very essential that you take sanitary precau-
tions in the same way as in fire blight, although perhaps not quite so
strictly. Make your cuts smoothly and sterilize your instruments.
Also sterilize the wound and paint it with a good paint. Asphaltum
is one of the best dressings for cuts and wounds we have now.
White lead and oil may also be used and is easily prepared anl

\

79

applied, but is liable to crack. Use the best grades of asphaltum,
preferably having a high melting point, at least 250 degrees F.

This is in order that during the hot weather in the summer it will
not run. It also has the advantage that it does not crack as the
others often do.

C. J. Tyson. — How can we secure asphaltum of that kind?

t^rof. Orton. — ^There are several companies which put out as-
phaltum of these different grades and they will submit prices to
you on application. The Standard Oil Company puts out asphaltum
of that grade called Korite. It costs twenty ($20.00) dollars a
ton F. O. B. The Barber Asphalt Paving Company, Maurer, N. J.,
puts out a grade ready for application, at 35 cents per gallon, F. O.
B. Of course the higher the grade the higher the price.

Question. — What is the paint like?

Prof. Orton. — It is usually in a hard mass and looks a little
like a lump of coal It will only melt when it is heated to this high
temperature.

Question. — Then, how is it applied?

Prof. Orton. — It may be applied with a brush while warm, or it
may be diluted with linseed oil and naphtha and applied cold, which
in many ways is preferable.

We come now to the second disease, blotch {Phyllosticta soli-
taria). Blotch is another disease essentially of southern orchards.
It first attained serious importance as an apple tree disease in Mis-
souri and adjacent states. It attacks both the fruit and twigs as
does the bitter rot but with quite different symptoms. It may
be interesting to know a little of the history of the fungus causing
this disease. It was first described from Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
by L. von Schweinitz, a mycologist. He described this disease of
apple trees about the year 1830, but it never came into importance
as a disease producer until about ten years ago in the central west,
when investigations were undertaken by the Department of Agri-
culture to control It. On the fruit in the early stages it produces
a spot somewhat similar to the sooty blotch which is so common on
ripe fruit. A little later in these spots begins the formation of a
sunken area in the skin, which turns a tan color, and is very
leathery in appearance and texture. In these leathery areas minute
black spots appear, in which the spores are produced. On the
twigs it produces first a small pustule or canker, which is about
% to ji inch in size, usually nearly circular and highly colored, per-
haps reddish, or tan colored, but nearly always somewhat higher
colored than the healthy bark around it. A little later the bark
around this spot cracks and there is a canker formed. The spot
then becomes slightly sunken. These cankers are usually on the
vounger twigs. In connection with the fungus we have never yet
found a winter stage, so that so far as we now know, control by
spraying is the only practical method to follow.

Now in spraying for this a similar method of application as is
used for bitter rot is satisfactory for the blotch. Three or four

7^

sylvania orchards. ( )n the fruit it is characterized by producing a
brown decav in the center of which appears a pinkish mass of
spores. These spores usually appear in circles, originatmg from a
small infection spot. Fig. i' On the branches and twigs it forms
a canker. There are a variety of cankers on apple trees. Bitter
rot forms a canker somewhat similar to fire blight on limbs and
trunks. In fact, it is pretty difficult to tell it unless you find the
fungus on it. There is usually one difference however; in the
bitter rot cankers there is usually more cracking of the bark than
vou would find in a fire blight canker. It usually cracks down into
the sap wood. So then, you have these two effects of bitter rot,
one on the fruit and one on the limbs.

Fig. 1. HiTTKK Rot (GlomorclUi rufomaculans), Showinc thk vSi'okk
Masses Akkangeu in Concentric Cikcij-s.

Now in the control of this disease there are two things to take
into consideration. There is a summer spore stage and a winter
spore stage. On the fruit only the summer spore stage is pro-
duced. These si)ores spread the disease rai)idlv frcr.i ore fruit
to another during certain weather conditions. This usually takes
place in July or August when warm, humid conditions prevail.
On the branch the fungus brings about the production of the
winter spore stage which is al)le to live through the winter in the
cankers and is resistant to the cold. The spores from this stage
germinate in the summer and re-infect the fruit that season.

In the control of this there are two things to do ; first, to spray
the tree to prevent infection of the fruit in the summer, and second,
to cut out the cankers in order to eliminate the source of infection.
The most important by far, I believe, is the removal of these .
cankers for they are the source of contamination year after year
from the same place, l^nless you remove these you are constantly
increasing the liability of infection of your fruit.

In cutting out it is' very essential that you take sanitary precau-
tions in the same way as in fire blight, although perhaps not quite so
strictly. Make your cuts smoothly and sterilize your instruments.
Also sterilize the wound and paint it with a good paint. Asphaltum
is one of the best dressings for cuts and wounds we have now.
White lead and oil may also be used and is canily prepared an!

79

applied, but is liable to crack. Use the best grades of asphaltum,
preferably having ^ high melting point, at least 250 degrees F.

This is in order that during the hot weather in the summer it will
not run. It also has the advantage that it does not crack as the

others often do.

C. J. Tyson. — How can we secure asphaltum of that kind?
Prof. Orton. — ^^There are several companies which put out as-
phaltum of these different grades and they will submit prices to
you on application. The Standard Oil Company puts out asphaltum
of that grade called Korite. It costs twenty ($20.00) dollars a
ton F. O. B. The Barber Asphalt Paving Company, Maurer, N. J.,
puts out a grade ready for application, at 35 cents per gallon, F. O.
B. Of course the higher the grade the higher the price.
Question. — What is the paint like?

Prof. Orton. — It is usually in a hard mass and looks a little
like a lump of coal It will only melt when it is heated to this high
temperature.

Question. — Then, how is it applied?

Prof. Orton. — It may be applied with a brush while warm, or it
may be diluted with linseed oil and naphtha and applied cold, which
in many ways is preferable.

We come now to the second disease, blotch (Phyllosticta soh-
taria). Blotch is another disease essentially of southern orchards.
It first attained serious importance as an apple tree disease in Mis-
souri and adjacent states. It attacks both the fruit and twigs as
does the bitter rot but with quite different symptoms. It may
be interesting to know a little of the history of the fungus causing
this disease. It was first described from Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
by L. von Schweinitz, a mycologist. He described this disease of
apple trees about the year 1830, but it never came into importance
as a disease producer until about ten years ago in the central west,
when investigations were undertaken by the Department of Agri-
culture to control A. On the fruit in the early stages it produces
a spot somewhat similar to the sooty blotch which is so common on
ripe fruit. A little later in these spots begins the formation of a
sunken area in the skin, which turns a tan color, and is very
leathery in appearance and texture. In these leathery areas minute
black spots appear, in which the spores are produced. On the
twigs it produces first a small pustule or canker, which is about
% to ji inch in size, usually nearly circular and highly colored, per-
haps reddish, or tan colored, but nearly always somewhat higher
colored than the healthy bark around it. A little later the bark
around this spot cracks" and there is a canker formed. The spot
then becomes slightly sunken. These cankers are usually on the
younger twigs. In connection with the fungus we have never yet
found a winter stage, so that so far as we now know, control by
spraying is the only practical method to follow.

Now in spraying for this a similar method of application as is
used for bitter rot is satisfactory for the blotch. Three or four

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

8o

aunlications, beginning about three weeks after the petals fall ought
to control it Two applications in Missouri usually controls it.
'?hree1s safer, howevef As in the case of ^Hter rot warrn sultry
weather is more favorable for its development than dry cooi
^ea he . For the control of blotch in Missouri, Bordeaux .s pre-
ferred to lime-sulphur. It will require experimental studies to
determine which is better for Pennsylvania conditions.

Then we come to fruit spot, or what is known l--"y ^^f ^^f ^^
win fruit snot I* also attacks various other varieties as tne
Twenty Oun'°e and York Stripe. It probably occurs on the York

Imperial and Gano. but is primarily -h=^^-^,i^„tt%^h1^h S
T^nVit Snot and should not be confused with bitter pit wnicn ib
LShe/name for fruit pit, on Baldwin, Gano and a large number
To'her vSties. It is'a superficial spot and is somewhat sin^dar
to the spot on the Jonathan, although usually a little larger tnan
that It is due to a fungus called Phoma Pomi which was first
described from New Ha^shire by. Prof . Charles Brook. This
disease was serious in New Hampshire ^^^^^l^'l.^'^H'^fX^.
has been renorted several times in Pennsylvania. It has not, now
evJr attanS verv serious importance, and is readily controlled
bv ordinarv spray 'applications. Two applications are sufficient. It
appears a little later'than scab and ordinarily the third and ourth
applications for scab will control it. It does not aflfect the branches
or twigs so far as is known.

Member.— What would you spray with .-
Prof Orton.— Sprav with lime-sulphur or Bordeaux
We also lave inVennsylvania the lister canker (iVum^m«/a«a
HUrrcta\ which at least some of you have heard of it was tirst
call dllinoi Apple Canker because it was described from Illinois
and was found to be doing a considerable amount of damage in the
older ochards there. It attacks only the wood where it causes a
?arge number of small blisters. It usually attacks only old tree
ov?r twenty-five years of age. and on the larger limbs, although it
will extend out on the smaller limbs. , „ i r

t if not usually serious in well cultivated and well taken care of
orchards and is somewhat like black rot in that respect. In Ohio
whe'e it has been studied recently, it has been found to be the
cause of a ereat amount of injury m the southern orchards that
have been niglected somewhat. It may often follow Fire blight or
other injuries I found it in the old orchard at State College where,
several trees have been practically ruined. It has also been re-
ported from several other parts of the state a .^A
In the control of this there is only one method of procedure and
that is to cut out the cankers. Cut back well below the point of
iniurv There is another point which should be mentioned m
connection with the detection of these blisters. You^^j^^^^i^^^^^
tell them easily if you will run your knife through the bark and
peel off a strip. In each one of these blisters there is formed a little
black ring. These rings are where the spores are borne.

8i

There is one more fungous disease which I want to take up —
Volntella rot. I know of no other name for it. If you can become
familiar with that perhaps it is the best name we can use. It was
first described from North Carolina by Dr. Stevens. In appear-
ance it is very difficult to distinguish from black rot. It escaped my
attention several times, until I finally examined the spores, then
the difference was easily seen. Instead of producing a rot which
progresses in a more or less circular area like black rot, the decay
is more or less irregular in outline and even darker in color than
is black rot in the early stages. Ordinarily, spraying as you would
for black rot has been sufficient to control it.

We come now to the disease which is locally known in this state
as collar rot. Right here I want to say that from investigations
which have been carried out at State College, as well as investiga-
tions in the department of agriculture by Waite, and in West Vir-
ginia by Waite and Giddings, we have decided that collar blight is
the name which should be applied to it. This has been said to
be the most serious disease of apple trees in Pennsylvania. Last
fall I made as complete a survey of the state as possible and with
the information at hand I find that it is prevalent in twenty-two
different counties of the state. These twenty-two counties represent
our chief apple growing sections. In some counties, especially
Adams, Allegheny, and Franklin, it is very severe. I think prob-
ably in these counties it is more severe than in any other part of
the state.

There is some interesting history in connection with this. It was
first brought to the attention of Dr. J. P. Stewart here in Penn-
sylvania in 1907, and I think it was in Franklin County that Stewart
first had his attention called to it. He wrote to M. B. Waite at
W^ashington, who came up and examined the orchards. Waite car-
ried on a preliminary investigation and decided it was probably due
to the same organism that causes fire blight, viz : a bacterial disease
attacking the tree at the crown. Stewart i)ublished an article in
the Rural Nca' Yorker, calling attention to this disease.

An investigation of Collar Blight was started in 1910 at Penn-
sylvania State College in co-operation with Mr. D. M. Wertz, at
Quincy in Franklin County. It was very serious in his home orch-
ard, and experiments have been carried on in his orchard since
that time.

The characteristics of the disease are something like this, — many
of you are probably familiar with them. There is at the collar of
the tree a progressive dying of the bark. It is often underground,
sometimes extending slightly above the ground in the early stages,
but not usually. Perhaps it will remain unnoticed until the second
year when the tree dies. In the early part of the second year if
you are at all careful in noting the condition of your trees, you can
usually see on one side of a tree that is aft'ected, a sparseness of
foliage which appears off color and slightly yellowish. Fig. 2. A
similar condition of foliage may be noted in the late summer or

'^■}^m

--" >.:: h:^v^ ^

82

8^

»-

u

'ffei^

•'■•^.. .,#'

..v^ ■"

Fie 2 Tree Diseased with Cou.ar Bi.icht. Note Sparse-

NEss OF Fruit and Foi.iaoe.

fall of the first vear in severe cases. If the tree bears fruit it
Hpens somewhat prematurely and is of small s.ze. Those are the
symptoms by which we diagnose the trees ni most cases.

If you find a tree in that condition, examine he bark to see f

it is softened and decayed around the roots and crown, it 1.. is

U are almost «re to have collar blight there. Its progress during

he first summer may be considerable, perhaps it will work half way

around the tree, and perhaps extend two or three inches above the

riii^.»te*»jv'

:.y:i-''fy'

I

Fig. 3. Cou.ar Blic.ht which Has Puor-ui^sKi) Thrke or
Four Inches Up the Trunk Above the Ground. Note
Suckers at Right Side of Trunk.

ground the first summer, or it may remain entirely unnoticed and
below the ground the first summer.

In the late summer it goes into a dormant stage and remains so
through the winter. When the growth starts in the spring you may
have the beginning of the final stage which constitutes a rapid gir-
dling of the tree at the collar, or the blight may start right up the

1

b2

8

w

fe*%\

if

-'^>:. ^i:cy

^ .J^^'^*^

y^f^^v

J.?^

**-^*>yl

.^6«l ^^

■•s*.^

r^^\-i^'

• ii*^ y «

::^>s.^''^v

%K.-C^^r"

^:^^1.

««. kf*

FiK ' TkKi; DlSKASICn W!TH Cdl.l.AK I'.I.K-.IIT. XciTK Sl'AlOK-

XKSS Ol- FmiT AMI Fdl.lAC-.K.

foil nf ihc first vcar in severe cases. If the tree l)ears fruit it
rinf sJilu-wL-U .Ven,aturely and is of small size. Those are the

cymptoms l,v xvhich we diagnose the trees ni ^^^^^:^^^: ..

If vou find a tree in that condition, examine the baik to see t

it is Softened and decaved around the roots and crown. If i- is

;U are almost sure to have collar blight there. Its progress dunng
he first s lumer mav be considerable, perhaps it wi 1 work half way

arotind tbe tree, and perhaps extend two or three inches above the

Fig. 3. C()I.I,.\K l-iKK.HT WHICH ll.\S PK();.KI>- SKI' ThKKK OK

Four Inchks Up thk Trunk Ahovk thk Ground. Note

SUCKKRS .\T RiC.HT SlDK Ol" TkUNK.

ground the first summer, or it may remain entirely unnoticed and
below the f^round the first summer.

In the late summer it goes into a dormant stage and remains so
through the winter. When the growth starts in the spring you may
have the beginning of the final stage which constitutes a rapid gir-
dling of the tree at the collar, or the blight may start right up the

'?|"-av^^^^>j

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

84

trunk of the tree and extend into the branches and kill it in two or
three weeks. Later on the outer bark of the tree may be seen hang-
ing in strips, like ribbons. This is a characteristic of fire blight in
late stages after the tree is killed. The trees may not always be
killed the second year after being diseased. They may last for sev-
eral years depending upon various conditions about which we know

but little as yet. . . i .

From our investigations we have decided that there is no doubt
but what this disease is caused by the fire blight organism. In the
Wertz orchard a number of experiments were carried out. The in-
fected bark was removed from diseased trees and a portion taken
and inserted under the bark of a healthy tree. In that way we
thought we might be able to judge whether the disease could be
transferred from one tree to another. In almost every instance we
found that the disease was transferred to the healthy tree. From
further experiments and pure culture inoculations we have come to
the conclusion that without doubt the bacteria of fire blight are one
of the primary causes of collar blight. There are various other
organisms associated with it, but whether they are active in spread-
mg the disease is a question which has not been worked out yet.

