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PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

BATH NATURAL HISTORY

ANTIQUARIAN FIELD CLUB.
VOL. II. No. 1.

1870.

PRICE TWO SHILLINGS.

PRINTED AT THE ‘‘CHRONICLE” OFFICE, KINGSTON BUILDINGS.
1870. ~

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

BATH NATURAL HISTORY

AND

nee FIELD CLUB.

VOL. II. 1870—73.

BATH :
PRINTED AT THE ‘‘OHRONICLE” OFFIOE, KINGSTON BUILDINGS,

MDOOOLXXIII.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS.

VOL. II. No. 1. Page.
Chemical Geology, by Cuartes Exin, F.C.S.- ~ - - - dl
The Common English Names of Plants, by the Rev. H. N.
EuacomsBe, M.A. - - - - : - - 13
The Mammalia and other Remains from Drift Deposits in the
Bath Basin, by Cuartes Moor, F.G.S. - - - - 37
Remarks on Some of the Fungi met with in the Neighbourhood
of Bath, by C. E. Brooms, M.A., F.L.S. -- - - - 55
Notes on the Chapel and Hospital of St. Mary Magdalene,
Bath, by the Rev. W. Stoxzs Suaw, M.A. - - - - 99
Notes ona Pair of Celtic Spoons, found near Weston, Bath, in
1866, by the Rev. Prepenpary ScartH, MA. - - - 112
- Summary of the Wiggers for the Year Sk a by the
SECRETARY - - - - - - - 116
Address of the PRESIDENT after the Anniversary Dine: Feb.
18,1870- - -— - - - - - - - 152
No.. 2,

Document of Henry IT. Relative to the Priory of Bath: from
the Municipal Archives at a y the Rev. J. Harz,

Baca OR rie - = - - - - 159
St.-Swithin and other Weather Saints, by the Rev. L. Jenyns,
M.A, F.LS., F.G.8., President - - - - - - 161

Remarks on Some of the Fungi met with in the Neighbourhood
of Bath, by C. E. Brooms, M.A, F.L.S. Continued from

Page 98, Vol. II., No.1 - - - - - - - 188
Notes on the Rhetic Section, Newbridge Hill, by the Rev. H.
H. Winwoop, MA, F.G.S. — - - - - - - 204

Remarks on the Census of Somersetshire, 1861, by H. J.
Hunter, M.D. - - - - - - - - - 211

Page,
Summary of Proceedings for the Year 1870-71, by the

SECRETARY = - - - - - - - - - 215
Address of the PresipenT after the Anniversary Dinner, Feb.
20, 1871 - - meh dy = - - - - - - 249
No. 3.
An Ancient Saxon Poem of a City in Ruins, supposed to be
Bath, by the Rev. J. Harts, M.A. - - - - - 259
Notes on the History of Twerton, by the Rev. W. S. SHaw, - 270
Mr. Skinner of Camerton, by H. J. Hunter, M.D.- - - 281
The Viper: its Character and Species, by H. Birp, M.D. - 299
Notes on Early Geologists connected with the Neighbourhood
of Bath, by W. SrerHen Mircneny, LL.B, F.G.S.— - - 303
Summary of Proceedings for the Year 1871-2, by the
SECRETARY - - - - - 343
Address of the PRESIDENT after the Deena iitaaieg Feb.
19,1872 - - = bbe ao a - - 371
No. 4.

Local Biology, followed by Remarks on the Faunas of Bath
and Somerset, by the Rev. LronarD BLoMEFIELD, M.A,,
F.L.S., F.G.S. - - - - - - - - 373
evoutan Fossils from the Sanden on the N.E. of the
Quantocks, by the Rev. H. H. Winwoop, M.A., F.G.S. - - 427
Ancient Register of Wrington Church, by the Rev. PREBENDARY
‘Scart, M.A. - - - - - - - - - 436
Ancient Churchwardens’ Accounts, Wrington, by the same - 444
The Geographical Position of the Carboniferous Formation in
Somersetshire, with Notes on Possible Coal Areas in
Adjoining Districts of the South of pint by J.
McMorertrim, F.G.S. - - - - - - - 454
Bells of Somerset, by the Rev. W. S. Saw, M. A. - - - 468
Summary of Proceedings for the Year 1872-3, by the
SECRETARY - — - bie es - - - - - 473

Chemical Geology. By Cuartes Extn, F.CS.
Read Feb. 24th, 1869.

‘The recent discoveries by means of the spectroscope, as to the
physical constitution of the sun, stars and nebule, render this not
an inappropriate time to review, what we know and what we may
fairly conjecture, of the infant stage of our own globe, and my
endeayour will be to set before you as clearly asI can this evening,
the opinions now generally held by our best scientific authorities
on the subject.

A subject that embraces not only a consideration of the sciences
of chemistry and geology, but also to some extent of astronomy and
physics, and which traces the history of the world from the time
when it existed in space in common with the other planets and the
gun, a8 a mere congregation of gases, through its several stages,
to the present day, is necessarily a comprehensive one, and it is
sufficiently manifest that the most I can hope to compass within
the limits of a short paper, is to touch on some of the principal
features it presents. ;

It will be well to first consider for a moment the present con-
dition of the earth, before we go back to the earlier stages of its
existence, and I will remind you that as at present constituted, it
has a specific gravity of 5:4, and consists of 63 different kinds of
matter, which haying hitherto proved undecomposable are conse-
quently termed simple bodies or elements.

Some of these elements are gaseous, one or two liquid, but the
greater majority are solid : all, however,—and to this I would invite
your special attention,—even such heavy bodies as lead, iron, and
copper, under proper conditions can be easily made to assume a
gaseous form.

It has long been conjectured that our earth did at one time in
reality exist in a gaseous or nebulous state, although it was little
thought that any proof, direct or indirect, could ever be obtained
in favour of such a theory. We have now, however, from our
knowledge of the composition of existing nebule, strong evidence
in its favour.

It has happened that many of those misty cloud-like bodies in

2

the sky, known to us as nebulz, have been found from time to
time, as telescopes of increased powers have been brought to bear
upon them, to be mere star clusters ; hence it has been thought by
some that provided our telescopes had but sufficient power we
should be able to resolve all the nebulz in like manner into stars.

Mr. Huggins was the first to made the grand discovery, that
the light of nebulz, unlike the light of the sun and stars, is not
composed of light of different refrangibilities, so that instead of
having a continuous spectrum crossed by dark lines, as in the case
of the sun and stars, the light from nebule gives only a spectrum
of one or more bright lines, and this simple fact does away com-
pletely with the notion that nebule may be clusters of stars, and
shows them to be instead masses of glowing gas.

Professor Frankland has lately demonstrated that the luminosity
of flame, as of a candle or coal gas, for instance, is not due, as has
hitherto been supposed, to minute particles of incandescent carbon,
but to the conversion of lighter vapours into heavier, by chemical
action or even by mechanical action, as by pressure ; therefore, the
mere fact of nebule being luminous renders it highly probable
that condensation and combination are actually going on amongst
their component gases and vapours, and that consequently a nucleus
is being formed.

The spectroscope, besides telling us that nebulz are masses of gas,
indicates that two of the gases in question are hydrogen and
nitrogen, gases which respectively enter so largely into the
composition of water and our own atmosphere.

The long debated question of the existence or non-existence of
a nebulous fluid in space is, then, for ever set at rest, and the
tendency of recent observations, although not absolutely proving,
yet goes very far to show by inference, that the constituents of the
world once existed in a gasiform condition, the elements being in a
“disassociated state of chemical indifference to one another,”
until a lowering of temperature brought about combination and
condensation. :

It requires but a slight stretch of the imagination to conceive
that the interplanetary and interstellar spaces are also occupied by
gases, in a state of extreme tenuity, and this view, which is

3

advocated by Mr. Grove, not only accords equally well with all the
phenomena connected with light, but is also less gratuitous, and
altogether more reasonable than the “ ether hypothesis,” which
latter nevertheless is generally accepted.

As condensation gradually went on, we should have an intensely

-heated world in a molten condition, surrounded by a highly heated
atmosphere of vapours and gases, and assuming by its rotation a
spheroidal form, and whatever amount of mere theory may still be
attributed to the nebular hypothesis, there can be no doubt what-
ever about this next stage ; for astronomers, natural philosophers,
and geologists, are all agreed, that our globe was at one period in
as highly heated a condition, and as luminous, as the sun and stars
are still, and that its entire solid contents were in a state of
complete liquidity.

The law of chemical affinity teaches us that when elements are
indiscriminately mixed, combination always takes place in a regular
manner ; for instance, if such an acid as sulphuric be in the presence
of such bases as baryta, potassa, soda, and lime, it will combine
with them invariably in the order I have given them.

No doubt the intense temperature that existed at this time, a
temperature that greatly exceeds anything we can attain to in the
laboratory, so far modified the law of affinity, as to render it
impossible for chemists to prove by direct experiment what com-
pounds were first formed ; still it holds good sufficiently to enable
them to speak with considerable cértainty.

As I have said before, the mean specific gravity of the earth is
about 5-4, and the density of the solid exterior only 2°75, con-
sequently, even after making all due allowance for the effect of
increased pressure, there must be a great accumulation of the
heavy metals, and their compounds, in the interior of the earth:
in other words, as might have been expected, at the time of the
earth’s cooling, the newly formed compounds would obey the
laws of gravity, and range themselves in layers, according to
their respective densities: at the centre, we should expect to
find the heaviest metals, such as gold, mercury, lead and silver ;
in the higher zones such metallic oxides as lime, magnesia,
alumina, iron oxide and soda, and lastly, an external crust of silica

4

(of which quartz is a familiar example) in combination chiefly with
potash.

As regards the crust, we should have expected the composition
I have traced, from the gravity of its component parts alone, but we
have also corroborative evidence in the composition of the older
granites.

“The process of solidification in all probability commenced both
at the centre and at the surface, leaving in the interior, vast
reservoirs of fluid igneous matter which are still supposed to exist,
the character of their molten contents however being variable.” *

It has been objected to this view, that as the surface cooled it
would sink into the fluid, molten matter from which it had
solidified, but we must remember that this cooling action would
take place simultaneously at all points, and we should have a
hollow sphere maintaining its shape by the cohesion of its
particles; and again, although the effect of heat in the first
instance is to cause expansion, yet many substances ‘contract again
as they become fluid, like iron, for instance, which when heated
would float on a surface of the same metal in a molten state.

From our present knowledge of the law of gravity and of
physics generally, we are able to say with certainty that some such
state of things I have just sketched, must have existed, but on
the consideration that the earth was at this time a sun, and
accepting the astronomer’s dictum that the probable past and future
of the sun are the probable past and future of every star in the
firmament, it is clear that if we had the power to make com-
parisons with existing suns, we should arrive at additional proof.
We have such power. If we take the present centre of our
system we shall find, so far as discovery has yet gone, how nearly
identical its condition now is to the condition of the earth at the
time we have been considering. Recent discoveries have not been
sufficiently established to enable us to speak with anything like
certainty of the body of the sun itself, and even of the photo-
sphere or true surface, we can only infer, of the latter, its cloudy
nature, and that the clouds are composed of particles of various

© David Forbes, F.R.S.

metals in a state of intense heat, and which are brighter the
higher they ascend into the atmosphere, the brighter ones being
known to us as “ Facule.”

When we come to the atmosphere of the sun, however, our
knowledge is so exact, that we can not only tell its composition,
but even what its temperature is at different heights, and we find
with what wonderful precision its constituents are ranged according
to their respective densities, down from hydrogen the lightest, to
barium the heaviest.

We have, overlapping all the rest, an atmosphere of hydrogen,
then at a profound depth sodium and magnesium, next at a great
distance further down, calcium, then in a group reaching nearly to
the same height, chromium, manganese, iron, nickel and cobalt,
then within a moderate distance of these, copper and zine, and
lastly, after a vast interval, barium. These are all the elements
as yet known to exist in the sun’s atmosphere, though there is
reason to believe that chlorine must also be classed with them.

The presence of dark lines in the solar spectrum reveals to us
that the surface of the atmosphere is cooler than the luminous
region beneath, and the lines having - different intensities, is
evidence that the different zones of the atmosphere from which
they have their source, are at different temperatures.

The lines due to hydrogen are intensely black, and those of
sodium and magnesium nearly as much so, consequently the heat
at the boundaries of these two latter metals must have fallen very
low, whilst the upper region, tenanted by hydrogen alone, is a
feebly conducting body, of immense depth, warmed but moderately
beneath and exposed on the outside to a chilling radiation towards
the open sky.

The sodium lines are narrow and sharply defined, and are
precisely the same that sodium vapour gives at the temperature of
a spirit lamp ; but at the temperature of a Bunsen burner sodium
lines begin to expand and be ill defined ; hence we learn that in
those upper regions of the sodium zone of the atmosphere the
temperature is lower than that of the flame of a mixture of coal
gas and air.

Again the fact that some of the iron lines are less dark than

others in their neighbourhood, and that some of the copper lines
are not noticeable, proves that even before descending sufficiently
far to have passed through a stratum of these gases we have
already arrived at a sensibly higher temperature. This tempera-
ture in the case of some of the lines of copper and zinc appears to
approach, if it does not pass beyond, the temperature of the
luminous clouds.

The slight fluctuation of intensity in the iron lines, is conclusive
evidence that iron is very abundant in the solar atmosphere, and
with the exception of hydrogen is by far the largest constituent.

There is evidence in favour of the presence of compound bodies
in the sun, but their density will in most cases be too high to
permit them, however volatile, to reach the cool parts of the sun’s
atmosphere so as to reveal themselves in conspicuous solar lines.*

Now if we go back to the earth, and apply what we have just
learned from the sun, it will be seen how easily everything falls
into its proper place and admits of explanation.

We must of necessity have at the extreme limit of the earth’s
atmosphere at this time, hydrogen, which is as abundant with us
as in the sun, next nitrogen and oxygen, each soaring to nearly
equal heights, then the vapours of such light metals as sodium and
potassium, then chlorine, calcium and iron, and lastly the vapours
of the denser and more refractory metals.

As the earth began to cool and solidify, these last would of course
be the first to be condensed, and the lighter ones left are precisely
those that we shall find in the crust, and which make up our rock
masses such as granites, limestones, sandstones, &c.

On the earth still further cooling and combination generally
taking place, we should have, to mention only the more important
reactions, the hydrogen uniting with the oxygen to form water,
the vapour of which would reach to the extreme limit of the
atmosphere, and the chlorine combining with the sodium to form

* Those who are interested in this, the astronomical branch of the
subject, are referred for corroborative details to Professor Miller’s lecture
given some months after the date of this paper before the British Association,
at Exeter.

chloride of sodium or common salt. It has been calculated that
there is sufficient salt to cover the entire sphere with a coating
some ten feet in thickness.

The next lowering of temperature would condense the vapour
of water and carry it down as rain, and which, by dissolving the
chloride of sodium and other soluble chlorides, would make the
ocean salt from its first commencement.

The atmosphere, with the exception of the presence of a great
excess of carbon in the shape of carbonic acid, would then be as it
is to this day, a mechanical mixture of oxygen and nitrogen, and
it may not be out of place to remark here in passing that we have
from this time in the atmosphere the very four elements, and only
those, viz., carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen (the hydrogen
being in combination with oxygen, and forming vapour of water),
that make up the protoplasm, from which, according to Professor
Huxley and his school, all life has sprung.

The carbonic acid would render the air unfit to sustain the life
of the higher forms of air-breathing creatures, and it was not until
the carbon had been stored up by a luxurious vegetation, as
represented in the coal measures, that the way was paved for their
appearance.

“ As the crust was being formed, further cooling would cause it
to crack and become fissured, and the molten matter beneath
rushing through the fissures would give rise to depressions and
elevations, forming the first mountains and valleys, and these by
giving direction to the water in the ocean and rivers, would
determine the earlier sedimentary formations.” *

From this time the changes that have taken place in our globe
which is to this day gradually cooling and suffering contraction,
were effected by agencies, similar, if not identical, with those now
in operation, and to gain any proper idea of the formations which
have resulted from the disintegration of the earth’s primitive crust,
we must not only take into account the agency of fire and water,
but the various effects produced by chemical action and mechanical
force.

* David Forbes, F.R.S.

“The first sedimentary rocks were formed from the wearing away
and breaking up ot the crust by the action of water and of the
atmosphere: the disintegrated quartz would be sorted into beds of
various degrees of fineness, forming the first sandstones and grits,
whilst the carbonic acid would unite with the alkalies of the silicates,
and reaching on the earthy and metallic chlorides, which we have
already seen were present in large quantities in the ocean, would
give rise to sedimentary argillaceous deposits, many of which, more
or less mixed with silica, were afterwards altered by metamorphic
action: of these metamorphic beds, roofing slate is a sufficiently
familiar example.” *

Just as the first sedimentary beds were formed from the débris
of the original crust by the action of rivers and of the sea, so were
the later beds formed, and are to this day being formed, from the
débris of pre-existing beds. In addition to the sands, sandstones,
clays, slates, granites, &c., the formation of which we have already
glanced at, we have immense beds of limestone, which are for the
most part of organic origin, due to the lime-secreting powers of
organisms of the lowest types, and which are able, like vegetables,
to draw their nourishment in great part from the mineral kingdom
alone. Encrinital limestone, for instance, which is made up of the
calcareous skeletons of lily-like echinoderms ; the coral growths,
the work of lime-secreting zoophytes, not only to be found fossil
sometimes in masses 15 feet thick, but even now giving rise to
large formations and islands: the chalk beds, too, many hundred
feet in thickness, consisting almost entirely of the calcareous
remains of foraminifera and the grey chalk sediment now being
formed at the bottom of the Atlantic, 95 per cent. of which
consists of the very same forms of foraminifera which we find in
the chalk of our secondary beds.

It is probable that the earlier limestones were brought about
through the development of organic life by the abstraction of the
lime contained in the ocean, and the débris of these in turn would
give rise to others. There must have been, however, limestones of
true chemical origin which might have resulted in a variety of

* David Forbes, F.R.S,

le i te BE i ey
-

9

ways, the most likely being, the deposition of carbonate of lime
from its solution as bicarbonate through any cause that would
expel the excess of carbonic acid.

«“ Eruptions of the fluid igneous matter in the interior, have from
time to time broken through the overlying strata, just’ as at the
present day (though possibly on a modified scale) similar outbursts
are produced by volcanic action.” *

It is necessary to be very careful not to attribute entirely to any
one cause alone the changes that have taken place, for analysis
shews that whilst many of our granites are undoubtedly of igneous
origin, others are true sedimentary beds altered by metamorphic
action, and experiments in the laboratory tend also to show that
this metamorphic action was due to the combined effects of a heat
considerably under that of fluidity, great pressure, and water.

It has up to within very recently been thought that all the
characteristics of metamorphism were due to contact with the
interior heat of the earth, but this idea must now be received with
considerable caution. It has been proved beyond doubt. that the
sum of the actual and potential energy in the world is constant,
and Dr. Joule has exhibited experimentally the measurable relation
between heat and gravity. He has determined that a certain
amount of one kind of motion produces an equivalent quantity of
another kind. He proved that 772 pounds of matter falling one
foot gives rise to enough heat to raise a pound of water one degree F.
in temperature. In like manner the mechanical force expended in
such effects as the compression, crumpling up, and consolidation of
strata, would give rise to a corresponding development of heat, and
consequently of chemical action, more than sufficient to completely
alter the character of immense rock masses.

The origin of metallic veins is still involved in mystery, the
fact of their always lying either due north and south, or east and
west, as the case may be, is sufficient proof that they are not due
alone to volcanic action, and points rather to electro-magnetic
influences. Each metal has its particular direction, and so
invariably is this a rule that a miner, if he finds a vein going east

* David Forbes, F.R.S.

10

when it should go north and vice versa, concludes at once that it
is not worth following up, as it can only be an offshoot which will
end abruptly.

The discovery in these veins, too, of organic remains by Mr..
Moore, renders it still more difficult to connect their formation
with volcanic action, and the alternative then forced upon us of
believing that the metals were deposited from an aqueous solution,
gains considerable support from the observations of M. Laur, who
finds that in California, quartz veins containing gold in a native
state, and copper, iron and other metals as ores, are now being
deposited by hot siliceous springs.

When the shock of an earthquake was felt at Bath some little
time back, several timid people believing the hot springs to be due
to volcanic action, were afraid of a volcanic eruption, and I believe
Sir Charles Lyell has lent some countenance to this notion of the
source of the heat of our springs. For my own part I cannot but
think with those who believe that the evidence is very much in
favour of chemical rather than of voleanic action. The Bristol
springs, which rise at a temperature of 76° F., probably owe their
heat to the oxidation of the iron in the conglomerate beds, and it is
possible the Bath springs, though at a great depth, do too; at any
rate, if they do not, the abundance of iron pyrites in the lower lias
beds, under the process of oxidation, will more than account for the
high temperature. It has been strangely objected that if the heat
were due to chemical action, it would be intermittent and irregular,
whereas the direct contrary is the fact, and the objection would tell
with twofold force against volcanic action, which is in its very
nature intermittent. Rain in falling through the atmosphere
dissolves an appreciable amount of oxygen, and as the water
percolates through the different strata until it arrives at the store-
house from whence the spring takes it rise, the dissolved oxygen
would combine energetically with the sulphide of iron (iron
pyrites) with which it comes in contact in its downward course, and
the combination would cause a large amount of heat. Each gallon
of rain water would, as it were, carry down with it sufficient fuel to
raise it to a given heat, and as the quantity of oxygen it holds in
solution is practically always constant, so would the heat of

li

combination be, and consequently also the temperature of the
spring.

Atmospheric air consists of oxygen and nitrogen, and rain
dissolves these gases in the proportion of one of the former to two
of the latter, and it is in this proportion we always find them
again in springs. Now if the theory I have put forward be correct,
it will follow that whilst the oxygen has been used up in the
manner we haye seen, the nitrogen remains uncombined and ought
to appear, as it does appear, in large quantities in our hot springs,
which discharge daily as much as 250 cubic feet of that gas.

A gentleman who is, I believe, a member of this club, has
broached the notion that the heat is due to the combustion of a
coal field, and though it is just possible that those mineral waters
which contain a very large amount of carbonic acid, partly owe
their heat to a subterranean process of combustion either of carbon
or carbonaceous substances by atmospheric oxygen conveyed into
the interior of the earth by water, still a very slight knowledge of
chemistry would have satisfied him that this cannot be the case
with the Bath springs, on account of the absence of any notable
quantity of carbonic acid.

The springs probably rise from a great depth, and if so, a great
deal of the heat would be due to this cause. If the permeable or
water-bearing strata, which supply the spring, do not crop out
again at the surface, but dip down under others which are
impervious, the water they absorb may penetrate to very consider-
able depths, and will not reappear at the surface unless it meets
with a fissure through which it may be forced upwards by the
hydrostatic pressure of the water in the upper extremity of the
water bearing strata.

The rate of increase of temperature for depth varies, probably
according to dissimilarity in the position and inclination of the
strata. In the Rose Bridge Colliery, Wigan, one of the deepest,
if not the deepest, in the world, where the depth of 808 yards has
been reached, the temperature at the bottom is 93° F., giving an
increase of 1° F. for every 54°57 feet.

Everyone must be familiar with the appearance of a chalk cliff
studded with flints. Their occurrence and mode of formation have

12

_given rise to many ingenious speculations, but up to this time none
of them have been satisfactory.

It has puzzled everyone who has given any attention to the subject
to explain how flints, consisting of silica, should be found here and
there imbedded in.the chalk which is almost pure carbonate of
lime ; it is sufficiently evident that silica must have been present,
but in small quantity, in the chalk seas, by what means then did it
become isolated in the manner we see it, instead of being deposited
in a state of mixture with the chalk? The origin of flints is pro-
bably dialytical. Mr. Graham found that certain membranes, and
also parchment paper, when in contact on the one surface, with a
solution containing a mixture of crystalloid and colloidal substances,
and, on the other surface, with water, will permit the passage to
the water of the crystalloids, but not of the colloids. This mode
of separation is called dialysis. If we put into the dialyser a very
dilute solution of silica in combination with an alkali, in which
form silica in solution nearly always exists, and add a few drops of
some dilute acid, the crystalloid salt of which the alkali is the base
will be separated, and a solution of pure silica left; this will
gradually become concentrated, and when sufficiently so will
ageregate round any organic nucleus with which it may come in
contact. In the chalk seas the soft mud would act readily as the
membrane does in our experiment, and by a dialytical process
the silica would be concentrated, and encircle a piece of sponge or
any other organism and form a flint. :

Mr. Stoddart, of Bristol, who has in this way made some artificial
flints, tells me that they correspond in a wonderful manner with
the natural ones, even to the characteristic layers which have
hitherto been supposed to be due to successive depositions of silex.

The necessity for being comparatively brief has precluded me
from entering into any arguments for, or objections to, the several
points I have raised, but this being so, I have been careful to assign
to each proposition its proper degree of probability, and in a theme
that must of course have much in it that is hypothetical, to take
nothing for granted but what may be fairly considered to be
proved.

The Common English Names of Plants. By Rev. H. N.
Extacomsr, M.A.—Part I. Read March 10th, 1869.

L believe there is nothing that so much deters people from the
study of botany as the long, uncouth, barbarous names with which
so many of our plants are burdened. They disgust: the scholar by
their uncouthness and their apparent disregard of all grammar
and etymology, and they frighten the unlearned student by their
(to them) utter unmeaningness. It is no comfort to such to tell
them that all these names have a meaning, and in most cases an
expressive meaning ; the obstacle is not thus removed ; there the
names stand, very often long, uncouth names—sesquipedalia verba—
often of no known language in themselves, yet of every known
language almost, too often stopping the inquirer at the very
outset, and barring his way to further progress into what he
thinks he has a right to call a dry and barren country. Yet it
is not all dry and barren, and in choosing for my subject this
evening “The Common English Names of Plants,” I hope to
show you that there is much in some plant-names of real interest ;
much of interest to the scholar, and much of poetry and legend
that will interest all inquirers. Let me however say at once that
though my paper is headed “The Common English Names of
Plants,” it is by no means my intention to take you quite so long
a journey, as the title implies : that would well occupy some hours
instead of the twenty minutes to which, in pity to you, our Secretary
has limited me. My intention is simply to pick a few well known
flowers, and as I show them to you one by one, tell you some
puints of beauty or interest that attach to their well-known
names.

And, as my time is so short, I will rush at once in medias res,
and pick for you the commonest, and almost the prettiest flower
that grows, the Daisy. We have not far to seek to find the origin
of the name. It was Chancer’s favourite flower, and he has told
us all about it. He says—

The long daie I hope me for to abide

For nothing else, and I shall not lie,

But for to lokin upon the daisie,

That well by reason men it callé maie "
The daisie, or else the eye of the day

The emprise, and the flour of flours all,

14

Thus Chaucer ; and though other derivations have been given, we
all can feel, as we see the “ wee flower” opening its brightness to
the sun, and closing up at night, that Chaucer’s account is, and
shall be the right one.

Let us take another plant as common, but not as pretty as the
daisy—the Nettle. Mettle is the same word. (etymologically) as
needle, (And when | speak thus positively, as I shall have to do
more than once this evening in giving the origin of names, I hope you
will understand that I do so—not speaking on my own authority,
but on the authority of learned men, who have well studied the
subject). ‘ Nettle,” then, is the same as need/e, and it takes us back
at once to the time when the nettle supplied the chief instrument
of sewing—not of course the instrument that holds the thread, to
which we now confine the word needle, but the thread itself.
And very good linen it is said to make. The poet Campbell says
in one of his letters, ‘“‘ I have slept in nettle sheets, and dined off
a nettle table-cloth. The stalks of the old nettle are as good as
flax for making cloth, and I have heard my mother say that she
thought nettle-cloth more durable than any other linen.” In other
points the nettle is a most interesting plant. Microscopists know
that it affords beautiful objects for the microscope. Entomologists
value it, for they tell us that it is such a favourite resort of butter-
flies and other insects, that in Britain alone upwards of 30 insects
feed solely on the nettle plant, and it is one of those curious plants
which mark the progress of civilization by following man wherever
he goes.

From Nettles it is an easy change to Brambles ; the name is
supposed to mean anything thorny, and was applied to any thorny
bush, so that Chaucer applies the name to the Dogrose ; it is now
applied solely to the blackberry-bearing bramble. But though I
ean tell you so little of the origin of the name, I can tell you
more of the origin of the plant, as the legend is pleasantly told by
Waterton.

“ The cormorant was once a wool merchant. He entered into
partnership with the bramble and the bat, and they freighted a
large ship with wool. She was wrecked, and the firm became
bankrupt. Since that disaster the bat skulks about till midnight

15

to avoid his creditors ; the cormorant is for ever diving into the
deep to discover his foundered vessel, while the bramble seizes hold
of every passing sheep, to make up his loss by stealing the wool.”
We can scarcely mention a legend of a flower without being at
once reminded of the well-known pretty legend of the Forget-me-not.
You all know the legend, how the German knight walked with his
lady-love, and was bidden by her to fetch from the island in the
middle of the river the bright little flower :—how he gallantly swam
and secured his prize, and returned again with too little strength
to regain the shore, but with enough to throw the flowers on the
bank, with his dying words “forget-me-not.” It is a pretty,
romantic legend—but it is not an English one, and many of you
will be surprised to hear that it has not been known in England
for much more than 40 years, when it was told by Mills in his
history of chivalry. The story at once became popular, and the
little flower was made to take the name in England, which it had
long borne in Germany and Denmark, and to lose its old English
name of ‘“ Mouse-ear,’ this name being the exact translation
of the pretty Greek name woowrs given to it 1800 years ago by
Dioscorides, and which it still bears as its botanic name. Yet the
name ‘‘ Forget-me-not” is a genuine old English name, but was
applied to very different plants. The little Blue Speedwell was so
called, and still, I believe, in some parts bears the name, but it
was more anciently applied to a very different plant, and for a very
different and unromantic reason. It was the name of the plant we
now call the Ground Pine (Ajuga chamepitys ), a plant of no great
beauty—not.in our Bath flora, but not uncommon in the chalk
districts, and it was called forget-me-not, from its unpleasant taste,
which is not only unpleasant but long-enduring, You may
remember a similar idea in Shakespeare where he makes Ophelia

say,
There’s rosemary, that’s for remembrance,
I pray you, love, remember.

Rosemary being emblematic of remembrance on account of its
long-enduring taste and smell. It is rather curious, as some of
you may remember, that a few years ago our friend, Mr. Punch,
suggested the same name, and for the same reason, as a pleasant
ladylike name for the Onion, I may remark in passing that onion

16

is in everything but the spelling nothing but the French Ognon,
a bulb, being the bulb par excellence ; the French name being
however derived from the Latin unio, or singleness, on account
of the peculiarity of the onion always being a single bulb, and not
throwing off offsets, as most other bulbs do.

Let us turn to a pleasanter plant. You remember Shakespeare’s
lines—

‘Yet marked I where the bolt of Cupid fell,

It fell upon a little western flower,

Before milk white, now purple with love’s wound,

And maidens call it love-in-idleness.’

M.N.D., Act 2, Scene 2.

Love-in-idleness is the Pansy or Heart’s-ease, and it is worth
while to stop with it, because I believe there is no British plant
that has so many names ; it was evidently at all times a great
favourite. I will read you some of the names, Love in idle, «e.,
in vain, Tickle my fancy, Kiss me ere I rise, Jump up and kiss me,
_ Kiss me at the garden gate, Pink of my John, Herb Trinity, Three
faces under a hood, Flame-flower, and many other. Pansy is
simply the French pensée. It is, however, an old English name.
«‘ There’s Pansies, that’s for thoughts,” said Ophelia.

I will now take you to some more prosaic plants. “Oats” is the
same word as eat, and takes us to the time when oats were the
great staple of our fathers’ food. ‘‘ Wheat” is the white grained plant,
in contrast to rye and black oats. ‘ Barley” is the beer plant, being
probably at all times the chief use to which barley has been put,
while “‘ Clover” comes to us through one or two northern languages
from the Latin clava, a club, and still is the clubs of our packs of
cards. We have the figure of the clover on our cards, the French
have the name too, tréfle.

The noble Foxglove has nothing to do with foxes, but is the
glove of the folks or fairies, and bears a name with a similar
meaning in almost all languages ; in Scotland, however, it bears the
more gloomy names of “ bloody fingers,” and ‘dead man’s bells.”
This, and the little fairy flax which you will find on your downs
round Bath, are the only plants that I know that record the once
popular fairies. In some places, however, the beautiful little red

17

fungus, growing on dead sticks, like cups of coral (the peziza coccinea),
are called fairy cups. And of those that record evil spirits the
only one that still keeps its name is the “ Devil’s-bit Scabious.”
Many of you probably know the flower, a bright blue flower, with
a root that looks as if it had been broken or bitten off, and so it
has, if we can believe the legend, which tells us that the root will
cure all diseases, and that the devil, out of his great malice, grudges
mankind such a valuable medicine, and bites it off. It is rather
provoking to have to add, on the good authority of Sir James
Smith, that “unhappily the malice has been so successful that no
virtue can now be found in the remainder of the root or herb.”

And this reminds me that it is scarcely possible, in speaking of
the old English names of plants, to avoid saying something of the
wonderful medical qualities which the old herbals attribute to the
various plants, because it is from these old herbals that we get much
of our knowledge of the old names, I must not let myself be drawn
away into this part of the subject, interesting and amusing as it
is, but I cannot resist calling the attention of the walking members
of our Club to one very common plant, which may be of use to them
in their walks. This is the Ladies’ Bedstraw, a common wayside
weed, of which the derivation is not very clear, though the “ ladies”
no doubt shows it had some reference to “Our Lady,” “Notre
Dame,” “The Virgin Mary.” But its medical qualities are very great
among the old herbalists, who tell us that among its other virtues
“ its flowers put into salad oil, and set 40 days in the sun, afford a
“good ointment to anoint the feet of weary travellers, whose
“fatigue it quite takes off."—Short. This must be a valuable
plant for a walking club.

But the great plant of all others for medical purposes was the
Sage, a name that has nothing to do with wisdom, but comes to
us through the French from its Latin name, salvia. It was the
heal-all of our forefathers, who had a well-known Latin verse in
its praise,

Cur moriatur homo, cui salvia crescit in horto ?
To which the answer was

Contra vim mortis non est medicamen in hortis,

18

Of which lines I will offer you the rough translation—
Need that man fear death’s fatal rage
Whose garden yields the wholesome sage ?
Yes, for against death’s mighty power
No safety lies in herb or flower.

The names of many of our fruits are very curious. “Apple” is a
word of which no one has yet been able to find the origin, or
meaning ; all that the learned can tell us is that the fruit has the
same name in all the northern languages. ‘“ Pear” comes, but not
directly, from the Latin pyrus. ‘“ Apricot” also comes to us from the
Latin preecox or precoquus, but before it has arrived at “apricot” it
has gone through many changes, not only in its passage through
Italy, Spain, and France, but more especially as it went through
Arabia. The Peach, which is the malum persicum, or Persian
apple, goes through almost the same changes, and it is very
remarkable that both these fruits, which are indigenous to Persia
and Armenia, should have taken the Latin names and corrupted
them, instead of giving to the Latins their proper indigenous
names, if they had any.

“Strawberry,” ‘Gooseberry,” “Raspberry ” have never been satis-
factorily explained ; the “berry” is easy enough, but of the-“‘straw,”

the “goose,” and the “‘rasp,” we can only say with certainty that they
have no connection with straw, geese, and rasps (7.e. files), and most
probably the strawberry is the berry that is strewn upon the
ground, lies prostrate ; and the gooseberry comes from its Dutch
name, which signifies cross-berry, from the three thorns which
take the form of a cross. This is Dr. Prior’s interpretation, and he
is at present our safest authority on the subject.

The “Currant” is a clear corruption from “ Corinth,” as it was
supposed to be the same as the little Corinthian grape, which we
still call in grocers’ language currants, though they are in fact
more properly raisins.

“Nut” does not come to us from the Latin nux, but from an older
word signifying anything hard and round. We have the same
word in “knot” or ‘‘ knob,” and it is most likely that the Latin nu«
comes from the same root.

But I must return to flowers, and what is more pretty than the

5
,

19

Harebell or Blue-bell? These are the same plants in Scotland, and
the name is given to the delicate little blue campanula, which you
will find plentifully on your downs, sometimes with the flowers
pure white. They are also the same plants in England, but the
name is given to the wild hyacinth, and always has been so, at
least it was so in Shakespeare’s time.
With fairest flowers

While summer lasts, and I live here, Fidele,

I’ll sweeten thy sad grave—thou shall not lack

The flower that’s like thy face, pale primrose, nor

The azured harebell, like thy veins.—Cymbeline,
And another old poet says—

The harebell for her stainless azured hue

Claims to be worn of none but who are true.—Brown.
while the old herbalist Gerard calls it the blue harebell or
English hyacinth.

Let me call to your remembrance, one of the prettiest word-
pictures in “ Walton’s Angler,” for the sake of one or two old
plant-names in it. “I could sit quietly,and looking on the water see
some fishes sport themselves in the silver stream, others leaping at
flies of several shapes and colours ; looking on the hills I could
behold them spotted with woods and groves ; looking down the
meadows I could see here a boy gathering lilies and lady-smocks,
and there a girl cropping culverkeys and cowslips.” ‘“Lady-smocks”
are the same plants that our children now call cuckoo flowers, but
“culverkeys” are, and always have been, a puzzle. I know of only

. one other author that uses the word, and that is J. Dennys, a

poet of no mean powers, quoted by Walton, and whom we may

_ claim as a local poet, for he lived at Pucklechurch, and Bitton, in

the latter part of the sixteenth century. In his “Secrets of
Angling” (one of the rarest books in the English language, only
four or five copies being known to exist), he says—

So I the fields and meadows green may view,

And daily by fresh rivers walk at will,

Among the dasies and the violets blue,

Red hyacinth and purple daffodil,

Purple narcissus like the morning rays,

Pale gander-grass and azure culyer-keys.

20

The old herbalist Dodoens says at once that culverkeys is the
Columbine, and so we should at once suppose from the analogy of
the word ; ‘‘columbine” means the ‘“‘dove-plant,” and ‘“‘culverkeys” the
same. “Culver” is the old English for “dove,” a dove-cot used to be
called a “culverhouse,” and the medisval carpenter spoke of a
culver-tailed instead of a dove-tailed joint. But as the columbine
does not grow in meadows, and is a very doubtful British plant, it
is supposed that Walton must have meant some other plant,
perhaps the common meadow orchis. I think it, however, most
probable, that Dennys simply introduced the name as a pretty
poetical name, and that Walton copied it from him.

Gander-grass in the same line is the weed that grows so
commonly by every woodside with white leaves, which we now call
goose weed or silver weed.

There is another plant much named in poetry, the Eglantine,
about which I might find you many a passage in the old poets, I
will, however, only give you one. Herrick says—

From this bleeding hand of mine
Take this sprig of eglantine,

Which, though sweet unto your smell,
Yet the fretful briar will tell,

He who plucks the sweets shall prove
Many thorns to be in love.

Modern poets still use the word, without, I think, always knowing
of what they speak. Ordinary people who speak prose, call it the
sweet-briar.

Shakespeare tells us that “the rose by any other name would smell
as sweet,” but the opinion of all European nations is against him,
“ Rose” in some slightly altered form is its almost universal name.
Greek, Roman, Italian, Spanish, French, German, Dutch, Polish,
English, Welsh, and other northern nations—all coming probably
from one Sanscrit root signifying red. It is the favourite flower of
all poets of all nations, and I cannot resist telling you the legend
of their origin—not the heathen legend which gave them to
Venus, but the Christian legend as told by Sir John Mandeville.

“Between the city and the church of Bethlehem is the field
Floridus, 7.¢. to say, the field flourished ; forasmuch asa fair maiden

21

was blamed with wrong and slandered and doomed to the death,
and to be burnt in that place, to the which she was led, and as the
fire began to burn about her she made her prayers to our Lord,
that alwisely as she was not guilty of that sin, that He would help
her and make it known to all men, of His merciful grace. And
when she had thus said, she entered into the fire, and anon was the
fire quenched and out, and the brands that were then burning
became red rosaries, and the brands that were not kindled became
white rosaries full of roses. And these were the first rosaries and
- roses, both white and red, that ever any man saw, and thus was
the maiden saved by the grace of God.”

There is another plant to which a legend attaches, which has a
more local interest. The Dwarf Elder is not uncommon in our
Bath flora, but is most abundant at Slaughterford, near Chip-
penham, a place where there was once a great victory gained over
the Danes. The plant is called Danewort, and is an evil-smelling
and noxious plant, and the legend tells us that it derived its evil
qualities of all kinds from the Danes, on whose graves it grew 80
luxuriantly.

There are three of our commonest and prettiest flowers that I
must not pass over, because their names, which seem at first so
easy of explanation, have really a totally different meaning to the
one that lies on the surface. I mean Snowdrop, Primrose, and
Pink. “Snowdrop” is not a drop of frozen snow, or an icicle, but it
is the white drop, the word “drop” being the old English word for
the pendants which the ladies wore either as earrings or brooches.
“Primrose” is not the “first rose” of the year. No one could ever have
likened it to a rose. It is a corruption of the French and Italian
words, meaning the first spring flower, and only in modern times
has the name been attached to our primrose. In all old books, and
on the continent, where the primrose is very rare, the name belongs
to the daisy.

« Pink” is not so named for its colour ; it comes by an easy and
well ascertained course from “Pentecost,” and is in fact the Whit-
suntide gillyflower of our ancestors ; and speaking of the Pink I
should tell you that its near relation, the Carnation, is not so named
for its colour; it is a corruption from its old name “ Coronation,”

22

which name it had, because it was a favourite flower in making
garlands, corone.

Most of you are aware that “Jerusalem Artichokes” are explained
to be a corruption from the Italian girasole, or sun-flower, of which
the plant is a species, while by a still further corruption the soup
made from the root is called Soup Palestine. The Italian explana-
tion is very plausible and ingenious, but it is an open question
whether it is true ; whether it is not even more corrupt than the
original mistake, an explanation of ignotum per ignotius. When
we find that the plant was introduced in 1617, and that Lord
Bacon and Parkinson at the time of its introduction, and Dr.
Johnson more than a century later, speak of it as “ Artichokes of
Jerusalem,” it is at least probable that that was the original name,
the title of Jerusalem being simply given, as we know the title
was often given, to show that it came froma distant land. It is
not easy to see how an Italian name should have been given to a
plant that came to us from Brazil through Canada.

When we consider that we are indebted to the medizval clergy
for many of our plant names, it seems strange that so very few
bear names that can in any way be called religious, or connected
with the sacred services. It seems indeed very likely, if not
certain, that the plants which have the names of the lady or
“maiden” were connected with the Virgin Mary, either as being
dedicated to her, or so named because they flowered at one or
other of her festivals, and were probably used for the adornment
of the churches at these seasons. But with this exception there
are very few that bear the names of saints, and I can indeed only
find one that still holds its ground, the 8. John’s Wort, which
flowers at the time of 8. John’s Day or Midsummer. There is one
other which bears a Saint’s name, but much hidden, the Samphire,
which from its growing on the rocks, and from the connection
between “rock” and Peter, was no doubt dedicated to S. Peter,
and obtained the name of Saint Pierre corrupted to samphire.
Most of you know the plant as the one named by Shakespeare,
** Half way down hangs one that gathers samphire,” and I think
most people’s knowledge of the plant goes no farther. But I am
induced to mention the plant, because there is a story connected

23

with it which shows how botanical knowledge, like all other
knowledge, may be of great service even where least expected.
Many years ago a ship was wrecked on the Sussex coast, and a
small party were left on a rock not far from the land. To their
horror they found the sea rising higher and higher, and threatening
before long to cover their place of refuge. They proposed to try
and swim for land, and would have done so, but just as they were
preparing for it, an officer saw a plant of samphire, and told them
they might stay, and trust to that little plant, that the sea would
rise no farther, for the samphire, though always growing within the
spray of the sea, never grows where the sea could actually touch it.
They believed him, and were saved.

We cannot dismiss plants with religious associations without
mentioning two, the Shamrock and the Passion Flower, for there is
no reason to doubt the legends that they both have borne a useful
part in missionary labours. The shamrock is so called from a true
Irish word signifying “holy trefoil.” It is not, however, quite so
certain to what plant the name rightly belongs. The only two
plants, however, that now dispute the claim are the white clover,
and the wood sorrel, and the balance is in favour of the white
clover. The passion flower is so called from its being supposed to
bear all the emblems of our Lord’s passion. It is a Brazilian plant
first found by the Jesuit missionaries, and we can well understand
their joy on finding a flower which, besides its real beauty, bore (to
them at least) a visible picture of what was most dear to them ;
and we can pardon them if they let their fancy see many wonders
in it, which to us sitting comfortably at home, are not visible.
The whole plant was emblematical to them, and was thus explained.
“The leaves represented the spear which pierced our Saviour’s
side ; the tendrils, the cords which bound His hands, or the stripes
with which He was scourged ; the ten petals, the ten apostles who
deserted him; the pillar in the centre of the flower, the cross or
the pillar to which He was bound ; the stamina, the hammers ; the
styles, the nails; the inner circle around the central pillar, the
crown of thorns; the radius round it, the nimbus of glory ; the
white in the flower is an emblem of purity, the blue, a type of
Heaven (Oakley).” The picture of it sent home fully bore out the

24

description, as you will see from one which I have traced from
Parkinson. We cannot now see all that those missionaries saw,
but the name they gave the flower still remains.

It is very curious to note from how many different sources
we have derived our plant names. It is still more curious to note
how very few we have that bear the genuine English names.
Among our common English plants we have a large number of
names which are true Greek, or Greek so little Anglicised that the
Greek name is quite clear. For these we are no doubt indebted
to the medizval monks, who tried hard and very often very
successfully to identify the Greek names of plants with their
English representatives ; and if they were not always successful
in this identification, they did drive out the old English names,
which were very loosely given, and very generally to different
plants in different parts of England. Among such names I will
just mention these—crocus, cyclamen, orchis, bugloss, hyacinth,
narcissus, anemone (which by the way you must call avenwmm,
if you wish to be very pure in your Greek), amaranth, beet, bryony,
celandine, cypress, hellebore, lichen, melon, polyanthus, polypody,
asparagus, squill, sycamore, thyme, and many others.

In the same way we have true Latin names in rose, columbine,
saxifrage, laurel, lily, lupin, pine, violet, vine, and others.

We have true French names in mignonette, dandelion, osier, and
pansy, and true Italian in belladonna lily. We have Arabian and
Persian in artichoke, ceterach fern, lilac, and saffron, and we have
American Indian names in potato, tobacco, tomato, and yucca.
We may, indeed, congratulate ourselves that we have not more
names from that source—the American Indian. We have adopted
some of the native names, but they are not yet common names
with us nor likely to be so, You will agree with me when I read
to you one name which our botanists have adopted, but which
indeed I cannot read, but must spell to you—iztactepotzacuxochitl-
icohueyo.

Plant names, like all other words, often go through a strange
course of manufacture. I will mention two instances. There is
a plant called Stavesacre, of the Larkspur tribe, a well-known old
medicine, which I believe still holds its place in our pharmacopoeia.

25

When I first heard the name I was struck with its thoroughly
English ring ; yet it has not a syllable of English in it. “Staves-
acre” is a corruption of its Latin name delphinium staphisagria, and
that again is the Latinized corruption of its Greek name acragus
aypiec, a wild raisin.

For the other instance I will relate to you how I was myself a
witness to the manufacture of a name. You know the sweet
scented Daphne Mezereon, now in flower in most cottage gardens.
When I lived in Derbyshire I was admiring a fine plant of it ina
cottage garden, and asked the old woman what she called it,
thinking it not at all likely that she would have the botanical
name for it, but she was ready with her answer. “ We call it the
mysterious plant, sir, because its flowers come out before its leaves.”
It was a curious instance of first corrupting a name from “mezereon”
to “‘mysterious,” and then giving a good reason for the corruption,
and was a good lesson to me how very little you can trust to
similarity of sound in enquiring into the derivation of words. The
usual name for the shrub in these parts is the “Paradise plant.”

But I have now, I think, come to the end of my tether, though not
by any means to the end of my subject. It is indeed a very large,
I might almost say an endless subject. There is not a single
English name of a plant, which will not give you some instruction
or some pleasant puzzle, or suggest some pretty history, poetry, or
legend. But I have tried to confine myself to those plants only
with which I should suppose all of you are more or less acquainted,
and instead of confining myself, as the title of my paper might
perhaps lead you to suppose, to a bare list of the common English
names of plants, I have tried to relieve what would then be a
very dry and hard business, by telling you something of the
poetry and legend which my own study among the flowers has
brought to my knowledge. I know how Tennyson has spoken of
the Baronet’s garden, in which

Flowers of all climes, and lovelier a their names
Grew side by side.

But it has been my endeavour this evening to show you that though
I feel deeply, and would have you feel too, how lovely are all flowers
as they come fresh from the hands of the great Creator, yet that

26

one of the works which man has done for them, the naming of
them, has not been altogether unlovely ; that many of the names
which man has given them, and Englishmen have given in parti-
cular, have in them much of interest—I think I am not wrong in
adding, much of beauty too.

Part 2.—Read February 9th, 1870.

When I had the pleasure of reading to you a paper last year on
this subject, I was rash enough to say in my concluding remarks,
' that though I had got to the end of my tether, I had not by any
means exhausted my subject, and I am now called upon to prove
my words true, by trying to engage your attention for a short
time, while I tell you something more of the history, etymology,
or poetry of the common English names of plants.

Some of you will recollect that in the remarks which our
President then made after the reading of the paper, he kindly
filled up some of the vacant places I had left, and especially called
your attention to the plant we call Veronica. I cannot do better
than act upon his suggestion, and tell you something of the curious
history of the names of this plant. The most usual account given
is that it is so called from being dedicated to 8. Veronica. The
legend of this Saint is that as our Lord was on His way to
crucifixion, and fainting with His burden, a woman in the crowd
tenderly wiped His face with her handkerchief, and that the like-
ness of His face being at once impressed on it, and there remaining,
she obtained the name of Veronica, or true likeness. I mention
the legend because those who derive the name of the plant from
the name of the Saint profess to see the likeness of a human face
in some of the species. This I have never been able to see myself,
but I certainly think it not unlikely that the name was derived
from the Saint, and probably from the plant being in flower on the
day of her festival (Feb. 19). The name was given in the middle
ages, and cannot be traced back further. There are, however,
many other derivations for the name. Linneus supposed it to
come from Vetonica, ¢.¢., the plant of the Vetones, a district of Spain.

27

This derivation may be the true one, but as we know that to be
the origin of the name Betony, it seems unlikely that the same
name, even though slightly changed, should have been given to
two such different plants. Another derivation is from ver, the
spring, but that takes no account of the three last syllables ; another
' is from the two Greek words @epw and wxn, to bring victory, on
account of the supposed powerful medicinal qualities of the plant. ;
while a further account states that it was given by Commerson the
botanist, who discovered a vast number of plants in the last
century, and named them after friends, and this he named after
his friend Verron. I can but put these different_derivations before
you, and leave the choice to you. However derived, the Latin name
has now almost entirely superseded the pretty old English name of
Speedwell. Of the origin of this name there can be little doubt,
though even here there is more than one derivation to be offered to
you. Itis supposed by some to be so named from its excellent healing
qualities, but Dr. Prior’s derivation seems the best. He says it is
so named from its blossoms falling off and flying away as soon as
it is gathered, “ speedwell” being equivalent to “ farewell,” “ good-
bye,” and a common form of valediction in old times. We keep
the word in the old proverb, “welcome the coming, speed the parting
guest,” which does not at all mean “hasten him away.”

Before we leave the Speedwells, I must stop with one member of
the family, the Brooklime. This is a water plant with blue flowers,
which you will recollect. as generally found growing with water-
cresses, with which it is often confounded ; fortunately though not
as palatable as the watercress it is quite harmless. But it is for
its English and botanical names that I call your attention to it.

Its English name, Brooklime, is given to it from its growing in
the lime or mud of brooks, while its Latin name, Becca-
bunga, has the same meaning; “ becca” being the German: for
brook, and a word that we still retain in some parts of England
for a brook, under the form of beck, and in the illustrious surname
of Beckett, or little brook.

In the old herbalists we meet with constant mention of Colewort.
Wort is the Saxon for plant, and Coleworts are plants of which the
stalk, cawlis, is eaten. The word is especially restricted to those

28

members of the Cabbage family, of which we eat the stalks, in
distinction to those of the same family, of which we eat the
roots, as the turnip. We no longer talk of Coleworts, but the
name survives in the Kohl Rabbi a species of cabbage, Seakale and
Cauliflower. (It does not, as you might suppose, survive in Bore-
cole or Broccoli, which come at once from the Italian word Broccolo,
a small sprout). The word cauliflower, formerly Cole-flory or
flowery, is very expressive of the only one of the Coleworts, of
which we eat the unopened flower, and indeed almost the only
plant of which we eat the flowers. I can only call to mind
three other plants, the Artichoke, the Caper, and the Fig. Of
the artichoke I will only say that the name has nothing to
do with choking, as is commonly supposed, but comes from
an Arabic word of uncertain meaning ; the plant itself and
the name having been first introduced into Europe by the Moors
of Spain. The capers we eat in caper sauce are not seeds, but the
unopened buds of a most beautiful flower, and the ripe figs are
almost the same, though not exactly the bud. The fig as we eat it
is the fleshy receptacle that contains a multitude of small flowers,
which never see the light, yet come to perfection. If you want
to know how many flowers a fig really contains, count the seeds
and then double them. For the flowers are of two sorts ; fertile
flowers containing one pistil which ends in a seed; unfertile ones
simply containing five stamens. These stamens and pistils are the
threads which you see inside a ripe fig when you open it. The
names “caper” and “fig” are simply the English forms of their
Latin names capparis and ficus.

The Sunflower is popularly supposed to derive its name from

constantly turning its face to the sun, and poets have told us how
The sunflower turns on her god when he sets
The same look which she did when he rose!

Many flowers are thus constant to the sun, but the sunflower is not
among the constant ones ; it as often is found turning its back on
the sun as its face. The pretty little Sun-rose or Rock-rose, which
you find abundantly on your downs no doubt gets its name from
constantly facing the sun, and the Heliotrope, which is simply the
Greek for twrnsole, is named for the same reason, while the sun-

29

flower is so named from its strong likeness to the conventional and
heraldic representations of the sun in its glory.

There are two plants closely connected with the education of
youth which deserve a passing notice. The first is the Birch.
* The word “birch” is the same word as bark, meaning first the rind of
a tree, and then a barque or boat, from which we also get our word
barge, and it carries us back to the time when the birch was one
of the most useful of trees, as it still is in most northern countries,
where it grows at a higher degree of Jatitude than any other tree.
Its bark was especially useful, being used for cordage and matting
and roofing, while the tree itself formed the early British canoes,
as it still forms the canoes of the North American Indians, for
which from its lightness it is well suited. We still admire its
graceful beauty and welcome its pleasant odour on our Russia-
leather-bound books, but we have ceased to make beer from its
young shoots, and hold it altogether in as low repute, as the old
herbalist Turner, who says, “I have not red of any vertue it hath
in physik ; howebeit it serveth for many good uses, and for none
better than for betyinge of stubborn boys, that either lye or will
not learn.”* So much for the birch ; the other plant I alluded to
is the Fennel. This name comes from its Latin name feniculum,
but whether that comes from fenum, hay, from its supposed hay-
like smell, or from fous, interest, from its rapid increase, ety-
mologists cannot tell us for certain. But in the South of Europe
the name of the giant fennel was Ferula, and the light dried stalks
of the fennel were used by the Roman schoolmasters as rods, and
so the word ferule was adopted into the English language for an
instrument of correction, as unlike a fennel rod as could well be
devised. Both the name and the instrument are now happily
exploded, but only recently ; for many of you, like myself, have
probably unpleasant recollections of it as a help in learning the
Latin grammar.

Let us turn to a pleasanter part of the subject. Of all English
plants there have been few in such constant favour as the Daffodil.
Whether known by its classical name of Narcissus, or by its more

* Quoted from Turner in Johnston.

30

popular names of Daffodil, Daffadowndilly, and Jonquil. The name
of “‘narcissus” it gets from being supposed to be the same as the
plant so named by Greeks first and Romans afterwards. It is a
question whether the plants are the same, and I believe most
authors think they are not, but I have never been able to see good
reasons for their doubts. The name jonquil comes corrupted
through the French, from juncifolius, or “ rush-leaved,” and is
properly restricted to those species of the family which have rushy
leaves. Daffodil is commonly said to be a corruption of Asphodel,
with which plant it was confused ; but Lady Wilkinson says very
positively that “it is simply the old English word, ‘ affodyle,’ which
signifies that which cometh early.” “ Daffadowndilly” again is
generally supposed to be but a playful corruption of daffodil, but
Dr. Prior argues (and he is a very reliable authority) that it is
rather a corruption of “saffron lily.” I can but put these different
theories before you, with the one remark that you may, from such a
common instance, see something of the ‘difficulty and uncertainty
that surround the history of our plant names. But we must not
dismiss the flower at once, with nothing but a dry account of its
name. It was the favourite flower of our ancestors as a garden
flower, and especially as the flower for making garlands, a custom
very much more common than it is now. It was also the
favourite of all English poets, from Shakespeare to our own time.
Shakespeare seems to have had an especial affection for the flower.
Let me give you only two short instances.

When daffodils begin to peer

With heigh! the doxy o’er the dale,

Why then comes on the sweet of the year.
So sings Autolycus in the “ Winter’s Tale,” while Perdita in the

same play most prettily offers us
Daffodils
That come before the swallow dares, and take
The winds of March with beauty.

Coming to our own times we meet with Keats's beautiful lines—

A thing of beauty is a joy for ever,
Its loveliness increases, it will never,
Pass into nothingness,

31

While for his example of such a thing of beauty, he says—
And such are daffodils,
With the green world they live in.
The flower is such a favourite of mine, both for its simple beauty,
its botanical interest and difficulties, and its poetical history, that
I cannot yet dismiss it till I have read to you one short poem on
them. It will not weary you to hear it, even though you know it
well, The poem is Herrick’s, and one of his prettiest.
Fair daffodils, we weep to see
You haste away so soon ;
As yet the early rising sun
Has not attained his moon :
Stay, stay,
Until the hastening day
Has run
But to the even-song ;
And, having prayed together, we
Will go with you along.
We have short time to stay as you,
We have as short a spring,
As quick a growth to meet decay
As you or anything.
We die
As your hours do, and dry
Away,

Like to the summer’s rain,
Or as the pearls of morning dew,
Ne’er to be found again.

As a companion spring flower to the daffodil take the Anemone,
not as it grows in great variety of beautiful colours in your gardens,
but rather as it grows in our woods ; for there are few prettier
sights in spring than the rich undergrowth of a wood, spangled
over with the bright stars of the wood anemone. Its English
name is “wind flower,” a name that it evidently gets from its
Greek name a»ezwvn, and which it still keeps in our cottage
gardens, but which it is’not easy to explain. Pliny said that it
never opens but when the wind is blowing, which an English poet
copies in speaking of

The coy anemone, that ne’er uncloses
Her lips, until they’re blown on by the wind ;

32

but I believe this is not borne out by actual observation. And in
your woods, growing with the wild anemones, you will find a
curious though not a brilliant flower, which will be certain to take
your attention, This is the Herb Paris, a small plant with four
leaves of one size, exactly arranged in a regular whorl, and four
sepals and four petals in the same regular order. You may at
first wonder why so fine a name as Paris has been given to it, but
as you note the regular arrangement of all its parts, you will
acknowledge that the etymology is right which says it is herba
paris—the herb of equal parts. The old English name is Herb
Truelove, from the arrangement of its leaves in the conventional
form of a lover’s knot. It is the English representative of a family
chiefly confined to North America, of which all the species have
the same regular arrangement of the parts, but they are in threes,
and not, as our plant, in fours, so that the plants are called
Trillium, of the family Trilliacee.

Let us leave the woods for the open heath, where we find the
Heath, Ling, Furze, Whin, and Gorse. They are favourite plants
with all, ay giving perhaps more distinct colour to our more barren
hill sides than any plants in the British Flora, and giving them a
colour too which no other part of the world can equal, if we only
believe the excellent testimony of Mr. Wallace, the traveller in the
Malayan Archipelago, who tells us that “during twelve years
spent amid the grandest tropical vegetation, I have seen nothing
comparable to the effect produced on our (English) landscapes by
gorse, broom, heather, wild hyacinths, hawthorn, purple orchises,
and buttercups.” Linneus was of the same opinion, for it is
recorded of him that when in England he saw for the first time a
gorse bush in full flower, he fell on his knees and gave thanks for
being spared to see the most beautiful object in creation. The
heath is not only extremely beautiful, but it is very interesting
from the position it occupies in the geography of plants. The
heath tribe occupies a very long but very narrow line, ranging
from Iceland, through the British Islands, along the western coast
of Europe and Africa, till it reaches the Cape of Good Hope, where
it is most abundant. It is entirely absent from the New World,
except in one small spot of Labrador, where it was found for the

33

first time last year. I dwell on these points in connection with
heath, furze, whin, or gorse, because of the names themselves I
can give no account. They are very ancient, and all that the
etymologists can tell us about them is that they are very obscure.

Many plants get their names from the time of year in which
they flower. Thus we have the Christmas rose, the Lent lily, the
Pasque, or Easter flower, the Michaelmas daisy, the Cuckooflower,
the flowers named after the Saints, as S, John’s wort, 8. Peter's
wort, S. James’s wort ; but we have only one flower that bears the
name of a month, the beautiful May. Our ancestors always spoke
of the Mayflower, never simply the May as we do, and they never
applied the name to the tree as we do; that was always the haw-
thorn, a tree much loved of our old poets, and which they especially
appropriated to languishing shepherds who are always supposed to

tell their tale,
Under the hawthorn in the dale.
And you may remember poor Henry VI., longing for such a life:
Gives not the hawthorn bush a sweeter shade
To shepherds, looking on their silly sheep,
Than doth a rich embroidered canopy
To kings that fear their subjects treachery ?
Oh yes, it doth, a thousand fold it doth.
But besides its poetical interest the name itself is interesting, for
the “haw” is the same word as “hedge,” and so shows the great
antiquity of this plant for English hedges. In the northern
countries “haws” are still called ‘haigs,” but whether hawthorn
was first applied to the fruit or the hedge ; whether the hedge was
so called because it was made of the thorn-tree that bears the
haws; or whether the fruit was so named because it was borne on
the hedge-tree, is a point on which the learned differ, and I cannot
decide.

Other plants again are named from the places in which they
grow. Of this we have instances in the Cheddar Pink, confined to
Cheddar, in Great Britain, and found very sparingly in other parts
of Europe; the Deptford Pink ; the Canterbury and Coventry
Bells, which, however, are not confined to Canterbury or
Coventry ; the Cornish Moneywort, chiefly confined to Cornwall,

)

34

but found sparingly in some other south western counties; the
Welsh Poppy, found chiefly in Wales, but found also in other
western parts, and rather abundant at Cheddar; French beans,
which don’t come from France, but from the East Indies, and are
called ‘ French” to signify simply their foreign origin, and French
Asparagus, only so called in the Bath Market, and growing abun-
dantly in our neighbourhood. The London Rocket gains its name
from the remarkable, but well recorded fact, that though a rare
plant, it appeared in great abundance in the ruined streets of
London after the Great Fire. Its wandering habits are very
remarkable. It has quite disappeared from London and the neigh-
bourhood, and may now be said to be confined to Berwick-on-
Tweed, and there only to the one spot where the heaps of manure
are collected from the streets. This manure is afterwards dis-
tributed on fields in the neighbourhood, yet the Rocket never comes
up on them. It once appeared in great abundance on an embank-
ment of the North British Railway, made from one of these fields,
but in four or five years it disappeared. (Johnston’s Botany of
Eastern Border).

A large number of plants are named from animals. From the
poultry yard we get Chickweed (supposed to be good to feed
chickens on), Henbane (supposed to have some connection with
“hen,” but this is very doubtful), Cockscomb, and Hen-and-Chicken
Daisy. These two last names explain themselves, but the plants
are worth a minute’s observation. The Cockscomb, such a
favourite with many gardeners, has a large scarlet fleshy part,
which most people admire as the flower. It is, however, only the
flower-stalk ; the flowers themselves are very small, inconspicuous,
and very numerous, clustering round under this large cockscomb.
The Hen-and-chicken Daisy is one of our most favourite cottage
plants ; and it has a very great botanical interest. Many of you will
know that there is no fact in Botany more well-established than
that all the parts of a plant are interchangeable, and that especially
all the parts of a plant, the root, stem, flower-stalks, thorns,
flowers, and even seeds, are only different developments of the leaf,
or the leaf presented in different shapes. Now the Hen-and-chicken
Daisy gives us a very curious proof of this, If you examine a

35

common daisy, you find beneath the flower a collection of small
leaves overlapping one another; these are called bracts, and the
chicken in the hen-and-chicken daisy are nothing but the bracts
taking for the time the form of flowers. If the plant is placed in
ungenial soil or is otherwise neglected, the chickens disappear, and
become again bracts.

With respect to plants named from other animals they are very
numerous, and in some instances they are puzzles. Many are very
simple, being derived from the resemblance or fancied resemblance
to parts of animals, as the Colt’s-foot, the Adder’s-tongue, the
Hound’s-tongue, the Hart’s-tongue, the Bear’s-ear or Auricula, the
Hare’s-ear, the Ox-eye. Cow-slip and Ox-slip no doubt also come
from cow and ox, but the meaning is not so clear. We are helped
in the interpretation of a great many others named from animals
in a very unexpected way. The same process of giving rough and
ready names to plants that our ancestors had recourse to is now
being carried on in our colonies) The North American and
Canadian, the Australian and the Cape floras are full of curious
English names, given to plants before they get their scientific
arrangement, and among these area great number named after
different animals. Why they are so named I can best tell you in
the words of Professor Seeman—‘ How many vernacular names
are formed,” he says, “is illustrated when a people exchange one
country for another. The immigrant arrives at his new home full
of high expectation ; he not only hopes to have left behind all the
discomforts of his native land, but also trusts to meet again objects
which from childhood have been dear to him. Every thing is
examined ; the stones, the plants, the animals, the trees under
the shade of which he used to sit, the fruits which in his boyish
days he gathered, are sought for. At last they are found, but lo!
on closer examination they turn out to be similar but not identical.
He is disappointed and his disappointment is for ever recorded in
such names as bear the prefixes of ‘hogs,’ ‘ devils,’ ‘dogs,’ and
others, indicative of inferiority or contempt.” (Seeman, Journal
of Botany, Nov., 1869). I believe this is the true account of such
names as Horse-chesnut, Horse-bean, Horse-radish, Horse-mint,
Horse-parsley, Dog-rose, Dog-violet, Cow-wheat, Cow-parsnip, Hog-

36

fennel, &c. They simply imply inferiority, not that they are
(though they may be in some cases) the food of the animals whose
names they bear.

We have very few plants named after men ; I mean after the
male sex. We have Boy’s Love, and Lad’s Love, which, curiously
enough, is also called Old Man; we have Old Man’s Beard, and
Bachelor’s Buttons ; and from men’s names we have Herb Robert,
Sweet William, Herb Good Harry, and one other, which you will
scarcely recognize as a man’s name—Cudbear. This is a lichen,
growing in the north of England, and much used in the preparation
of purple dyes ; and there is full proof that it was so named from
Mr. Cuthbert Gordon, who first discovered its uses as a dye.

But with the female sex it is different. The ladies, as is only
right and proper, have had many a pretty flower named after them.
Not to mention such names as Virgin’s Bower, and plants named
after Venus, of which the origin is doubtful and disputed, we have
the pretty ‘“‘Maiden Hair Fern,” the prettiest of all British ferns. We
have another fern which, not content with the maiden’s fair hair,
claims to be the full and perfect lady, and calls herself the Lady
Fern. We have also “ Maiden Hair Grass,” “ Maid’s Hair,” the .
curious orchid called ‘“‘ Lady’s Tresses,” and we have the ‘“ Ladies’
Fingers.” We are very rich, too, in the articles of the lady’s
toilet. We have the “ Lady’s Nightcap” (in the beautiful large
white convolvulus of our hedges), the ‘“‘ Lady’s Comb,” the “ Lady’s
Looking-Glass,” the ‘“Lady’s Laces,” the ‘“Lady’s Garters,” the
“ Lady’s Glove,” the “ Lady’s Mantle,” the ‘Ladies’ Smock,” all
silver white, the “ Lady’s Slipper,” the ‘“Lady’s Signet,” the
“ Lady’s Thimble,” and, to make her quite comfortable, the “‘ Lady’s
Cushion,” on which we will leave her.