A fungus which is claimed to cause root rot in Missouri and
Ohio, appears with us in the form of what are called toad stools
around the base of the tree, but whether this fungus is actually
spreading the disease we do not know yet. We do know that it is
occasionally found along with this and may be more important
than we have supposed. ^

R. M. Eldon.— Does it show these toad stool growths.-' \\ ould

it need to be confined to an apple tree ? .

Prof. Orton.— Almost any kind of a tree may be atacked by it.
Yes, it will usuallv show the toad stools, especially in the late stages.

How do trees become affected at the crown? Is there any re-
lation between a tree that is subject to fire blight in the top and one
which is likely to be attacked by collar blight? These are some of
the problems that we have come up against.

We find that there is little correlation between the susceptibilty
of a tree to twig blight and that tree to collar blight. A tree that is
subject to twig blight may not be subject to collar blight, but a
tree which has no twig blight may have collar blight. The most
plausible explanation seems to be that we have a carrier or agent
which carries this organism around from an infected tree to a '
health V one and there causes infection. In order to do this, what-
ever agent it is must visit at times the twigs on trees having fire
blight, get the organism from those blighted twigs or limbs and
carry it to the crown of some other tree. What agent is there
which could do this thing? This is the problem that we are work-
ing on now. We have found several insects associated with collar-
blight. It seems most likely to suppose that some insect must carry
this, and the most plausible theory seems to be that bark borers
and possibly wooly aphis are instrumental in spreading it. In prac-

i

«5

»

tically every case of collar blight we have found borers directly
associated with it. In at least 75 per cent, of the cases, wooly aphis
are present, but whether they are there as a secondary organism or
not is a question we have not worked out.

C. J. Tyson. — Do you think there is a possibility of borers being
the effect rather than the cause?

Prof. Orton. — That is what I suspect is the case with the wooly
aphis. It might be the case with the borer but we are not sure yet.
It is a point which has not been worked out and is one of the most
important points yet to be settled — the relation of the agents to the
spread of this disease.

A. W. Griest. — After the disease starts, did you ever know of its
being cured?

Prof. Orton. — Yes, I will come to that now. I may as well
speak of it right here. In the treatment of the disease we have
followed the cutting out method, which seems to be the only prac-
tical one. There is just about an even chance of saving the tree.
If you find the diseased trees the first year, preferably during the
first two or three months of infection, you can save them by
promptly and properly cutting out the infected area. If the disease
is not detected until late in the second year the chances of saving
them are rather small. Now extreme care and considerable tech-
nique is required to successfully cut out this disease. You have to
cut out all of the infected portions and be extremely careful to
sterilize your instruments or infection will be carried to the new
wood into which you are cutting. We have saved several trees that
have been one-third girdled and we have saved one or two that
have been half girdled. We have not kept items on the cost of
cutting but do not think that the cost would run over $1.00 per
tree.

Question. — What season of the year is best for it?

Prof. Orton. — It is preferred to cut it out during the fall or
spring after the first year's infection, but if you can find it sooner,
I would not hesitate to cut it out in the summer time during the
growing season, if sufficient care is taken in sterilizing the instru-
ments. There is less danger of spreading the disease during the
dormant season than during the growing season for the bacteria
are not so active at that time.

C. J. Tyson. — Is it easier to note the symptoms of the disease in
the summer time?

Prof. Orton. — It is very much easier. It is difficult to detect them
in the winter. Mark your trees during the summer and do the
cutting out later on A mallet and chisel are the instruments to use,
a sharp gouge chisel with about ly^ inch blade. The bark and sap
wood should be cut back at least two inches from the margin of
the diseased area. You can tell by the color of the cambium
whether there is any infection there. If you see any browning
imder the bark, cut back until you get away from that brown color.
Corrosive sublimate is the best agent for sterilizing your chisel or
other tools used for cutting.

86

It probably would be efficient but there is ^ /f ^f '*' g, °^„f ^ „"!

more injurious to the tissue of the '''' .^""^''^^^^Ir

Question.-What strength of '^o'-'T^'^^. ^"^^'-^^'^^ ^p by using
Prof. Orton.-One to one thousand. That is "^^^^ "P^ ^^^^eVd

at the rate of one tablet to a pint o water. It should be labe.ed

^trlSnf bTr If ^?he Itaserarea and taking out the
dista ed 5oos sponge over these wounds with corrosive sublimate
of this st'ngih ' Allow this to dry and then paint over with as-

'Ts. T'^Z-Womt:t:Lr.rn. heat of the asphaltum

^"prof'orton-No it might injure the bark just a trifle but not
enough to pre;enV the cambium from healing. Again let me urge
?Se necessity of getting asphaltum of a h^h melting point.

R ME don -Can you handle that in the winter time ?

?;of Orton-We have handled it in the spring. The especial y
prfpared asphaltum which has the proper constituents and density

'^ 'S^^^:^^^:^^^ and oil paint answer ? .

Pmf Orton-That will answer but the trouble is, it is not sc
ela^tk a?d Jo^s not adhere so closely. The point is to keep the
area cohered with something that will not crack or peel off and will
keep out the water.

§"of O^tTn -^r af t'er ^'e IS them we put the soil back, in
olace bu?we do not bank up thl trees. Right here I want to brmg
place, Dui wc uu r Stewart, in his work, has

CndC mufcrngTbrnking S liSy to renc^r the trees more
su'ept We "o disefses. especially fire Wight, than hose not so
treated There is another interesting point here as o whether
n^not this banking may not have some effect on the work of borers
bj rrodudng condition? that are especially favorable - their work^
We would not therefore recommend banking the tree, but cniy

"Pr M^Eldon-CouW^ing be done to aid a tree that is dying .

R. M. l!.iaon. ^ ^aple tree, that has been going back for

iTar or two.- iave noticeJ toad stools growing around the base

""^Prof^ Orton-The onlv remedy in case it has not gone too far
? ton manv of the roois are affected, would be to dig away the
Im espeS^ side of the tree where you see the toad

soil ^^P^^^^ y ^ ^ of the diseased roots as possible from

stools, ^f ;f.7f/^ out of the soil. The wounds

mJdrdtinVl^h'is^^^^^^^^^ of removal of diseased roots, should be

^^t^Zr^^^'^os. roots and pull them out you have a
possibility of saving your tree, at least for a time.

87

Question.— How soon would it be safe to plant another tree m
the same place when one of these trees have died of Collar Blight r

Prof Orton.— I think the point there is one of removing all of
the infected tissue of the old tree. Pull out the old tree and remove
as many of the diseased roots as possible and I think there is not
a great deal of danger. The organism cannot live in the soil ; it
must have live wood to live on, and if all the tissues of the tree
are dead the organism is dead. If some of thejoots are alive you
may have danger of infection on the tree you plant there, provided
the old roots come in contact with the roots of the newly planted
tree. That danger however seems negligible.

C. J. Tyson.— It would be entirely safe then to remove the tree

and wait a year. . , , .• 1 . -4.

Prof Orton.— I Ihink perhaps it might be more practical to wait
a year, although Mr. Wertz has been putting trees right in soon
after removing them. Although he has not noticed any trouble
from that practice, he might later on. Here again is another con-
dition to consider. We noticed that the trees affected with collar
blight are usually between the ages of seven and twenty years.
Seldom is a tree affected under seven years old, and very rarely
over twenty years. It affects the tree at the most vital stage of its
life and when the tree is most valuable to its owner. We also find
that trees under a good state of cultivation are usually more sus-
ceptible to it than trees that have not been forced so much.

Another important point is root grafts; in 90 to 95 per cent, of
the affected trees we find that they were root grafted. This seems
' to be a very significant point. Whether or not root grafts render
the trees susceptible to this form of blight at the crown is most im-
portant. I believe trees that are root grafted are likely to be more
susceptible than those that are budded.

There is another factor that might have some bearing upon the
difference in the susceptibility of a tree to collar blight and a tree
to fire blight. In the case of root grafts, a scion of one kind is
grafted into a stock of another kind. You might have scions which
would be susceptible to twig blight and stocks which wou d be re-
sistant to twig blight, or vice versa, in which case the stocks might
be more susceptible to collar blight and the scions resistant to hre

blisfht. , . . ,.

Still another point are soil cups. We have in some cases indica-
tions of soil cups as predisposing factors. In one case the party
has low lands where the water stands in the spring until rather late.
His trees practically all died in that part of the orchard. He thinks
he lost them by collar blight. It may have been winter lnJur>^ but
at least it is worth knowing that soil cups produce very unfavorable
conditions for trees to grow in. . . ^ ,

Now regarding the resistance of varieties. From our work we
have not found any variety in the state, so far as I know, that is
resistant to collar blight under all conditions. I think any variety
is Hkely to be attacked by this disease and that whatever immunity

88

some varieties may appear to possess may be due more to favorable
conditions than to any inherent resistance on the part of the variety.
Some varieties appear more susceptible than others but I think part
of this apparent susceptibility may be due to unfavorable conditions,

at least in part.

We now come to the so-called physiological diseases, i want
to speak of them in connection with what we call fruit pit. Here
also perhaps, belongs what we term the Jonathan fruit spot, l^ ig. 4-
By physiological diseases we mean those diseases caused by some
disturbance of the physiological activity of the plant, not due to
bacteria or fungi, but to some unfavorable environment or condi-
tion of the tree often brought about by such factors as unfavor-
able soil or atmospheric conditions, etc. o ^r i

In this state, Gano, Baldwin, York Imperial Northern Spy, York
Stripe, and others are affected by fruit pit. There are a variety of
names for it. Marv plant pathologists prefer to call it bitter pit;
the Germans call it^ ^^stippen." A great deal of investigation has
been carried on in connection with it in various countries. Some
European investigators believe that it is caused by an improper
balance between transpiration of water and the conduction of food
to the fruit. Probably complete fertilizers may cause it to become
more serious. You will notice little brown spots all through the
apple, later on the surface becomes pitted. Fig. 5. On the Jona-
than we have a similar condition except that these spots usually
show first on the surface, showing how the cells near the surface
usually are the first to break down. Fruit pit is probably the
second if not the first, disease of importance in this state. We
know of no remedy for it. The Department of Agriculture is
carrying out some extensive experiments with this disease and we
hope that they may find something that will help out in the control
of it in the near future.

R. M. Eldon.— Can we do anything about zcater core?

Prof. Orton. — Water core is another disease in the same category
as fruit pit. So far as We know there is no remedy except careful
cultural operations and good storage. It is caused by a variety of
conditions, some of which are probably the same as those causing

fruit pit. .

R. M. Eldon. — I know in one variety that is grown here that
those apples which are gathered latest, and allowed to become
frosted have been affected.

Prof. Orton.— I think frosting is likely to produce a watery con-
dition, possibly in this way ; that freezing occurring at the ripening
period is likely to change the starch of the fruit into sugar and it
condenses about the core in solution.

R. M. Eldon. — Some apples are mouldy at the core, although they
seem to be perfectly sound.

Prof. Orton. — That might be a later development of water core.
It is caused by an organism that works in through the calyx end and
produces the disease.

89

Fig. 4. Jonathan Above and Baldwin Below Show-
ing Fruit Pit. Note How Much More Superkiciai.
THE Pitting is on the Baldwin.

Fig. 5. Fruit Pit on Ben Davis.
An Advanced Condition.

88

some varieties may appear to possess may be due more to favorable
conditions than to any inherent resistance on the part of the variety.
Some varieties appear more susceptible than others but I thmk part
of this apparent susceptibility may be due to unfavorable conditions,

at least in part.

Wq now come to the so-called physiological diseases. 1 want
to speak of them in connection with what we call fruit pit. Here
also perhaps, belongs what we term the Jonathan fruit spot. big. 4.
By physiological diseases we mean those diseases caused by some
disturbance of the physiological activity of the plant, not due to
bacteria or fungi, but to some unfavorable environment or condi-
tion of the tree ofien brought about by such factors as unfavor-
able soil or atmospheric conditions, etc. ^ ^r 1

In this state, Gano, Baldwin, York Imperial, Northern Spy, York
Stripe, and others are affected by fruit pit. There are a variety of
names for it. Marv plant pathologists prefer to call it bitter pit;
the Germans call it' ''stippen." A great deal of investigation has
been carried on in connection with it in various countries. Some
European investigators believe that it is caused by an improper
balance between transpiration of water and the conduction of food
to the fruit. Probablv complete fertilizers may cause it to become
more serious. You will notice little brown spots all through the
apple, later on the surface becomes pitted. Fig. 5. On the Jona-
than we have a similar condition except that these spots usually
show first on the surface, showing how the cells near the surface
usually are the first to break down. Fruit pit is probably the
second if not the first, disease of importance in this state. We
know of no remedy for it. The Department of Agriculture is
carrying out some extensive experiments with this disease and we
hope that they may find something that will help out in the control

of it in the near future.

R. M. Eldon.— Can we do anything about -abater core:

Prof. Orton. — JTater core is another disease in the same category

as fruit pit. So far as We know there is no remedy except careful

cultural operations and good storage. It is caused by a variety of

conditions, some of which are probably the same as those causing

fruit pit. . 1 1 ^

R. M. Eldon. — I know in one variety that is grown here that
those apples which are gathered latest, and allowed to become
frosted have been affected.

Prof. Orton. — I think frosting is likely to produce a watery con-
dition, possiblv in this way; that freezing occurring at the ripening
period is likely to change the starch of the fruit into sugar and it
condenses about the core in solution.

R. M. Eldon. — Some apples are mouldy at the core, although tliey
seem to be perfectly sound.

Prof. Orton. — That might be a later development of water core.
It is caused by an organism that works in through the calyx end and
produces the disease.

89

Fig. 4. Jonathan Abovk and Baldwin Rku)\v Show-
ing Fruit Pit. Notr How Mich .Mokk Sipkhkiciai.

THK PiTTlNC. IS ON THE BaI.DWIN.

Fig. 5. Fruit Pit on Ben Davis.
An Advanced Condition.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

POSSIBILITIES OF BEEF PRODUCTION IN PENN-
SYLVANIA.

Prof. W. H. Tomhavk, Department of Animal Husbandry, Penn-
sylvania State College.

mr

The subject of beef production in the eastern part of the
United States is receiving considerable attention at the present time
from both beef producers and consumers. The recent high prices
received for beef cattle has created a new interest in this phase of
the live stock industry to an extent where the farmers in Penn-
sylvania are beginning to consider what possibilities there might be
in beef production in this state. It might be well to briefly review
the reason for our present shortage of beef cattle all over the United
States This can best be illustrated by reviewing the more recent
statistics concerning the population of the United States and also
the supply of beef cattle on hand at this time. The population of
the United States has been increasing at a rate of about 2,000 ooo
per year during the past decade. The number of beef cattle kept
during this time have not increased in proportion to the population.
Since 1909 the increase in population for the United States is
approximated 12,000,000. During this same period the supply of
beef cattle on the farms and ranges has decreased from 51,566,000
to 36,030,000 or more than 30 per cent. This readily explains why
the price of beef cattle has gone up so rapidly since 1909. We
find further that very rapid changes have taken place during the
past few years in the exportation of beef from this to other coun-
tries. The exports from this country during the past year totalled
less than 35,000 carcasses as compared to the yearly average of
250,000 for the decade of 1899 to 1909. The United States has
virtually changed from an exporting nation to an importing nation,
in so far as our supply of fresh beef is concerned. In reviewing
the prices of beef cattle on the principal markets in the United
States since 1885, statistics by five-year periods, show that the
average for all beef cattle on the Chicago market from 1886 to
1890 was S4.06 per hundred; from 1890 to 1895, $4.13; from 1895
to 1900, $4.56; from 1900 to 1905, $5.13; from 1905 to 1910, $5.80;
and from 1910 to 1913, $7.80. From these figures it can be readily
seen that it is only within recent years that the price received for
beef cattle has been in keeping with the cost of production, or in
other words, the returns from beef production have not been such
as to warrant making it a part of the farm business where a large
amount of extremely cheap feed or grazing lands were not avail-

able

During the last decade the beef producing center of the United
States has constantly shifted. In the early history of beef produc-
tion Pennsylvania was generally considered the center of produc-
tion As immigration moved westward the beef industry kept pace
with this movement. The lands in the state of Pennsylvania, or

90

at lea'^t in many sections, were considered too valuable for the pro-
clucUoJ of beef'and the farmers found it impossible to compete w h
the cheap grazing sections of the central and far west. Jhe^e con
HiHnns resulted in the beef producing areas moving ahead of the
n ow Pen ylvania and other eastern states were more '"tensively
Svated and consequently were devoted to the production of farm
crons and dairying. However, the cheap grazing lands of the
cXl and Jar wesl are now being used for farming P^JP-^'f J^e
large western and central western ranges are cut up into arms
whfch naturally increases the cost of production of beef catU und r
ranpc conditions. These economic conditions, together witn our
r^nfd increase n population, has resulted in a greater demand for
bee in he Un^cl States ai'id a decrease in the a-ou"t prodiiced^
ThJ nrnhlem with which we are now confronted is how to meet

of these mav be enumerated as follows. ^ 1 j. fV.,.rMio-Vi

°' F/r.r-'Making use of a large -reage of w f jai <is through-
out the eastern and southern part of the United btates.

^crS-^The production of beef cattle on small farms.

r/i/Vd.-Better breeding of beef cattle

- '^^ -"^ "Hy .^Lr:^:;^.^^^^^'^

Err tlSS S °ct l;: uSd f or g™^^ P^^P- and . c

\t!rviv^rhL%ra=^^^^^^^

r'^'f C, tr Mu^h oTthis fanS X:^:^^^ ^asHo-n-
;;": ict?s eSed-iy no other grasses f- the growing of 1.^^

^^^•^liSt^^atural advantage oij^^^^^^^ %^ri^
its abundance of wa^^yn nearW a sect.ons. tog^^ R.^

annual rainfall. Plenty ot goo« ^^.^^^^, ^^^ p^,^„.

comes to the growing of live focK^ i j^^^

sylvania ami. other eastern states^ r-^^^^^ 35^ ^^^ 4^^^^^^^ ^P^^

vear. which is about to inches more i western

-d - '"['e uS Se T"hi grX'rlfSl not only means a
rst^anttippW of waSr f or our Ltle, but it also means a greater
growth of grass and forage crops ^ production of

, cornO^o/^nf ^ ™hK I S'L. ca.,,? a, an, „,.er

92

farm produce. In this respect Pennsylvania and the east is at a
decided advantage as compared to the central and far western
parts of the country. The population of the area east of the Ohio
line, including West Virginia and part of Virginia, is approxi-
mately 28,500,000 or more than one-fourth the population of the
United States. This means that the large and desirable markets
are in the producing centers of the east. The eastern farmer has
an advantage over the central western farmers, in that it is not
necessary to transport his commodities such a long distance, thus
greatly reducing the freight rate. Another advantage is the com-
bination of hill and valley lands which makes it possible to grow
forage and grain crops in these valleys to feed the cattle during the
winter. The hillsides may then be put into pasture, thus materially
reducing the cost of operating the whole farm. This means that
the farmer can give more attention to the growing of crops on the
level or valley lands and grow larger yields per acre than where
the whole farm is under cultivation. Besides, these combination
farms, there are very large areas of cutover or waste lands that are
producing a fair crop of grass at the present time. This goes to
waste from year to year and is not utilized for any purpose. This
land is capable of being used for grazing purposes and thus main-
tain a good many head of cattle each year.

Any farmer who intends to go into the beef producing busi-
ness, especially from the breeders' point of view, should make it
a point to start with a herd which has a foundation of beef breed-
ing. The females of such a herd may be grades or pure breds de-
pending upon the individuals that can be secured and the price that
must be paid. As a commercial herd, good grade cows will prob-
ably be as desirable as pure breds because they do not represent
as large an investment and yet will probably produce as good or
better offspring than poor, pure breds. The one point, however, to
keep in mind is that nothing but good beef sires be continually kept
in the herd. Grade sires should never be used, as with such ani-
mals it is practically impossible to build up a herd of any import-
ance. On small farms, where it is expensive for one farmer to
purchase a pure bred sire for the use of his herd alone, it is a
good plan to follow out a system of co-operation. That is, to have
two or three farmers go together and buy a pure bred sire to be
used on the different herds. This method of building up herds is
being followed in some sections of the United States and gives very
good results. It means that all cows may be bred to good pure
bred sires at a comparatively low cost.

In the past it has been difficult to maintain a beef breeding
herd without incurring a loss. This same difficulty is apt to be en-
countered at the present time unless the question of feeding is
given due consideration. The aim should be to maintain the cows
on a comparatively cheap feed. In this respect the east has a very
marked advantage in that an extremely large amount of roughage
is produced. The feeding of roughage to beef cattle is found ad-

93

visable. Where the beef breeding cows can be fed a large amount
of roughage during the winter and maintained on pasture during
the summer months the cost of maintenance is materially reduced.
The cost of maintaining a cow should not be more than the value
of the calf which she produces. The calf at weaning time should
sell for enough to pay for what feed the mother consumed during
the year. Unless this is possible, it w^ould be practically impossible
to maintain a herd of beef-breeding cows without incurring a loss.
We find that there is very little reliable data on this subject at the
present time. With this thought in view the Pennsylvania Ex-
periment Station started an experiment in the fall of 191 1 to deter-
mine the cost of maintaining a l)eef-breeding herd. The following
table will give some idea of the results that are being obtained.
The figures here presented only cover the work of the first eighteen
months. The results obtained since that time are in keeping with
the figures which are here presented.

Maintaining Beef Breeding Cows.
December ist, igii— April 3d, 1913.

First Winter First Summer Second Winter

Length of Period, 140 Days ^'l^i'y^, '^iJ^Tj h. "

Initial Wt. per Cow, 1,071.9.1 Lbs. 1,184..^ Lbs. ,211 3 Lbs

Final Wt. per Cow, 1.236.48 Lbs. 1,263.3 Lbs. 1,235.1 Lb .

Total Gains per Cow, 164.55 Lbs. 78.8 Lbs. 23.8 Lbs.

Av. Daily Feed per Cow Pasture

Corn Silage 57-64 59.6b

Cottonseed Meal ^ i-oo i«^

Cost of Feed per Cow, $16.13 $o-6o i^i9.3i

Cost of Bedding, 3-94 4-52

Cost of Labor, • 2.00 /6 2.50

Interest on Money Invested 1.60 2.40 i.»2

Value of Manure Produced 6.63 /-^

Net Cost of Cow 16.94 8.76 20.55

In reviewing this table it will be noted that practically every-
thing excepting the cost of shelter is taken into consideration.
Good market prices have been charged for all feeds consumed,
not only resulting in more money than could be obtained if they
were all to be sold, but that most of the fertility is kept on the
farm instead of being sold from the farm. It will be noted that
these cattle are kept on pasture six and seven months of the year
and fed on corn silage as a sole roughage and one pound of cotton-
seed meal per head daily the balance of the year. The calves pro-
duced from these cows are kept on the same kind of a ration
except that thev are fed three pounds of cottonseed meal per 1,000
pounds live weight instead of one pound per head daily. 1 he rea-
son for this is that young stock require a great deal of nitrogenous
material for building up of bone, muscle, and connective tissue.
The results thus far obtained indicate that beef breeding cows can
be cheaply maintained when they are kept in open sheds and fed
almost entirely on an inexpensive farm product made up largely
of roughage of one form or another. There are a number of re-
gions in Pennsylvania where the pasturing period is considerably

■Ji

longer than at State College and where snch is the case it means
that the cost of maintenance can be somewhat reduced, yet from
tKe figures presented we feel confident that a beef breedmg cow
can bf maintained the entire year for from S25.00 to $30^00. An
important item to keep in mind is that all "Khv.dua n the herd
are regular breeders. Irregular or shy breeders ^hoil^ b^ ^I'^PO f^
of as soon as possible as the presence of such •"^'7, l"^J , '" *^
herd will materially increase the cost of mamtauung the balance.

Steer Feeding.

The feeding of steers have never been extensively conducted
on the farms in Pennsylvania, with the exception of a few local
Regions. This, no doubt, has in part been due to the system of
fann ng that has been followed and also to the comparatively bw
pr " dfat has been received for fattening cattle up to the past few
years We are convinced however, that it can be prohtai)ly done
L almost any section of Pennsylvania, providing several '"JPortant
factors are kept in mind. These factors may be enumerated as fol-

First— The making use of a large amount of roughage or
cheap feeds such as clover hay. corn silage and com stover.

Second.— Reduce to a minimum the amount of labor expended.
V/ji>rf.— Avoid expensive shelter. ,. , , ■ , f„„j

As an indication of what may l)e accomplished in steer feed-
ing 1 might give the results obtained during the past hve years at
the PennsyUania Experiment Station. During this period, 17b
head of steers have been fed in an experimental way 1 hese cattle
were all purchased on the open market and again sold on the open
market at the close of the experiment. By purchasing and selling
han under these conditions they were handled under identically
the -ame conditions as afforded by the average farmer or feeder in
Pennsylvania. Economy of production was one of the principal
aims in all these feeding tests. The profits roni feeding these
178 cattle after paying market prices for feeds consumed range
from a loss of $2.00 per head to a profit of $14.00 per head. The
averaee profit during the five-year period was just it)5.oo per Head
afterTaying for farm feeds. These cattle returned 98 cents per
bushel of corn fed during the past five years. 1 his^ certainly is con-
siderably more than the price received for corn sold from the farms
in the state of Pennsylvania during the same period and besides,
this price received for corn, the fertility was kept up on the farm.
As a furth-r illustration of what may be accomplished by feeding
steers we "have Lancaster County. The fanners in Lancaster
County have been persistent cattle feeders during the past twenty-
five years Thev have fed annually from 40.000 to 60.000 head and
are this year feeding in the neighborhood of 75.000 cattle. It is
true that' many of these farmers have fed cattle at an apparent fi-
nancial loss year after year. They could have made more ac ual
cash if they had sold their grain crops and hay instead of market-

95

ine it through beef cattle, yet, on the other hand their system of
Snng namely that of coni, grain, clover and tob-cO' me^ th^
they must keep the fertility of the soil up to a h,gh standard so as
to produce profitable yields of these crops. The result of this sys-
ten of fan ng is that the fertility of Lancaster County land has
been i^^ur^ased from year to year. They have been able to pro-
duce exceUent cn.ps the result of which was the increased value of
fS farm "ands^and has enabled them to build excellent arm
Sding and homes which means that the indirect returns from
cat le feeding in Lancaster County has more than paid for the
ap arenfcire^-t financial loss from cattle feeding. If othe^ -7-
of Pennsylvania had followed this same system of Earning there
would to-dav be fewer worn-out and deser ed / amis^ n feeding
steers it is important that as much as possible of the actual gain be
mnde on roS feed. The reason for this is that it is important to

pr^.1de a nT'-rket for a large amount of -"f-f^ ^^'f ^^J^Jidfng
feeding. This is especially true in the early part of the feeding
period The more pounds of gain that can be made on feeds of this
kin 1 the greater w 11 be the net returns from the entire feeding ope-
r^n fhe daily gains made by this method ofjeeding wil no
be as laree as where an abundance of gram is fed soon atter me
Sttl are'put in the feed lot The finish on such cattle wh^. they
orn on the market may not be quite as high as that ot tliose tnat
are f ed comideralle grain from the beginning, which may mean a
rmewhat lower prici when sold. We find, however, that as a

gXrllnile The Li of making a 100 l--f .^^ g^^J, J^.^iod
roughage alone is fed during the early part of f*= 4?«l "f ,f ^'^°^:
than where grain is fed during the entire period. The table here
with presented brings out this point quite clearly.

Steer Feeding Experiment, 1911-1912.

Lot I. Lot II.

12 Steers 12 Steers
. . .^ Hqvs 126 Davs

Length of Feeding Period, 126 i;a> s ^^ ^^

Initial Value per Cwt., $5^^/ ^^^ .'^[^^ jbs.

Initial Weight, - j^g 13,360 lbs.

Final Weight, ^'g^^ j^g 2,800 lbs.

Total Gain, • • ' g5 j^s. i-85 lbs.

Ave Daily Gain per Steer ^-^^ *

Ave. Daily Feed per Steer. j^^ . -^ lbs.

Ear Corn, • . • • ^^ j^s. 2.09 lbs.

Cottonseed Meal •••••• ^^ .^ j^^g 33.33 lbs.

\vennge A^^-Dry" Matter Consumed per ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^

Steer Daily, ^ '^^ $252.64

Total Cost of Feed,- ••••••.••; ji ^b 9-02

Cost of Feed per 100 lbs Gain -^ ^^^

Total Cost of Cattle and Feed «57.43

Cost per Cwt. at Close of Expt., 0.3J ^ ^

Value per Cwt. in Tgh., ^ ^'^g g^ 35

Net Receipts. g ^c 56.32

Total Profit.*

f

96

97

•?
«

Fig. I. Lot 1 at thk Bfx.inning of thk Feeding Period.

Fijf. 2. Lot I at the Close oe the Feeding Period

II

(Courtesy of Peiina. State Colle^^e.)

»

Fig. 3. Lot 11 at the Be-inning oe the Feeding Period.

Fig. 4. Lot II at the Ceose of the Feeding Period.
(Courtesy of Penna. State College.)

96

97

l-ic. 1. l.oT I AT THK r.Kc.iNNixr. 01- Till- FKKDlNr. PKRion.

rig. 3. Lnr II .\T THK F^K '.iXNiNi. OF TiiK Fkkiuxc. Pkriod.

Fig. 4. Lot IT at thk Cu)SK ok thk FKKniNr. Pkriod.
(Courtesy of Penna. State College.)

Fig. 2. Lot I AT thi: Ckosk ok thk Fkhdixc. Pkrioi».

(Courtesy of f'eiiiui. State C(fUei:e.)

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

98

Price Reed, per Bu. of Corn Fed After ,

Paying for Other Feeds* -761 1 040

Price Reed, per Ton for Silage After

Paying for Other Feeds,* 4-65 573

Value of Manure, 31-24 ■i'- '*

♦Based upon ear corn at 70c. per bushel; cottonseed meal at $32 per

ton, and corn silage at $3.50 per ton.

As a general rule the higher the price of grain or corn is,
the more important it is that much of the gain is made on roughage
We find that light weight steers weighing about 900 pounds can be
fed to an advantage for a period of abotit two months without very
much grain, aftei which time it is desirable to add gram to the
"ation.^ Unless grain is added at this time we find that the daily
gains are materially decreased and the cost of producing a pound
of gain materially increases. . r j- t„

We find that silage is an important factor in steer feeding In
all tests conducted at the Pennsylvania State College and other
institutions, the results obtained are. in almost every, in favor
of feeding corn silage. We find that cattle not only makes better
gains when silage is fed, but they also make better use of the feeds
fed in connection with the silage. Our practice has been to feed
the steers all the corn silage that they will consume during the early
part of the feeding period. It is desirable to add .a fmall amount
of hay or straw to supply the system with some kind of dry feed
which it demands. In addition to the corn silage and hay we plan
to give our cattle about two and one-half pounds of cottonseed meal
per 1,000 pounds live weight. This is necessary m order to supply
the protein necessary and there is no feed that is as rich in protein
as cottonseed meal. It is possible, however, that we may be ab e
to find a desirable substitute for cottonseed meal in alfalfa. We
are conducting a test at the college this winter to determine this
point If this can be done it will mean a greater field for the
production of alfalfa and a source of securing protein feeds on
the farm instead of purchasing it on the market. Another reason
why this might be desirable is that cottonseed meal will possibly
continue to increase in price and become more expensive from year
to vear When roughage and cottonseed meal are fed during the
first part of the feeding period only, it is desirable to add corn to
the ration during the last half of the feeding period or until they
are sold. This is generally done by adding broken ear corn at the
rate of i; pounds per 1,000 pounds live weight. For finishing cattle
we find it desirable to add shelled corn in place of broken ear corn
as the cattle will begin to shell the corn from the cob after it be-
comes hard and dry. The shelled corn is relished to a greater ex-
tent than the broken ear corn. In some sections of Pennsylvania
the common practice in steer feeding is to grind the ear corn. 1 his
makes the corn more expensive and the additional gains rnade from
the use of ground corn will not pay for the cost of grinding. 1 he

99

object in every case should be to keep the cost of feed as low as
possible.