And having finished “ the ladies,” I must bring my paper to a
conclusion, as I am warned to do by the length to which it has
reached. I had, indeed, noted many other plant-names that had
something of interest in their history or etymology, but even to
go through them in the briefest and most cursory manner would
take up too much of our time ; and indeed to gallop through them
would be very little satisfaction either to you or me; and to go
into them fully would only weary you in a subject on which I

37

rather wish to try to interest you. With a very few words, there-
fore, I will end.

I know that very many—perhaps some of you—will ask the
common question, “ After all, ‘ what’s in a name,’ especially in a
plant-name?” Many would say there is nothing ; I think there is
a good deal, and that the study of plant-names is one, and not the
least pleasant one, of the many pleasant ways into which the study
of Botany leads us.. Every science is many-sided, and Botany very
especially so. It has its commercial, agricultural, and economical
sides ; it may be studied medically and practically ; it has its
antiquarian, its literary, and its poetical aspect; it has even its
moral and religious aspect ; and it has much to interest the
etymologist. It is to this last point of interest that I have
especially tried again to call your attention this evening. Very -
slightly indeed have I done so, and that purposely. It was very
tempting to have gone further—to have said more on the influence
that our English love of flowers and gardening, and our English
plant-names, have had on English literature and the English
language—to have said something on the way in which our plant-
names have passed into our surnames, and into our names of places
—to have gone even more deeply into the botanical science of
many of the plants that I have picked for you—and especially to
have gone more deeply into the etymological puzzles and diffi-
culties of our plant-names ; but I was warned from entering on
these by-ways, however pleasant they seemed, not only by the
length of time allowed for my paper, but also because I knew very
well, that while I probably might not interest and amuse you in
following them, I should most certainly very soon get out of my
own depth and lose my way.

The Mammalia and Other Remains from Drift Deposits
in the Bath Basin. By Cuarites Moors, F.G.S. Read
March 10, 1869.

In offering some observations on the mammalia and other
remains in the drift deposits of the Bath basin it will be desirable,
so far as possible, to fix certain points—some milestones in our

38

journey backwards from the present time into the dim vista of the
past—so that I may the more readily bring to your knowledge the
changes which have occurred within the limited area of which I
shall have to speak.

When the general observer, without a knowledge of geological
science, looks around in our beautiful district upon what he might
consider our everlasting hills, how impossible is it for him to realize
the different conditions they may have presented, though only in
the yesterday of geological time. To a few of these it is my
purpose to call your attention this evening.

The drift beds and their enclosed remains are deposited in the
basin of Bath, or that part which is occupied by the lower levels of
the city and the adjoining valleys running out of and connected
therewith, As these are in great part surrounded by older rocks,
it may be desirable in the first place to offer a few observations
upon them, more especially as the former are to a considerable
extent derived from the rocks forming the edge of the basin within
which they lie.

The old city of Bath from the earliest historic times to within
the last century, was situated within the basin, though it has in
later times been extending itself in every direction along the
escarpments of the hills.

There are few districts in which within a small radius more
geological variety is presented than around Bath. Beginning with
the oldest beds which are present, we find the carboniferous
limestone at Grammar Rocks, under Lansdown, and at Wick, not
far beyond. The lower coal measures rest upon these at Golden
Valley, Newton and Twerton, and the whole series in the Radstock
basin to the south.

In a paper on the “ Abnormal Conditions of the Secondary
Strata within the Somersetshire Coal Basin,” I have shewn that
great convulsions brought up and distorted the thousands of feet of
these older rocks prior to the deposition of those which follow,
which are nearly horizontal, and rest on the upturned edges of
those below. Evidence of this is shewn not further off than the
Twerton Colliery, where the coal. measures are dipping at a very
steep angle from the direction of Bath, The older carboniferous

39

limestones, dipping at the same angle would therefore approach still
nearer to Bath, and probably, from the fact that they were found in
sinking for coal at Batheaston some years ago, an anticlinal of these
older strata may pass under the city, and if we could remove
the later secondary deposits, their upturned edges, much fissured
and disturbed, would be found not far below. Above these follow
the new red sandstones, to be seen west of the Twerton tunnel, and
they were met with at the point where the hot springs were tapped
a few years back in Kingsmead Street. In this district they are
thin and of comparatively little geological interest. The rhetic
beds, till lately but little known, which come between the new red
sandstone ar 1 the lias follow, and which at my suggestion are now
classed as a separate formation, They may be seen in the rail-
way cuttings of Newbridge Hill and Willsbridge. These are imme-
diately succeeded by the lower lias, which with the above beds
having their outcrops to the west and a slight dip to the east, pass
under Bath, the lower lias being the sub-stratum on which all the
drift and alluvial deposits in the basin have been accumulated.
The beds above the lower lias which form the edge of the basin are
met with in the escarpments of the hills, and are, in ascending
order, the middle lias, the upper lias, the inferior oolite, the fuller’s
earth, and the great oolite.

In the paper before referred to I have shewn that some of the
secondary beds have thinned out very considerably in this part of
the country, and this is the case with the middle and upper lias
and the inferior oolite, Taking the south side of Bath these
formations are found at the base of Beechen Cliff, the latter being
not above 30 feet in thickness instead of 175 as in Gloucester-
shire. These are capped to the summit by the fuller’s earth. The
edges of these formations are now generally much covered by
sub-aerial materials from the higher beds, so that it is seldom they
are well exposed. The middle and upper lias and inferior oolite
continue along the base of the escarpment through the Lyncombe
Valley, and may be met with under the Abbey Cemetery. Asa
general rule the Canal will be found in the retentive clays of the
"upper lias, shewing the discrimination of William Smith, in thus
catching the springs which occur at the junction of these beds with

40

the inferior oolite. If these beds are sought for on the north side
of Bath they will be found at a much higher level ; for instance,
the junction of the upper lias with the inferior oolite would be
about the level of Primrose Hill, Lansdown and Camden Crescents,
and at the Charleombe Waterworks. This is only to be accounted
for by the presence of a fault which passes through the Bath basin,
by which the beds on the south side have been thrown down about
300 feet. The greatest depth in the hill sides above the inferior
oolite is occupied by the fullers’ earth, which in this district is of
considerable thickness, the whole being capped by the great oolite,
which everywhere forms the table land surrounding the Bath basin.
Resting, then, on the lower lias, and surrounded by the other
formations I have enumerated, will be found the deposits to which
I shall next have to refer.

The alluvial beds and post-pliocene gravels are due to the
action of fresh water, and have been deposited in the valleys since
the time when the general physical configuration of the district
was the same as the present, and although I shall show instances
in which some of the derived materials have been brought from
considerable distances, in general they have been washed down
from the higher grounds or from the sides of the valleys upon
which the ancient streams, in much greater volume than those
which now follow their courses, have been operating. The area
within which these drifts are found, and to which my remarks will
be chiefly applied, is the low ground west of Bath—the Bath basin
properly so called—and the valleys immediately running out of it
to the east, including those of Box, and that by way of Limpley
Stoke and Freshford to Bradford.

It is not my intention to say more on any archeological
questions than can be helped, but it is found that historic and
pre-historic times graduate so insensibly one into the other that
they can with difficulty be separated, and it is the aim both of the
archeologist and the geologist to endeavour to arrive at the point
at which these sciences diverge.

In passing backwards then from the present into the past it is
my object to offer some remarks on the physical conditions and
the fauna of the Bath district during

41

Ist. The Historic Period ;
2nd. The Pre-historic Period ;
3rd. The Post-pliocene Period.

Ist. In the historic period I do not approach nearer than
Romano-British or Roman times, and I have included the first period
not only because it affords illustration of the accretion of materials
within some portion of the basin during a given period, but also
from the fact that by a curious circumstance there are preserved
to us some of the testacea and other remains of that time.

In making an excavation for a drain near Sydney Buildings two
stone coffins were discovered about 12 feet under the surface, one
of which contained the well-preserved skeleton of an adult male,
the other that of a younger female. That they were persons of
some importance may be inferred from the circumstance that after
the bodies had been placed in the coffins the latter were filled in
to the surface with pounded crystalline carbonate of lime, which
must have been purposely brought from some mineral district,
the nearest being that of the Mendips, where we know the Romans
had important mineral works. Asa general rule the Roman city
lies at a depth of about 12 feet beneath the present surface, and
in this instance we have these coffins covered up to that depth.
But before this happened and when they were still near the surface,
land shells of the period had found their way through the
interstices of the lids, whilst some small Brachiopoda, corals, and
other fossils derived from the inferior oolite were washed in, and
found in a thin ochreous deposit on the top of the carbonate of
lime.

The shells thus discovered consist of —

Helix rotundata Zonites nitidulus

» hispida » crystallinus

» pulchella Zua lubrica
Clausilia nigricans », allied to ditto
Limax Achatina acicula
Carychium minimum The fry and ova of various
Pupa muscorum shells

Aplysia ?

42

And there were also the teeth and bones of a little mammal allied
to Arvicola.

A Roman coffin was the last place I should have gone to for a
geological collection, but the following fossils were found therein.
The first two have never been met with previously but by myself
in the inferior oolite of Dundry.

Thecidium granulosum, Moore Cristellaria rotula

Spirifera oolitica, Moore Sponges
Terebratula minima, Moore Pentacrinites
Belemnites Entomostraca
Serpulee Melania
Echini spines Turbo

Corals, several species

Connected with the interment I found a small bronze bead,
portions of the woven texture of the dress of the lady, pitch and
traces of minerals; the latter probably brought away with the
lime from the Mendips.

Subsequently to the Roman occupation there appears to be
little doubt that an interregnum occurred in which the city was
deserted and when it became converted intoa swamp. The cause
for this is difficult to account for, but the evidence for the fact is, I
think, conclusive, since it is certain that the extensive foundations
of the Roman buildings, on the site of the new hotel, and else-
where, are covered up by mud, vegetable remains and drift wood ;
the deposit in some instances being almost converted into peat,
and mixed with which were many mammalian remains. When
sinking for the railway bridges towards Twerton, the alluvial flats,
from the great quantities of bones they contained, were seen to be
a perfect charnel house. They consisted chiefly of remains of
horse, dog, bos longifrons, hog, sheep, goat and roe-deer. Bos
primigenius was also contemporaneous with them, so that at this
time are to be noticed two species of oxen, both of which have
now disappeared.

I remember as far back as the year 1838 two labouring men
coming to where I was then living in Bath with a hand-barrow, on
which was, covered up with a sack, what they called a ‘‘ natural
curiosity,” which they were exhibiting at one penny each person.

43

This’ proved to be the finest head of bos primigentvus ever discovered.
It became entangled in their fishing net in the river Avon, near
Melksham, The frontal bones with the horn cores were quite
perfect, and measured in breadth, without including the curvature
of the cores, four feet, and when clothed with their horns they
must have been still wider. Ten shillings would then have pur-
chased the specimen, but as I had not become a “ natural
philosopher,” its great interest did not impress me, though I have
since lived to regret that these remains do not enrich my museum.
This head was figured and described by Mr. Wood, of this city,
and is now in the Town-hall of Melksham. ‘The land and fresh
water mollusca found with the above mammalia appear to be
identical with those in the bed below, from which a list will be
hereafter given, and they occur as living species at the present
time.

It may be desirable at this point to notice some of the sections
of strata that have from time to time been opened up in the Bath
basin.

Pinch’s Well, sunk in 1838, in Kingsmead Street, presented the

following beds :—
1, Black marls - - - - - - 50 feet.
2. Thin beds of blue lias, succeeded by blue
lias, nearly solid - - - - - 40 ,,
White lias - - - - - - 40 ,,
4 Thin beds of white lias and clay = - = AG ogy
4. Very white clay - - - - = hZ ag
5. Very black sulphurous clay - - = ab Pov gy
6. Dark red soil, at which the Bath hot water
was reached - - - - ALL:

40
No notice was taken at the time of any fresh water marls or
gravels at the top of this section, though doubtlessly they
were present. The beds Nos. 1 and 2 belong to the lower lias ;
Nos. 3, 4 and 5 are now separated from the lias and constitute
members of the rheetic series, the “dark red soil,” No. 6, being
without doubt the upper portion of the Keuper, or new red sand-

44

stone. Beds in similar succession and of about the same thickness
were passed through in the Batheaston coal sinking in 1811. The
new red marls were there shown to be 30 feet thick, beneath
which came 24 feet of “ millstone,” a conglomerate overlying the
coal in the Somersetshire coal basin. Coal, had it been present,
should next have been reached, but this was shown to be wanting,
by the discovery of the lower beds of the carboniferous limestone
immediately following the “ millstone.”

Excavations and Well at the Royal Hotel.—In the excavations —
made for this establishment, the following section was opened up

in descending order :—
Historic Period :

Made ground, or accretions from the time of the ft. in.
Roman occupation, including pockets of brown-
ish marl, containing many bones of frogs, fish,

and other remains, and insects - - - 8 0
Drifted marl with vegetable matter, wood, &c.,
lying on the Roman foundations — - - =i ae 10)

Pre-historic Period:
Fresh water alluvial clays with great numbers of
fresh water and land shells, seeds, &c. — - > ishe (0
Post-Pliocene Period :
Mammal drift gravel - - - - - -
Lower Lias.

>
Oo

Blue Clay - - = = < 5 SAE 6
Blue Lias Stone- - - - - 2 eunO: +3
Blue Clay - - - - - : a egg
Blue Lias - - - - 3 = Et fO™ 38
Blue Clay - - - - : : ‘ - 4D
Blue Lias - - - : = < : tGi8
Blue Clay- - - - S : a
Blue Lias - - - = 2 E : = One
Blue Clay - - - - 2 : F - 62
Blue Lias - - : = E x _ PiQuag
Blue Clay - - : - S = Z iit? -6
- Blue. Lias - = 3 2 “ z J 5 VOX’
Blue Clay - . - - 2 c 2 wig: dG

45

Pulteney Road Section. —An admirable section of the pre-historic
fresh-water clays, similar to those at the Royal Hotel, was opened
up in digging for the gasometer_in the Pulteney Road.

Pre-historic Period :
Yellow or mottled brick earth - - - -12 0
Various very finely laminated clays with fresh
water and land shells, and vegetable remains - 7 0
Black band of vegetable matter with numerous -
seeds - - - - - - : :
Bed of gravel - - - - - - -
Blue marl - - - - - - - :
Light coloured fine sand - - - - -

coooco
mH CO

Post-pliocene Period :
Mammal drift gravels - - - - 12 0
resting on lower lias clays.

I know of no place open at this time in which the fresh water
clays above the mammal drift can be seen, but the gravels below are
worked at Larkhall and Freshford. Scarcely any two sections of
these drifts are alike, and it will be seen in the following that thick
beds of marl or clay are occasionally interposed between the gravels.

Section at Larkhall Gravel Pit—
Post-pliocene Period :

Gravel, chiefly from oolite and upper lias - - 15.0
Mottled brownish clay - - - - - 3 0
Blue clay - 2 - - - - = ply
Mottled brownish clay - - - - - 3 0
Gravel - - - - - - - - 8 0

resting on clays of lower lias.

When we go beyond the Roman occupation, we pass into, as far
as the Bath district is concerned, pre-historic times. You will
remember the tradition of King Bladud and his pigs, and the
discovery of the Bath waters by their wallowing in the mud
through which they passed. We must carry back the prince into
this period, but it is not a little strange that the physical condition
of the Bath basin at this time to some extent warrants the
conclusion that the tradition may not be altogethera myth, Prior

46

to the occupation of Bath by the Romans there is no doubt a body
of fresh water was present over the area of the future city, since in
the extensive Roman foundations opened up on the site of the
Royal Hotel, and also at other spots, they are seen to have gone
down into stratified beds of fresh water alluvium, containing
innumerable shells, both land and fresh water, and also fresh water
plants.

The thin laminze into which these shelly marls are divided, the
enormous number of the shells of all stages of growth they contain,
point to a quiescent state of the water, and further indicate a
lengthened period for their accumulation, during the whole of
which the basin must have been occupied by a fresh water river or
lake. The great delicacy of many of the shells proves that they
could not have been brought from a distance. Seeds of the fresh
water Chara are abundant, fresh water crustaceans of the order
Entomostraca of several species, and occasionally, though not in
good condition, the elytra of insects. The land shells found with
them have been brought down from the adjoining hills during
seasons of flood. These indicate a temperature such as the present,
nearly all the species being now living.

The chronology of geology must necessarily be imperfect. It is,
however, very likely that the pre-historic alluvial beds I have just
noticed are contemporaneous with the lake dwellings of Switzer-
land, and go back either to the stone age or to that of bronze. It
is true that no lake dwellings have been, or probably ever will be
found at Bath, but it is a strong point in confirmation of this view
that the bos primigenius and the bos longifrons which lived here at
the time of the deposition of our beds are found also in the Swiss
lake dwellings, and were killed by the inhabitants for food.

Mr. Henry Woodward mentions that there was found in the
peat, near Cambridge, a fine head of the bos primigenius in which
a stone celt was found broken short off in the forehead. In
several skulls of the bos longifrons from the Bath beds the fracture
of frontal bones shews that they have possibly been killed in a
similar manner.

In connexion with the Royal Hotel section there is a very
peculiar accumulation under the Historic Period. I refer to

Ee

47

pockets of brownish marl about two to five feet under the present
surface. It is to be found under a considerable part of the area,
and crosses under Stall-street to the Pump room. I cannot describe
it better than by calling it a comparatively modern “ Kitchen
Midden,” of later date of course than those of Denmark, but I
cannot quite decide at what point of the historic period it should
be placed, though it is clearly above the Roman city. It contains
a curious assemblage of organic remains, viz. :—

Very small fish jaws, teeth, and vertebree
Frogs, bones of

Teeth of dog

Small mammalian bones

Hog, bones of

Ox, bones of

Nuts, shells of

Seeds of several kinds

Various vegetable remains, &c., &e.
Insect remains

Anabacea, a coral from fuller’s earth
Small univalves from great oolite.

The species in the pre-historic alluvium are as follow—

Helix pulchella Bulimus acuta

» _ rotundata Azeca tridens

» hortensis Zua lubrica

» hispida ; | Valvata piscinalis
Clausilia nigricans Cyclas cornea
Planorbis spirorbis Chara, several species

» albus Fish remains

» nautileus Entomostraca, three species
Cyclostoma elegans Horse
Limulus stagnalis Hog

» peregra Bos longifrons
Bithinia tentaculata Roe deer, &c., &c.

Before the time of the Romans and their diverting the hot
springs into their baths, some of which are still remaining, the
healing waters had over an enormous time been pouring forth and

48

spreading over these alluvial beds, rendering, I have little doubt,
the Bath basin just such as the Bladud tradition might enable us
to realize.

The Bath waters when passing through or over a particular spot
for a time, leave a deep red or ochreous deposit, and when the
excavations at the Hotel were being made through the alluvium,
unmistakeable evidence, by the presence of similar mineralogical
deposits, was obtained, that the hot waters had at different times
been flowing over the surfaces of the beds where they were found,
and down as far as the next stage the mammal drift gravel below.

At this point it may be desirable to notice the curious fact that
at the present time the Bath waters bring away from the upper
beds they pass through some of their organic remains. In one of
the wells there is deposited a quantity of quartzoze sand, and
mixed with this 1 have found the following specimens.

Hazel nuts, abundant Corals, several species
Seeds of Potamogeton, sometimes} Bryozoa
electrotyped with iron pyrites | Serpulz

Carus seeds Univalves, several species

Other seeds Pentacrinite stems

Insects of several kinds Entomostraca

Fragments of bones, and also the | Cristellaria and other Fora-
following fossils minifera

Spirifera oolitica, Moore Fish tooth

Echini, species of Fragments of coal

The explanation of this is that the water in passing to the
surface comes in contact with the drift, and brings away both the
comparatively recent and the fossil contents of the deposit. The
presence of coal seems also to indicate that it may touch those
beds in their passage upwards.

The Mammal Drift.

Under this head are included all the gravel deposits of the
district. They are found at the base, and underlie the fresh water
marls above noticed. In the sections I have given it will be seen
that they rest upon the upper beds of the lower lias. This is also
the case where they are found at Saltford, Newton St. Loe, in the

eee a ee ee ee

49

Lyncombe and Widcombe Cemetery, the Bath Park, the Market
Place, the Mineral Water Hospital, Westgate Street, and other
spots. The gravels extend by way of Bathampton up the
Box valley, and also by way of Limpley Stoke and Freshford
towards Bradford, though at the latter places they lie in a trough
excavated in the inferior oolite.

The materials of which this drift is composed have in some
instances been brought from considerable distances, though to a
great extent it consists of materials derived from the adjoining
hills or the rocky outcrops of the valleys alovg which it is deposited.
Those must have been troublous times when the gravels were being
spread over the lower levels of the country, sweeping off the
mammalia that then existed in a common ruin,

Although in the shelly pre-historic marls immediately above,
mollusca were so abundant, few comparatively are found in the
gravel. The condition of things must have been very unfavour-
able to their preservation, and it is only where there occasionally
happens to have been a cessation or a period of rest during the
deposit of the coarser gravels, and where in occasional pockets
finer marls or silts were left, that they are to be obtained. Although
this is the case with the delicate mollusca contemporaneous with
the drift, fossil remains are very abundant in the gravels, and
afford certain evidence of the beds and the districts from whence
they have been derived.

Thus the gravels of Freshford, which contain many species of
oolitic and cretaceous remains, have associated with them others
from the carboniferous limestone, and water worn pebbles of this
formation in a small basin south east of the village constitute
nearly a fourth of the drift, and there are also others from the old
red sandstone. In this instance it is evident the gravels have come
down the valley of the Frome, which is at right angles to the
Bradford valley, and these rocks have evidently been derived from
the Mendip area. This is further confirmed by the fact that the
gravels in the Bradford valley at their junction with the above
contain hematite iron ore, in some spots, in such quautities as might
almost pay for washing and extraction. Sub-angular flints have

D

50

come from the chalk districts, and with the various oolitic debris
constitute the remainder of the deposit at Freshford.

West of Bath, at Newton and Saltford, near the outcrop of the
lower lias, the gravel contains many blocks of that formation, which
are associated with debris derived from the coal measures.

The Larkhall gravel pit is the one which is chiefly worked near
Bath. It is not only very deep, but from the variety of its
contents is the best in the district for study.

In the section, which has already been given, it will be observed
that between the two deposits of gravel there are interposed thick
beds of laminated marls. Probably they are only local, and like
other intercalated beds in the gravels soon die out. They shew a
period of repose between the deposits of the two thick beds of
gravel. From the lithological character of these marls, and from
their chiefly containing organic remains of the age of the fuller’s
earth, there is little doubt they have been derived from this forma-
tion, and brought down from the escarpments. I have lately
remarked that mollusca of the age of the gravels are rare, but it
is not so in this instance, for there are bands in these marls
which contain enormous numbers of the little land shell, Pupa
marginata, which have been washed down with the marls from the
hills, and there are also, though very rarely, Succinea oblonga and
Helix.—The mammalia in this pit, to be hereafter noticed, are
most abundant in the under portion of the lower drift.

The following derived fossils occur at Larkhall.

From Fuller’s Earth. From Inferior Oolite.
Anabacia orbulites Astrea and other corals
Avicula echinata Belemnites canaliculatus
Goniomya angulifera Pentacrinites
Modiola reniformis Trigonia costata
Nucula Terebratula perovalis
Rhynchonella varians Thecidium triangularis

Terebratula ornithocephala
Ostrea acuminata
Pholadomya deltoidea
Lima proboscidea Ammonites Walcottii

Serpulz - serpentinus

From Upper Lias.

:
.
;

51

_Ammonites communis Flabellina rugosa

Ms annulatus Dentalina communis
Pecten Marginulina raphanus
Vertebre of Ichthyosaurus Spirillina infima

Cristellaria rotula

The foraminifera may be derived from either of the formations.
Large quantities of iron stone washed out of the middle and upper
lias are also present in the gravel.

The Mammalia.—Amongst the extinct mammalia from these
deposits the Zlephas primigenius, OY Mammoth, first deserves notice,
from being the most abundant. A fine tusk and teeth from
Freshford are in my museum, and there are other specimens from
Larkhall, the Bath Park, the Lyncombe and Widcombe Cemetery,
and from Newton and Saltford. A second species, the Z. antiquus,
distinguished by the different structure of the teeth, also occurs.
From the specimens obtained it appears certain that this animal
roamed in considerable numbers on our hills in post-pliocene times,
and enormous herds must have inhabited some parts of this country.
It is recorded by Mr. S. Woodward, that within 13 years not less than
2000 elephant’s grinders, chiefly belonging to the E, antiquus, were
dredged from an oyster bed off the Norfolk coast, The entire head
of an E, primigenius has lately been acquired by the British
museum from Ilford, the tusks of which are 18ft. 10in. in length,
and one found in gravel near Stroud measured 15ft. I was lately
sent for to assist in disinterring a specimen from the “ red ground,”
or new red sandstone! near Woodborough. The message I sent
back was, that it was either not an elephant’s tusk, or it was not
true “red ground.” On arriving at the spot it proved to bea
very fine tusk of Z. antiquus, but in so brittle a condition it could
not be preserved. It lay ina red marl in a new red sandstone
valley, which might without the tusk have readily passed for that
age. A small block of stone containing an oolitic coral was, after
a search, the only, though sufficient evidence, that it was a drift
deposit of the time we are considering.

The Rhinoceros tichorinus, or long-haired two horned Rhinoceros,
was a companion of the elephant in this district, but although

52

found more frequently in other localities, and in our caverns,
appears to have been rare here, as I have found only a single tooth
in the gravel of Freshford.

The Ovibos moschatus, or Bubalus moschatus.—This animal, from
its much greater rarity in a fossil state is, perhaps, the most.
interesting in the Bath district. It has only very lately been
recognized in England. The first specimen was found near
Maidenhead. Soon after this I was fortunate enough to find at
Freshford a head of the only female known, and from the same
place I have obtained a good example of the male. A fourth has
been met with, near Bromley, in Kent, and a fifth by Mr. Dawkins,
at Crayford, Kent. The latter gentleman has devoted much time and
attention to the mammalia, and is of opinion that these specimens
must no longer be classed with the Buffalo, but rather with the
Ovide, and its generic name has been altered accordingly.

The Sus scrofa ferox, or Wild Boar, has been found at Larkhall,
Freshford, and in the excavations for a cellar in Westgate-street.

The Equus caballus, or Horse, is not uncommon, its bones and
teeth being occasionally found in most of the localities mentioned.

Bos primigenius, before referred to, and which lived on to historic
times before it became extinct, is also not uncommon.

The Cervide, which in our gravels are represented by teeth and
antlers chiefly of the Reindeer, complete the fauna of the low level
river deposits of the Bath basin.

Within the time it has taken to deposit about 60ft. of clays and
gravels in the old river courses and lower parts of the Bath
district, it will be seen that we have had mammalia present which
are now extinct or have disappeared to other latitudes. Thus the
Ovibos moschatus is now found only in the Arctic circle, for the cold
of which its long shaggy matted hair provides. The Rhinoceri, now

Nore.—It has not been within the scope of my paper to refer to the still
larger list of mammalia found in our Somersetshire caverns—nor to the
curious fact that in most of the fissures in the table land around Bath numerous
additional remains to those I have mentioned are to befound. The phenomena
connected with the latter require further elucidation, but up to this time I
have found in them bones of Bison, Ox, Horse, Deer, Lemming, Arvicola of
several species, Sorex, Bat, Frog, &c., &c.

53 iY

inhabitants of warmer climates, are shewn at this period to have been
fitted for extreme cold, and from the fact, that a perfect skeleton
of the same species that lived at Bath—the R. tichorinus was found
in the ice of the river Lena covered with long shaggy hair. The
same was the case with the Llephas primigenius, numbers of whose
bones are being found in the frozen gravels of Siberia, and a
perfect skeleton, also preserved in ice, and covered with a thick
woolly coat, is now in the museum of St. Petersburgh. The
reindeer, lemming, and other mammalia of northern types point
also to the conclusion that a great climatal change has taken place
in this country since they were roaming over our adjoining hills.

Although, in the immediate neighbourhood of Bath, I have never
seen any satisfactory evidence of the handiwork of man in the
. post-pliocene deposits, from that which is found in other districts
there can be no doubt that in the infancy of the race he was
contemporaneous with the extinct remains of which I have been
speaking.

At the time of the glacial epoch icebergs were travelling over
Great Britain and parts of Europe, or stranding on the shores,
dropping as they melted the ponderous blocks of granite and other
rocks, brought away by them from their parent beds, and which no
other agency could have strewn over the surfaces where they are
now found.

Whilst we have evidence of these climatal changes in this
country the same fact applies to our northern latitudes, and shews
that where now the temperature is so severe it has been much
milder. This in older geological time is seen by the presence of the
carboniferous limestone, and the coal measures with their tropical
plants, and by succeeding beds having a fauna which in those of
the same age are found in this country. In the miocene period,
almost at the dawn of our own era, Professor Heer, who has been
studying the botany of Spitzbergen, has shewn in that desolate
region the presence of gigantic oaks, the Wellingtonia, evergreens,
and other fossil plants shewing a temperate climate.

What wonderful revolutions do these facts attest !

Immediately preceding the deposit of the gravels and alluvial
clays in the Bath basin the glacial epoch was coming to a close.

54

Probably our hills were still surrounded if not covered to their
highest points by glaciers, the gravels of the valleys being to some
extent the trail or drift consequent thereon. It is true we have
no evidence of glacial striation on our rocks, but their soft nature
is such that, had this been the case, atmospheric and other causes
would long since have obliterated them.

But in another way I think I perceive evidence of glacial action.
It is well known that not only have we proof of this action on
the striated surfaces and edges of the rocks that have come within
its influence, but that also where icebergs have stranded, or the
glaciers, as they have melted, have been moving forward, the beds
at their base have been deeply grooved or channeled thereby.
Just this state of things exists in the stiff liassic clays on which
the mammal drift now lies in the Bath basin. Whenever it is
exposed it is seen to be cut up by deep and long continued
furrows, which are now filled by the trail or drift already
described. Evidence of this is also shown from the fact that whilst
the physical conditions of the district were the same as at the
present, bodies of fresh water must have occupied the table lands
around, for in no other way can, I think, the presence of fresh
water shells, mammalian and other remains, be accounted for, in
association with bog iron ore in most of our oolitic fissures.

Man, then, it is now generally admitted co-existed with the
mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, the cave tiger, the hyena, and
the other remains so abundantly found in our caverns and gravels.
As I have proceeded it will have occurred to you from the changes
indicated that his advent must be put back to a greatly
extended period. How far back this era must be placed will in
conclusion be a point of interest for our consideration.

Speculations on this head come rather within the province of
the mathematician and the astronomer than the geologist, and I
shall have to refer you to a work just published by Mr. Croll, on
“The Physical Causes of Change and Time,” in the Philosophical
Magazine. This gentleman has, in a series of tables, shown the
earth’s eccentricity for the past 3,000,000 of years, and also for
1,000,000 years to come. In this way he has proved that there were
periods of great duration when our winters exceeded the summers.

<a ie

Pa eas)

55

One of these extended from 980,000 to 720,000 years ago, the
other about 240,000 years, and extended to about 10,000
years ago; in this the excess of winter: over summer was 26°7
days, while the mid-winter temperature was lowered 37°4 degrees.
He further shows that 850,000 years back winter exceeded summer
by 37:4 days, whilst the temperature in mid-winter was lowered
45°3 degrees. If these calculations are admitted to be correct,
the conclusion arrived at is that the glacial epoch must be
assigned to one of them. In this case, and taking the lowest
calculation, we carry back the extinct mammalia and some of the
beds in the Bath basin in which they are found, to between
240,000 and 80,000 years ago! If this period be, as I have before
remarked, the yesterday of geological time, how are we to calculate
the chronology of the deposits to the Cambrian series, and these
again to the base of the Laurentian rocks, which are supposed to
exceed in thickness the whole of the stratified beds of this
country.

Remarks on some of the Fungi met with in the neighbourhood
of Bath. By C. E. Brooms, M.A., F.LS. Read April
7th, 1869, and Feb. 9th, 1870.

One of the objects aimed at in the formation of Field Clubs is
the acquiring a correct knowledge of the natural history of the
district in which they are situated, and to bring this up to the
requirements of the present day it is necessary that no branch of
such knowledge be neglected. To say thus much, may perhaps be
a sufticient excuse for offering some of the results of the investiga-
tions that have been made in our own vicinity, in one of the lowest
departments of botany, to the notice of the present meeting.
Fungi, here alluded to, seem to occupy an intermediate position
between vegetables and animals, some of their characteristics
pertaining to the latter (such as the presence of nitrogen, and the
resemblance of the substance, called fungine by chemists, to animal
matter), while they are universally allowed to constitute a
division of the vegetable kingdom. It may be observed that the
order, or suborder of Myxogasters is an exception to the last

56

proposition, a German botanist of celebrity having recently
attempted to prove that the species constituting that order are of
an animal nature, taking his stand on certain phenomena exhibited
in the mode of their development from the spores, at which time
they present the motions and appearance of Amcebee ; but as they
soon lose this character, and assume that of other undoubted
fungi, it would seem that there is little reliance to be placed on
his distinction. Fungi are for the most part composed of cells, or
cellular tissue, in some cases a simple cell constitutes the whole
plant, in others it is built up of an innumerable multitude of cells
of various shapes and sizes, while in a few instances spiral vessels
occur. The vegetative part, or mycelium, in the higher orders is
subordinate to the reproductive ; that of an Agaric, for instance,
is a mere mass of threads, the reproductive part, or mushroom,
presenting a very varied and complicated structure. It was long
supposed that two forms of fruit only occurred in these plants,
spores in one case being developed in closed sacs, or asci, in the
other growing naked on sporophores ; but M. Tulasue has lately
shown that many Fungi possess three, if not more, kinds of
reproductive bodies pertaining to the same species. Fungi combine
a number of chemical principles in their substance ; M. Boudier,
in a treatise lately published, gives a list of 20, or more, in
certain Agarics, water always constituting a large percentage.
The presence of starch was supposed to distinguish lichens from
fungi, but Mr. Currey found it in a very curious truffle to which
he gave the name of Amylocarpus. And Professor Nylander has
discovered it in certain species of Pezizee, and makes use of it as a
sectional distinction, employing iodine to indicate its presence. The
poisonous principle occurring in some fungi appears to vary much
in character ; maceration in salt, or vinegar and water, commonly
expels the noxious qualities. After showing the failure of all
general characters to indicate the wholesomeness, or poisonous
nature, of Agarics, M. Boudier gives some rules to guide persons in
selecting wholesome kinds too long to be here quoted, and concludes
by advising those who are driven by necessity to make use of fungi
as food never to eat any doubtful kinds without steeping them for
at least 20 minutes in vinegar and water, and then to wash and

57

dry them before they are cooked. In the following paper I have
brought together all the species of fungi occurring in the neighbour-
hood of Bath belonging to the orders Agaricini, Polyporei, Hydnet,
Auricularint, Clavariet, and Tremellini. I commence with the
Agaricini, remarking on such as are peculiar in their structure, or
useful as articles of food, or to be avoided on account of their
noxious qualities. The order Agaricini belongs to the family of
Hymenomycetes, fungi characterized by spores attached to little
spicules, and seated on a naked, fructifying membrane, which is
generally inferior, or turned downwards. In this order the
Hymenium is spread over plates, or gills easily divisible into two.
Fries describes nearly 1000 species of the genus Agaricus alone,
and, to facilitate the work of the botanist amidst such a mass of
materials, has divided that genus primarily by the colour of the
spores. A mature Agaric placed for an hour on bits of black and
white paper, will shed its spores upon them, and their colour will
be seen at once. He separates the genus Agaricus from other
genera of the order by characters often very difficult to be
recognized, and they are perhaps more readily distinguished by
their habit than by technical differences. In Agaricus the
gills are membranaceous, persistent (not melting), the trama, or
substance intermediate between the sporiferous membranes, is
continuous with that of the pileus, or cap, and the edge of the
gills is acute. Fries places the white-spored species first, and the
section Amanita at their head as the most highly developed form.
FAMILY HYMENOMYCETES.
Order I. Agaricini.
Genus 1. Agaricus. *
Series 1. Leucospori. Spores white.

Sub-genus I. Amanita. t Veil universal, distinct from the cuticle

of the pileus ; hymenophorum distinct from the stem.

1. Agaricus phalloides, /7%es. Bulliard, Herbier de la France,
t. 577. Kromb., Abbildungen der Schwemme, t. 69 ; figs. 10-17-
Common in woods and open places. Warleigh Down. This is a

* Agaricus, from Agaria, a region of Sarmatia.
t+ Amanita, a name given by Galen to some esculent fungus,

58

most dangerous species, its poisonous principle is very subtle, so
that chemists differ much as to its nature; Letellier calls it
Amanitine. M. Boudier thus relates a case of poisoning: Two
ladies ate a considerable quantity of it for dinner ; some hours after
they were seized with a violent sickness and other symptoms, as
vertigo, which continued all that night; great prostration followed,
with a total indifference of the patients to all around them, and
intense thirst ; towards the next night coldness of the extremities
ensued, and they both died in the night, or early the following
morning. M. Boudier says that no remedies produced any effect,
and he thinks the only thing to be done in such cases is to clear
the bowels of patients suffering from similar poisons at as early a
stage as possible. Small portions of this Agaric, and of several
others of the same section, given to cats and rabbits, caused a loss
of sensation, stupor, paralysis, and a cessation of the action of the
heart, death ensuing in from twenty minutes to four hours after
receiving the food, or if it be inserted beneath the skin a similar
result follows, according to Letellier. 45 grammes of Agaricus
phalloides, /r., mixed with bread and meat, were given to a strong
cat ; they were consumed without repugnance; after the lapse of
more than an hour the cat vomited mucus ; two hours later it fell
on its side, its feet moved convulsively, and death ensued in two
and a half hours. The heart was found to be gorged with black
and liquid blood.

2. A. Muscarius, Z. Kromb., t. 9. Grev., t. 54. This very
handsome species is of a rich reddish-orange colour clothed with
white warts, the remains of its envelope. It is frequent in sandy
districts near or under fig trees. Spye Park and Bowood. It is
intoxicating in its effects on man, seldom however fatal.

3. A. Pantherinus, De Candolle. Kromb., t. 29, figs. 10-13.
Has occurred at Leigh Woods, Bristol. It is a poisonous species.

4e, A. Strobiliformis, Fries. Berkeley, Outlines of British
Fungology, pl. 3, fig. 2. Batheaston. This species, although so
near systematically to the last, is esculent.

5. A. Mappa, Batsch. Vittadini funghi mangerecci, t. 11.
Kromb., t. 28, figs. 11, 12. Warleigh. Poisonous.

The letter /¢) distinguishes such species as are esculent.

7

59

6e. A. Rubescens, Persoon. Kromb., t. 10. Batheaston.
Warleigh. Under trees. Esculent. ;

Te. A. Vaginatus, Bulliard. Berk., pl. 3, fig. 4. Common
near Bath. Dr. Badham says this species is esculent.

Sub-genus IT. Lurtora.* Veil universal, concrete with the cuticle
of the pileus ; hymenophore distinct from the stem.

8e. A. Procerus, Scopoli. Curtis, Fl. Lond., t. 69. Hussey 1.,
t. 88. A very handsome species, abundant on downs and bushy
places. Warleigh. Dr. Badham calls this “one of the most
delicate of fungusses,” yet it is rarely used for food in this country ;
this and the following species produce the best ketchup.

9e, A. Excoriatus, Scheffer. Kromb., t. 24, figs. 24-30. Not
uncommon on downs and similar situations with the last.

10. A. Rachodes, Vitt. Berk. t. 3, fig. 6. Hussey it, 38.
Batheaston. This species is not considered wholesome, although
some of its forms are scarcely to be distinguished from A. procerus,
Scop.

11. A. Acute-squamosus, Weinman. Hussey, pl. 2, fig. 5.
Kromb. i, 18-20. Batheaston and plantations on Bathampton
Down. A very beautiful species.

12. A. Badhami, B. and Br. St. Catharine’s, Batheaston.

13, A. Clypeolarius, Bull. Bull, t. 405-506. Leigh Woods.

14. A. Cepzestipes, Sowerby. Sowerby, t. 2. Greville, t. 333.
Hot houses and stoves near Bristol, &e.

15. A. Cristatus, Fr. Berk., t. 3, fig. 7. Common in woods
and gardens. Batheaston.

16. A. Granulosus, Batsch. Grev., t. 104. Huss. i, t. 45.
Warleigh and other downs. A very elegant species varying to
white.

17. A. Polystictus, Berk. Warleigh. Batheaston.

Sub-genus III. Arwmuaria.t Veil partial, annular ; hymenophore
confluent with the stem.
18. A. Robustus, Albertini and Schweinitz. Kromb., t. 25, figs.
15-20. Leigh Down, Bristol.

* Lepiota, from lepis, a scale.
+ Armillaria, from Armilla, a ring.

60

19. A. Melleus, Vahl. Berk., t. 4, fig. 1. A most abundant
species, varying much in form, size, and colour, covering the ground
and herbage around it with its white spores, said to be eatable.
Dr. Badham says, “it is a nauseous, disagreeable fungus however
cooked,” and its “taste is harsh and styptic.” A small piece no
larger than a sixpence, being chewed, produced a cold sensation to
the mouth and throat, which lasted some time, and was followed by
a roughness of the larynx continuing two or three hours. The
name Melleus is given to it on account of its honey colour.

20. A. Mucidus, #r. Flora Danica, ts. 773, 1130, 1372. A
most elegant species occurring on decaying beech trees. Monkton
Farleigh.

Sub-genus IV. Trichotoma.* Stem fleshy, gills with a sinus
behind. Veil obsolete, or, if present, floccose, and adhering to
the margin of the pileus.

21. A. Equestris, Z. Berk. pl. 4, fig. 2. Has not occurred
nearer than Stapleton, near Bristol, where it grows in the grounds
of Sir Greville Smith. A beautiful species.

22. A. Albo-brunneus, P. Sow. t. 416. This handsome
species grew in very fine condition in woods near Street in October,
1868.

23, A. Rutilans, Scheff. Sow., t. 31. Fir stumps. Common.
Very handsome.

24. A. Columbetta, Fr. Kromb., t. 25, figs. 6, 7. Meadows in
Box parish.

25. A. Imbricatus, Fr. Berk., pl. 4, fig. 3. Fir woods.
Lucknam, Monkton Farleigh.

26. A. Terreus, Scheff. Sow., t. 76. Very common in woods
and plantations.

27. A. Cartilagineus, Bull. Monkton Farleigh and Batheaston.
Bull, t. 589, fig. 2.

28. A. Sulfureus, Bull. Bowood, Wilts. Berk., pl. 4, fig. 4.
Sow., t. 44.

29. A. Inamenus, Fr. Bowood.

30. A. Carneus, Bull. Bull, t. 533, fig. 1. Bathford and other
downs.

* Tricholoma, from thrix, a hair, and loma, a fringe.

61

31, A. Colatus, Fr. Charmy Down, Batheaston.

32e. A. Gambosus, Fr. Kromb., t. 63, figs. 18-22. Downs and
meadows, commonly growing in large rings in May and June.
Esculent. Dr. Badham states he has gathered specimens measuring
five inches across and weighing four to five ounces : and as much as
ten or twelve lbs. weight from a single ring. This is the Agaricus
Mouceron of Bulliard. The Italians eat it fresh in a variety of
ways, or dry it, and sell it for from 12 to 16 francs per Ib. Three
or four thrown into a pot of broth or beef tea render them more
savoury. The best way to cook it is in a mince, or fricasee, with
any kind of meat, or in a vol au vent, or simply prepared with salt,
pepper, and a small piece of bacon, lard, or butter, to prevent
burning, when it constitutes a most excellent dish.

33. A. Albus, Fr. Bowood, Warleigh, é&c., in woods. Berk., pl.
4, fig. 6. Bull., t. 536.

34, A. Personatus, Fr. Berk., pl. 5. fig. 1. Huss. ii., t. 40. Is
sold in Covent Garden for the table, but supposed to be occasionally
dangerous. Dr. Badham says, “ag it imbibes water readily, it
should not be gathered in wet weather ; when not water-soaked it
is a fine firm fungus with a flavour of veal, like which it is to be
dressed, en papillotes, with savoury herbs, and the usual condi-
ments.” Fries removes it, in his last work on the Hymenomycete
of Sweden, to the genus Paxillus, together with A. Nudus and A.
Cinerascens, on account of the gills separating easily from the
hymenophore. This species is common in meadows.

35. A. Nudus, Bull. Fir plantations. Batheaston, Bathford,
&e. Berk. pl. 4, fig. 7. Kromb,, t. 71, figs. 27-29. This isa
beautiful species with violet gills which soon change colour on being
gathered.

36. A Malaleucus, #r. Lucknam Grove.

37. A. Grammopodius, Bull. Warleigh and Bathford downs.
Bull. t. 548, 585, fig. 1. Huss. ii, t. 41.

38. A. Humilis, #r. Common on the downs. This is A. Blandus
of the English Flora.

39. A. Subpulverulentus, P. In similar places with the last.
Huss. ii., t. 39.

62

Sub-genus V. Curytocyse* Stem elastic, with a fibrous outer
coat ; gills decurrent or acutely adnate.

40e. A. Nebularis, Batsch. In woods. Lucknam Grove, Bath-
ampton and Warleigh. Grev., t. 9. Huss ii, t. 9. This species
forms a habitat for Agaricus Loveianus, B. One of the rosy-spored
Agarics, described in Knapp’s Journal of a Naturalist under the
name of A. Surrectus, Knapp. A species of very rare occurrence.

41. A. Odorus, Bull. Bathford and Warleigh Downs. Sow.,
t. 42. Smells of anise.

42. A. Phyllophilus, #r. Plantations. Bathford, Lucknam, é&e,
Common. FI. Dan., t. 1847.

43. A. Dealbatus, P. Common on the downs. Sow., t. 123.

44, A. Elixus, Sow. Woods. Hanham. Sow., t. 172.

45. A. Infundibuliformis, Schaef. Downs. Bathford and
Warleigh. Berk., pl. 5, fig. 2.

46. A. Geotrupus, Bull. In similar places. Grev., t. 41. Huss
i,t. 66.

47. A. Flaccidus, Sow. Common in fir plantations. Bathford.
Sow., t. 185.

48, A. Cyathiformis, /r. Downs. Bathford, Warleigh, &c,
Sow., t. 363. Huss. ii, t. 1.

49, A. Fragrans, Sow. Downs. Common, Anise-scented. Sow.,
t. 10.

50. A. Laceatus, Scopolt. Woods and downs. Common. Varying
much in colour, some varieties being of a most lovely amethyst.
Sow., t. 187. Grev. 249. Kromb. t. 43, figs. 17-20.

Sub-genus VI. Cottysia.t Stem cartilaginous externally ; margin
of pileus at first involute ; gills not decurrent.

51. A. Radicatus, Relhan. Beech woods. Common. Berk., pl.
5, fig. 4. Huss. i, t. 36.

52. A. Platyphyllus, /r. In a lane near Shockerwick on a
stump. Leigh Woods. Bull. t. 594.

53. A. Longipes, Bull. Box Quarries. A very beautiful species,
Bull., t. 232. Huss. i, t. 80.

* Clytocybe, from klitos, a declivity, and kube, a head
+ Collybia, from kollubos, a small piece of money.

63

54, A. Maculatus, Albertini and Schweinitz. Downs. Common.
Hanham. Sow., t. 246. Huss. ii, t. 60.

55, A, Butyraceus, Bull. Very common in the woods. Bull.,
t. 572.

56. A. Velutipes, Curtis. Very common on fallen trunks of
trees. Curtis, Fl. Lon., t. 70. Huss. i, t. 56.

57. A. Fusipes, Bull. Leigh Woods. Berk., pl. 5, fig. 5. Huss.
ii, t. 48. Bull, t. 106, 516, fig. 2. Sow., t. 129.

58. A. Confluens, P. Fir plantations. Bathford. Persoon, ic.
pict., t. 5, fig. 1.

59. A. Stipitarius, /7r. On grass and twigs. Hartham. Berk.,
pl. 5, fig. 6. Huss. i, t. 68.

60. A. Undatus, B. Woods, on dead roots of Pteris aquilina.
Batheaston.

61, A. Tuberosus, Bull. On dead Agarics of the tribe Russula.
Grev., t. 23. Bull, t. 256.

62. A. Plexipes, #r. Leigh Woods. FI. Dan., t. 2023, fig. 2.

63. A. Tenacellus, P. On fir cones. Lucknam Grove, &e.
Sow., t. 206.

64, A. Dryophilus, Bull. Common among leaves in plantations.
Bathford. Sow., t 127. Huss. i., t. 39.
Sub-genus VII. Mycrna.* Stem cartilaginous outwardly ; margin

of pileus at first straight and appressed to the stem.

65. A. Rosellus, #7. On leaves and cones of firs. Lucknam
Grove, &c, Persoon, synopsis, t. 5, fig. 3.

66. A. Purus, P. Woods and bushy places.) Common. Huss.
ii., t, 49.

67. A. Lacteus, P. Fir Plantations. Common. Bull., t. 563,
N. 0.

68. A. Galericulatus, Scop. On stumps. Very common. Bull.
t. 518, f. c. D—E.

69. A. Polygrammus, Bull, Frequent on stumps. Sow., t. 222.

70. A. Alcalinus, 7’. On sticks and trunks of trees. Frequent.
Scheeffer, t. 31.

71. A. Epipterygius, Scop, Woods and bushy places on downs.
Bathford and Warleigh. Sow., t. 92.

* Mycena, from mukes, a fungus.

64

72. A. Citrinellus, P. Fir plantations. Lucknam Grove,
Batsch, f. 88. Persoon, Ic, et descrip., t. 11, fig. 3.

73. A. Flavo-albus, #7. Hanham. Bull., t. 260.

74. A. Tenerrimus, B. Batheaston. On bramble. This species
is closely related to the plant of Mr. Berkeley, but differs in some
respects. Berk., pl. 6, fig. 6, represents the stem as much longer
than in the above plant, and the gills as free, whereas they are
adnate and sometimes slightly decurrent in our plant. It isa very
elegant minute species, frosted all over with glittering particles.

75. A. Pelliculosus, #r. Open and sandy commons. Hanham.

76. A. Peltatus, Yr. Warleigh Down.

77. A. Sanguinolentus, A. and S. Leigh Woods. Bull., t. 518,
fig. P (righthand figure).

78. A. Vulgaris. P. Fir plantations. Lucknam Grove, &e.
Berk., pl. 6, fig. 4.

79. A. Corticola, Schumacher. On living trees, amongst moss.
Common.

80. A. Capillaris, Schum. On dead leaves in woods. Common.
Bull., t. 601, fig 2, 0. a.

Sub-genus VIII, Ompnatita.* Stem cartilaginous ; gills truly
decurrent.

81. A. Pyxidatus, Bull. Berk., pl. 6, fig. 8. Bull, t. 568, fig.
2. Hanham.

82. A. Hepaticus, Batsch, fig. 211. Hanham.

83. A. Helvelloides, Bull., t. 601, fig. 3. Charmy Down. Bath-
easton. Fries now refers this species to his Cantharellus cupulatus.
Fr., epic, p. 367.

84. A. Muralis, Sow. Walls. Bathford. Sow., t. 322.

85. A. Umbelliferus, Z. Hanham. Holmskiold 2, t. 34.

86. A. Fibula, Bull., t. 186, 550 f. Sow., t. 45.

Sub-genus IX. Pxiuuropus.t Stem eccentric, lateral, or wanting ;
mostly growing on wood.

87. A. Dryinus, P. Huss., ii, 29 and 33. Batheaston, on an
apple tree.

* Omphalia, from omphalos, an umbilicus.
+ Pleuropus, from pleuron, a side, and pous, a foot.

)
:
:

65

88. A. Ulmarius, Bull., t.510. Sow., t.67. Onelms. Bath-
easton.

89. A. Ostreatus, Jacg. Huss. ii, t. 19. Sow., t. 241. On
trees. Southstoke.

90. A. Salignus, Hoffman. Letellier, t. 687.

91. A. Serotinus, Schrad. Buxbaum, c. v., t. 2, fig. 2.

92. A. Mitis, P. B. pl. 6, fig. 9. On larch. Common.

93. A. Applicatus, Batsch, f. 125. Sow., t. 301. Common on
dead sticks.

Series 2. Hyporhodii.* Spores salmon-coloured.

Sub-genus X. Voutvaria.t Veil universal, forming a volva distinct

from the cuticle ; hymenophore distinct from the stem.

94. A. Medius, Fr. Fl. Dan., t. 1676. Warleigh Down.

95. A. Pusillus, #r. Bull. t. 330. Lucknam Grove.

96. A. Speciosus, Fr. B., pl. 7, fig. 3. Kromb., t. 26, figs. 1-8.
On charcoal heaps. Bowood.
Sub-genus XI. Puutsus.t Hymenophore distinct from the stem ;

veil, none.

97. A. Cervinus, Schef. Sow., t. 108. On trunks of trees.
Bathford and Batheaston.

98. A. Chrysophzus, Scheff. B., pl. 7, fig. 5. Sow., t. 174.
Grev., t. 173. Trunks of trees. Batheaston.

Sub-genus XII. Entotoma.|| Hymenophore continuous with the
fibrous, or fleshy, stem ; gills, sinuato-adnexed, or parting from
the stem.

99. A. Repandus, Bull., t. 423, fig. 2. Meadows and downs.

100. A. Bloxami, B. and Br. Warleigh and Bathford Downs.
B., page 143. :

101. A. Costatus, /r, Common in meadows.

102. A. Nidorosus, /r. Bushy places on downs. Common,

Warleigh. B., page 145.
103. A. Jubatus, #r. Epic., page 145. Bathford plantations.

* Hyporhodii, from hypo, a diminutive, and rhodos, rose-coloured,
+ Volvaria, from volva, a veil.
{ Pluteus, from the typical species A. pluteus.
|| Entoloma, from entos, within, and loma, a fringe.

66

104. A. Sericellus, #r. Pers., Icon., t. 6, fig. 2. Leigh Woods.

Sub-genus XIII, Cuitopmus.* Hymenophore as in Sub-genus
xii. ; gills decurrent.
105e. A. Prunulus, Scop. B., pl. 7, fig. 7. Huss. ii, t. 47.

Abundant on the downs. An excellent Agaric for the table. Dr.

Badham says, “it should be eaten the day it is gathered, either

stewed, broiled, or fried with egg and bread crumbs like cutlets.”

It is very good stewed with cream and flour, and seasoned with

pepper and salt.

106. A. Popinalis, #r. Epic., page 149. Bathford and Warleigh

Downs.

107. A. Undatus, Fr. Epic., page 149. Bathford Down. Very
abundant in some seasons.
108. A. Vilis, #r. Epic, page 150, Leigh Woods.

Sub-genus XIV. Lepronia.t Stem with a cartilaginous bark ;
margin of pileus at first incurved ; gills separating from the stem.
109. A. Chalybzeus, P. Sow., t. 161. Warleigh and Bathford

Downs.

110. A. Incanus, /r. Sow., t. 162. Bathford Down. Banner

Down. Batheaston. Odour like that of mice.

Sub-genus XV. Nowanea.{ Stem cartilaginous ; margin of pileus
at first straight, pressed to the stem.

111. A. Mammosus, Fr. Bull. t. 526. Meadows. Chippenham.
Sub-genus XVI, Eccruta.|| Stem cartilaginous, tubular, sometimes

stuffed, expanded above into a membranaceous pileus ; margin

at first inflexed ; gills attenuated behind, truly decurrent ; cor-
responds with Omphalia in the white-spored section.

112. A. Parkensis, 77. It came up in abundance in August,
1865, on a bank in the garden at Elmhurst, Batheaston, but has
not appeared since. A. Cupularis, /7., Kromb., t. 3., figs. 15-18,
resembles this species closely, and its gills seem scarcely to belong
to a white-spored species.

* Qlitopilus, from klitos, a declivity, and pilos, a cap.
+ Leptonia, from leptos, slender.
+ Nolanea, from nola, a little bell.
|| Eccilia, from koiloo, I hollow out.

67

Series 3. Dermini. Spores ferruginous, sometimes
tawny or brownish.

Sub-genus XVII. Puoutora.* Stem furnished with a ring.

113. A. Spectabilis, /r. Bull.,t. 92 (A. aureus). Kromb., t. 3,
fig. 3. Stoke Park, near Bristol.

114. A. Precox, P. B., pl. 8, fig. 1. Letellier, t. 608.

115. A. Radicosus, Bull., t. 160. Bowood. Under trees.

116. A. Pudicus, Bull., t- 597, fig. 2. Huss ii., t. 31. On ash
and abele trees. Batheaston.

117. A. Aurivellus, Batsch, fig. 115. On ash pollards. Batheaston.

118. A. Squarrosus, Mill. Sow., t. 284. Huss. i, t.8 On
trees. Common.

119. A. Mutabilis, Scheff. B., pl. 8, fig. 3. Huss. ii, t. 27.
On stumps. Corsham, &c.

120. A. Leveillianus, Dozy and Mélkenbawer. Pastures. Bath-
easton.

Sub-genus XVIII. Hesetoma.t Veil, if present, floccose, not

interwoven ; stem, fleshy ; gills, sinuated.

121. A. Pyriodorus, P. Bull., t. 532, fig. 1. Warleigh.

122. A. Obscurus, P. Gardens. Batheaston.

123. A. Fastigiatus, Fr. B., pl. 8, fig. 4.

124. A. Rimosus, Bull., t. 388. B., pl. 8, fig. 5.

125. A. Uniformis, P., icon. p., t. 15, fig. 1. (A. Dulcamarus,
Fr. Epic., page 171.) Fir plantations. Bathford.

126, A. Auricomus, Fr. Batsch., fig. 21. Bathford Down.

127. A. Lanuginosus, Fr. Bull., 370. Near Bristol.

128. A. Trechisporus, B., pl. 8, fig. 6. Fir plantations. Bathford.

129. A. Geophyllus, Sow., t. 124. Common in woods.

130. A. Crustuliniformis, Bull., ts. 308, 546. B., pl. 9, fig. 1.
Woods ; common. Warleigh.

Sub-genus XIX. Fuammuta.t Stem, fleshy ; gills, adnate or
decurrent.

* Pholiota, from pholis, a scale.
+ Hebeloma, from hebe, down, and loma, a fringe,
{ Flammula, from flamma, a flame,

68

Sub-genus XX. Navcoria.* Stem, cartilaginous externally ;
margin, more or less convex ; pileus, inflexed.

131. A. Cucumis, P. Sow., t. 344. Bathford Down. Abundant
in some seasons. A very curious species remarkable for a strong
smell like rancid herrings.

132. A. Melinoides, /r. B., pl. 9, fig. 3. Bull, t. 560, fig. 1.
Kromb., t. 3, fig. 14. Very common on downs,

133. A. Semiorbicularis, Bull., t. 422. B., pl. 9, fig. 4. Pastures ;
common.

134. A. Furfuraceus, P. Batsch., fig. 98. Common.

135. A. Erinaceus, /r. Sow., t. 417. Bowood. On sticks.
Sub-genus XXTI. Gatera.t Stem, externally sub-cartilaginous ;

pileus more or less campanulate ; margin straight.

136. A Tener, Scheff. Sow., t. 33. Lawns and pastures ;
common.

137. A. Hypnorum, Batsch., fig. 96. Sow., t. 282. Bathford
and Warleigh Downs.

Sub-genus XXII. Crupripotus.${ Pileus, eccentric ; spores, not
white.

138, A. Mollis, Schef. B., pl. 9, fig. 6. Huss. i, 74. Old
stumps, &c. ; common.

139, A. Rubi, B., pl. 9, fig. 7. On dead bramble. Spye Park.

140. A. Variabilis, P. On sticks, &c. ; common.

Series 4. Pratelle.|| Spores brownish purple or brown.
Sub-genus XXIII. Psauuiora.§ Veil fixed to the stem, forming

a ring.

141le. A. Campestris, Z. B., pl. 10, fig. 2. Huss. i, t. 90.
Mushroom. Downs and pastures. A variety of this species occurs
at times covered with brownish scales, and the flesh turning pink
when cut. The mushroom is our most favourite culinary species of
Agaric, yet Dr. Badham informs us that it is considered at Rome
to be so dangerous that it is not suffered to appear in the market,
but is thrown into the Tiber by the inspector of fungusses there, if
brought into the city. Dr. Badham mentions a variety, A. Anceps,

* Naucoria, from naucus, the peel ofa nut. + Galera, from galea, a helmet.
{ Crepidotus, from krepis, a slipper, and ous, an ear.
|| Pratelloe, from pratum, a meadow. § Psalliota, from psalion, a ring.

69

which, when eaten, produces a violent derangement of the stomach ;
it is found under hedges, its gills are of a deep, lurid red, the flesh
tough and not juicy, the odour disagreeable, and taste insipid.
The true mushroom, however, should be eaten fresh, a few hours,
says our author, making all the difference in its wholesomeness or
unwholesomeness. Nor can this be a matter of surprise considering
the variety of principles which enter into its composition, as
Vauquelin found it to comprise fat, adipocene, osmazome, an
animal matter insoluble in alcohol, sugar, fungine, and acetate of
potash. Dr. Badham gives several receipts for cooking mushrooms,
all probably known and practised by our cooks. A. Campestris v.
sylvatica, #7. Warleigh and Bathampton.

142e. A. Arvensis, Scheff. B., pl. 10, fig. 4. Huss. i, ts. 76,
77. A coarse species, but makes good ketchup. Common in
meadows and on the downs.

143, A. Cretaceus, Fr. B., plate 10, fig. 5. Meadows. Rudlow.

144, A. Echinatus, Roth. A very curious species with blood-red
gills, its spores are sometimes white or colourless. Batheaston and
Bowood. In shrubberies and plantations.

145. A. Cruginosus, Curtis, FI. Lond., t. 309. Huss. i, t. 35.
Woods and meadows. A beautiful species when in perfection.

146. A. Squamosus, #7. B,, pl. 10, fig. 6. Bowood. Growing
on beech mast buried in the soil.

147. A, Semiglobatus, Batsch, fig. 110. Grev., t. 344. Huss.
i, t. 39. On dung ; common.
Sub-genus XXIV. WyrHotoma.* Veil woven into a fugacious

web, which adheres to the margin of the pileus.

148, A. Sublateritius, #r. Huss. i., t. 60. Common on stumps
in woods.

149. A. Fascicularis, Huds. B., pl. 11, fig. 1. Huss. ii, t. 15.
Common in woods ; tastes of verdigris.

150. A. Velutinus, P. B. pl. xi., fig. 2. Sow., t. 41. Very
common on stumps.

151. A. Epixanthus, /r. Battarra, t. 23, fig p. On stumps of
beech, &c.

© Hypholoma, from hyphe, a web, and loma, a fringe.

70

Sub-genus XXV. Psmocyss.* Veil, if present, not forming a
ring ; margin of pileus at first incurved.

152. A. Foenisecii, P. B. pl. xi., fig. 5. Huss. i,t. 39. Fields
and gardens ; common.
153. A. Bullaceus, Bull., t. 566, fig. 2. On dung. Charmy

Down. Batheaston.

154, A. Spadiceus, Scheff, t. 60, figs. 4-6. Rudlow.

Sub-genus XXVJ. Psatuyra. tVeil, none, or not forming a ring ;
pileus, conical or campanulate, margin at first straight. No
species of this Sub-genus has yet occurred in the district.

Series 5. Coprinarius.t Spores black ; gills never becoming
purple or brown.

Sub-genus XXVII. Pancouvs.|| Veil, when present, interwoven ;
pileus rather fleshy, without strie ; margin at first extending
beyond the gills, which are clouded.

155. A. Separatus, Z. B., pl. xi., fig. 7. Sow., t.131. Common
on the downs.

156. A. Fimiputris, Bull., t.66. B., pl. 11, fig. 6. Pastures ;
on dung.

157. A. Papilionaceus, Bull., t. 561, fig. 2,N.mM. Batheaston.

Sub-genus XXVIII. Psatuyrewwa.§ Veil not interwoven ; pileus
membranaceous ; margin not reaching beyond the gills.

158. A. Atomatus, Fr. Epic., page 239. Batheaston.
159. A. Disseminatus, P. Sow., t. 166. Batheaston. About

roots of trees.
Genus 2. Coprinus.7 fr.
Gills membranaceous, deliquescent ; spores black.

le. C. Comatus, Fr. Grev., t. 119. Sow., t. 189. Meadows ;
common.

2. C. Atramentarius, fr. B., pl. 12, fig. 1. Sow. 188. Gardens
and fields; common.

3. C. Micaceus, Fr. Sow., t. 261. About stumps, &e.; very
common.

* Psilocybe, from psilos, came and kube, a head.
af Psathyra, from psathyros, brittle. { Coprinarius, from kopros, dung.
|| Panceolus, from a atoioa, variegated all over.
§ Psathyrella, the same as Psathyra. {| Coprinus, from kopros.

_

71

4, C. Niveus, Fr. Sow., t. 262. On horse dung ; common.

5. C. Radiatus, Fr. Bull, t. 542, 1n. u—a. (A. Stercorarius,
Bull.) On dung. Batheaston.

6. C. Domesticus, /r. Huss. ii., 18. Batheaston. On damp
ceilings.

7. C. Plicatilis, #r. Curtis Fl. Lond., t. 200. Sow., t. 364.
Fields and paths. Batheaston. :

Genus 3. Boxzitius.* Fr.
Gills becoming moist ; trama obsolete ; spores coloured.
1. B. Titubans, Fr. Sow., t. 128. Meadows, &c. ; common.
2. B. Fragilis, Fr. Sow., t. 96. Bowood.
Genus 4. Cortinarius.t
Gills membranaceous, persistent ; trama floccose ; veil consisting
of arachnoid threads ; spores, rusty ochre.

Sub-genus I, Putzcmactum.t Pellicle of pileus viscid when moist ;

veil, and the stem from which it springs, dry.

1. C. Ccerulescens, Fr. Schoeff. t. 34. (Hand bona, Fr.)
Bristol. Dr. Stephens.

2. C. Callochrous, Fr. B., pl. 12, fig. 3. Rudlow.

3. C. Purpurascens, Fr. Epic., p. 265.

4, C. Fulgens, /r. Letellier, t. 646.
Sub-genus IJ. Myxacium.|| Universal veil and stem viscid, and

polished when dry.

5. C. Elatior, Fr. Epic., page 274. Bowood.
Sub-genus III. Inotoma.§ Pileus fleshy, dry, at first silky with

scales or innate fibres, not hygrophanous ; stem bulbous.

6. C. Violaceus, /r. Huss. i., t. 12. Rudlow. In woods.

7. C. Callisteus, r. Epic., page 281.

8. C. Bolaris, Fr. Pers., Ic. pict., t. 14, fig. 1.

9. C. Arenatus, Fr. Huss. i, t. 72. Near Bristol. Dr. Stephens.

10. C. Bulliardi, #r. Bristol. Dr. Stephens. Bull, t. 431, fig. 3.
Sub-genus IV. Dermocysn.{ Pileus, thin, silky with innate down,

dry, not hygrophanous ; stem, equal or attenuated, not bulbous.

>

_* Bolbitius, from bolbiton, manure. + Cortinarius, from cortina, a veil.
{ Phlegmacium, from phlegmacios, viscid. || Myxacium, from myxa, slime,
§ Inoloma, from in, a fibre, and loma, a fringe.
|] Dermocybe, from derma, a skin, and kube, a head.

72

11. C. Diabolicus, Fr. Epic., page 285. Bathford Down.

12. C. Anomalus, Fr. B., pl. 12, fig. 4. Bathford Down.

13. C. Cinnamomeus, /r. Kromb., t. 71, figs. 12-15. Hanham.
Woods.

14. C. Sanguineus, Fr. Sow., t. 43.

Sub-genus V. Tetamonta.* Pileus, moist, hygrophanous, smooth,
or clothed only with evanescent threads ; stem, sheathed with
the interwoven veil.

15. C. Hinnuleus, Fr. Sow., t. 173. Common in the woods.
16. C. Gentilis, Fr. Epic., page 297. Box and Hanham.

17. C. Evernius, Fr. Sow., t. 125, Batheaston. Woods.
18. C. Periscelis, Fr. Epic., page 300. Bowood.

19. C. Iliopodius, Fr. Bull., t. 586, fig. 2, a. B. Bowood.

Sub-genus VI. Hycrovyps.+ Pileus hygrophanous ; stem distinct
from the febrillose veil, hence neither annulate nor floccoso-

squamose,
Genus 5. Paxiiuus.*

Gills, persistent, distinct and easily separating from the hymeno-
phore, which is confluent with the stem ; trama, obsolete.
1. Paxillus involutus, fr. B., pl. 12, fig. 5. Very common.

Batheaston.
Genus 6. GoMPHIDIUS.t+

Pileus top-shaped ; hymenophore confluent with the stem ; gills,
slightly branched, formed of a mucilaginous membrane, edge
acute ; spores fusiform.

1. G. Viscidus, Fr. Sow.,t. 105. Under fir trees ; common.
2. G. Gracilis, B., pl. 12, fig. 7. Pasture near The Rocks,

Marshfield.
Genus 7. Hycropuorus, /7.t

Hymenophore continuous with the stem, and descending without
change into the sharp-edged gills ; hymenium waxy.
Tribe I. Veil universal, viscid.
1. H. Cossus, Fr. Sow., t. 121. Woods. Bowood.

* Telamonia, from telamon, lint.
+ Hygrocybe, from hugros, moist, and kube, a head.
{ Paxillus, a stake or post. || Gomphidius, from gomphus, a wedge.
t Hygrophorus, from hugros, moist, and fero, I bear.

——

73

2, H. Hypothejus, 7r. Sow., t. 8. Downs. Warleigh, &c.
3. H. Olivaceo-albus, fr. Scheeff., t. 312. Warleigh Down.

Hanham. 5

Tribe II. Veil, none; pileus, fleshy, moist, scarcely viscid.
4, H. Leporinus, #7. Scheff, t. 313. Durdham Down,

Bristol.

5. H. Pratensis, Fr, Grev., t. 91. Huss. ii., 40, Very common ;
downs and pastures.
6. H. Virgineus, /r. Pastures; common. Grev., t. 166. Sow.,

t. 32.

7. H. Ovinus, /r. Bull, t. 580. Huss. ii, 50. Warleigh

Down.

Tribe III. Whole fungus of a watery, viscid substance ; veil, none.
8. H. Letus, #r. Epic., page 329.

9. H. Ceraceus, Fr. Sow., t. 20. Common on the downs.

10. H. Coccineus, Fr. Huss. i, t. 61. Downs and pastures.

11. H. Conicus, fr, Sow., t. 381. Downs and pastures.

12. H. Psittacinus, fr. Sow., t. 82. Huss. i, t. 41. Downs;
common.

13. H. Calyptreeformis, 2. Annals of Nat. Hist., ser. 1, vol. 1,

p. 198. Hanham Common. The habitat is now ploughed up,

14, H. Unguinosus, #7. Epic., page 332.
15. H. Murinaceus, #’7,, Kromb,,t. 72. Bull, t.520, Warleigh

Down. Hanham. ;

Genus 8. Lactarius,*

Hymenophore confluent with the stem and vesiculose ; gills milky,
edge acute. Many of the species of this genus contain an acrid
principle which is productive of great pain and sickness, although,
according to M. Boudier, not terminating fatally to man ; others
are eatable. Dr. Badham says of L. Deliciosus, Fr., “ This is
one of the best Agarics with which I am acquainted, fully de-
serving both its name and the estimation in which it is held
abroad,” The milk of this species is red, and subsequently
turns green, thus enabling persons to distinguish it with ease
from dangerous kinds,

* Lactarius, from lac, milk,

74

Tribe I. Gills not decidedly changing colour ; milk acrid, white.
1. L. Torminosus, Yr. Sow., t. 103. Banks, &c. Batheaston.
2. L. Turpis, #r. Kromb., t. 69, figs. 1-6. Leigh Woods,
Bristol.

3. L. Insulsus, /r. B., pl. 13, fig. 2. Huss. i, t. 59. Warleigh
Down.

4, L. Blennius, /r. Kromb., t. 69, figs. 7-9. Bowood.

5. L. Circellatus, Fr. Sow., t. 203. Bowood.

6. L. Pyrogalus, /r. Kromb., t. 14, figs. 1-9. Plantations.
Bathford.

Tribe II. Aromatic; gills becoming pallid ; milk always coloured.
Te. L. Deliciosus, Yr. Sow. t. 202. Huss. i., t. 67. Esculent.
It may be served with white sauce or fried, or, after duly seasoning
with pepper and salt and putting a piece of butter on each, baked
(in a closely-covered pie dish) for about three-quarters of an hour.
Tribe III. Gills changing colour, dusted with the white spores ;
milk at first white, mostly mild.
8. L. Theiogalus, /r. Kromb., t. 1, figs. 23, 24.
9. L. Pallidus, “vr. Kromb., t. 56, figs. 10-14. Bowood.
10. L. Quietus, #r. Kromb., t. 40, figs. 1-9. Box.
ll. L. Serifluus, 7r. B., pl. 13, fig. 4. Batheaston.
12. L. Subdulcis, #7. Sow., t. 204. Woods. Batheaston.
13. L. Camphoratus, /r. Bull, 567, fig. 1. Batheaston.
Genus 9. Russuza.*
Hymenophore continuous with the vesiculose trama ; gills rigid,
not milky, edge acute ; veil none.
Tribe I. Prleus fleshy all over; margin consequently even and
without stric ; not clothed with a distinct, viscid pellicle,
1. R. Nigricans, /r. Sow., t. 30. Huss. t. 73. Monkton
Farleigh. Meadows.
2. R. Adusta, #7. Kromb., t. 70, figs. 7-13. Leigh Woods,
Downs.
Tribe IT, Pileus opaque, clothed with a thin, closely adnate, pellicle,
viscid when moist, but which disappears when the plant is old ;
margin at length striate, never tuberculate.

* Russula, from russulus, red.

75

3. R. Vesca, /r. Huss. i, t. 89. Bowood.

Tribe III. Pileus without any viscid pellicle, dry, commonly breaking
up into flocci and granules ; margin strarght, not striate.

4, R. Rubra, rv. Kromb., t. 65.

Tribe IV. Pileus brittle, clothed with a viscid cuticle ; margin
connivent, not involute, generally sulcate and tuberculate.

5. R. Ochroleuca, /r. Kromb., t. 64, figs. 7-9.

6. R. Fragilis, #r. Kromb., t. 64, figs. 12-18.

7. R. Integra, Fr. Vitt., t. 21. Woods. Bristol.

8. R. Aurata, Fr. Kromb., t. 66, figs. 8-11. Leigh Woods,
Bristol.

9. R. Nitida, 7r. B., pl. 13, fig. 7. Kromb., t. 66, figs. 1-3.
Bowood.

10. R. Vitellina, Fr. Batsch, fig. 72.

Dr. Badham says that three species of the Russulz make good
dishes, viz., R. Heterophylla, R. Rubra, and R. Virescens, but
several others are hurtful, and that it requires a good knowledge of
them to distinguish the good from the bad. They are, at all events,
very ornamental, decorating our woods with their varied and
brilliant colours.

Genus 10. CaANTHARELLUS.* /’r.
Hymenophore inferior, confluent with the floccose trama ; gills
thick, swollen, somewhat branched, edge obtuse.

le. C. Cibarius, 7r. Common in woods. Esculent. Grev., t.
258. Sow., t. 46.

2. C. Aurantiacus, Fr. Sow., t.413. B., pl. 14, fig. 1. Hanham
Common. A white variety occurs in marshy places. On sawdust
in a wine cellar at Batheaston.

3. C. Tubceformis, Fr. Pers., Ic. et. Des., t. 6, fig. 1. Leigh
Woods, Bristol.

4, ©. Muscigenus, Fr. Bull., ts. 288, 498, fig. 1. Batheaston.
Lucknam Grove. On mosses.
5. C. Lobatus, /r. Bolt, t. 177. Batheaston. On mosses.

Genus 1l. Nyorauis.*
Hymenophore confluent with the stem and trama; gills fleshy,

* Cantharellus, from kantharus, a cup.

76

juicy or sub-gelatinous, obtuse, unequal ; often parasitic on other

fungi ; veil universal.

1. N. Asterophora, /r. Bull, t. 516, figs. 1, 166. On dead
Agarics. Leigh Woods.

2. N. Parasitica, Fr. B., pl. 19, fig. 2. Sow. 343. On dead
Russule. Leigh Woods.

Genus 12. Marasmius.t

Hymenophore confluent with the stem, descending into the floccose

trama ; hymenium dry, covering the interstices as well as the

gills ; gills thick, tough, and subcoriaceous, edge acute.
(A.) Pileus, tough but fleshy ; margin at first involute ; mycelium

Sloccose.

1. M. Peronatus, Yr. B., pl. 14, fig. 4. Sow., t. 37. Lucknam
Grove. Plantations.

2e. M. Oreades, /r. Champignon. Scotch bonnets. Sow., t.
247. B., pl. 14, fig. 5. Dr. Badham says of this species, “ Inde-
pendent of the excellent flavour of this little mushroom, two
circumstances give it an additional value in a domestic point of
view, viz., the facility with which it is dried, and its extensive
dissemination. When dried (two or three days’ exposure to the
air is sufficient to effect this), the Agaricus Oreades may be kept
for years without losing any of its aroma or goodness, which, on
the contrary, become improved by the process. It is used in the
dry state to flavour rich soups and gravies, and in the preparation
of a la mode beef, but, as it soon loses its favour by over-cooking,
it should be thrown in only a few minutes before serving. It also
makes an excellent dish when fresh, stewed in cream and seasoned
with pepper and salt; for this purpose the buttons, or young
unexpanded specimens should be chosen, as far more delicate.
There are two fungi (Dr. Badham adds) of a deleterious nature
which are sometimes mistaken for this plant, viz., A. Dryophilus
and A. Semiglobatus, but the first may easily be distinguished by
its soft, fragile flesh, and the second by its dark spores.” I find
the odour of prussic acid, which M. Oreades possesses, a very good
mark of distinction, to which may be added its tough, leathery
consistence. Marasmius Urens, F’7. (a rare species), is also tough

* Nyctalis, from nuktalos, dull. + Marasmius, from marasmos, decay.

-

77

and leathery, but it is clothed with a white down at the base of the
stem, whilst M. Oreades is naked, nor has the former the peculiar
odour of prussic acid. This mushroom is so abundant in some
seasons and localities that a good profit might be made by collecting
and drying it, or by bringing it to market in a fresh state.

3. M. Impudicus, Fr. Epic., page 377. Hanham.

4, M. Foetidus, 7r. Sow., t. 21. Leigh Woods. Garlic-scented.

5. M. Ramealis, Fr. Bull, t. 336. Common on sticks in woods.
(B.) Stem horny, tough, dry ; mycelium rhizomorphoid ; pileus

sub-membranaceous ; edge at first straight.

(a.) Stem smooth.

6. M. Androsaceus, Fr. Sow., t- 94, On leaves in woods.
Lucknam.

7. M. Rotula, Fr. B., pl. 14, fig. 7. Sow., t. 95. On fallen
twigs in woods.

8. M. Graminum, B. and Br. B., pl. 14, fig. 8. Agaricus
Graminum, Libert. On dead leaves of Aira Cespitosa. Batheaston.
(b.) Stem pilose.

9. M. Insitius, Fr. B., pl. 14, fig. 6. On fir leaves in woods.

Bathampton.

10. M. Hudsoni, Fr. Sow., t- 164. On fallen holly leaves ; a

very elegant species. ,
11. M. Epiphyllus, Fr. Sow. t. 93. On fallen leaves in woods.

(c.) Stemless.
12. M. Spodoleucus, B. and Br. B. Outlines of Brit. Fung., p.

224. On dead twigs of wych elm. Batheaston.

Genus 13. Lantinus.* Fr.

Coriaceous, fleshy and tough, at length hard and dry ; gills tough ;
edge acute, toothed ; hymenophore homogeneous with the stem.
1. L. Cochleatus, Fr. B., pl. 19, fig. 4. Sow. t. 168. Rudloe.

On trunks of trees, This species exhales a powerful odour of anise,

extending sometimes several yards around the plant.
Genus 14. Panus.t

Pileus, fleshy but tough, at length drying up: gills tough ; edge

acute, entire ; hymenophore homogeneous with the stem.

* Lentinus, from lentus, tough. + From panus, a woof, in weaving.

78

1. P. Torulosus, Fr. Kromb., t. 42, figs. 3-5. On old stumps.
Batheaston.

2. P. Conchatus, Fr. Kromb., t. 42, figs. 1, 2. On old stumps.
Chippenham.

3. P. Stypticus, Fr. Sow., t. 109. Kromb., t. 44, figs. 13-17.
Common on stumps of oak.

Genus 15. Xxrotus.* Fr.
Hymenophore confluent with the stem ; gills tough or coriaceous,
dichotomous ; edge obtuse, entire.

Genus 16. ScnizopHyyuum.t Fr.
Gills coriaceous, split longitudinally, with the two divisions
revolute, or spreading.
Genus 17. Lenzites.t 7.
Corky or coriaceous ; gills firm, often anastomosing, and forming
spurious pores ; edge entire.
1. L. Betulina, Fr. B., pl. 15, fig. 3. Sow., t. 182. Onstumps
and rails ; very common.

Order II Polyporei.||
Hymeniun, or fructifying surface, spread over the interior of pores
or tubes, and inferior, or turned downwards; the pores are
generally persistent, but sometimes torn up, and forming con-
centric folds or teeth (not radiating as in Agaricini), but where
this is the case pores are visible in the young margin. In the
Order Polyporei, Mr. Berkeley observes, in his “ Introduction to
Cryptogamic Botany,” “ The size, length and division of the
hymenial processes afford an infinite variety of characters,
Where the tubes are only slightly connected, we have a Boletus;
where they are thin but not separable from one another, we have
a Polyporus: where the trama (substance intermediate between
the hymenium in the gills of Agarics, or pores of Polyporus) is
thick, and passes sensibly into the substance of the pileus, a
Trametes. In Fistulina, the pores are, from the first, perfectly

* Xerotus, from xeros, dry.
+ Schizophyllum, from schizo, I cut, and phyllon, a leaf.
{ Lenzites, from Lenz, a distinguished botanist.
|| Polyporei, from polus, many, and poros, a pore, or passage.

79

distinct, and their tips always free and studded with little ~
granules, which give them a flowery aspect. In a few genera
the pores are far less typical, formed rather by elevations of
the hymenium anastomosing so as to form little aree, than
regular pores. The Order Polyporei is intermediate between
Agaricini and Hydnei, in the former Lenzites possesses gills
anastomosing behind, and so forming spurious, but still radiating
pores ; in the latter, the hymenium is at first constituted of
teeth, but these are connected together at their base into lamelle.

Genus 18. Boterus.t
Hymenophore distinct from the hymenium itself, not descending
between the pores, and there forming a trama ; the pores are,
therefore, easily separable from the pileus. This structure readily
distinguishes Boletus from the other genera of the order.

Fries considers this genus as worthy of all attention, as the species
form very valuable articles of food, a few poisonous kinds excepted,
but even these, according to other writers, soon lose their bad
qualities in drying. Dr. Badham remarks, “The Boleti form
valuable articles of food on the Continent ; strings of them dried are
sold in all the markets of Italy.” He adds, on the authority of
Vittadini, that they are composed of many different species, yet no
accident was ever known to arise from the indiscriminate use of
them ; whence he infers that all the species are innocuous, or that
drying and cooking will extract any deleterious principle. He adds
that the peasantry in certain districts eat B. Luridus, which is
generally looked on as poisonous. Mr. W. G. Smith, in his book
on Edible and Noxious Fungi, dilates in rapturous terms on the
excellence of B. Edulis; he also speaks very favourably of B.
Cistivalis. Sound young specimens should be chosen, and the
tubes scraped away before cooking. B. Edulis has been cultivated
for the table. Roques describes the process thus :—“ A quantity of
ripe Boleti were placed in a watering pot, and the pot filled up with
rain water, and the mixture left for three weeks, till the whole was
in strong fermentation ; this fermented mass was then deposited in
different situations under oak trees. For five years there was no

¢ Boletus, from bolos, a lump or mass.

80

* visible result, but on the sixth the Boletus was abundant every-
where. The species had never been found before within a mile of
the spot.” The patience of the French was surely well exemplified
in this instance. Here we expect two crops in a year in our
enltivated lands, while in France results are waited for for five
years on waste land. With our agricultural energy we shall soon
have no wastes or Boletuses left. A curious phenomenon is to be
seen in certain species of Boletus, the flesh, when broken, changing
from white or yellow to blue. It is stated that Professor Robinson
has ascertained that this is not due to chemical action but to some
change in the molecular arrangement. Roques says of B. Luridus,
that a cat died in 24 hours after eating an ounce of it. A young
surgeon who had eaten one of these Boletuses, experienced intense
heat in the throat and stomach, attended with spasms and great
weakness ; the pulse rapid with a burning skin, and after a medical
treatment of some hours he recovered. He records another instance
which proved fatal to a Chevalier P. The species hitherto met
with in our district are—

Bolatus Luteus, Z. Warleigh. Kromb., t. 33.

B. Elegans, Schum. Grev., t. 183. Kromb., t. 34, figs. 1-10.
Leigh Woods.

B. Laricinus, B. Huss., i. t. 25. Bathford, &e.

B. Granulatus, Z. Sow., t. 420. Kromb., t. 34, figs. 11-14.
Bathford.

B. Bovinus, Z. Huss. i., t. 34. Kromb., t. 75, figs. 1-6.
Bathford.

B. Piperatus, Bull. Sow., t. 34. Kromb., t. 37, figs. 16-20.
Leigh Woods.

B. Parasiticus, Bull. B., Outlines, t. 15, fig. 4. Parasitic on
Scleroderma verrucosum. Hanham.

B. Chrysevtheron, #r. Huss.i., t.5. Hanham.

B. Subtomentosus, Z. Kromb., t. 37, figs. 8-11. Leigh Woods.

B. Pachypus, /r. Kromb., t. 35, figs. 13-15. Batheaston.

B. Luridus, Fr. Grev., t., 121. Kromb., t. 38, figs. 11-17.
Bathford, &c.

eB. Edulis, Bull. Sow.,t.111. Kromb., t. 31. Hanham.

B. Viscidus, Z. Leigh Woods. Dr. Stephens.

81

B. Scaber, Fr. Huss.i., t.57. Sow., t. 175. Leigh Woods, &e:

Out of 31 British species recorded in Berkeley’s “ Outlines of
British Fungology” we can claim 14, The greater part of the
Leigh Woods habitats for these and other species are on the
authority of Dr. Stephens, of Bristol.

Genus 19. Srroprtomyces. 3B.

Hymenophore quite distinct from the hymenium ; pileus fleshy, at
length tough ; spores globose, or broadly elliptic, minutely rough.
The only British species ; it has not been found in this neigh-
bourhood.

Genus 20. Potyporus. J’.

Hymenophore descending into the trama, and forming with the
pores a stratum distinct from the pileus, or differently coloured.

The pores are not separable, at first obsolete, then round, angular,
or variously torn. In P. Betulinus the pores are separable, where
we have a connecting link with the Genus Boletus. This extensive
genus, containing in Fries’s Epicrisis 280 species, is subdivided
into those with a central stem; those with a lateral stem and a
single, or scattered, mode of growth; such as have a lateral stem,
but are cornate at base with numerous pilei; and stemless forms.
These divisions are subdivided according as they are fleshy, tough,
spongy, biennial, corky, fomentarii (fit for tinder), woody, of a tow-
like structure, leathery, or membranaceous. Some Continental
species are used as food, but none of those found in our district are
of that nature. P. Tuberaster is cultivated for the table through
Southern Europe, its mycelium penetrating into clay forms a
substance called in Italy pietra funghiaia. Fries relates that P.
Ovinus, remarkable for a flavour of almonds, was much eaten by

his companions in their botanical excursions. P. Fomentarius is

collected largely in South Sweden for making amadou, or tinder.
The Polyporus is beaten out and placed in a solution of saltpetre.
The pieces are often of considerable size, and when sown together,
are sometimes made into coarse garments. P. Officinalis was
formerly used in medicine. Several of the species are very
destructive to trees, for, although they take their origin in diseased
parts, their mycelium spreads with great rapidity, and soon reduces
F

82

the trunk to a mass of touchwood.* The following species have
occurred in our district.
Stem central.
Polyporus Brumalis, Fr. Rost., t. 8. On sticks at Portbury,
near Bristol.
P. Rufescens, Fr. Sow.,t. 191. Onstumps. Clifton, &c.
P. Perennis, #7. Sow., t. 192. On the ground. Leigh Woods.
Stem lateral.
P. Squamosus, Fr. Grev., t. 207. On trees.
P. Varius, Fr. Bolt., t. 168. Batheaston.
P. Elegans v. nummularius, fr. Bolt., t. 83. On sticks,
Portbury.
Pilet numerous, springing from a common stem.
P. Sulfureus, #r. B. Outlines, pl. 16, fig. 3. Huss, i, t. 46.
On trees. Leigh Woods, &c.
P. Salignus, #r. Bolt., t. 78. On willows. Batheaston.

Stemless. Anodermet.

P. Chioneus, /r. Pers. myc. Eurp. ii, t. 15, figs. 4, 5. On
fir stumps. Bathford.

P. Fragilis, #r. On fir. Claverton.

P. Coesius, Fr. Sow., t. 226. On fir. Bathford.

P. Nidulans, Fr. Bull, t. 482. (Certe hujus loci, /r.) On
elm twigs. Batheaston.

P. Fumosus, /r. Batheaston. St. Catherine’s,

P. Adustus, Fr. Sow., t. 231. Batheaston.

P. Adiposus, B. and Br. Batheaston.

P. Hispidus, Fr. Sow., t. 345. Huss. i, ts. 29, 31.

P. Spumeus, /r. Sow., t. 211. B, Outlines, t. 16. Batheaston
and Bathford. On apple trees.

Placodermei.

P. Dryadeus, /r. Huss.i, t. 21. Bull. t. 458. Batheaston.
On oaks.

P. Betulinus, /r. Grev., t. 246. Leigh Woods.

* Polyporus Hispidus, Fr., has been observed at certain seasons of the year
distilling the sap of the tree on which it grew, and which fell from it ina
rapid succession of drops.

83

P. Applanatus, Fr. Bull, t. 454, r.c. (Habitum exprimit, Fr.)
Batsch., fig. 130. Bathampton.

P. Igniarius, Fr. Sow., t. 132. Common.

P. Fulvus, /r. Rost., t. 31. Batheaston.

P. Ribis, /r. Rost. iv., t. 53. Keynsham. Dr. Fox.

P. Ulmarius, /v. B. Outlines, t. 16, fig. 5. On elms.

P. Fraxineus, Fr. Bull., t. 433. Batheaston. On ash.

P. Annosus, Yr. Schooff., t. 138, figs 1-3. On various trees.
Different states of this plant constitute P. Medulla-panis, P-
Scoticus, and P. Subpileatus of various authors.

Inodermet.

P. Radiatus, Fr. Spye Park. On Alder.

P. Versicolor, #7. Huss. i, t. 24.

P. Abietinus, /r. Grev., t. 226. Bathford.

Resupinate.

P. Ferruginosus, Fr. Grev., t. 155. On sticks ; common.

P. Nitidus, Fr. Pers. Obs. Mye. ii, t. 4, fig. 1. Bristol.

P. Bombycinus, Fr. Sow., 387, fig. 5. Portbury.

P. Vitreus, Fr. Leigh Woods.

P. Obducens, /r. Near Bristol.

P. Vulgaris, #r. B, Outlines, t. 16, fig. 6.

P. Molluscus, Fr. Sow., t. 387, fig. 9. Leigh Woods.

P. Vaporarius, #r. Common.

P. Stephensii, B. and Br. On privet. Leigh Woods.

Out of 76 British we have 38 species.

Genus 21. TRametzs.*
Trama descending among the pores, but remaining quite un-
changed ; pores concrete with the pileus, and entire.

Fries has separated some of the Polypori, as P. Versicolor for
instance, from the rest under the generic name of Polystictus, the
character being that the pores, which are developed in a centri-
fugal direction, are perpendicular to the fibrillose stratum above
the hymenophore. In Trametes the hymenophore is not distinct
from the rest of the pileus.

Trametes Odora, #r. Bolt., t. 162. On willows ; common.

* Trametes, from tramis, the space between the pores of a Polyporus.

84

T Gibbosa, Fr. Sow., t. 194. Huss. ii, t.4. Warleigh and
Bristol.
Two out of four British species occur with us.

Genus 22. Dzpatza.* P.
Pores labyrinthiform, tooth-shaped, lacerated; in other respects
like Trametes.

Deedalea quercina, P. B. Outlines, pl. 19, fig. 5.

D. Confragosa, P. Sow., t. 193. Spye Park and Leigh Woods ;
on willows.

D. Unicolor, Fr. Sow., t. 325. On stumps.

We claim three out of four.

Genus 23. Meruuius.t fr.
Hymenium soft, waxy, forming porous, reticulate, or sinuous,
toothed folds.

Merulius Tremellosus is a very handsome plant with a whitish,
radiating, and toothed margin, and variously shaped, porous reticu-
lations of a reddish orange colour. It occurs occasionally on fir
stumps. M. Himantoides has given considerable trouble to some
of our neighbours by incrusting the club-mosses in their conserva-
tory with its thin, buff, and tawny folds, and although the boxes in
which it grew were destroyed, and new ones substituted, the
persevering pest soon reappeared, and proceeded afresh with its
work of devastation. M. Lacrymans is the terror of all house-
owners, and avenges their neglect of fresh air by spreading through
the timbers, and at length reducing them to powder, thus often
causing a serious and hidden mischief where ventilation is prevented.

Merulius Tremellosus, Schrad. Sow., t. 346. Huss. i., t. 10.
Ona fir stump. Bathford.

M. Corium, Fr. Grev., t. 147. On sticks ; common.

M. Porinoides, Fr. Pers. Myc. Eur., t. 14, fig. 7. Bristol.

M. Rufus, P. Pers. Myc. Eur., t. 16, figs. 1, 2.

M. Lacrymans, Fr. B. Outlines, pl. 2, fig. 1. Huss. i, t. 3.

M. Himantoides, Fr. Pers. Myc. Eur., t. 14, figs. 3, 4. (Mala,
Fr.) On club-mosses in a conservatory at Batheaston.

* Deedalea, from deedalus, skilfully wrought.
+ Merulius, from merula, a blackbird,

85

We have six out of ten British species.
Genus 24. Porornenium. Fr.
Hymenium beset with minute papille which, at first closed, are at
length pierced by a minute pore.
Porothelium Friesii, Mont. On pine. Wraxall, Somerset.
Genus 25. Fisrunina.* Bull.
Hymenophore fleshy ; hymenium at first papillose, the papillee at
length protruding, and forming distinct tubes.

Fistulina Hepatica, Fr. On oaks.

This curious fungus grows to a great size at times. Dr. Badham
mentions one measuring nearly 5 ft. round and weighing more than
8 Ibs.; and another is recorded on Mr. Berkeley’s authority,
weighing nearly 30. It frequently resembles a tongue in shape,
structure, and general appearance. Dr. Badham says Cesalpinus
ealls it “ Lingue,” and that its vulgar name in Italy is Lingua
Quercina. It is called Langue de Boeuf in France. In some states
it resembles a piece of liver, whence Persoon named it Boletus
Epaticus, and Fries, Fistulina Hepatica. It is of a blood-red colour,
with flesh-coloured, or yellowish tubes, which are prettily fringed
at their mouths. No fungus, says Dr. Badham, yields a richer gravy,
and when grilled it is scarcely to be distinguished from broiled
meat; when old it is best stewed down for stock, rejecting the
flesh, but if young it may be eaten in substance, plain, or with
minced meat. It is so succulent as to furnish its own sauce.

Fistulina Hepatica, Fr. On oaks. B. Outlines, pl. 17, fig. 1.
Huss. i., t. 65. The only species.

Order IIT. Hydnei.t
Hymenium inferior, or partly inferior, clothing the surface of spines,
teeth, or papille, not lining the interior of tubes, or pores.
Genus 26. Hypnoum.
Hymenium inferior, formed of spines which are distinct at base,
and clothed with the spores.

This extensive genus, containing in the Epicrisis 96 species, is
divided into sections characterized by the presence of a stem, either
* Fistulina, from fistula, a pipe.

+ Hydnei, from hydnon, a sort of solid mushroom,

86

central, or lateral, or branched, and tuberculate, or it is stemless,
or altogether resupinate. H. Repandum, which is esculent, is
common in our woods. Dr. Badham says that when well stewed
it makes an excellent dish, with a flavour of oysters, a great recom-
mendation, now that those luxuries are so dear.

Stem central.

Hydnum Repandum, L. B. Outlines, pl. 17, fig. 2. Huss. i, t. 16.

H. Zonatum, Batsch., fig. 224. Street, Somerset. A. Clark,Esq.

H. Nigrun, Fr. Batsch., fig. 223. Fries. Icon. Select., t. 5.
Street, Somerset. A. Clark, Esq.

Stem lateral.
H. Auriscalpium, Fr. Grev., t. 196. On fir cones.
Stemless. Dimidiate.

H. Ochraceum, P. On sticks ; common,

The structure of the sporophores in Hydnum Gelatinosum is
worthy of attention, asa similar form occurs in the Genus Tremella,
which thus forms a gradation from one order to the other. Fries
remarks of the Tremellini, that Hydnum Gelatinosum is of the

same nature.
Resupinate.

H. Membranaceum, Bull. Sow., t. 327. Leigh Woods.

H. Weinmanni, fr. Pers. Myc. Hur., t. 22, fig. 2. Batheaston.
Bristol. On sticks.

H. Ferruginosum, Fr. Nees. Sys., fig. 248. Batheaston.

H. Niveum, P. Pers. Disp., t. 4, figs. 6, 7. Bristol.

H. Farinaceum, P. Leigh Woods.

Ten species out of twenty-three British.

Genus 27. Sistorrema.* P,
Hymenium inferior, spread over gill-like, interrupted teeth, distinct,
and easily separable from the pileus.

Sistotrema Confluens, P. Grev., t. 248. Stoke Park, Stapleton,

Bristol.
Genus 28. Irpex.t JF’.

Teeth concrete with the subiculum, formed at an early stage of

growth, disposed in rows, or like network, or connected together.

* Sistotrema, from sisto, I place, and trema, a pore. + Irpex, a rake.

a a

87

Irpex Fusco-violaceus, #7. Leigh Woods.
This species was omitted in the Outlines of British Fungology,
where three other species are recorded as British.
Genus 29. Raputum.* Fr.
Hymenium occupying irregular tubercles, commonly elongated,
and cylindrical.
Radulum orbiculare, Fr. Grev., t. 278. Spye Park and Leigh
Woods.
R. Quercinum, Fr. Ray. Synopsis, t. 1, fig. 4. Batheaston.
Only two British species.
Genus 30. PuueBia.t Fr.

Hymenium waxy, covering crest-like wrinkles or veins.
Phlebia merismoides, 7. Grev., t. 280. Huss. ii., t. 44. Bowood.
One out of four British species.

Genus 31. Granpiniat Fr.
Hymenium waxy, granulated.
Grandinia Granulosa, /r. Rudlow. Not uncommon,
G. Ocellata, Fr. Batheaston. On wood.
All the British species.
Genus 32. Opontia.|| Jr.
Subiculum formed of interwoven fibres, clothed with papillose
warts, which are crested at the apex.
Odontia Fimbriata, P. Leigh Woods.
The only British species.
Genus 33. Kyerrria.§ Fr.
Soft, loosely fleshy, flocculose, and collapsing when dry, sometimes
rough, with rigid, scattered, and fasciculate bristles.
Kneiffia Setigera, /r. Wraxall, Somerset.
Order IV. Auricularini.
Hymenium confluent with the hymenophorum, at first even, or
rarely veined, commonly remaining even.

* Radulum, from radula, an instrument to shave with.
+ Phlebia, from phleps, a vein. { Grandinia, from grando, hail,
|| Odontia, from odous, a tooth.
§ Kneiffia, from Kneiffius, a cryptogamic botanist,
| Auricularini, from auricula, the ear,

88

Genus 34. CRATERELLUS. *
Fleshy, hymenium unchangeable, carnoso-membranaceous, distinct,
smooth, even, or at length rugose ; putrescent when old.
Craterellus Cornucopioides, Fr. B. Outlines, pl. 19, fig. 6.

Huss. ii, +. 37. Common in woods.

C. Sinuosus, Fr. Vaill. Paris., t. 11, figs. 11-13. Leigh Woods.
Genus 35. TueLerHora.t Fr.

Pileus destitute of cuticle, consisting of interwoven fibres ; hy-
menium costato-striate, or papillose, of a tough fleshy consistence,
at length rigid, finally collapsing and flocculent.

Not resupinate.
Thelephora Anthocephala, Fr. B. Outlines, pl. 17, fig. 4. Sow.,

t. 156. Rudlow.

. Cristata, Fr. Rudlow.

. Palmata, Fr. Grev., t. 46. Leigh Woods.

. Fastidiosa, Fr. Leigh Woods.

. Mollissima, P. 3B. Outlines, pl. 17, fig. 5.

. Laciniata, P. Sow., t. 213. Leigh Woods.

Biennis, Fr. Bull, t. 436. Bowood.

| Sebacea, Fr. Pers. Com., t. 4, fig. 4.° Lucknam, Wilts.

Resupinate.
T. Coesia, P. Pers. Obs. i, t. 3. fig. 6. Leigh Woods.
T Puteana, Schum. Common on wood.
T, Anthochroa, P. Warleigh.
We have eleven out of eighteen British species.
Genus 36. Srernumt Fr.

Hymenium coriaceous, rather thick, concrete with the intermediate
stratum of the pileus, which has a cuticle, always even and
veinless, unchangeable, not beset with bristles.

Stereum Purpureum, Fr. Sow., t. 388, fig. 1. Huss, i, t. 20.

Common on dead trees, &c.

S, Hirsutum, Fr. B. Outlines, pl. 17, fig. 7. Sow., t. 27.

Common on wood.

HeAHASSA

* Oraterellus, from cratera, @ cup.
+ Thelephora, from thele, a nipple, and fero, I bear.
¢ Stereum, from stereos, hard,

89

S. Spadiceum, /r. Bull, t. 483, fig. 5. Common on wood.
S. Sanguinolentum, /r. Grev. t. 225. Common.

S. Rugosum, /r, Common on stumps.

8. Acerinum, /r. Common on stumps.

Six species, all that are recorded in the Outlines as British.

Grnus 37. Hymenocnarts.* Lév.
Leathery, dry, even ; hymenium beset with short, stiff, coloured
bristles,
Hymenochete Rubiginosa, Zé. Sow., t. 26. Batheaston.
H. Tabacina, Zé. Bolt., t. 174. Leigh Woods,
Two out of three British species.

Genus 38. AURICULARIA, J.

Hymenium irregularly and distantly folded ; gelatinous when wet ;
different in substance from the pileus.
Auricularia Mesenterica, Bull. Sow. t. 290. Huss, ii, t. 6.
Common on old stumps.
One species out of two British. ’

Genus 39. Corticium.t J’.

Hymenium soft and fleshy ; swollen when moist; collapsing and
becoming even when dry ; often rimose,

Corticium Evolvens, #7. Fries. Obs., i, t. 4, fig. 5. Batheaston.
On posts and rails.

C. Giganteum, Fr. On firs ; common.

C. Arachnoideum, B. Spye Park.

C. Leve, Fr. On wood ; common.

C. Velutinum, fr. Batheaston.

C. Sanguineum, fr. Leigh Woods.

C: Sulfureum, fr. Rudlow.

C. Coruleum, Fr. Huss., i, t. 20. Common.

C. Calceum, /r. Warleigh.

C. Quercinum, Fr. Grev., t. 182. Common,

C. Cinereum, /r. Common.

* Hymenocheete, from hymen, a membrane, and chaite, a bristle,
+ Corticium, from cortex, bark.

90

C, Incarnatum, Fr. Rudlow.

C. Nudum, Fr. Common.

C. Confluens, Fr. Spye Park.

C. Comedens, Fr. Leigh Woods.

C. Sambuci, fr. Grev., t. 242. Common.

C. Aurora, B. and Br. Spye Park. On dead leaves of Carices-
Seventeen species out of twenty-three British.

Genus 40. CypHetia.* Fr.
Sub-membranaceous ; cup-shaped ; adnate and elongate behind ;
often pendulous ; hymenium inferior, forming one substance
with the pileus.

Cyphella Muscigena, Fr. Pers. Myc. Eur., t. 7., fig. 6. Hanham.
On mosses.

C. Galeata, Fr. Hanham.

C. Lacera, Fr. Alb. and Schw., t. i, fig. 5. Leigh Woods.

C. Capula, Fr. Holm. ii, t. 22. Batheaston.

C. Goldbachii, Fr. Spye Park. On Aira Coespitosa.

C. Curreyi, B. and Br. Common.

C. Ochroleuca, B. and Br. Batheaston. On bramble.

Out of nine British species we claim seven.

Genus 41. Sorentat P.
Cups tubular, cylindrical, mouth narrowed, inferior, or turned
downwards.

This genus has been placed among the Discomycetes from
neglect of its mode of fruiting ; the spores are produced as in
Cyphella.

Solenia Ochracea, Hoffm. Sow., t. 369, fig. 3. Common on
dead trees, &c.

S. Candida, Hoffm. Deutschland’s Flora, t. 8, fig. 1. Bath-
easton, January, 1869.

Order V. Clavariei.
Hymenium scarcely distinct from the hymenophore ; vertical ;
amphigenous ; reaching to the apex ; even, or at length wrinkled ;
never incrusting, or coriaceous.

* Cyphella, from cyphellon, a cup. + Solenia, from solen, a channel.

91

Genus 42, Cuavania* LL.
Fleshy ; branched or simple ; without any stem of a distinct
substance ; hymenium dry.

Clavaria Botrytis, P. Kromb., t. 53, fig. 174.

C. Amethystina, Bul/. B. Outlines, pl. 18, fig. 2. Bull, t. 496,
fig. 2. Leigh Woods.

C. Fastigiata, D. C. Holm. i. p. 90.

C. Muscoides, Z. Holm.,i., p. 87.

C. Coralloides, Fr. Sow., t. 278. Leigh Woods.

C. Cinerea, Bull. Grev., t. 64. Batheaston.

C. Cristata, Holm. Grev., t. 190. Bathford.

C. Rugosa, Bull. B. Outlines, pl. 18, fig. 3. Leigh Woods.

C. Aurea, Scheff, t. 287. Leigh Woods.

C. Formosa, P. Kromb., t. 53, fig. 7, and t. 54, figs. 21-22.
Warleigh Common and Bathford Hill.

C. Abietina, Schum. Grev., t.117. Box. Lucknam Grove. In
fir woods.

. Crocea, P. Icon. et Descrip., t. 9, fig. 6. Wraxall. Somerset.
. Fusiformis, Sow., t. 234. Hanham.

. Incequalis, Mill. Sow., t. 253, lower figs. Common.

. Argillacea, Fr. Observ., t. 5, fig. 3. Leigh Woods.

. Fumosa, P. Kromb., t. 53, fig. 18. Great Elm, Somerset.

. Vermiculata, P. Leigh Woods.

. Fragilis, Holm. Sow., ts. 90 and 232.

. Pistillaris, Z. Huss., i, t. 62.

C. Contorta, Fr. Holm., p.29 cumicon. Spye Park. Onalder.

C. Ardenia, Sow., t. 215. Leigh Woods.t

C. Uncialis, Grev., t. 98. Batheaston.

Twenty-two species out of thirty-two British.

* Clavaria, from clava, a club.

+ Clavaria Ardenia occurred in great numbers in Leigh Woods in the
autumn of 1868. It appeared to assume the form of C. Juncea, Buli., when
small, and growing on leaves instead of sticks. Some specimens were nine
inches long. Mr. W. G. Smith says, in “ Mushrooms and Toadstools,” that
all the white-spored species of Clavaria are esculent. Dr. Badham gives
various ways of cooking ©. Coralloides ; and Mr. Berkeley sent specimens

of C. Rufescens, Fr., one of the ochrey-spored kinds from the market in
Hanover last year, where it is sold in quantities for food,

oonoqaa a ce

Q

92

Genus 43. Catocera.* 7.

Gelatinous ; sub-cartilaginous when moist, horny when dry ;
hymenium viscid.
Calocera Cornea, #7. Batsch., fig. 161. Common.
C. Glossoides, Fr. Leigh Woods.
C. Striata, Hoffm. Deutschland’s Flora, t. 7, fig. 1. Batheaston.
We have three species, one of which is not among those of the
Outlines, where four are described.
. Genus 44, Typuuta.t Fr.

Stem filiform ; flaccid ; terminated by a distinct, club-shaped
hymenium of a waxy consistence. Slender fungi, soon becoming
flaccid, growing on dead plants.

Typhula Erythropus, Fr. Grev., t. 43. Batheaston.
T. Phacorrhiza, Fr. Sow., t. 233. Batheaston.
T. Gyrans, /r. Batsch., fig. 164.
Three species out of seven British.
Genus 45. Pistmuarma.t Fr.

Club-shaped ; waxy, then horny; structure cellular. This genus
differs chiefly in its texture, which is entirely cellular, not
fibrillose like Typhula. Epiphytical fungi, some springing from
a sclerotioid base, others from an attenuated stem.

Pistillaria Quisquiliaris, 77. Sow., t. 334, fig. 1. Leigh Woods.
P. Puberula, B. Sow., t. 334, fig. 2. Batheaston.
Two species out of five British.

Order VI. Tremellini.||

Whole plant gelatinous, with the exception occasionally of the
nucleus ; sporophores large, simple, or divided ; spicules elon-
gated into threads.

Genus 46, TremeLLa. Jr.
Gelatinous ; tremulous ; immarginate ; hymenium not papillate,

surrounding the whole fungus.
Tremella Foliacea, P. Bull., t. 406, fig. a. Bristol.

* Calocera, from kalos, beautiful, and keras, a horn.
+ Typhula, from typha, the reed-mace.
{ Pistillaria, from pistillum, a pistil. || Lremellini, from tremo, I shake.

93

T. Mesenterica, Retz. Sow., Eng. Bot., t. 709. Huss., 1 tele
Common.

T Moriformis, B. Sow., Eng. Bot., t. 2446. On elm sticks.
Batheaston.

T. Albida, Huds. Sow., Eng. Bot., t. 2117. Very common.

T. Sarcoides,* Smith. B. Outlines, pl. 2, fig. 7. Sow., Eng.
Bot., t. 2450.

T. Epigea, B. and Br. Ann. of Nat. Hist., ser. ii., p. 266,
with a fig. Leigh Woods ; on the earth.

T. Versicolor, B. and Br., occurred at Batheaston and various
other localities in the winter of 1850, since which I have looked
for it in vain. Annals of Nat. Hist., May and June, 1854.

T. Viscosa, P., is Corticium Viscosum of Persoon. It has the
true structure of a Tremella, viz., globose sporophores, producing
three or four elongated sterigmata, and oblong spores.

T. Torta, Wid.

There may often be seen, in the winter, bits of stick ornamented
by bright yellow, lobed, gelatinous masses, sometimes two or three
inches across ; this is Trenulla Mesenterica. The genus was defined,
in a few words, before, but is worthy of further remark from its
peculiar structure. Fries considers it as the lowest form of the
Hymenomycetes, and therefore intimately connected with other
orders, and descending at once into the Coniomycetes. There is an
admirable paper on it by Tulasne in the Annales des Sciences
Naturelles, read before the Academy of Sciences in April, 1853,
from which an extract is given below. Fries says that Hydnum
Gelatinosum, and the species composing one or two other genera,
are of the same structure, and as regards the first, his remark is
borne out by my friend Mr. Currey, who has found that species in
fir woods, near Taplow. Mr. Currey’s observations are as follows :
—“On examining the fructification of Hydnum Gelatinosum, I
was surprised to find that, although in its external characters it is
a perfect Hydnum, it bears the fruit of a Tremella. If one of the
teeth be examined with the microscope, it will be seen to consist of
threads, bearing four-lobed sporophores and spores exactly similar

RapReNo Svs 2c eG Ae ES Tes
* Tremella Sarcoides, Sm., is now considered merely a naked-spored state of
Coryne Sarcoides, Fr, Bulgaria Sarcoides, Fr., is the ascigerous state.

94

to a Tremella. The only difference (a very unimportant one) is
that the prolongation of the apex of each of the lobes of the
sporophores is considerably shorter than is usually the case in
Tremella. It will thus be seen that the plant is exactly inter-
mediate between the Orders Hydnei and Tremellini, forming a
stepping stone from one to the other. M. Tulasne observes, that
of all the fungi composing Fries’s Class Hymenomycetes the
Tremellini are least understood. Their gelatinous nature, and the
various forms they assume, rendering their study particularly
difficult. Léveilliér found that they are true members of the
Hymenomycetes (basidiospores Zév.) and that their reproductive
bodies are produced upon hymenial cells, either in twos, as in
Dacrymyces, or solitary, as in Tremella, and Exidia, M. Tulasne
has carried their history much further, or rather has shown it a
in a light altogether new. He says; Tremella mesenterica, our
common, yellow, species, is composed of a mass of colourless
mucilage, without distinguishable structure, in which variously
branched, anastomosing, threads are immersed. Towards the
outer surface these threads give origin to globose cells filled with
plastic matter, to which the fungus owes its colour. When mature,
these globose cells grow out at their summit into two, three, or
four distinct, continuous, tubes which are attenuated into fine
points ; on these points a small cell is produced, which is the fruit,
or spore. The spores fall off, and form a white dust on the
Tremella, or on the bark from which it grows. The Tremellini
differ from other Hymenomycetes in several respects, but especially
in the division of their basidia into two, three, or four equal parts
by vertical septa, which precedes the formation of sporiferous
spicules; the parts of the basidia often become free from one
another ; such abnormal basidia generally occur beneath the sur-
face occupied by the ordinary fertile cells in the mucous substance
of the Tremella. In addition to this mode of fruit formation the
Tremellini possess another mode of propagating themselves ; viz.,
a system of threads producing innumerable bodies called by
Tulasne spermatia ; these threads are sometimes mixed with those
producing basidia, at other times they occupy exclusively certain
parts of the fungus, frequently the lower lobes. Such parts are

95

recognizable by their brighter colour, since there is no admixture
of the paler spores to deaden the colour of the spermatia. Tulasne
was unable to cause these bodies to germinate, and therefore
assigns them other functions. A curious fact was observed in the
spores, certain of them produced a small conical tube on one of
their sides, and upon the tip of this a globose secondary spore
was formed, while others produced the ordinary germinating
threads of other fungi. The globose, secondary, spores could not
themselves be caused to germinate. The genus Dacrymyces
presents a very similar structure to that of Tremella. D.
Deliquescens consists of a system of delicate, brauched, filaments
immersed in colourless gelatine. At the outer surface the threads
support cylindrical, or club-shaped cells, obtuse at their ends, often
grouped three together on one base, and filled with plastic matter,
giving colour to the whole plant; each of these cells becomes
forked at top, and is produced into two, gradually attenuated, con-
tinuous, branches, at the summit of which a spore is produced.
In this case the spores become septate, and from each of the cells
thus formed arises one, or more, short processes on which a
secondary globose spore is developed, as in Tremella. Those
spores, which produce the secondary spores, have not been seen to
germinate, whilst the other spores were observed germinating in
abundance. M. Tulasne argues from this that all the spores,
though identical to our eyes, have not the same function ; he also
thinks that generally, if not constantly, these two forms are pro-
duced on distinct plants. He describes a state of D. Deliquescens
where the cells forming generally the bases of the fructiferous cells,
are transformed into oblong, separable bodies of a reddish colour,
and various lengths, which he regards as a gemmiparous state of the
plant. The cells ordinarily colourless, and void of solid contents,
become filled with coloured protoplasm, grow thicker, and
eventually divide themselves into an infinity of frustules, straight,
curved, or irregular in form. These frustules have been seen to
germinate, showing it to be a scissiparous growth. A similar fact
occurs in D. Sebaceus and others. A like structure is found in
Exidia, where the hymenium only occupies the upper surface of
the fungus, which has the form and habit of Peziza.

96

Genus 47. Exipia.* £7.

Tremulous, margined and glandular above, barren beneath.
Exidia glandulosa, #r. Leigh Woods. Eng. Bot., ts. 2448 and
2452. Huss.i., t. 42.
E. Recisa, /r. Eng. Bot., t. 1819. Batheaston.
Two out of three British species.

Genus 48. Hirnzota.t Fr.

Gelatinous, cup-shaped, horny when dry ; hymenium more or less
wrinkled; interstices even, without papille; outer surface
velvety.

Hirneola Auricula-Jude. B, Outlines, pl. 18, fig. 7. Huss. i.,

t. 53. Common on elder, &c.

Our only British species.
Genus 49, Nazmatenia.t Fr.

Nucleus solid, heterogeneous, covered with a gelatinous stratum,
which is everywhere clothed with the hymenium.
Neematelia Encephala, Fr. On larch. Wild. Bot. Mag. i, t. 4,

fig. 14.
N. Virescens, Cd. On Gorse, Wraxall, Somerset.

Two out of three British species.
Genus 50. Dacrymyczs.|| ees.
Homogeneous, gelatinous ; conidia disposed in moniliform rows ;
sporophores clavate, at length bifurcate.
Dacrymyces Deliquescens, Duby. Batheaston.
D. Sebaceus, B. and Br.§

* Exidia, from exudo, I exude.
+ Hirneola, from hirnea, an earthern vessel.
{ Nematelia, from nema, gelatine or a thread, and eileo, I involve.
|| Dacrymyces, from dakroun, a tear, and mukes, a fungus.

§ Dacrymyces Sebaceus may be thus characterized. Albidus, sebaceus
subrotundus, 2—4 lineas latus, ccelo pluvialitantum conspicuus. Sporis ovato-
triangularibus 0,0005 unc. Ang. longis 0,0002—0,0003 latis. E. filamentis
varie-ramosis, superne scepe clavatis orientibus. Filamentis hic illic in
conidia globosa solventibus. D, ccesio Sommerf proximus. Ad virgulta
fraxinea et acerinea, hieme, Batheaston, 1868. Besides the spores above
described other bodies occur resembling those of a Fusisporium, which appear
to grow from the same threads, but may possibly be parasitic on the

‘97

Genus 51. Apyrenium.t Fr.
Stroma gelatinoso-carnose, fibroso-floccose, hollow, inflated ; hy-
menium smooth, when dry collapso-pubescent.

Apyrenium Armeniacum, B.and Br. On oak sticks. Bath-
easton. October, 1865.

One out of two British species.

Genus 52. Hymenutat Fr.
Effused, very thin, maculzform, agglutinate, between waxy and
gelatinous.

Hymenula Punctiformis, B. and Br. Onfir poles. Batheaston.

Our only species.

Genus 53. Drriona.|| Sr.
Orbicular, patelleeform ; hymenium discoid, gelatinous, at first
veiled. ,

The only British species has not occurred in our district.

To present in a few words a summary of the foregoing lists we
find that out of 355 species of the Genus Agaricus recorded in
the “ Outlines of British Fungology,” our list contains only 159 ;
of Coprinus, 7 out of 24 ; of Bolbitius, 2 out of 4 ; of Cortinarius,
19 out of 48 ; of Paxillus 1 out of 3; of Gomphidius, 2 out of 3;
of Hygrophorus, 15 out of 27 ; of Lactarius, 13 out of 27; of Rus-
sula, 10 out of 24 ; of Cantharellus, 5 out of 10 ; of Nyctalis, 2, all
known to Britain ; of Marasmius, 12 out of 25 ; of Lentinus, 1 out
of 7; of Panus, 3, all that are recorded as British; of Lenzites, 1 out
of 4, In two genera, Xerotus and Schizophyllum, we are not repre-
sented at all. Of the remaining orders of the Hymenomycetes, viz.,
the Polyporei, Hydnei, Auricularini, Clavariei, and Tremellini we
claim 179 species out of 312 recorded in the “ Outlines,” making the
total 338 out of 923, or as 1 to 2°738. But since that work was
published numerous species have been added, and in confirmation
Dacrymyces, which would be a similar case to that mentioned by De Bary,
where, speaking of the Nostochacew, he says “ that certain parasitical
Ascomycetes penetrate into them, distribute their mycelium through the
growing thallus, and often become attached to their cells,” thus causing the
Nostocs to assume the appearance and forms of the Collemata.

+ Apyrenium, from puren, a fruit stone.
t~ Hymenula, from hymen, a membrane.
|| Ditiola, from dittos, double, and ioulos, down,

98

I will mention the rich additions to our flora made in the last two
years by Mr. Aubry Clark, of Street. Hydnum nigrum, new to
Britain, is a species which from its size, beauty and abundance in
the fir woods of that district, where it forms circles several feet in
extent, containing hundreds of individuals, could not, one might
have supposed, have been so long passed over. A very fine Peziza,
discovered by the same gentleman, and figured in the November
Number of the Journal of Botany for 1869, is also new to Britain,
Hydnum zonatum is another addition to our local flora by Mr.
Clark. The Rev. G. H, Sawyer, of Maidenhead, has also greatly
enriched the British Flora during the last few years in the vicinity
of Taplow and Ascot; Hydnum Fragile, new to Britain, H.
Zonatum, and H, Tomentosum were by him added to our list. H.
Imbricatum was not known in that locality till he discovered it,
and it is there in profusion, and remarkable for its size, sometimes
nine inches across, and for its fine van brown colour, covered with
darker scales. Sparassis Crispa has also rewarded the researches
of more than one botanist during the last two or three years. It
is hoped that the naturalists of Bath and its vicinity may be induced
by these instances of success to give their aid towards filling up the
blanks in the list of fungi now laid before the Field Club, And
there can be no doubt but their researches will result in the
discovery of many new and beautiful forms.

AUTHORS QUOTED AND ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE FOREGOING LIST.
Alb. and Schw.—Albertini and Schweinitz, ‘ Conspectus Fungorum,” &e.
Batsch.— Elenchus Fungorum,”

B.—Berkeley, in “ Eng. Flora” and “ Outlines of British Fungology.”

Bolton—‘‘ History of Fungusses,” &c.

Bull.—Bulliard, ‘‘ Herbier de la France.”

Fries—“ Observationes mycologices,” “Systema mycologicum,” ‘Epi-
crisis,” and “ Summa vegetabilium, Scandinavice, and “ Icones Selectos.”

Grev.— Greville, ‘‘ Scotch Cryptogamic Flora.”

Hoffm.—Hoffman, “‘ Deutschland’s Flora,” &c.

Holm.—Holmskiold, ‘‘ Beata ruris otia fungis,” &e.

Huds.—Hudson, “ English Flora.”

Huss.—Hussey, “ Illustrations of British Mycology.”

Kromb.—Krombholz, “ Abbildungen,” &c,

L.—Linnzus, “ Flora Suecica Lasch, in Linnza.”

Lév.—Léveillé, in “ Annales des Sciences Naturelles,”

Nees.— Das System der Pilze,

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99

P. or Pers.—Persoon in “ Observationes Mycologice,” “ Mycologia Eu-
ropea,’’ and other works.
Rost.—Rostkovius, in Sturm’s ‘‘ Deutschland’s Flora.
Scheeff.—Scheeffer, “‘ Fungorum Icones.”
Schum.—Schumachér, in “‘ Enumeratio plantarum Scellandiz.”
Scop.—Scopoli, “‘ Flora Carniolica.”
Sommerf.—Sommerfelt, in “ Supplementum Flora Lapponica.”
Sow.—Sowerby, “ English Fungi.”
_ Tul.—Tulasne in various works.
Vaill.— Vaillant, “‘ Botanicon Parisiense.”
Wahl.—Wahlenberg, “ Flora Lapponica.”
Wall.—Wallroth, “ Flora cryptogamica Germanic,” &c.
Wein.— Weinman, ‘“‘ Hymenomycetes.”
Willd.— Willdenow, ‘‘ Flora Berolinensis.’’

Notes on the Chapel and Hospital of St. Mary Magdalene,
Bath. By the Rev. W. Stoxes SHaw. Read April 7, 1869.

“‘ There was an holy Chappell edifyde,
Wherein the hermite dewly wont to say
His holy things each morne and eventyde ;
Thereby a christall streame did gently play,
Which from a sacred fountaine welled forth alway.”’

“ The Faéry Queene,” canto i., 34,
I. Tae CHapEt.

This Chapel, though till about fifty years ago only forty-five feet
long and fifteen broad, is not without its interest. At the end of
an old Saxon Manuscript of the Four Gospels, now in the Library
of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, occurs a Deed of gift, written
in Latin,* by which a certain Walter Hosat made over the Chapel
“Beate Marie Magdal. de Holeweye,” without Bath, and all .
the capital messuage belonging to Walter Hosat, and situate in
“ Holeweye,” and all things thereto belonging, freed from all secular
service, to the Church of St. Peter, Bath, the Bishop John and the
Monks, for ever, on the condition that they “ edificent et exaltent,”
whatever those words may imply. The following animals formed
part of the gift—Six oxen, four cows, sixty sheep, and thirty rams.
(See Illustration I.) This gift was, as usual, for the benefit of
Walter Hosat’s own soul, of all his ancestors and posterity, and for

* The original is M.S., 140,C.C.C. See Report of Charity Com., 1820, on
Hospital of St. Mary Magdalene.

100
To his honour, be it said, this transaction

was with the consent of his wife (Beatrice ?), though, I presume from
an oversight, it is not stated that it was for the good of her soul.

that of King William.

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101

The Bishop John here mentioned, would be John de Villula, who
in 1090 obtained from William II. a grant of the Abbey with the
city itself,* that he might make the Abbey a cathedral, and Bath
his residence. Among other good works “ he erectid,” we are told
by Leland,t “a new and much fairer Church,” the old one having
apparently been injured by war in 1087.

The example of the Bishop had its right effect, for Walcuinus de
Douayt gave to God, and the Church of St. Peter, and Bishop John,
and the Ministers of the same, the Church of Bathampton, and all
the tithes of that manor; his brother, steward, his sons, and
chaplain also gave liberally.

John was Bishop from 1088-1123, but the mention of his
connection with Bath Abbey, of which he did not obtain the grant
till 1090, and also the mention of King William, who died in 1100,
fix the date of this deed of gift to between 1090-1100. The Abbey
is called the ‘‘ Church of St. Peter,” the name of St. Paul was not
added till about the year 1178.||

The Hosats seem to have been at this time people of some
importance in the neighbourhood of Bath. In the middle of the
reign of William I., when Wlfwold and Alfsig were joint Abbots, a
lease of land at Charleombe was made to a William Hosett under a
yearly ferm. William Hosett to serve in war at the King’s
summons and to pay the King’s tallage.§ This is the “ William ”
who is mentioned in Domesday Book as holding “‘Cerlecume of the
Church.” Next, in the latter part of William II.’s reign, is the
deed of gift of this Chapel. In 1123 there was an accommodation
made between the Convent of Bath and a William Hosat, and the
document is signed by Henry, Robert, and Atselinus Hosat, with
others.** Once more in the reign of Henry II., between 1154-1174,
the names of William, Walkelinus, and Walter Hosat occur as liable

* Warner, “ History of Bath,” p. 113. Earle, “‘ Bath, Ancient and Modern,
p. 77. t Leland, “Itinerary,” vol. ii, p. 39. "Warner, p. 62.
t Warner, p. 115; App. xix. || Warner, p. 116.

§ Warner, App., No. viii. Britton’s “ Bath Abbey,” p. 16. Dugdale’s
“‘Monasticon” ii., 265. The original is in C.C.C. Library, MS. Miscellanea,
G. p. 95. ‘| Exon Domesday Book, page 172, fol. 186.

** Warner, App., p. 12, xx. Madoxii Form, Ang. 136. C.C.C. Miscellanea,
G., p. 112.

102

to serve the king.* Thus for nearly one hundred years the name
of Hosat is associated with Bath.t

The name Huyset occurs in 1301 as a manucaptor or bonds-
man to the Sheriff for the due attendance and faithful service in
Parliament of the citizens of Bath who were returned, and liable to
a heavy fine if these duties were neglected.t The Rev. W. H.
Jones, of Bradford-on-Avon, after his lecture at the Institution,
Jan. 21, 1870, remarked that “something had been said respecting
his opinion as to the translation of the name Harding or Harden to
Durus. He was certain there were such translations. In the
Wilts Domesday there was a person described as Robertus Flavus,
being a translation of the name Robert Blond, or Fair Robert.
Again there was the name Robertus Hosetus, a man who wore hose ;
Wilhelmus Dispensator, from which comes the modern name
Spencer, all instances in which the Norman scribe did translate the
word.”

In the year 1332 we have mention of the Chapel as connected
with the Hospital under the name of St. Cross and St, Mary Mag-
dalene, of which more presently. ||

About the year 1421 occurred the contest between the citizens
of Bath and the monks as to the right of ringing the bells, and a
William Aishley is mentioned by Warner as chaplain of St. Mary
Magdalene, and one of the conspirators against the prior’s privi-
leges, insisting on ringing the Chapel bell before the prior’s bell,
but I know not on what authority Warner states him to have been
chaplain of St. Mary Magdalene, as he is only spoken of in the deed
referred to as ‘* Willelmus Aishley, capellanus.” And how came the
chaplain to act thus, when the Chapel and hospital were under the
control of the Abbey ?§

* Warner, App., p. 16, xxvii. Lib. Nig. Scac., p. 86.
+ Exon Domesday Book. page 41, fol. 47; page 68, fol. 76 ; page 171, fol. 185 ;
page 172, fol. 186 ; page 430, fol. 4644; page 483, fol. 519; page419. Winton
Domesday Book, page 31. Rev. W. H. Jones’s Domesday Book for
Wiltshire, pages 103, 154, and 234.

{ Warner, p. 171, note. Prynne, “ Brev. Parl. Red.” 298.
|| Tanner’s “ Notitia Monastica.”’ Report of Charity Commission, 1820.
§ Warner, p. 123. Warner, App., p. 24, xli; p. 46, li,

103

From 1489-1499 John Cantlow was Prior of Bath. He built
i chancel and part of the court at St. Catherine’s and likewise
od the Chapel in Holloway and rebuilt the hospital adioining.

Nee seuwues OVA yr ewan wate ep yee
_ figure of a monk with his crozier, intended perhaps for Prior
my Cantlow (2) (2) In the middle was our Saviour on the Cross and
peedarneth a large figure of St. Bartholomew with his name Sc.

: Fite Tanner’s Notitia Moni” Panatsir: p. 133. Hook’s Lives of Abps.,
5 vol, v. p. 456.
_ + Collinson, vol: i, p. 178. Warner, p. 239, note.

102

to serve the king.* Thus for nearly one hundred years the name
of Hosat is associated with Bath.t

Vo a oR Sin a eee En Ce PP Ys ee

T)lustration I . Inscaiption met
Chap of. JM. Maadaline Peak £495?

* Warner, App., p. 16, xxvii. Lib. Nig. Scac., p. 86.
+ Exon Domesday Book. page 41, fol. 47; page 68, fol. 76; page 171, fol. 185 ;
page 172, fol. 186 ; page 430, fol. 4645; page 483, fol. 519; page 419. Winton
Domesday Book, page 31. Rev. W. H. Jones’s Domesday Book for
Wiltshire, pages 103, 154, and 2384.

{ Warner, p. 171, note, Prynne, “ Brev. Parl. Red.” 298.
| Tanner’s “ Notitia Monastica.” Report of Charity Commission, 1820.
§ Warner, p. 123. Warner, App., p. 24, xli; p. 46, li.

103

From 1489-1499 John Cantlow was Prior of Bath. He built
the chancel and part of the court at St. Catherine’s and likewise
restored the Chapel in Holloway and rebuilt the hospital adjoining.
During his time Archbishop Morton visited Bath.*

On the east side of the Chapel porch an Inscription in rough
rhyme, commemorating the event of the Restoration, can still be
read. (See Illustration II.) [It was for many years yellow-washed
over, but was cleaned out and re-coloured in 1864 by order of the
Charity Trustees]. The words are,

s Thys.chapell.florgschpr tot.formospte. ayectubpll
gn. the. honofore.of. m. magdulen.prior.cantlofo. hath.edpipde
Despring, yoto.to.prap-for.hym. fot.potore. prpers-delectabyll.
Thut. sche. Woillnhabit. him.in. hebpw. ther.ebpr.to.ubpde.”

The words are written on a folding ribbon, the edges of which and
first letters of the first words are now coloured red. In the first
line the words “florysched with formosyte spectabyll” mean “ that it
was restored with beauty worth looking at.” In the last line the
use of the word “inhabit” in the sense of “cause or make to
dwell” is noticeable.

Of the “formosyte spectabyll” or “beauty worth looking at,”
with which the good and zealous Prior adorned the chapel, but
little, I regret to say, remains, except some fragments of a fine
window and some good niches,

The Window in 1790 is described in Oollinson’s Somerset
as then divided into three compartments with the remains
of good painted glass.t (1) In the jirst compartment was
the Virgin Mary with the Infant Jesus in her arms, and
underneath Sea: aria, At the top of the same light was the
figure of a monk with his crozier, intended perhaps for Prior
Cantlow (?) (2) Jn the middle was our Saviour on the Cross and
underneath a large figure of St. Bartholomew with his name Sr.

* Tanner’s Notitia Mon. Warner, p. 133. Hook’s Lives of Abps.,
vol, v. p. 456.
+ Collinson, vol.i., p. 173. Warner, p. 239, note.

104

Bartholomens. (3) In the third compartment was the figure of St.
Mary Magdalene. At the top a similar figure of a monk to that
in the first compartment. This description makes no mention of
the figure of St. John the Baptist, which is now in the window, and
apparently of the same date as the rest. Between 1790, however,
when this account was given, and 1823, when the Chapel was
enlarged to its present size, the window must have been seriously
damaged.

The portions that remain are as follow. The figure of a Saint
clothed in vestments, which is, I believe, on account of the
chain in his hand, intended to represent St. Leonard.* (See
Illustration III.) This and a corresponding figure (Prior
Cantlow ?) in simpler dress are apparently the two monks which
Collinson speaks of as over the first and third lights, and thus
had their faces turned toward the Crucifixion, which occupied
the central top light. (See Illustration IV.) Of the large
figure of St. Bartholomew but the head and inscription remain.
(See Illustration V.) Not a trace appears of the Virgin and Child,
or of St. Mary Magdalene. There is, however, a wild and strange
figure of John the Baptist which is unnoticed by Collinson. (See
Illustration VI.) The other bits are mere scraps, but the word
Scs in one of them is interesting, as it does not appear, from
Collinson’s description, to whom it could belong. The skull of
St. Bartholomew, the hair of the Virgin, part of the Cross, some
hair of St. Mary Magdalene, with some blood of St. John the
Baptist, formed part of the relics preserved in the Bath Abbey
in the 11th century.t The windows at St. Catherine’s and at
Westwood, near Freshford, are about the same date and worth
comparison, bearing some small points of similarity.

The other remaining traces of the “ formosyté spectabyll” are
some WViches, of which there are as many as five. /irst, one over
the outer door of the porch which retains its finial, and under
which there appears to have been a brass, torn down probably
when the image was removed to which the niche served as a canopy.

* See “ Mrs, Jameson’s Legendary and Sacred Art,” vol. ii., p. 765, and_

“Calendar of the Anglican Church,” Parker.
+ Warner, p. 107. Bib. Corp. Christ., No. cxi, G, p. 7.

105

The second is over the inner door of the porch, having a pedestal
for the image with leaf-work round it. (See Illustration VII.)
The third and fourth are two exactly corresponding to one another,
which have unfortunately lost their finials, and are now on the
south side of the Chapel, but which I imagine before the Chapel
was altered, in 1823, were on each side of the east window; as
Collinson says in his account, “On either side of the east window
is an elegant gothic niche, but without any image.”* (See Illus-
tration VIII.) It has been suggested that these niches, from their
peculiar flat, unwrought surfaces, contained the boards on which
were inscribed the names of the benefactors who were to be prayed
for at the time of mass, and to whom the inscription which was
on a stone below the chancel steps (mentioned below) would
possibly refer. The fifth is different altogether in style (perhaps
of Prior Hollewaye’s period, 1525—1529). It is now on the north
side, with an angel and shield at the base, and probably contained
a crucifix. (See Illustration IX.)