Shelter.

The cost of shelter is, in many cases, an expensive item. In-
expensive open sheds are to be preferred to warm basement barns.
The common mistake made in many cases of cattle feeding is to
confine them to warm stables. The only thing necessary is to have
the cattle protected from the cold winds, rain and snow. This can
easily be done by the use of open sheds with a small yard so that
the cattle can go under cover or out in the open at will. Where a
basement barn is on the farm it is not necessary to have this stand
idle and not use made of it. A part of the wall can be removed
or the doors left open so that the cattle can go in and out at will.
By this practice the amount of labor in handling the cattle can also
be materially reduced. The advantage of keeping steers in open
sheds in preference to warm basement barns, may be cited from
experiments conducted at the Pennsylvania State College. A series
of tests were conducted comparing open sheds with warm barns.
It was found that six out of seven years the cattle in the open sheds
made better gains, consumed the greater amount of feed, and sold
for a higher price than those that were kept in warm basement
barns, each lot being fed similarly. The following figures taken
from the experiment conducted in 1910 and 191 1 will give some idea
of the diflference in these two methods of feeding.

I9IO-I9II.

Barn Lot Gained Open Lot

Cost per 100 lbs. Gain $11.05 $10.03

Daily Gain in lbs., 2.136 2.362

Final Cost per Cwt, $6.63 $6.46

Final Value per Cwt., 7 60 7-75

Profit per Steer 10.69 1467

Return per Bu. Corn, .99 1.108

From this table it will be noted that not only were cheaper
^ains made in the open lot, but practically every other item involved
were in favor of the open lot.

Cattle feeding cannot, as a rule, be profitably conducted unless
hogs are put in the lot to follow cattle and consume the waste.
Cattle feeders feel that if they can have the profits from pork pro-
duced in the feed lot besides the cost of feeding their cattle, that
they have made reasonable profit. These hogs will consume all
waste and corn that passes through the cattle undigested. As an
indication of the additional profits that may be made by having
hogs in the feed lot might be cited the results of cattle feeding at
the Pennsylvania State College last year. It was found that after
a profit of $14.00 and $11.00 respectively per steer, had been made
in the two lots, that an additional profit of $2.25 per steer was
made from the pork produced. It is customary to allow but two

lOO

hoes for every three steers. In some cases it may be necessary
to feed them a Httle in addition to what they pick up m the feed lot
No farmer can afford however, to feed cattle without the use ot
hogs and where hogs follow the cattle there is no occasion to
erind the corn which the steers receive.

The feeding of beef cattle is not a scheme whereby large
amounts of money can be made in a comparatively short time and
the only way to make a profit is to be a consistent feeder. Have
steers in the feed lot the good years as well as the poor years. W hen
such i. the case, the average for a number of years will show a
balance on the right side of the ledger. It also means a steady
market for croos that in many cases are practically imsaleabe
besides much of the feed consumed by the cattle would possi])ly
SO to waste on a farm for want of a suitable market. Besides re-
turning a reasonal)le proiit from year to year, it means that the
fertilitv of the soil is retained. Experience shows that wherever
cattle feeding is a part of the business of farming, the farm is
kept in a higher state of fertilitv and generally the highest type of
farming is conducted. It insures continued prosperity and means
a greater production of farm crops from year to year. Records
show that cattle feeding centers and large crop yields are generally
clo^elv associated. In this l)rief discussion I have tried to point
out some of the advantages of beef production in the east.

Fig. 8.— a, 2-1, 3-Tier Pack in Georgia Crate.

THE PRESENT AND FUTURE OF APPLE GROWING.

Mr S. H. Fulton, Manaqcr Sleepy Creek Orchards, Sleepy

Creek, IV. Va.

Within the past twenty-five years apple growing has become
one of the great branches of agriculture in this country eclipsing,
in area of orchards planted and in quantity of fruit produced, all
other fruits common to the temperate zone. The attractiveness of
this fruit, the palatibility and its health-giving properties together
with the fact that it is in season practically the year around, all
combine to make the apple the greatest single asset of American
horticulture. When the census of 1910 was taken, there were 151,-
323,000 apple trees of bearing age in the United States. Among
the states of the Union, Missouri ranks first, having in round num-
bers, 14,000.000 bearing trees: New York stands next with 11,-
000,000: Illinois third with 10,000,000 bearing trees and so on
down the list. W^ith such vast interests in apple growing, it is
not surprising that anything ])ertaining to the culture of this fruit
is of keen interest not alone to rural horticultural circles but even
to town and city people with money to invest. Within the past
decade, hundreds of people unacquainted with the orchard business,
but allured by tales of great proht in orcharding, have invested
large sums of money in apple orchards. This is particularly true
with reference to orchards located in sections where large areas of
cheap undeveloped land can be secured, as in the Virginias, West-
ern Maryland, southwest Pennsylvania, and sections of other states
which might l)e mentioned. In Maryland, within forty miles of
the home of the writer, one company is developing in apple or-
chards an immense tract of 40.000 acres and selling in ten acr^
units to investors all over this country and abroad. The published
circulars of this company are so alluring and the salesmen so en-
thusiastic over the orchard business that sales have been made much
faster than the land can be cleared and planted. Plantings by prac-
tical individual growlers and close corporation companies with good
managers have also been very extensive within the past ten years.
In the sections above mentioned young well cared for orchards of
from 200 to 500 acres are not uncommon. In addition to these
heavy eastern 'plantings, the middle west and the Pacific northwest
must also be taken iii consideration. In these latter sections there
has been unprecedented c-ctivity in the planting and development
of apple orchards within the past few years.

This i)rief review of existing conditions serves to bring prac-
tical apple growers face to face with the fact that competition will
shortlv become keener and marketing problems will become more
difficult Of course not all these vast plantings will ever come
into bearing, but the next few years wnll witness a great increase

101

lOO

hoRS for every three steers. In some cases it may l)e necessary
to feed them a httle in addition to what they pick np m the feed lot_
No farmer can afford however, to feed cattle withont the nse ot
hogs and where ho-s follow the cattle there r^ no occasion to
^rind the corn which the steers receive.

'Phe fci^din^,^ of beef cattle is not a scheme whereby lar-e
amonnts of monev can l)e made in a comparatively sliort time and
the onlv wav to make a profit is to be a consistent feeder. I lave
steers in the'feed lot the good vears as well as the poor years. \\ hen
such i^ the case, the average for a nnmber of years will show a
balance on the right side of the ledger. It also means a steady
market for crous that in manv cases are practically imsaleabe
beside, mnch of ihe feed consumed bv the cattle won d possil)ly
<rc> t(^ wa<te ou a farm for want of a snitable market. Uesides re-
Uirnin- a reasonable i)ro!il from year to year, it means that the
fertilitv of the soil i< retained. Experience shows that wherever
cattle feeding is a part of the business of farming, the f.irm i^
kept in a higher state of fertilitv and generally the highest tyi)e ot
farming is conducted. It insures continued i)rosperity an(l means
a greater production of farm cro])S from year to year. Kecords
show that cattle feeding center^ and large crop yields are generally
clo^elv associated. In this brief discussion 1 have tried to point
out some of the adv.'uitages of beef in'oduclu n m the east.

Fio. 8.— A, 2-1, 3-Ticr Pack in Georgia Crate.

THE PRESENT AND FUTURE OF APPLE GROWING.

Mr. S. it. Fui/roN, Mmuujcr Slccf^y Creek Orchards, Sleepy

Creek, IT. ra.

\\'ithin the past twenty-hve years apple growing has become
one of the great branches of agriculture in this country eclipsing,
in area of orchards planted and in ([uantity of fruit ])roduced, all
other fruits common to the temperate zone. The attractiveness of
this fruit, die ])alatil)ility and its health-giving properties together
with the fact that it is in season practically the year around, all
combine to make the apple the greatest single asset of American
horticulture. When the census of 1910 was taken, there were 151,-
323,000 ai)ple trees of bearing age in the United States. Among
the states of the Union, Missouri ranks hrst, having in round num-
])ers, 14,000.000 bearing trees: New N'ork stands next with it,-
000,000: Illinois third with 10,000,000 bearing trees and so on
down the list. With such vast interests in ai)ple growing, it is
not surprising that anvthing ])ertaining to the culture of this fruit
is of keen interest not ak)ne to rural horticultural circles but even
to town and citv i)eo])le with money to invest. Within the past
decade, hundreds of i)eople unac(|uainted with the orchard business,
l)Ut allured bv tales of great i)rotit in orcharding, have invested
lariic sums of monev in ai)i)le orchards. This is i)articularly true
witii reference to orchards located in sections where large areas of
cheap undeveloi)ed land cjm be secured, as in the X'irginias, West-
ern Maryland, scuithwest Pennsylvania, and sections of other states
which niight be mentioned. In Maryland, within forty miles of
the home of th.e writer, one company is developing in api)le or-
char'is an immense tract of 40,000 acres and selling in ten acre
units to investor> all over this country and abroad. The pul)lished
circulars of this comi)anv are so alluring and the salesmen so en-
thusiastic over the orchard business that sales have been made much
faster than the land can be cleared and i)lanted. Plantings by prac-
tical individual growers and close corporation companies with good
managers have also been very extensive within the i)ast ten years.
In the sections above mentioned young well cared for orchards of
from 2(x:> to 300 acres are not uncommon. In addition to these
heavv eastern 'plantings, the middle west and the Pacihc northwest
must' also DC taken in consideration. In these latter sections there
has been unprecedented activity in the planting and development
of apple orchards within the past few years.

This i)rief review of existing conditions serves to bring prac-
tical ai)ple growers face to face with the fact that competition will
shortly become keener and marketing problems will become more
dihicult Of course not all these vast plantings will ever come
into bearing, but the next few years will witness a great increase

101

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

I02

in the number of bearing trees of the country ^"^ ^^^ "^-^^^ PJ^
to meet the conditions. In this commg era of close competmon
certain essential points in orchardmg shou d bekept fixed mtne
growers' mind. There will not be space m t^isbnef paper to enter

fnto the details of the many problems ^""^""^'"^^^^^^^i^PP^^ ^nt ,
ness from the time the ground ,s .P'-^P^'-j^^and trees planted until
thP nn-hard is brought into bearing and the fruit placed in me
£.ds of the consumer, so the writir will touch only upon a few

vital points relating to the apple industry. AHvertisine

One imnortant question is that of varieties. Advertising

schemes and pCs to educate the people to eat '"O'-^. ^PP'f^^^ff^^^'^f;
gSg to brfng results. But in addition to consunung -or^^ "^ *
The public IS beginning to recognize the fact ^^at all app ks are
not Baldwins. Northern Spy or even Ben Davis. They begin to real
ize that some apples are better than others and hey demand the better
• 4.;^o 'iVti vp;ir<; ap-o when we made our largesi pidHLuig w^
IS we ii common S other growers of the eastern Pan Handle
of W^sT Winia. planted heavily with York Imperial and Ben
Davis We f so planted in a more limited way, Grimes Golden
?nd three varSks^of summer and fall apples. Grimes Gdden was

V^-K-TmlSS^^rBen ^ti^^S^ ^^^J^^^^^ f
S^es^Zllen reUigant^ . abo^^^^^^^ £ '^t

rel than was paid for other > ar'eties P imperial. $3.25,

K:r tUrS^ d^l^t shi^rLferhowt;^ ^h^l^

e eTc'e lo" anedes that many apples of high l^f iy/- P%X
^rc and ^ome Dossess const tutional weakness in the tree, un me
: erhanS maiVof the medium and low q-HtyvareUes are strong
and heartv in tree and abundant bearers. Lnder Jhese urcum
stances it may pay the commercial grower better to raise large
oS ie of nJedium quality apples at a fair price f- to produce
^limited nuantity of high class fruit at a high price. Whether the
?ron is toTe "old on thi open market or to the retail trade should
also be taken into consideration. Low quality apples can often be
S to aclv^n age on the open market but would be rejected by
ti reUiT Se This season in shipping on orders to mountain
owns in West Virginia and Maryland, we found it very difficult
to d soose of Ben Davis while other varieties so d readily. Were
'we to dependent upon the retail trade, we wou d commence nex
soring to graft over all our Ben Davis trees. It J^PO^^^^^that
changing conditions of the general market may yet bring us to this

^°'"'fn a good many fruit growing sections apples which are in
season during late fall and early winter are not receiving as much
atten on as thev should. After peaches, pears, plums and other
sSner fruits are gone, there is a demand, poorly supplied in most

markets, for good eating apples. It is a mistake to try to meet this
demand with hard fleshed winter apples unfit for immediate use.
Rambo, Wealthy, Maiden Blush, Mcintosh and other excellent
varietie.s of this season furnish a list from which the grower may

select

In the eastern fruit belt of West Virginia pruning is one of
our big problems. This very important operation in the up-keep-
of an orchard is apt to be neglected out right or at least receive
little attention. Doubtless the pruning problem also is, or should
be a serious consideration with Adams County apple growers. The
style of pruning, that is, whether the tree shall be trained with
open head, closed head with central shaft or leader, two-story or
to some other recognized form does not matter greatly, provided
the style once adopted is adhered to year after year. However,
the extent to which apple trees are pruned does matter greatly.
Unless the tops are kept sufficiently thinned and open to admit
plenty of light and air, the fruit will be poorly colored, unattractive
in appearance and in the case of certain varieties, very much in-
clined to scald in cold storage. Personally, the writer likes low
open centered trees because of the increased area of the top exposed
to light and air and because of convenience in pruning, spraying

and harvesting the crop. .

Spraying, cultivating, and fertilizing are all operations de-
manding careful attention on the part of apple growers but these
topics have been discussed by other speakers and will be passed
over by the writer of this paper. It might be stated, however, in
passing relative to cultivation that a practical orchard tractor
should prove a valuable acquisition to the grower whose orchards
are extensive enough to justify the necessary outlay. A number
of manufacturers, at the present time, have gasoline and oil trac-
tors on the market designed for farm and orchard work but most
of these outfits are not fully adapted to the needs of the practical
grower and furthermore the price is so high, in most instances, as
to be considered prohibitive by most orchardists. A few hours
work with a tractor in low headed, closely planted trees will con-
vince any one that under such conditions, a tractor to work suc-
cessfully must be low and compact with short wheel base capable
of turning in a short space. The wheels should be broad and well
cleated for work on soft ground, and the engine should not develop
less than 15 horse-power at the draw bar. Some makes of tractors
approach these specifications, but most of them are built too high
and require too much space for turning. The usual price of from
two to three thousand dollars is beyond the reach of the great ma-
jority of apple growers. A practical working outfit, at a cost not
to exceed ten or twelve hundred dollars, would appeal to growers
generally throughout the country to supplement and to a certain
extent take the place of horses and mules. The automobile and
motor truck are practical where roads are good and prices are no
longer excessive. These modern inventions are in use by a good

104

many fruit growers in various parts of the country. It is to be
hoped that the orchard tractor will shortly be gotten down to a
practical working basis and the price materially reduced in the
rush of spring work it is often impossible to get the orchard land
worked over in good time with horses and mules, and, furthermore,
teams are necessarily idle a good share of the year on the average
fruit farm while expenses for feed and care go on just the same.

In harvesting, winter apples should be allowed to hang upon the
trees until well colored and fully developed. This will insure at-
tractive appearance and good keeping quality. Practically all ot
the decav which occurs in stored apples in the early part ot the
winter, i^s due to injuries in handling. The unl)roken skin ot a
sound winter apple is very resistant to rot but once the skin is
i)roken or punctured, rot spores gain entrance and decay results.
Careful handling is particularlv essential in box packing as the box
is designed for ^fancy fruit and freedom from punctures or bruises

is verv necessary. . i i • 4.

(Ordinary Ixu-rel packing is usually done in the orchard just
as the fruit is picked. Occasionally the apples are hauled to some
central point or to a packing shed and there packed in barrels but
this practice is not common. For box packing, however, a packing
shed of some kind is very necessary. Facilities must be at hand
for convenience in grading and wrapping and all needed supplies
such as box materials, wrapping paper, ])ox liners, lal)els etc., must
be kept under cover. This means hauling the fruit to the packing
shed and the wagons used for the puri)ose should l)e low down and
equipped with bolster springs. Kound, drop handle, half-lnishel
picking baskets are very convenient for use in picking and hauling

to the packing shed. \ i t i i

Careful systematic work is essential in i)acking l)oth barrels
and boxes. In facing apple l^arrels the selection of specimens of
uniform size so that it will require just so many ap])les of a certain
grade to face a barrel, will facilitate the work and add to the at-
tractiveness of the package. In box packing systematic work is
the only kind that will be worth considering. A certain number
of apples in each layer and in each row of the layer is absolutely
necessary so that the box when completed will contain a fixed num-
ber depending upon the size of fruit adapted to any one of the
standard packs in common use. This means careful grading. Box
packing tables can be o])tained through a numl)er of the ex])eri-
ment stations and once the style of pack for a given size of fruit
is learned, the work l)ecomes fairly easy and is a i)leasure to the
packers. Home help can soon l)e ])roken in to the work though it
will require considerable practice to acquire speed in handling the
wrappers. In West Virginia, we have found expert Florida pack-
ers who come to our section to i)ack peaches very efficient for box
apple packing. Being skilled in the wrapping and packing of
tomatoes and oranges, they quickly learn the various apple packs
and acciuire good speed with a single day's practice. These pack-

lOS

ers v/ork their way northward after the tomato season is over in
late spring in Florida. The usual wages paid these packers is two
dollars per day with board and lodging and railroad fare one way
from the point at which they last worked.

Box packing calls for wrappers, l)ox lining paper, layer paper,
labels, a convenient packing table and a box press. It will not
pay one to attempt box packing on any extended scale without all
necessary sup])lies and equipment.

Within recent years there has been considerable agitation in
eastern apple growing sections relative to the box versus the barrel
for apple packing. In reality there should be no controversy. Ten-
der-fleshed varieties of high quality are better adapted to box
packing than to barrel packing. . On the other hand firm fleshed
apples of only fair quality are best suited for barrel packing.
\Vhether to use boxes or barrels is a question for the individual grow-
ers to decide. If he finds he can realize more for his apples packed in
boxes than in barrels, then the box is the package for him to use.
This past season we packed our Wealthy, Jonathan and Grimes
Golden in boxes to very good advantage. When it came to York
Imperial and Ben Davis we dropped the box and used the barrel as
these varieties did not go well in boxes. The barrel commends itself
highly to the man who has large quantities of medium grade fruit
to handle and who must depend upon inexperienced help for pack-
ers. Dou])tless the barrel will continue to be the package generally
used for the great bulk of eastern grown apples.

Marketing is one of the greatest problems which confront the
average apple grower. Growers not infrequently produce good
crops of well-grown fruit and yet fail to realize profitable returns
because of unfavorable conditions at marketing time or because of
improper methods of handling. Usually the apple crop is sold on
the trees on the basis of so much per barrel delivered at the rail-
road station, the grower to furnish the barrel and do the picking
and packing under the su])ervision of the buyer or his re])resenta-
tive. This simplifies marketing very much and the fact that this
method has become a general practice is an indication that it has
been found, at least, a fairly satisfactory system. Winter apples
at harvesting time are not in condition to be put on the market for
immediate use. The grower must either store his fruit and hold it
until ready for consum])tion or sell to some buyer who stores for
later marketing. Usually the grower needs the money for paying
his package and labor bills and prefers to realize at once by selling
his crop at harvesting time. He generally feels also that he does
not wish to take chances on a rise in the market during the winter
months and does not like to face cold storage and re-packing charges
incidental to storing the crop. However, if prices are low at har-
vesting time or if for other reasons the grower concludes to handle
and market his own crop his problems are greatly multiplied. He
must pack for the needs of a retail trade ; he must be prepared to
meet competition, he must advertise, he must know when to sell,

'WS^

io6

he must collect his bills from a number of individuals and firms
instead of from one firm. This system of marketing while it is
more taxing on the grower usually secures wider distribution of
the crop and better prices and if practiced to any considerable ex-
tent redounds to the benefit of the whole apple industry. Wider
distribution and the supplying of small towns not accustomed to
securing a regular supply of apples will aid in solving the problem
of over production in full crop years.

The future of apple growing is a matter of no small concern
at the present time to practical orchardists in this country. Over-
production, the ghost which at times haunts the minds of many
fruit growers, looms up big in the hazy future. With thousands of
acres recently planted in all parts of the country and millions of
young apple trees developing, it would at first thought seem im-
possible ever to market at a profit to the grower, the great quanti-
ties of apples which seem likely to be produced within the next ten
years. However, it should be borne in mind that not all the or-
chards conceived in enthusiasm and planted with dreams of great
profits in the near future will ever come into bearing. Apple
growing has been boomed too much both for the good of the or-
chardist and the man with money to invest. The idea of large
profits has been exploited with little or nothing said of the failures
in the business thereby bringing about, in many instances, blasted
hopes and an extravagant waste of money. Already reaction is
beginning to set in and fewer orchards are being planted than were
set out from three to ^\€: years ago. Inexperienced companies and
individuals are beginning to learn that it takes money to plant and
develop an apple orchard. The writer has in mind a young orchard
of two hundred acres finely situated in his vicinity which was en-
tirely abandoned this past summer because the company owning
this property ran out of funds and were unable to secure more
money. From the vast unit system plantings of promotion com-
panies, we have little to fear. Usually the management is very
poor so far as the upkeep of the orchard is concerned and the
whole scheme is impracticable so far as raising fruit is concerned
However, the increased planting of experienced individuals and
well-financed companies with efficient management will doubtless
swell the production of apples in this country with the next few
years. We shall probably see some vears of low prices but the
practical conservative grower will weather the storm. Low prices
will cause the neglect and abandonment of many orchards which
are being run on a narrow financial basis. Low prices also will
bring about wider distribution and increased consumption The
population of this country is steadily increasing which means greater
home consumption and the foreign market for apples is being grad-
ually extended. There came to our shores during the last fiscal
year immigrants to the number of 1,197,892. These immigrants
consume a good many low grade apples, canned and dried fruit and
other cheap products of the apple. Advertising the apple will

107

help to increase the demand. In this movement the grower can
lend his aid and influence. Apple shippers and handlers having
designated October 21, as National Apple Day are doing a good
work in exploiting the merits of the apple and increasing the de-
mand for this fruit. When apple day came around this fall it was
quite generallv observed in most of the large eastern cities. Com-
mission houses, restaurants and retail stores made a special effort
to center attention on this particular fruit. Many schools in apple-
growing regions devoted a portion of the day to special written ar-
ticles on the apple and in the cities many samples were given to
the poor, to orphan asylums and to hospitals. The Chicago papers
participated in the celebration, telling the people about the abund-
ance of the fruit and its beneficial effect. In Baltimore about
^Sooo apples were distributed among the children in the orphan
asylums. In New York, restaurants in the produce districts made
a special display of apples cooked in various styles.

Referring again to the heavy planting of apples made within the
past few years it should be stated that this great increase is offset to
a considerable extent by the decline of hundreds of small orchards
scattered over the countrv. Only a few years ago from many
small railroad stations in the older apple producing states such as
Maryland, Ohio and Michigan from one to five or more car loads
of apples were shipped each fall to the city markets Now the
small farm orchards are gone and no fruit is shipped. I his de-
cline has been due to neglect, ravages of the San J^f .^^^ale^^^^'
In the ten vears intervening from 1900 to 1910 the United Mates
census showed a decline in bearing apple trees in the United States
of from 201,794,000 to 151,323,000 or 33.4 per cent. It will ake
a considerable share of the newly set trees to offset this decline.
The apple business is falling more and more into the hands ot the
specialist and the man who makes apple growing the dominant
feature of his farm operations rather than a side issue

It rarely happens that we get anything like a full crop ot
apples in all sections of the country in any one year. I his fact also
tends to relieve, to a considerable extent, the tenseness of the situ-
ation so far as over-production is concerned. In 1896 we had the
largest apple crop this country has ever produced. In 1910 the
next largest yield occurred. Here was an interval of fourteen
years between the two big crops. The well-established grower can
withstand an occasional year of big crops and low prices.

High transportation rates and expensive methods ot dis-
tributing in the large cities militate against the apple business.
The grower can unite with the apple shippers and handlers to se-
cure better transportation rates. When the fruit reaches the city
on consignment, commission men, jobbers and retailers all take a
hberal share of the dollar paid by the consumer, leaving the grower
a much smaller fraction than that to which he is entitled. How
to eliminate these middlemen is not so apparent. In some instances
the grower is in position to deal directly with the retailer or con-

■'u---'

io8

siinier, thereby securing a larger share of the dollar. But, usually
he must let his fruit go through the ordinary channels of trade. If
the parcel post weight limit is raised and the rate decreased, this
will help the grower who is in position to retail some portion of his
crop.

On the whole there can be little question Init that the apple
grower who continues to give his trees good attention through both
good and bad years,, who produces high class fruit and who grades
and packs carefully will continue to find apple-growing profitable.
If he is situated within easy reach of the large eastern city markets
his chances for success will l)e greater. \\'ith reference to near-
ness to market, Pennsylvania growers are particularly fortunte and
may be able to produce apples at a profit years when more distant
sections ship at a loss on account of heavier freight charges.

.PROFITABLE PORK PRODUCTION.

a

Fig. 5. — California Fruit Crate.

Prof. W. H. Tomiiavk, Department of Animal Husbandry, Penn-
sylvania State College.

I he production of pork on the farms in the Eastern part of
the United vStates is in the form of a by-product rather than an
established business. A greater interest is taken by the farmers of
Pennsylvania in hog raising at the present time than any previous
time in the history of this state. This is largely due to the pre-
vailing high i^rice for meat products and the comparatively high
price at which live hogs have been selling during the past few
years. There is a place for the production of pork on practically
every farm. This part of the business of farming can be con-
ducted at a very small increase in expenses. There is no class of
farm animals from which returns are quicker than from the hog.
The reason for this is that they mature very rapidly and can be
put on the market when al)out eight months old.

To be successful in the growing of hogs it is essential that the
business be given some consideration and the hogs be properly cared
for instead of being allowed to shift for themselves and become the
scavengers of the farm.

(^ne of the first cjuestions that arises in the mind of the begin-
ner is what breed of hogs is best for pork production? There is
no best breed of hogs. In selecting the breed it will depend quite
largely u])on the man's personal choice or preference, rather than
on any ])cirticu]ar l)reed. It is much more im])ortant to select de-
siral)le individuals no matter from what breeds they are selected.
Wt find a great many desirable animals among all breeds and an
equal nimiber of ])oor or undesira])le individuals. Breed tests have
been conducted at Experiment Stations in the United States and
Canada, and in no instance has the same breed been a consistent
winner, nor has any particular breed excelled in the economy of
pork ])roduction. This seems to show conclusively that it is more
a question of individuality rather than a question of breed. The
selection of the breeding stock is of great importance and should be
given due consideration. In selecting l)rood sows, either grade or
pure bred, it is important that they come from comparatively large
litters as such brood sows generally inherit such characteristics
and are more apt to produce large litters than those that come
from small litters. The size of the litter is very important because
of the initial cost of the ])igs at the time of weaning depends
upon the number of strong healthy pigs in the litter. The cost of
maintaining a brood sow is from $15.00 to $20.00 per year for feed
alone, which means that the value at the time of weaning of the
small pigs produced is based on what it cost to maintain a brood
sow throughout the year. If such a brood sow produces two lit-

109

no

ters per year and develops on an average of seven for one litter, the
initial cost for each pig about $1.50 at weaning time. If she pro-
duces only one litter per year and raises an average of only five
pigs per litter, it means that the value at the time of weaning for
each one of the pigs from such a litter, is from $3.00 to $4.00 a
piece. In selecting the brood sows it is irnportant that they are
strong, growthy smooth and uniform individuals. Pigs with too
much refinement and too small bone should be ignored in selecting
breeding stock. All breeding stock should have a strong well-
arched and wide back. This is an indication of strong muscling and
an individual that carries a large arnount of natural flesh. The
sides should be smooth and deep. Wrinkles in the side should be
guarded against. These wrinkles are not only on the outside, or as
deep as the skin, but extend into the carcass. Wrinkled sides are
transmitted from the brood sows to the oflfspring and are objec-
tionable from the butchers' point of view. Hogs with wrinkled
sides will sell for less money on tlje market than those that are
smooth and uniform. The reason for this is that a packer cannot
cut number one bacon out of wrinkled sides and must be classed
as number two and three which means that it will sell for consid-
erably less on the market than number one bacon. Good strong
bone is essential in all breeding stock. Brood sows should stand up
well on their feet with strong pasterns. If they are weak in the
pasterns, there is a tendency to break down when they mature.
These objectionable features are also transmitted from parent to
oflfspring.

The selection of the boar is just as important as the selection
of the brood sow. Nothing but pure-bred boars should ever be
kept on the place. In producing market hogs it is not necessary to
use pure bred sows. Good grade sows quite frequently can be se-
cured for less money and yet will produce as desirable market hogs
as pure breds, but progress in breeding cannot be made or herds
cannot be well graded up unless pure bred boars are kept on the
place. It is also important that the herd boar comes from a large
litter as well as the sow. The size of the litter is influenced by
the sire as much as from the dams side.

The management of the breeding stock is important part of
successful hog growing. The brood sows and boars should be kept
in good thrifty condition. The brood sows should receive plenty
of good wholesome food, but not enough to make them overly fat.
A combination of 10 pounds corn and one pound tankage together
with a small amount of alfalfa or clover hay makes a compara-
tively cheap and eflfective ration for brood sows during the winter.
A combination of about 40 pounds corn, 20 pounds bran, 20 pounds
middlings, and 20 pounds oats is a very desirable ration from the
point of view of keeping sows in good condition, yet with the pres-
ent price of feeds it is too expensive and the results obtained are
not enough better than those obtained by the use of corn, tankage,
clover and alfalfa hay to warrant the additional expenditure. This

III

same combination of feed is desirable for the herd board. The
brood sows, after they have been bred, should gain just slightly in
weight up to the time of farrowing.

Exercise.

Exercise for brood sows and herd boars is important. It will
keep them in good physical condition besides a much stronger and
thriftier litter of pigs is generally produced. It is desirable to
have comparatively large yards for the brood sows that are to
farrow in the spring. It frequently happens that brood sows, after
they have been bred, become lazy and will take very little exercise
unless they are forced to do so. In such cases, we plan to feed
them some distance from the place where they are sheltered. This
will compel them to take exercise every day in order to get to
their feed.

Shelter.

One of the aims in profitable pork production is to reduce the
cost of shelter to the minimum. Expensive hog houses are not
always desirable. While they may be convenient, it materially in-
creas'^es the cost of maintaining a herd of brood sows. We find
the hog cots or "A" shaped houses to give entire satisfaction. These
can be built from $12 to $20 apiece and made large enough to
house several sows each during the winter. If they become too
cold they can be banked up with straw which will make them quite
comfortable. Straw sheds that are dry with plenty of bedding in
them are also found to give entire satisfaction.

Farrowing Time.

If early spring pigs are desired it is important to have a de-
sirable place in which the sows can farrow. This may necessitate
the building of a small hog house for this purpose. It is important
that each brood sow be by herself when she farrows. The hog
cots can be used if it is not too cold. If it is very cold a lantern
may be hung in the cot which materially increases the temperature.
It is also important that the place for the brood sow to farrow be
dry with a small amount of dry, clean straw that is free from dust.
Dusty bedding is very objectionable and very often causes the
young pigs to cough which is due to the irritation from the dust
inhaled. The farrowing pens should be fitted out with a rail about
six inches from the floor nailed to the wall so as to keep the sow
from killing the young pigs by lying on them. This rail will serve
as a protection. The feeding of the brood sow at farrowing time is
very important. It is well to reduce her feed to about half the
amount commonly fed two or three days before farrowing. She
should receive no feed the first 24 or 36 hours after farrowing with

112

11^

the possible exception of a handful of meal thrown in some luke-
warm water. The brood sow does not require feed at this time
because her system is in a feverish condition and she will gain her
normal condition much quicker if feed is withheld.