One or two other points remain to be noticed. At the west end
of the Chapel, on the south side, and high up near the roof, is one
small window, and on the north side two, similar in size and
position. There are also (1) a window looking west, to the north
of the tower, which apparently was at one time a doorway, and (2)
a doorway from the gallery into the belfry ; whilst on the ground
level there are two doorways, one, now blocked up, at the south-
west corner of the Chapel wall (perhaps the original entrance for
the people, as the present porch was evidently built by Prior
Cantlow to the wall, and does not join into the masonry of the
Chapel itself), and another doorway from the Chapel to the belfry.
From these appearances Mr. Irvine conjectures, and apparently
with good reason, that, at least since the time of Cantlow’s restora-
tion, the Chapel has had a Gallery, which is not a little remarkable,
but its small size was doubtless the reason. A staircase to the
galery used to exist outside Old Widcombe Church. There
are traces of a doorway on the south side, between the two original
windows, which was probably the “ Priest’s door.” Collinson also
mentions in his time there was “on an old stone just without the

* Collinson, vol. i, p. 173. Warner, p. 239.

106

chancel steps ‘ ¥ desire pofo of potwre charite for the soules abobe foriten
prape pe,” but of this no visible trace remains.

Tue Hospirau.

The generosity and zeal of Prior Cantlow were not satisfied with
restoring the Chapel, he also built or rebuilt the Hospital. That
he rebuilt it appears probable from the fact that in 1212 Hugh
Wells, Bishop of Lincoln, whose name appears in Magna Charta,
who bestowed much on the cathedral at Wells, where his brother
was Bishop, and of which city he was a native, made a will leaving
a legacy to the “ House of Lepers in the suburbs of Bath.”* In
1322, February, an ordination of John de Dudmarton to the
vicarage of St. Mary of Stalls took place, whereby it was
appointed among other things that the Prior and Convent of Bath,
as rectors of the said Church, should receive the tithe of wool
from the Brethren of the blessed Mary Magdalene.t And in
1332 the Bishop of Bath and Wells, Ralph of Shrewsbury,
(Bishop from 1329-1363), granted “an indulgence of twenty days
to the benefactors of the Hospital of St. Cross and St. Mary
Magdalene of Bath.” ;

Here it is noticeable that the name of “St. Cross” has been
dropped, this however may have been necessitated at the
Reformation; but it is remarkable that the fair which was
held till lately at the top of Holloway, in the immediate
neighbourhood of the Chapel, and which was granted as a
privilege to the monks of Bath by Edward I. in 1304, took
place on the Vigil and Festival of the Invention of the Cross,
namely the third of May, and twenty-eight years after the
granting of the privilege, the name occurs as connected with the
Chapel.t

Upon this arises the interesting question had this Chapel
and Hospital of St. Cross any connection with the Cross Bath?
The latter was not of course “the Lepers’ Bath,” yet in 1530

* Tanner’s Notitia Monastica. Collinson, I. 74. Warner, 240. Charity
Com. Report, 1820, p. 555.
+ Warner, History of Bath, p, 240, also App. Ixxv.
~ Warner, p. 173, note. Warner, Appendix xxxix.

107

Leland says “ This (é.e. the Cross Bath) is much gi snagpia of
people diseased of lepre.”’*

And in 1804 it is said one John Palmer, the surveyor and agent
for improving the streets and ways in the city of Bath, did (with-
out any notice to or permission of the Magdalene Hospital) pull
down an old ruinous tenement or dwelling-house at the Cross Bath
in the city of Bath, in the year of our Lord, 1804, and that the
master of the said Hospital then received £200 as a compensation
for the same.” +

Britton in Bath and Bristol, with the counties of Somerset
and Gloucester,” by Sheppard, says on the Cross Bath :—‘“ The
antient Cross from which this spring derives its name seems
to ascertain the fact ‘that the Bath waters were known and used
by our Saxon ancestors.’ It was erected here as an evidence of
the waters being reclaimed from heathen superstition to the service
of Christ, in conformity to the instruction given by Gregory the
Great to St. Augustine and his associates, which directed that all
the well-built temples and places dedicated to idols in Britain
should be converted from the worship of the devil to the worship
of the true God by a solemn consecration, sealed with an image of
the Cross of Christ, as the Theodosian law directs. This cross
remained in the bath till Nov., 1745.” “The antient erection
which has given the name of Gregory’s Cross to the place so called
near Bath is believed to have had a similar origin.”

In 1532 the Chapel is thus mentioned by Leland, “Or ever I
came to the bridge at Bathe that is over the Avon, I came down a
rokky hill fulle of springes of water, and on this rokky hill is sette
a long streate as a suburb to the cyte of Bathe, and in this streate
is a chapelle of St. Mary Magdalene.”t

In 1539, the Bath Monastery was dissolved. Hitherto the priors
of Bath either were themselves, or had the appointment of, the
Masters of the Hospital, but from an inquisition, made in the 2nd
year of Queen Elizabeth, before Thomas Turner, then Mayor, and

* Leland’s Itinerary.
t Appendix to further report of Commission for inquiring concerning
Charities, 1820, p. 736 ; evidence of Mr. H. Salmon,
} Leland’s Itinerary.

108

others, it was set forth that there then was in the suburbs of the
city of Bath a certain mansion house, called ‘The Hospitall of
Marye Mawdelyn,”*
poor lepers had from time immemorial been used to reside there,
and that the said house belonged to and was at the disposition of
the last Prior of Bath and his predecessors, and at the time of such
inquisition one Simon Shepparde, clerk, was called “the Master of
the Hospitall of the Mawdelyns,” and took the issues and profits
and applied the same to his own use, but ,by what right he held
such lands the said Jury were ignorant, as also they were ignorant
what right he had to take all the lead from the roof of the chapel
and replace it with tiles. Simon Shepparde, however, pleaded in
reply that King Henry VIII. had appointed him Master in the
twenty-eighth year of his reign, to hold the said Hospital or House
to him, the said Simon, during his life, with all its rights, rents,
revenues, &c. The value of the lands and tenements being then
£5 per annum. He laid the blame of the taking the lead on
certain robbers, or some unknown, evil-disposed persons.

It is remarkable that the twenty-eighth year of King Henry,
when he is said to have granted the Mastership of the Hospital by
letters patent to Simon Shephard, would apparently be two years
before the dissolution. If so was it yielded by Prior Hollewaye as
a judicious surrender in order to obtain favour in the impending
storm as he did in the matter of the Manor of Ford? +

In the account rendered to the Commissioners of Henry VIII.
the rents of demesne land belonging to the Hospital are said to be
worth £3: 6s. 3d.t

From 1560 till 1760 little can be told of the Chapel or Hospital.
In 1662, however, occurs the oldest monument connected with the
Chapel, put up to the memory of Anne, the wife of Nath. Biggs, of
this parish, who after his decease marryed Tho. Nicholas, citizen of
Bath. Shee dyed Aprill the 6th, 1662, etatis suze (63). (See
Illustration X.) It is interesting on two accounts. First, that it
is considered by Mr. Irvine good of its kind, and that it appears

in which house certain poor lepers resided, and

* Commissioners’ Report, p. 555 ; and App., C., p. 743.
+ Warner, p. 130.
t Warner, p. 127. App. Lxxiv.

109

likely the same hand found employ on similar works in the neigh-
bourhood. There is a monument, for instance, on the north-east
end of the Chapman aisle in the Abbey, in memory of R. Chapman,
1572, and Wm. Chapman, 1627, which bears in many of its details
a very close resemblance. One also in Kelston Churchyard, and
another in Stanton Prior Church have points of similarity. There
is some likeness also to portions of St. Catherine’s Court porch.
The second reason which renders the monument of interest is that
in the 6th, 7th, and 8th lines of the inscription it is said,
“A sauing fayth shee had, and Innocence,

And therefore here with Innocents would lye,”
That with ym shee might live eternally,”

referring apparently to the burial of zdzots in the Chapel yard ; so
that, during that one hundred years (156U—1660), the object of
the Hospital had, it would seem, been changed from lepers to idiots.
The Register of Burials in Chapel and yard was intended to be
kept in the books at Old Widcombe Church, but there have been,
I fear, many omissions, the above among the number.

In 1693 one George Bradford demised lands as Master, in the
name of the “ co-bretheren and co-sisters” (the idiots ?).

In 1723 we have a drawing of the Chapel by Stukely. This
was in the Mastership of David Thomas.*

In 1757 there is a print from a painting by T. Robins. This
was in the Mastership of Dr. James Thomas.

In 1761 the Rev. D. Taylor repaired the Chapel, and rebuilt the
Hospital, as appears by inscriptions both on the exterior and in the
- interior. He, I imagine, put the head to the tower.T

* Stukeley’s Itinerary, Curiosum, p. 138.

+ “The Chapel belonging to St. M. Magdalene’s Hospital, in the parish of -
Lyncomb and Widcomb, near this city, having been out of repair for many
years, and no service performed therein, it is now repaired and fitted up in a
very decent manner, and Divine Service was performed in it last Sunday, to
the great satisfaction of the parishioners; As soon as the Master of the
Chapel came in there was sung an anthem taken out of the 84th Psalm, then
Prayers were read by the Rev. Mr. Roberts, after which there was an excel-
lent sermon preached on the occasion by the Rev. Mr. Duel Taylor, Rector of
this city, from the 15th chapter of St. Paul’s Epistle to the Romans, ver. 6,
wherein he exhorted his hearers to stedfastness and perseverance in the com-

110

In 1820 the Hospital was inquired into by the Charity Com-
missioners ; the report of which contains much interesting detail
concerning the history of the Chapel and Charity. The evidence of
George Kelson, at the age of 1024, is not the least so, especially as
he was the original for the “Woodman,” in Barker's celebrated
picture.

In 1823 the Chapel was repaired and enlarged to its present size,
under the Mastership of the Rev. C. Crook.*

Now the Chapel and Charity are under the control of the
Charity Trustees, subject to an Act of Parliament.t

The Charity is possessed of lands in various parts, besides
that which we may suppose formed part of W. Hosat’s gift of the
lands adjoining the Chapel. There are lands, for instance, at
Wellow, Dunkerton, Beckington, Berkeley, and Laverton. How
and when the hospital became possessed of these lands I do not
know, perhaps some were the result of Ralph of Shrewsbury’s
grant of indulgence and similar acts.t

munion and fellowship of the Church, &c.’—From ‘ Bath Chronicle and
Weekly Gazette,’ Nov. 6th, 1760.

The Rey. D. Taylor must have repaired the Chapel the year before the
Hospital. He was Master from 1760—1767, when he was succeeded by
Dr. Roberts,

* See Mainwaring’s History of Bath, p. 249.
+ See “ Act of Parliament,” 19 and 20 Vict., cap. 45. At the end of Report.
{ See Commissioner’s Report,

DATES, EVENTS, &., CONNECTED WITH CHAPEL AND HOSPITAL OF ST. MARY MAGDALENE.

PRIOR OR

a Ta
Events, &c., IN

THE History Events, &c., IN THE History
Date. gen kg PRED DUAR. MASTER OF HosPITAL. OF THE CHAPEL, OF THE Hospirat,
1090-1100} William IT. | John de Villula Walter Hosat gave Chapel and capital Messuage to Church of 8. Peter
1212 John Jocelin de Welles Ropert | Hugh Bp. of Lincoln's Legacy
1304 Edward I. | Walter Hasleshaw Roser pr Cioprxcore| Fair granted to be held on “ Invention of the Cross”
1322 “ Brethren of the blessed Mary Magdalene ”’
13382 Edward II. | Ralph of Shrewsbury | Tos. Curisry Bp. of Bath's Indulgence
1421 Henry V. N. Bubwith Joun DE TeLursrorp | William Aishley, chaplain ?
R. Stillington
1489-99 » WIL. |? R. Fox JoHNn CanTLOW Chapel restored Hospital re-built
O. Kin
1530 » ~WIIL.| John Clerk Wma. Hottewayve Leland mentions the Chapel
1537 3 5 ae car, Simon Sheppard ?
1539 Ms er 5 oa Dissolution of Monastery
1560 Elizabeth Gilbert Berkley # 3 Inquisition made as to the Charity (Lepers)
1662 Charles II. | Wm. Piers Mrs, Anne Nicholas buried (Idiots)
1693 William IIT.| R, Kidder George Bradford Bradford demised lands
1723 George I. | G, Hooper David Thomas (Print by Stukeley)
1739 » Il. | J. Wynne Dr. James Thomas Dr. J. T. appointed Master
1749 » I. | BE. Wiles tf, 43 Service by some one
1757 - 5 eee! if i (Print by Robins)
1760 Sie ey ees Rev. D. Taylor Chapel repaired Hospital re-built
Service regular
1767 A 5 Fr ee Dr. R. Roberts » occasional
1790 x » | C. Moss % ts Rev. Street officiated
1791 A “p eee i wi (Collinson’s account of window)
1801 5. a A i Rev. W. R. Wake officiated
1804 a » | R. Beadon " 5 Dwelling at Cross Bath pulled down
1820 GeorgeIV. | ,, ,, as a Commission of Inquiry
1823 b os =e Rev. C. Crook Chapel enlarged, $c.
1832 William IV.| G. Law a a » closed
1838 Victoria ae i Rev, Allen Two services
1853 » » _» _ (died)
i ee |

a a ee

Notes on a Pair of Celtic Spoons found near Weston, Bath,
in 1866. By Rev. Preb. Scartu, M.A. Read Jan. 12,1870.

In the year 1866 two Bronze Spoons, in all probability a pair,
were discovered on the bank of a small brook not far from the
village of Weston, and about one and a half miles out of Bath on
the road to Bristol. They were found while clearing the ground
for quarrying stone to form a new road, and lay near the stream,
at the depth of about seven feet, in the ancient hollow course,
the earth of which
seems to have
gradually slipped
down the sloping
bank, and so to
have buried them.
They are illustra-
ted in the Archeo-
logical Journal for
March, 1869 (No.
101), where will
also be found a
very elaborate ar-
ticle containing
drawings and de-
scriptions of simi-
lar spoons found
in other parts of
England and Ire-
land, by Albert
Way, Esq., F.S.A.,
and also a learned
dissertation on
their probable use,
by the Very Rev.
Canon Rock, D.D.

113

As these spoons were found in Somersetshire, and their discovery
has not only attracted much attention, but excited some contro-
versy, it is well that our Society should preserve a record of them,
more especially as by the kindness of Mr. Irvine, who obtained
possession of them shortly after their discovery, I am enabled to
place the originals before the meeting. Shortly after their dis-
covery I made a drawing of them, and sent it to the Society of
Antiquaries, but no particular information was obtained until the
subject was taken in hand by Mr. Albert Way, who has carefully
brought together all previous discoveries of a like kind, and from
him we learn that similar objects had previously attracted the
notice of Welsh antiquaries, and some were already figured in the
Archeologia Cambrensis, 3rd series, vol. viii., p. 208, and a memoir
published in 1862.

“These spoon-like objects,” says Mr. Way, “have occurred, as
far as I am aware, exclusively in England, Wales, and Ireland :
a pair has recently been brought to light in Westmoreland, but no
specimen has hitherto been found in Scotland. I have been unable
to ascertain that any object of similar form and decoration has
occurred on the Continent ; nor have I found any relic either of
classical antiquity or of more remote date, that may be classed
with these spoons. . . Itis aS
probable that according to their
normal fashion they were made
in pairs: one of each pair
appears to have had near the
right side, and at about mid-
length, a circular perforation,

-about a sixth of an inch in
diameter ; this was punched
through the metal, mostly of
considerable thickness, espe-
cially towards the edge. The
counterpart, never perforated
in like manner, has in every
_instance transverse lines, some-
what suggestive of resemblance
to a Christian symbol, coarsely
scored across the shallow bowl.”

e

114

The dimensions of the spoons found near Weston are as follows :—
length, 42 inches; diameter of handle, 13 inches; diameter of
bowl, a little over 24 inches. The handles obversely present
concentric circular mouldings, but reversely are covered with
involuted designs, which, though not exactly alike, yet closely
resemble each other. The workmanship on the Bath spoons is

Mr. Way has given drawings of one of a pair found at Llanfair,
Denbighshire ; a pair found at Penryn, Cardiganshire ; a pair
found at Crosby Ravensworth, Westmoreland ; one found in a
turbary in Ireland ; and four others found in pairs in Ireland, now
in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy. In each of these
pairs one spoon has the small hole at the side of the spoon, about
the middle of the length of the bowl, and a cross upon the bowl
of the corresponding spoon. The handles are also curiously
worked in ornamental patterns. The form of these spoons is still
preserved in the horn ladles which once were of common use in
the cottages of the poorer peasantry, and served for cooling broth
or porridge taken out of a vessel used in common, before it was
eaten. That such was not the use of these Celtic bronze spoons
appears evident from the small hole, midway on the left-hand side,
and the cross marked upon the bowl seems rather to assign them
to a sacred purpose; and Dr. Rock, in his learned essay in the
Archeological Journal, assigns them to the purpose of Christian
Baptism —the one for holding the oil of the catechumens; the other,

115

the one with the hole, for holding the oil of chrism. He considers
it to be confirmatory of this idea that the spoons have generally
been found by running water, as those here described were found
near the brook at Weston. The preference of the Celts for “living
water” in the administration of baptism is shewn by reference to
ancient writers, as Bede and Adamnan. The use of these spoons
is thus explained by Canon Rock :—

“Two distinct anointings, each with a particular oil, took place
at baptism ; the first with olive oil, on the breast and between the
shoulders, in the form of a cross, rubbed there by the right-hand
thumb that had been dipped in the consecrated oil held in that
spoon without a hole, while yet standing in the water under which
the catechumen had been three times plunged ; the second and
principal anointing was given to the neophyte within the tabernacle
woven for the ceremony of fresh and budding boughs. The oil here
used was olive, but plentifully mingled with the costly and sweet-
smelling balsam or balm of Gilead. Among the Celtic people this
second oil was not, like the first, merely rubbed as now, but actually
poured out upon the crown of the head, where it was made to trickle
in the shape of across. To do this well and accurately, so as not
to spill it where it ought not to fall, the second or pierced spoon
was employed. Holding this in his right hand, the celebrant let
flow slowly through the small hole little drops of the chrism, so
that it might take the shape of a cross upon the neophyte’s head ;
and while this anointing was meant to imply the teaching of St.
John (1 St. John, ii., 20) it took for itself the word xpicua used by
the Apostle. The very earliest hitherto known forms for baptism
are those which were used in Gaul, to whose people our Celts were
alike in their heathen as well as their Christian belief and
ceremonial.”

The above is Canon Rock’s explanation, which he endeavours to
confirm by reference to various liturgical works, as may be seen by
reference to his paper. And he adds, “From whatever side,
whether domestic or ritual, we look at them, these spoons are
highly curious and valuable.”

As to the probable date of these spoons, the cross would carry
them back to the end of the third or beginning of the fourth century,

116

but on the handles of one of the pairs found in Ireland, now in the
Museum of the Royal Irish Academy, are three circles included in
a large one. Dr. Rock is inclined to the opinion that this pair
“‘ may be of the end of the fifth century, when Pelagianism had been
condemned by the Church throughout Christendom, and put to
flight in these islands by the visits of St Germanus. The great
atonement made by our blessed Lord for sin is set forth by the
figure of the cross, the doctrine of the Trinity, into which the
neophyte is baptised, is expressed by the three circles.”

The spoons found near Weston have only circular devices on the
handles, and seem to have no allegorical or mystical significance.

If the conjectures of Dr. Rock are correct, we have in these
spoons a very interesting relic of primitive Christianity, and of the
early faith of our forefathers ; and I have thought it well that our
proceedings should possess some record of this interesting discovery,
for the publicity of which we are so much indebted to the
archeological zeal and careful discernment of Mr. Irvine.

Summary of Proceedings of the Bath Natural History and
Antiquarian Field Club for the Year 1869-70.

Mr. PRESIDENT AND GENTLEMEN,

The Summary of the Proceedings of the Club for the past year
will show, if I mistake not, that the original purpose of the Club
has been kept in view, and that the annual exhortations of our
President, to do something for the cause of Natural History and
Archeology, have not fallen altogether upon unheeding ears. The
papers with which the winter evening gatherings of last session were
concluded maintained their instructive character throughout, and
the last evening, which was given up to short communications
from various members, was peculiarly successful from the amount
of original information contributed by those who took part.

After the paper on “ The Faults and Contortions of the Somer-
setshire Coal Field,” by Mr. McMurtrie (published in our last
Number), the remainder of the evening of Feb. 24 was occupied

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by Mr. Charles Ekin’s communication on “ Chemical Geology,” in
which the author traced the changes that have taken place in our
globe from the time when it existed in space in a gaseous state to
its condition at the present day. As Mr. Ekin’s paper is printed in
full in the present Number of the Club’s Proceedings further details
are unnecessary.

The thanks of the members were returned, through the President,
to Mr. Ekin for his philosophical and instructive lecture, and a
discussion ensued, in which Mr. Moore (who disagreed with Mr.
Ekin’s view of the source of the Bath waters being due to chemical
and not volcanic action) and Mr. Gilbert G. Scott took part.

On Wednesday evening, March 10th, the Rev. H. N. Ellacombe,
of Bitton, and Mr. Charles Moore, read papers before the members
of the Club on the two subjects with which they were especially
conversant. The latter gave the result of his researches in the
Drift Deposits of the Bath Basin ; the former the result of his
inquiries as to the meaning of the common English names of
plants.

The President, the Rev. L. Jenyns, returned the thanks of those
present to Mr. Ellacombe (so well-known for his botanical researches
and successful cultivation of rare species), for the instructive
paper which conveyed so much curious information, whilst he took
occasion himself to contribute to the instruction of the evening
from his own stores of botanical knowledge.

The paper next read was on “the Drift Deposits in the Bath
Basin,” by Mr. Moore, who, before speaking of the Mammalian and
other remains therein, alluded to the changes which had oceurred
during recent geological times, in what might be called our ever-
lasting hills.

Thanks were returned to Mr. Moore, but time did not admit of
a discussion of the contents of. his paper, for which vide p. 37.

The last evening meeting of the season took place on Wednesday,
April 7th, when, according to custom, several short communications
were made by members on Natural History and Archzeology—the
President, the Rev. L. Jenyns, commencing with the exhibition of
dried specimens of four species of plants obtained in the neigh-
bourhood of Bath, two of which, Dianthus deltoides and Crepis

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fetida—the former shown to Mr. Broome by the Rev. H. N.
Ellacombe, the latter discovered by Mr. Broome himself—were
stated to be new to the Bath Flora. The first of these grows
sparingly in a pasture near Keynsham. The second was noticed
a few years back by the side of the railway between Bathampton
and Bathford, and it has continued to show itself rather
plentifully in the same locality each season since. It was supposed
to have been originally introduced with the ballast employed
in making the railway. This led to some remarks on the
large number of plants that have been introduced at different
times into some other parts of England by ballast, especially on
the coast of Northumberland and Durham. The third plant
exhibited was the Zrysimum orientale, mentioned in the paper on
the “Bath Flora,” published in the first number of the Proceed-
ings of the Club, as having been found at Limpley Stoke, but of
which no specimen had been obtained by the President at that
time. For the one exhibited he was indebted to the kindness of
Miss Peacock, who first discovered the plant in the above locality.
The fourth species exhibited was the Hordewm murale, remarkable
for being so extremely scarce in the immediate neighbourhood of
Bath, though frequent about Bristol, and indeed one of the
commonest of weeds in most other parts of England. The present
specimen was from Bitton Churchyard, where it was pointed out
to the President last summer by the Rev. H. N. Ellacombe. It
would be very desirable to ascertain whether it is to be found in
any locality nearer to Bath.

The President was followed by the Rev. W. S. Shaw, who
illustrated some valuable and concise notes on the Chapel and
Hospital of St. Mary Magdalene, with drawings and photographs.
A copy of the original deed of gift from Walter Hosat, written at
the end of a Saxon Testament, about the years 1088 or 1100,
was shown. The chapel, &., was given to “the Church of St.
Peter, Bishop John (probably John de Villula), and the Monks of
Bath.” From the fact that the name Hosat occurs in various
deeds connected with Bath, from 1070 to 1174, great interest
attaches to the name. Prior Cantlow’s restoration of the chapel,
about 1490, with “formosite spectabyll,” as it is styled in an

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_ inscription in the chapel porch, was referred to, and drawings

shown of the fragments of the window he placed there, with
photographs of the niches ascribed to him. Mr. Irvine had
pointed out a curious circumstance, that from the construction of
windows and doorways at the west end of the building the Chapel
seems to have had a gallery since the time of Prior Cantlow.
Referring to the Hospital, allusion was made to a grant of an
indulgence to the benefactors of the Hospital in 1332, under the
name of “St. Cross and Mary Magdalene,” and also to the fair
granted to the monks in 1304, and held in the vicinity of the
Chapel on the Festival of the Invention of the Cross. The question
was raised whether there was any connection between this Hospital
of St. Cross and the “Cross Bath,” which, according to Leland,
was used by “persons diseased of lepre,” and near which was
situated property belonging to the Hospital. In the second year of
Queen Elizabeth the Hospital served its original purpose as a home
for lepers, as appears from an inquisition then made; but one
hundred years later, in 1662, from an inscription in the Chapel to
a Mrs. Biggs, which says that “A sauing fayth shee had and
innocence, and therefore here with Jnnocents would lye,” the object
of the charity appears to have been directed to its present
intention, viz., that of an asylum for idiots. The questions there-
fore connected with these buildings, on which it seems desirable, if
possible, to obtain more information, are—Why was the Chapel
placed where it is? Is anything more known of the Hosats, or
Prior Cantlow? How came the Hospital united to the Chapel?
Why was the use of the Hospital changed? Has it any connection
with the Cross Bath ?

Mr. Irvine gave an account of the late discoveries on the site of
the White Hart Hotel, and said that they exceeded in interest
anything found since the year 1790. Fine pieces of the side and
front of the cornices of the old Roman Temple had been dug up
on April 2nd and 3rd in the western cellar under Westgate Street,
to the north of the present new buildings. The carving was bold,
and represented a portion of a finely carved lion’s head, through
which the water was discharged from the roof of the Temple, and
a reversed fleur-de-lis. Many other fragments of massive wall

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stones were also found with cramp holes, and from the fact that
there was no stain in the holes, Mr. Irvine inferred that these large
blocks had been clamped together either with lead or bronze. At
the west end of the Grand Pump Room at a depth of at least 17ft.
6in. below the top of plinth, pieces of glass showing the edge of
the original flat plate had been dug up which he considered to be
undoubtedly Roman, and had been used as window glass. The
fragments of cornice were in the vestibule of the Institution.

Mr. Josiah Goodwin exhibited an original letter of Anstey, the
author of the “ Bath Guide,” respecting the disposal of his library ;
also an autograph letter of Ralph Allen of some interest in an
educational point of view, and he gave a short account of a
naturalist but little known in Bath—Captain Williamson—who
was an active member of the West of England Agricultural Society,
and in the year 1808 attempted to establish an Agricultural College
in this neighbourhood. A book of Field Sports, illustrated by
numerous spirited engravings, and one on Agricultural Mechanism,
showed that he deserved to rank amongst the worthies of Bath.

On Wednesday evening, January 12, the President of the
Club (the Rev. L. Jenyns) opened the first evening meeting
of the season (1870) with a short address in which he set
forth the importance of science, and the utility of bodies
associated together for scientific research. He remarked that with
some persons there was a prejudice against science, as if it were
opposed to other branches of knowledge judged to be of more
importance. This, however, he said was not the case. All
knowledge—all at least that relates to this lower world—rests
upon our experiences, our observations, and the deductions we
make from them. “Science,” it has been well remarked, “ is simply
a higher development of common knowledge ;” and we can draw no
boundary line between these facts of science, so plain and obvious
as to be known to all of us from our earliest years—such as that
the length of the day varies with the seasons, that water exposed
to cold freezes, exposed to sufficient heat passes into steam, &c.—
and those higher truths which are the aim and object of regular
scientific men. If we will have nothing to do with the latter, we
must equally give up the former, though guiding our heads and

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hands in all we do, and regulating our judgments in all that is
required for the purposes of every-day life. He went on to state
how without the sciences, and those arts and manufactures which
depend upon them for their success, we should have to fall back
upon the condition of those uncivilised races of men, who have no
knowledge of anything beyond what is wanted to supply the bare
necessaries of life. For all this, however, it was observed that
sometimes a particular science, geology perhaps, gets a hard name
given toit ; and geologists are sometimes charged with propounding
theories for which no sufficient evidence can be adduced, and with
overthrowing many of our old ideas and long-cherished beliefs.
The first of these charges was met by a statement of the guarantees
we have for the truth of any new theory before we are called upon
to receive it. It was shewn in what way new discoveries were
ordinarily made, and how, especially when brought forward as
subversive of old views, they were subjected to the most unsparing
criticisms on all sides, so that any error or false reasoning was sure
to be detected. He alluded to Darwin’s theory of the development
of species, adding that, if those outside the world of science knew,
not merely the multitude of reviews that have been written, and
criticisms passed on that theory, but the volumes of original
research that have been undertaken, and the immense number of
single observations and facts that have been brought forward, all
with the view of proving or disproving his assertions, they would
feel satisfied that no theory could stand such a searching ordeal as
that to which Darwin’s has been put, and is still being put, without
having its truth or falsehood laid bare in the end. With respect
to the shock given by science in its advances to some of our old
beliefs, it was stated that this could hardly be otherwise. If
Science is to advance at all, it must necessarily be continually
carrying us onward from one stand point to another, leaving in the
rear those who are not disposed to advance with it. Such persons
cannot but expect every now and then to be startled by the
announcement of some new discovery that shakes to the foundations
all their old notions as regards the established order of things.
And the shock will be much increased at times by the circumstance
of their being always in the forward ranks of science a few far-seeing

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men in advance of their age, whose discoveries, when proclaimed to
the world, cause the greater sensation, in proportion to their
greater disagreement with views ordinarily entertained. Yet
nothing of this kind, it was said, ought to alarm us. If the new
thing is not true it will speedily be set aside and forgotten. If it
be, instead of vainly attempting to overturn it we ought rather to
welcome it. It may seem strange at first, but its strangeness will
gradually wear off; it will become more and more acceptable, as
we give it further consideration ; it will in the end, we may rest
assured, be assented to by all, and, what is more, found to har-
monise with all other truths, even those which, in our first haste,
we thought to be in direct opposition to its teachings.

On Wednesday, Feb. 9th, the Rev. H. N. Ellacombe continued
the subject of his paper read during the last session on the
“Common English Names of Plants,” dilating on their History,
Etymology, and Poetry ; this, together with Mr. Broome’s “ Notes
on some of the Fungi in the Neighbourhood of Bath,” will appear
in the forthcoming number of the Proceedings. Mr. Broome’s
remarks were of a highly scientific nature, and illustrated by
several very good drawings of the different genera, and by some
well preserved specimens.

The Vicr-PresipEent (the Rev. Prebendary Scarth), then read a
paper (vide p. 112 supra.) “On a pair of Celtic Spoons found near
Weston, Bath, in 1866.” These bronze spoons, about 43 inches
long, and 24 inches diameter of bowls, were found in the bank of
a small brook not far from the village of Weston, at a depth of
7 feet below the surface.

Mr. Irvine was then called on to give his notes on “ The Saxon
Chapel at Bradford and its Sculptures.” By the aid of six
carefully drawn and coloured drawings he first described the
building as it stands, now adapted for the Free School. Its history,
taken from the Rev. W. H. Jones’s account of the parish of Bradford-
on-Avon in the “ Wilts Archzological Journal,” vol. v., p. 247, was
next given. The first record that we have dates back to 705, when
we read of a monastery exisiting at Bradford, of which Aldhelm
was Abbot. Aldhelm, afterwards Bishop of Sherbourn, by per-
mission of King Ina, built the monasteries of Malmesbury, Frome,

eS

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and Bradenford, and prior to his death, which took place about 709,
he is said to have dedicated Bradford to St. Lawrence. From this
early date we do not hear much of Bradford, so far as the history
of its monastery is concerned, till the year 1001, when it is recorded
that King Ethelred the Unready gave to the Abbess of Shaftes-
bury the monastery and ville of Bradford, that they might have
an “impenetrabile confugium” for the nuns from the ravages of
the Danes, and a hiding place for the relics of the blessed martyr
St. Edward, and the rest of the saints. Thus it remained till the
dissolution of the monasteries. In 1712 John Rogers, then vicar,
opened a school, and in 1715 the Rev. Nathan Wright, of Engle-
field, in the county of Berks, demised the building adjoining’ the
churchyard of Bradford Church, commonly called the “skull-
house,” and then converted into a charity school-house to the
parish of Bradford for 1,000 years, paying a pepper-corn rent.
Mr. Irvine believed that the present roof of the chancel was put
on about 1636, as a fragment of decorated woodwork of an old
wall-plate was used ; and at that date the present roof was put
on the chancel of the parish church. He then considered the
probable date of the present building, by the aid of elevations,
sections, plan and sketches, which were handed about the
room. He explained how the details of the capitals and bases
of the various arches of decoration, the peculiarity of the
“step-bases” of the flat pilasters differed from all Norman
buildings, and gave strong evidence of Saxon workmanship. He
had originally come to the conclusion that the date of 975 might
be assigned to it, and of this he recently found strong corroborative
evidence in a comparison of the figures of the two angels which
have been found in the east wall of the schoolroom with the figures
of angels in the illuminated MS. of the “Benediction of St.
Aithelwold,” who was Bishop of Winchester from 963 to 984. The —
peculiar napkin which the angels are holding in their hands,
apparently extended towards a central figure, probably of our Lord,
now missing, is recognised in plates 17 and 23. Again, in the
same vol. of the “ Archzeologia,” in a copy of Czedmon’s “ Metrical
Paraphrase of Scripture History,” written about 1000, the caps
and “stepped” bases in the illustrations are seen precisely the

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same as those at Bradford ; indeed, they might serve for actual
drawings of them.

A vote of thanks was cordially passed to Mr. Irvine for his
instructive remarks, and Mr. Scarth, whilst congratulating the
Club that this was the first time that the Saxon Chapel had been
so clearly and well illustrated, bore testimony to the accuracy with
which the building had been described ; and stated that he agreed
with Mr. Irvine in his views.

Mr. Broome concluded the evening’s conversazione with an
account of the esculent and non-esculent agarics. Fungi, he said,
were on the one side related to the animal kingdom, on the other
to the vegetable ; differing from lichens and alge in this, that
whereas the lichens derived their nourishment from the atmosphere,
and the algz from the water, the fungi derived theirs from decaying
animal or vegetable matter. Their tissue was cellular not woody ;
the odour which they gave out in decay, and the fact that they
absorbed oxygen and gave out carbonic acid gas, the reverse of
vegetables, indicated their close alliance to the animal kingdom.
Some scientific details were then given of the distinguishing marks
whereby the different genera were known, and the form of their
gills, the colour of their spores, and the shape of their cap and
stem pointed out with that scientific accuracy for which Mr.
Broome’s researches in this particular branch of Natural History
are so well known.

A hearty vote of thanks was returned to Mr, Jenyns for his able
presidency during the evening meetings.

EXCURSIONS,

The morning of Tuesday, May 4th, rich with blessings for the
thirsty ground and the expectant agriculturist, was by no means
propitious to excursionists. Notwithstanding, however, the per-
sistent downpour, twelve members of the club were found at the
station ready at an early hour for the first excursion of this season
to Sherborne Minster, Castle, and Park. The original programme
was somewhat departed from, three members only being sufficiently
waterproof to leave the train at Marston and walk, wd Trent
Barrow, to Sherborne, the rest proceeding by train wd Yeovil.
The pedestrians in their traverse over the middle and upper lias

125

and inferior oolite had not much of interest certainly to note en
route, save that they were uncomfortably sensible that the rain hid
from their view a very fine country; and that they had an
opportunity of verifying the truth of the proverb that
“ Hasterly rain
Makes fools fain’’—

by the false hopes with which the breaking clouds now and then
inspired them. On the arrival of the party at the city of the
“ clear brook,” as its Saxon name seems to import, a most hospitable
reception awaited them at the Castle, where the courteous owner,
G. W. Digby, Esq.—so far renowned for his generous liberality—
had provided a luncheon for a much larger number than actually
partook of it, in Sir Walter Raleigh’s room, which is in the centre
of: the ground plan forming the letter H, and the oldest part of the
house. After luncheon, and due acknowledgment having been
made of Mr. Digby’s kindness, the members proceeded to inspect the
fine portraits, under the guidance of the Rev. R. H. W. Digby and
the agent of the estate, Mr. Ffooks. The pictures, though few in
number, are each of them valuable both as works of art and for
their historical associations. The celebrated picture of Queen
Elizabeth, carried in a chair of state by some of the chief nobles
of her time to the marriage of one of her ladies in waiting, with
the Knights of the Garter conspicuous in the foreground—each
figure said to be a portrait—was recognised by several as having been
sent to the Kensington Exhibition. Amongst others which claimed
more than a passing attention were portraits by Vandyke of Sir
Kenelm Digby and of John, first Earl of Bristol, and lady, with
two children admirably done but inserted by another artist; a
portrait by Sir Peter Lely of Robert, first Lord Digby, and several
others of the family, by the same great portrait painters. A small
picture of Sir Walter Raleigh on copper, and the portrait of the
sharp-featured “ Concilii Tridentini Eviscerator” (Melancthon),
The fine view from the windows of park, woody knolls, and grassy
slopes was sadly marred by the rain. Leaving the house, and
taking a passing glance at the Roman pavement with the two
spirited figures of the lyre and the double flute players, the lake
was crossed and due honour paid to the grove planted by Sir

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Walter Raleigh, and the stone seat whereon he is reported to
have enjoyed his pipe, and the traditional scene of the flagon of
beer. The pleasure grounds, of whose picturesqueness it is
sufficient to mention that “capability Brown” was the originator,
were seen under somewhat disadvantageous circumstances. The
old Castle, however much it lost in romance from the absence of
sunshine and shadow, yet was deprived of none of its grandeur and
severity by the gloominess of the day ; a well-selected spot having
been taken whence the ruins could be seen to advantage, the vice-
president of the club, the Rev. Prebendary Scarth, descanted with
his usual enthusiasm to a listening audience amid the kindly
shelter of umbrellas, on Bishop Roger’s once celebrated fortress.
As too often has been the case, these fine remains were the quarry -
whence stone for several of the adjoining buildings was taken, and
consequently much of these ruins has been destroyed. Of the
once octagonal structure, the principal part remaining is the keep,
towards the centre of the inner courtyard, with the ruins of the
state rooms attached, and what is thought to be the Chapel. A
fine zigzag moulded Norman window is seen on the outside of the
north wall, and several traces of Norman work on the walls. A
fine column of Ham Hill stone with cushion capitals supports two
massive Norman vaults. On a wall to the right of this are remains
of some interlacing arcades of the time of Bishop Roger. Before
visiting the Abbey the members were afforded an opportunity of
inspecting the gardens and stables, which can hardly be rivalled
for their admirably constructed arrangements ; the various details
of which were kindly pointed out by the Hon. Frederick Pepys,
Mr. Digby’s nephew. The noble Minster was reserved for the last.
On those who had never before visited the Abbey, the height,
massiveness, and harmonious blending of its architecture had a
very imposing effect ; and those who were already acquainted with
the beauty of its interior were remarkably struck with the softening
effect which time had wrought on its decorations. The gilded
bosses and ribs of the roof and mouldings, and the rich colouring
of the windows by Hardman, and Clayton and Bell, have blended
with the warmth of colour in the Ham Hill stone, and now form a
harmonious whole not to be surpassed by anything in the kingdom.

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The very fine reredos of Caen stone, the martyr window of Hardman,
thrown out in greater relief by the gloom without, and the many
munificent donations of the late earl and the present proprietor of
the Castle are too well-known to need recapitulation. A sufficient
time having been allowed in the Abbey, the site of the old parish
Church of All Hallows, to the west of the present Abbey, was
crossed to the King’s School. The Chapel, and schoolroom (the
ancient refectory of the monastery), were inspected, and a visit paid
to the geological museum lately commenced by the boys; another
pleasing indication that the natural sciences are now taking a more
prominent place in school education, which deserves every encourage.
ment and support.
SHERBORNE Minster.

The plan and constructive features of the church are clearly
Norman, and specimens of Norman work are constantly showing
themselves, The chancel-arch is Norman, and the north transept
has a portion of the Norman pier visible, but the entire church
has been converted into perpendicular by putting in pointed arches
and covering the whole by pannelling. The effect is very good and
the work excellent. The pink tinted stone gives it a richness of
colour which adds greatly to its beauty, and the vaulting of the roof
is very rich. Outside the church on the north may be traced the
remains of the Cloister, which is now the open court of the
grammar school. To the west of the Minster stood the Church of
All Hallows which once adjoined it, but only a part of the wall
now remains—a passage led from the Church into the Minster.
In a quarrel which arose between the parishioners of Sherborne
and the Abbot and Monks of St. Mary’s Abbey, the roof of the
Abbey was set on fire and burned, a.p. 1456. This is known from
an ordinance of Bishop Neville, dated 4th January in that year.
After this period the Abbey was restored, and the parishioners of
Sherborne were obliged to contribute towards the restoration of
the east end (see Leland). Abbot Peter Ransome (1475-1490)
built the nave, or rather adapted the Norman nave to the present
perpendicular structure. Recent alterations and repairs in the
Bath Abbey show that the present piers have been built upon the
old Norman ones, the lower portions of which have lately been laid

128

open. But at Sherborne the pier itself seems to have been
preserved and adapted to perpendicular work. At Gloucester, in
the choir, the Norman work has been cased in the perpendicular.
The schoolroom was part of the ancient Cellarer’s Hall, where
guests were entertained ; it is commonly called the Refectory of
the Monastery, but this seems doubtful, as there are no remains of
a reader’s pulpit as at Beaulieu, Chester, and Shrewsbury. The
school chapel is a recent erection, too long for the width, but
neatly fitted up. The ancient barn of the monastery remains, and
has been converted into a dwelling-house; a hospital has been
erected in very good taste and with much liberality, and corres-
ponding in style to the buildings around.
SHERBORNE CASTLE.

The following account of the Castle was given by Mr. Scarth.
“ Robert Niger, Bishop of Sarum (1102), minister and favourite of
Henry I., held the earldom of Salisbury. He fortified Sarum, and
built three castles—Sherborne, Devizes, Malmesbury. A.D. 1113
King Stephen seized these three castles ; Sherborne was recaptured
by Empress Maud, and held for the next 200 years by the Crown,
but recovered to the See of Sarum by Bishop Robert Wyvil, 1356.
Bishop Wyvil’s brass in Salisbury Cathedral records this. In the
brass the castle, is represented with its towers; the keep has four
turrets, like all the old Norman keeps, two ornamented with a
mitre, two with an earl’s coronet. At the window of the gate
stands the bishop in his robes, with crozier and mitre ; his hands
are lifted, either in the act of blessing his champion who stands
below and is going forth to fight for his rights ; or else the bishop
is in the act of returning thanks for the recovery of the castle, and
his champion is ready to defend it ; or he is reconsecrating it to the
use of the see. The weeds and brambles, with rabbits feeding, may
represent the long defilement it had undergone, or else may indicate
the manor of Bere Wood, which this bishop also recovered. The
castle and manor continued in this see till the fourth year of
Edward VI., when the bishop, John Capon, made the castle over
to the Lord Protector Somerset,— on his attainder the Crown
demised them to Sir John Paulet, knight, for 99 years ; but by a
decree in Chancery the castle once more reverted to the See of

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Salisbury. Queen Elizabeth had it alienated from the See and
presented it to Sir Walter Raleigh, when it became finally alienated,
arent charge of only £260 being reserved to the See. Raleigh
improved the estate. It next came into the hands of Prince
Henry. Carr, Earl of Somerset, held it next. He closed his
career ignominiously, and the castle and manor were sold by the
Crown to Sir John Digby, afterwards Earl of Bristol. In A.D.
1645, it was captured by Cromwell and Fairfax after a siege of 16
days, when Sir L. Dyves and Sir John Strangways and 55 gentlemen
and 600 soldiers were taken prisoners. It was: dismantled, and
Castleton Church and the wings of the present dwelling-house
were erected out of the materials. See ‘‘ Archzeological Journal,”
vol. xxii., p, 360). The remains of the Castle are very interesting,
and well worth a visit. The position is very strong, and the outer
court has a strong wall and deep ditch, and another ditch just
within the first enclosure. The gateway, in good preservation, is
an addition of much later date than the keep and other parts of
the Castle. A portion of the keep remains within the inner court,
and some of the buildings attached to it. More than half the keep
has been destroyed, but one portion of a Norman buttress remains,
and also the pillar that supported the floor of the first storey,
which seems to be of the date of Henry I. There are some
windows and arcading of late Norman date in the walls of the
Chapel and great hall. This part is later than the keep. There
was probably a plain Norman keep before the Castle came into the
possession of the Bishops of Sarum, and this was afterwards added
to. It is a great pity that so interesting a structure should have
been so defaced. Had the buildings remained they would probably
have presented examples of castellated architecture from the time
of William I. or William Rufus to that of Queen Elizabeth.”

FarRFOoRD, DaGLINGWwoRTH, AND BIRDLIP.

The recent controversy between Mr. Holt and others, whereby
the already celebrated painted glass windows in Fairford Church
have, if possible, been rendered more celebrated, induced the Club
to make Fairford one of the objects for the second excursion of the

season. ‘Twenty members accordingly proceeded on the 25th of
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130

May, by train to Swindon and Cirencester, and thence by road,
passing through the villages of Ampney Crucis, Ampney St. Mary,
and Poulton, to Fairford. In addition to the clerk of the church,
who is himself quite an institution and worth a long journey to
listen to, J. D. T. Niblett, Esq., of Haresfield Court, very kindly
accompanied the members and explained the intricate mazes of the
painted story. It was of course necessary to allow the clerk to
take the initiative, and an hour was spent in listening to the quaint
fellow recording the traditional story, window by window, until the
whole twenty-eight had been described. Beelzebub looking through
the ruby bars of his prison awaiting his prey, the green, blue, and
red devils with their yellow eyes and horrid scaly bodies seemed to
be a special object of his admiration ; and his description of the
tortures of the damned in the “ Doom” window began at last to be
somewhat tedious and rather too materialistic. It is but right,
however, to record that although he dwelt somewhat fondly on
these points, yet he was generally well up in his story, and pointed
out most of the gems in colouring, design, dress, and scenery with
which these beautiful windows abound. The history which has in
it a certain unity and design commences at the window immediately
west of the screen in the north aisle with the temptation of Adam
and Eve, and is treated in the usual conventional way of that period
(the first part of the 16th century)—Eve with yellow flowing hair,
and the serpent with a human head seen through the branches of
the tree. Three other Old Testament subjects follow in succession
to the eastwards. The peculiarity of the head-dress with lappels
of the Queen of Sheba was pointed out by Mr. Niblett as similar
to that of the mother of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey. Next
followed scenes from the apocryphal and true gospels. The
perspective of the church, with its low-arched windows, lofty piers,
and groined roof in which the circumcision is represented is very
striking, so also are the faces of the attendant priests. The east
window, with its upper and lower tier of five lights each, is filled
with scenes in our Lord’s life immediately before and during His
crucifixion, the crosses being in the form of the letter T (the tau
cross). The trappings on the horses of the Roman soldiery are
very rich, and the peculiar treatment of the Crucifixion and the

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descent from the Cross in the next window on the south side is
remarkable. St. Michael fighting with the evil angels, and Satan
looking through the bars of hig prison in one of the lower lights
can scarcely be surpassed for effective colouring. The sun just
coming out at the right time made the bars glow with fire, and
added much to the vividness of the picture. In the east window of
the south aisle the representation of the castles, supposed to be
those of Nuremburg, in the scene of the Transfiguration, is one of
the noticeable peculiarities of the artist, whoever he was. After
passing through the screen on the south side, a series of full length
figures of Apostles, Fathers, Prophets, and Saints fill up the
remaining windows in the south and north aisles and the clerestory,
the Apostles being on the south, the Prophets on the north. The
colouring, attitude, drapery, and expression of the faces can hardly
be equalled. The great west window of many lights is filled with
a representation of the Judgment. Our Lord is seated on a rain-
bow, surrounded by Cherubin, Seraphin, and the heavenly host,
with a ruby-coloured globe beneath His feet ; from His mouth
proceed the sword and the lily—emblems of justice and mercy—
corresponding with which below on either side are the blessed and
the cursed, the former received by St. Peter, and conducted up the
golden stairs to the heavenly Jerusalem, clad in white, with crowns
of gold on their heads ; the latter rising out of their tombs, hardly
free from their grave-clothes, caught, carried off, and tortured by
the most horrible demons—the ludicrous so blended with the
terrible that the eye gladly rests on the fine figure of the Arch-
angel St. Michael weighing the good and the bad in his scales, and
occupying the central space beneath our Lord. In the west
_ window of the south aisle David is represented passing judgment on
the Amalekite for the death of Saul. In the soldier’s hand is a
sword, and on the blade a medieval A. Mr. Niblett especially
called attention to this letter, as during the recent controversy it
has been tortured into the initials of Albert Durer’s name, and
stated to be his well-known monogram, A with a small capital p
inside. But, as that gentleman suggested, it is most probably the
initial letter of the word Adonai, emblematic of the sword of the
Lord Almighty. Attention was also called to the German character

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of the cusps in the canopies of the windows, as in many cases they
are painted in imitation of foliage. The peculiar wooden chest
with its linen roll pattern, which occurs more than once in the
windows, and is surmounted by a book with a cloth beneath, is
also very characteristic. The tomb of John Tame, the builder of
the church, and his wife Alice, is on the south side of the north
chancel. The former died on the 8th of May, 1500 ; the latter on
the 20th of December, 1471. The Tame arms in stone in the
south porch are a dragon fighting with a lion. Some remains of
painting are visible on the walls of the central open tower, two
angels with wings on the west face being very graceful in design.
The beauties of these windows, the finest specimens of late 15th

or early 16th century work in England, seemed to grow upon the
members every minute they remained, and it must require many a
visit to familiarise the mind with all their varied details. The
impression left was, perhaps, somewhat favourable to the opponents
of Mr. Holt—the hand of more than one master of his art was
clearly traceable—at the same time it was difficult to answer the
question, if Albert Durer neither designed nor painted them, who
was the great master mind who has left such a mark of his power
for succeeding ages to admire and dispute over ?

Returning to Cirencester, the fine old parish church, which has
been recently restored, was visited. That the restorations have
been most carefully carried out, and that the various ancient
architectural remains brought to light during the repairs have been
religiously preserved, need scarcely be mentioned when it is known
that the work was entrusted to Mr. Gilbert Scott. The Catherine
Chapel, with its fine stone roof of the early part of the 16th century,
the remains of its frescoed walls, on one side the story of St.
Christopher bearing the youthful Christ on his shoulders, on the
other the martyrdom of St. Catherine, and the numerous brasses
which abound on the floors, were amongst the objects which
attracted most attention. The remains of ancient “Corinium
Castrum,” preserved in Earl Bathurst’s well-arranged museum,
were next inspected. Amongst the many Roman inscriptions the
following acrostic, which Mr. Franks, of the British Museum,
considers to be the earliest instance of squaring words, and which

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was found on a piece of red wall plaster, is worthy of especial
record :— ‘

ROTAS

OPERA

TENET

AREPO

SATOR
A visit to the “ Bull Ring,” which, notwithstanding the attacks
made upon it during the recent visit of the Archeological
Association, still maintains its reputation amongst antiquaries
as the old amphitheatre, concluded a very instructive day. In the
evening Mr. Niblett exhibited specimens of painted glass of various
dates, and collected by the late Mr. Winston, to those members
who remained for the second day’s excursion ; and very valuable
information was given by that gentleman as to the method of laying
on the colours, a subject which he has made his peculiar study,
and with which he is thoroughly conversant. On Wednesday
morning a break conveyed those members who had remained at
Cirencester along the “ Ermine Way” to Birdlip, passing the villages
of Stratton and Daglingworth. At the latter are remains of an
ancient nunnery, formerly connected with Godstow. The little
chapel or cell, with a low pointed arched doorway and small
window can be traced, and an ancient dovecot in a field adjoining
still serves its original purpose. The Rector very courteously
pointed out the peculiarities of his small and recently restored
Church, consisting of nave, chancel, and north aisle, with westerv
tower. On the north side of the chancel and serving as a credence
table is an ancient altar slab, with two round piers, which had been
originally built into the west wall of an arch which formerly
spanned the church. Inserted in the east wall of the chancel arch
are three very curious pieces of ancient sculpture, of very early
Norman if not Saxon date, which were found built with their sculp-
tured faces into the wall. The one on the south side of the arch
represents St. Peter holding a key in his right hand; on the
opposite side is a rude representation of our Lord sitting on a
throne, His right hand held up with the two first fingers and the
thumb extended in the act of blessing, the left hand holding a

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sword below the hilt, which is in the form of a cross, a nimbus
surrounding the head. Immediately over the arch is the crucifixion,
with the soldiers on either side holding the emblems of the Passion
—the spear, the bunch of hyssop or sponge, and a vessel containing
the vinegar probably. On the outside of the church, west of the
south porch, is a narrow Norman window, over the east window a
stone crucifix, the church being dedicated to the Holy Rood, and
in the gable of the vestry is a curious small two-lighted window
with round headed arches, which have evidently been cut out of a
Roman altar and inserted with the inscription upside down. The
following Roman letters have been deciphered :—r1s—n1o—nIa—
which have been interpreted as follows,—DEABVs. MAT)RIB(VS. ET.
GE)NIO(LOCI. Iv)NtA, (dedicavit). Leaving the pretty and well-
cared-for village of Daglingworth, the members proceeded along the
Roman road, which continues almost in one undeviating straight
line to Gloucester, a distance of seventeen miles, until they reached
Birdlip, when a most magnificent view burst upon them of the rich
vale extending away to Gloucester and Cheltenham. The Malvern
hills and the Welsh mountains, which are clearly seen on a bright
day, were unfortunately shrouded in haze.

Whilst lunch was being prepared the quarries on the right of the
road were inspected, and the geology of the surrounding district
pointed out by Dr. Wright, of Cheltenham, and Mr. Lucy, of
Gloucester, who had very kindly come out on purpose to meet the
Club at this point. Standing on the verge of the escarpment, with
the liassic plain spread out at their feet, and the oolitic outliers of
Robin’s Wood Hill, or “ Robin Hood’s” Hill, as it is called, to the
left, and Churchill standing up boldly in front, the succession of
the various beds were pointed out, the line of junction between the
lias and the inferior oolite traced, and the characteristic fauna of
the latter enumerated. The peculiar feature of the Birdlip Hill
Quarries, and of the Cotteswolds generally, is that the sands of the
inferior oolites are very slightly represented when compared with
those in the neighbourhood of Bath; whereas the great thickness
of the rock which succeeds them in the ascending order is remark-
able, supplying as it does the chief building stone of the
neighbourhood, A very curious bed overlaid by a coral reef exists

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in these quarries, called the pisolitic bed, which is not found in
our neighbourhood. Several good specimens of Terebratula
maxilata and globata, Pholadomya, and coral were taken away,
and some flint flakes also found which had evidently rolled down
with the débris from the surface above. It was much regretted
that time did not admit of the members remaining longer in the
company of these gentlemen, who were so well able to illustrate
the geology of their district ; but it is hoped that another visit may
be paid by the Bath Field Club to this spot, so full of interest both
to the geologist and the antiquary.

The Excursion to Weymouth, the Chesil Beach and Abbotsbury,
fixed for June 22nd, did not take place, owing to the small number
of members who had announced their intention of joining, but Mr.
Chas. Moore organised an impromptu expedition to his old haunts
in the Vallis, near Frome, and was joined by five members. The
various quarries where the liassic veins occur were visited. The
Rheetic bone bed, consisting of a pebbly and flinty conglomerate,
was well exposed in a quarry near the Mill, and several teeth of
Acrodus were found, together with the shells characteristic of these
beds, viz., Avicula contorta, Pecten valoniensis, Ostrea intusstriata,
also the small crustacean Estheria minuta, and the Pollicipes
Rheeticus, the oldest known representative of the family Cirripedia.
In Murder-Combe Valley, a cave, which had been partly excavated
by Mr. Moore, was entered. Nothing of any importance was found, a
large sheet of water at the bottom having stopped further researches.
In the field immediately above, the Secretary found several flint
flakes” and “scrapers.”

TEWKESBURY, DEERHURST, AND WAINLODE CLIFF.

A propitious equilibrium of the atmospheric wave after the late
elemental disturbance ushered in the morning of Tuesday, Oct.
5th, as the members took advantage of the lately opened branch
of the Midland from Bath to Mangotsfield, to start by the early
express for Tewkesbury. Under the guidance of J. D, T. Niblett,
Esq., whose intimate acquaintance with the history of the church
at Fairford, and with the details of its painted windows, had rendered
a recent excursion of the Club to that place so agreeable and instruc-

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tive—the members proceeded at once to the Abbey. Passing through
the nave, with its tall and massive Norman piers, their thoughts
were at once carried off to Durham Cathedral, and the words of a
celebrated Professor recurred to the mind—‘“ the builders of this
seem to have intended you to fall down and worship ”—the
imposing grandeur of the latter, however, is wanting in the Abbey,
and as the eye descends from the lofty nave and falls upon the
mean and ugly organ screen, the first impression gives way to a
feeling of disturbance at the want of repose caused by the various
screens and enclosures so detrimental to the grand perspective
which strikes the eye at Durham. Entering through the screen,
the chief feature of the Abbey at once discloses itself, 7@¢., the
variety and elegance of the various tombs ranging from early
decorated period to late perpendicular, in fact it may be called the
burial place of the Earls of Gloucester. Commencing with the
north side, Mr. Niblett proceeded to describe each of these in their
order. The first was stated to be a commemorative chapel erected
by Abbot Parker in the reign of Richard II., 1397, in memory of
Robert Fitz-Hamon, who at the time of the Conquest made great
additions to the building, and may be said to have founded the
Abbey ; he was killed at Falaise, in 1107, and interred in the
Chapter-house, but afterwards removed into the Church, 1241 ; a
tomb of Purbeck marble marks the spot, and in the flooring on the
north side are some of the original encaustic tiles with the arms of
Fitz-Hamon, impaled with those of the Abbey. Next in order
comes a beautiful sepulchral chapel, built by Isabel, Countess of
Warwick, for her first husband Richard Beauchamp, Earl of
Worcester, killed at the siege of Meaux, 1421. This Chapel, called
St. Mary Magdalene Chapel, contains a priest’s chamber inside,
originally supported by two slender shafts of Purbeck marble, only
one of which now remains, the other having been replaced by a
shaft of a yellow stone. The richly ornamented fan tracery roof
has suffered considerably from time and neglect, and most of the
pendants have fallen down. To the north of this succeeds the altar
tomb of Hugh le Despenser and his wife Elizabeth, daughter of
Wm. Montacute, Earl of Salisbury ; the female figure has the
peculiar headdress of Edward III.’s time. A series of heads are

See

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carved round the capital of the south Norman pier of the choir
arch, no doubt all of them likenesses of the celebrities of the period,
and amongst them Queen Philippa was plainly traceable with the
head of Edward III. facing her on the north pier. On the south
side are the remains of three sedilia, richly carved with traces of
colour upon them, and the rose of the decorated period introduced
in a triangular pattern at the back. Next in order on the south
side is the Chantry—called Trinity Chapel from an early fifteenth
century representation of the Trinity painted on the interior of the
east wall—erected, by his wife, in memory of Edward Le Despeuser,
who died A.D. 1401 ; a kneeling figure turned towards the altar,
with hands uplifted in the attitude of prayer, beneath a canopy
surmounts the roof. Passing through this chapel, Mr. Niblett
pointed out the various tombs of the Abbots, from that of “ Alanus
Abbas,” who died in 1202, to that of John Wakeman, the last of
the Abbots and first Bishop of Gloucester, 1541, and noticed in
passing the elegant cypher of Richard Cheltenham, who was Abbot
from 1481 to 1509, and the full length figure of a knight in armour
on the north side measuring 6ft. 9in. from head to feet, supposed
to be that of Lord Wenlock, killed at the battle of Tewkesbury.
The beautiful windows in the choir filled with painted glass of the
middle of the fourteenth century were much admired. In two of
them are curious figures of knights in armour, representing the
Earls of Glocester, four on the north and four on the south side.

The Rev. W. 8. Symonds and Sir W. Guise, respectively Presidents
of the Malvern and Cotteswold Clubs, having now joined the
members, the site of the battle of Tewkesbury was visited ; the
“bloody meadow,” where the great slaughter of the Lancastrians
took place, and the position of the opposing armies of Queen
Margaret and King Edward having been pointed out, a halt was
called on the rising ground of Tewkesbury Park, where Mr.
Symonds read a concise and instructive paper on the position of
the various parties both before and after the battle, of which the
following is an abstract :—

“With the site of the battle field in front and the fine outline of
the Cotteswolds forming the background, it was pleasant, he said, on
some well-known spot like the “ Bloody Meadow,” near which they

138

were standing, to recall ‘certain events of historical importance.
The battle of Tewkesbury was one of these. The various disputes
between the Houses of York and Lancaster for the throne of
England, which finally led to the battle of Tewkesbury and the
defeat of the Lancastrians, were cursorily touched upon. In this
memorable period of English history—(the 30 years’ quarrel, during
which crowns and kings often changed places, twelve pitched
battles had been fought and the ancient nobility of Hngland almost
annihilated), the last shuffle of the cards brought them to that
resolute and final struggle which Margaret of Anjou made for her
son Edward, Prince of Wales. She landed at Plymouth with her
son on the very day on which Warwick, the king maker, was
defeated and slain at Barnet. Her intention being to join the
troops gathered under Jasper, Earl of Pembroke, the son of Owen
Tudor in Wales, she marched from the rallying point of the
Lancastrians at Cerne Abbey towards Gloucester, the Duke of
Somerset, his brother, Lord John of Somerset, Baron Wenlock, |
and the Earl of Devonshire commanding her forces. The gates of
that city being shut against them, they proceeded to Tewkesbury
with the intention of crossing the Severn. Edward, Earl of March,
son of Richard, Duke of York, after the death of his father at
Wakefield, had been proclaimed King, and assumed the title of
Edward IV. After the defeat and death of Warwick, finding
himself at the head of a considerable army, he at once pursued the
Lancastrians to the banks of the Severn. Advancing by way of
Bath and Cirencester, he refreshed his army at Cheltenham, where
he obtained information of the Queen’s movements, re commenced
his pursuit, and at night encamped about three miles from the
Queen’s forces, who had fortified themselves at a place called ‘ the
Vineyard,’ or ‘ Margaret’s Camp.’ The morning of Saturday, 4th
May, 1471, saw the first onset. Edward led the centre in person,
the Duke of Gloucester the front, and Lord Hastings the rear.
Artillery seemed to have been used on both sides. The conflict
was short and decisive. The Queen’s troops were utterly routed ;
hemmed in on all sides, about three thousand fell. Many were
slain and many drowned in attempting to cross the mill-dam near
the battle field. Treachery seemed to have been at work on the

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Queen’s side, as the Duke of Somerset rode up to the Lord Wenlock
in the entrenchments, called him a traitor, and ‘with his axe he
stroke the brains out of his head.’ Prince Edward and Queen
Margaret were taken prisoners, the Prince murdered by the Dukes
of Clarence and Gloucester either in the tent of Edward IV., on
the battle field, or, as some suppose, in a house in the town of
Tewkesbury (vide ‘Dyde’s Tewkesbury’). The Duke of Somerset
with many other knights were dragged out of the Abbey, where
they had claimed asylum, and were murdered. Prince Edward
and Somerset were supposed to have been buried in the Abbey, but
neither the tomb of the Prince nor of the ‘ haughty Somerset ’
have yet been discovered there.”

The geology of the district now came in for its fair share of atten-
tion, and it is needless to add that full justice was done to it by the
able President of the Malvern Club. Standing ona rising knoll
of gravel he eloquently discoursed on the various changes which
the face of the country had gone through since that bed of gravel
was deposited. First came the period of cold, with the great
stream of northern drift bringing its materials from beyond the
Malvern range far away from the north, and depositing them some
hundreds of feet above the level of the present Severn, hence called
the “ high level gravel,” or “northern drift” in which marine shells
occur. Then came the period when the “low level gravels” were
deposited, forming the present banks so conspicuously fringing the
Severn, at varying distances along its course, and raised some 20
feet above its bed. In these occur freshwater mingled with
estuarine shells, and the remains of the great extinct mammalia
associated with the remains of man. Then came a period of
repose when the valley had been filled up gradually by dammed-up
lakes, until it had reached its present level ; and finally the period
during which the present river had been slowly cutting its way
through these late formed deposits. Crossing the Severn, which
though a noble stream is yet but a degenerate descendant of a far
more noble sire, Forthampton Court was visited, and by the kind
permission of Mr. Yorke, the members were permitted to enter the
grounds and inspect the very fine recumbent figure of Le Zouche
(arms, gules, 10 bezants), the same knight whose figure forms one

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of the eight in the Abbey windows. The Court, a villa of the
Abbots of Tewkesbury, was formerly the residence of Abbot Wake-
man, who died there in 1549. The weathering effects of the
atmosphere is fast obliterating the sharpness of the outlines of this
noble figure, which is much to be regretted. Forthampton Church,
lately restored, was the next point ; the moulding over the inner
doorway of the south porch appears to be of very early Norman,
if not pre-Norman date, and is similar to that over the round
headed chancel arch at Deerhurst. A pleasant walk across the
fields to Sarn Hill brought the party to Telford’s fine bridge under
the Mythe Tute, across the Severn, and a goodly party sat down
in the evening to a dinner provided by the civil hostess of the
Swan. Mr. Niblett again gave the results of his researches in the
Abbey, after which his health, together with that of Sir W. Guise
and Rey. W. S. Symonds, was drunk, and the best thanks of the
members returned to the latter for his kind and efficient guidance
during the day.