Permit her to drink all the lukewarm water she cares to. It
also avopids the danger of caked udders or milk fever in the more
prolific or heavy milk-producing brood sows. At the end of 36
hours, gradually increase her feed so that she is back on full feed
at the end of a week or ten days. She should be fed the same
combination of feed after farrowing as was fed before she far-
rowed, although the amount can be somewhat increased depending
upon the number of pigs that she nurses and her body condition.

Handling of the Small Pigs.

The small pigs should be taught to eat just as soon as they can
be induced to do so. If sweet skim milk can be obtained it is a
good plan to give them a small amount of this in a trough where
the brood sow does not get at it and they will begin to consume it
at a surprisingly early age. A small amount of wheat middlings
or oats with the hull sifted out can be added to the milk to advant-
tage. If milk cannot be had, a small amount of lukewarm water
with a little middlings or oats in it should l)e fed. By handling the
small pigs in the manner mentioned they will become accustomed to
taking more feed besides that obtained from the brood sow and
they will also make quicker growth. It not only means a better
developed pig, but it gets tliem in better condition for weaning. It
is a serious mistake to wean ])igs when they are 6 to 8 weeks old
by taking them away from the brood sow before they arc beginning
to eat. Such a practice has a tendency to stunt the growth of the
young pigs because of the fretting and sudden change that has
taken place. It is much l^etter to reduce the feed of the brood sow
which will have a tendency to reduce the flow of milk and increase
the feed for the young pigs, which means that the small pigs will
soon wean themselves as they will become entirely dei)endent upon
the feed provided rather than depending upon the brood sow.

Developing Young Pigs.

In developing young pigs that are to be used for breeding or
for market it is imjoortant that the gains are made as cheaply and
as rapidly as possible. In this connection it is extremely important
that pasture of some kind be provided in addition to the grain
fed. Experiments conducted at the Pennsylvania State College and
other institutions show that not only can gains be made cheaper,
but heavier gains are made where the young pigs have access to
plenty of good clover alfalfa or some other annual crop in the form
of pasture. Developing young pigs in a dry lot is expensive, be-
sides it takes a longer period of time to put them on the market. In

P'

f

addition to the pasture provided, these young pigs should be given
a grain mixture made up of 4 or 5 parts corn, 2 parts middlings
and one part tankage. The amount of corn to be increased toward
the fattening period. When the hogs weigh from 125 pounds to
140 pounds it is advisable to feed them a ration made up largely
of corn in addition to a small amount of tankage as a fattening ra-
tion. We have found it a desirable practice to take hogs of this
weight and practice a method of hogging off corn. That is, to
fence off a small field of corn so that they can do their own husk-
ing. This may seem like a wasteful method, yet it is a practice
that has been carried out very successfully in the central west and
regions of Pennsylvania. The best time to market the hogs is when
they weigh from 200 to 225 pounds, v^uch weight is most desirable
on the market and hogs of such weight generally sell very near the
top when put on the market.

In successful hog growing it is important that the same breed
be kept year after year. The reason for this is that the owner be-
comes more familiar with the peculiarities of the breed the longer
he works with them and he will be able to handle the breed better
the second and third years and so on, than he did the first year as
nothing is gained by changing breeds from one year to another.
Another important point to keep in mind is not to sell off the young
breeding stock. Retain the brood sow as long as she is in good con-
dition, that is, all good producing sows should be kept on the farm
until they are no longer good producers. Investigations along this
line show that not only the size of the litter and the weight of the
pigs are increased as the sows mature, but the pigs from matured
stock will make quicker and better gains than those from young
stock. .1

Adams County Grows Fine Fruit.

""■>'•.• '«l«iS''.i!3

fA,,.,

112

the possible exception of a handful of meal thrown in some luke-
warm water. The brood sow does not require feed at this time
because her system is in a feverish condition and she will gain her
normal condition much quicker if feed is withheld.

Permit her to drink all the lukewarm water she cares to. It
also avopids the danger of caked udders or milk fever in the more
prolific or heavy milk-producing brood sows. At the end of 36
hours, gradually increase her feed so that she is back on full feed
at the end of a week or ten days. She should be fed the same
combination of feed after farrowing as was fed before she far-
rowed, although the amount can be somewhat increased depending
upon the number of pigs that she nurses and her body condition.

Handling of the Small Pigs.

The small pigs should be taught to eat just as soon as they can
be induced to do so. If sweet skim milk can be ol)tained it is a
good plan to give them a small amount of this in a trough where
the brood sow does not get at it and they will ])egin to consume it
at a surprisingly early age. A small amount of wheat middlings
or oats with the hull sifted out can l)e added to the milk to advant-
tage. If milk cannot be had, a small amount of lukewarm water
with a little middlings or oats in it should be fed. By handling the
small pigs in the manner mentioned they will l)ecome accustomed to
taking more feed besides that obtained from the brood sow and
they will also make quicker growth. It not only means a better
developed pig, but it gets them in better condition for weaning. It
is a serious mistake to wean ])igs when they are 6 to 8 weeks old
by taking them away from the brood sow before they arc beginning
to eat. Such a practice has a tendency to stunt the growth of the
young pigs because of the fretting and sudden change that has
taken place. It is much ])etter to reduce the feed of the brood sow
which will have a tendency to reduce the flow of milk and increase
the feed for the young pigs, which means that the small pigs will
soon wean themselves as they will become entirely dei)endent upon
the feed provided rather than depending upon the brood sow.

Developing Young Pigs.

In developing young pigs that are to be used for breeding or
for market it is imi)ortant that the gains are made as cheaply and
as rapidly as possible. In this connection it is extremely important
that pasture of some kind be provided in addition to the grain
fed. Experiments conducted at the Pennsylvania State College and
other institutions show that not only can gains be made cheaper,
but heavier gains are made where the young pigs have access to
plenty of good clover alfalfa or some other annual crop in the form
of pasture, l^eveloping young pigs in a dry lot is expensive, be-
sides it takes a longer period of time to put them on the market. In

11^

¥

V*

addition to the pasture provided, these young pigs should be given
a grain mixture made up of 4 or 5 parts corn, 2 parts middlings
and one part tankage. The amount of corn to be increased toward
the fattening period. When the hogs weigh from 125 pounds to
140 pounds it is advisable to feed them a ration made up largely
of corn in addition to a small amount of tankage as a fattening ra-
tion. We have found it a desiral)le practice to take hogs of this
weight and practice a method of hogging off corn. That is, to
fence off a small held of corn so that they can do their own husk-
ing. This may seem like a wasteful method, yet it is a practice
that has been carried out very successfully in the central west and
regions of Pennsylvania. The best time to market the hogs is when
they weigh from 200 to 225 pounds. Such weight is most desirable
on the market and hogs of such weight generally sell very near the
top when put on the market.

In successful hog growing it is important that the same breed
be kept year after year. The reason for this is that the owner be-
comes more familiar with the peculiarities of the breed the longer
he works with them and he will be able to handle the breed better
the second and third years and so on, than he did the first year as
nothing is gained by changing breeds from one year to another.
Another important point to keep in mind is not to sell off the young
breeding stock. Retain the brood sow as long as she is in good con-
dition, that is, all good producing sows should be kept on the farm
until they are no longer good producers. Investigations along this
line show that not only the size of the litter and the weight of the
pigs are increased as the sows mature, but the pigs from matured
stock will make (juicker and better gains than those from young
stock. 1

Adams County Grows Fine Fruit.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

114
FRUIT EXHIBIT.

While the fruit shown at this exhibit was of the usual high Adams
County quality, it is to be regretted that more members did not participate
so that the exhibit should more nearly represent the county as a whole One
hundred and eighteen plates and twelve boxes were shown ; six of the boxes
being regular commercial pack.

Details of Fruit Exhibit.
W. S. Adams— 12 Plates.

6 plates Stay man

3 plates York Imperial

I plate Pecks Pleasant
I plate Baldwin
I plate Smokehouse

C. E. Rai-fenspErger— 13 Plates.

6 plates York Imperial
2 plates Stayman

4 plates York Imperial

5 plates Winter Banana
3 plates Stayman

6 plates Baldwin
6 plates Jonathan

2 plates York Stripe

2 plates Newtown

7 plates York Imperial

3 plates York Stripe
2 plates Smith Cider

H. M. Keller— 23 Plates.

6 plates York Stripe

2 plates Rome Beauty

3 plates Ben Davis

C. A. WoLKE— 15 Plates.

3 plates York Imperial

BoYER Bros. — 14 Plates.

2 plates York Stripe
I plate Paragon

Merz Bros. — i Plate.

1 plate Evaporated Apples

Robert Garretson— 4 Plates.

2 plates Ben Davis 2 plates York Imperials

Geo. p. Myers— II Plates.

3 plates For A Name
I plate Krauser

4 plates York Imperial
2 plates Baldwin
I plate Ben Davis

Tyson Bros.— 6 Plates; 12 Boxes.

3 plates Paragon
3 plates Stayman
I plate Grimes Golden

3 plates Baldwin
IT plates Jonathan

I Box Grimes Golden
1 box York Imperial
r box York Imperial
9 boxes Stayman

B. F. Wilson— 19 Plates.

' plates York Imperial

"5

BIGLERVILLE'S'

UP-TO-DATE

Cold Storage Plant

y^NE of the most complete Cold Storage
^^ Plants in the State. Full concrete and
steel construction; properly insulated and fully
equipped with refrigerating machinery, electric
lights and electric elevators. It has proven it-
self to be a benefit and an advantage to the
Fruit Growers of the County. It affords them
an opportunity to get their fruit into storage
quickly after it is barreled, and prevents car
shortage and glutted markets, during packing
season.

The Company fully appreciates the coopera-
tion and patronage it has received, and respect-
fully solicits continuance of same.

All persons interested in fruit growing are
cordially invited to visit the plant while at Big-
lerville.

Respectfully,

Biglerville Cold Storage Go. J

>H"I"I"I"I"I'

V

ii6

ESTABLISHED 1850

1,200 ACRES

TREES

WE ARE WHOLESALE GROWERS OF

First Class Nursery Stock

OF ALL KINDS

Fruit, Shade, Ornamental Trees, Shrubbery, Hedges, Small Fruit, etc.,

Asparagus, Strawberries and California Privet

IN LARGE QUANTITIES

The BEST is the CHEAPEST. Ours is the CHEAPEST because it is
the BEST. Handling Dealers* orders a specialty. Catalogue free.

Franklin Davis Nursery Company

BALTIMORE, MARYLAND

FirstNational Bank

GETTYSBURG, PA.

Capital, $100,000.00 Surplus, $150,000.00

S. M. BUSHMAN. President

J. ELMER MUSSELMAN, Cashier

•II Pays Interest on Certificates for six
months or more at 3%% per annum

SAM'L BUSHMAN
J. L. BUTT

DIRECTORS

G. H. TROSTEL

W. S. ADAMS

C. H. MUSSELMAN

Accounts Solicited However Small

JNO. D. BROWN
P. A. MILLFR
D. M. SHEELY

1

I

117

TO DESTROY APHIS, THRIPS, Etc.

Without Injury to Foliage, Spray with

"BLACK LEAF 40"

Sulphate of Nicotine

"Black Leaf 40" is highly recommended by experiment stations and
spraying experts throughout the entire United States.

Owing to the large dilution, neither foliage nor fruit is stained.

Also, "Black Leaf 40" is perfectly soluble in water; no clogging of
nozzles.

PRICES :

lO-FOUND CAN, $12.50

Makes 1,500 to 2,000 gallons for Pear Thrips, with addition of 3 per
cent, distillate oil emulsion ; or about 1,000 gallons for Green Aphis, Pear
Psylla, Hop Louse, etc., or about 800 gallons for Black Aphis and Woolly
Aphis — with addition of 3 or 4 pounds of any good laundry soap to each
100 gallons of water.

2.P0UND CAN, $3.00

^ -POUND CAN, .85

If you cannot obtain "Black Leaf 40" from a local dealer, send us P. O.
Money Order, and we will ship you by express at the above prices, prepay-
ing the expressage to your nearest railroad town in the United States.

The Kentucky Tobacco Product Company (incorporated)

LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY

THE

Citizen's Trust Company

President,
GEO. W. SWARTZ

OF GETTYSBURG

Vice Pres.,
W. T. ZEIGLER

Treasurer,
H. L. SNYDER

Your Bank Account and Trust Business Solicited

HWe pay 3^4 per cent, on CERTIFICATE if left 60
days or more. We act as Guardian, Trustee, Adminis-
trator or Executor, in settling up estates.

4L Courteous treatment and prompt attention to busi-
ness a feature.

R. WM. BREAM, Secretary.

ii8

FARMERS MAKE MONEY

by the liberal use of

BAUGH^S COMPLETE ANIMAL BASE

FERTILIZERS

for Fruits and all other Crops

119

ADAMS COUNTY FRUIT RECORDS

Shipments Over Gettysburg & Harrisburg R. R.

Oi

a

"^ ^

CO

o

a

09

ffl

d

o
H

CO

n

6

so

coi

09

O U

5o

o
Ol, o

w .

h CO

CO

0)

^

CO

w

^

ed

etf

0)

c;

CI4

Oh

5iH ' OS

CO

ai

o

CO

eii

d
5^.

1.

Ol

•o
U ft

to tn

2^

>^
cS ! MO I n »H

b^ I CO «ai

rj to S «2 I
.ft |"ft i o

O ft ! ^ ft Z,

other
Shipments

B HUGH'S RAW BONE MANURES wcrt- nrst manufactured in a small way more
than fifty years a^ro. All alontr the interveninjf years the control of thes«' Oldest in
America of all makes of Animal Bone Fertilizi-rs has never passed out of the hands ol
the Original Manufacturers.

BAUGH & SONS COMPANY

OF BALTIMORE CITY

MANUFACTURERS AND IMPORTERS
FOR SALE BY

ASPERS MILLING & PRODUCE CO.

ASPERS, PA.

G. W. KOSER H. D. & J. F. BREAM

BIGLERVILLE. PA. GETTYSBURG. PA.

E. M. NEELY GROVER C. MYERS

NEW OXFORD. PA. IDAVILLE, PA.

Baugh*» 1914 Almanac JuBt out. Ask your dealer for it or write u*.

Gettysburg,

1905

318

333

651

4

1

• • • •

• • • •

• • « •

• • • •

• • • a

G. & H. R. R.,

1906

28

28

• • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• a • •

1907

127

127

1

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• mm*

1909

12

12

• * • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

« • • •

• a • •

1910

50

50

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • ■

• • • •

• a a a

1911

41

41

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

a a • •

1912

123

123

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • ■

• • • •

• a • •

1913

23

23

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • ■

a • a ■

Biglerville, ...

1903
1905
1906

8813
7932
2785

987
'165

9800
7932
2950

65
53

20

• • • •

2

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

» • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• a a a

• a • •

1907

17164

4216

21380

142

12

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • ■

• a a a

1908

4956

4956

33

6

• • • •

• • • •

• • ■ •

• • • •

....

1909

10785

137

10922

73

1

• • • •

• • • •

....

• • • •

....

1910

20017

1500

21517

144

10

• • • •

• • • •

43

5

4

1 car Cherries.

1911

37897

552

38449

256

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

100

8

3

1912

26521

779

27300

182

19

• • • •

1

42

2

4

1913

32555

450

33005

220

4

• • • *

2

95

2

, 6

Guernsey,

1903

2870

2413

5283

35

1905

1771

1166

2937

20

11

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

a • a a

1906

1414

1329

2743

18

2

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

* • • •

• m • m

1907

4798

2760

7858

52

15

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

a a a a

1908

2173

2173

15

7

• • • •

• • '• •

• • • •

• • • •

• a • •

1909

7320

7320

49

5

• • • •

• • • ■

• • • •

• • ■ •

• a a •

1910
1911

11659
13600

1267
363

12926
13963

86
93

12

• • • •

7

• • • •

'"i/i

• • • •
• • • •

• • • •

• • a a

240 bks. Plums,

650 bks. cherries.