On Wednesday morning, before starting for Deerhurst, Mr.
Allard, of Tewkesbury, kindly placed his local information of the
antiquities of the town at the disposal of the members, and con-
ducted them to the Milly and round by the ancient walls of what
might have been the Abbey Grange, to the Abbey Gateway, a fine
structure of Perpendicular date, with a room over the entrance
which has lately been admirably restored. Passing through to an
orchard at the back, a very fine view of the southern side of the
Abbey was obtained. From the traces which remain on the walls
it is evident that a considerable range of buildings extended south-
wards on this side, which together with the cloisters appear to
have been burnt down, as indications of fire are seen extending up
a portion of the walls. The cloisters are said to have been burnt
down at the Dissolution by the king’s visitors on account of the
monks resisting them at their first coming. The Early English
Chapter House likewise, which was visited on the way to the
Tower, seems to have shared the same fate. After a short inspec-
tion of the interior of the Tower, where the simple Norman
arcading appears as fresh as if only built yesterday, the members,
with the addition of their amateur photographer, proceeded, under

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the guidance of the courteous president of the Malvern Club (who
had again driven in from Pendock for the purpose), across the
fields to the ancient Church of Deerhurst, a pleasant walk of about
three miles. The Church of Deerhurst, which occupies the site of
an ancient monastery, founded by Dodo, 710, and burnt after-
wards by the Danes in Athelstane’s time (11th century), no longer
deserves the reproach of Malmesbury of being the “ empty image
of antiquity,” but has been restored by reverent and conservative
hands, every stone almost speaking of its great antiquity. The
chief feature that strikes the eye on approaching is the height of
the Tower (out of all proportion to its width) and also of the nave.
On a close inspection, the courses of herring-bone work on its
western face are seen to extend only up to a certain height, all
beyond bears evident traces of later workmanship. The entrance
is by the western doorway beneath the Tower. The form of the
church is that of a nave of three bays on each side with pointed
arches, 15th century clerestory windows over them, two side aisles
with windows of Decorated and Perpendicular date, and a chancel
with a round headed arch of very early date at the east end which
has been walled up. Over the arches of the nave are curious
triangular openings piercing the walls, a triangular headed arch on
the north wall of the chancel, a round-headed arched doorway
walled up in the east face of the Tower wall, a very rude round-
headed arch also walled up in the vestry at the east end of the
south aisle. All these remains indicate a much more extensive
building in former times. At the east end of the north aisle
is one of the finest 15th century brasses in the kingdom, in
excellent preservation, to the memory of Sir John Cassy and
his wife Alicia. By its side are two others of later date
in memory of the Brydges and Chandos families with the
peculiar “kennel” head-dress of Henry VII.’s time. The
following inscription runs round the first, “ Hic jacet Tones Cassy
miles et quondam capitalis baro sccii (saccarii) domi regis qui obiit
xxiii’ die Mar : anno domi mcccc’ et Alicia uxor ejus quor : aiabus
ppicietur Deus.” At the foot of the female figure is a hound with
long ears and tail, and the following legend, “ Tirri,” evidently the
name of the lady’s pet dog. At the west end of the north aisle is

142

a memorial window to H. E. Strickland, Esq., the eminent
geologist, who was killed by a railway train ; and at the west end
of the south aisle is some very good 14th century glass, with a
figure of St. Catherine holding the well-known wheel in her left
hand, with the right hand and finger upraised in the attitude of
attention. Before leaving the church a successful photograph was
taken of the members grouped around the base of the Tower. A
short walk across the fields and through a lane known for its
pseudomorphous crystals of salt found in the new red marls of the
side banks, brought the party to Apperley Court, where, most
unexpectedly, a lunch had been provided by the hospitable pro-
prietress, Miss Strickland. Before partaking of it a visit was paid
to the Strickland collection of bones, amongst which are two very
fine specimens of the heads and horn cores of the bos primigenius
and bison priscus, found at Cropthorn, on the river Avon, by the
late Mr. Strickland, in 1834. With the kind permission of Miss
Strickland an attempt was made to take a photograph of these
valuable heads, but most unfortunately, owing to some circumstances
over which our amateur photographer apparently had no control,
the attempt was unsuccessful. Mr. Symonds was evidently at
home amongst these old bones; and holding up the last bone of
the tail of the cave lion, told how such apparently opposites as the
mammoth or long haired elephant and the hippopotamus, the
great cave bear, rhinocerous tichorinus, and cave lion, with bos
primigenius and other animals now extinct, specimens of whose
bones were spread before them, had been associated together in
life, as their bones were now mixed together in death in the low
level gravels of the river, and had roamed freely over the neighbour-
ing plains together with primeval man. Reasons were given for
supposing that the now extinct bos primigenius was living down to
the Roman period, and among the ancient Welsh in the time of
St. David. The next and the last point in the day’s excursion was
Wainlode Cliff, where a good section of the keuper marls is exposed
on the left bank of the Severn with a capping of rhetic and lower
lias. So far as the fossils are concerned this section does not pre-
sent the same interest as the sections of similar beds at Aust and
Garden Cliff. The fossiliferous bands are too high to work and the

143

fragments dislodged by the atmosphere and other causes, owing to
the steep slope of the bank, roll into the bed of the Severn and are
lost. The members returned to Apperley Court, whence a break
conveyed them back to Tewkesbury, passing en route the fine old
gable ended manor house of Whitefields. Again were they in-
debted to Mr. Symonds for his guidance throughout a very
agreeable day, and many were the pleasant memories which they
carried away of Tewkesbury, its abbey, old houses, and last, but
not least, the excellent dish of Agaricus procerus and other edible
fungi, abounding in the neighbourhood, of which they had partaken.
WALKS.

The Tuesday walks and minor excursions have afforded the
‘members many agreeable and instructive gatherings. The first
that is worthy of special mention was taken in February of last
year to Combehay, along the newly constructed terrace road,
which affords many fine views of the distant country. The object
of this walk was to visit the grave of the poet Carrington, but un-
fortunately the laurel tree which formerly marked: the spot has
disappeared, and nothing at present indicates his resting-place.
Surely, the representatives of a family so well-known in Bath
should look to this, and erect some memorial. On the report of a
skeleton having been found near the Twerton Coal Pit, some of
the members walked there on 30th March, and found that in
working back the Lias quarry, a small excavation, about 3 or 4
feet from the surface, had been opened in which the burial had
taken place, but that the interment was of a comparatively recent
date.

During the month of April three walks are especially worthy of
record, the first, tracing the Wansdyke through Englishcombe, to
the village of Newton St. Loe, where the Master of the Parish
School exhibited some Roman remains recently found at a slight
depth below the surface ina quarry adjoining the village. They
consisted of fragments of Roman pottery, coins of the Emperors
Constantine and Probus, pieces of bronze, part of a mortarium,
a broken skull with part of a Roman jar found along-
side, the nails of a coffin lying at intervals, the wood having
perished, except in one instance where a small portion remained

144

attached to the nail. The nails being about two inches long, Mr.
Scarth thought that the coffin must have been made from the rude
planks of a tree, or from planks sawn very thick. As many as
eight or nine interments have been traced, and the bodies appear
to have been placed north and south. The site is about half-a-
mile from the villa found in the Avon valley when the Great
Western Railway was being made. The bronze beam of a balance
and some remains of fibula are now in possession of the School-
master. The discovery of these remains, undoubtedly Roman, is
an indication of the Roman population at Newton in early times.
Two coins, one a middle brass of the Emperor Maximian, and the
other a Gallienus, were also shown, and said to have been found in
the parish of Stanton Prior.

The second walk was to Stanton Prior and Priston on 27th of
April. The Church at the former place, dedicated to St. Lawrence,
consists of a nave with Perpendicular tower at the west end, a
chancel, divided from the nave by a low arch with remains of a
stone perpendicular screen beneath ; the roof is waggon-shaped.
There is a 17th century monument to Thomas Cox, Esq., 1650, on
the wall of the nave ; a good Early English window on the side of
the chancel, a Perpendicular niche on south wall of the nave. The
base of the font isapparently Norman. On the south-east face of the
south-west Tower buttress are inscriptions to the Brookman family.
Since the visit of the Club the Church has been restored by Mr.
Davis. A pleasant walk of two miles across the fields took the
members to Priston Church, dedicated to St. Luke, with tower in
centre, between the chancel and nave. Restorations have recently
been made in this church, and painted glass windows inserted.
The third was to Faulkland, on the 29th, when the members took
the train to Freshford, and proceeded thence across the fields to
Philip’s Norton, under the guidance of Mr. Moore. Before enter-
ing the latter village a quarry of cornbrash, with a considerable
depth of sand overlying it, was inspected. In a black band near
the surface Mr. Moore stated that he had found several bones of
fish, &c. A short visit was paid to the well-known George Inn,
the fine roof of which is sadly out of repair. The quarry to the
south-west of the village, the object of the Club’s visit, is about

145

three miles distant, on the left of the Wells Road, and is in the
Cornbrash formation. In the fields which separate it from the
road British pottery has been found, together with flint “ flakes”
and “scrapers,” good specimens of both of which were picked up by
~ one of the members during their visit. Standing at a convenient
spot, where the face of the quarry with its fissures could best be
seen, Mr. Moore stated that the quarrymen had reported to him
that many hut circles had been destroyed in working back for the
stone. This induced him to investigate the matter more closely,
and he found that during the last few years 24 at least had
perished ; sufficient remains, however, existed to enable him to
ascertain that some were 8 ft. in depth and 9 ft. across, with rude
steps leading down to them; they appear to have been of a
superior type, round in form, with upper and lower chambers, and
cut out of the cornbrash. At the bottom of these pits traces of
human oceupation have invariably been found. A fissure runs
through the quarry vertically, 5 or 6 ft. in width, and is filled with
a drift deposit, whence Mr. Moore had obtained pellets of iron ore,
portions of mammalian bones, teeth, and bones of the arvicola, and,
as he thinks, of the lemming also. The members returned to
Bath through Wellow and Combe Hay.

On July 13th an expedition to Tortworth was planned. The
train was taken wd@ Bristol to Charfield. Keeping to the East of
the railway, a path was followed by Charfield Mill, and under the
railway arch to Avening Green, The lane leading to the latter
village contained abundant evidence that igneous rocks were not
far off, as the “metal” was principally composed of trap.
Descending the hill to Damory Bridge, the Silurian beds are
exposed on the right hand of the road. A large trap quarry was
visited on the right before crossing the bridge; the prevailing
colour of the stone is olive green, the outside being much stained
with iron; there was an appearance of bedding in the right hand
corner. An unsuccessful hunt was made here for a rare mineral
called Prehnite, which is found here, Crossing the bridge a large
olive green compact block detained the members some time, and
many good Upper Llandovery fossils were extracted, ¢. g., Orthis,
Tentaculites, and two species of Trilobites, The beds seen at the

K

146

road side dip at a sharp angle. On the top of the hill, from some
stone heaps, several characteristic Caradoc fossils were found,
amongst them Calymene punctata, Staurocephalus Murchisoni,
Tentaculites annulatus, Orthis elegantula, Holopella, Petraia,
&c. Turning to the left, the fine Spanish chesnut in the garden
of the old Rectory house was visited, supposed to be the oldest in
the kingdom, and to measure 52 feet in girth (47 was the measure-
ment roughly made by two of the members). This tree was
mentioned as a boundary tree in the reign of King John, and is
supposed to have been growing since the time of Egbert.
Crossing the old red sandstone, and ascending the hill to
Tortworth Lodge, the Carboniferous shales and limestone were
successively traversed and in the Park several fine Wellingtonias
and Araucarias flourish. Permission having been courteously
granted, the members visited the Geological Museum, which
contains many good specimens of the local fossils, the value of
which would however be much enhanced were they more carefully
arranged and named, Before arriving at the station on the right
of the road inspection was made of another old trap quarry,
remarkable for its extremely vesicular nature, abounding with
amygdaloidal cavities containing crystals, and very nodular. A
good plain dinner was partaken of at the Inn adjoining the
Station.

Excursion TO RaDSTOCK AND DESCENT INTO THE Coat Pits.

Mr. McMurtrie, of Radstock, having kindly offered to illustrate
his paper on the “ Faults and Contortions of the Somersetshire
Coal Field,” read before the Club during the winter evening
meetings, by a visit to one of his coal pits, a limited number of
members, with their friends, availed themselves of the opportunity
on Tuesday, July 20. A break started from the Institution
sufficiently early to allow the party to be ready at the mouth of
the “Tyning” pit properly equipped for their descent awa enfers at
11 am. Some large and admirably executed plans had previously
been shown at Mr. McMurtrie’s residence, and by their aid the
strata through which the shafts are sunk and the various coal
veins, faults, and disturbances were clearly indicated, also the
underground route which was about to be followed. The sensation

_ 147

to those who had never descended a coal shaft before was, to say
‘the least, novel and perhaps somewhat conducive to an accelerated
motion of the pulse, as the cage loaded with its living freight
glided rapidly and smoothly through the gloom down 990 feet in
about 14 minute. At the first shoot from the surface the stomach
seems to approach uncomfortably near the mouth, afterwards this
feeling is succeeded by .a sensation that the cage is rapidly
ascending —the instantaneous rush of something past you indicates
that half the descent has been accomplished, and that the ascending
cage has gone by—a sudden glimmer on one side reveals one or
two unearthly looking figures, and you are told that the first
gallery has been passed, where the “ great vein” is worked—a few
seconds more and you are quietly landed on terra firma (if these
ever-moving beds can be called by such a name) at the bottom of
the shaft, and on a level with the “Bull” vein. The rapidity of
the descent of course does not admit of an examination, or even of
a glimpse of the strata through which the shaft is sunk, even
supposing the brickwork lining admitted it; but the plan had
before shown that this pit was sunk through beds of the Lower Lias’
with the succeeding Rheetic measures ; through the new red sand-
stone, with a curious band of conglomerate at the base composed
of rounded limestone pebbles in a red matrix—the size of these
pebbles decreasing the further north this formation extends from
the Mendip range, until in some places it becomes almost a
quartzose sand ; then a band of new red sandstone again—or, as
Mr. McMurtrie was inclined to suppose, of shales stained red by an
infiltration of iron; and then the coal measures proper, which in
this part of Somersetshire consist of upper, middle, and lower
series, in which are found about thirty-three seams of coal. The
upper or Radstock series is divided from the Farringdon or middle
by a persistent band of red shale some 240 or 300 feet thick, and
the latter series is divided from the lower or Vobster series by a
great mass of Pennant rock. It was at the lowest vein of the
upper series, called the “Bull” vein, that the members ‘began
their explorations, furnished with lamps and candles ; the latter,
stuck in lumps of clay, were inserted in miner fashion between the
fingers of the extended palm in such a way that the wick might

148

suffer from the minimum of draught; the open light being
perfectly safe in these pits, owing to the absence of inflammable
gas. At first the road was of sufficient height to allow of an
upright position, and horses were now and then passed dragging a
string of coal-laden trucks from the distant workings. Vice was
found to exist even 1,000 feet below the surface, as on one occasion
warnings were passed from the guide to give “Tommy” a wide
berth, as he was apt to resent the intrusion of strangers by showing
the whites of his eyes and lashing out his hind legs. The hard
bed of shale, through which the first part of the road was cut,
began to give way to a softer material, and the side walls and
roof were propped with balks of timber; various branches or side
roads were seen on either hand, and soon the way began to get
narrower, and the roof in closer proximity to the floor. Hitherto
the “ Bull” vein had been followed ; owing to the descending dip of
the strata, however, the next vein above (the “bottom little
vein”) was struck, and followed to the “fault,” respecting which
the curious fact was stated that whereas in the “ great” or topmost
vein of this upper series it is an upthrow of 51 feet ; in the lowest
or “ Bull” vein of the same series it is a downthrow of 21 feet,
contrary to what might have been expected. Proceeding onwards,
the “headings” were at length reached, where the process of
working out the coal was going on. This consists in picking out
the soft band of shale immediately over the coal for several yards.
After the lapse of a few hours the superincumbent weight of the
strata causes the vein of coal to break up from below into cuboidal
masses, which are then easily removed, so that nature and art
combine in this operation. After sufficient time had been spent,
and the members’ backs and knees began to weary of the crouching
and kneeling attitude in which they were obliged to pursue their
scientific researches, a retreat was made to the more open roads,
and on the way picks and hammers were busily at work in
collecting specimens of the ferns and calamites with which the
shaly roof abounds. Large calamites were seen im situ most
probably in the very position in which they formerly grew, and
the huge trunks of tree ferns (Lepidodendra) quite erect, with the
commencement of their roots plainly traceable in the shales below.

149

These are called by the miners “bell moulds,” from their shape,
and are frequently the cause of serious and fatal accidents, owing
to their suddenly detaching themselves from their matrix and
falling without warning on those below. A most admirable
instance of an overlap fault, with the ends drawn backwards
and downwards, was pointed out by Mr. McMurtrie. In
further illustration of the abnormal condition of the veins in
this coal field, the workings on the opposite side of the shaft were
visited, and the “ Bull” vein was again struck, after rather a diffi-
cult process on hands and knees. Here the overlaps seem to
assume the form of the letter Z, and are a regular puzzle to account
for. Another peculiar feature, too, is seen here. Immediately
over the “Bull” vein, which is more than two feet thick, a very
thin vein of coal comes in, separated from the former and from the
harder roof beds above by thin bands of soft shale. This top vein
is twisted and contorted in the most extraordinary manner, quite
independent of and unconformable with the beds above and below.
In some places the vein dies out, in others it is wedged into two
bands of shale. How is this to be accounted for? Why should
not the same disturbance which affected this thin vein have also
affected the beds above and below, which are only separated by a
few feet? Mr. McMurtrie seems to give the only plausible expla-
nation, «.¢., that this little vein, with its accompanying shale, was
in a more plastic state than the greater vein below, and the pressure
acting from above and on the sides caused an unequal movement
in the two veins, hence the more numerous twistings and contor-
tions of the former. As an instance of the constant movements
going on throughout the coal fields, the roadway which some ten
weeks since was from 6 to 9 feet high, had within that space of
time so filled up, both from the natural rising of the floor, the
lowering of the roof, and the movement of the sides, that in some
places it was necessary to stoop nearly double to clear the balks
overhead, which were in many cases snapped off like twigs from
the pressure. After three hours underground the members were
not sorry to come to the light again. It was generally supposed
that their nearest and dearest friends would not have recognised
them in their changed aspect, until water had restored the more

150

normal hue and form ; one member in particular, about whom some
anxiety was constantly expressed lest he should be left behind in
the somewhat too narrow workings, was especially congratulated on
his safe return. A few minutes were spent over the shale heaps
outside, from which some good specimens of Pecopteris, Neuropteris,
Sigillaria, and Asterophyllites were obtained; and after an admi-
rable luncheon, provided by the kind hospitality of Mr. and Mrs,
McMurtrie—a most highly appreciated termination to the day’s
work—a short visit was paid to the shale heap of the “ Wells
Way” Pit, where the microscopical energy of Mr. Charles Moore
detected the sporangia or seed spores of Flemingites gracilis, which
he had also found at the depth of 400 feet in a lead mine in the
north of England. The members felt much indebted to Mr,
MecMurtrie for his guidance and explanations. In proof of his in-
timate acquaintance with the Radstock district, a reference need
only be made to the pamphlet he published in conjunction with
Mr. Greenwell, at the meeting of the British Association in Bath,
and to his recent papers contributed to the “ Proceedings of our
Club.”

On September 28th the morning train was taken to Bradford,
where Mr. Irvine, accompanied by several members, pointed out the
antiquities of the old Town. The first halt was called at the
bridge, which appears to have been built at two different dates, the
arches to the South of the old Chapel on the bridge being probably
a subsequent erection. On the way to the Free School, two old
houses with good “‘barge boards” were passed. Arrived at the Free
School, which Mr. Irvine considers to be the remains of a Saxon
Chapel, all the minute architectural details illustrative of this view
were dwelt on with that minute particularity which marks the man
thoroughly conversant with his subject. The result of Mr. Irvine’s
observations are given at page 122. The Church was the next point
visited, and on the way the Saxon slabs lying in the churchyard
with the interlaced pattern characteristic of that period. The last
point was the fine old Tithe barn, across the river.

On October 12th the course of the Wansdyke was traced be-
tween Bathford and Warley Manor. Mr. Scarth, who accompanied
the members, was decidedly of the opinion that this ancient boun-

151

dary is distinctly visible on the right of the lane leading to Warley,
about half a mile from Bathford. A hedge now runs on the top of
it, out of which 7 trees are growing, a shed with hayrick adjoining
is built on its lower course towards the river, where it becomes less
distinct, still nearer the river it expands in size, and a fine elm tree
grows upon the top, until it is finally lost at the point to which the
river rises in floods. On the other side of the river its course
towards Hampton down is only conjectural, so far as the brow of
the hill, when it can again be traced beyond the old quarries.
Returning to the point where it strikes the Warley lane, no traces
apparently remain in the field to the left of that lane, though
indications appear near the quarries, but the refuse heaps render it
difficult to distinguish its real course. At the lower part of the hill
it points to Farley clump, but probably slanted up the hill to
the point where the Roman road joined it at the commencement
of Asley Coppice.

Westwood Church was visited on the 12th November; the train
was left at Freshford, anda walk up the picturesque valley took the
members to Iford bridge, where a pause was made to examine the
base of the Perpendicular cross which once rose from the middle
buttress on the up-stream side. In the spandrells of the west door-
way of the Church Tower at Westwood, is the monogram of Thomas
._ Horton. The labels of the west window are curious, on the north
side is a man with a shield, on the south a dog with a log and
chain attached to his left. forefoot. The fine glass in the East
window with Christ represented on the Tau cross was again exa-
mined as on a former visit of the Club, and some bits of painted
glass in the old manor house adjoining ; the letters H. O. and a
shield with Christ on the cross in grisaille, were deciphered.

The last walk worthy of record was taken to Langridge, on 7th
December, where a Roman coffin had lately been found on the
broken ground to the North of the drive up to the Rectory. The
position of the coffin was somewhat peculiar, as it was about 1 foot
beneath the surface, and sloping with a downward tilt to the S.E.,
this was probably owing to the nature of the ground, which appears
to have slipped owing to the clayey sub-soil. The bones were in
their original position, the skull well formed, small, and very thin,

152

with one decayed tooth only in the jaws, the sockets of the jaws
filled up, indicating age from the smallness of the bones, and the
thinness of the skull; it may be inferred that they belonged to an
elderly female, perhaps a Romano-British Matron of some impor-
tance. The coffin measured 5 feet 7 inches inside, about 6 feet
outside, with a roughly hewn cover. It is nowin the possession of

a farmer, and used as a trough.
H. H. WINWOOD, Hon. See.

Address of the President, after the Anniversary Dinner,
Feb. 18th, 1870.
GENTLEMEN,

In a book, well-known I dare say to most of you, Gilbert White’s
“Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne,” we find mentioned
by its amiable and accomplished author, towards the close of a life
that had been devoted to the exploration of the productions of his
own neighbourhood,—that “ for more than forty years he had paid
attention to the ornithology of the district, without being able to
exhaust the subject ; new occurrences, he says, “still arise as long
as any inquiries are kept alive.” In another passage in the same
work he writes—“It is, I find, in zoology, as it is in botany ; all
nature is so full that that district produces the greatest variety
which is the most examined.” These were the remarks of one who,
on giving up a college life, early fixed his residence in an obscure
village, the village in which he was born, and the same in which he
died at a mature age, it being his desire, as he states in the preface
to his book, “ to lay before the public his idea of parochial history,
which he thought ought to consist of natural productions and
occurrences, as well as antiquities.”

White was no systematist, nor did he trouble himself about
theories; he was content to be one of those patient out-door
observers who find their happiness in watching nature and marking
down all that offers itself to their notice, and which appears worthy
of record. There were few such observers in his day, and to his
example we owe, in great measure, that numerous class of field
naturalists which has since arisen, often of late years associating
in bodies for the express purpose of scientific research, Such a body

« ————————E—— —

uta

Bp tt pe

153

is our Club,—and the objects we have in view could not be better
seen and understood than as presented to usin the Natural History
of Selborne. To read that book is almost to read in full the exact
kind of work we have to do, what belongs to us asa Club, and what
we should each of us endeavour to set forward as far as we can.
White's idea was a very comprehensive one. His book takes account
of almost everything. He speaks of the situation and boundaries,
the scenery and physical characters of the district which he had
undertaken to describe, its climate and meteorology, its animal and
vegetable productions, dwelling especially on the habits of those
animals which were constantly under his eye ; he mentions its soils,
rocks, and fossils ; he enters into many interesting details respecting
the inhabitants of the village——the cottages of the poor, their
economy and modes of life, their employments, their superstitions,
and other little matters which it is unnecessary to specify ; while
with respect to the early history and antiquities of the village itself,
he sought out all that could be gleaned from old records, this part
of his subject being treated of at great length, and forming no
inconsiderable portion of the original work. Get all the facts
together in any district relating to these several topics, and we have
its whole history. And let the members of our Club who have
engaged in such an undertaking copy after White ; copy him in his
zeal and assiduity ; be, like him, always on the look-out for some-
thing new, though going year after year over the same field, and,
as in his case so in theirs, something will be continually turning up
to reward and encourage them in their researches.

But without further particularising the several kinds of facts we
have to collect in illustration of our own Bath district, I would
take this opportunity of saying a few words respecting the care and
judgment required in collecting them. How are they to be got
together? Clearly we must either look after them and observe for
ourselves or we must trust the observations of others. And the
first at least of these methods may seem a simple matter. To see
with our own eyes and to hear with our own ears,—what more
direct channels for getting at the truth? Yet the testimony of our
own senses is not always forthwith to be accepted in scientifie
inquiries. We must be upon our guard. Persons in general are

154

hardly aware of the experience that is needed to discriminate
between what is real and what is unreal, even when one’s own self
is the observer. It not unfrequently happens in Natural History
that the most absurd mistakes are made by those not habituated
to close and accurate observation, as in one instance by a gentleman,
whom I heard asserting that humming birds were found in this
country, from his having seen the humming-bird hawk moth
hovering over the flowers ina garden and mistaken it for a real
bird. Many other cases might be mentioned in which the pro-
ductions of nature so closely resemble each other in a general way
that an unpractised eye can hardly distinguish between them. It
is necessary sometimes to look again and again before we can be
sure of what we really see.

And if caution is required in judging of our own observations, how
much more is it needed in judging of those of others. How slow
should we be to receive as facts, what rest entirely upon state-
ments which we cannot verify, and which perhaps amount to nothing
more than mere popular beliefs handed down from father to son.
Gentlemen, I would appeal to you, as having, I should imagine,
often found the necessity for exercising this caution in your various
excursions. You visit strange places; you are struck with certain
matters of interest that fall under your notice; you want particu-
lars respecting them; and you naturally, and very properly, seek
such particulars from those who live on the spot, and who have
been familiar with the occurence or circumstance, whatever it may
be, from their earliest years. You ask for information, I say, but
can you always rely upon it when given? Have you not often
found that the statements of the persons you refer to, without the
slightest intention on their part to deceive or to misrepresent the
case, rest upon the most imperfect testimony? You consider
them perhaps as next to worthless, from the circumstance of those
who make them being clearly unggcustomed to look to the bottom
of things, and ignorant of the kind of evidence that is wanted to
establish a scientific truth. And will not the difficulty of getting
at the real fact be increased in proportion to the number of chan-
nels through which the statement comes to us, until, in some_
instances, we come to question with ourselves whether there is the

155

slightest dependence to be placed upon it, whether there is any
foundation for the fact at all? This, however, leads us to another
point worthy our consideration : the fact or circumstance may have
a very doubtful aspect, yet it may not be altogether untrue.

It is remarked by one of the greatest thinkers of our day that
“not only is there a soul of goodness in things evil, but very gene-
rally also a soul of truth in things erroneous.” Almost all our
beliefs are grounded upon something real however much that which
is real may have been distorted or exaggerated by report, or over-
laid with fiction, or incorrectly observed in the first instance from
hasty and careless examination. Hence all beliefs, especially those
widely embraced, or generally held in any particular place, and yet
more where there is agreement in the details among those who
profess them, deserve to be inquired into, however improbable the
things believed may be in themselves, and notwithstanding our own
strong persuasion that they are in the main erroneous. Truth and
error aresomixed up in this world that the man of science can scarcely
hope to have the one presented to him without more or less of the
other. Even that knowledge originating with himself is seldom to
be depended upon, till he feels sure that he has eliminated all
sources of possible mistake and deception. Sometimes generalisa-
tions long received as correct are found in fault and have to be set
aside ; or to be entirely recast in order to admit some new fact at
variance with all our old ideas on the subject. Look to the results
of the late deep-sea dredging explorations by Dr. Carpenter and
others,—the marvellous discovery of animals, even of a compara-
tively high organisation, existing at depths in the ocean where life
was formerly thought to be impossible,—along with other facts in
Science—not only new—but spoken of as “diametrically opposed
to pre-existing beliefs.”

Indeed in Natural History the most startling facts are being
brought forward every year, showing how little we yet know of
the true order in which nature works, and how the supposed order ©
is from time to time broken in upon by anomalies we should never
have expected. The naturalist, and we might say the philosopher
generally, should be ready to believe everything not absolutely im-
possible, at the same time that he never give full credit to anything

156

not yet proven, and for which further testimony is wanting. His
horizonsas to what may be is continually being enlarged.

The days probably were when those who had never seen or
heard of a bat would have said it was impossible for any animals
to fly, except such as had regular wings, like birds and insects.
Now, however, we know that not only bats, but several other
mammals, and even animals of the lizard kind, have the means of
transporting themselves through the air by lateral expansions of
the skin, serving as wings; the last novelty in this way being a
large tree frog, brought to Mr. Wallace when travelling in Borneo,
having the toes very long and the webs very largely developed, by
the help of which it had been “seen to come down, in a slanting
direction, from a high tree as zt flew /’”*

What more startling also than the fact that, amongst insects
having true wings, any should be found not using their wings for
the purpose of flight, but for the purpose of propelling themselves
through the water. Yet such is the case with a small hymenop-
terous insect, discovered a few years back by Sir John Lubbock ;
the fact being the more remarkable, from the circumstance that out
of 30,000 known species of hymenoptera, not one had previously
been discovered of aquatic habits. How antecedently improbable
therefore it was that any such existed ; and had such only existed
formerly, and been now extinct, and been found in the same fossil
state in which we occasionally find other insects, who, on looking
to its mere structure and characters, would have suspected (as
Sir John Lubbock remarks) that it was aquatic.t This is a fact
for the Palzeontologist.

Again, there was a time when we should have said that those
animals which go through certain marked transformations before
attaining to maturity, like most insects and some reptiles, were
incapable of reproducing their species in the larval state. Of late
years, however, there has been “ observed an asexual reproduction
in the larve of a fly belonging to the genus Cecidomyia. This
reproduction was said to commence in autumn, to continue through
the winter and spring, giving origin during the whole of this
period to a series of successive generations of larvee, until finally,

je SOS 20 eee SS
* Malay Arch, i. 59, with a figure. + See Linn. Trans., vol, xxiv., p. 136.

Ree Ct

157

in June, the last of them were developed into perfect and sexually
mature animals,”*

Since the publication of the above remarkable circumstance a
case has also been recorded in which the tadpoles of the Lissotriton
punctatus (a species of water-newt) were observed to deposit several
eggs without previously acquiring the adult characters.t

But I must hasten on to speak of another point which ought to
be attended to by those who search after new facts in seience, and
that is the importance of not neglecting to note down any of
which we are sure, because at the moment they seem of little
worth. It may be considered by some a trifling occupation to be
continually scraping together a number of details which it is
thought can never be turned to account in any way, but it should be
remembered when we have once got hold of anything new in science
—be it only true as well as new—we cannot tell what may come of it.

When Wollaston, in 1802, viewing the solar spectrum through a
narrow chink in a window shutter with a prism, observed four or
five dark lines crossing the band of coloured light—he recorded the
fact, but “supposed it to possess no physical significance.” He
little thought at the time that this simple fact, enlarged by those
who came after him, was destined eventually to lead up to the
discovery of that wondrous instrument of modern research,
spectrum analysis, by which has been revealed the material
composition of the sun and other heavenly bodies, and to which
we can at present set no limits, as to what it may have yet to tell
us respecting many terrestrial as well as celestial phenomena.

But to take, in illustration of this point also, a fact in Natural
History, it had been often observed that in the flowers of the
common primrose the stamens and pistils were of different relative
lengths in different plants; sometimes the stamens exceeding the
pistils, at other times the pistils exceeding the stamens, By
whomsoever this simple observation was first made, it does not
seem to have attracted much notice, until Darwin took up the
subject, and extended the inquiry to other species of plants,
leading in the end to the discovery of those laws of di-and tri-

* Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 3, vol. xvil., p. 161,
t Id. Ser. 4, vol. iv., p. 76.,

158

morphism, which, in connection with his close researches into the
fertilisation of plants by insect agency, have done so much to
advance our knowledge of the structure of the reproductive organs
of plants, their interaction, and the conditions necessary to insure
their functional success. I might go on to speak of other instances
in which small facts, or thought to be small when first noticed,
have led in the end to great results. I might dwell on the extent
to which our knowledge of the early history of man (or rather of
man as he was before any true history existed) has been carried,
since the first finding of a few flint implements in the brick-pits at
Hoxne, now so many years ago, or mention how in certain cases
the discovery of a coin, an incised stone, or old inscription in some
obscure church or other building, has thrown light upon an
important question in Archeology.

But the time will not allow me to go more into details on these
matters. I must conclude, Gentlemen, with hoping that the re-
marks which I have made, few and hasty as they have been, may
prove useful to some of you. It rests with you to collect such
facts as I have been speaking of in this address, and in proportion
to the diligence with which you seek them out will be the fruits
gathered. Unable any longer to join you in the field, I can only
wish you (iod-speed in all your explorations and researches. Let
not your zeal abate, nor your energies tire, till you have hunted up
every fact that may tend to illustrate the Natural History and
Antiquities of this neighbourhood. If at any time inclined to
regard the field you are traversing from week to week as exhausted,
as having nothing more of new to offer, nor anything of the old
that needs further looking into, then remember Gilbert White
and his remark, after forty years’ exploration of Selborne Parish,
with which I began my address. Gentlemen, we have as yet been
associated as a club for only fifteen years. Let the full forty pass
by before we ask what is there more to be done. If the time
permitted, I could tell you of some parts of the field which we
have marked out for ourselves that have hitherto been altogether
untrodden by any of us ;—of much still remaining to be done for
the interests of science, and not less for the honour of Bath, whose
name stands out so prominently in connection with that of our Club.

RULES

OF THE

Huh Matra History & Antiquarian
Field Chub.

1870.

1.—The Club shall be called “THE BATH NATURAL HISTORY
AND ANTIQUARIAN FIELD CLUB,” and shall consist (for
the present) of not more than Seventy-five Members.

2. —The object of the Club shall be to make Excursions around Bath,
with the view of investigating the Natural H istory, Geology,
and Antiquities of the neighbourhood.

3.—The Founder of the Club, the Rev. Lzonarp J ENYNS, shall be
considered the permanent President ; and a Vice-President,
Secretary, and Treasurer, shall be chosen each year from among
the Members at the Anniversary Meeting on the 18th February.

4.—Quarterly Meetings for the election of Members, and for other
business, shall take place on the First Tuesday in April, July,
October, and January.

5.—There shall be a Committee of Management consisting of the
officers and two other Members of the Club (the latter to be
elected annually), whose business it shall be to consider and
determine all matters connected with finance, and printing
the proceedings of the Club, or papers read at any of its
meetings ; or any business requiring consideration previous to
the Quarterly Meetings. »

6.—There shall be Four Excursions during the year, to be fixed at
the Anniversary Meeting, subject to alteration at any previous
Quartérly Meeting, if agreed to by all the Members present—
Six to forma quorum. A list of such Excursions, with the
respective Places of Meeting, shall be suspended in the Vesti-
bule of the Bath Literary and Scientific Institution. Such
Members as feel disposed shall also meet every Z’'uesday, at the
Institution, at 10 a.m.

160

7.—The hour of meeting shall not be changed, except for the con-
venience of taking particular trains, when it is arranged to go
by rail to any place ; in which case the altered time shall be
posted at the Institution, not later than Twelve o’clock on the
Tuesday previous.

8—In arranging the Excursions, due regard shall be paid to Natural
History and Antiquities, so as to secure an equal share of
attention to each subject; with this view, when the same
Excursion does not include them both, they shall, so far as
practicable, be taken alternately.

9.—Special Meetings shall be appointed for the Reading of Papers or
Exhibition of Specimeus, notice being given to the Secretary,
at, or previous to, any one of the Quarterly Meetings, by
Members having such communications to make to the Club.

10.—Persons wishing to join the Club may be proposed by any
Member at one of the Quarterly or Special Meetings, and
elected (by ballot) at the next meeting afterwards. Three
black balls to exclude.

11.—Any Member of the Club may invite friends to accompany
them on the proposed Excursions.

12.—It shall be the business of the Secretary to take Notes of the
Day’s Excursion, and to draw up a summary of the Year's
proceedings, previously to the next Anniversary ; he shall also
see that the proper Notices of Excursions are suspended at the
Institution, and communicate with the Members by letter,
when occasion shall require. His accounts, as Treasurer, to be
passed at the Anniversary.

13.—A Subscription of Seven Shillings and Sixpence shall be paid
yearly by each Member, to defray any expenses the Club may
incur otherwise than by journeys and refreshments. This
Subscription to be considered due on the Anniversary. Newly
elected Members to pay such a subscription for the current
year at the time of their election.

14.—Members whose Subscriptions are in arrear for one year shall
be considered as having withdrawn from the Club, if, after
application, the same be not paid up.

15.—There shall be a Supernumerary List for Members whose
absence from Bath is only temporary. Such Members, on
their return, and on payment of their Subscription for the then
current year may be admitted to the Club at once, or so soon

as a vacancy occurs.
H. H. WINWOOD,
Hon. Sec.

BATH
NATURAL HISTORY & ANTIQUARIAN FIELD CLUB,

INSTITUTED FEB. 18th, 1855.

LIST OF MEMBERS FOR THE YEAR 1870.

President,
*REV. LEONARD JENYNS, M.A., F.LS., F.G.S.

Vice-Hresident,
*REV. PREBENDARY SCARTH, M.A.

Secretary.
REY. H. H. WINWOOD, M.A, F.G.S.

Treasurer.
COL. E. P. ST. AUBYN.

Rey. THOS. STEELE, LL.D. & D.C.L., 2, Bathwick Terrace
*C, E. BROOME, Esq., M.A., F.L.8., Elmhurst, Batheaston
*Captain W. V. HEWITT, 3, Church Street, Widcombe
*CHARLES MOORE, Esq., F.G.S., 6, Cambridge Place

W. DOBSON, Esq., Oakwood, Bathwick Hill

Rey. H. N. ELLACOMBE, Vicarage, Bitton

JOHN BARRETT, Esq., F.R.C.8., 18, Pierrepont Street
Rey. THOS. JACKSON, 32, Sydney Buildings

Rey. GEORGE BUCKLE, Vicarage, Twerton

Rev. JOHN EARLE, Rectory, Swainswick

JOHN JOHNSTON, Esq., 8, Sion Place

Mr. CHARLES EKIN, F.C.S., 8, Argyle Street

C. J. FOX, Esq., M.D., Brislington, near Bristol

Captain HARDY, R.N., Kilkenny House, Sion Hill

W. LONG, Esq., West Hayes, Wrington

Colonel WYNDHAM BAKER, 12, Green Park

Mr. 8. HAYWARD, Hanover House

Rey. D’COURCY MEADE, M.A., 1, South-west Buildings
J. LE MARCHANT, Esgq., 17, Sion Hill

W.S. MITCHELL, Esq., LL.B., F.L.S., F.G.8., St. George’s Lodge
Lieut.-Colonel WICKHAM FREEMAN, 3, Johnstone Street
Captain F, R. FRAMPTON, R.N., 46, Pulteney Street

W. RODWELL, Esq., F.L.S., 34, Marlborough Buildings

J. F. GOODRIDGE, Esq., 5, Henrietta Street

Rey. W. 8. SHAW, Beechen Cliff Villa

Rev. Prebenidary BOND, Vicarage, Weston

Captain LYSAGHT, R.N., 3, Sion Row

Rev. C. BAKER, Tellisford Rectory, near Bath
Lieut.-Colonel W. H. BAYNES, 18, Russell Street

Major J. H. BEAN, 8, Sydney Place
EMANUEL GREEN, Esq., Holcombe, near Bath

* Original Members,

162

Mr. J. T. IRVINE, F.S.A., Scot., Combe Down

H. D. SKRINE, Esq., Warleigh Manor

Rey. T. P. ROGERS, Vicarage, Batheaston

ALFRED BANKART, Esq., Green Park

JOSIAH GOODWIN, Esq., F.S.A., Batheaston

W. ALLEN, Esq., The Cloisters, Perrymead

Colonel W. COCKELL, 18a, Queen Square

CHAS. E. DAVIS, Esq., F.8.A., 55, Pulteney Street

A. F. JANVRIN, Esq., 7, Royal Crescent

J McMURTRIB, Esgq., Radstock

S. KEMP, Esq., Oriel House, Widcombe

J. WEDGEWOOD YEELES, Esq., Bathford

H. BONHAM ACTON, Esq., 4, Great Bedford Street

Lieut.-Col. ENGLAND, 7, Norfolk Crescent

H. B, INMAN, Esq., Batheaston

Capt. J. T. CHANDLER, 33, Marlborough Buildings

Rev. ROBT. DRUMMOND, St. Catherine’s Court, Batheaston

T. F. INMAN, Esq., Batheaston

Captain P. SAUMAREZ, R.N., 21, Paragon

HENRY BIRD, Esq., M.D., Christow, Exeter

WALTER ELLIS, Esq., 2, Royal Crescent

T. F. WALKER, Esq., F.G.S., F.R.G.S , 6, Brock Street

CHAS. TIMINS, Esq., 3, Cavendish Place

Rey. T. H. TOOKE, Rectory, Monkton Farley

Rey. H. 8. SAYCE, Apsey House, Batheaston

Col. R. L. TAYLOR, C.B., Ivy Lawn, Weston Road

Rev. G. W. BRAIKENRIDGE, MWLA., F.L.S., F.S.A. Scot., Winash,
Brislington

R. E. CRICKITT, Esq., 4, Belvedere Villas

THOS. ASHWORTH, Esq., Claverton Lodge

Major-General MATTHEWS, 3, Pulteney Street

E. TANNER, Esq., 2, Raby Place ;

Captain PICK WICK, Frankleigh, Bradford

Major POORE, Priory, Bathwick

H. HOLLAND BURNE, Esq., 31, Marlborough Buildings

BUXTON WHALLEY, Esq., Midford Castle

Major HENRY MENARES, 4, Daniel Street

Rev. FRED. SOWDON, Dunkerton Rectory

JAMES HERDMAN, Esq,, 4, Gay Street

Colonel BUCKLE, 14, Queen Square

CHAS. HARPER, Esq., Manor House, Batheaston

How. Members.

W. BOYD DAWKINS, &sq., F.R.S., F.G.8., &e.
J. D. T. NIBLETT, Esq., The Knoll, Tuffley, Gloucestershire
W. LANT CARPENTER, Esq., B.A., B.Sc.

Supermumerary List.

Colonel TUDOR

H. J. HUNTER, Esq., M.D., Privy Council Office, Whitehall
Sir GEORGE J. R. HEWETT, Bart., Albury, Guildford, Surrey
Captain G. W. V. VILLIERS

T, FELTON FALKNER, Esq.

J. M. HEYWOOD, Esq.

W. JAMIESON, Esq., M.D.

CONTENTS. -

1.—CHEMICAL GEOLOGY, BY CHARLES Exin, F.C.S.

2—Tue Common EncLIsH NAMES OF PLANts, Parts L
AND IL, By Rev. H. N. Extacompg, M.A.

3.—THE MAMMALIA AND OTHER REMAINS FROM DRIFT
DEPOSITS IN THE BATH BAsIN, BY CHAS. MOORE,
F.GS.

4.—REMARKS ON SOME OF THE FUNGI MET WITH EN THE
NEIGHBOURHOOD OF BaTH, BY ©. E. BROOME,
M.A, F.LS. =

5.—NOTES ON THE CHAPEL AND HOSPITAL OF St. MARY
MAGDALENE, BY Rev. W. Stokes SHAw, B.A.

6.—Nores oN A Parr or CELTIC SPOONS FOUND NEAR
Weston, BATH, IN 1866, BY Rev. PrREB. SCARTH,
M.A.

7.—SUMMARY OF PROCEEDINGS FOR THE YEAR 1869-79,
BY THE SECRETARY.

8.—ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT AFTER ANNIVERSARY
Dinner, 1870. ;

9.—RULES AND List oF MEMBERS.

VoL: Tk) Nook:

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

_- BATH NATURAL HISTORY

AND

. tan

2
4 "ANTIQUARIAN FIELD CLUB.

VOL. II. No. 2.

reTigaa hew ys

PRICE TWO SHILLINGS,

BATH:

. ie
.* PRINTED (FOR THE CLUB) AT THE ‘“ CHRONICLE” OFFICE, KINGSTON BUILDINGS,
1871.

= * See TY

159

Document of Henry IT. relative to the Priory of Bath: from the
Municipal Archives at Axbridge. By Rev. J. Eartn, M.A.
Read April 27, 1870.

Henricus, Dei gratia Rex Anglie, Dominus Hybernie, Dux
Normannie et Aquitanize, Comes Andegavensis, Archiepiscopis,
Episeopis, Abbatibus, Prioribus, Comitibus, Baronibus, Justici-
ariis, Forestariis, Vicecomitibus, Prepositis, Ministris, et omnibus
Baillivis & fidelibus suis salutem. Sciatis quod intuitu dei con-
eessimus Beato Petro Bathon’ & Priori, & Monachis ejusdem
ecclesiz ; & beato Andree de Well’, & Decano & Canonicis ejusdem
ecclesiz ; & beate Marie de Glaston’, & Abbati & Monachis ejusdem
loci; et venerabili Patri nostro Joscelino, Bathon’ episcopo, et
Successoribus suis quod ipsi et omnes homines eorum proprii sint
quieti in perpetuum de Theloneo per totam terram nostram de
omnibus que emerint vel vendiderint: Salvo nobis et heredibus
nostris Theloneo de omnibus hominibus tenentibus de feodis
predictorum Episcopi, Abbatis & Monachorum Glaston’, Decani
& Canonicorum Well’n, Prioris & Monachorum Bathon’ & succes-
Sorum suorum, qui non tenent de aliquo eorum in capite. Quare
volumus et firmiter precipimus quod predicti Episcopus, Abbas
& Monachi Glaston’, Decanus & Canonici Well’n’, Prior & Monachi
Bath’, & eorum successores, & omnes homines eorum proprii,
habeant predictam libertatem in perpetuum: Salvo nobis &
heredibus nostris Theloneo de omnibus hominibus tenentibus de
feodis predictorum Episcopi, Abbatis & Monachorum Glaston’,
Decani & Canonicorum Well’n’, Prioris & Monachorum Bathon’,
& successorum suorum, qui non tenent de aliquo eorum in capite,
sicut predictum est. Et prohibemus, super forisfacturam nostram,
ne quis eos super hoc disturbet vel molestet. Hiis testibus:
Venerabilibus patribus Ricardo, Dunolm’ episcopo ; Waltero,
Karleolensi episcopo, Thesaurario nostro ; Huberto de Burgo,
Comite Cancie, Justiciario nostro 3 Johanne de Munemue ;
Stephano de Segrau’ ; Rad’ de Trubleuill’ ; Hugone dispensatore ;
Henrico filio Aucheri ; Ricardo de Gray ; Henrico de Capella, &
Aliis. Dat’ per manum_ venerabilis patris Rad’, Cicestrensis
Episcopi, Cancellarii nostri, apud Fuleham, quintodecimo die Maii,
Anno Regni nostri tercio decimo,

Vou, IL, No. 2,
>

160

“ Henry, by the grace of God king of England, lord of Ireland,
duke of Normandy and Aquitaine, count of Anjou—To the
archbishops, bishops, abbots, priors, counts, barons, justiciaries,
foresters, viscounts, provosts, agents, and all manner of bailiffs,
and to his faithful subjects in general, Salutation : Know ye that
we have piously granted to St. Peter of Bath, and to the Prior
and Monks of that church ; also to St. Andrew of Wells, and the
Dean and Canons of that church ; also to St. Mary of Glastonbury,
and the Abbot and Monks of that place ; also to our venerable father,
Joscelin, Bishop of Bath, and to his successors—That they them-
selves and all their own men shall be exempt in perpetuity from
Toll through all our royal demesnes, in respeet of all articles that
they may buy or sell ; without prejudice to the Toll due to us and
our heirs, from all feudal tenants of the aforesaid Bishop, Abbot
and Monks of Glastonbury, Dean and Canons of Wells, Prior and
Monks of Bath, and their successors, not holding of them in chief.
Wherefore we will and command that the aforesaid, the Bishop,
the Abbot and Monks of Glastonbury, the Dean and Canons of
Wells, the Prior and Monks of Bath, and their successors, and all
their own men, shall have the aforesaid liberty in perpetuity ;
without prejudice to the Toll payable to us and our heirs, from all
tenants of the aforesaid Bishop, Abbot and Monks of Glastonbury,
Dean and Canons of Wells, Prior and Monks of Bath, and their
successors, who do not hold of them in chief, as is aforesaid. And
we forbid, on pain of forfeit to us, that any one disturb or molest
them in this matter.

«« Witnesses : the venerable fathers, Richard Bishop of Durham,
Walter Bishop of Carlisle, our Treasurer; Hubert de Burg, Earl
of Kent, our Justiciary ; John de Munemue ; Stephen de Segrave ;
Ralph de Turbeville ; Hugh le Spencer; Henry fitz-Aucher ;
Richard de Gray ; Henry de Capella ; and others.

“Given, by the hand of the venerable father Ralph Bishop of
Chichester, our Chancellor, at Fulham, on the fifteenth day of
May, in the thirteenth year of our Reign.”

I sent this Charter to Professor Stubbs to ask him, among other
things, if he could tell me the conventional equivalent for the
phrase “ intuitu Dei.” I will read part of his answer :—

161

“The Charter you send me is a very nice one of a not un-
common sort. I suppose it was a pious gift such as kings generally
gave—something which cost them nothing, but which they received
a good deal of money for. By ‘ intuitu Dei’ I understand ‘ out
of respect to God; but Creasy translates the same words in
Magna Carta, as ‘in the sight of God.’ I believe this is wrong,
but I know no current English equivalent. The Charters of John
are printed by the Record Commission, ed. Hardy ; and in the
Preface to them (Rotuli Chartarum) he goes into the whole history
of the manufacture of such documents. . . . . I think that
among the Rotuli Chartarum of John you would probably find
some parallel charters of liberation from the payment of toll.”

St. Swithin and other Weather Saints, By Rev. L. Jenyns, M.A,
F.L.S., F.G.S., &e., President. Read Dec. 7, 1870.

When I first took in hand the subject of this paper, my purpose
was to treat not merely of the Weather Saints, as they may be
called, and the sayings connected with them, but of weather
proverbs in general. I soon found, however, from the number and
variety of such proverbs, that to attempt this would be to open up
a field of research too wide to be gone over at one time. Some
indeed may think the field not worth working. They may consider
it an amusing occupation for such as have leisure and inclination
to look into such lore ; but not a very profitable one as regards the
hope of making any addition to our real knowledge. They may
question especially whether any benefit can accrue to science from
looking into the origin of Weather Proverbs and the circumstances
under which some of them have had a wide circulation and met
with very general acceptance, whether the limited amount of truth
concealed in them will repay the trouble of a close analysis in
order to bring the truth out.

I hope, however, to show presently that in the case of at least
one notable weather proverb the saying is not to be hastily set
aside as entirely without value or significance. And more than
this ; we may assert of proverbs in general that they have an
interest beyond a mere half-hour’s amusement to such as give them
their attention. Popular sayings, whatever they relate to, throw

162

light upon the manners and habits, the genius and intelligence, of
the age to which they belong. They reveal to us the mind and
tone of thought of those who utter them. They let us into their
experiences, their knowledge of character, their powers of judgment
and discrimination ; they show how things presented themselves to
their eyes in their intercourse with the world or amid the works of
nature ; how far they were correct observers, and correct in
generalising, so as to compress in a few words the truths to which
their observations led them. In some proverbs there may be much
trifling, or perhaps coarseness and vulgarity ; but in others there
are embodied great truths ; in many there is not wisdom only, but
philosophy.

But to confine ourselves to that class of proverbs with which
alone we are concerned just now—Weather Proverbs. These, no
doubt, have originated in a desire to know beforehand what the
coming weather is likely to be, as affecting men’s particular
callings and occupations, their state of health and other cireum-
stances. It is natural in such case to take notice of any phenomena
or occurrences which seem to have the slightest bearing on the
question, as also to be quick in drawing conclusions, especially
when the observed phenomena have been found on some previous
occasion to coincide with weather of a particular character.

In this method of proceeding there may be truth, or there may
be error. There will be truth so far as our observations are
correct, and in proportion to the number of observations we get
together, and the fairness with which we compare cases that appear
similar before reasoning from one to the other. There will be
error, if we fail of such precision as is required in all scientific
inquiries; if we suffer our judgment to be biassed by circumstances
irrelevant to the matter we are looking into; or if, after having
noticed a few coincidences such as are above alluded to, we hastily
gather that the occurrences which coincide, perhaps by mere
accident, are inseparable, and erect our dictum respecting them
into a prognostic, without noticing other instances in which the
coincidence fails. Or there may be both truth and error mixed up
in our sayings, and which prevails will depend partly upon the age
in which we live and partly upon ourselves.

163

Now among these Weather Proverbs we shall find, if we take up
any book treating of them, that no small number are connected
with particular Saints’ Days or other festivals, which are thought
somehow or other to have an influence in determining the weather,
and, in certain instances, for a long time to come. It is to these
sayings exclusively that I would on the present occasion draw
attention. Of course we break in here upon some of the strong
holds of superstition—holds pertinaciously kept and defended
even in the present age by many ill-educated persons, and from
which circumstance it might be thought scarcely worth while to
give the sayings any serious consideration. Some of them, however,
though much mixed up with superstition, are not altogether unde-
serving of notice, as belonging to the class of sayings above alluded
to in which there is both truth and error ; and this being s0, it rests
strictly with science to separate the two, and to bring out what
real truth there is in them distinctly to view,

Some, perhaps, may be inclined to ask how such superstition
could have originated. Fully to reply to this question we must go
back to the days in which men looked up to supernatural powers
for the ordering of all events and occurrences, being the while in
utter ignorance of the real laws by which nature works, and of that
interdependence of natural phenomena, in the right interpretation
of which science consists. They noticed the phenomena them-
selves, but they were unable to refer them to their true causes.
Tribes, whose habits of life led them to be much abroad, were
perhaps as assiduous observers as ourselves. They watched the
heavenly bodies, the sun, moon, and stars ; they marked the
regularity of their movements ; they marked, in connection with
these movements, the succession of the seasons ; the influence
which the seasons had on the atmosphere and the soil, bringing
heat and cold, drought and moisture, at their respective times.
And they knew from experience what kind of weather best favoured
the successful cultivation of the ground. They knew that the seed
would not germinate without moisture, nor the crop ripen without
heat. Yet they understood not by what agencies the different
states of weather were brought about. And how much more must
they have been struck with those occasional phenomena, which

164

occurring on a grander scale, could not fail to impress them with
astonishment and awe. When they saw the lightning flash, and
heard the thunder peal quickly following—the earth it may be in
some cases quaking at the same time beneath their feet—how
perplexed they must have been to divine the cause of such
portentous occurrences. They must have felt they were in the
hands and at the merey of some unseen being, some superhuman
power beyond their control, and that not merely their field works
were liable to suffer damage, but that their own lives were in
jeopardy. In this state of ignorance and alarm we can hardly
wonder at their attributing the events they witnessed to personal
agents like themselves, to spirits, which had the will and the power
to do them good or to do them harm, and whom it was necessary
therefore to win over, if they could, to their side by prayers and
offerings, in order that they and their concerns might be respected.

In this way there arose, as we are aware, a complete “ deification
of nature,” the supposed influence of the gods being in time
extended to all human affairs, and the number of these gods
continually increasing as civilization advanced, with its concurrent
increasing wants and transactions, until it ended in nothing being
done or attempted, without first consulting the particular deity
who had the control and management of the matter in hand.

To follow up this subject in all its details would be to give the
whole history of astrolatry and augury as practised by the ancients,
and would be foreign to our present purpose. It will suffice to
mention, in illustration of weather topics, that Greece had its
Zeus, and Rome its Jupiter, each being ‘“‘ pre-eminently the god of
the weather,” that the Greeks had their festivals of the weather,
Zeus Meilichios being féted at Athens in February, the time of the
approach of milder weather after the rigours of the winter, ‘‘ Zeus
of the storms” having the like honours paid to it in November,
“to testify joy for the autumn weather, or to implore a favourable
season,” * }

With the Romans “thunder and lightning played an important
part in their system of augury.” They had their Fulguratores,
whose office it was to note the character of the lightning, the

* See Dollinger; Jew and Gentile, L, 235, and II., 39.

165

circumstances under which it appeared, and the direction it took ;
all the day lightning they attributed to Jupiter; all the night
lightning to Summanus, *

In like manner the god Marnas, to whom the people of Gaza are
said to have clung with extreme tenacity till late in Christian
times, “was a Philistine weather god corresponding to Baal and
Zeus, and to him in preference all resorted in times of drought-
and sterility.” +

We find similar superstitions to have been prevalent in other
countries, and some that exist even at the present day in uncivilized
nations. Max Miiller, speaking of the earlier history of some
of the Turanian tribes, relates, on the authority of Chinese
historians, “‘that the Huns worshipped the sun, the moon, the
spirits of the sky and the earth, and the spirits of the departed,
and that their priests, the Shamans, possessed a power over the
clouds, being able to bring down snow, hail, rain, and wind.”+

Mr. Fergusson, in his “Tree and Serpent Worship,” states that
“the chief characteristic of the serpents throughout the East in all
ages seems to have been their power over the wind and rain,”
which they gave or withheld according to their good or ill-will
towards man. ||

A curious Hindoo custom is said to be observed in some places
in Bengal in seasons of great drought. “ At night all the women
of many of the villages walk naked to some neighbouring tank or
stream, and there with songs and invocations seek to propitiate
the offended heavens, and to induce the gods to send them rain.” §

We are reminded also of the rain-makers spoken of by Dr.
Livingstone in his “ Missionary Travels in South Africa” who, by
the help of certain charms and medicines, profess to have power
over the clouds, to induce them to pour down rain in seasons of
long-continued drought, such as appear to be of frequent occurrence,
in some of those districts.

Such then were the religious beliefs and practices in heathen

nn a ee ee ee
* Dollinger; Jew and Gentile, IT., 102. t+ Id. L, 433.

{ “ Lects. on Sci. of Relig.” Fraser's Mag., June, 1870, p. 712.
|| Quoted in Anthrop. Journ. No. I. July, 1870, p. 104.
§ “Notes and Queries,” Ser. III, vol. viii., p. 225. 1 Travels, p. 22,

166

countries of old, as they still are in some uncivilized parts of the
world, where Christianity has not yet found its way. What now
followed on the introduction of the true religion? Though the
pagan deities were given up, there was still a looking towards and
a leaning upon those who seemed to stand out as holier and more
exalted personages than ordinary mortals. The honours that had
been paid to pagan gods and goddesses were now paid to saints and
martyrs, both men and women. It rested with these to intercede
in behalf of all who needed anything. They were appealed to as
advocates to bring down blessings and avert judgments. Every-
thing in nature calculated to excite attention—by its beauty, its
novelty, its strangeness of appearance, or its supposed good and
useful properties—was thought to be mixed upin some mysterious
way with their agency. The more striking natural phenomena of
course came in for a large share of their supposed influence—
weather changes amongst other things. And as particular states
of weather often recurred periodically, if any marked change
happened to coincide, or nearly to coincide in a few instances, with
the day dedicated to a particular Saint, the two events were
thought to be connected, and the Saint had the credit of bringing
about the change. Thus wet and dry periods came to be dated
from festivals bearing the names of Saints, and in the case of some
festivals that occurred early in the year, the whole year was
expected to take its character according as the weather was fine or
otherwise on the particular day set apart for their commemoration.
This idea took a firmer hold of men’s minds through the help of
some of those legends which abound in the early histories of
Christian Saints. Able remarks on this head are made by our
valuable member, Mr. Earle, in his “ Life of Swithin,’ when
speaking of the forty days’ rain associated with the name of that
particular Saint, to which I shall have to draw attention presently.
He says, “the real origin (of it) appears to have been the
habit of attaching to the Saints of Christendom any remnants of
traditional and mythological lore, which by the extinction of
heathendom had lost their centre and principle of cohesion, and
were drifting about in search of new connections.”*

* Legends of Saint Swithin, p. 53.

167

I may seem to have dwelt long on this part of our subject, but
it is not without its lessons. Of course no weather sayings due
to superstition alone are of the smallest value as weather prog-
nostications. But the sayings in connection with Saints’ Days are
not all of this character ; and those that are still yield instruction
only in a different way. There is no science in them, properly so
called ; but they instruct us by exhibiting that particular frame of
mind, which seems to have so universally prevailed when men
were first led to think at all about the phenomena of the outer
world, when nature was rather worshipped than questioned, in tlie
way that we question her,—a phase of thought through which
science seems to have formerly passed, or rather from which it first
emanated, before assuming anything of that form in which it
presents itself to us at the present day.

Let us pow proceed to consider some of the Saints’ Day weather
sayings, taking those first which are best known and oftenest
repeated, and about which I shall have most to say, namely those
relating to St. Swithin’s Day, the 15th of July in our present
_¢calendar. The following lines will be familiar to many persons :—

In this month is St. Swithin’s day,
On which if that it rain they say,
Full forty days after it will,

Or more or less some rain distil.

A Scotch proverb makes out that it may be either wet or fine for
forty days, according to what tbe weather may be on St. Swithin’s
Day :— St. Swithin’s Day, gif ye do rain,

For forty daies it will remain ;
St. Swithin’s Day, an ye be fair,
For forty daies ’twill rain na mair.
Gay commences a humorous description of a rainy St. Swithin
with the following lines :—
Now, if on Swithin’s feast the welkin lours,
And every pent house streams with hasty showers,
Twice twenty days shall clouds their fleeces drain,
, And wash the pavements with incessant rain,
And he adds—
Let not such vulgar tales debase thy mind ;
Nor Paul nor Swithin rule the clouds and wind.
But “vulgar tales,” or so considered, are still sometimes worth

168

searching into in order to discover if possible what may have given
rise to them, and whether they contain any latent truth or not.
How is it then with St. Swithin ?

The explanation ordinarily given of the notion about a forty days’
rain in connection with this Saint is grounded upon a legend, which,
though also well known to many, I repeat here to give completeness
to our inquiry. I state it in the exact words in which I find it
stated by Luke Howard in his “ Climate of London.” * He says
—“ The tradition, it seems, took origin from the following cir-
cumstances. Swithin or Swithum, Bishop of Winchester, who
died in 868, desired that he might be buried in the open church-
yard, and not in the chancel of the minster, as was usual with
other Bishops; and his request was complied with ; but the
monks, on his being canonized, considering it disgraceful for the
Saint to lie in a public cemetery, resolved to remove his body
into the choir, which was to have been done with solemn pro-
cession, on the 15th July ; it rained, however, so violently for
forty-days together at this season, that the design was abandoned.”

This legend is quite undeserving of credit. It is not true that
the translation was hindered by any cause, though Howard states
it to be ‘a fact sufficiently authenticated by tradition.” The
ceremony took place at the appointed time, and there is nothing
on record to indicate that the weather on that day was otherwise
than fair and prosperous. Those who desire to look further into
this question are referred to Mr. Earle’s book, in which will be
found collected every known particular relating to the subject.
Mr. Earle tells me, indeed, that he believes the prevalent belief
about a forty-days’ rain to date back to a far earlier period than
the age of St. Swithin; and this is rendered highly probable by
the circumstance of there being so many other raining Saints, as
they have been called, beside St. Swithin. Mr. Earle mentions
some in his life. Others have occurred to myself while collecting
materials for this paper. Altogether the number of them is so
considerable, including those in foreign countries as well as in our
own, as to destroy all faith in the idea of this belief being rightly
connected with any particular Saint at all.

* Vol. 1, p, 112.

169

Forster, in his ‘‘ Perennial Calendar,” mentions several of these
raining Saints in addition to St. Swithin. He quotes from an old
work, the “‘ Sententize Rythmicz of J. Buchlerus,” a passage which
seems to prove that St. Vitus’s Day was equally famous for rain
with St. Swithin’s.

Lux sacrata Vito si sit pluviosa, sequentes

Triginta facient omne madere solum. *
Here it is a thirty-days’ rain which is to follow a wet St. Vitus, this
Saint’s Day occurring on the 15th June.

Again, speaking of St. John the Baptist’s Day, the 24th June,
he says :—‘‘ The forty-days rain, now ascribed to St. Swithin, used
also to belong formerly to this Saint. A very old memorial informs
us, Pluvias Sancti Joannis quadraginta dies pluvit sequuntur —certa
nucum pernicies.”t

In a later part of his work, he remarks that “the Feast of St.
Simon and St. Jude was superstitiously considered rainy, as well
as that of St. Swithin, and this probably, because the autumnal
rains began on or about that day.” As an instance of this belief,
he quotes a line from an old play, “I know it as well as I know
twill raine on Simon and Jude’s Day.”{ This festival is on the
28th October, and I shall have occasion to refer to it again in
connection with the weather at that period of the year.

In Scotland there are two old lines relating to Bullion’s Day,
the 4th of July :—

Bullion’s day gif ye be fair,

For forty days there’ll be nae mair.
The 4th of July is the day of the Translation of St. Martin, and
Chambers tells us that “in Scotland it used to be called St.
Martin of Bullion’s Day, and the weather which prevailed upon it
was supposed to have a prophetic character. It was a proverb,
that if the deer rise dry and lie down dry on Bullion’s Day, it
was a sign there would bea good harvest.” And he adds that
“it was believed generally over Europe that rain on this day
betokened wet weather for the twenty ensuing days.” ||

* Por, Cal. p. 295. + Id. p. 311. t Id. p. 589,
|| Book of Days, vol. ii., p. 20.

170

“Notes and Queries” supply us with notices of numerous rain-
ing saints in foreign countries. Thus there are two or three in
France the days on which their festivals occur, the 8th and the 19th

of June, being marked respectively by the following couplets :—
S’il pleut le jour de Saint Médard
Il pleut quarante jours plus tard.

S’il pleut le jour de Saint Gervais et de Saint Protais
Il pleut quarante jours apres. *

In Flanders the raining Saint is St. Godeliéve. In Germany
there are three raining Saints, one of the days being the festival of
the Seven Sleepers, the 27th July.t In Tuscany the same thing
that is said of St. Swithin’s Day is said of St. Galla’s Day, the 5th of
October ; and at Rome the same saying is said to be applied to any
day within the octave of the Feast of St. Bartholomew the Apostle,
the 24th of August.t

Lastly, there is said to be preserved in the office of the Registrar
of the Diocese of Norwich a “ very splendid manuscript, known as
the Norwich Domesday, preceded by a calendar, in which there is
the following weather-distich for July 2, the day of SS. Processus

and Martinianus :—
Si pluat in festo Processi et Martiniani,
Ymber grandis erit, ac suffocatio grani.”’ ||

This day nearly coincides with Bullion’s Day before mentioned.
The 2nd July is also, according to Butler,§ the day of the festival
of St. Swithin in the Roman Martyrology, being the day of his
death ; though in England his chief festival is on the 15th, the day
of his translation. Whether these Saints may not have got
confusedly mixed up together with reference to the saying about wet
weather, I leave to be determined by others.

Thus there would seem to be a host of raining Saints. We must
remember, however, that if the number of these Saints tends to
make us loosen our hold of the legend of St. Swithin, at the same
time it leads to a belief that, whether the legend itself be true or
not, there must be some truth in the idea of wet weather, of longer
or shorter continuance, ordinarily occurring about the time of year

* N. and Q,, vol. ix., p. 278; and vol. xii., p. 137.

t Id., vol. xii., p. 253. { Id. New Ser., vol. vi., p. 328; and p, 403.

§ Id., N.S., vii., p. 450. § Lives of the Saints, Edit, 1833, vol. 2, p. 78.

171

when the above Saints’ Days come round—a period to which so
many different sayings distinctly refer, and in which, as it were,
they all centre. The assigned length of the wet period may vary ;
it may be set at 20, 30, or 40 days; but can there, or can there
not, in point of fact, be clearly made out any such period as
characteristic of the early summer months 4

This, as Mr. Earle remarks, is quite a distinct question from that
relating to the legend, and it is one to which science, after long
and accurate observation, can alone return an answer.

And this is the question I propose now to consider. It was put
to me by Mr. Earle at the time when he was engaged in his work,
but I replied rather off-hand without having gone closely into the
matter. It occurred to me lately that, by help of the more
numerous observations in meteorology made since then, science was
better able at the present day to determine the point.

Now a continued rain of many days in succession may take place
occasionally at any period of the year ; still there are certain times
when such falls may be looked for as more probable than at other
times. There is nothing more variable than weather ; and of
weather elements none more fluctuating than the rain-fall in a
given district. It takes many years to get even an approximation
to a true average, the fall some seasons being double what it is in
others. One year that I measured it in Cambridgeshire, 1834, the
fall was only 14°98 inches, whilst in another, 1841, the fall was
31:22 inches. Even setting one decade of years against another,
there is sometimes found to be a difference of seven or eight inches.
Yet, notwithstanding these irregularities, there is an average, as in
all cases of tabulated facts of the same kind expressible by numbers,
however wide the limits within which they range ; and the greater
the number of years for which we continue the measurement before
we strike an average, the more correct that average will be. So
too with regard to the fall of rain due to any particular month in
the year ; it varies in like manner as the yearly fall varies ; yet
each month has its own average. How then do these facts bear
upon the matter we are considering? Are there observations on
record sufficient to enable us to assign such averages of wet to the
respective months, as will serve for comparison with the wet and

172

dry periods supposed to be connected with the above Saints’ Days ?
Many such series of observations exist. Still we can only make
the comparison very imperfectly, from there being hardly two years
alike, not merely in respect of the actual amount of rain, but in
respect of the very unequal manner in which it is distributed over
a given month. In two cases where the actual quantity fallen is
the same, in one the whole may fall heavily during two or three
consecutive days occurring in any part of the month, whilst in the
other the rain may fall lighter and more continuously, or again
on several different occasions separated by short intervals. Under
such conditions it is only possible, by a careful balancing of a great
variety of instances, to work out as trustworthy a result as the
subject admits of. With a view then to this I carefully looked
- over, in the first instance, a series of registers of the weather which
I kept when resident in Cambridgeshire for a period of nineteen
years, commencing with 1831 and ending with 1849, and which,
having been conducted with more regularity than any I have made
since, I thought might possibly throw some light on the matter.
The result is as follows :—I find that in most of the above years
the summer and autumn months taken together are divisible into
four—sometimes five—periods, more or less sharply marked off
from each other, in which wet and fine prevail alternately. The
exact times at which these several changes take place are, from the
circumstance above mentioned, very variable, and occasionally they
are so ill-defined, the wet and dry alternating at such short
intervals, and those alternations continuing so long, that the above
periods are scarce distinguishable. When the three summer
months of June, July, and August have been all of this changeable
character, a dry period has usually set in in September, and some-
times lasted through October ; or, on the contrary, if they have all
been fine, the autumn has usually proved wet. When the whole
summer, and greater part of the autumn as well, have been wet,
dry and more genial weather has occurred in November, rarely
not till December. In one year, 1841, the wettest I ever knew in
Cambridgeshire, the wet set in about the middle of June, and, with
the exception of a period of ten days in August, there was scarce
any break to the unsettled weather during the rest of that year.

a? ia

173

But the above cases are all exceptional. Ordinarily, as above
stated, there are four or five distinct changes occurring in a general
way—the first about the end of June or beginning of July, the
second about the middle or third week of August, the third during
the latter half of September, the fourth about the same time in
October. _

Which of these periods shall be wet and which dry is a matter
of much uncertainty, and would depend in some measure upon the
character of the preceding spring ; but the alternation itself of wet
and dry is tolerably regular. Taking a broad view of the question,
and judging from the average fall of rain for each month in
Cambridgeshire, compared with the same averages at Greenwich
and Oxford, I am inclined to consider June as more often dry than
wet, in which case July with some portion of August will be wet,
the remainder of August with more or less of September dry, and
the rest of September and a great portion of October wet. The
wet of October may continue through November, but not un-
frequently, when October has been very wet, and more especially
if a considerable portion of September has been also wet, a dry
period follows in November, as in the case of an entirely wet both
summer and autumn mentioned above, making a fifth marked
change of weather in the series. Of course a very wide margin
must be allowed for variations in different years. Nor will it
suffice, in estimating the wet and dry periods as above, to place too
much reliance on the average rainfall for any particular months, as
obtained from a few selected stations, without reference to the
yearly average at each of those stations. The question of the
connection between these two averages has been taken up and
ably gone into by Mr. Gaster, and he shows that, “taking the
average of a considerable number of years, the portion of the
annual fall which occurs in each month varies considerably at
different stations.”* Consequently the months of most and least
rain will be different in different places. With respect to the time

of the maximum fall, Mr. Gaster considers the law to be “ that as
See eee ee eee ee

* “On an Investigation of the Monthly Percentage of the Mean Annual
Rainfall at Stations situated in the British Islands.”—British Rainfall, 1867,
p. 33.

174

the mean annual fall increases, the period of the maximum occurs
later in the year.” Where the rainfall is small in annual amount,
the maximum, generally speaking, is found to occur in the summer
months; where it is moderately large the maximum occurs in
antumn ; where it is excessive the maximum does not take place
till mid-winter. In like manner the minimum fall which, in
places where the rainfall is small, ordinarily occurs in the early
spring, “occurs about two months later in the year at stations
where the rainfall is very large.”

If now we consult three valuable tables given by Mr. Gaster, in
which he has exhibited the monthly percentage of mean annual
rainfall, collected from a large number of stations, for the three
decennial periods respectively, 1830-9, 1840-9, and 1850-9, we find
that in the second and third of these periods the percentage for the
month of June is nearly in every instance decidedly less than the
percentage for July. This at least is so in the case of those
stations in which the annual fall does not exceed 35 inches; and
in what follows I confine myself to this limit of rainfall as embracing
the greater number of places in the southern half of England. The
Bath district, in which we here are most interested, has a yearly
rainfall not yet accurately determined, but lying somewhere
between 30 and 35 inches.

The percentage for the months of July and August, in the same
periods, are nearly alike, but August is often in excess of July, and
both percentages are high, indicative of much wet. The percentage
for September in a large majority of instances is less than that for
either July or August, showing it to be a comparatively dry month.
October in‘all cases has a high percentage, considerably above that
of September, and would seem ordinarily to be the wettest month
in the year for stations where the mean annual fall does not
exceed 35 inches. In November, the percentage is sometimes
nearly or quite as high as that of October, but more often falls back
to that of September, showing it to be a month oftener dry than
wet.

The above deductions are from Mr. Gaster’s second and third
decennial periods, which on the whole much resemble each other.
His first decennial period, 1830-9, presents in the same manner

eS

175

alternations of wet and dry, but, in contrast to the second and
third periods, the wet and dry here partly change places. Thus
we find June having a higher percentage than July, and both these
months wet, instead of July and August, this last being in the
first period comparatively dry. September and October likewise
we find both equally wet months, instead of September being a dry
and October a wet one, while November is oftener wet than dry.
This transference of wet and dry in different seasons—or, as here,
in different decades of seasons—is quite in keeping with what has
been remarked above, and it is noticeable also how nearly, on the
whole, the alternating periods thus brought out accord with those
deduced from my own observations, the chief difference seeming to
be the rather earlier commencement of both the summer and
autumn rains in Cambridgeshire, where the rainfall is so small,
than the same wet periods as estimated by Mr. Gaster’s tables,
where I have carried the limiting yearly amount up to 35 inches ;
and this is just what his law would lead us to expect. This
agreement seems to impart a degree of trustworthiness to my own
results, and the more so from the circumstance of my having
drawn them out before I was aware of the existence of the tables
published by Mr. Gaster. :
Perhaps a rationale of these periodical interchanges of wet and
dry may be attempted in this way. The spring half of the year is
always comparatively dry, with a prevalence of north and north
easterly winds. During the three summer months, the ordinary
winds are north west, varying occasionally to south west, and the
dry weather continues until, after the solstice, the ‘mean daily
temperature beginning to decline causes a precipitation, and the
first wet period sets in. If the winds continue long in that quarter
the rain after a time subsides, and a dry period ensues, reaching
more or less into the autumn. Later in this season the north
west winds are exchanged for south west, and the rains return from
the greater humidity of the latter winds, at the same time that
the temperature keeps falling, causing a second wet period. This
order of things, however, is of course subject to much interruption.
The normal winds for the respective seasons are often out of place,

‘and this causes the variableness of our climate. If the south

B

176

westerly prevail in summer and the north westerly in autumn, the
summer will probably be wet altogether and the autumn dry ; or
from frequent and long continued oscillations of the winds between
these two points, the wet and dry may keep alternating at short
intervals through both seasons, obliterating all distinction between
the several periods above marked out.

With these data to guide us in the enquiry, let us now revert to
the Saints’-Days before spoken of, with which particular states of
weather are wont to be associated. We will confine ourselves
to those mentioned by Forster, which alone relate to our own
climate. No ene for a moment can suppose that the precise days
on which those festivals occur are otherwise than ‘accidentally
coincident with the commencement of wet and dry periods. Even
had we generally found them so, the change of style that has taken
place since the days of St. Swithin would throw us quite out of our
calculations. But can we in any way connect them with such
periods so as to afford the slightest ground for the beliefs, which
were once so prevalent, and which are still entertained by some at
the present day? Let us first move the festivals forward to the
days on which they would occur if no change of style had taken
place. The difference between the two styles is about 11 days.
According to this, St. Vitus’s Day would fall on the 26th of June ;
St. John the Baptist’s Day on the 5th of July; St. Swithin’s on
the 26th of July; and St. Simon and St. Jude’s on the 8th of
November. Now if the first of the two wet periods above defined
were to set in soon after Midsummer, say the end of June or the
beginning of July, its commencement might very well synchronize
with either St. Vitus’s Day or St. John the Baptist’s Day ; if it
were deferred till the last week in July, which is not unfrequently
the case, it might coincide with St. Swithin’s. Or if, as in some
years, the wet had occurred much earlier than usual, it might clear
up about the time of St. Swithin’s, and a dry period set in, which
is equally looked for, if St. Swithin’s day itself be dry, according to
the last two lines of the Scottish proverb before quoted :—

St. Swithin’s Day, an ye be fair,
For forty daies ’twill rain na mair.

With regard to St. Simon and St. Jude’s Day, which connects

itself with the period of the autumnal rains, if September and

177

October were fine autumnal months, as they often would be after a
wet summer, November would be almost sure to be wet, and the
festival in question might be about the time of the wet setting in.

It is not pretended, indeed it is not possible, to give any
explanation of these traditional sayings so thoroughly in accordance
with facts as to claim our unhesitating assent. It is only
attempted, looking at the subject in a scientific point-of view, to
show what may have led to their origin. Taking one year with
another, there is relatively speaking a dry half of the year and a
wet half, the latter being further divisible into two wet periods
separated by a dry period. In other words, some portion of the
summer is wet, and some portion of the autumn is also wet, the
Saints’-Days above named pointing in a general way to the setting
in of those periods. But between these two wet periods there
usually occurs an interval of fine settled weather, this being also,
curiously enough, associated with other Saints; if the first wet
commence, as it normally would do, about the end of July and
continue through August—so that it can be fairly laid to the
charge of St. Swithin—then, when the dry comes in September, St.
Bartholomew, whose festival occurs exactly 40 days after that of
St. Swithin, is considered as bringing about the change, according
to the old adage :—

All the tears that St. Swithin can ery
St. Bartlemy’s dusty mantle wipes dry.

If this dry period does not set in till later in the season, we have
then no less than four Saint or Festival Days brought in to mark
the fine settled weather, especially if mild as well as fine, and
lending their names to what is considered as a second summer.
We have a Michaelmas Summer, St. Luke’s Little Summer, a
Halloween Summer, and a St. Martin’s Summer ; the dates being
resjectively Sept. 29, Oct. 18, Oct. 31, and Nov. 11. The
expression of a Michaelmas Summer is well known. That of “St.
Luke’s Little Summer” seems to be much used by “ the good folks
of Hants and Dorset,” who are said “always to expect it about
the 18th of October.”* A Halloween Summer and a St. Martin’s
Summer are expressions that occur both of them in Shakspeare,

* “Notes and Queries,” vol. xii., p. 366,

178

clearly indicating the occasional occurrence and expectation of fine
weather, even at those late periods of the season. Thus in the
First Part of King Henry IV. (Act 1. Sc. 2.), we have—
“Farewell, thou latter Spring! farewell All-hallow’n Summer.”’
and in the First Part of K. Hen. VI. (Act. 1, Sc. 2.), we read—
Expect St. Martin’s summer, halcyon days.
From the latter expression we might infer that the fine weather
sometimes continued till near the end of the year, the halcyon
days being “ the seven days preceding, and the seven days follow-
ing the shortest day, or the winter solstice.* And such was
particularly the case in the two consecutive years of 1842 and
1843, in both which extraordinary fine and mild weather prevailed
in December quite up to Christmas.

Thus then there would seem to be an element of truth in the
popular weather sayings connected with the several Saints’-Days
above alluded to, which after long sifting it is possible to eliminate
from much of error and superstition with which it is mixed up,
and to turn to scientific account. Many and many a time
probably have these sayings been declared valueless and untrue,
nor in any one instance taken singly were they likely to be
fulfilled. But they must have originated in a few marked co-
incidences, which if only accidental and not found to receive
support from comparison with facts ina long run of years—the
sayings would have passed away and been forgotten. The very
circumstance of their having continued, and continued to be
believed by some to this day, substantiates them to a certain
extent, the real truth coming out more and more in proportion to
the length of time for which they have prevailed, just as the
averages deduced by the meteorologist approach more and more to
correctness the longer the period over which his observations
extend.

After speaking of these Watery Saints it would be an omission
not to mention three “Icy Saints,” Saints de Glace, as they are
_ termed in France, where there is the following adage relating to
them :—

* A note to the above passage in Ayscough’s edition of Shakspeare says—
“That is, expect prosperity after misfortune, like fair weather at Martlemas,
after winter has begun.”

179

Saint Mamert, Saint Pancrace
Kt Saint Servais
Sans froid ces Saints de Glace
Ne vont jamais. *

The festivals of these Saints occur on three consecutive days, the
11th, 12th, and 13th day of May, and the noticeable thing is that
these three days coincide with one of those short periods of
anomalous cold, or wintry relapse, which occur in the earlier
months, and of which that in May is, perhaps, the one most
generally known ; thereby again establishing the truth of an old
adage—though the phenomenon to which it bears reference has
only of late years, comparatively speaking, attracted the attention
of meteorologists, or been clearly ascertained to be a fact. There
are similar interruptions to the regular course of the mean diurnal
temperature at other periods of the year, especially a marked one
the second week in April, or about the end of March, Old Style,
this being the cold weather known by the name of the Borrowing
Days, to which the following old Scotch rhymes relate :—

March borrows frae Aprill

Three days, and they are ill:

The first o’ them is wun’ an’ weet,

The second it is snaw and sleet ;

The third 0’ them is a peel-a-bane,

And freezes the wee bird’s neb tae stane.
These Borrowed Days are connected with a fable, of which some
account is given by Chambers.t The days themselves are alluded
to by Sir Thos. Browne in his “ Vulgar Errors,” but the idea
seems to date further back than his time.

There are many other sayings, however, connected with Saints’-
Days and Festivals which seem due to superstition alone, and in
which it is difficult to discover any truth that can be brought into
harmony with the facts of meteorology. They would, therefore,
be scarcely deserving of notice did they not tend further to
illustrate the practice observable in those we have already
considered relating to a forty days’ rain, viz., the practice so
prevalent, it would seem, in olden times of pihasenin with different
Saints the same ideas and prognostications as to weather, favourable

* “Notes and Queries,” Ser. 4., vol. iv., p. 37. + Book of Days, vol. i., ps
448. See also Forster’s Perennial Calendar, p. 147.

3 180

seasons, and the like; in some cases, ideas about luck and good
fortune, and other matters having nothing particularly to do with
weather-lore. And so far they confirm us in the opinion that the
wet attributed to St. Swithin has no more to do with him than with
any of the other Saints with which it has been associated.
Of the sayings I now refer to, those perhaps most generally
known are such as relate to the Festival of the Conversion of St.
Paul, the 25th of January. The weather on this day must be fine,
and the sky clear, if the year is to be a prosperous one, according to
the following monkish lines :—
Clara dies Pauli bona tempora denotet Anni,
Si fuerint Venti, designant preelia genti,
Si fuerint nebulz, pereunt Animalia quoeque,
Si Nix, si pluvia, designant tempora cara,
Ne credas certé nam fallit regula scepé.

Or, as in an English translation :—
If St. Paul’s day be faire and cleare,
Tt doth betide a happy yeare ;
But if by chance it then should raine,
It will make deare all kinds of graine ;
And if the clouds make dark the skie
Then Neate and Fowles this year shall die;
If blustering winds do blow aloft,
Then wars shall trouble the realm full oft.

Tt will be seen that the last line in the Latin version, telling us
not to place implicit confidence in the rule as not always trust-
worthy, is omitted in the English. Perhaps it was an addition in
after times by some one who had misgivings on the subject ; and it
may well remain.

When I first reflected on the above lines, it being manifest that
they admitted of no satisfactory explanation considered in a
meteorological point of view, I was led to think, as Forster seems
to have thought,* that the importance attached to fine weather on
this day might have had reference to ie supernatural “light from
heaven above the brightness of the sun,” which shone round about
the great Apostle at the time of his conversion, a light that was
ever to be looked for on the return of the festival, ‘and which
reappearing in this manner augured a happy and productive season,

* Per. Cal., p. 28.

181

But this idea was at once set aside when I found the same
importance attached to the weather on other festivals.

Thus in connection with St. Vincent’s rc the 22nd of January,
we have the following lines :—

Vincenti festo sisol radiet, memor esto,
Para tuas cuppas, quia multas colliges uvas.*

And similarly in French :—
Prens garde au jour St. Vincent,
Car sy ce jour tu vois et sent
Que le soleil soiet cler et biau,
Nous ’erons du vin plus de d’eau. ¢

The purport of both sets of lines being an intimation that if the
sun shines on St. Vincent’s Day, the year will be favourable to the
vintage, and there will be an abundance of wine. Yet here again
Forster fancifully suggests that the lines may have arisen “ from
an idea that the sun would not shine unominously on that day on
which the martyrdom of the Saint was so inhumanly finished by
burning.’

But it is not left to these two Saints alone to rule the season, and
to determine the weather by which it is to be characterized. Other
days besides those dedicated to St. Paul and St. Vincent enjoy the
same privilege. Forster tells us that “ the Festival of the Cireum-
cision was held by the Scotch in former times as ominous, and as
affording a prognostic of the weather of the coming year.”|| Also
on Christmas Day, according to an old MS. referred to in “ Notes
and Queries,” clear and bright sunshine “‘ promises a peaceable year,
and foretells much plenty to ensue.” Indeed, if we are to trust the
author of this MS., there would seem to be scarcely a festival or
other day of note in the year which does not exercise more or less
influence over the future. A wet Childermas is to bring mortality
to “the weaker sort of young people.” The weather every day in
Lent is to be the same as it happens to be on Shrove Tuesday
Clear sunshine on Palm Sunday or on Easter Day promises “a
great store of fair weather, and plenty of corn and other fruits.” If
it rain never so little on Ascension Day it foretells scarcity and
sickness. If it rain either on Whit Sunday or Midsummer Day, evils

¥

* Notes and Queries, vol. xi., p. 335. + Id., vol. viii., p. 307.
$ Per. Cal., p. 26. | Id., p. 2.

*

182

of some kind are to follow ; tempests, blasts, and mildews, injury
to corn, &c., fine weather on those days being attended by just the
opposite results; while the whole character of the ensuing winter is
to be judged of according to what the weather happens to be on either
St. Swithin’s Day, or St. Bartholomew’s Day, or Michaelmas Day.*

And there is yet another notion said to prevail in some places,
viz., that the weather of the twelve days between Christmas and
Epiphany prefigures the weather of the whole year, each day being
a representation of the corresponding month, This belief possesses
the greater" interest from the circumstance of its extreme antiquity.
Mr. Earle has been kind enough to furnish me with an extract from
“Kelly's Curiosities of Indo-European Tradition and Folk-lore,”
where it is stated that,—“ It appears certain, from some passages in
the Vedas, that twelve nights about the winter solstice were regarded
as prefiguring the character of the weather for the whole year.” A
Sanscrit text is noticed by Weber, which says expressly,— The
Twelve Nights are an image of the year.” A more remarkable
instance could scarcely be adduced to show how widely prevalent
such beliefs are in some cases, and over what extended periods of
time we find the same ideas to have been entertained in the form
of weather prognostications.

From the consideration of the different festivals and other days
above alluded to, thought to be so full of. promise or otherwise
according to the circumstances of the weather on each occasion, we
might pass to the consideration of lucky or unlucky days in general,
corresponding to the Dies-fasti or Nefasti of the Romans. To dwell
long on these would be departing from the subject more properly
before us; but the following amusing extract from an old MS.,
as given in “ Notes and Queries,” will serve to shew the extreme
length to which some of these superstitious ideas were formerly
carried, as well as the affinity they bore to the heathen superstitions
of old :—

“The first Monday in April, the day on which Cain was born, and Abel
was slain.

The second Monday in August, on which day Sodom and Gomorrah were

destroyed.
The 31st of December, on which day Judas was born, who betrayed Christ,
aiiaire soo Soe a ere ne a el

* “ Notes and Queries,” vol. ix., pp. 307, 308.

—

:

183

These are dangerous days to begin any business, fall sick, or undertake any
journey !’’*

To return to weather prognostications, it is rather singular that
while the above weather sayings all seem to point one way,
telling us the weather must be fine to insure prosperity, that
especially there must be bright sunshine on Christmas Day, St.
Vincent’s Day, and the day of St. Paul’s Conversion, to bring about
a happy and productive year, on the Festival of the Purification,
the 2nd of February, and scarcely more than a week after the
Festival of St. Paul, it must be just the reverse. Good weather
on this day is said to indicate a long continuance of winter and a
bad crop, foul weather being on the contrary a favourable omen.
The old Latin monkish lines relating to this day are often quoted :—

Si sol splendescat Maria purificante,

Major erit glacies post festum quam fuit ante.
These lines occur in Sir Thomas Brown’s"‘ Vulgar Errors,” but he
gives no explanation of the belief expressed in them, and seems to
consider it as a vulgar error only. ‘There are several English
couplets similar, such as the following :—

If Candlemas Day be fair and bright,

Winter will have another flight ;

If on Candlemas Day it be shower and rain,

Winter is gone, and will not come again.

The hind had as lief see his wife on the bier,
As that Candlemas Day should be fine and clear,
And again :— :
If Candlemas Day be fair and clear,
Corn and fruits will then be dear.
Yet if this be entirely a “vulgar error,” that is to say, if there

~ be no latent truth im it whatever, it were difficult to say what

could have led to such an idea so entirely opposite to the language
and spirit of the weather-sayings above spoken of. I am inclined
from this circumstance to think that it is not like those due
altogether to superstition, but founded on partly correct observa-
tion respecting the ordinary character of February weather, only
still so far fanciful as to be put in connection with a festival, as in
such a multitude of other instances, the Festival of the Purification,

* “ Notes and Queries,” vol. vii., p. 599.

184

this being the first day of note in the month and near its
commencement. The fruitfulness of the year, other things alike,
would depend upon the weather of each month keeping to its
normal character, and not being what we term unseasonable. And
this, perhaps, would be more thought of in the early part of the
year, when new hopes and expectations arise, than later. January
is the month of greatest cold, when frost and clear skies would
ordinarily prevail. And when this is the case, and the frost breaks
up the end of that month or the beginning of February, rain and
cloud would succeed, giving February its proper character of
“ fill-dyke.” This sort of weather, a mixture of frost and thaw,
with its attendant wet, is well alluded to by Shakspere in “ Much
Ado about Nothing,” where Don Pedro, addressing Benedict, says—

“ Why, what’s the matter, that you have such a February face, so full of
frost, of storm, and cloudiness ?”’

Wet is considered as characteristic of February by some other of
our poets. Thus Spencer, personifying the month, describes

Cold February sitting
In an old wagon, for he could not ride,
Drawne of two Fishes for the season fitting,
Which through the Flood before did sd slyde
And swim away. *

The following old lines, too, are quoted by Forster in his

“ Perennial Calendar :t”’—

Now old Aquarius from his rainie urne .

Pours out the streams and fills both loch and burne,

While Februa, with waterie load opprest,

Cracks the crimp ice on winter’s frozen breast,
But if after a wet and mild January, frost were to set in just at
the time when it ought to be breaking up, and the clear skies and
cold air of that month to be transferred to February, it might
cause apprehensions of a check to the proper advance of vege-
tation. I allow that this is a mere attempt at explanation of the
saying, but I see no other that is admissible.

There is another Saint’s Day that may be noticed, the Festival
of St. James, to which belongs a saying that seems to have some
truth in it, like the one last considered. I allude to the following
distich :-— md

* Fairie Queen, Canto vii. + p. 49.

185

Till St. James’s Day be come and gone,
You may have hops or you may have none.

From these lines we infer that there is no certainty as to the hops
being a good crop or otherwise till after the date of this festival ;
it depends upon the previous weather. And this seems confirmed by
statements we sometimes find in the papers in connection with the
hop market. Thus, in the Times of the 25th of July last, the very
day on which this festival occurs in our present calendar, we read
as follows: ‘“‘The hop plant is now in so advanced a condition
towards maturity, that a reasonable guess may be given as to the
prospects of the crop.” Then a week after, in the same paper, a
report from the hop-gardens at Worcester says, “ The most critical
period for hops is past.”

And there are other sayings connected with this festival. St.
James is said to bring oysters as well as hops. How is this? If
we set the festival forward to Old Style, it occurs on the 5th of
August, the first day on which oysters are allowed to be sold in
London. Those who have been in London on that day probably
know the customary demand made by children on the passer-by in
the streets— Pray remember the grotto ;’ this grotto, to which
he is asked to contribute, being “formed of oyster shells, and
lighted with a votive candle,” in honour of St. James, A writer
in “Notes and Queries” thinks we have in this custom a
“memorial of the world-renowned shrine of St. James at
Compostella.”* Oysters are closely associated with the scallop-
shells formerly worn by pilgrims when they visited the shrine.

It is further said, ‘‘ Whoever eats oysters on St. James’s day
will never want money for the rest of the year,” which is only
worth mentioning from the circumstance of the same thing being
said of those “who eat goose on Michaelmas Day,” affording
another instance of the way in which the same ideas and the same
sayings were used formerly to be associated with more saints than
one, as in the case of those relating to St. Swithin, And there is
yet another instance of this, in a saying with which St. James and
St. Swithin are both connected. There is a saying in many places,
when it rains on St. Swithin’s Day, that ‘‘ St. Swithin is christen-

* “ Notes and Queries,” vol. i, p.6. See also on this subject Chambers’s
Book of Days, vol. ii., pp. 121, 122,

186

ing the apples ;” while, “among the people in Wiltshire and
Somerset,” the apples are said to be “christened on St. James’s
Day.”* This, however, perhaps may be explained by the circum-
stance of the two Saints’ Days falling about the same time, if we
take Old Style in the case of St. Swithin, and New Style in that
of St. James.

In a parish in Huntingdonshire, the saying about St. Swithin
and the apples takes a different form. ‘A notion prevails there
that unless St. Swithin rains upon the apples they’ll never keep
through the winter.” +

But it is unnecessary to pursue this subject further. Enough
has been said to break all connection between the legend of St.
Swithin and a forty days’ rain,f at the same time that it has been
attempted to bring into view so much of latent truth as seems to
underlie, and in some degree substantiate the popular sayings
respecting the occurrence of wet weather, more or less prolonged,
at stated seasons.

We may smile at the various superstitions alluded to in the course
of this inquiry, and pity an age that can lend itself to such beliefs.
Or we may pride ourselves in being far removed from those yet
earlier times, in which men worshipped the elements, esteeming
them to be living powers, whose favour had to be courted by
prayers and sacrifices in order to obtain what was needed for their
happiness and well-being. But let us not be unduly severe in
judging that ignorance, often quite unavoidable, and that weakness
of intellect not the fault of those who have it, to which such
superstitions owe their origin. Let us not forget that supersti-
tions, rightly viewed, are still gropings after truth ; first attempts,
however fruitless, to interrogate nature, to learn her laws, and to

* “Notes and Queries,” N.S., vol. i., p. 386.
+ Id., Ser. III., vol. viii., p. 146.

{ Chambers, in his ‘ Book of Days’ (Vol. i, p. 672,) under the head of
Quarantine, adduces a number of instances connected with our English legal
polity, in which a marked predilection formerly seems to have been shown for
the period of forty days, deriving it from the forty days of Lent, “itself a com-
memoration of the forty days’fast of Christ in the wilderness.” This period is,
as all know, of frequent occurrence in Scripture. He thinks the exact period of
“ forty days” assigned to St. Swithin’s rain may be traced to the same origin,

a

187

seek an explanation of observed facts, observed perhaps in some
cases all the more correctly from there having been no pre-
conceived notions to blear the sight and falsify the impressions
made upon it. We wonder not at the simple questionings of the
little child, whose faculties are not sufficiently matured to com-
prehend the things which it sees and handles; why wonder at
those whose lot was cast in the world’s childhood, or a state but
little advanced beyond childhood, compared with the advances
made since? All around was then dark. No lamp of knowledge,
lit by others, had been passed down to the men of that day to
show them right methods of research and reasoning, and they were
left to form their own conjectures about what they saw and what
happened to them, and to unravel as best they might the tangled
phenomena of the universe. We may look upon these men as our
first teachers. We may have got far ahead of the lessons they
inculcated ; and there may have been but a small and insignificant
element of truth in what they taught, and in what they believed.
But error has its meaning in the search for truth, the first
glimmerings of which are seldom perceived till after long looking
in the wrong direction. Guesses wide of the mark in the first
instance are followed in time by more thoughtful investigation.
As has been said, ‘‘ cases which are illustrations of credulity and
superstition to the writers of one age may become scientific data
to the observers of another age.”

And then what of ourselves in this enlightened nineteenth
century? Are there none to be found at the present day, even
among the educated classes, who still cling to certain beliefs and
superstitions, as baseless and childish as any of those held to by
the untutored savages of olden times? Instead of contemning
those who were before us, and who, not enjoying our advantages,
yet made the best use of the faculties they possessed, let us rather
—after reviewing their slender knowledge of nature and her ways—
learn to estimate as they deserve the walks of modern science open
to ourselves. It is science alone that can dispel the yet remaining
mists of ignorance and error, break up the strongholds of supersti-
tion, and help us to plant our feet firmly upon the truth. Let us
gather its precious fruits to our own enlightenment, and give of

188

them to others also. Wide as the conquests of science have been,
there is much yet for it to do ; and its true followers, whatever the
vantage ground they have attained for themselves, will never think
lightly of those—low as their position may have been—to whom
science owes its first beginnings.

Lord Bacon, quoting the celebrated Roman philosopher, says—
“Tt is a pleasure to stand upon the shore, and to see ships tossed
upon the sea; a pleasure to stand in the window of a castle, and to
see a battle, and the adventures thereof below ; but no pleasure is
comparable to the standing upon the vantage ground of truth (a
hill not to be commanded, and where the air is always clear and
serene), and to~see the errors, and wanderings, and mists, and
tempests, in the vale below;” “so always,” adds our own
great philosopher, “ that this prospect be with pity, and not with
swelling or pride.” And he concludes with the remark that
“ certainly, it is heaven upon earth, to have a man’s mind move
in charity, rest in Providence, and turn upon the poles of truth.”*

———————

Remarks on Some of the Fungi met with in the Neighbourhood of
Bath. By CO. E. Broome, MA., F.L.S. Continued from page
98 of the Second Volume of the Proceedings of the Bath Natural
History and Antiquarian Field Club. Read Jan. 18th, 1871.

The most highly developed family of fungi, the Hymenomycetes,
has been treated of on former occasions before the Bath Field Club ;
on the present occasion it is intended to follow the arrangement
adopted by Mr. Berkeley, in the “ Outlines of British Fungology,”
with one exception. The family that comes next in order is that
of the Gasteromycetes. It takes its name from two Greek words,
gaster, a cavity, and muke, a fungus ; its chief character being that
its spores are produced on an hymenium or fructifying membrane,
more or less concealed within a peridium or envelope, consisting of
closely packed cells, of which the fertile ones produce spores seated
on little spicules, which are at length exposed by the rupture or
decay of the investing coat or peridium. But before proceeding to

nO a gig ne eee eae ne eT

* Essay of Truth.

189

characterize the orders and genera contained in the family it may
be well to make a few observations on their analogies, their mode
of growth, and general economy. The author of the “ Outlines”
heads the family with the order Hypogeei, or subterranean fungi.
M. Tulasne, in his beautiful monograph of this order, observes that
light is, generally speaking, more necessary to vegetables than to
other organized beings, that there are, nevertheless, certain plants
which exist without ever receiving its beneficial influence, or which
are deprived of it during a considerable part of their period of
growth ; and it is among fungi chiefly that we meet with this
abhorrence of light, or, at least, with a preference for a partial
obscurity. Almost all fungi proceed from a mycelium of a
filamentous or corky nature spreading beneath the soil or under
the bark of trees, in each case in situations devoid of light ; this
mycelium may be regarded as analagous to the subterranean organs
of other vegetables, and if, like them, it pursues its own functions
in the dark, it generally requires light for the perfecting its re-
productive portion. Thus the mycelium of an Agaric or Polyporus
either remains sterile, or produces only incomplete or monstrous
pilei when growing in dark caves or mines. Sometimes it is not
the mycelium only which is developed in the dark, but the perfect
fungus arising from it shares for a considerable period its obscure
habitation. Many Agarics, for instance, complete nearly their whole
development beneath the surface of the ground, thus causing an
inattentive observer to suppose that they assume their full
proportions in a night, whilst in truth they occupy a considerable
time in attaining them. Many of the Gasteromycetes present a
similar mode of growth ; thus all the species which are provided
with a general envelope, as Phallus, Clathrus, and certain of the
Lycoperdons, the Geasters, Tulastoma, and others, pass the time of
maturation underground, and only appear above the surface to
present their spores to the ordinary means of their dissemination.
Others of the Gasteromycetes continue all their lives in a partial if
not complete abstraction from the influence of light. Of this kind
are the Hymenogasters, which seem to be in this respect inter-
mediate between the Lycoperdons and the Truffle. The genus
Hysterangium, however, offers an instance among the Hymeno-

190

gastree, of a complete abstraction from light, Hysterangium
nephriticum, B and B., occurring perfectly mature at a depth of
several inches, and generally in a strong, tenacious clay, through
which it would be difficult for it to attain the surface. M. Tulasne
combines in one group, which he terms Hymenogastrece, synony-
mous with the Hypogeei of Berkeley, such subterranean genera as
produce their spores naked and seated on sporophores, or basidia,
which line the interior of irregular cells permeating the mass of
the fungus. The greater number of these fungi possess an outer
coat, or peridium, others, as Gautieria, are wanting in this respect.
They assume commonly a globose form, and mostly possess a more
or less distinct base, and are variously attached to a mycelium of a
threadlike character spreading beneath the soil, where it forms
cottony masses, or unequal strings and cords, variously branched
and coloured. The genera Hymenogaster and Hydnangium,
provided with a distinct base, adhere to their mycelium by this one
point. Gautieria and Octaviania asterosperma present to view
also a wide base, and when removed from the soil draw with them
a considerable quantity of a white mycelium mixed with earth,
resembling that of the Hymenomycetes. Octaviania compacta, and
the Hysterangia connected with their mycelium by various points
of their surface, imbibe nutriment through it in every direction.
Here we see the relations of the mycelium to the fungus vary much
without affecting its general structure. Hysterangium stoloniferum
grows at the summit of a cord-like mycelium, similar to that of
Phallus, adhering to it by a very small part of its peridium. The
mycelium of Melanogaster and Rhizopogon is composed of threads
varying in thickness, generally of a brown or yellow colour,
increasing gradually from their extremities, but, instead of each
separately producing a peridium and there stopping, they unite
together in numbers, and thus give origin to the fungus. In
Rhizopogon luteolus the flattened threads of the mycelium form a
dense web or network, each thread of which may be seen to divide
at the end and separate into its constituent parts in order to
compose the outer envelope. This formation is still better seen in
Melanogaster, where, the mycelium being less abundant, its
constitutive threads are large, and can be more easily traced to

191

their termination in the outer coat of the fungus, Gautieria
connects the Hymenogastrez with the Hymenomycetes, being
without a peridium, all the other genera of the former order
possessing one, which is however less complex than in most genera
of the Gasteromycetes, especially in many of the Lycoperdinee.
In Lycoperdon the peridium is generally composed of two coats
closely applied to one another, but distinct in the nature of the
tissues which constitute them ; the exterior, far the thickest, is
formed of transparent, spherical or elliptic cells filled with a
colourless fluid ; the second, or inner stratum, constitutes the true
peridium, and consists of a strong although delicate membrane
composed of interlaced threads, the inner surface giving origin to
the capillitium or fertile filaments. The peridium of Geaster is more
complex than that of Lycoperdon ; the interior, or proper peridium,
corresponds to that organ in the latter genus, but the outer, scissile,
covering is of a very complex character. Geaster hygrometricus is
clothed at first with a dense, fibrillose, covering, separating into
fragments, which, in drying, remain attached to the outer envelope.
Tulasne considers this exterior coat as analogous to a mycelium.
Beneath this we find a delicate coloured stratum, then another of a
white tint composed of bent threads which form the thickened base
of the external peridium ; this, again, is covered over all its free
surface by a transparent, corneous tissue, which is itself lined by a
thick coat of a carbonized nature, and of a vinous colour, adhering
to it very firmly at first, but, after the fungus has burst open,
Separating itself from the internal coat, which remains free within
it, the peridium soon after perishing, at least in part, what remains
assuming a cup shape. In Polysaccum and Scleroderma, which
Corda regards as the types of two different tribes, the protecting
tegument is homogeneous and simple ; it consists of a thick coat of
a carbonized nature inseparable throughout, the internal wall
blending with the substance of the partitions which pass through
the interior of the fungus. The peridium in the last named genera,
is most like that of the Hymenogastrew among Hypogees ; in the
latter it forms an homogenous tissue which cannot be separated
into distinct coats. In Hysterangium the peridium is delicate, but
flexible, and of remarkable tenacity ; being composed of elongate

192

threads arranged parallelly to one another, it can be easily
separated from the internal mass, in which it differs totally from
the genera Rhizopogon and Melanogaster, where the peridium is
in organic connection with the subjacent tissue. Mr. Berkeley
was the first to make known the true structure and mode of
fruiting in Trichogasters. In the fourth volume of the “ Annals
of Natural History” he says: “If a young plant of Lycoperdon
celatum be cut through it will be found to consist of a fleshy mass,
perforated in every direction with minute, elongated, anastomising
cavities, the outer surface of which is composed of pellucid, obtuse
cells, placed parallel to one another, exactly as in the hymenium of
an Agaric ; at a later stage little spicules are developed at the tips
of these cells, on each of which a globose spore is seated; as the
plant ripens these spores fall off and become the dusty mass which
one sees in Puffballs. The cells which produced the spores then
collapse and are dissolved.” M. Tulasne says, Fungi hypogeei, p.
10, as soon as the spores are ripe, and have fallen off, the tissue
which composed the walls of the cavities is disorganized, and gives
place to long, continuous, and dark filaments implanted in the
whole internal peridium, and which collectively are termed the
eapillitium. A similar structure has been observed in Geaster,
Scleroderma, and Polysaccum. In Phallus and Clathrus the only
difference is that the walls of the fertile cells, at first cartilaginous,
instead of being converted into a capillitium, are resolved into a
semi-fiuid pulp, which is eventually washed into the ground by rain,
&c. In Hymenogastrece the division of the fertile mass, or gleba,
into cavities is permanent, existing till the dissolution of the
fungns. The gleba varies in its nature; it may be fleshy, corky,
or cartilaginous, but it is always more firm than in Lycoperdinee ;
it differs also in the form of the cells which constitute its substance,
sometimes they are capillary threads, oftener there is a mixture of
rounded and elongated cells ; the cohesion of the threads may be
equal throughout the mass of the walls, which are then indivisible
and equally pellucid, or they may be denser towards the centre of
the divisions, which then presents the appearance of a dark line.
Tn all these cases there exists a close analogy between these septa
and the gills of an Agaric. Perhaps enough has been said to

193

indicate the mode of growth and general structure of the family of
fungi which we are considering ; and in enumerating the species
that occur in our district we may follow the sequence adopted by
Mr. Berkeley in his “ Outlines,” with the addition of remarks on
any peculiarity-that seems worthy of attention.

Genus 53. Ocravianta.* Vit.

Peridium continuous or cracked, cottony, running down into the
sterile base; trama byssoid, easily divisible; cells at first
empty ; spores rough.

1. Octaviania asterosperma, Vitt. Tul., Fungi hypogei, t. 11,
f. 1. Leigh Wood, Bristol. This species had occurred very
sparingly in England till the autumn of 1868, when it was found
in considerable numbers in a mixed plantation of fir and other trees
near Lyndhurst. It seemed to afford food to mice, as thirteen
specimens were heaped up together in a run of those animals, and
they must have been carried there for a winter store, as they were
not attached to the soil. They now form part of the 13th Century
of Rabenhorst’s Fungi Europeei exsiccati. The odour of this species
is pungent but not unpleasant. Vittadini compares it to that of
sweet basil, or to a kind of cheese when new.

2. O. Stephensii, Zulasne lic., t. xxi, fig. 6. Hydnangium
Stephensii, B. Ann. Nat, Hist., xiii, 352. Leigh Wood,
Bristol, and one other plantation on the same range of hills form
the only British stations for this species. It is remarkable for
exuding when young a copious flow of a milky fluid, a character
which it shares with another Hypogee, Endogone lactiflua, B., but
which has not been observed in any other plant of that Order. It
has hitherto occurred only under bushes of Lime, Tilia parvifolia.

The above are the only British species.

Genus 54. MenanoGaster.t Cda.

Peridium adhering to creeping branched fibres which traverse its
surface ; without any distinct base ; cells at first filled with pulp ;
spores smooth, mostly dark.

* Octaviania, from Ottaviani, an Italian botanist.
t+ Melanogaster, melas, black, and gaster, a cavity.

194

1, Melanogaster variegatus, Z'wl., l.c., p. 92, t. ii, f. 4 and t.
xii., f. 6. Sow., t. 426. This species occurs chiefly under beech
trees. It has been offered for sale in the Bath market under the
name of red truffle. It grew abundantly some years ago in a
plantation belonging to Lord Methuen, near Hartham Park. Many
of the specimens had been gnawed by mice, which had made runs
from one to another under ground. Some of them were cooked and
eaten without ill results. It has also occurred at Warleigh.

2. M. ambiguus, Zwl., le., p. 94, t. ii, £5, and t. xii, f. 5.
Has been found in various parts of England. Spye Park,
Batheaston, &c. It emits a very foetid odour, especially in decay.

The only two British species.

Genus 55. Hypnaneium.* Wall.

Peridium fleshy or membranaceous ; sterile base none ; cells at
first empty, then filled with spores ; spores echinate.

1. Hydnangium caroteecolor, &., Ann. Nat. Hist. xiii, 351. Tul.,
Le., p. 75, t. xxi, f. 4. Leigh Wood, Bristol. Dr. Stephens. It
occurs half buried among the soil among ivy, &c., quite in the shade,
and looks like bits of carrot. It was also found in an open exposed
part of Ballard Down, near Swanage.

There is only one British species.

Genus 56. Hysrerancium.t Vite.

Peridium indehiscent, distinct, separable; cells at first empty ;
substance cartilagineo-glutinous ; spores elliptic, acuminate.

1. Hysterangium nephriticum, B., Ann. Nat. Hist. xiii, 350.
Tul., Le., p. 82. Leigh Wood, Bristol. This species occurs in stiff
elay, often six or eight inches beneath the surface. It is surrounded
by acopious white mycelium, which spreads often for a foot or
more around the tubers.

2. H. Thwaitesii, B. and Br., Aun. Nat. Hist., ser. ii., vol. ii.,
267. Tul., le, p.82. Leigh Wood, Bristol. Sometimes nearly
on the surface of the ground, and it appears earlier in the winter
than the last. The spores are longer and more pointed. The

* Hydnangium, from udnon, a truffle, and angos, a cavity.
+ Hysterangium, from ustera, a hollow, and angos, a cavity.

195

structure of thehymenium in this genus resembles closely that of a
young Phallus.
The only two British species.

Genus 57. Rarzopocon.* Zul.

Peridium continuous or cracked, adhering to creeping branched
fibres which traverse its surface ; cells distinct, at. first empty ;
spores smooth, oblong-elliptic, minute.

1. Rhizopogon rubescens, Z’wl., l.c., p. 89, t. ii, f 1, and t. xi,
f. 4. First met with in England in woods near Portbury, Somerset.
It becomes very foetid when old, a character at variance with
Tulasne’s description, in which he says it is nearly scentless, and
although his plant agrees with ours in other respects, yet the
difference in so marked a character causes one to doubt of the
identity. Tulasne, however, named our plant on inspection of
specimens. The strong odour in our plant indicates R. graveolens,
Vitt., whose other characters accord sufficiently with it.

The only British species.

Genus 58. Hymenocaster.t Zul.

Peridium fleshy or thin, running down into an absorbing base ;
cavities at first empty, radiating or irregular ; trama composed
of elongated cells, not of byssoid flocci, and therefore not easily
separable.

1. Hymenogaster muticus, B. and Br. Stapleton Grove, near
Bristol. Ann. of Nat. Hist., ser. ii, 2, p. 267. Tul, Le, p. 65,
Ee ey a

2. H. luteus, Vitt. Tul, 1. ¢., p. 65, t. i, fig. 3. Common in
plantations.

3. H. decorus, Twl., le. p. 67, t. x., fig. 9. Common in
plantations.

4. H. vulgaris, Tul., l.c., p. 67, t. x., fig. 13. Woods near
Bristol. .

5. H. citrinus, Vitt. Tul., 1c. p. 69, t.i,, fig. 1, and t. x, fig,
3. Common in plantations.

* Rhizopogon, from riza, a root, and pogon, a beard.
t+ Hymenogaster, from umen, a membrane, and gaster, a cavity.

196

6. H. olivaceus, Vitt. Mon. Tub., p. 24, t. v., fig. 9. Common
in plantations.

7. H. tener, B., Ann. Nat. Hist., xiii, 349. Tul. le, p. 72.,
t. i., fig. 4, and t. x., fig. 1. Common in the woods.

8. H. Thwaitesii, B, and Br., Ann. Nat. Hist., xiii, 349. Tul.,
Le., p. 71, t. x., fig. 11. Woods. Portbury, near Bristol.

Our district claims eight out of eleven British species.

Order VIII, Phalloide.*

Volva universal, the intermediate stratum gelatinous ; hymenium

deliquescent.

Genus 59. PHauuus.t L.

Pileus perforated at the apex, free all round, reticulate ; veil, none.

1. Phallus impudicus, Z. Berk., Outlines Brit. Fung., t. xx.,
fig. 3. Not uncommon in the woods, where it may be detected by
_ its foetid odour resembling carrion, although often difficult to see

from its growing under thick bushes, &c.
We have one out of two British.
Genus 60. CynopHaLuus.t 7.

Pileus adnate, imperforate, uneven ; veil, none.

1. Cynophallus caninus, Fr. Sow., +t. 330. Woods on
Bathampton Down, &c.

The only British species.

Genus 61. Cxarurus.|| Mich.

Stem, none; receptacle forming an ovate or globose network ;
branches of the network cellular within.

The only British species, Clathrus cancellatus, has not yet been
found in our district. Montague has given beautiful illustrations
of the structure and fructification in the “ Flora of Algiers.” (See
notes and figure.)

Order IX. Trichogastres.§
Peridium single or double ; hymenium at length drying up into a
dusty mass of threads and spores.

* Phalloidei, from Phallus, the typical genus. + Phallus, from the Greek,
an emblem used in ancient rites. { Cynophallus, from kuon, a dog, and
Phallus. || Clathrus, from clethron, a gate or lattice. § Trichogastres,
from thrix, a hair, and gaster.

197

Genus 62. Bararres.* P.

Volva universal, central stratum gelatinous ; receptacle pileiform,
bursting through the volva, seated at the top of a tall stem.
Batarrea phalloides, P. This very rare fungus has not occurred

with us. A good description of B. phalloides is to be seen in the

Fifth Part of Hooker’s ‘‘ English Flora,” p, 298.

Genus 63. TuLostoma.t P.

Peridium thin, papyraceous, the outer coat separating, distinct
from the elongated stem.

Tulostoma mammosum, /’r., the only British species, has not
been found in our neighbourhood ; it grows on old walls near London.
Genus 64. Guaster.$ Mich.

Peridium double, outer distinct, persistent, bursting, and divided
into several stellate lobes.

1. Geaster fornicatus, 7r. Sow., t. 198. Fir plantations.
Lucknam Grove.

2. G. fimbriatus, Fr. Berk., Outlines, pl. 20, fig. 4. Sow., t. 80.
This species occurred in great abundance in the fir plantation
on Bathampton Down in November, 1859, since which time
scarcely a single specimen has occurred.

3. G. rufescens, P. Sow.,t. 80. The nearest locality to Bath
for this species is at Great Elm, near Frome.

4. G. striatus, D.C. Vitt., Mon. Lycoperd., t. i, fig. 4. Banner
Down, Batheaston ; Mrs. Williams.

We have only four species out of 9 British ; probably more might
be found if different parts of our district were searched for them.

Genus 65. Bovista. || Dull.

Peridium like paper, persistent ; bark distinct, at length shelling
off; capillitium equal, attached on all sides to the peridium ;
spores pedicellate.

1. Boyista nigrescens, P. B,, pl 20, fig. 5. Sow., t. 331.
Bowood and other places ; common.

* Batarrea, named after Batarra, acelebrated mycologist. + Tulostoma,

from tulos, a wart, and stoma, the mouth. + Geaster, from ge, the earth,
and astron, astar. || Bovista, from the German, bofist, a puff ball.

198

2. B. plumbea, P. B., pl. 20, f. 6. Bull, t. 192, ap
Common on downs and meadows.

The only British species. In this genus the whole interior mass
is fertile ; there is no sterile base as in Lycoperdon.

Genus 66. Lycorerpon.* Tournfourt.

Peridium membranaceous, vanishing above, or becoming flaccid ;
bark adnate, subpersistent, breaking up into scales or warts ;
capillitium adnate to the peridium and to the sterile base.

1. Lycoperdon giganteum, Batsch. Grev. t. 336. This species,
which is rare in our district, is edible when young, and should be
cut in thin slices and fried with butter, pepper, and salt, or in
batter ; it must be pure white when eaten, if at all coloured it
should not be used. Meadows. Batheaston.

2. L. celatum, Fr. B. pl. 20, f. 7. Huss., ii, t. 23. Pastures.
Common.

3. L. atro-purpureum, Vit. Mon, 't. 2,f. 6. Leigh Down.
Bathford Hill.

4. L. saccatum, Vahl. Huss. i, t..14. Stoke, near Bristol.
Bathford Hill.

5. L. gemmatum, fr. Huss. i, t. 54. Meadows and downs.
Common.

6. L. pyriforme, Schef. Huss.,i,t. 70. Grev. t. 304. On
rotten stumps, Common.

Our list includes six out of seven British species of this genus as
known up to the autumn of 1870, since which two species,
apparently new to Great Britain, have been met with, one by the
Rev. Mr. Sawyer, the other by Mr. Hoyle. One is considered to
be L. gemmatum, Batsch, var. y, echinatum, P. The two last-
named forms Mr. Berkeley looks on as distinct from the different
colour of the spores.

Genus 67. Scrmroperma.t P.

Peridium hard, clothed with an innate bark bursting irregularly ;
flocci adhering on all sides to the peridium, and forming distinct
veins in the central mass ; spores large, granulated.

* Lycoperdon, from lukos, a wolf, and perdo, to crack or resound.
+ Scleroderma, from scleros, hard, and derma, the skin.

199

#1. Scleroderma vulgare, Fr. B., pl. 15,f.4in part. Huss i.,
t. 17. Common on downs and thickets.
2. S. verrucosum, P. Grev., t. 48. Huss.,i., t. 17. Chippenham.
We have two out of four British species, a new species for this
country having been met with at the meeting of the Woolhope
Field Club in October, 1870, by Dr. Bull, of Hereford, viz,
Scleroderma geaster, ’r., distinguished by its thick peridium
bursting at the apex in a stellate manner. Vittadini places this
genus among those genera of fungi which produce their sporidia
within a sac or ascus, but it appears to us that. he mistook the
usual granular or oleaginous contents of an immature ascus for
true sporidia ; if a fragment of a Scleroderma be examined in the
microscope at a very early period it will be seen that the spores are
formed upon basidia asin Lycoperdon. A notice in the “Gardener's
Chronicle” for December 24th, 1870, compels us to place a sign
indicating its edible quality, against Scleroderma vulgare, although
we have no desire to verify its properties ourselves. An article in
the “Food Journal” is to the following effect :—-‘‘ I was surprised
to have Scleroderma vulgare submitted to me, and to find that it
has been largely eaten, and pronounced very good. It is only in
the young state, of course, that any question could arise about it ;
when old it is filled with a mass of loathsome dust, like its allied
puffballs. Under a false name it has been largely employed at
Paris instead of the truffle of Perigord, to adulterate the Perigord
pies, the quality of which was, in consequence, much deteriorated.
It frequently appears in the market of Mons, and is sent from
Belgium in great quantities to Paris. Some pains are taken to
guard it in its place of growth, by covering it with earth, until of
sufficient size, against the ravages of animals, especially of magpies.”
Corda figures it under the name of Pompholyx sapidum, and
_ considers it superior to the black or white truffle. Dr. Bull, of
Hereford, says it is very dangerous at an early age. ‘The wholesome
quality of fungi appears to depend on local, or climatic, conditions ;
the same species may be deleterious or not, according to circum-
stances. It appears therefore that this species is dangerous when
very young, and loathsome when old, so that it must be caught just
in the nick of time to be serviceable for kitchen use.

200

Genus 68. Potysaccum. D.C.

Common peridium simple, rigid, bursting irregularly ; internal
mass divided into distinct cells, filled with peridiola ; spores
mixed with threads. 1
Polysaccum olivaceum, Fr. This fungus does not seem to have

been found in Great Britain since the time of Sowerby, whose

specimen, figured in English Fungi, was obtained at Highgate. It
iscommon in the south of Europe. The peridiola which occupy the
cells into which the common peridium is divided can be easily
removed from their positions. Vittadini here, as in Scleroderma,
regards the “ sporidia as included in one-spored sacs in the early
stage,” and probably, from a like erroneous view of the granular
contents of the spores. Corda describes the structure of this curious
fungus thus in his “ Icones,” ‘“‘ The common peridium is constituted
of several peripherical layers, formed by the abortion of the
sporangiola occupying the cells of the substance of the fungus,
which constitutes the septa, these void cells are pressed upon one
another in layers, forming the many-coated common peridium.
The sporangiola are arranged irregularly, and commonly singly,
in each cell of the mass of the fungus ; the cell walls, at first full
of juice and moist, become at length dry and brittle, they are
continuous with each other, but not with the sporangiola. Each-
sporangiolum consists of an outer, delicate, floccose, at length
papyraceous membrane, which, in a section, can be easily seen to be
distinct. In the early state the coat of the sporangiolum, together
with its contents, forms a fleshy, moist, homogeneous substance,
which afterwards divides itself into an external envelope and a mass
of spores mixed with threads.” The genus Polysaccum seems to be

a compound Lycoperdon, according to the history of its structure

and development which we have been considering. It would be

interesting to meet with this plant once more after so long a period
of its absence from our flora. M. Tulasne gives an account of the

structure of Polysaccum in the “ Annales des Sciences,” ser. ii,

vol. 18, p. 133. He says, “if a thin slice of a sporangiolum be

placed in the microscope one sees that the threads which it contains
are generally terminated by globose, or ovate, cells larger than the
other cells; if the sporangiolum is young these cells are smooth

201

and naked; but in the more advanced state these ovate cells
present, at their summit, little, nearly sessile, spheres varying in
number from two to six. These bodies gradually increase, and
may soon be known as spores by their colour, and the asperities on
their surface. The sporangiola, together with their contents, are
soon converted into a dusty mass, and escape through any aperture
caused by the disintegration of the common peridium or envelope.
The various stages of growth may be observed in a single individual,
as the sporangiola do not ripen simultaneously in each.” Tulasne
has a different species in view from that of Corda. The former
describes P. crassipes, the latter, P. acaule, which may account for
some differences in their descriptions, but in all probability Tulasne
is more correct as regards the mode of development of the spores,
which accords better with what has been seen in the other plants of
the order. M. Tulasne observes that his views of the fruit
formation in Polysaccum, if correct, show a near relationship
between it and Scleroderma. In both genera the spores are formed
almost sessile, on cells similarly enlarged, but the threads to which
the basidia pertain are different in appearance and consistence ; in
Scleroderma the septa never acquire the same solidity as in Poly-
saccum, but are merely flocculent, and the fertile tissue they
envelope never acquires a free condition.

Genus 69. Crnococcum.* 7.

Peridium naked, thick, carbonaceous, indehiscent, at length hollow,
with the walls dotted with the dust-like spores.

1. Cenococcum geophilum, Fr. Sow., t. 270. Cda. Icones, iii,
18, t. iii, fig. 48. Stapleton, near Bristol. In peaty ground in
woods. No one has seen the genesis of the fruit, nor perhaps any
true fruit ; its situation in the system is therefore doubtful.

Order X. Nidulariacei.

Sphores produced on sporophores compacted into one or more
globose or disciform bodies, contained within a distinct peridium.
According to the arrangement adopted in the “Outlines of

British Fungology, the order Myxogastres should come here, but

* Cenococcum, from cenos, empty, and coccus, a berry.

202

as there appears to be a much closer affinity with the Nidulariacei,
we have placed them next to Phalloidei.

Genus 70. Cyatuus.* P.

Peridium composed of three closely connected membranes, at
length bursting at the apex, and closed by a white membrane ;
sporangia plane, umbilicate, attached to the walls by an elastic
cord.

1. Cyathus striatus, Hofm. B., pl. 2, fig. 3. Sow., t. 29.

Rudlow. Not very common in our district.

2. C. vernicosus, D.C. Halse, Somerset. Not common near

Bath.

The only British species.
Genus 71. Cruciputum.t Tul.

Peridium consisting of a spongy, fibrous felt, closed by a flat,
furfuraceous cover of the same colour ; sporangia plane, attached
by a long cord, springing from a little nipple-like tubercle.

1. Crucibulum vulgare, Zul. B., pl. 2. Sow., t. 30. On fern,
sticks, &c. Bowood and Hanham. Not uncommon.

The only British species.

Genus 72. Nipuuaria.t Tul.

Peridium sessile, globose, formed of a thin, simple membrane of a
homogeneous, cotteny texture, at first closed, at length torn and
disintegrating, or bursting at the apex with a circular, naked,
even, or undulated mouth. Utricles tubercular from the
contained peridiola, without a true veil ; sporangiola numerous,
disk-shaped, minute, involved in a copious gelatine, by a thick
coat of which they are sometimes clothed ; not adhering to the
peridium ; funicle none; external coat, thick and cottony ;
sporangiola horny, when moist scissile, either containing numerous,
minute spores not mixed with threads, or indivisible with threads
massed together in the centre.

1. Nidularia pisiformis, Zw. Has not been found in the district.
¥

* From Cyathus, a goblet.
+ From crucibulum, a crucible, modern Latin, }{ From nidulus, a little nest.

203

Genus 73. Spumropoius.* Tode.

Peridium double; the inner at length inverted elastically, and
ejecting a solitary globose sporangium.

1. Sphzrobolus stellatus, Zode. B., p. 21, f. 2. Sow., t. 22.
Grey., iii, 158. Not uncommon on decaying wood, &. A
good account of this plant will be found in “Greville’s Scotch
Cryptogamic Flora,” vol. iii, p. 158.

The only British species.

Genus 74. Potyanerum.t Lk.
Peridium sub-hemispherical, hyaline; sporangiola large in pro-
portion, grumous within.

1. Polyangium vitellinum, Ditmar in Sturm., t. 27. It has not
occurred in the Bath district. This production has been retained
amongst the fungi in the “Outlines,” but Corda supposes it to be
merely the eggs of some insect, and Ditmar’s figure gives the same’
impression.

In concluding this portion of the Notices of Fungi occurring in
the Bath District, it will only be necessary to give the following
summary of the results. Out of 22 genera which constitute the
family of British Gasteromycetes (rejecting the order of Myxo-
gasters which it is proposed to treat of separately), we can lay claim
to 16, represented by 37 species; the number of British species
being 55. We therefore stand in the proportion of 16 to 22 in the
former, and 37 to 55 in the latter. From the paucity of species,
and the striking nature of their character, combined with the great
rarity of some among them, it is not probable that so much remains
to be done in the family in question as in Hymenomycetes and in
the subsequent families. There is, nevertheless, room left for the
exertions of local botanists, as several blanks remain to be filled up.

* Sphzrobolus, from sphaira, a sphere, and ballo, to project.
+ Polyangium, from polus, many, and aggeion, a receptacle,

=

204

Notes on the Rhetic Section, Newbridge Hill. By Rev. H. H.
Winwood, U.A., F.GS. Read Feb. 15, 1871.

One of the main objects of a club like our own is to observe and
place on record any local peculiarity, whether in Archeology,
Natural History, or Geology, which may from time to time claim
especial attention in its neighbourhood. The numerous Railways
which are everywhere extending like a network throughout the
land afford the greatest assistance to the science of Geology, by
exposing in their deep cuttings and tunnels sections hitherto
covered up, and thereby supplying many a missing link in that
geological chain which careful and accurate observers are so patiently
and perseveringly welding together. It is principally owing to the
deep cuttings in our neighbourhood that Moore, Wright, Etheridge,
Dawkins, and other patient workers in this branch of science,
have been enabled to discover in the comparatively small space
of about 35 feet one of these missing links ; «%e., certain beds
which contain a fauna peculiar to, and which are the representatives
of, other beds in the Austrian Alps, some 3000 or 4000 feet in
thickness, called the Rhetic beds.* The following notes have
reference to the representatives of these important beds which
have lately been exposed on the new line of Railway between Bath
and Mangotsfield. Until our friend, Mr. Moore, so well known
for his labours, gave his attention to this particular formation, the
exact position of that geological page, so rich in its contents, was
hitherto undetermined in this country. It may not be amiss
therefore to allude to the literature of this subject, redounding, as
* the discovery does, so much to the acumen of our local geologist,
In the year 1859, Dr. Wright, of Cheltenham, with a view to
determine the proper position of certain Lower Lias beds, examined
the most typical localities in the counties where those beds were
exposed. The results of this examination he brought before the
Geological Society of London in the beginning of the following
year (vide “ Quart. Journ.,” vol. xvi., p. 374). In that important
and elaborate communication he adopted a series of Ammonite

* Mr, Etheridge estimates their maximum thickness in England as 100 ft.,
including the gray, green, and white marls of the upper Trias.

a

205

zones for the lower lias, after Dr. Oppel, of Munich, and stated his
opinion that the Avicula contorta beds (all those black shales, sand-
stones, limestones, and bone beds intervening between the gray,
green, and red marls of the Keuper, and the lowest Ostrea beds in
the zone of Ammonites planorbis at the base of the Lias), were the
equivalents of the Upper St. Cassian beds, and Késsener Schichten
of German geologists. In an equally valuable communication made
the following year (1861), by Mr. Charles Moore, to the same
Society, the views of Dr. Wright were in some points questioned,
and in this paper he states that these beds lying between the
Keuper marls and the Lower Lias are not the equivalents of the
Upper St. Cassian (or Triassic beds) but of the Késsen stage, or
Rheetic formation alone, and in this country were the only
representatives yet found of beds intervening between the Keuper
and the Lias, attaining in the South of Europe a thickness of several
thousand feet. In addition to this, from the fauna of the White
Lias agreeing in its general facies with the Avicula contorta beds
below, Mr. Moore proposed to take these beds from the Lower Lias,
where Dr. Wright and others had placed them, and classify them
with the Avicula contorta group beneath, under the term Rhetic
formation. These views of Mr. Moore, in spite of a great disincli-
nation at first to accept the new nomenclature, have been since
adopted by the principal geological authorities. It is for this reason
that a short reswmé of the literature of the subject has been brought
before you this evening.

Considering, then, the importance of these junction beds, every
opportunity should be taken of a careful examination of their
position and contents. With this view, and in fulfilment of a
promise made to you during one of our evening meetings last
year, I have worked out the fossils, so far as time permitted,
and made accurate measurements of a section of these Rheetic
beds which are exposed in. a cutting of the new Railway,
near the Weston Station. In a paper read before the Geological
Society of London, in the year 1867, “ On the Abnormal Conditions
of the Secondary Deposits of the Somersetshire and South Wales
Coal Basin,” Mr. Moore, alluding to the absence from the greater
part of the Bath district of the Znsect and Crustacean beds, the Ostrea,

206

and the Ammonites planorbis, beds in the sections hitherto exposed
at Twerton, Weston, Saltford, and Willsbridge, and stating that
the Ammonites Bucklandi beds rest unconformably in these sec-
tions on the White Lias, in a note appended to page 495
notices this section as follows :—‘‘In the railway cutting now in
course of excavation at Newbridge Hill, these representatives of the
Ostrea beds are present immediately above the Rhetic series, but
are almost immediately overlain by others containing Ammonites
angulatus and A. Bucklandi.” Since the above note was made the
bank has been worked back for the purpose of obtaining the close-
grained White Lias stone for the new buildings at the station, and
greater facilities afforded for the examination of these beds.

The cutting extends in a N.W and S.E. direction, and has
exposed the series of beds from a thin representative of the bone
bed, (about one foot below the rails,) through the superincumbent
dark shales, with intervening hard light-blue or gray marly bands,
onwards through the Cotham Marble at the base of the White Lias,
and upwards through the latter formation and the Ammonites
angulatus beds to the dark-blue clays of the Buckland: or Lima
series. The beds at the N.W. end of the cutting are nearly
horizontal, and rest conformably one on the other, but the red beds
of the Keuper marls are brought up by a fault at this end, anda
series of small dislocations which affect the whole section from the
Lower Lias on the top to the Rhetic clays below, bringing
down the beds by a series of steps, continue throughout to the
§8.E., where they obtain their maximum development in a consider-
able fault, which causes the White Lias to rapidly disappear below
the level of the metals. On the N.W., side of this fault the top bed
(the “Sun bed” of William Smith) dips at an angle of from 5° to
8°, S.E., and has a downthrow of 8 feet by two vertical steps. On
the S.E. side, where it appears again in a projecting shoulder, the
dip is 20°, S.E., the vertical dislocation of the top bed at this point
being 15 feet. From the point where the top White Lias bed
is last seen dipping rapidly downwards to the point where it
appears again on the opposite side is a width of 55ft. This fault
is traceable right across the line to the opposite banks on the &.,
where, owing to the rapid slope of the hill, the beds are only partly

207

developed. Owing to the downthrow to the S.E., the blue shales of
the Lower Lias (the Zima and Bucklandi beds) are brought down
and impinge with an upward curl against the clays of the Rhetic
series on the’S.E. Their line of junction is seen by the usual
appearance of water percolating down through the fault, and by the
difference in the shade of colour of the clays in dry weather, the
Rheetic clays exhibiting a lighter blue shade than those of the Lower
Lias. On the opposite bank to the S., and immediately opposite the
fault, there are some features worthy of notice, and the following
section is exposed in ascending order : 5 or 6 feet of Lower Lias blue
clays, with two bands of laminated limestone ; resting immediately
on the top band succeed 18 inches of gravel and sand, the gravel
composed principally of oolite, with here and there a piece of rolled
chalk, sub-angular flints, pebbles of limestone and red siliceous grit ;
to this succeed 5 feet 4 inches of fine silt and loam streaked yellow
and brown ; and above all 6 feet of remanié from Lower Lias beds.

_ Farther up the cutting to the N., on the same side where the beds
on a level with the rails are the rubbly beds of the White Lias,
the remanié is composed of White Lias, and the beds of silt and
gravel (the latter resting ona band of White Lias), are much
reduced in thickness. As to the origin of this fault ; probably the
same agency which was in operation to the S., at Twerton, enabling
the Coal measures to be worked through the Lower Lias, and
causing the great disturbance of the beds in the neighbourhoad of

, the Mendip Hills, did not affect these beds at Newbridge Hill, as
Mr. Moore arrives at the conclusion that those disturbances arose
before the deposition of the secondary rocks, and, consequently,
before the formation of these Rhetic beds. We must, therefore, look
for the origin of this comparatively small disturbance in those
numerous sinkings and upheavals of the land which are constantly
going on in a more or less extensive scale, and are traceable
throughout our neighbouring hills.

The peculiar interest attaching to this section consists in the great
development of the White Lias, intervening between the gray
Riuetic clays at the base and the reddish-brown beds of the Lower
Lias above, the line of demarcation being distinctly seen, even from
the train, by any one passing through the cutting. Another

D

208

feature to be noticed, too, consists in the occurrence of repre-
sentatives of the Ostrea and Angulatus beds, which are mostly
wanting in this immediate neighbourhood, between the White Lias
and the blue beds of the Zima and Buckland: series ; the latter
generally resting unconformably upon the White Lias. With this
general statement of the facies of the section I will now proceed to
give in detail a measurement of the various beds, prefacing this
with the remark that I have not contented myself with one single
measurement only, but have repeatedly gone over the beds, line in.
hand, and have thus checked one measurement by another (vide
section ).

Commencing with the basement beds at the N.W. end of the
cutting ; soon after the bank had been cut down to its present level,
the red marls of the Keuper were just visible at the corner of the
steep embankment abutting against the blue shales. Lately,
however, they have been concealed by the talus and rapid growth
of vegetation, and can now only be traced by a few scattered
fragments here and there. At this point, too, can only be seen
(owing to the dip of the beds in a S.E. direction) the thin repre-
sentative of the fish bed (No. 1.) which consists of a slightly pyritous
dark blue limestone, assuming a rhomboidal form, and lying about
one foot below the level of the present rails. Pecten valoniensis, fish
scales, vertebre, and other bones occur in it. The rhomboidal slabs
are stained red around their edges, to the extent of about half-
an-inch, with peroxide of iron.