1912

4713

574

5287

35

3

%

%

V4,

1913

16213

194

16407

109

3

• • • •

• • • •

• a a a

Bendersville,

. 1903
1905
1906
1907

4163
4000
1109
2824

'235i
1561
6268

4163
6351
2670
9092

28
42
18
61

• • • •

16
20
22

• a • •

• • • •

• • • •
« • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • ■ •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •
■ • • •

• • a a
a a a a

• • a ■

1908

2264

2264

15

21

....

2

• • • •

....

....

1909

3531

i200

4731

32

15

• • • •

• • • •

• ■ • *

• • • •

a a a a

1910

5628

2132

7760

52

30

4

1

• • • •

....

....

1911

8894

366

9260

62

7

1 %

3

• ■ • •

• • • «

m • m m

1912

4251

946

5197

35

30

4

1

3

1913
1903

12390
997

2175
985

14565
1982

97
13

20

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

2

• • • •

• • • *

• • • •

3

• • • •

• ■ a •
a a a a

Gardners, ....

i9or,

912

5215

6127

41

4

• • • •

• • • •

• • » •

• • • •

• * • *

1906

• • •

• • • •

• • • •

2

• • • •

• • • •

a a a a

1907

6905

5440

12345

82

4

1

1908

433

433

3

1

• • • •

2

• • • ■

a • a •

1909

2275

4571

6846

46

• • • •

• • • •

• • ■ ■

• • • •

■ ■ ■ •

• > • a

1910

1566

3722

5288

35

1

4

2

• • • •

• • ■ •

a • • a

1911

3900

4800

8700

58

■ • • •

• • • •

5

• • • .

a • • •

• • • a

1912

1860

1860

12

6

• • ■ ■

• • • •

28

• • • •

a a • •

1913
. 1905

4295
682

997
1016

5292
1698

35
11

1
5

12

• • • •

2

• • • ■

62

• a > a

% • • •

3

m » * m

Starners,

1906

664

133

797

5

4

r • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• a a a

• a a a

1907

1572

219

1791

12

3

• ■ • •

• ■ • •

• • • •

a • a a

a • a a

1908

487

487

3

3

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• a • a

• a a a

1909

1825

8

1833

12

4

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

a a a •

• a a a

.

1910

2500

2192

4692

31

3

2

• • • •

• ■ • •

• • • •

a • a •

1911

2018

668

2686

18

2

%

^^

• • • •

• a • a

• a • •

1912

2000

563

2563

17

18

%

V2

• • • •

• m • •

• a a a

1913

2290

150

2440

16

6

8

1

« • • •

• • • a

• a a a

120

121

DEMING

SPRA YERS

Adams County Fruit Records

Shipments Over Gettysburg & Harrisburg R. R. — Continued)

a

09

S a

CO

Ol

•I

o

2:

o

Eh

CO

CQ

o

coi£

.0

u

O (-

Bo

o

09 •
U Oi

CO

;0
a
ee

u

CO

o

"S

CA

u
cS

CU

cd
U

d
5^

osc§
O ft

w

U3

05 fN

C0CX2

o

o

Other
Shipments

^ JN."* ■

'■*'*►

Fig. 761 Duplex double acting power Spray pump
for connecting by belt to any gasoline engine

You can get better results with a Deming Sprayer
because it will require fewer repairs, and is better
able to stand the rough usage than any other pump.
We have had more experience ; we operate a larger
factory than any other spray pump manufacturers.

fL This Duplex pump is only one of 30 Deming spray
pumps for all spraying conditions. Our 1914 Cata-
logue contains full particulars. Write for it.

THE DEMING COMPANY, Salem, Ohio

Manufacturers of Hand, Windmill, Power and Spray Pumps

Hunters Run,..

1903

625

625

4

Including

Goodyear

1905

160

160

320

2

8

1906

2:95

262

557

4

0

1907

1417

514

1931

13

12

1908

1704

1704

11

1

1

1909

1289

510

1799

12

1

1910

2103

2190

4293

29

1

1

1

1911

3750

300

4050

27

• • • •

1912

2040

2040

14

• • • •

1913

3045

3045

20

%

1

G. & H. R. R.,

1903

17468

4385

21853

146

Total

1905

15617

9908

25525

170

47

1906

6295

3450

9745

65

35

2

1907
1908

34797
12017

19217

54014
12017

360

80

56
39

1
4

1909

27037

6426

33463

223

26

• • • • •

• • •

1910

43523

13003

56526

377

57

17

3

43 5

4

1 car Cherries,

1911

70100

7049

77149

514

9

2

9

100 8

3

240 bks. Plums,
650 bks. Cherries.

1912

41508

2862

44370

296

76

5

4

70 5

4

1913

70748

3966

74714

497

34

20

9

157 5

9

^ - ■— — ■■ ■

Shipments Over Western Maryland R. R.

o

en

d

hi
<

en

o u

Bo

o

I. OS

(4 9

o;

09

ja
t>
a

03

o

cU

u
a

o

5s

09 eo

o o,
Z<

2
o a

u
>»

o

£

o

other

Shipments

Virginia Mills 1907

1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
Jack's Mountain, . 1913

Orrtanna, 1903

1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911

320

326

880O

1620

1519

30

300

60

352

3300

1062

3659

3177 2342

2686 1020

741 840

8216 4045

7043 3846

1912 8412 2798

1913 12897 154

9120

61

• • • •

1620

11

1

1845

12

• • • •

30

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

« • • •

3(10

2

4

60

• • • •

• • • ■

352

2

1

3300

22

• • • •

1062

7

• • • •

3659

24

• • • •

5519

37

1

3706

25

• ^ • •

1581

10

• • « •

12261

82

%

10889

73

1

11710

78

1

3

13051

87

%

• • • •

%

32

2

122

Largest
Stock

Established 46 Years

Grape Vines

Best
Varieties

CFor garden and vineyard planting; also Currants, Goose-
berries and other small fruit plants. Parties intending to plant
are requested to correspond with us.

Our Catalogue is Free

T. S. HUBBARD CO., Fredonia, N. Y.

(gettpgfaurg iOtattonal jlanfe

Capital, $145,150
Deposits, $930,000

^ays 3 ^ per cent on Special T>eposits

€[f We offer the public the use of our large fire-proof and
burglar-proof safe deposit vaults FREE.

Christmas Savings Club Starts December 21, 1914

WM. McSHERRY. President

E. M. BENDER, Cashier

Arendtsville Planing Mill and Barrel Factory

p. S. ORNER, Prop., Arendtsville, Pa.

Manufacturing of Apple Barrels and Staves a Specialty
Millwork of all Description and Lumber of all kinds

PRICES LOW
Call, Thone or Write : : : : Both 'Phones

123

Adams County Fruit Record

Shipments Over Western Maryland R. R. — {Continued)

o
6

Other
Shipments

McKnightstown, .

Other W. M. R.,

Stations West
of Gettysburg

Gettysburg,

I Granite

New Oxford,

East Berlin,

V

W. M. R. R., .

Total

f,

Littlestown,

Dillsburg,

1903
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913

1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1912
1913
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
190n
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1903
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913

1910
1911
1912
1913
1910
1911
1912
1913

3438

7895

2296

3393

1785

7724

14275

26297

4122

13000

328

745

42

50

26

1:23

48

56

13

18

23

22

428

36

42

52

400

102

178

254
1155

251
2030
1800
2231

520

618

564

KM)

1033

3438

8073

2550

4548

2036

9754

16075

28528

4642

13000

328

1365

42

50

590

623

48

56

13

18

23

22

428

36

42

52

400

102

1033

23
54
17
30
13
65
107
190
31
87

2
9

1

3

2

40 bus. Pears.
30 bus. Peaches,
20 bus. Pears.

2

2

4
4

50 bus. Pears.

1-:

Vo

1
<

390
275
300

50
1140

49

276
695

10

1

18

152
1193

205

1

160

80

276
695
390
427
300

50
2333

49

215

2

178

80

9

4%

3
2

21/2-

15

V2

1/2

6738

10380

7447

7720

4536

8873

22946

33959

14091

26819

450
300

300
300

13?0

1447

13948

2891

4870

7135

6637

3550

154

6738
11700

8894
21668

7427
13743
30081
40596

17641

26973

4.50
300

300
300

45

78

59
144

49

91
201
270

117

180

3
2

2

2

5
3

7

1

%

2V2

IV4

o

1*4

o

Va

90 bus. Pears,

32 2 30 bus. Peaches, 20
bus. Pears,

2
5

• • • •

150

150

124

I2q

Bale Lock
Extension

Quick and Positive

Always keep ..
rope hand I
close to ladi- '
der when ope-
ratinpf top sec-
tion. Pull rope
to raise the
traveling sec-
tion. To lower
traveling sec-
tion carry the
hand slightly
to the right
while Bale is
in vertical po-
To lock it, carry
hand to the left, always keep-
ing rope hand close to the
ladder and the Bale will drop
in position and lock it secure.

Tripod

Omega

5, 6, 7, 8,

10, 12, 13

steps

Tilley*s Omega Tripod Step Ladder

* *First-class in every respect. Stiff, rigid,
light and durable. All flat steps to stand on.
The two lower steps are supported by, and
rest on rounds which tie, support and thor-
oughly brace the main ladder. Fully cov-
ered by patents dated December 26, 1910."

"Beware of false statements from unscru-
pulous competitors who are trying to force.^
the sale of their inferior goods by intimida-
tion. The Patentee and Manufac-
turer is responsible, reliable, able
and willing to protect his patrons
and himself against bluffers."

John S. Tilley Ladders Co. Inc-

Manufacturer of Ladders and Step Ladders of every description

Factory, WATERVLIET, N. Y.

Represented in Pennsylvania by

EDWIN C. TYSON, Flora Dale, Pa.

Adams County Fruit Records

Total Fruit Marketed in County

•s

%

a

c

ftm

&^

AXi

^ 3

cc ^

w ^

1 «i«

tj fi

prt H4

^^ ^H

1 .fi

X5

1 n

ffl

u

«tf

,

,

«

o

o

1 H

z

>c

o

H

CO

3

m

d

15

O- o
CO m

B3 »-

<o

xi
a
a
<u

(I.

QQ

U

a
d

CO

a;

PL.
CO

h
ei
O

d
'4,

a
4.

ei

O

o.

>

O o.
.<
o

u a

CO fc«

h >>

oSCQ

O

o

09

Total Shipped,

P";.'", jii-.il IH._^ -,

Evaporated,

1903
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913

24206
25997
13742
42517
16553
35910
67219
104659
55599
97567

4385
11228

4897
33165

2891
11296
20138
13686

6412

4120

1903 Equal to 6547

1905
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913

10670
8333

4666
8600
21750
5000
8933

28591
37225
18639
75682
19444
47206
87557
118345
62011
101687
6547
10670
8333

4666
8600

191
248
124
504
129
314
583
789
413
677

— 44

— 71

— 56

— 31

— 57

52
38
63
40

27

6iy2

10

84

351/^

2
1
4

17
3
8

20

3

10
4

91/3

43
100
70
189

8
5
5

4
3
4
11

Car cherries.

Canned, 1905 Equal to 2400

1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913

10000
1673
12398
16700
25000
27108
42855

21750— 145

5000

8933

2400
10000

1673
12398

< • • • • I

Cider 1907 Equal to 9524

— 60

— 16

— 67

— 11

g2

16700— 111
25000— 167
27108— 181
42855— 286
9524 — 6.3

Total fruit,

1908

1909

1910

1911

1912

1913

1903

1905

190«

1907

1908

1909

1910

1911

1912

1913

24206
25997
13742
42517
16553
35910
67219
104659
55599
97567

6670

5714

11120

12500

8000

9150

10932

24298

4897

61022

11234

34074

5f>558

72936

46520

65058

6670
5714
11120
12500
8000
9150

— 44

— 38

— 74

— 83

— 53

— 61

35138— 234

50295— 335

18639— 124

103539 —690

27787—185

69984— 465

123777— 825

177595- 1184

102119— 680

162625-1084

38
63
40
27

611^2

10

84
35»^

20 9Mt 189

11

Comparison of Percentages

1903
1905
1907
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913

■i-> nj
0^

70
52
41
51
54
59
54
60

12

22

32

16

16

8

6

2%

18

26

8

7

7

12
5

10
18
14
14

27
26 V^

9
8
9

7

8

5»^

100
143
295
200
356
500
344
466

126

RED STAR BRAND

TREES

ALL
Bred From Bearing Orchards

OF THE

Blue Ribbon Strains

and Exclusively Our Own Growing

ALL TREES HARDY

am

WINTERED IN THE OPEN

WTilTE US FOR PTilCES

The Cumberland Nurseries

Winchester^ Tenn.

i2y
WHAT BECOMES OF ADAMS COUNTY APPLES.

In the first place do you realize that the quantity of fruit
grown in Adams County has increased almost five-fold in the past
ten years, and is only just reaching the point where rapid increase
may be looked for. Have you noticed, as shown by the fruit
records, what a decrease there has been in bulk shipments with
a corresponding increase in shipments of manufactured fruit? At
the first glance this seems to indicate a lowering in the quality of
the crop, resulting in a greater proportion of cull apples, but those
of us who have followed the progress of the industry closely,
keeping tab on the crop from year to year, know that the increased
proportion of canned apples does not mean that more culls are
being produced, the contrary being decidedly the case, but that
greater care in sorting is now almost universal, and as this second
grade fruit is now almost entirely either canned or evaporated, it
has practically ceased to enter into competition with our No. i fruit.

A survey of 1913 shipments shows that Adams County apples
went in solid carloads into fourteen states besides our own, and
found their w^ay in smaller lots into many others, and that ship-
ments were made into seven foreign countries, as follows :

Massachusetts

Maryland,

Michigan,

Mississippi,

Florida,

Connecticut,

Virginia,
Indiana,
Kentucky,
Alabama,
New York,

Ohio, District of Co-
Illinois, lumbia,,

South Carolina, Tennessee,

Ivouisiana, Georgia,

New Jersey, California,

and to England, Scotland and Argentine Republic. Boxed fruit
w^as shipped to France, Germany, Denmark, and Russia.

Of these shipments. New York took between 150 and 200 car-
loads; over fifty cars were shipped to Philadelphia, seventy-five
to Pittsburgh; Memphis took sixty; Baltimore twelve and New
Orleans, sixteen cars.

The shipment of boxed fruit to California, France, Germany,
Denmark, and Russia is rather interesting, especially so in several
cases of duplicate orders. Truly we have the whole world as our
market, and can hold it too, if we do our part, packing only choice
fruit and putting it up in good shape.

A study of the canned fruit shipments is even more illuminat-
ing. It would bo reasonable to suppose that most of the canned
goods would find a market in nearby cities, but the records show
that many other states competed for an opportunity to eat Adams
County canned apples, among them being Texas, Minnesota, Mary-
land, Ohio, Iowa, Nebraska, Illinois, New York, New Jersey, West
Virginia, Tennessee, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Indiana, Ver-
mont, New Hampshire, Louisiana, and District of Columbia.

128

IT PAYS!!

TO BUY

Electric Handy Wagons

THEY SAVE LAND

AM AND MAN

Wagons complete for spraying outfits,
special trucks for orchard work, all kinds of
trailer trucks, any capacity, and twenty other
styles with any size of wheels.

Electric Steel Wheels are also furnished
to fit any wagon skein or axle, and you can
replace the wheels on your old gears and use
them for sprayer trucks, hauling to the pack-
ing house and for countless other purposes.

Wagons with low wheels pass under the
trees and do no damage. Wide tires do
not rut the soil or hurt surface roots.

Write for our catalog and it will solve
your hauhng problems.