To the fish bed succeed the light blue shales and clays under-
lying the Cotham marble, divided in the centre by a remarkable
band of gray marlstone (No. 3.) about 8 inches in thickness. In
some places the top surface of this band has the appearance of ripple
marks, in others it consists of a coarsely arenaceous film, passing
almost into a fine conglomerate, with quartz pebbles about the size
of a small pea. On breaking it up, portions near the centre are
crystalline, similar in texture and pinkish colour to some of the
White Lias beds above ; from this crystalline state it becomes
marly towards the base. In the top arenaceous film, and here and
there in the crystalline portion, I found fragments of fish scales,
teeth of Sauricthys acuminatus, and a portion of a small jaw, which

SECTION FROM Bone BED
IN ASCENDING ORDER
NEWBRIDGE HILL.

ae State einen 70 a Foor.

40. Barth and rubble,

89. 8 or 9 irregular beds of Limestone, nodular, with Clay partings,

38 Limestone ; Lima gigantea on base.

87. Ditto, 4 beds, with partings of Blue Clay.

36. Ditto, with weathered Gasteropoda on joints.
35. Ditto, with weathered 4m, angulatus on ditto,
84 Ditto. *

33 to 21. 11 beds of Limestone, with ferruginous partings of arenaceous Marl and
Clay. Trochus angulatus, Astarte, Myacites, &c. Bottom bed (21) dense and
siliceous, fossils in casts with crystals of carbonate of lime adhering.

20. Arenaceous Shale. Ostrea liassica, Fish scales, &c.

19. White Lias (“‘ sun bed”),

ies with band of Yellow Clay on top, and filmy parting of Yellow Clay in
cen

© 9 99000 D0 0 8S Cf eo oO C0oeo

17. Ditto, solid.

1s, | Ditto, with bands of Yellow Clay.

oO
oO
0
i?)

14. Ditto, solid.

a

:

12 Ditto, between two bands of Yellow Clay.

12. Ditto, three beds parted by films of Yellow Clay.

1L. Ditto, thin band with Clay on top.
10. Ditto, three beds parted by Yellow Clay.

~~

9. A series of rubbly pete occasionally solid, with ate down-

wards into bluish ead fossiliferons towards base s Bray faery aioe

Poda, =cagg' Peeten, Pli intusstriata, Modicla, Myerite Azinus, Cardium
C.

. Blue Clay.
7. Tight pray marly Stone ; close ined, siliceous at base. Cardium
rhatticum, Modiola, tyacitet, Tielemans, Avicula, $e. panes
a iS : Reddish brown lay, passing into blue at base. dvicula fallaz, Modiola,
1 scales,

5. Landscape Stone, cream-coloured and blue. vicula fallaz,

4. Light blue or gra: ibe ihn = shaded band
centre, with Estheria mes. and traces of vegetable ma iter, ve pee

8. Gra: A ecrperel arenaceous film on to) in marly
me oligo Ee places, at base.

2 Gray Shales with Bone Bed at base.

at)

ser

. 209

at first appeared to belong to an insectivorous mammal, but which
Mr. Moore determines to be that of a fish hitherto undescribed. In
a band of shale about midway between this and the Cotham marble
above, and which is of a somewhat darker hue than the surrounding
shales, the Lstheria minuta first appears in nests, mixed up with
traces of vegetable matter ; fish scales are scattered about in the
shales below, and, notwithstanding the extremely fragile nature of
the matrix, I was successful in securing a good specimen of the tail
of a fish, probably Lepidotus. The surface of the lamin are in
some places covered with Cyprides, thus showing the quiet nature
of the waters in which these Hntomostraca lived.

No. 5 is a band of “‘Cotham marble” or “landscape stone,” creamy
white in some places, in others blue, about 7 inches thick, which is
very well developed here. Nowhere can finer specimens of this
stone, with its peculiar manganese markings, be found. Though
persistent throughout the section, yet the bed is not continuous,
but, whilst maintaining the same horizon, is here and there in
detached blocks with their inter-spaces filled up with clay, thus
establishing its concretionary character. Singularly unfossiliferous,
as a rule, it has yielded to me nothing but one single specimen of |
Avicula decussata. Filling up the concretionary surface of this
latter comes a remarkable band of clay (No. 6.), blue at the base
and reddish-brown towards the top, about 6 inches thick, crowded
with fossils and fish scales ; the Avicula decussata (now called
fallax) is the most abundant, and the nacre of the fragile shell is
well preserved. Modtola (minima) ranges throughout, being more
abundant towards the top which underlies the next bed, No. 7, a
bed of light-blue, dense, marly stone on the top, becoming close-
grained and siliceous at the base, and about 7 inches thick. The
weathered sections of fossils in the joints of the siliceous portion
indicate the crowded state of the organisms within. Conchifera
abound, .Gasteropoda become more abundant, and most of the
characteristic Rhetic fossils may here be found.

Separated from this by a band of blue clay come the lowermost
beds of the White lias, 5 feet thick, much broken up and rubbly,
with an occasionally solid bed intervening. The lower beds are very
fossiliferous, containing Lima precursor and Modiola minima in

210

abundance. In fact from the numbers of this Conchifera they may
well be called the Lima precursor beds. As these beds graduate
upwards into the more solid beds of the true White Lias, life
becomes less abundant, and, with the exception of a much weathered
coral or two (Montlivaltia) and a solitary cast of a shell, probably
Lima inversa, Terg., which occurred in one of the top beds at the
N.W. end of the cutting, no single trace of an organism has been
found. There is nothing particularly remarkable in these seven or
eight cream coloured solid beds, 6 feet in thickness, with their
filmy partings of yellow clay, except their great development in this
section,which renders it, perhaps, the typical section of the W. for
the junction of the White and Lower Lias. Immediately overlying
the “Sun bed” of William Smith (No. 19) occurs a thin band of
yellowish-brown arenaceous shale (No. 20). As this band invariably
lies on the top of the White Lias throughout the section I have
made it the datum line whence to make my measurements. It
varies but little in thickness (2 inches), and contains Ostrea liassica,
Modiola, and fish scales, and is the first representative of the Ostrea
beds of the Lower Lias at Garden Cliff and elsewhere. This
arenaceous band shows that a great change had taken place since
the Rhetic waters had left their calcareous deposits, represented
by the thick beds of the White Lias so destitute of organisms, and
ushers in again a period when life became more abundant until it
culminated in the richly fossiliferous zones of Molluscan and Saurian
life in the Lias above. With this band commences, then, the beds
of the succeeding Lower Lias. The Insect and Crustacean beds of
Camel, about 5 feet in thickness, are here apparently wanting, and
the Ostrea and Ammonites angulatus zones immediately succeed the
White Lias. The change from the creamy colour of the lower
beds to the reddish-brown ferruginous beds, marked 21 to 36, is
very conspicuous. Some of the limestone bands are very fos-
siliferous, and contain Ostrea liassica, Myacites, Astarte, Cardinia,
Trochus angulatus, Turritella, Ammonites angulatus, &c. The lower-
most beds are very close, compact, and somewhat siliceous, the
fossils appearing in casts with carbonate of lime crystals adhering.
These beds are divided by bands of reddish-brown arenaceous
marl, and have small weathered Ammonites and G'asteropoda on their

211

joints. The Zima series commences about the horizon of the band
numbered 38 as large Lima gigantea and Hermanni are found
projecting cn the under side of the bed, and the stone begins to
assume a more bluish colour, both externally and internally, than
the beds beneath.

At the S.E. end of the cutting, where the blue beds of the Am.
Bucklandi series are brought down by a fault, the characteristic
fossils occur; but it may be as well here to record the asso-
ciation of the Ammonites angulatus with these clays, an Ammonite
which is supposed to indicate a series of beds of a lower horizon.

No apology need be made to the Members of the Bath Field
Club for bringing these notes before them, when the veteran fathers
of the noble science of Geology, Professor Sedgwick and Sir Charles
Lyell, have deemed this section worthy of a visit ; and when the
great importance of these passage beds is considered, linking as
they do the deposits of this portion of England with the strata
which range from Norway to the South of Europe, where they
reach their maximum development.

Remarks on the Census of Somersetshire, 1861. By H. J. Hunter,
M.D. Read February 15th, 1871.

In anticipation of the coming census of 1871, the group of
facts derived from the census of 1861, which I am about to relate,
may be found interesting.

The population of the county of Somerset was in 1851,
443,916, and in 1861, 444,873, thus showing a growth of 957
persons in 10 years.

The rate of increase is, when compared with that of all England,
very much like a stand still, and when further examined it
proves to be, so far as population is an index of prosperity and
power, a retrogression, for the 957 of increase is but the balance
of an increase of 2322 females against a positive decrease of 1365
among the males. The increase throughout England was in the
decennium 1851-61, no less than 12 per cent., and in the county

212

of Somerset it was only -2, This want of progression has not on
previous censusses been exhibited in our county. In the first 60
years of this century the people of Somersetshire increased 63 per
cent., and in one decennium no less than 17 per cent.

The acreage is large; 1,047,000 acres will at the usual rate
sustain 140,000 persons of the families of farm labourers only.
Moreover there are scattered manufactures of leather and textile
fabrics supporting about 20,000 people, and their supplementary
tradesmen. The seven considerable towns, Bath, Bedminster,
Taunton, Bridgwater, Frome, Yeovil, and Weston-sur-mer contain
nearly 130,000 persons, and the coalfield may support about
20,000 more. The valuation is, through the fertility of the land,
extraordinarily high, not less than three millions and a quarter a
year,* which is twice the value of Wilts, half as much again as
Gloucestershire, and considerably more than Devon. Again the
profits of Income tax payers are far larger than are usual elsewhere.
Our county (which has few or none of large landowners), pays
income tax on 8 millions, Devon on 6, Wilts on 3, Gloucester on
4, and Dorset on 2.

Wealth seems to accumulate, but men seem to decay in all
sorts of places, alike in Bath, in the small manufacturing towns,
in the open country, and in the coal districts. It is obvious that
those who leave this county are the men who have not shared in
the increase of wealth. The £300,000 a year raised in poor ratest
is only a fleabite, but that there should be 30,000 persons anxious
to receive public alms is a very formidable fact.

I will endeavour to show in what parts the decline was found.
First, in Bath there was a decrease of 2000. In Frome of 700;
Ilminster, 50 ; Wiveliscombe, 130 ; Milverton, 250 ; Wellington,
400 ; Cannington, 130 ; Crewkerne, 290 ; The Cokers, 200 ; South
Petherton, 180; Wincanton, 40; Mells, 200; Beckington, 140 ;
Wedmore, 250. Banwell, Cheddar, Winscombe, Axbridge, Wring-
ton, Chew Magna, Paulton, Timsbury, Camerton, Clutton, Bath-
easton, Keynsham, Nailsea, and Yatton, villages of all sorts, in all
localities have begun to show a loss of people almost all over the
county. On the other hand there was growth along the coast:

* Poor-Rate Valuation, $2,610,000. + Of which two thirds go to the poor,

213

Weston increased 4000, Clevedon, 1000, and Bedminster, 3000.
At Bridgwater, Watchet, Taunton, Bruton, Yeovil, Castle Cary,
Somerton, Glastonbury, Shepton Mallet, and Radstock, there was
increase.

The growth of small towns or open villages is not always a real
increase of population, nor is it a favourable sign if the new
people are immigrants from surrounding villages. This is a
general question on which I have entered at some length elsewhere,
and which I do not now propose to touch.

A general view of the county may be gained by dividing it
into its 17 Poor Law Unions. It is then found that there was
decrease in 8, Wellington, Langport, Chard, Yeovil, Frome, Shepton
Mallet, Clutton, and Bath ; with increase in 8, Williton, Dulverton,
Taunton, Bridgwater, Wells, Wincanton, Axbridge, and Bedminster.
There remains Keynsham Union, of which the Somersetshire
parishes decreased, and the Gloucestershire increased.

The varying fortunes of the parishes cannot however be put in
the clearest light by thus grouping 30 or 40 parishes into one
Poor Law Union. Of parishes of Somersetshire 185 increased out
of a total of 513. If then the decrease of people has been
diffused over more than 300 parishes while the increase is drawn
from less than 200, we shall expect to find the increase in the
larger masses, such as Weston, Clevedon, and Bedminster, which
among them account for 8000, while (omitting the peculiar
instance of Bath), the decrease is a drain of general impoverish-
ment, trickling evenly from the great majority of the smaller
villages in all parts, except the recently reclaimed marshes.

Besides the internal migration from some parts of the county
to others, there has been a vast external emigration, and a very
small immigration. During the ten years, 140,000 births were
registered in the county against 92,000 deaths, making a balance
of natural increase of 48,000, but as the real increase was under
one thousand, it follows that 47,000 persons left the county, in
addition to and beside a number equal to that of the strangers
who come in to reside. In the ten years there was an emigration
equal to about an eighth of the people. To estimate duly the
serious import of this movement, there must be kept in mind—

214

firstly, that the bulk of the emigrants are the healthy men and
women in the spring of life, and that those who are left behind
have an increased proportion of the aged, the criminal, the decrepit,
and of families oppressed with numerous young children ; and
secondly, that those people who leave, although they perhaps
improve their own circumstances and become better customers to
the manufacturers of England in general, do not become in any
way serviceable to their native county. The emigrants have a
right to try to improve their condition, but as those who are left
behind are to maintain the worthless and the imbecile who belong
equally to all, besides their share in national and local debts, I
think the proposing emigrants are asking rather too much when
they want us to pay their passage to a foreign country out of the
district taxation of Somersetshire.

The mothers of Somersetshire never fail in their supply, and
there is no marked difference in the human fertility of the various -
districts outside this great Vestal city. The excess of births over
deaths in the decennium exceeded a tenth part of the whole popu-
lation at the starting point of 1851 in all the Unions of the county,
except Bath and Frome.

The natural increase being constant, and some counties being
able to keep their population, why cannot Somersetshire? We
must go no further here than to ask the question; to reply would
be to enter a forbidden border-land between social and political
themes. If, however, we are to escape the fate of France, where
money has largely usurped the place of men, the matter must be
taken to heart.

Of the destination beyond seas of the Somersetshire emigrants
we have no certain knowledge. Of those who do not leave England
there were no less than 36,000 in London, 1,200 in Liverpool, 700
in Manchester, and 1,600 in Yorkshire, making with about 10,000
scattered over the country, chiefly in the adjacent counties, 49,000
natives who have left the county but who remain in England.

Something must be said of immigrants. Of these the foreigners
are insignificant ; about 500 resided in the county, a large pro-
portion of whom are French and Italian sailors, the rest are chiefly
Bath residents. Of the whole 445,009 people, 361,000 were born

215

in the county. Of the balance of 84,000 not natives, the
neighbouring counties of Gloucester, Wilts, Devon, and Dorset
account for 52,000, and the bulk of the remainder come from no
great distance, the Irish being about 2000, the Scotch about 900,
and the Colonials about 1,800.

A large proportion of these comers and goers are due to Bath.
Of the 20,000 adult ladies who honour Bath with their residence,
only a half were born in the county, of the men four-sevenths,
Among the children of course a much higher proportion are
natives. School girls and female servants are largely drawn from
Wiltshire and Gloucestershire. The number of Colonials at Bath
was no less than 800, and seems to be increasing. In value and
most other particulars Bath presents about a tenth part of the
county.

I do not propose to foretell the result of the next census ; the few
remarks I have now made have been rather for the purpose .of
preparing our minds for whatever may be shown. The last census
showed a turning point in our history, the commencement of a
decay of our Somersetshire population, and I look forward to the
next with a very strong feeling of interest.

Summary of Proceedings of the Bath Natural History and Antiquarian
Field Club, for the year 1870-71.
Mr. PRESIDENT AND GENTLEMEN.

In the Annual Address, which the members of the Club always
look forward to with so much interest, you, Sir, at the last
anniversary dinner alluded to the patient and persevering labours
of that well-known naturalist, Gilbert White, and exhorted us not
to allow our energies to tire or our zeal abate until we had hunted
up every fact that might tend to illustrate the Natural History and
Antiquities of the neighbourhood. Unable to join us in the field
you must in a certain measure depend upon this summary of our
proceedings for your information as to the work which we have
done in the past year, and from it you will gather how far the
example you so constantly set before us of patient and laborious

216 ~

work in the good cause has been followed by those members of that
Club, whose interest you have so much at heart.

As usual, then, I will proceed to epitomise our proceedings in
the order of their occurrence.

First, then, as to the evening meetings ; though from a variety
of causes the attendance is not so large as might be expected from
a Club numbering 75 members; yet it is sufficiently good to
encourage the authors of papers and short communications to
respond readily to the Secretary’s application, so much so that to
the four evenings usually allotted for this purpose during the
winter and spring months another has been added, and even with
this addition we scarcely know how to compress the subjects into
the apportioned time of two hours.

The last evening meeting, of which an account was given in the
Proceedings for 1869-70, was allotted to Natural History, the next
which took place on 9th March, 1870, was set apart for Geology,
and Mr. Charles Moore and Mr. W. 8. Mitchell were to have
divided it between them ; owing, however, to the much-regretted
illness of the former, whom the President characterized as one of
the oldest and most hard-working members of the Club, his paper
on the “ Additions to the Fauna of the Great Oolite” was
postponed, it is hoped only for a short time, and Mr. Mitchell
proceeded to give rather a novel view on the “ Denudation of the
Bath District,” which was thus treated :—

The amount of work done in any district by denuding forces cannot be
rightly estimated till the physical character of the district is fully known. It
is commonly stated that the various hills of Oolite now separated by valleys
were once continuous, and that in the formation of the valleys the Oolitic
limestone, as well as the clays, had been swept away. The following con-
siderations have led the author to doubt the original continuity of the lime-
stones :—1, hey were deposited in shallow water disturbed by rapid and
oft changing currents. It is probable there would be channels in which
matter would not accumulate, while on shoals it might rapidly accumulate. 2.
Our Great Oolite appears to be mainly the result of disintegrated coral reefs.
What proof is there that the reefs were continuous? 3. The layers or beds
of Great Oolite all thin out towards the valleys, wherever, in this district, the
author has been able to see them, giving the idea of their being on the edges
of reefs. The author supposes that the influx of water bearing sediment
which put a stop to the coral growth filled in the valleys, and when long after-
wards denudation commenced, the ready yielding of the clays and the

217

greater resistance of the limestones gave the first direction to the form of the
valleys as we now see them, though since modified by recent meteoric
denudation. This Mr. Mitchell threw out rather for the Club to consider
than as being the conclusion arrived at after extended observations, General-
izations drawn from a limited area are liable to error, but a speculation is useful
as giving direct object for observation, and such considerations for united
observations come within the legitimate work of a field club. Should this

speculation have any real value it may seriously influence our notions of
denudation.

The President, the Revds. Preb. Scarth, J. Earle, H. H. Winwood,
and others took part in the discussion which followed, and raised
many objections to the view propounded by Mr. Mitchell. Mr.
Winwood hinted at this being rather a revolutionary idea in
Geology, and much regretted the conipulsory absence of Mr. Moore,
who he (Mr. W.) thought would agree with him in saying that
Mr. Mitchell’s theory depended upon the statement whether the
beds of Great Oolite did thin out towards the valleys, and he was
inclined to think that such was not an established fact.

The rest of the evening was spent in a discussion as to the causes of
the “headings” seen in most of our Great Oolite quarries. Whether
this breaking up of the first five or six feet of the top strata was
due to the action of field ice in former times or not—Mr. Mitchell
alluding to the question as having been mooted in one of the club-
walks—advanced the view that it was the result of water percolating
through the stone and then freezing. The nature and results of
some experiments which he had lately made on the absorbent
power of the Oolites were then communicated tothe Club. Having
obtained two blocks of stone of equal size—one foot square and one
foot six inches deep—he had them hollowed at the top to the depth
of about half an inch so as to hold water. In nine days one block
of stone had absorbed nearly three quarts of water, while the other
block obtained from a different quarry had absorbed scarcely
twoquarts. This was mentioned as being of interest to builders, but
as experiments were not instituted for the purpose of comparing
the relative value of the two stones, Mr. Mitchell explained that it
would not be fair to come to a rigid conclusion on the subject
without further tests.

The new Greenough Geological Map of England and Wales, which

218

had been lately acquired for the Institution, was used for the first
time at this meeting.

The last evening meeting, which brought the session 1869-70 to
a close, was held on 27th April, when Mr. Chas. Ekin read a paper
on “ Ozone and Ozone Tests.” Commencing with a consideration
of the composition of the atmosphere proper, he stated that the
oxygen in it, so all important to our existence, acquires under certain
circumstances a greatly increased chemical activity, and becomes
ozone, which can always be recognised by its peculiar smell.
Discovered by Schénbein in 1840 it is always produced during
the process of slow oxidation. It may be made artificially in a
variety of ways, as by the discharges in air of a common electrica]
machine, and is produced naturally during a thunderstorm, as well
as by the action of vegetation. » Its chief use in the air apparently
being the destruction of organic matter, its presence there seems to
indicate the absence of deleterious compounds, and its estimation
accordingly affords a relative test of purity. The tests, of which
there are two used by meteorologists, are pieces of paper soaked in
certain chemicals, which when exposed become more or less dis-
coloured according to the amount of ozone in the air. Explaining
the application of these tests by several eminent men, he alluded
especially to the careful series of experiments by Dr. Daubeny,
whereby he concluded that ozone is really disengaged by the green
parts of plants during their exposure to sunlight. The absence of
ozone under the shade of woods corroborates the popular notion
that it is unhealthy to live under or in the immediate neighbour-
hood of large trees. A comparison of numerous observations made
in various countries seems to show that ozone is more abundant at
the surface of the ocean and on the tops of mountains, and present
more during the N. and E. winds than during 8. and W. At Bath
Mr. Ekin found, after a careful examination of the register kept by
Mr. Russell, that no rule holds good. ‘Asa matter of fact,” he

said in conclusion,

‘¢ We find that ozone may be present in the air, that it probably is present,
though the tests by which we pretend as yet to discover it are very fallacious
and unreliable, that it certainly has the property of instantly destroying and
being destroyed by organic matter, and that consequently wherever it is
present it must have a most purifying influence ; but whether this influence

219

can be classed amongst those by which nature does its work on a large scale
is another matter, and one of which as yet we have no proof.”

The Prestpent stated the results obtained from three years’
observations in the Institution gardens, for which period alone they
had been carried on. These results tended to confirm those
obtained at the Radcliffe Observatory in Oxford, shewing that the
greatest quantity of ozone in the atmosphere occurs ‘in the three
spring months of March, April, and May, the absolute maximum
occurring in May, while the least quantity is in November. At
the same time no clear connection can be traced between
the amount of ozone in the air as usually tested, and
particular states of weather as indicated by the ordinary
meteorological instruments. He believed that Dr. Moffat’s con-
clusions were in the main correct, viz., “ that when ozone is largely
present in the air it is accompanied with diminished atmospheric
pressure, increasing temperature and humidity, and the prevalence
of S.W. or equatorial winds ; and that when in small quantities the
pressure is increasing, the temperature and humidity decreasing,
and the N.E. or polar winds prevailing.” But Mr. Jenyns said
that owing to complications arising from the many agencies always
at work influencing the atmosphere and the weather, and the
neglect of the necessary precautions in making the observations, it
was very difficult to estimate the true amount of ozone with any
exactness, so as to make manifest the particular atmospheric
conditions with which it is associated.

The Rey. J. Ears then brought before the notice of the Club
an interesting passage relating to the history of Bath. As the copy
of the Latin document in which it occurs together with the transla-
tion appears in the present number of the proceedings, it
will be sufficient to allude here merely to the circumstances
attending its discovery. During the meeting of the Somerset. Arch.
Soe. at Axbridge last summer, Mr. Earle obtained permission from
the Mayor to look over the parchments belonging to the Corpora-
tion. Among them he found this document, which was the oldest
of all the documents of Axbridge, and was labelled as a document
of Henry I. It was a beautiful document, and a perfect piece of
writing of Henry IT. (as he saw at a glance), though, as was usual

220

in those times, the king was mentioned as Henry without the
numeral. But that it was of the time of Henry II. there was no
doubt, because in it was mentioned that famous Bishop Jocelin
of Bath, who removed the seat of the bishopric from Bath to
Wells, which event took place in the 13th century in the reign of
Henry II. The document, he hoped, would be thought of sufficient
importance in regard to the history and development of commerce
to be printed in the Proceedings of the Club, as it would be a
valuable addition to the history of Bath. One of the greatest
hindrances to commerce was the great number of small tolls which
every lord took the opportunity of levying on all persons who
travelled, especially those who travelled on any profitable journeys
throughout their dominions. We are to understand from such a
document as this that four powerful corporations—Bath and Wells,
Glastonbury, and the Bishop (who of course is a corporation)
—united in order to implore from the king the grant of freedom
from toll for their own men, homines proprii, wherever they had
to cross the royal property. It was usual in those days for people
to pay toll if they went but ever so short a distance along a road
belonging to a new lord, and as there was a vast number of suzerains
throughout the country, there was a vast number of tolls to pay.
We find a law made in order to relieve the merchant that it should
not be obligatory upon a traveller to go out of his way to go over
a lord’s bridge in order to pay the toll—that he should be free if
he could but get over the river without crossing the bridge,
revealing to us the fact that there was an exceeding jealousy about
the right to the payment of these demands, and that people were
supposed to be obliged to follow the road. Hallam, in his third
volume of the Middle Ages, particularly mentions this practice as
having not only retarded the development of communication with
foreign countries, but also made it difficult to exchange the pro-
ducts of one part of our own country for the products of another
part, and equalize the distribution of means of life. It was very
generally known that the religious houses were the precursors of
commerce, industry, and manufacture, and that the monks of Bath
were among the precursors in the West of the manufacture of the
long-famous and still famous fabric of west country cloth. He

221

supposed that the cloth-mills at Twerton dated from the earliest
medizeval times, were in fact the successors of the mills of the
monks, and that this privilege of exemption from toll was obtained
from the king with the view of sending their cloth about for sale
in different parts of the country, without the exaction of vexatious
imposts. It was curious that a document of this sort should be
found at Axbridge. He did not know what particular cause might
be supposed to have landed the document there, but it was very
plain to any one looking at Axbridge and at its church that the
town owed its existence to the wool trade, which culminated
towards the end of the 15th century ; that was indicated by the
architecture of the church, and by the wealthy merchants whose
tombs were found there, as well as by the cessation of the growth
of the place since. After this period, from a change of circum-
stances, especially from the great impulse given to the manufacture
of cloth at home, the wool-stapling trade declined, and the manu-
facturing trade began, after the 15th century, to rise in importance.
He did not know whether it would have been to the interest of the
Corporation of Axbridge to secure a copy of this charter simply to
obtain the means of proving their right to carry their goods hither
and thither without paying a toll. At any rate it was an interesting
little passage added to the history of Bath.

The CuHarrman, on behalf of the Club, thanked Mr, Earle for
bringing the charter before them, remarking that it was of great
interest in the early history of Bath.

The Rev. H. H. Winwoop briefly directed the attention of
Members to a remarkable Section of the Rhetic beds in the
Newbridge Hill cutting of the Bath and Mangotsfield branch of
the Midland Railway, stating that he had lately been at work upon
this Section, and that it should form the subject of a short com-
munication at some future time if the Club thought fit.

The exhibition of a specimen of the Limnea peregra by the
President next followed. This fresh water shell obtained by Dr,

Bird in the neighbourhood of Bath had the peculiarity of being
what is called a sinistral shell, the normal turn of the whorl being
in that species, as in by far the greater number of shells, dextral.

A vote of thanks proposed by Mr. Rodwell to the President for

222

the pains he had taken to fulfil the objects of the Club, closed the
Session.

The Winter Session of 1870-71 commenced on December 7th,
and was held as usual in the Literary and Scientific Institution.
The Rey. Prebendary Scarth having taken the chair,

The Present (the Rey. L. Jenyns), read a paper on “ S¢.
Swithin and other Weather Saints” (vide page 116, supra).

At the conclusion of the paper, the reading of which occupied
about an hour and a quarter,

The Cuarrman, after thanking Mr. Jenyns on behalf of the
meeting for his address, said he had somewhere seen this saying
in reference to the weather, “‘ Quarta, quinta qualis, tota luna talis,”
which might be translated to the effect that the weather of the
month would take its character from that of the 4th and 5th days.
There was, he said, something in the mind of man which connected
the changes of weather with certain occurrences or the names of
certain persons. Among the rustic population he thought there
would always be found a strong tendency to connect certain states
of the weather with certain peculiar names, and this had been so
from the earliest times. ;

The Rev. J. Harte said that the quotation the Chairman had
brought forward appeared to be of great interest, but it did not
seem to bear any scientific value, except so far as they had been
taught by Mr. Jenyns that there were successive characters in the
month, so that he supposed the weather at the opening of the
month, on the 4th and 5th, would pronounce the character of the
weather during the remainder. He remembered an early chronicle
in which some phenomenon that caused alarm was mentioned, where
it was particularly stated that it was on quarta /wna, and he thought
this might quite possibly have some reference to what had been
quoted by Mr. Scarth. Still he was inclined to think that in many
other things mere literary sound had influenced the form in
which the saying had cast itself. There was a certain alliteration
in the words quarta, quinta qualis, tota luna talis. But speaking ©
now in reference to the paper, it was particularly interesting to
him, though he was no man of science, to see a scientific man
entering a field which had been actually contemned by men of

223

science, who had conceived that their work lay in the objective and
material world and not in that looking-glass of the world, the mind
of man. He could conceive no more interesting field for investiga-
tion than the earlier mind of man, when he had no regular means
of coming at the truth by a systematic making of parallels to get
at it, he had to make a series of guesses, and in these guesses
there seemed to have been a kind of struggle for existence. Those
which approved themselves for the time to the bulk of mankind
had lived to the present time. Therein seemed to him to be very
great interest. He certainly was not prepared to find that evening
that so great an analogy was to be established between what was
said in those times, and what the latest scientific investigations had
laid down, and this appeared to promise more results in future.
The scientific movement had despised the earliest action of the
human mind. Livy had been despised, and Herodotus, and the
Old Testament had been spoken of as a collection of old wives’
fables. But now Herodotus had been reinstated by the Syrian
discoveries, and the Old Testament year by year was being con-
firmed by some newly discovered fact, the Moabite stone for
example. .

The Cuarrman referred to the weather during the Bath races,
which was certain to be wet or cold, and the races were held about
the time at which the “icy Saints’ days” fell, the 11th, 12th, and
13th of May. This he thought a remarkable coincidence. He
also referred to what was known among sportsmen as “ Woodcock
Sunday,” a name given to the Sunday on which the lesson referring
to Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego was read, the reading of
which was taken by sportsmen as an indication of the coming of~
woodcock shooting. He did not know the origin of the name.

The second evening meeting was on the 18th of January, when
Mr. Broome continued the subject of Mycology, which he com-
menced last year under the title of “‘ Fungi found in the neighbour-
hood of Bath.” This time he selected the Gasteromycetes ; fungi
distinguished by a fructifying surface contained in closed cells,
producing naked spores seated on sporophores, in contradistinction
to those whose hymenium is exposed to the air as in the Agarics.
For the details of this elaborate paper (vide page 188).

E

224

The PRESIDENT, in tendering a vote of thanks to Mr. Broome,
alluded to the drawings which Mr. Broome had been at infinite
pains in preparing especially for the Club, and said that the fungi
were a very obscure and curious tribe, and the study of them was,
perhaps, very little attended to. It was Mr. Broome’s own peculiar
subject, and perhaps not more than one or two botanists in this
country had done as much in it as he had; certainly he was the
only one who had attended to it in this neighbourhood.

A paper by Dr. Bird on “ Ancient Vitreous and Calcareous Forts,”
of which the following is an abstract, closed the evening.

Caleareous forts are not uncommon in Gloucestershire and Somersetshire,
The one situated on Leckhampton Hill, near Cheltenham, occupies about four
or five acres, and is of an irregular horse-shoe shape. The bank, extending
from the ridge of the rocks on each side about 80 yards to the two entrances,
contains no burned stones; but from the entrances the bank, extending
E, 8. and W., is formed of burned stones and lime, and also partially burned
stones. There is no ditch or fosse around it, and the burned stones are not
covered with earth ; the Roman camp is placed close to the E. side of it, with
its vallum, foss6, and pretorium.

On Crickley Hill, near Cheltenham, a camp containing several acres extends
across a projecting angle of that hill from N.E. toS.W. A vallum and fosse
exist, and the burned stones and lime are in the centre of the vallum. The
earth from the fosse seems as if it had been thrown over the burned stones to
raise the vallum. In the centre of the triangular camp a pretorium exists,
but there are no burned stones or lime in it; this camp commanded a valley
running from higher ground to the Severn valley below.

The camp on Solsbury Hill, near Bath, containing thirty to forty acres of
land, has a bank around it formed of burned and unburned stones varying in
proportion to each other in different places and parts. It has two entrances,
one on the §.E. and the other on the 8. W.; there is no fosse around it except
in asmall part on the south side, where the banks on each side of the fosse are
formed of partially burned and unburned stones. No vallum appears to have
been raised over the bank or any artificial fosse, nor is there a pretorium in
its centre.

The camp on the N. side of the Avon, Clifton, where the Suspension Bridge
crosses the river, is formed by a curved bank extending from W. to E., cutting
off a triangular portion of that hill containing several acres, a deep valley
being on the E. and §, side of this camp. On the E. end there is a broad and
high vallum, the centre containing burned lime and charcoal; the earth and
stones appear to have been acted on by fire. Outside this vallum there isa
deep fosse with another smaller vallum and fosse. At the W. end there is
only a bank without any fosse, and the lime and burned stones are not
covered ; the lime, i some places, is intimately mixed with charcoal.

225

Tf the walls of these camps had been made of layers alternately of wood +
and stone with long transverse pieces projecting inwards, and the entrances
protected and filled up with felled trees, when set on fire, on the parts most
exposed to currents of air and wind, the oolite stone would be reddened and
partially converted into lime; the mountain limestone would be more readily
burned into lime, but in some places only reddened. Cesar states that the
Gauls built their town walls with alternate layers of wood and stones, strong
transverse trunks of trees extending inwards, and bound together, forming a
barrier to resist the strokes of the battering ram; and beneath the transverse
pieces cells and cots may have been formed for sleeping places and to protect
the inmates from the inclemency of the seasons in such exposed situations.
Several of these camps would contain many thousand persons. The enemy,
when it suited their purpose, may have occupied some of these camps as soon
as they were taken, and strengthened them by throwing up a vallum over
the burned banks and making a deep fosse, as the one on Crickley Hill and
the camp near Clifton Suspension Bridge.

The vitreous camp in Scotland, near Connor Ferry (ancient Berigonium),
seems to have been constructed upon the same plan as the calcareous camps
in Gloucester and Somersetshire with layers of stone and wood. The stones
being trap or igneous rock when fired would on the exposed parts become
vitrified, pumiced, and partially melted, while on the parts sheltered by the
high ground of the King’s Hill they would be only reddened or slightly
affected by the fire, which is the case in that camp.

These camps being situated not far from the long barrows and round stone
burial places of the long-headed Celtic race, we may perhaps be justified in
concluding that that race may have been the builders of these camps, as well
as of the Cromlechs and rough stone circles. The work found in those burial
places, and the labour that must have been bestowed upon them, would prove
that they were quite equal to erect such camp residences.

The earth-work camps with single vallum and fosse or the double vallum
and fosse, which are generally of a square form, some containing many acres,
were constructed by the Romans for Roman villas; pottery and coins are
usually found near such camps, as well as the remains of domesticated animals,
and heaps of oyster and mussel shells, &c., &c.

Cesar, in his second book, states that his legions came upon a fortified
eamp, which they were compelled to take with a testudo, and which he
supposed had been made by the British in their civil wars as a place of refuge.

The smooth and cut stone circles of Stonehenge and other such structures, |
where bronze celts are found, may have been erected three centuries before
the Christian era by the Belge, ashort-headedrace. Dr. Thurnam, of Devizes,
entertains that opinion, and it is fairly argued out in his paper on Stonehenge.

The Romans appear to have been the first people to use mortar, construct
substantial buildings, introduce letters and domestic animals, No properly
turned arch has been discovered in any works before the Roman period.

226

- At the conclusion of Dr. Bird’s paper, the Rev. H. M. Scarth
made some further observations upon ancient Vitrified Forts.
Alluding in the first place to the camp on Leigh Down, near
Bristol, called Borough Walls, the inner rampart of which was very
similar in its construction to the Vitrified Forts of Scotland (an
account being given of it in the number of the proceedings of the
Somersetshire Arch. and Nat. His. Soc. for 1868-9), he quoted from
a description of the Vitrified Forts in Scotland given as early as
A.D. 1777, by Mr. John Williams, Mining Engineer. The walls
were considered by him to be formed by the action of fire applied
to the material of which they were made, and this Mr. Scarth
thought no one could doubt who had examined this construction
carefully. Some years ago, when travelling in Scotland, he had
paid some attention to this branch of Archeology.

When the site was selected, which was usually a small hill with
a level area on the top, two parallel banks of earth were thrown
up in the direction of the rampart. This groove was filled with
fuel, and on this was placed a quantity of granite or other stone to
be vitrified. The mass was then set on fire, and more matter and
more fuel were added, till the rampart reached its proper height.
It was then covered over with loose stones and earth. The mass
of vitrified matter is often covered to a considerable depth. The
vitrified portion is generally from 10 to 14 feet high, and the width
at the base about 30 feet. :

The Vitrified Forts in Scotland occur for the most part N. of
the Forth. Only four have been noticed in Ireland. Vitrified Forts
have been found in Bohemia, and have been described by Dr.
Jul. Ernest Fodish, and his account translated by Dr. Ferdinand
Keller. In Scotland there are many different kinds of stone which
can be melted or fused by fire, viz., whinstone, granite (much of
which is found in Vitrified Forts in Scotland), sandstone, and
pudding stone, or conglomerate. Vitrified Forts have been found
in France, in Brittany, also in Saxony.

Antiquaries regard them as belonging to the same period as the
Cromlechs and other megalithic structures, and articles of bronze
have been found within their enclosures. They have therefore been
assigned to what is usually known as the bronze period. Two

227

very interesting papers on this subject will be found in the
proceedings of the Scottish Soc. of Antiquaries, Vol. viii., pp. 1, 145.

The third evening meeting was held on February 15th, when
the Rev. G. Buckle commenced with a paper on the limits of
Natural Selection, of which the following is an abstract :—

Tue Limits or Naturat SELecrion,

The theory of the origin of species by Natural Selection has, perhaps, lost
something of its just authority by claiming too much. It is impossible to
deny that Natural Selection is a powerful agency in the world, or that it has
had a considerable share in producing the infinite variety of the animal and
vegetable kingdoms. But Mr. Darwin seems to claim for it not only a large
share, but the whole, and to regard it as sufficient by itself to develope all the
species of animals and plants out of one or a very few primal germs of life,
This claim has seemed to many so monstrous as to discredit the whole theory,
and it is, therefore, satisfactory to find that a very distinguished naturalist,
second only to Mr. Darwin himself in the zeal and ability with which
he upholds the general theory, does nevertheless reject these sweeping
pretensions. Mr. Wallace has written a paper on the Limits of Natural
Selection, in which he maintains that Natural Selection, powerful as it
is to do much, cannot do everything. And one thing which in his
judgment it cannot do is well deserving of attention. It cannot develope man
out of the lower animals. His argument on this topic divides itself into three
stages. I. Natural Selection can only select those variations which are
beneficial to the possessor ; a variation which is injurious would perish at once
and not be preserved. But it is difficult to imagine how the smooth skin of
man could possibly be otherwise than very disadvantageous to its first
possessor. An anthropoid ape, destitute of his shaggy skin, would be much
more likely to perish before his fellows than to outlast them and perpetuate his
peculiarity. II. Natural Selection can only favour a variation just so far ag
it is actually used. It can develope no organ in advance of itsneeds. But this
is just what seems to be done in the case of.the brain of man. The brain of
the lowest savage is enormously larger than the brain of the highest ape,
though the mental needs and mental uses of the Bushman or Tasmanian are
very little beyond those of the ape. The average cerebral capacities of anthro-
poid apes, savages and civilized men, may be represented, according to Mr,
Wallace, by the figures 10, 26,32. Yet the difference in mental work between
the savage and the cultivated European is vastly greater than that between
the savage and the chimpanzee. That is to say, the brain of the savage hag
not been developed to its great size by actual use. It contains power far
beyond what has been put out, and therefore cannot have been developed to
that extent by Natural Selection, which works only upon actual results.
Natural Selection might add a cubic inch or two to the brain—for this would
probably be sufficient to give the fortunate possessor a great intellectual ad-

228

vantage over its fellows—but it could not add thirty more inches, useless and
unused ; it contains no principle by which the brain could be thus doubled at
asingle leap. The same line of argument is applied to the hand, endowed
even in the sayage with a sensibility far beyond his wants; and to the voice,
which is capable, even in the savage, of delicate inflections and sweet tones
never used and wholly inappreciable by him. But these violate the canon of
Natural Selection which requires that no variation shall be perpetuated which
is not immediately and actually useful. The higher mental faculties present
similar difficulties. The capacity for the conceptions of space, time, beauty,
morality, does not seem possible, in Mr, Wallace’s judgment, to be accounted
for by the principle of the preservation of useful variations. III. But all these
modifications of lower forms, though hurtful or useless at first, become in the
highest degree useful at a much later period. The naked skin necessitates
clothing, the large brain supplies the inventive faculty required for this and
other advances, the delicacies of hand and voice minister in a thousand ways
to the later development of the human species. This indicates an action
precisely the reverse of Natural Selection, which simply works upwards, step
by step, from the past. It indicates the action of a mind, foreseei he
future, and preparing for it. It suggests the idea of a being framed before-
hand to fulfil a preconceived purpose. It is analogous, in Mr. Wallace's own
words, to the case in which “ we see the breeder set himself to work with the
determination to produce a definite improvement in some cultivated plant or
domestic animal,’ Such briefly is Mr. Wallace’s argument. If he is right,
it follows that while Natural Sclection is to be admitted as a very powerful
agent, exercising a universal influence over the kingdom of life, it must never-
theless be regarded as subordinated to a Higher Power which uses this agent
itself for purposes of its own; and that this Higher Power must be conceived
by us under the notion, not of law, but of personal will. That is an impor-
tant conclusion which will affect largely our whole view of creation, and.
which may tend to replace on a new and firmer basis the much vilified science
of natural theology: Mr. Wallace’s views may be read in his own words in
a volume of essays entitled “‘ Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection,”
’ published by Macmillan and Co.

The PreEsIDENT, in returning a vote of thanks to Mr. Buckle for
his paper, said that the subject to which it related derived an ad-
vantage from being taken up by those who are not professed
naturalists. Myr. Jenyns then alluded to the oppositions to Mr.
Darwin, who had been much written against, and much spoken
against. His views, however, were greatly misunderstood by many.
There were two distinct theories enunciated by him, or if con-
sidered as one, it was divisible into two distinct portions, one of
which might be true without the other. The first was that of the

229

gradual evolution of all forms of animal and vegetable life from a
few original germs, which theory was coming more and more into
generalacceptance. The second wasthe theory of Natural Selection,
by which it was attempted to account for such evolution ; andagainst
this, though widely embraced at first, a strong reaction had set in
of late. It explained much, but it was quite inadequate to explain
everything. There was a large number of facts upon which it threw
no light. Thus it was unable to initiate variation ; it only availed
itself of slight variations which already existed, and which if in any
way serviceable to the possessor it seized uponand further developed.
How variation originates in the first instance Darwin himself allows
that we are profoundly ignorant. Mr. Jenyns thought that we
could not go beyond the fact that no two living individuals were
exactly the same in themselves or in their surroundings, and in all
Cc in which there were two parents, the progeny would be more
one different from either,—-leading in many cases to a still greater
divergency of character as other generations succeeded. Natural
Selection, secondly, did not sufficiently explain cases of mimicry ;
many remarkable instances of this mimicry had been observed by
Messrs. Wallace and Bates, in which insects of one family per-
sonated those of another for the sake of greater security against
their enemies, and which possibly might have been brought about
by this agency, but it would not serve to explain such cases as the
mimicking of insects by plants, that of the fly and bee-orchis for
instance, where one might suppose that the strong resemblance to
such insects was for the purpose of attracting them to the flowers,
their agency being necessary for the fertilisation of the pollen;
whereas, so far from this being the case, the bee-orchis isone of the
few species of orchids “ specially modified to effect self-fertilisation,”
and Mr. Darwin tells us he has “never seen an insect visit these
flowers.” Thirdly, there was great difficulty in explaining by
Natural Selection alone the extreme discrepancy in form and struc-
ture between the sexes in the case of many of the lower animals ;
the Psychide among Lepidopterous insects were instanced, the
Stylopide among Hymenoptera ; also among the Cephalopodous
mollusca, the extraordinary case of the Argonaut was alluded to, in
which the modified arms of the male, acting as the male organ,

230

becomes detached, and is capable of a brief independent existence,
with power of locomotion, having been formerly supposed to be a
parasite, and described as such under the name of Hectocotylus.
Fourthly, there was the case of man, which perhaps presented the
greatest difficulty of all in the way of the Natural Selection theory,
which Mr. Buckle had dwelt upon in his paper, and which could
not be got over in the present state of our knowledge, without
assuming some controlling intelligence to which all other influences
must be subordinated.

The Rev. H. H. Winwoop then followed with some ‘‘ Notes on the
Rheetic Section, Newbridge Hill,” illustrated by photographs, and
specimens of the fossils he had collected from these beds. The
notes are printed in full in the present No. of Proceedings (p. 204) ;
as also are the valuable Remarks on the Somersetshire Census of
1861, by Dr. Hunter (p. 211), with which the evening was concluded.

EXcuRSIONS. bt

Coming now to perhaps the more popular part of the Club’s
proceedings, the four excursions have all been carried out with the
exception of that fixed for Lymington, which was changed at
one of the quarterly meetings for an excursion nearer home. The
first took place on May 3rd, to Evesham Abbey and Gloucester
Cathedral. Leaving Bath by an early train from the Midland
Station, the members to the number of thirteen, with two visitors,
reached Evesham about 10 am, after a pleasant run through a
country abounding in orchards in full blossom.

Evesham has much historical interest attached to it, as well as
some interesting antiquarian remains, and has, therefore, been
visited in past years by the Archeological Institute of Great
Britain and Ireland, as well as by the Cotteswold Field Club, and
particular notice taken of its remains ; its history has also been
written by more than one author, and the pages of the Archeologia
contain accounts of reliques which have been discovered in the
cemetery of the Abbey, and also of ancient seals which belonged to
it. (See Archeologia, vol. xvii., 278; xix., 66 ; xx., 566; and the
History of Evesham by Tindale, also by May, 1845; see also
Nash’s History of Worcestershire, vol. i, p. 396, and Dingley’s
History from Marble, vol. ii., p. cclxxiii., published by the Camden

231

Society, 1868.) The ancient abbey precincts contain two churches ;
one dedicated to St. Lawrence, and the other to All Saints. These
churches are in themselves worth examination, but the principal
object for remark is the entrance to the cemetery, a beautiful
perpendicular tower built by Abbot Lichfield, and serving the
threefold purpose of an entrance, a campanile, and probably a
lichgate ; a similar arrangement may be seen at Bury St.
Edmunds, and at West Walton, Norfolk. It originally contained
a peal of six bells, one of which, the tenor, had around it the legend—
AKternis annis resonet Campana Johannis,

but these are now recast and converted into a peal of eight bells,
rung only upon particular occasions. The situation of this tower
is immediately above the river, Shakspere’s soft flowing Avon,
which bends round the town in the form of a horse-shoe, and a
very striking view of it is obtained from the hotel on the opposite
side of the river, where the party lunched. Within the Abbey
precinct is a handsomely sculptured gateway, but the sculptures
are defaced. Beyond the orchard and towards the town are the
few remains of the conventual buildings which still exist. These
consist of a small remnant of the cloister, and in one of the passages
out of it is a curious stone lantern, which seems to have lighted the
way to a vault or cellar on one side of the passage. Through the
kindness of the occupier of these premises, to whom the party were
introduced by the Vicar, they were allowed to examine these
remains at leisure, and a sketch of the lantern was made.

All Saints’ Church is the largest and finest of the two that stood
near the Abbey. This contains the chapel built by Clement
Lichfield (first Prior and afterwards Abbot), in which he was
buried 1546, and his burial is recorded in the parish register, which
is still preserved. The ancient seats remain in this church, only
additions of modern carpentry have been made, the paneling
overlaid, and the backs raised ; all this might easily be removed
when the church is restored, which is said to be in contemplation.
There are many remains of ancient sepulchral slabs, but nearly all
of them have been rifled of their brasses. Dingley gives an
etching of the tower of Abbot Lichfield, and also of St. Lawrence’s
Church. Not far from this church is the vicarage house, where

. he

232

some old tapestry has just been discovered. In the wall of the
Abbey orchard is an ancient chimney, of the same character as
those in the Vicars’ Close at Wells. Among the remains of the
monastery is an ancient fire-place of considerable magnitude,
which may have belonged to the Abbot’s kitchen.

After visiting the precincts of the Abbey the Club were kindly
conducted through the town, which abounds in examples of old
timbered houses, all of which, if free from the modern yellow wash,
plaster, and rough-cast, and the timber work brought into daylight,
would be very picturesque. About a mile to the west of the town
is the site of the battle of Evesham, and the ridge upon which
Simon de Montfort drew up his forces to await the attack of Prince
Edward and the Duke of Gloucester; and within the grounds of
Mr. Rudge is the obelisk, placed upon the spot where Montfort was
slain together with his son. On one panel of the base is ons
the account of the battle, and the number of those that fell ; on
the opposite panel a quotation from Drayton’s Polyolbion, giving
the names of the families of distinction, the heads or chief members
of which fell in the fight. In the grounds are a variety of remains
from the old Abbey Church, which are there carefully preserved ;
some of the columns have been reproduced from their fragments,
and one window preserved, and the inscription,

ORATE PRO ANIMA CLEMENTIS ABBAT, ;
over a monument, which corresponds to that set up over the porch
of the Free School in the town of Evesham, and which seems to
have been taken from the tomb of Abbot Lichfield.

The party having inspected the site of the battle, and followed
the road down to the river side, where the chief slaughter took
place after the rout of Montfort’s army, returned to the inn to
lunch, after which a short paper was read by the Rev. Preb. Scarth
containing an account of the battle, collected from the Chronicle of
William de Rishanger, edited by Mr. Halliwell, 1840, for the
Camden Society.

The party afterwards returned by rail to Gloucester, where they
spent nearly three hours in visiting the Cathedral and attended
evening service. The choir is now under repair, and also the south
porch, but the other portions were examined with much care, ample

a

SO Ee

233

notes having been furnished for the guidance of the party by Mr.
Niblett, who was unhappily prevented by indisposition from attend-
ing and taking part in the excursion. At Evesham the party were
greatly indebted to the kind attention of the Vicar, Mr. Wood.
The following are a few notes by Mr. Scarth on Gloucester

Cathedral :—

The general aspect of Gloucester Cathedral is Norman, but altered and
repaired ; the perpendicular work is cemented against the Norman wall. The
transept and the choir are very fine, and there is a fine erypt below the choir.
Abbot Frocester’s chronicle fixes the date of the several parts. A.D. 1058
Aldred the Saxon built the church from the foundation, temp. Edward the
Confessor; the Norman style originated in that reign. A.D. 1087 the Cathe-
dral was burnt. A.D. 1089, 2.¢., after the Norman conquest, the foundation of
the present Cathedral was laid by Robert, Bishop of Hereford, at the request
of Abbot Serlo. A.D. 1100 it was consecrated and Divine worship performed.
Between 1163 and 1180 the north west tower fell. A.D. 1222 it was rebuilt
by Helius, the sacrist, but this tower has disappeared. A.D. 1242 the vault
of the nave was completed by the Monks themselves; it is Karly English,
Abbot Thokey gave the body of Edward II. honourable burial in the church.
He came to be regarded as a martyr anda saint, and large offerings were
made at his tomb; hence riches flowed in to the abbey. Abbot Thokey con-
structed the south aisle of the nave in the decorated style; it was before Nor-
man, and it is now one of the most beautiful specimens of the decorated
period ; the windows are like that in Merton College Chapel, Oxford. Merton
College was founded 1266, and the Monks of Gloucester established a College
there for their student Monks. Merton Chapel was begun A.D, 1280; Glouces-
ter College, 1283. Abbot Thokey began the south aisle of Gloucester 1307,
and probably derived his pattern from Merton College Chapel. The aisle of St.
Andrew was constructed by Abbot Wigmore, who built it out of the offerings
made at King Hdward’s tomb. Abbot Staunton built the great vault of the
choir and the stalls of the choir on the prior’s side. Abbot Horton built the
aisle of St. Paul, A.D. 1368-73. Abbot Frocester, who built the cloister, is
the chronicler from whom the above details are taken; for the rest of the
details of the abbey we are indebted to Leland. (See also Professor Willis’s
lecture at Gloucester, 20th July, 1860. Archzxological Journal, vol. xvii.)
A.D, 1459 and 1470 the Lady Chapel was built by Abbots Hanleyand Farley.

The tomb of Edward II. was inspected, and it is to be regretted
that the beautiful canopy work by which it is protected is not
cleaned, and the marble cleared of the whitewash which has
destroyed all its sharpness and variety. When the choir is finished
we may hope that some attention will be given to this and other

_ very striking monuments.

%

234

Excursion To HIGHCLERE.

Thirteen members made an early start on Wednesday, June Ist,
from the Great Western station for Newbury, whence they pro-
ceeded in carriages to Highclere, the seat of the Karl of Carnarvon.
The principal object of this, the second excursion of the season, ,
was to visit the park and grounds so renowned for their rhododen-
drons. After fording the stream of the Kennet, which runs by the
Priory of Sandleford, and divides the counties of Berkshire and
Hants, the pretty little village of Newtown was visited. The
church has lately been rebuilt on the site of an older one, and
consists of a nave with N. aisle and chancel; it is dedicated to
St. John the Baptist and the Virgin Mary. The E. and W.
windows are by Hardman, and the rest by Clayton and Bell. On
the N. wall is a very good brass, by Hardman, erected in memory
of Lieut. Cockell. Under the guidance of the Rev. F. C. Gosling,
who joined the members at Newtown, and was of the greatest assist-
ance throughout the day, a short detour was made to Milford lake,
a sheet of water in the grounds of Highclere, embosomed in forest
trees with a fringe of rhododendrons and azaleas. Under the shelter
of umbrellas (for the rain now commenced and somewhat interfered
with the enjoyment of the day) the great beauty of the scenery
and the exquisite taste displayed in laying out this ornamental sheet
of water, were fully realized. Before entering the grounds imme-
diately surrounding the house, the new church of Highclere, now
nearly finished and soon to be consecrated, was inspected. The
information that Mr. Gilbert Scott was the architect alone saved it
from being rather severely criticized. The small rose window at
the E. end is quite insufficient to light the chancel and evidently
pushed up towards the roof to admit of an elaborate reredos
beneath ; the 17th and 18th century monuments which have been
taken down from the old church and inserted in the walls, after an
elaborate expenditure of paint and gilding—in one case the monu-
ment being divided into two parts, the figure leaning upon the
usual urn of the period being inserted in one place, and the remain-
ing portion carrying the inscription in another—were points which
provoked remarks by no means favourable to the good taste of
those in authority. Even the fact that Dr. Thomas Milles (some-

235

time chaplain to Thomas, Earl of Pembroke, Regius Professor of
Greek and Bishop of Waterford and Lismore), had died in the year
1740, might have been recorded in a way more consonant with the
style of thechurch. The following inscription is worthy of record,
and may be consolatory to the friends of the departed, should-any
exist :
H.S. E.
William Coleman, ; ‘
of Keynsham, Somerset, 1799,
a man of sound judgment,
inflexible integrity,
and,
as far as consistent
with human perfection,
an honest man,

the latter statement being very suggestive of damning a man with
faint praise. A short drive from Highclere church through the
undulating grounds of the park, brought the members in front of
the mansion. The carriages being left here permission is freely
given to the public on the open days to walk through the grounds
and admire atleisure the fine rhododendrons and cedars of Lebanon;
on the present occasion this was taken advantage of to the fullest
extent. Rejoining the carriages a drive through an avenue of
limes, and along a terrace road with fine glimpses of the country
every now and then through the openings in the trees conducted
the party to one of the lodges. An ascent was then made on foot
up Beacon-hill, to examine the very fine and perfect British camp
which crowns its summit, and consists of an outer vallum, ditch,
and inuer vallum, taking the contour of the hill, with a strongly
fortified entrance on the S.W. side. The view from this hill,
but a little under 1000 feet above the sea, is very extensive.
The Isle of Wight can be seen from it under certain conditions of
the atmosphere ; on this occasion the mists hung too heavily in that
direction. After this the members sat down to an excellent
luncheon provided by Mr. Staples, of Newbury, in the temple
which has been courteously set apart by his lordship for parties
like the present. After suitable thanks had been returned to Mr.
Gosling for his kindnessin pointing out the sights of the neighbour-
hood, and to Captain Jefferis, who had assisted in forwarding the

236

carriage and refreshment arrangements, a portion of the members
returned to Newbury, and visited the parish church, which has been
admirably restored evidently by a master’s hand. The covering
to the font is an elaborate piece of pinnacle work, and arrested the
attention on account of its unusual height.

The members who remained for the second day’s excursion
visited, before returning to Newbury, the churches of Burghclere
and Sidmonton, and report that they were very much indebted to
Dr. Palmer on Thursday, for his kindness in showing them his
private collection, and the museum, and for his guidance through-
out the day in visiting Shaw House, Grimsbury Castle and Tumuli,
and Dorrington Castle ; and they heartily wish him success in the
formation of a Newbury Natural History Society which is shortly
to commence its operations.

The record of this excursion would be imperfect without a
recognition of the valuable contribution to the pleasures of the day
by the unceasing flow of wit and humour ofa gallant Colonel of
the party, upon whom the damp weather had certainly no effect.

Excursion To May-Hiu.

The third excursion of the season was devoted to geology
especially, and took place on Tuesday, June 21st. Twelve mem-
bers and two visitors started by the 8.25 a.m. train from the
Midland Station for Longhope va Gloucester. Every facility was
afforded by the railway authorities, and Longhope station was
reached with the greatest punctuality. Mr. Davies,a well-known
Silurian geologist from Hereford, joined the members here, and the
work of the day commenced, and a very hard day’s work it was,
the most enthusiastic of fossil collectors finding his ardour some-
what abated by the melting heat which radiated from the rock
surfaces. The famous Longhope quarry, where the Ludlow beds of
the upper Silurian strata with their olive-green micaceous shales
are first seen dipping at a high angle beneath the new red marls, was
left for exploration until the return to the station. The Secretary,
who had made a previous visit to the ground, here briefly pointed
out that the members were standing on the line of a great fault,
and that the whole mass of the Old Red sandstone and Carbonifer-

237

ous series of the Forest of Dean ought to come in between the new
red marls on which they were standing, and the quarry of Upper
Ludlow close at their back. He also explained that owing to the
great dip of the beds their walk would take them in the descend-
ing order across successively the Upper Ludlow beds, the Aymestry
limestone (which appeared here to be represented by the more cal-
careous portion of the Ludlow beds), the Lower Ludlow, the
Wenlock limestone and shales to the base of the Upper Llan-
dovery rocks of which May-hill was composed. Ascending the
steep lane and reaching the top of the ridge, a fine section of Wen-
lock limestone is exposed with its associated shales, and on the
refuse heaps various characteristic fossils were collected, 7.¢., Atrypa
reticularis, Orthis elegantula, Rhynconella (borealis)? Strophomena
depressa, the pretty little cup coral, Cyathophyllwm, of which there
was great abundance, Bryozoa, &c. Leaving the limekiln on the
left hand a descent was made through a wood, and across a field in
which the Orchis conopsea was growing to the turnpike road. Here
the disadvantage of a divided headship was illustrated. The
counsels of an elder being followed a deviation was made to the left
down the hot dusty road, and the members were fairly led astray ;
however, the object of this ewcwrsus was soon evident, for after
various struggles through a dense underwood, the instincts of the
leader (who it may be here mentioned is well known for his sanitary
reforms), led him direct, upon a little enclosure, the sacred spot
wherein the keeper from time to time offers up his holocaust of
unclean vermin—a terror to evil doers. The peculiar atmosphere
which surrounded the place was even too much for the good doctor,
and a hasty detowr was made which brought the party somewhat
disturbed in temper upon the crisp short herbage of May-hill.
Under the kindly shade of the fir trees on the top (before the
glorious view, somewhat obscured by the haze, but nevertheless very
fine, had been appreciated), a rapid attack was made upon the
various edible contents of the geological baskets. And if anything
was wanting to perfection that was soon supplied by the vision of
three men winding up the hill in the distance, which proved to be
the President of the Malvern Club, (the Rev. W. S. Symonds,) and
& his friend, with a labourer carrying a jar of cider, a very thoughtful

238

and exceedingly acceptable addition of the kind President to the
agrements of the day.

After lunch Mr. Symonds, with his usual enthusiasm, and with
the confidence of one who has known and studied every inch of
the ground which he was about to describe, gave an eloquent
resumé of the geology of the district. Facing the Malvern range,
which, running north and south, stood out of the haze in an
extended serrated line, he commenced by taking for granted that
he was addressing men who knew something of the technicalities
of geology, and to whom an explanation of the terms as he pro-
ceeded was unnecessary. That fine range of hills in front of them,
he said, was the key to the whole of the geology of the district—
they were the representatives of the oldest rocks on the earth’s
surface. All had heard of the Laurentian rocks of Canada, the
most ancient sedimentary rocks in the world. The equivalents of
these rocks had been found in the Isle of Lewis, on the west coast
of Scotland, in Sutherland and Ross, and he believed they were
now looking upon old Laurentian deposits in those metamorphosed
rocks forming the Malvern range before them. Associated with
these rocks were ancient lava beds traversing them as dykes, these
being representatives of the oldest volcanic rocks in England. In
these were some evidences of the cause of that metamorphism and
disturbance so evident on all sides. On their flanks rested quart-
zites, which may be certain altered representatives of the Cambrian
rocks, and along the South Malvern were the Lower Silurian rocks
also here and there altered by the volcanic influences alluded to.
Along the Malvern flanks, hundreds of square miles in Wales, and
vast areas in Sweden are represented by, as it were in comparison,
the sharp edge of a knife. Allusion was here made to the result
of Dr. Holl’s labours in working out the geology and mineralogy
of the Malvern rocks, and Mr. Symonds proceeded to describe how
after the deposits of the Lower Silurians, and about the period of
the upper Lingula beds, there was an outburst of volcanic matter
again along the line of the Malverns, which, as in Snowdonia,
poured its ashes into the surrounding sea, In the Malvern country
the site of the Llandeilo and Caradoc formations is occupied by
trap, no Caradoc proper being found in this country. At this time

239

was formed the columnar basalts near Eastnor, the result of a
lava-outpouring into a shallow sea. After this the base of the
Upper Silurians, viz., the coarse and fine conglomerates of May-
Hill, which must then have been a sinking area, were formed from
the disintegration of the rocks of the more ancient periods, and
washings of a shallow sea. Having thus brought the thoughts of
the members to the strata on which they were standing, Mr.
Symonds described the various changes, through earthquake and
other volcanic agencies, in the height of the land which had taken
place after the Permian period, and said that he had no doubt,
were a tunnel cut through the hill, they would find the same
nucleus of Gneissic beds beneath their feet as composed the
Malvern range. The summit of May-Hill was composed of the
usual conglomerate which, so far as his experience extended,
always composed the base of the Upper and the Lower Llandovery ;
at May-Hill it was the base of the Upper Llandovery beds that
they were standing on. Some idea of the elevation of the May-
Hill sandstone might be formed from the fact that all the rocks of
the Upper Silurians of Ledbury, the old Red sandstone of
Herefordshire, and probably the Carboniferous rocks of Dean
Forest once lay above the beds beneath their feet. Crossing to the
W. side of the hill whence the Forest of Dean coal field could be
seen, Mr. Symonds stated that the great dislocation which had
_ caused the elevation of the strata on the W., and the downthrow
on the E., had taken place after the Permian period, and in
conclusion he drew, attention to the vast amount of denudation
which must have taken place, as most probably the Carboniferous
limestone had formerly extended from the South Wales coal basin
to the Clee hills in Shropshire. He also mentioned the detection,
a few weeks ago, of the Haffield or (Permian)’ breccias, on the
. eastern flanks of May-Hill, by himself and Mr. W. E. Price, of
Tibberton Court, and that Mr. Price had since then found a fossil
in one of the pebbles embedded in the breccia, which’ he was in
hopes might give them some clue as to the age of the deposits from
which the pebbles in the breccia were derived. An inspection of
the quarries on the top of the hill was now made, and a most
satisfactory confirmation of the theory that May-Hill is composed of
F

240

Llandovery rocks took place, Mr. Winwood being fortunate
enough to discover in the coarse conglomerates which crop out on
the top of the hill several fossils, which Mr. Symonds at once
identified as characteristic of the Llandovery formation, ie.
Pentamerus levis or oblongus, Orthis calligramma, Tentaculites, &c.
A rapid descent was now made, not without one of the members
however making a rather too close acquaintance with a “ quaking”
bog, which notwithstanding the drought retained its moisture ;
many fossiliferous blocks on the lower slopes were picked up, and,
re-crossing the ridge, the Longhope quarry was visited, and some
specimens of the usual Ludlow fossils collected, 7.e., Orthoceras,
Discina, Chonetes lata, Orthis, Rhynconella, &c.

The interest of the day having now terminated, the great heat of
the sun began to tell upon the inner man, and a speedy return
home with visions of refreshing claret cup in the far distance was
longed for. All, however, agreed that the excursion was by no
means the least pleasant or instructive of the many the Club had
made.

Those members who remained the night at Gloucester were very
much indebted to Mr. Lucy for his guidance on Wednesday to the
celebrated Garden Cliff section of the Rhcetic or Avicula contorta
beds. Before starting in the early morning a short walk was taken
to a gravel pit in the neighbourhood, where Mr. Lucy pointed out
an interesting section of the northern drift sand and pebbles,
capped by oolitic gravel ; several pebbles of Lickey quartz, altered
sandstone and slate, pure quartz, quartzite, coal measure sand-
stone, and trap were picked up in illustration of Mr. Lucy’s views
(recently given in an elaborate paper read before the members of
the Cotteswold Club), that they had been carried from their
distant homes across the Severn to their present place and deposited
on the top even of some of the neighbouring hills by the action of ice.
A pleasant walk from Grange Court Station through pear orchards
led to the village of Westbury, adjoining which is the famous cliff
section on the north bank of the Severn. The different beds were
pointed out by Mr. Lucy, and a good collection of characteristic
fossils made, t.e., Estheria minuta, Monotis decussata, Moditola
minima, various fish teeth and scales, &., &.

241

A pleasing sign that the schoolmaster is abroad at least in the
neighbourhood of Gloucester was evident from the following graceful
Latin line, which one of the members saw written up and noted
down at the time :

<¢ Viti sini literas Marrs !”
and that the reader might be under no mistake as to the meaning
the translation was given beneath—

“ Life without learning is death.”
Excursion TO ULEYBURY AND DURSLEY.