ELECTRIC WHEEL COMPANY

BOX 104, QUINCY, ILLINOIS

INDEX.

A

A.ddresses —

"vSome Important Insect Pests and Their Control," 25-31

"Problems of Agricuhural Drainage," 32-39

"Corn Growing and Improvement," 40-50

"New Method of Developing and Utilizing Water from
Springs and Streams for Farm Use in Connection

with Farm Drainage," 51-57

"Long Term Fertilizer Experiments at Pennsylvania Ex-
periment Station," 58-66

"How Trees Grow." 67-72

"Peach Growing for Market," 73-76

"The Newer Diseases of Fruit Trees and Latest Method

of Control." 77-^9

"Possibility of Beef Production in Pennsylvania," 90-100

"The Present and Future of Apple Growing," 101-108

"Profitable Pork Production," 109-1 13

Advertisers —

American Agricultural Chemical Co. (Fertilizers) 2

Hill Top Orchards Warehouse Company (Fertilizers and

Spray Materials ) , 4

W. C. Reiter (Bolster Springs) ' 6

B. G. Pratt Co. (Spray Materials), 8

G. P. Read Inc. (Packages and Cushions), 10

J. G. Harrison & Sons (Nursery Stock) 12

York Chemical Works (Fertilizers) 14

Walter S. Schell (Seeds) 15

Bowker Insecticide Co. (Spray Materials), 16

Morrill & Morley Mfg. Co. (Sprayers) 18

Keystone National Powder Co. (Dynamite), 20

J. W. Richley Auto Co. (Automobiles) 22-23

Musselman Canning Co. (Fruit Products), 24

Biglerville Cold Storage Co 115

Franklin Davis Nursery Co. (Nursery Stock) 116

First National Bank of Gettysburg 1 16

Kentucky Tobacco Product Co. (Insecticides), 117

Citizens* Trust Co. of Gettysburg 117

Baugh Si Sons Co. (Fertilizers) 118

The Deming Co. ( Spravers) , T20

T. S. Hubbard Co. (Grape Vines) 122

Gettysburg National Bank 122

P. S. Orner (Apple Barrels) 122

John S. Tilley Ladders Co. (Orchard Ladders) 124

The Cumberland Nurseries 126

Electric Wheel Co. (Orchard Wagons), T28

Light Draft Harrow Co. (Orchard Harrows), 130

Air Tight Steel Tank Co. (Power Sprayers) 132

Bateman Mfg. Co. (Potato Machinery and Sprayers), ... 134

Daugherty Sz Hartley (Dry Goods) 136

Edwin C. Tyson (Everything for the Orchard), 136

Amendments to Constitution, 19

129

130

FORKNER LIGHT-DRAFT
HARROW-IN ACTION

NOTE that every inch of soil is thoroughly cultivated, lifted and turned
in \ou^ wavy levels, thus exposing the maximum amount of soil surface
to the chemical action of the sun. See how easily the driver can work up to
tree trunk without having to dodge branches. Observe low centre of gravity,
width of cut, and ease with which each separate gang (there are four) can be
raised to dump trash, or all hooked up in moving over road.

Will Do Just As Good Work For You

Dozens of Orchardists have proven it as shown by letters we have on file —
One large grower, after thoroughly testing a sample harrow ordered six more,
but there is NO NEED TO TAKE OUR WORD FOR IT.

Write today for catalogue and 30 day trial offer. Select the size and type of
machine best suited to your soil, we will ship one to any responsible party, and

Try It In Your Orchard—At Our Risk

Send it back if you don't find it the finest cultivator made. Think of culti-
vating 20 acres daily with 2 horses. Do not delay, there is bound to be a tre-
mendous demand for 1914 and late comers may be disappointed.

Light-Draft Harrow Co.

910 E. Nevada St. : : Marshalltown, Iowa

SOLE PENNSYLVANIA REPRESENTATIVE

EDWIN C. TYSON, Flora Dale, Pa.

131

Aphis, Apple, ' ^^

wooiy, '.::::::::::::::*:* 11

European Grain, ^8

^^«v^»*' y^y^^v^^y.'.'.'.'.'. 29

I^osy ^g

Black Peach, ' ^7

Tobacco Extract for, .* ^i

Apple Red Bug, ^^

Blotch, ^"

Bitter Rot of, H

Sooty Blotch of, '.'.'/.'.'./.'.'.'.'. 70

Diseases of, • 77-80

Bitter Pit, Fruit Pit, and Water Core of, ' .* .' * .' ' ' * " * .' * ' * * ' 88

Varieties of, ,p,^

P'""".'ns, ,03

tT^ 1^"?' 104

Marketing, j^^

Advertisement of, Important, *.;; 106

i^arrels, 4-122-1 36

Boxes, j^^

Adams County Fruit. Records of, . .V. '.'.*.'. *'.'.'. ■*.'.*.*. ■.'.■.■;.■.'.;; ii;>-i2i-i23-i25

Where it Goes 127

American Agricultural Chemical Co '..'.'.". i

Automobiles 22-2^

Adams County Banks 11^117 r^"?

Air Tight Steel Tank Co. (Adv.), '^"^"^^

B ^

By-Laws,

Bitter Rot, ^"^11

Blister Canker (Z

Beef Cattle on Small Farms '. . .V.'.V.V.'.W.'.'.'.V. m

Beef Breeding Cows \ ^^

Box Packing _^*;

Bolster Springs, ! 1 ! 1 ! 1 1 ! ! ! ! ! 1 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (J,.i

Bowker Insecticide Co. (Adv.), \^

Biglerville Cold Storage Co. (Adv.) \. nr

Banks, t^^t tt t

Baugh & Sons Co. ( A'd'v'.v, ' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .'.■.■;::.■:.';::; ^" fg

Barrels "' A-ioo-^nf,

Bateman Mfg. Co. (.^dv.), .".'.'.■.'.'.'.■.■ " '* \f,

"Black Leaf 40." ^. ■.•.•.■.•.•.•.;■.■.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•. 2<^U7-\f6

Constitution

Committees, List of, jq

Duties of 21

Cox, Henry T. (Addresses) ^2-30 =;i-=;7

Corn Growing and Improvement 40-co

Cost of Production and Profit in Growing 40

Selection of Seed * * * ^^

Yield Influenced by Previous Environment 42

Effect of Storage on Vitalitv of Seed " " 4t;-47

Importance of Full Stand, .' 47

Testing Seed 48

Discussion, ^

Commercial Fertilizers, . . . . . . . .V.V.V.V.V.V.V. '.'.'. 2-4-14-58-66-1 18-136

Cheaper Methods of Cattle Feedmg q,

California Fruit Crate, ^^o

Cold Storage \\' \\ J^?

Citizens' Trust Co. of Gettysburg (Adv.), ..*.*.*.*.*.*.*."* 117

Cumberland Nurseries ( Adv. ) , ][ ^^6

Compressed Air Sprayers, 134-1 -,5

132

C Before you get that new sprayer, investigate
the Air-Tight and its wonderful record.

C It is claimed by every experienced user that
the Air-Tight is so far ahead of everything that
they have ever had before, that they could never
afford to go back to the old method of spraying.

C Find out all about our atomizing principle—
the power plant with less than a dozen moving
parts — where no liquid ever comes in contact
with any part of the machinery — that does bet-
ter work with a fourth less material.

CL Catalogue cheerfully sent on request

AIRTIGHTSTEELTANKCOMPANY

PITTSBURGH, PENNA.

133

D

Dues, Annual Membership, 17

Duties of Officers, 19-21

of Cotjimittees, 21

Drainage, Problems of, 32-51-57

by Machinery, 37

Cost of, 39

Profits from 34-35

Discussion Following Addresses of —

Prof. Gardner, 50-66

Henry T. Cox 54-57

Prof. Orton, 79-84-88

Dynamite 20

Diseases of Fruit Trees and Their Treatment, 77-89

Fire Blight, 80

Collar Rot 81

Illinois Apple Canker, 80

Deming Co. (Adv. ) 120

Daugherty & Hartley (Adv.), 136

E

Executive Committee, List of, 3

Duties of 21

Eldon. R. M., 50-54-55-66-84-86-88

Electric Wheel Co. (Adv.), 128

F

Fruit, Adams Co., Districts, 19

Exhibitors 114

Records of Adams Co 1 19-121-123-125

Where Adams Co., Went to 127

Packages, TO-122-136

Spot, 77-80

Products, 24

Fertilizers, 2-4-1 4-1 18-136

Experiments, 58-66

Commercial, vs. Yard Manure 52

a Seven Course Rotation, 65

Fulton, S. H., Addresses 73-76, 101-108

Fire Blight, 80

Franklin Davis Nursery Co. ( Adv. ) 116

First National Bank of Gettysburg (.\dv.) no

Formaldehyde, ^3"

G

(Gardner, Prof. Frank D., Addresses, 40-50-56-58-66

Garretson. Robert ^5~o

Griest. A. W 56-85

Ground Limestone, ""

(irape Vines, ^^^

Gettvsburg National Bank ( Adv. ) , ^^^

Gas 'Engine Sprayers, 120-1 32-1 34-1 30

Gettysburg and Harrisburg R. R. Fruit Shipments Ii9

H

How Trees Grow ^^-72

Hill Top Orchards' Warehouse Co. ( Adv. ) 4

Harrison, J. G. & Sons (Adv.), ^~

Hubbard, T. S. Co. (Adv.) ••••• ^^j,

Hose and Nozzles 1 8-1 20-1 32-134-136

Hydrometers ^^

134

POTATO GROWERS

100%?£lSi

Piantiiif

Everywhere realize that the profits from any

stand depend, largely upon choosing the tools

that are designed especially for potatoes—

that carry every convenience and

every adjustment to handle the crop

in the most practical way, from

planting until after the harvest.

You can find everything that is

needed in the full line of

IRONAQE nkdiinery

100% Planters place one seed piece in every
space and one only— no skips to eat up fertilizer,
labor and land, or doubles to waste expensive seed.
Steel-Frame Riding Cultivators are made
with high or low, pivot or fixed wheels, grooved,
flat or zig-zag gangs, for one or two rows, etc.

Traction Sprayers cover four or six rows at
a time. Special spray bars for different crops „ Low Pivot Wheel.
including a new one that covers the underside
of the leaves as well as ^loa^raMAi ■ Potato Diggers

the top. ^|\^||||||{||||||jj|^^ are made in four

styles and when

rightly

chosen

each is

guaranteed

t o do as

good work as any other digger of the same

size and capacity on the market
— better than most.

We iri nb^eitntrl at several f)vn
in Adams County, notably Flora Dales
Biglerville, Bermud'tan, Gettysburg, i^c^

Call on your local dealer and ask him to show you these goods and
write us for booklets describing all or any part of the line.

Also Spraying Material, Garden Tools, &c.
Bateman Mfg. Co. Box 54 P, Grenloch, N. J.

55 Gallon Tank

For heaviest
conditions

!

135
I

Insect Pests, 25-31

Illustrations —

Types of Corn Butts and Tipps, 43

Types of Corn Ears of Different \^arieties 45

Thinned and Unthinned Peaches, 57

Bitter Rot, 78

Collar Blight, 82-83

Showing Fruit Pit 89

Steer Feeding Tests 96-97

Georgia Peach Crate, 100

California Fruit Crate 108

Sprayers ( Adv.) , 18-120-132-134

Harrows (Adv.), 130

Bolster Springs ( Adv. ) , 6

Ladders (Adv.) 124

Automobiles (Adv.) , 22, 23

Wagons (Adv.) 128

Potato Machinery (Adv.), 134

Illinois Apple Canker 80

Insecticides, 8-16-1 17-136

K

Keystone Powder Co. (Adv.), 2

Kentucky Tobacco Product Co. (Adv.), 117

L

Limestone. Ground or Caustic 66

Ladders 124-136

Light Draft Harrow Co. (Adv.) ' 130

Lime Sulphur 4-16-136

M

Membership. Roll of. 5-7-Q-ii-i3

Constitutional Requirement for, t7

Meetings, Time for 21

Machines for Drainage 37

Making Use of Waste Land Qi

Methods of Pruning 103

Marketing Apples 105

Morrill & Morley Mfg. Co. (Adv.), 18

Musselman Canning Co. (Adv.) 24

o

Officers. List of 3

Consist of, 17

Duties of ig-2T

Object of the Association 17

Order of Business 21

Orton, Prof. C. R.. Addresses ^7-12, 77-89

Orner. P. S. (Adv.), 122

Orchard Ladders T24. T36

Wagon's T28-136

Cultivators 130-134-136

P

Parasites of San Jose Scale, 31

Peach Growing for Market ITrl^

Varieties 73

Spraying and Pruning, 74

Harvesting 75

Possibilities of Beef Production in Pennsylvania 90-icx)

^'■'rTU

136

The Christmas Store

Ready — Everything ready. The Gift things have all
been here ready for the Early Buyers

HANDKERCHIEFS— The Great Christmas article. Never so
many as now. Ladies', Gentlemen's and Children's. A beau-
tiful line of them — Ic. to $1.00 each. Japanese hand-marked
linens, all sizes. Other linens of all kinds and Xmas novelties.

GLOVES, FURS, BLANKETS, RUGS. HOSIERY

A beautiful line of Ladies' Neckwear for Christmas. Gent's
Neckwear. Special prices given on Ladies' Coats for Holidays.

See our line of Christmas Fancy Novelties before purchasing elsewhere

DOUGHERTY & HARTLEY, Gettysburg

Write to

TYSON

For Prices

ON ANY ORCHARD REQUISITE NEEDED

T^^^ T^^Cllo"t*C \ Lowest wholesale prices where we
-^ " X-/C^l\^l ^ ^ are not already represented.

^^^ r Ask name of nearest dealer. Where

^1^0 CrFOWCrS ' ^^^ represented will quote lowest

\ retail price. : : : :

If we do not handle what you need will tell you best

place to get it.

Address EDWIN C. TYSON

FLORA DALE, PA.

137

Present and Future of Apple Growing 101-108

Profitable Pork Production, 109-113

Pruning, Methods of 103

Packing Apples, 104

Pratt, B. G. Co. (Adv.), 8

Packages 10, 122, 136

Potato Machinery 134-136

Pruning Tools, 136

R

Root Aphis 26

Reiter. W. C. (Adv.) 6

Read, G. P. (Adv.) 10

Richley. J. W.. Auto Co. ( Adv. ) 22-23

S

Stewart, Dr J. P., Address 25-31

Scale Parasites, 31

Seed Corn 15-42-45

Strong, G. W 54

Sooty Blotch 79

Steer Feeding 94-95

Spray Materials, 4-8-16-117-136

Schell, Walter S. (Adv.) 15

Sprayers and Fittings, 18-120- 132- 134- 136

Scalecide 8-136

T

Tol)acco Extract , 29-1 17-136

Tyson, C. J 50-56-79-«5

Taylor. R. S., 54-86

Tomhave, Prof. W. H., Addresses 90-100, 109-113

Tractors. Need of, in Large Orchards. 103

Trees, Nursery 12-1 16-126

Tilley. J no. S.. Ladders Co. ( Adv. ), 124

Tyson ( Adv. ) , 136

Traction Sprayers 134-136

W

Wooly Aphis 26

Where Adams Co. Fruit Goes 127

Wagons for Farm and Orchard 128

Weed Killer, 136

Y

York Chemical Works (Adv.) 14

TENTH ANNUAL CONVENTION WILL BE HELD

DECEMBER 16, 17, 18, 1914.

138

139

'i

Showing Cankkr Ni:ar Root.

Showing Exthndki) Canker and Cracking of Bark,

138

139

Showin'C. Cankkk Xi.ar

Ron'

Sii()\vi.\(i I'ATKMiKi) Caxkkr a\i> Ckackixc. oi- Bark

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

140

Pic. I.— Delaware and Jersey Baskets filled with Kll)erta
Peaches.

■piQ 2. — Delaware and Jersey Baskets, with Wooden Covers.

140

Fir,. I
Peaches.

-Delaware and lersev liaskets tilled with l\11)erta

V.

i:iQ 2. — Delaware and Jersey baskets, with Wooden Covers.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

:;^Si"i