The fourth excursion of the season to Uleybury and Dursley
took place on Tuesday, August 2nd. Eight members only of the
Club had sufficient courage to disregard the somewhat unpromising
appearance of the morning and start by an early train for Cam.
Meeting with an intelligent Scripture reader of the place, who
was well acquainted with the history of his village church, the
members were shown all the points of interest connected with it.
These seemed chiefly to circle round the exterior, for, with the
exception of a good early English font and a neat and unob-
trusively restored interior, there was nothing particular here to
arrest the attention. The massive tower, with its grotesquely
carved heads of man and beast in the angle of the buttresses, and
its peculiarly plain and solid appearance, seemed to be the oldest
portion of the church. Signs of antiquity were not wanting, too,
in the churchyard, for the recorded ages of the tenants of the
soil were remarkable ; and in one instance it seemed good to Lord
Seagrave to erect a memorial to one “Joseph White, of this
parish, who died the 12th June, 1837, aged 103 years, to per-
petuate so remarkable an instance of longevity.” The deeds, too,
of one Benedict Perrett, who died at the beginning of the last
century, were immortalized in stone at the east end. The square
tomb, so common at. that time, had sculptured on its south face, a
curious dumpy figure dressed in a farmer's smock-frock, standing
behind a plough, a long chain apparently on the rebound after
great tension, with one of the links detached, and suspiciously
near the head of the figure, required explanation: this was at
once given. The scene, so said the guide, was intended to re-

242

present the desecration of the Sabbath (how the Sabbath was
represented, however, must be left to the imagination). Farmer
Perrett ploughed his land on the sabbath, the chain of the plough
broke, and flymg back struck him on the head, and so he died.
Adjoining this remarkable record of divine judgment are the
remains of the founder’s tomb of the decorated period, taken out
of the chancel at the restoration of the church and deposited in
the churchyard. After this delay, under the guidance of their
worthy friend, the route to Uleybury was pointed out. As is
usually the case strangers to the locality generally suppose that
they know the way better than the natives themselves. In the
present instance this was illustrated in a manner, however, by no
means unpleasant, for instead of following the dusty road—the
longest way round but the shortest in effect—the members struck
across the Long Down, leaving Peaked Down on the right. This
short cut, which was taken at the advice of one of the members
always noted for his short cuts (which are generally found to have
their existence in his internal consciousness and by no means to
have any objectivity in themselves), opened up a fine view of the
country though much shrouded in mist, and revealed the object of
the excursion on the top of another hill in the distance, with a
valley between. Nothing daunted, with the misleader “ well to the
fore,” a rapid descent was made, and a guide, with candles, having
been procured, a very hot ascent of Uleybury finally conducted
the members to the tumulus. Here the more serious work of
the day commenced. The large stone which covered and protected
the entrance to the chambers having fallen down, considerable diffi-
culty was found in gaining admittance at all, as the space at first
appeared only sufficiently large for a rabbit run. By dint of wrig-
gling in a most undignified manner, four of the thinnest, and of
course, the most juvenile of the members feet foremost, and in a
prone attitude were enabled to penetrate the innermost recesses.
Having satisfied themselves of the similarity of this chambered
tumulus to the one near Wellow at Stony Littleton, they returned
to daylight, when the Rev. Prebendary Scarth read some notes which
he had put together on the construction and examination of this
barrow, of which the following is the substance :—

243

CHAMBERED TumMULUS NEAR ULEy, GLOUCESTERSHIRE.

A very correct and interesting account of this tumulus has been given by
Dr. Thurnham, in the Archzological Journal, vol. xi. p. 315, with a plan of
its structure. It is about 120 feet in length and 85 in its greatest breadth, but
higher and broader at the E. end, The entrance is at the E., and com-
posed of two upright stones with a large one resting upon them, and the open-
ing is about 24 feethigh. This leads into a passage running nearly E.and W.,
about 22 feet long and about 44 feet wide, and 5 feet high. The walls of the
gallery are formed of large slabs of stone of irregular shape, set into the
ground on their edges. They are composed of rough oolitic stone, which is
found on the Cotteswolds. The roof is formed of large slabs of stone which
are laid across and rest on the uprights; on each side of this passage are two
chambers or cells, the entrances to which are about 2 feet wide. These are
irregular in form, two only remain perfect, and two have been destroyed and
their entrances closed with dry walling. These chambers have been used for
the purposes of burial. The roofs are formed by projecting stones, which are
made to overlap. When this tumulus was opened in 1821 it was found thatit
had been previously-disturbed. Over these chambers and the gallery a heap
of stones was raised, which had been neatly finished on the outside with a facing
of dry wall, carried up to a height of from 2 to 3 feet. The gallery
and chambers were filled with small stones and rubbish, among which were the
remains of 13 skeletons; one was found to have been buried in a squatting
position. Pieces of earthenware and charcoal were also found. The gallery
and chambers extend not quite half-way into the cairn. Near the highest
part of the cairn, within about 6 inches of the surface and nearly over one
of the chambers, a skeleton was found lying N.E. and 8S. W., with which were
three Roman coins of 3rd brass of the Lower Empire, and said to be of the
three sons of Constantine the Great. Atthe base of the cairn, and in the
approach to the entrance, two flint flakes were found. Only two perfect
crania from this burial place have been preserved; they were presented to the
Museum at Guy’s Hospital. There can be little doubt, Dr. Thurnham
observes, “that the Uley Cairn is a monument of the ancient, British popula-
tion during very early times. That this was an ancient monument during the
Roman rule in Britain seems to be proved by the secondary interments near
the summit, accompanied by coins of the Constantine series.” The first ex-
amination of this barrow took place in 1821, when notes were kept of the
excavation, and a further examination was made in 1854,

A tumulus very similar to that at Uley was examined in 1862 by the Cottes-
wold Club, and has been described by Sir W. V. Guise. It is situated near
Nympsfield, and had chambers similar to those of the Uley Cairn, and the
contents found in this are very similar in character. These are now deposited
in the museum of the Agricultural College at Cirencester. Another tumulus
similar in character was opened by the Rev. W. S. Lysons at Rodmarton, in
Gloucestershire, an account of which has been given by him in his work, en-

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titled “ Our British Ancestors,” p. 137, with a planand drawings. The shape
is like that of Uley, but the chambers are in separate parts and do not seem
to have been connected. The contents were very similar to those of the
tumuli at Uley and at Nympsfield. ‘They consisted of small flint imple-
ments, two of these finely wrought; a large piece of natural flint; the debris
of very coarse pottery ; a large stone of grit not found in the neighbourhood,
and asmall round pebble.’ Human remains of twelve or thirteen persons
were found ; a drawing of a skull from the tumulus is given, p. 145. Particu-
lars respecting the very interesting tumulus at Wellow, in Somerset, and
another in the same county, which has been destroyed, will be found in the
“‘ Proceedings of the Somerset Arch. and Nat. Hist. Soc.” for 1858, p. 39,
where plans of the structure and drawings are also given. The tumulus
at Wellow is now the only perfect one preserved in this country, and ought
to be an object of special care. The Rev. W. C. Lukis has given a very
elaborate paper, with a variety of drawings of chambered tumuli, which
have been examined in Jersey, Guernsey, and in Brittany, in the pro-
ceedings of the British Arch. Assoc. for September, 1866; these exhibit a
great variety of form. Very interesting accounts have also been given by Dr.
Thurnham of examinations made by him in Wilts, accounts of which will be
found in the proceedings of the “Wilts Arch. Journ.” and in the
“ Archeologia.”

As a supplement to these instructive notes of Mr. Scarth, the
Secretary read a communication from Dr. Bird, who was present at
the opening of the Long Barrow at Creper’s field, near Nympsfield
Park. As the Club proposes to visit this place on some future occa-
sion, the substance of his communication will be reserved. With
reference to Uley Tumulus, the Doctor stated that an old friend of his
had told him that many a time he and other boys had gone to the
tumulus, and had a fight with the “ giants’” bones in the chambers.
The clergyman of the parish, some time afterwards, had all the
human bones collected and buried in the corner of the churchyard ;
he also states that he considered Uley and Wellow as the same
words, derived from the Gaelic word Ulain, a charnel house, or from

the Welsh word Ulww, ashes, cinders.

The members now returned along the down to the camp at the
end ; a leaf-shaped arrow head of flint was picked up by the Secre-
tary on the way at a short distance from the tumulus. The view
of the surrounding valley with the Severn, a hazy thread in the
distance, was most charming. Arrived at the S. W. end of the
Romano-British camp, Mr. Scarth’s notes were again in requisition,

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and he explained how the Romans had a series of strong camps
extending along their roads in the neighbourhood of the Severn, and
how, in some instances, they had adopted the existing strong British
camps for their purposes. The extent of this ancient fortress, he
said, is 32 acres, and it covers the whole surface of the hill above
the village of Uley, and is connected with the adjoining hill, Crawly
Hill, by a narrow isthmus. The top of the hill is now under culti-
vation, with a fine crop of barley growing on it, so that only the
rampart could be examined. The sides are scarped so as to render
the ascent more difficult, and around the side runs a broad ditch
with a rampart on the extreme edge. There isa second rampart all
round the summit of the camp. There are two entrances, each
strongly fortified ; these are approached by deeply worn hollows,
resembling covered ways, by which men or provisions could be
brought into the camp without being observed. The shape of the
hill-topis an irregular quadrangle. Roman coinsare said to have been
found within it, as well as in the neighbourhood, and this has led to
the supposition that it was Roman, and one of a chain of forts
constructed by that people to unite the Severn with the Warwick-
shire Avon, or with the Nen, A.D. 51, during the campaign of
Ostorius Scapula against Caractacus. There are remains of Roman
villas in the immediate neighbourhood. Some account of this
interesting earthwork will be found in the “ Arch. Journ.,” vol. xi,
p- 328, and also in the “ Archzeologia,” vol. xix. p. 161.

Descending the hill to Dursley the members refreshed them-
selves at the comfortable hostelry of the Old Bell, and, after a short
visit paid to the church, walked over Stinchcombe-Hill to Berkeley-
Road Station.

The state of the chambered tumulus on Uleybury Hill was a
subject of great regret to the Club, for unless something be done,
and that speedily, to stay the mischief going on, another of the few
remaining works of the early people of this island will be destroyed.

WaLKs aND SHORTER EXCURSIONS.

The Neighbourhood of Bath, so rich in variety of scenery and
objects of interest still affords the Club full scope for their energy,
and many pleasant and instructive walks have been made during
the course of the past year. One of the earliest was to Combe.

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Down and Dundas; at the former place the quarries of Great
Oolite were visited, and a discussion as to the origin of the “ head”
—a technical name for the oolitic debris which caps all the
quarries to a depth of 6 or 8 feet—took place. One opinion
advanced by the Secretary was that it was the result of the
grinding and crushing of field ice which covered our hills at the
glacial period, the depth of the head depending upon the
amount of power existing at the time. Another view put forth
was that of Mr. Mitchell, who considered that the cause was to be
sought for in the percolation of rain and surface water, succeeded
by frost, the nearly horizontal line, which in Mr. Mitchell’s opinion
generally separated the debris from the more solid beds beneath,
being due to a parting of clay which prevented the percolation of
water and subsequent disintegration by frost beneath this line.
From Combe Down the members crossed over the hill and the
canal to Dundas quarry, where the Upper Lias is capped by the
sands of the Inferior Oolite. Thence up the hill by Conkwell, and
through the Warley woods to Farley Down, examining the
escarpment of Ooliteon the way. The diagonal jointing of the
beds between an upper and lower horizontal stratum unaffected by
those joints formed another topic for discussion; Mr. Mitchell
thinking that these peculiar features were due to current action as
the beds thin out towards the valley (this latter view of the beds
thinning out towards the valley being however an assumption not
proved satisfactorily as yet).

On 15th of March the Club visited the peculiar steps or “lynchets”
at the head of Chilcombe valley, supposed to have been ancient
lines of fortification ; but most probably due to the wearing away
by meteoric agency of the softer portions of the strata intervening
between the harder beds, and leaving these latter exposed in ridges,
the action of the plough and artificial cultivation, tending also to
carve these terraces out more distinctly (vide Geological Magazine,
vol. III., p. 293). Walking thence over Charmy Down, the
Gloucester Road was reached, and the site of the landslip inspected.
The Secretary and some other members returned over Solsbury
Hill, and found some well formed flint flakes, and on another occa-
sion a well shaped javelin point or arrow head of reddish chert.

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Pucklechurch and Siston was the object of another excursion on
March 22nd. Taking the train to Mangotsfield, the members
walked thence to Pucklechurch, past the fine old Elizabethan farm
house, called Dod’s or Baber’s farm, with the armorial bearings of
the Dennis family over the porch. Two recumbent figures of
members of this family are in the N. aisle of the church, which
contains some Early English remains in the capitals of the
windows on the §. side. From the church a walk of a mile led
to the Parkfield Colliery (Mr. Handel Cossham’s pit), formerly the
scene of William Smith’s researches. After lunch at Pucklechurch,
the walk was continued past the fine Elizabethan Court House
of Siston, formerly belonging to the Dennis and Trotman family,
now in possession of the Dickensons. The church of Siston, which
is small, has a very fine Norman arch, with a foliated stem
(probably a lily) in the tympanum. The font is lead, with rude
figures round it, and rests on a Norman base. Two old books
remain chained under a window on the N. side ; one of them
is Diodati’s Annotations of the Bible, translated into English, 1651,
fol. Bitton station was finally reached by way of Siston Common.

On Tuesday, August 16th, there was an excursion to Heytesbury.
Mr. Snelgrove, one of the Churchwardens, met the members at the
church, and pointed out to them its chief features. Restored in
1867 by Mr. Butterfield, it consists of a nave with two side aisles,
central tower with six bells, N. and S. transepts and chancel,
with two side aisles; the tower and chancel being the oldest
part of the church. The original Norman piers which were found
built into the chancel walls are now thrown into the church. Some
of them have been altered into Early English piers. The N.
transept, originally a chapel dedicated to St. Michael, and now
called the Hungerford chapel, has remains of a Purbeck marble
tomb, with the crest (three sickles intertwined) of the Hungerford
family inserted in the E. wall. The A’Court family, the principal
representative of which is Lord Heytesbury, are buried here. The
Hungerford screen has been restored, and separates this chancel
from the tower, and ared chalk line drawn across the N. face of the
N. transept outside, indicates where fives was formerly played
in the churchyard. Under the guidance of Mr. Grantham, the

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members visited Scratchbury and Battlesbury Camps, on the way
to Warminster, and most thoroughly enjoyed the walk and the fine
views. The Secretary on the way added many worked flints to his
collection from a rising ground between the two camps.

One or two home walks are worthy of mention. On October 11th,
the Monkswood Springs were visited, with the object of seeing
whether the dry weather had materially affected the supply of
water on which the inhabitants of Bath are chiefly to depend for the
future. Leaving the Gloucester Road the path over Charmy
Down was taken. Near the stile on the top of the hill, a very
good worked flint spear or arrow point was picked up, and several
pieces of chipped flint in a field near the tumulus. The topmost
spring which runs out from beneath the Great Oolite, and is a mere
surface spring, was quite dry, the lower spring still continuing to
send forth a sufficient supply to make the lane which acts as a water
course to the Mill unpleasantly wet. Leaving the Paper Mill on
the right, a path was followed through a farm yard, which led to
the first springs issuing from the base of the Inferior Oolite sands.
A good supply of water was flowing down three or four “ drives”
recently made into the hill. Proceeding further up the valley the
Monkswood spring was seen in active operation. Following a steep
path leading into the Gloucester Road the members returned to
Bath, with the feeling that nature had given man an abundant
supply of water in the neighbouring hills if he would only take
trouble to make use of and husband her bountiful gifts.

Another walk with a like object was taken on the 18th of Oct.
to the Batheaston Reservoirs, by way of the new oolitic bridge
across the Avon at Bathampton. The structure, thought light, and by
no means ugly, seems to lack substantiality. Notwithstanding the
late heavy rains, the top reservoir was quite empty, and the second
one had only about 2 or 3 feet of water in it.

Lansdown Monument (which has lately been much defaced by
boys and others cutting their names and initials on the coat of
arms), and the pits on the left of the road were visited in Nov.
These hollows, supposed to have been made by the Parliamentary
forces during the battle of Lansdown, are evidently excavations
whence tile stones have formerly been dug, but might have subse-

249

quently been used for military purposes. A walk to Kelston Round
Hill, by the line of the Via Julia, through Weston, and a walk to
Keynsham in search of a reported recent Roman “find,” are the
only remaining walks worth recording. The object of the first was
to trace the supposed camp onthetop. A very fine view and a most
cutting wind were the only results of the ascent, as the traces of a
camp, if any ever existed, were not made out. The walk to Keyn-
sham was equally unsuccessful so far as the immediate object was
concerned ; but at Saltford an old barn close to the church, with
remains of a Norman window, indicating the site of a religious
establishment, well repaid inspection.

The Summary of the year’s Proceedings must not be concluded
without mention of the Public Lecture kindly given under the
auspices of the Club, by Mr. W. Lant Carpenter, on “ Temperature
and Life in the Depths of the Ocean,” being an account of the deep
sea dredging of H.M.’s “ Porcupine” in the N. Atlantic during
the summer of 1869. The Lecture was illustrated profusely by
diagrams, and the attendance, though encouraging, was not com-
mensurate with the importance of the subject.

H. H. WINWOOD, Hon. Sec.

Address of the President after the Annwersary Dinner, Feb. 20, 1871.
GENTLEMEN.

It being the practice of our energetic Secretary, in accordance
with the rules of our Club, to draw up each year a Summary of
its Proceedings, stating what the Club has done in the field, and
what papers have been read at our evening meetings, very little
remains for your President to say in his Anniversary Address beyond
what relates to the general circumstances and condition of the
Club in connection with the objects it has in view. And if the
Secretary dwells on its performances, and shows the public what
the Club has done to deserve the public esteem, it may perhaps be
allowable for the President to speak of its shortcomings, and to show
what it has not done which might have been expected from it. This

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will prove that we have no desire to over-estimate the importance
of our researches, while it may tend to divert the mind and thinking
of our members from running too much in one groove, to the
neglect of other subjects. I remember, when the Club was first
established, now sixteen years ago, feeling apprehensions this might
be the case; that some parts of the field we marked out for
investigation, more attractive than others, especially to those
members who only take a general interest in its proceedings
without doing much for science themselves, might receive an undue
share of our consideration. It was agreed to be called “ The Bath
Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club,” and its object was
said to be ‘to make excursions around Bath with the view of
investigating the Natural History, Geology, and Antiquities of the
neighbourhood.” To what extent has this object been carried out ?
What have we to produce as the result of our inquiries? Have
these inquiries been extended to each one of the above subjects in
its turn? Or is it not a fact that, while the Antiquities of the
neighbourhood have been sedulously sought out and studied, its
Natural History has been comparatively neglected ?

The Club having now published four parts of its ‘‘ Proceedings,”
I thought the time was come when this question might fairly be
taken up and answered. The papers which these parts contain
may be regarded, I suppose, asa fair sample of our work. They go
forth to the world as the fruit of those labours we have by preference
chosen, on which we have bestowed most care, and by which we
would be judged. Accordingly I have looked them over; and
passing by the yearly “Summaries” of the Secretary, and my own
“ Addresses,” which are quite of a separate character from the other
papers, I find the number of these others to amount to twenty ;
whereof nine relate to Antiquities or History, six to Geology, three
to Botany, one to Zoology, and one to Meteorology. The authors of
the several papers in question are twelve in number.

Surely these facts speak for themselves. They show what the
subjects are to which our Club, as a body, gives its main attention.
At the same time, that only twelve members should have done
work of sufficient importance to be laid before the public, is not
what we could have desired or might have looked for.

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It is, perhaps, some consolation to find that other Clubs, even
those standing high in public estimation, have had cause to make
similar complaints. Thus the President of the Cotteswold Club, in
one of his Annual Addresses, remarked that “ Geology,” which
seems to be a favourite pursuit with the members of that Club,
“ should not wholly engross their attention, but that the other wide
domains of nature in plant and animal life should receive at their
hands equal and fitting illustration.” With us the leaning has been
more towards antiquarian researches, which is perhaps not sur-
prising, considering we are located here in a spot so eminently
distinguished as an old Roman station, and so rich in the remains
of that period during which the Romans occupied this part of the
country. And when the attention has been once drawn to the
subject of such . Antiquities, it is easily led on to those of earlier
as well as later date, embracing in the end the whole field of
Archeology.

But let us pass on to consider what is really wanted to make our
Club more worthy of the name it bears. We want, then, from its
members a more full account of the animals and plants of the
district, studied in connection with some of those great questions
which occupy the attention of naturalists at the present time. Not
mere lists of species, useful as these are to tell us what exists in the
neighbourhood, but papers containing all that relates to their
Biology. Mark the word I use. You will recollect it as the new
title given of late years to the Natural History Section of the
British Association instead of that of Zoology and Botany. It is a
more comprehensive word than either of these two, as including
both animals and plants bonded together by one common principle,
that mysterious thing called life. How much is implied in the
term Biology ; the science of life ; the study of all that goes to make
up the multiplied manifestations of life and energy, as exhibited by
the collective assemblage of organised beings on this globe, taken
each in its relationship to all the others, as well as in its relation to
the physical conditions of the spot in which it is located. I regard
the adoption of this term as indicative of a new phase which Natural
History studies have entered upon at the present day. The true
naturalist no longer confines himself to the examination of stuffed

252

skins and dried plants. He is not content with numbering up so
many beasts, birds, and insects, as belonging to this or that district.
He looks to structure in the living animal or plant; structure
in connection with the several functions it has to exercise. He
studies the gradual development of that structure from the merest
rudimentary combination of cell aud membrane, or the protoplasm
preceding even that, till it assumes its perfect form.

Take any one animal and trace its history from beginning to end,
Break the egg just dropped by the hen into its nest. Examine its
liquid contents, and judge of the work life has to do in building up
out of such materials what that egg is to give birth to. Mark that
small shining spot close upon the surface of the yolk-bag, where
life is to exhibit its amazing powers, its constructive skill. It is
the seat of a germ yet invisible to human eyes which within a few
days is to be developed into a feathered chick, in all respects like
its parent. What is it that will effect the marvellous transforma-
tion? Heat; heat in conjunction with other physical forces, the
same forces that exert their influence over every part of the organic
and inorganic world alike, showing how all nature is held together
in one vast whole, subject everywhere to the same agencies, bound
by the same laws.

Look again into the structure of the adult bird itself. Note its
framework of bones, its compacted muscles and sinews, its network
of arteries and veins by which the life-blood is conveyed to every
part, the organs that supply the whole with nourishment from
without, above all the complicated nervous system leading up to
the brain, the seat of those faculties and instincts that enable the
creature to play its partinnature. And then, after a time, see these
functions and faculties waning and decaying, the structure becoming
more and more weak and powerless, and at length breaking down
under the influence of the same forces that had helped to build it
up, and given over to death.

But life, considered in its outward manifestations, includes much
more than what I have referred to. This bird or other animal
does not stand alone upon the earth. It is surrounded on all sides
by hosts of other living creatures, some like itself, with the same
wants to supply, the same ends to attain ; others different, more or

253

less highly organised than itself, and perhaps, from being possessed
of superior strength and faculties, or, from being in larger numbers,
exercising a wider influence on the sphere in which they move.

Many of these have conflicting interests. The very existence of
some necessitates the death of others; this one preying upon a
second, and this second upon a third, giving rise to varied modes of
attack and defence, and calling into play all those marvellous habits
and instincts by which they are severally enabled to hold their
place in the world, to sustain life and to continue their species.

And life is a yet more complicated thing than this. Some
animals may prey on others, but a large number feed on vegetable
substances, which are therefore, directly or indirectly, the support of
all. And then have we to enter upon a new set of conditions
necessary to be fulfilled in order that plants as well as animals may
live, and grow, and propagate—conditions of soil, heat and moisture,
suited to as great a variety of forms of structure and organisation as
that which we find in the animal kingdom, yetliable to be disturbed,
or to fail altogether, from numberless accidents. Or if these con-
ditions continue unaltered, other accidents may prove equally fatal.
Plants as well as animals are at constant war with each other, the
stronger overpowering the weaker, and obliging them to give place ;
or, if they are the food of certain animals, to other animals they
may be indebted for their own existence, and if these animals are
destroyed the plants perish with them.*

And how is our idea of life still further enlarged, when we
connect the different forms of life now moving around us with

a eS

* Darwin has well illustrated this remarkable relationship between plants
and animals in the case of the heartsease and red clover, which are fertilised
by humble-bees. He says he has “very little doubt that if the whole genus
of humble-bees became extinct or very rare in England, the heartsease and
red clover would become very rare, or wholly disappear.”” He then goes on
to remark that “the number of humble-bees in any district depends in a great
degree on the number of field mice, which destroy their combs and nests; and
the number of mice is largely dependent, as everyone knows, on the number
of cats. Hence it is quite credible that. the presence of a feline animal in large
numbers in a district might determine, through the intervention first of mice
and then of bees, the frequency of certain flowers in that district !’—Origin of
Species, pp. 73, 74.

254

those which existed formerly, but which have utterly disappeared
from the earth. Go back in imagination to those remote ages, in
which life would seem to have first dawned upon its surface, and
note the ever progressing evolution that has been going on from
that time to this. Witness the graduated succession of allied
forms, plants as well_as animals—altered life keeping step with
altered physical conditions of the earth—a succession not forming
a single series only but thousands of other series branching off in
all directions, ramification upon ramification, becoming in the end
a vast conglomerate of affinities, each form showing more or less
relationship to all the rest ; life at the same time seen continually
rising in the scale of organisation and assuming a more and more
complex structure, until it culminates in man, the lord of all.
From this view of life, taken in all its generality, we are led to
the apprehension of a significant truth lying at the bottom of all
our sciences both physical and natural, and greatly enhancing
their importance and the interest that attaches to them, viz., that
the things which these sciences take knowledge of are not things
ever continuing the same with fixed distinguishing characters, but
things on the contrary ever undergoing slow but sure change.
There is nothing in nature absolutely at rest. Not only is the
face of the earth, its hills and valleys, its rivers and seas, silently
altering from day to day—every change bringing with it a
corresponding change in the relative distribution of plants and
animals—but there is not a single stone, in which there is not
going on perpetually a redistribution of its molecules under the
influence of the same forces which, so far as we see, regulate the
movements of the whole universe. In like manner, there is
probably no one plant or animal, whether viewed in the species or
the individual, exactly what it was at some former period of
its history. Its environments are always changing ; and to these
changes its organisation is always seeking to adapt itself, so that
there may be harmony between the two, between what is within
and what is without, its whole system undergoing for the purpose
slight modifications, more or less permanent for a time, but in the
end giving way to others, and according to their nature and
importance extending their influence to the next generation.

255

It is these gradual changes in connection with the intricate
relationship in which all plants and animals stand to the outer
world, as well to each other, a relationship so close as to bind “ the
Flora and Fauna of every region into a whole, of which no part
can be affected without affecting the rest,’* that gives so much
importance to local Natural History, And what is most to our
present purpose, they find work for Field Clubs like our own of the
very best kind. Nothing could be more in keeping with the
objects for which the members of such clubs combine, nor more
serviceable to the interests of true science, than the habit of
noting down, and putting together in a systematized form, all such
particulars in the Natural History of a given district as shall serve
for a standard of comparison with the same district in times to
come, when studied in turn by those who follow after us. And
there is the greater need for this from the circumstance that
though the changes from natural causes are slow in operation,
there are other and greater changes brought about much more
rapidly by man, whose power over nature is so great, and so marked
wherever he has taken up his abode. The alterations effected in
our Faunas and Floras by his instrumentality, by the extirpation
of some species of plants and animals and the introduction of
others, and by the influence of his presence on the habits and
instincts and modes of life of such as continue to reside in the
same neighbourhood with him, exceed the changes from all other
sources put together occurring within the same period of time.

This subject has been well considered by Sir W. Jardine.
Speaking of Field Clubs, and the great change that has taken
place in the surface of this country during the last 50 years,
from the increase of population, from agricultural improvements,
plantations, drainage, enclosure of waste lands, and from artificial
works of every kind, he says :—‘ It will be to these Clubs that we
shall be indebted for a record of what existed in their days ;

there is nothing that should prevent an active Club
ftom filling up in a few years a Jist of the productions within their
beat, leading to a complete and accurate Fauna and Flora of our
own time and age ; and generations succeeding would be able not

* Herbert Spencer, “ Principles of Biology,’’ vol. i., p. 426,
a

256

only to mark the changes of these productions, but to judge and
reason upon the effects which these now so-called improvements
have produced on the climate and soil, and the fertility and
increase of the latter. These clubs (he adds) have yet to write
the Natural History of Great Britain.”*

And there is another way in which Field Clubs may advance the
cause of science ; and that is by directing their researches with a
view to establishing or disproving the hypotheses or theories, which-
ever we like to call them, that have been brought forward to
account for the multiplied details of animal and vegetable life
which the study of Biology has revealed to us of late years. I
alluded at the beginning of my Address to the questions which
engage the attention of naturalists at the present day, and with
these questions you will have connected, I dare say, much of what
I have been stating in the course of it. Are the views held by
Darwin and others respecting evolution, and the instability of
species and natural selection, deserving of our confidence or not ?
This is one of the chiefest of those questions, and to which the
right answer can only be returned after further research, and more
numerous observations. The solution, too, depends upon the
number of observers. It is not one man that will furnish the
answer. If we ever get it, it will only be by the combined labours
of naturalists widely dispersed, each taking up some separate
branch of the inquiry in a fixed spot, where he can give his closest
attention to the successive appearances that come under his eye,
as he watches from day to day, and from year to year, the natural
‘productions of the neighbourhood in which he is located. And
need IJ say that this is just the work which ought to emanate from
a Club like ours, professing to study the Natural History of its own
particular district. Who better than the members of such a Club
can make the observations we want ?

I will not take up your time now by specifying all the particular
researches that need to be made in reference to this subject, many
of which could only be successfully carried on, and for the requisite
length of time, by residents on the spot. I shall hope to bring

* Memoirs of Strickland. I know the passage only from a quotation in
Proceedings of Berwicksh. Nat. Club, vol. v., p. 405.

_—._

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them before you in another way on some future occasion. I would
only at present observe that, if we had the right answers to the
many questions that suggest themselves to the thoughtful naturalist,
not only would our knowledge of Biology be greatly advanced, but
we should be in a fair position to judge of the theories brought
forward in explanation of the ways and workings of life, often so
concealed from view, and when seen so liable to be misunderstood,

Would that some of you who listen to me would assist in such
an undertaking. You may say that you disbelieve Darwin’s theory
altogether, and will have nothing to do with it. But the teaching
of one of the greatest naturalists of the age, who laboured for
years, multiplying in every conceivable way his observations and
experiments before enunciating his views, and whose disciples are
yearly increasing in number, does not deserve to be hastily pushed
aside in this manner. Distinguish, too, between facts and theory.
Facts such as you are asked to contribute, if correctly ascertained,
command your assent. Any theory by which it is sought to
explain the facts may be wrong, and you are not bound to accept
that. Only suspend your judgment. Keep your mind in a balanced
state till the issue is fairly revealed. Do not join in aloud cry
against views which, it may be, you have never rightly considered
or looked into ; but go rather in the spirit of true science and
search for facts which will overturn the theory if wrong it really
be. This is what Darwin himself would desire. He did not expect
his views all at once to be taken up and adopted. He looked to the
future.

Towards the conclusion of his world-renowned work on the
“Origin of Species” he says, “‘ Any one whose disposition leads him
to attach more weight to unexplained difficulties than to the
explanation of a certain number of facts will certainly reject my
theory. A few naturalists, endowed with much flexibility of mind,
and who have already begun to doubt on the immutability of
species, may be influenced by this volume ; but I look with con-
fidence to the future, to young and rising naturalists, who will be
able to view both sides of the question with impartiality. Who-
ever is led to believe that species are mutable, will do good ser-
vice by conscientiously expressing his conviction ; for only thus

258

can the load of prejudice by which this subject is overwhelmed be
removed.”*

Gentlemen, each year as it passes brings that future more and
more into view. Labourers in the field, labourers in the closet, are
everywhere hastening its approach. Ingatherings from all parts
of the world keep coming in. The good work of setting up the
truth on one side or the other progresses fast. What part will
you take in it ?

* Origin of Species, p. 482.

CONTENTS.

PAGE.
1.—DocumMENtT oF Henry IIL, RELATIVE TO THE
Prioky oF BaTH: FROM THE MUNICIPAL
ARCHIVES AT AXBRIDGE, BY Rev. J. EARLE,

1 he Se aes a5 He soe ae

2.—St. SWITHIN AND OTHER WEATHER SAINTS, BY
Rev. L. Jenyns, MA., FLS., F.GS., &c.,
PRESIDENT aS ars oe eos. LG]

3.—REMARKS ON SOME OF THE FUNGI MET WITH IN
THE NEIGHBOURHOOD oF Batu, By C. E.
Broome, M.A. F.LS. ... me BEERY So's

4.—NoTES ON THE Ra#c@tic SECTION, NEWBRIDGE
Hitt, sy Rev. H. H. Winwoop, M.A., F.G.S. 204

5.—REMARKS ON THE CENSUS OF SOMERSETSHIRE,
1861, By H. J. Hunter, M.D. _... ae

6.—SUMMARY OF PROCEEDINGS FOR THE YEAR
1870-71, BY THE SECRETARY = i aie

7.—ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT AFTER ANNUAL
Dinner, 1871. ... ae ae ... 249

Vou, “11; .No;.-2:

PROCEEDINGS

BATH NATURAL HISTORY

ANTIQUARIAN FIELD CLUB.

1872.

PRICE TWO SHILLINGS.

BATH:
; PRINTE D (FOR THE CLUB) AT THR ‘‘ CHRONICLE” OFFICE, KINGSTON BUILDINGS,
o 1872,

259

An Ancient Saxon Poem of a City in ruins supposed to be Bath,
By Rev. J. Earue, M.A. Read March 15, 1871.

Wretlic is Ses wealstan, &c.

In the Chapter Library at Exeter there is a book that may be
regarded as a symbol of the stability of our institutions. Leofric,
who was the last Bishop of Crediton and the first who moved the
see to Exeter, and who died in 1072, gave this book. to Exeter
Cathedral, and there it has been ever since. Now the will of this
Leofric is extant, and has been often printed. It is in Saxon, and
contains a list of books and other objects which he bequeathed
to his new Cathedral. Among them this book is named, and so
descriptively named that its identity is unquestioned. It is thus
expressed: I mycel Englise boc be gehwilcum thingum on
leoth-wisan geworht :—“ One big Englisc book of various matters
in lay-wise wrought,” or, to put it in modern phrase, “ One large
Anglo-Saxon volume containing a variety of poetical compositions.”
This book has kept its place for eight hundred years unremoved.

On the 123rd leaf of this volume is the fragment which I have
now to speak of. It describes, in the most archaic form of Saxon
poetry, the aspect of a ruined city. Of this there can be no doubt ;
on this point there is a consent of independent critics. Although
the word “‘burh” is one that might be applicable to a stronghold,
or fortress, or royal castle: yet this interpretation is excluded by
the general tenor of the description, and I rest this assertion not on
my own judgment but ona consent of critics like Conybeare in
England, a scholar of fifty years ago, and Grein in Germany, an
editor of the present day. And not only is the subject of the piece
a ruined city, but it is some particular: city. We know that ruin
has always been a favourite subject with painter and with post.
Thus Mrs. Norton, in the prologue to The Lady of La Garaye :—

Ruins! a charm is in the word :

It makes us smile, it makes us sigh,
"Tis like the note of some spring bird

Recalling other springs gone by,—
* * r * * * «
Ruins! they were not desolate

To us,—the ruins we remember :
Early we came and lingered late,

Vou. II., No. 3.

260

Through bright July, or rich September ;—
* * *

* * * *
Ruins! how we loved them then!
How we loved the haunted glen
Which grey towers overlook,
Mirrored in the glassy brook.
How we dreamed,—and how we guessed,
Looking up with earnest glances,
Where the black crow built its nest,
And we built our wild romances;
Tracing in the crumbled dwelling
Bygone tales of no one’s telling!

It is a privilege of the poet, even when he is most descriptive,
that he should give play to his imagination, and clothe the dead
thing with living associations. That is done in the Fragment
before us; we have a visionary glimpse of those who went in and.
out,—those who revelled in these now deserted halls ; but yet the
city of the piece cannot be regarded as a legend, or as a myth, or
as a generalisation of many ruins, or as being in any sense whatever
a poetic fable. Spite of all its decorations it is the description of a
real city, which was present to the eye or very fresh in the memory
of the poet who composed this unique little poem. Whether that
city was or was not the old Roman city of Akmanchester, is a
question which I shall not pretend to decide. I shall only, in the
character of an advocate for a favourite fancy, invite your attention
to the best arguments that I can produce for its probability. The
chief obstacle with which I have to contend is the extreme difficulty
of representing the poem by a modern translation ; but I will do
my best, making it an object to be literal where I can, but above
all to be faithful in the spirit of the reproduction,

. THE RUINED CITY.
Strange to behold is the stone of this wall, Wretlic is Ses wealstan,
broken by fate, wyrde gebrzcon : 2

1. Weal stan—Compare heal wudu in Beowulf, 2628, Contrast stan hofu —
below, 1. 77, and we see that the largeness of the blocks of stone was the
object of attention here.

2. Ettmiiller corrects wyrde gebrocen, broken by fate; or “‘ wyrde grbrecum,”’
with the breaches of fate. This appears the simplest and most natural
correction. Grein reads ‘‘ wyréige brecon,’” which he renders, the streets
have been broken up.

261

the strongholds are bursten, burg stede burston,
the work of giants decaying, brosnad enta geweorc : 4
the roofs are fallen, hrofas sind gehrorene,
the towers tottering, hreorge torras, 6
mouldering palaces roofless, hrimge édoras behrofene,
weather-marked masonry, hrim on lime, 8
shattered shelters, scearde scur beorge,
time-scarred, tempest-marred, scorene gedrorene, — 10
undermined of eld. * zldo under eotone.
Earth’s grasp holdeth Eoré grap hafad 12
its mighty builders : waldend wyrhtan
tumbled, crumbled forweorone geleorene - 14
in gravel’s hard grip ; heard gripe hrusan,
till a hundred generations o6 hund cnea 16
* of men pass away. wer beoda gewitan.
Often this wall witnessed, Oft Ses weg gebad 18
now fern-tufted and lichen-spotted, reg har and read fah
one great man after another rice efter odrum
taking shelter out of storms : ofstonden under stormum :
the lofty gable [fell ?] steap geap gedrea[s] 22
“s * “s * * * wonad giet . . ..
num geheawen 24
[Mutilation of MS.]
Sissel ch Mes falarne ds UC
swift [sledge] flashed swiftne ge bregd 38
furious on the rings, hweet red in hringas
resolutely rivetting hygerof gebond
the wall with clamps weall walan wirum
wondrously together. wundrum togzedre. 42
Bright were the buildings, Beorht weron burh reced,
bath houses many, burn sele monige, 44

11. Eotone—Grein corrects etene, which is only a modernising of the
orthography. In Beowulf, 3049, the MS. has “ purh etone.”

16. Grein reads eneo. [

38. In this numeration of the lines allowance is made for the unintelligible
portion, which is here omitted.

41. Literally “ with wires.’”’ Whether this is analagous to our clamps I am
not sure. But it is clear that the feature, whatever it be, is one that belongs
to fortification. In one of the Riddles of this Codex, No. 18, a riddle which
signifies a fortified city, its subject is said to be “‘ eodor wirum fest,” fast with
fence-wires.

44, Grein suggests that burn sele means bath-houses; and he refers to 78
and following lines. It is well to know that this rendering proceeds from one
who has no local identification to serve.

262

high forest of pinnacles, heah horn gestreon,

war-clang frequent, here sweg micel, 46
mead-halls many, me6odo heall monig,

merriment frequenting ; man dreama full: 48
till all was overwhelmed oddext Set onwende

by Fate the unrelenting. Wyrd seo swyée. 50
Breaches wide brake the walls, Crungon walo wide,

baleful days came on, cwoman wol dagas : 51
death swept off swylt eal fornom

the valiant men, secg rof wera ; 54
their arsenals became , wurdon hyra wig steal

waste habitations ; westen stadolas, 56
slow decay sapped the town. brosnade burg steal.

Pitifully shrunk Betend crungon 58
the brave to their grave. hergas to hrusan.
Therefore these halls are a dreary ruin, Forpon pas hofu dreorga%, 60
and these pictured gables : and pas teafor geapu :

the tiles are tumbling - tigelum sceadepb 62
from the roof with its crown of rafters : hrost beages hrof :

ruinous masses have wrecked the pavement, hryre wong gecrong, 64

54. Grein renders this hesitatingly, the flower of the men. Perhaps we ought
to accept Ettmiiller’s correction secg rofe weras, the soldierly men.

61. In King Alfred’s Version of Gregory’s Pastoral Care, } xxi., there is a
quotation from the fourth chapter of Ezekiel, which begins thus :

HOU also, son of man, take thee a tile, and lay it before thee, and pourtray upon
it the city, even Jerusalem :

2 And lay siege against it, and build a fort against it, and cast a mount against it;

set the camp also against it, and set battering rams against it round about.
' The word which in our Bible is rendered pourtray, is expressed in the Saxon
by the simple word write: Nim sume tiglan and lege be foran Se and writ on
hiere Sa burg Hierusalem. But when he comes to the exposition of the
symbolic act, he uses another term.

‘Holy teachers take a tile when they undertake the charge of teaching earthly men’s
hearts. They lay the tile, on which they were commanded to draw the city of
Jerusalem, before them, when they behold all the thoughts of their minds, and with
zealous care instruct worldly hearts, and shew them what the sight of exalted peace
is, &c. . . . Holy teachers beset the tile, whereon is drawn the city of Jerusalem,
when they shew the human mind, which yet seeks exalted life, how many dangerous

vices oppose and fight against it,’ &c. (Translation by Henry Sweet, Esq., Early
English Text Society.)

In the latter instance the Saxon participle for drawn or pourtrayed is atiefred :
“Da halgan lareowas ymbsittaS Sa tieglan, Se sio burg Hierusalem on
atiefred bid, &c.’’ Here we have the teafor in which we are now izterested,
used verbally for pourtrayal.

63. rof, MS.

263

heaved it in heaps ;

where erewhile many a baron
joyous and jewelled

with elaborate splendour,
haughty and hot with wine,
shone in his harness ;
looked on treasures of silver
and of curious gems,

and wealth and stores

and precious stones,

on this bright borough

of broad dominion.

There stood arcades of stone;
the stream hotly issued
with eddies widening

up to the wall encircling all
the bright bosomed pool;
there the baths were—

hot with inward heat :
nature’s bounty that !

So they caused to flow

[into a sea of] stone

the hot streams

* * & * * * *
that ring-mere hot

« * * * 8 « *
* * # * * * *
* * baths were

* * « * * * a
that is kingly thing

Now the feature of this poem w
of identification with Akmanchester, is

83. hat on hreére.

gebrocen to beorgum;
peer iu beorn monig

gledmod and goldbeorht

gleoma gefretwed
wlone and wingal
wig hyrstum scan;
seah on sinc on sylfor
on searo gimmas :

on ead, on exht,

on eorcan stan :

on pas beorhtan burg
bradan rices.

Stan hofu stodan;
stream hate wearp
widan wylme

weal eal befeng
beorhtan bosme ;

ber ba badu weron,
hat on hreére ;

beet wees hy®elic!
leton bonne geotan
wifes tastes: SALATI
hate streamas
beet hring mere hat

badu weeron
* * * «

beet is cynelic ping

92

*

hich provokes the thought
the mention, twice repeated,

Literally, hot in heart; that is to say, hot in itself, in

its own nature, nota recipient but a source of heat. As to the construction
hat belongs to stream in line 78, For the sense compare Beowulf 6290, where
the fire which consumes the funeral pile is said to be hat on hre’re. In
Czedmon ii., 99, dragons are described as hate on reére, which Grein, l. v.,
has well rendered ignivomi, fire-breathing. The expression is peculiar, and
has not been much noticed, but it is of importance here.

84. Literally, that was convenient, gratuitous—that was bountiful! But
the spirit of the passage is something like that which I have endeavoured to

express in the translation.

forth by the spread of a table in the wilderness.

provision indeed, and untoiled for,

It is the sort of exclamation that would be called
That was a bounteous

264

of baths in the plainest terms, and a third time more obscurely <
not only however this conspicuous mention of baths, but the
description of a stream of hot water of large volume such as to
present to the eye a fine display of water—baths roundabout, hot
without artificial heat, a convenience to be wondered at! This
natural feature in a stone-built city, and in ruins! Now where
is there a place which can match this description, unless it
be the place in which we are at this moment assembled? Where,
not in this country only, but in Europe—because poets were
travellers then as well as now, nay much more so in proportion to
the relative hardships of travel ? Well then, what other place can
be thought of to answer this description? A stone-built military
city in ruins, and with a magnificent spring of hot water? My
knowledge does not offer any response to this except Akmanchester.
That we however have a just parallel here on this historical site, it
will not require many words to establish. Two out of. the three
points are obvious without argument, That Akmanchester was in
Roman times handsomely built, that it had profited by the natural
abundance of good stone, which was easy to be quarried and worked,
and that, consequently, there were great buildings of stone in
massive and decorative architecture, that it was garrisoned by
Roman soldiery, and largely resorted to by military men of all
classes, is manifest at a glance if only from the remains which are
collected in this Institution. The architectural grandeur and the
military aspect of the city would therefore be fully satisfied by the
conditions of Akmanchester.

‘As to the stream of hot water, it has been already said that this
condition is here fulfilled with singular precision. It is, moreover,
a feature so rare and exceptional, and consequently so characteristic,
that it stamps the description with a local character that renders it
quite impossible for us to regard the ruined city as a mere picture
of the poetic generalisation.

The only point, then, on which a question is possible is this :
Was Akmanchester ever deserted and in ruins? This opens a
historical question of great interest, both locally and generally.
When the Saxons had conquered this country we know that many
cities were deserted, and that some of them decayed so that the

— =”

Mas

265

existence of them was unknown until they were restored to
knowledge by the labours of the modern archeologist. I need only
mention Wroxeter and Silchester. We might of course suppose
that there were peculiar local causes which operated to the dis-
advantage of these particular places, and made them to be neglected.
But against this explanation we may set the general fact that the
Gothic races differed from the Romans whom they conquered in this
respect, that they preferred the country to the town. Municipal
habits and tastes had not yet been formed by them. Town life
was to them as unnatural as it is to the Arab of the desert. And
great as was the desolation that ensued throughout the fairest parts
of Europe, there is reason to believe that nowhere was the
destruction of the municipal civilisation more complete than in our
own island. The way in which the poet of Zhe Wanderer (another
of the pieces in this same Exeter manus¢ript) speaks incidentally of
the frequency and familiarity of ruins, is very striking :

‘Tt becomes a wise man to consider, how weird it will be, when all this
world’s wealth is desolate, as now frequently up and down the world we see
wind-waven walls stand studded with rime,” &c.

Then follows a description much like the contemplative
expressions in this poem, which are merely of a general ruin-
picturing kind. Here then we seem to have sufficient evidence of the

_ general desertion of the Roman cities. In process of time the

national habits were modified, and they began to form towns or
reoccupy old sites ; and to this they were in many cases driven by
the need of security at the time of the Danish invasions. And we can
cite at least one example of a Roman city which is now populous, but
which was desolate in the ninthcentury. We have the clearest in-
formation that Chester was a deserted city in the year 894, when fora
moment it is illuminated by the light of history. Hence the name
which it for a long time bore, namely, Westchester. This did not
mean Chester in the Western quarter, but the Chester which was
waste. And though the prefix has been omitted in modern times,
yet the mere name of Chester exhibits still an effect of the deserted
period, in so far as it differs from its old name of Legaceaster,
which represented Castrum Legionum. It has, in fact, formed a
new proper name out of the Saxon common-noun ceaster. A still

266

greater change has passed over the name of our city. The ancient
name of Akmanchester has disappeared altogether, and a totally
new name has been substituted. This is in itself a great argument
for the desolation of the place. It is not a natural or an easy thing
for the name of a populous place to be changed. Every tongue in
the population has to be induced to drop the old name and take
up the new: and that is a thing not easily effected To my mind
the change of name from Akmanchester to Bath, is in itself a strong
argument that the city passed through a period of desolation and
ruin.
When might this period have been? Before I had noticed the
local application of this poem, and as long ago as the earliest
excavations were made for the foundations of the new Hotel, Mr.
C. Moore had surmised that there was a period of desolation in this
place, arguing from the appearance of the stratum next above
the Roman level, besides other geological considerations. He
maintained this against me in a discussion at this Institution,
in December, 1867, and he returned to the subject at a
later date.* The general analogy of history in the case
of other Roman cities in this country is such as to lend
confirmation to Mr. Moore’s geological conclusions. As regards
Akmanchester we find the following scanty records. In the year
577, there was a great battle at Dyrham between the Saxons and
the British, in which three British kings were slain, and the Saxons
became masters of the three strongholds of the west, namely,
Gloucester, Cirencester, and Akmanchester. This happened in
one of the last huge waves of that tide of conquest which established
our ancestors from the German Ocean to the Severn, and from the

* In Mr. C. Moore’s paper of March 10, 1869, printed in these Proceedings,
he said :—Subsequently to the Roman occupation there appears to be little
doubt that an interregnum occurred, in which the city was deserted, and when
it became converted into a swamp. The cause for this is difficult to account
for, but the evidence for the fact is I think conclusive, since it is certain that
the extensive foundations of the Roman tuildings, on the site of the new hotel
and elsewhere, are covered up by mud, vegetable remains and drift-wood ; the
deposit in some instances being almost converted into peat, and mixed with
which were many mammalian remains,”—Vol. ii., No. 1, p. 42.

—eE—- = ~~

a ee <_- i aed

267

English Channel to the Frith of Forth.* This event drove the
remnants of Roman civilization into the wilds of Wales, while the
British sons of the soil were reduced to serfdom under the Saxon.
Out of the silence that ensued there rose for British ears that cycle
of romance which dwells with loving memory on the deeds of King
Arthur and his knights in the hopeless struggle against the heathen.

From the date of the battle of Dyrham there is just 99
years (according to the documents) before we hear anything
more of Akmanchester, and then it is found to bear the name
of Bath. The grant of Osric, king of the Hwiccas, for the
building of a monastery at Bath is dated Nov. 6, 676. How
far that is a genuine and unaltered document, is a matter of

_ question. But the only effect of calling it in question will be to

lengthen the interval of historic silence, and thus to increase the
probability of desolation as well as the length of its duration. If
Osric was really the founder of Bath Abbey, it is nevertheless
possible that the date has been put a little too high. Ten or
twenty years later would make it synchronise better with other
and analogous acts of Osric. The very founding of a monastery
was often much like the founding of a colony, and it might have
had for one of its motives the purpose of winning population to a
neglected but highly important site. And even if the date of 676
were precisely correct, it is still possible and even probable that
for many generations the monastery was but a speck of life in a
wilderness of ruin and decay. If, however, we give the document
much less credit and conclude that the story of Osric’s foundation is
only an ambitious invention, then we leave a wider space for
the probable desolation of Akmanchester. So that, on the lowest
reckoning, we have in round numbers a hundred years between
Akmanchester and Bath ; and this is long enough to admit of the
wrecking of a stone-built city in this land of rain and frost 3 but
if we admit probabilites and historical analogies, and Mr. C. Moore’s
geological data, we shall surmise that Akmanchester was desolate
for a much longer period, until at length a new interest begins to
take root in the place, by means of which it became populous again
under the altered name of Bath.

* E. A, Freeman, Norman Conquest, vol. i., p. 14.

268

Turning now from the place to the poem, we shall be asked,
what is the probable date of it? The manuscript in which it is
found contains productions of various ages, some of which are
probably very little older than the manufacture of the volume itself.
But our poem must be ranked among the oldest of its contents.
There are in it several obscure words, at the meaning of which the
editors have only been able to guess; it is very fragmentary, and
several of the expressions appear to have been corrupted by the
errors of scribes, and other accidents of repeated transcription. It
is quite possible that it may be as old as the eighth or even
the seventh century. It belongs to the oldest type of Saxon
poetry, that type of which the Beowulf is the most signal
example. This evident antiquity of the piece is to me a much
stronger argument than I can expect it to be to the hearer ; but in
a matter so obscure I think it no harm to present the case with all
the little circumstances that may have invested the proposed
identification with additional plausibility for my own mind; even
though some of the points may be too subjective to be scientifically
communicable.

If now we may for a moment indulge ourselves in the hypothesis
that this description was really taken from old Akmanchester, we
shall naturally look to see whether any minor coincidences arise,
tending to confirm the identification. The expression which I have
translated “pictured gables” (line 61), is one that is rare and
obscure ; but I translated it “‘ pictured gables” because, before I had
found words for it, I seemed to have found the thing which answers
to the old poetic phrase, teafor geapu, and that thing is the great
sculptured pediment in the vestibule of this Institution.

Another obscure line is line 19, where I have so rendered it that
the wall is said to be “ fern-tufted and lichen-spotted.” Now of the
first expression, “ fern-tufted,” I have little doubt of its accuracy
in a general way of speaking. Antique language, as is well known,
never gives Very precise answers to botanical enquiries, and there-
fore I would not be sure about the “fern.” The popular name of
“ragwort” is assigned by Professor Babington to one of the
groundsels, Senecio Jacobea. It might be fern, or groundsel, or
grass, or all three of it together ; but the sense is clear, that the

AS Pe

269

wall was crested with a wild and weedy growth of vegetation, as
in Goldsmith’s Deserted Village :
Sunk are thy towers in shapeless ruin all,
And the long grass o’er-tops the mouldering wall.
The ruin in Tennyson’s Znid has one or two points of resemblance
_ with the description of our poem, and is especially distinct as to
the weeds on the wall:
Then rode Geraint into the castle court,
His charger trampling many a prickly star
Of sprouted thistle on the broken stones,
He look’d and saw that all was ruinous.
Here stood a shattered archway plumed with fern ;
And here had fall’n a great part of a tower,
Whole, like a crag. p. 17.

This is a universal feature which strikes the eye wherever there
isa ruin of old standing, and therefore it has no value for the
identification. But if I have rightly seized the sense of the
companion term, which I have called “ lichen-spotted,” there is a
local tinge about it. The exact sense of the Saxon is “ ruddy-
mottled,” and it may have fallen under the observation of some
here present that our oolite walls have a very pretty way of
mantling themselves over with a film of ruddy or orange-tinted
lichen.*

In conclusion, it may be observed that if we really have 4 poem
of the seventh or eighth century, which depicts the state of Bath
as it then struck the eyes of a Saxon poet, it is not only a very
extraordinary possession, but itis absolutely singular. This very
circumstance will render it more acceptable to some minds, and on
that very account it will make others the slower to admit the
probability. But, anyhow, we should remember that singularity is
no evidence against the identification, Though we have not two
things of a particular sort, that is no reason why we may not have one.
Nevertheless there is a vague reluctance to accept as a fact that
which stands alone, and is without a parallel. We say, in such
cases, it is too good to be true. Being myself under the influence

* T let this stand as I delivered it a year ago. But I am now inclined to
think that perhaps the “‘ red-grained” appearance of the stones may be with

more propriety assigned to the action of the mineral water, seeing that it
imparts a rusty colour to glass and other objects, and deposits a ruddy mud,

270

of thisincredulity I desired, nevertheless, to submit to the judgment
of the Club an idea which has long had for me an agreeable
fascination.

Notes on the History of Twerton. By the Rev. W. 8. Saw.
Read March 15, 1871.

THe Name
Is of doubtful meaning. Mr. Earle derives it either from
zet-over-tune = at bank town, or et-wer-tune = at the weir

town. In Domesday Book it is written Twertone, but this is not
much guide, as the names appear there as they were pronounced
and not always as they were spelt. Another derivation which has
great probability is from Twy-ford-town, the town of the two fords.*

In the Registers at Wells the name is thus variously spelt: in
1316 Twyvrton, in 1410 Twyforton, in 1623 Twiverton, 1638
Twirton, 1723 Twerton.

In Domesday Book we have the following account of Twerton :

The same Nigel (i.e., the same who held also Englishcombe) holds of the
Bishop Twertone.

Three Thanes held it in the time of King Edward, and gelded for 7 hides
and half.

The arable is 10 carucates.
In demesne there are 3 carucates, 6 serfs, and 7 villans, and 13 bordars with

6 carucates,

There are two mills of 30 shillings rent and 15 acres of meadow land.

It was and is worth 10 pounds.

Goiffrid holds of the Bishop Twertone.

A Thane held itin the time of King Edward, and gelded for 2 hides and
half.

The arable is 2 carucates and half, which there are in demesne, with 4
bordars and 2 serfs.

There are two mills of 30 shillings rent, and 7 acres of meadow and 3 acres
of coppice wood. ~

It was and is worth 60 shillings.

This land Alured held of the Queen Eddid, now the Bishop holds it of the
King as he says.

The above account may be perhaps made more intelligible by
the following remarks :

i lati Seen ce A eee EO eee
* Collinson’s Somerset, vol. iii., p. 347. Wood’s Description of Bath, vol.
i, p: 97.

271

1. This Migel is mentioned in the Exon Domesday as Nigel de Gurnaio.
Nigel was the name of the King’s physician.

2. The Bishop from whom the lands were held was Geoffrey de Montbray,
Bishop of Coutance in Normandy. He was Chief Justiciary of England, and
presided at the great trial, held at Pinenden, between Lanfranc and Odo,
He had acted as William’s lieutenant-general after the battle of Hastings.
He was possessed of no less than 280 manors. He joined in fayour of Duke
Robert in 1088 against William Rufus, and died 1093. In the Gloucester
Domesday Book (fol. 165) he is called Episcopus de Sancto Laudo, which is
explained as “ St. Lo, a vill in Normandy,” and among the witnesses to King
William’s Charter to the Monastery of St. Augustine at Canterbury we have
“ Episcopo Golfrydo de Seynt Loth.” *

Does it not seem probable that Newton St. Loe, of which manor
he was possessed, took its name from this circumstance ?

3. Thanes were Anglo Saxon nobles of various orders.

4. The King Edward alluded to is of course Edward the Confessor.

5. Geld was originally the Danegeld levied in Ethelred’s reign on each hide
of ground. Several kinds of land were free from this tax.

6. A hide was an amount of land sufficient for the support of one family ;
hence a variable quantity.

7. <A carucate, from Norman, carrue, a plough, was as much arable land as
could be managed with one plough, and the meadow necessary for its tillage.
Thus the hide took into account al/ the land in a manor, while the carucate
only that which might be ploughed.

8. Demesne land was that held by the Dominus, which he kept in his own
hands or let out only for a term.

9. Serfs were the lowest class.

10. Villans, the principal of the subordinate tenants of land, who held it
according to the custom of the vill.

11. Bordars derived their name from paying their rent in kind, supplying
their lord’s board.

12, This Gotfrid isin the Exon Doomsday spoken of as Gosfrid Malreward
(see page 272), -Alwred, as a dapifer or steward.

13. Edid or Edith was the Queen of Edward the Confessor, and held her
possessions as such till her death in 1070, when they went to the Crown. So
that Twerton was a Royal ville.

In the Exon Domesday Book on the two manors are mentioned
16 head of cattle, 35 pigs, and 400 sheep.

* Jones’ Wiltshire Domesday Book, p. 26n, 27n. Ellis’ Introd. to
Domesday Book, i., 400.

272

Tue EcotEstasticaL History
Of the parish, so far asI have been hitherto able to gather it,
runs thus:
The Norman doorway witnesses to a Church in early times.
In the Book of Obits, drawn out anew in 1493, which belonged
to the Nunnery of Kington St. Michael, near Chippenham, occurs
the following :

“January ix. For the soul of Reynold, Bishop of Bath, who gave us our
parsonage of Twyvertone, and for the soules of Savary, late Bishop of Bath
and Glastonbury, and of Jocelyn, late Bishop of Bath, that confirmed to us
by their writing the same,’’*

Reynold was Bishop, 1174—1191, afterwards Archbishop of
Canterbury. He rebuilt St. Mary’s, Bath, St. Michael’s intra
muros, and founded and endowed St. John’s Hospital. Savaric was
Bishop, 1192—1205. Jocelin was Bishop, 1206—1242.

In 1235 Michael of Amesbury, Abbot of Glastonbury, restored the
Church at Kington, and it was re-dedicated to St. Michael, as a
compliment to the Abbot.t The Church at Twerton is now
dedicated to St. Michael, but the village revel, which was generally
held on the vigil of the Saint’s day to whom the Church was
dedicated, used to be kept on June 28th, or the vigil of St. Peter’s
Day. May it not be that the Church of Twerton was likewise re-
dedicated for the same reason, as the parsonage was in the hands of
the Nuns of Kington ?

In 1318 William Malreward gave the Church of Twyvertone to
the Nunnery of Kington. The deed is to be found in New
Monasticon, vol. iv., 398, or in Wilts Magazine, vol. iv., p. 70.
The Church was valued at six marks.t This gift was afterwards
confirmed to the Nunnery by Galfrid Malreward, the grandson of
William. The deed is signed by John, Abbot of Keynsham. This
seems to point out that Twerton had been more or less, though not
altogether (see on), in the possession of the Malrewards since the
time of the Conqueror, as then a portion was held, as we have
seen, by a Gosfrid or Goiffid Malreward. The Malrewards were
people of great distinction possessing land in Somerset, Dorset,
and Devon.

* Wilts Magazine, vol, iv., 61. + Wilts Magazine, ivy. { Collinson, 348,

273

The connection of Twerton with a Nunnery is still traceable in
the names of some of the fields, &¢. One large division of the tithe
ground is called the “ Minchin Barn Estate.” “Minchin” is the
old name for nun; and a smaller portion is named “ Minchin
Garden.” Whether “ Maiden Furlong” has anything to do with it
is doubtful.

But Kington St Michael was not the only Nunnery with which
Twerton was connected. In the appropriation of Twyverton to the
Prioress and Convent of Kyngton, the advowson of which belonged
to them on the resignation of Hugh d’Alresford, the Rector, dated
at Wellington, March 16, 1320, that Church is said to be “ granted
to them and their successors, reserving to the Prioress and Nuns
of Barrow the portion of tithes which the said Prioress and Nuns
lawfully received, and have from old time received, and saving the
Vicarage to be appointed by him at his pleasure.”* This portion
amounted to two marks, which they obtained at a very early period.
It is mentioned in the taxation of Pope Nicholas, 1291. It is
curious that this Convent was founded by the Gournay family, and
that one of the possessors of Twerton in the Domesday is Nigel de
Gournai.

In 1342, in the ordination of William de Dodinton, which is
dated from Evercreech, we find it arranged that the Vicar should
have all the fruits, rents, and profits belonging to the Church, and
the Rectorial House with adjacent curtillage, and that he should
sustain all ordinary and extraordinary burdens, and pay to the
Prioress and Convent (of Kington) one hundred shillings yearly,
and as often as he should be defivient in that payment so often he
Should pay one mark to the building of the Church in Bath, the
Bishop reserving to himself and his successors the power, with
the concurrence of the religious aforesaid, of augmenting. and
diminishing the said Vicarage, and declaring the same ordination in
such manner as to him and his successors should seem fit, The
élaim of the Nuns of Barrow is allowed and enforced in this
ordination. This Bishop was Ralph of Shrewsbury, 1329—63, who
rebuilt the mansion at Evercreech.t

* See Som. Arch, & Nat. Hist. Report, 1863-64, pp. 56, 127.
+ Collinson, iii., 348, Som. Arch, and Nat. Hist, Report 1868—64, p. 67,

274

In 1538 the Rectory of Twyverton, together with other rights
belonging to Kington St. Michael, was handed over to Sir R. Long,
younger brother of Sir H. Long, of Draycote. In the particulars of
this grant the pension annually received from Twyverton is 53s. and
4d. A Robert Long is mentioned in the Parish Registers as Justice
of the Peace in 1656. Since then the living has passed through
various hands, but an account of them, with notices of the different
Vicars, may form a portion of another paper.

Or THE MANor.

In 1262, Thomas de Baiose or Bayeux, and Mary his mother,
held eight knight’s fees and a half in Twertone, Backwell, and
Stoke, of the honour of Gloucester. In 1295 these eight knights’
fees were held by Joceus de Baiose, whose heiress brought this large
estate into the family of Rodney. In 1313 Sir Richard de
Rodeneye possessed the whole village of Twertone, the service due
for which was one knight’s fee, and the reserved rents £27 per
annum. The manor continued in the hands of the Rodeneys till
the time of Queen Elizabeth. Collinson, in giving this account,
says, “ There are several enclosures in this parish which to this day
bear the name of Rodney ;’ but I cannot find any trace of the
name now. He also adds, “In later times it has been much
divided, the late Duke of Chandos, being’ possessed of one third
part thereof, sold it to the respective tenants. Another third part
belonged jointly to the Revd. — England and Wm. Gibbs, of Bath.
At the death of the latter, his moiety of this share was sold to W.
Gore Langton, Esqr., who was before possessed of the other third
part of this manor. John Walker Heneage, Esqr., has also a house
in this parish.” One of the fields is still called “ Heneage’s
Tyning.”

THE REGISTERS.

Parish Registers were first ordered to be kept by Cromwell in the
30th year of King Henry VIII., A.D. 1538. With this year the
Twerton Register of Burials commences; the marriages in 1587 ;
there have been however 19 pages of the oldest register lost, in
which, doubtless, were the baptisms and the earlier marriages. In
1597 a constitution, ‘“begonne at London,” ordered all the
Registers to be newly copied out, and this probably accounts for

3
;
‘

275

the first page or two being all in the same hand and so carefully

written.

‘The population in these days may be somewhat imagined from
there being one marriage in 1587, three in 1588, ‘one in 1589 ;
eleven burials in 1538, six in 1539, none 1540 or 41, none in
1543—1552, none in 1555—1558.

At first the entries are extremely simple. No name of parishes
or parents, no occupations stated :

“Thomas Bigge and Johan Gaye the thirtieth of January,”
is the first marriage entry.

In 1653 an Act was passed directing Registrars to be chosen in
every parish, to be appointed and sworn by a Justice of the Peace.
Anthony Druce was the Registrar in Twerton (he died in 1658),
hence we have, in 1656, the following entry :

“The contract betwene Robert Smalcombe and Elizabeth Lamfer alias
Smalcombe was thrice published at the time appointed by the Act in the
Parish Church of Twiverton, they were married the 24th of November by
Robert Long Justice of the Peace in the presence of Anthony Druce
Registrar Wm. Guiding and others.”

Signs of the troublous times in the 17th century are given by
such evidence as the signatures of ‘S. Maynston, Minister, 1631 ;”
“N. G. Minister, 1635,” neither of whom appear in the Bishop’s
Register at Wells as appointed to the Vicarage; or again by the
paucity of entries, 1642 none, 1643 one, 1644 one burial, no day
named and the writing in a strange hand, 1645, 1646, none, &e.

In 1666 an Act was passed directing that no person should be
buried in any garment not wholly composed of wool, under a
penalty of £5, and another in 1678 requiring the priest to take an
affidavit of the relatives of the deceased person at the time of
interment ; hence not unfrequently we have after the entry of burial
the words, ‘“‘received an affidavit.” The first, however, in the
Twerton Register is in 1722.

The entries sometimes appear to have been made most carelessly,
the names of children baptized forgotten, the names of the brides
omitted, or inserted afterwards, or the year put but not the day,

' &c., &c. These are singular entries.

1725-6 February 27th, there was interred the corps of Thomas Bletchley, an
old batchelor.
B

276

1733 Septr. 11th, was buried an Irishman.

This entry occurs more than once,

1742 April 25, being Low Sunday were married Wm. Falkner (aged zt 66)
and Joanna Atkins (st 20) after lawful publication.
N.B. May 12, A mighty battle ensued,

The following are curious Christian Names :

1593, Gyllyan; 1594, Artilyse; 1612, Gelion; 1717, Sentic; 1636, Cyprian ;
1655, Ortulas; 1699, Parasartis (Parsaytis—fairy-born, was a daughter of
Artaxerxes); 1689, Melior (a Cornish and probably Celtic Name); 1724,
Croslet ; 1728, Doctor ; 1725, Lazarus; 1733, Ichabod; 1732, Artillus.

In 1740 occurs the first double Christian Name, but they are by
no means common till this century.

Or THE CHURCH
As it at present stands little need be said. The Tower and Norman
Doorway and Font are the only portions with any signs of antiquity.
The old building was enlarged in 1816, and again in 1824.
The Doorway was on the south side of the former Church, but
when, thirty years ago, the old Church was pulled down and the
existing structure erected, it was moved to its present position,
Within are some tablets, two of which are interesting.
His age 70
Here lyeth the body
Of William Broade
31 Day of July 1632
Christ| |Matth| |X| | saith |
For sake thy sinnes
and come to mee
and thou shalt have
a kingdomei free
The Broades were a family long connected with Twerton, and can
be traced regularly in the Registers from 1559 till a few years ago.

The other tablet has this inscription :

Farwel uaine world

farwel to trade and building
And all the cumber

which take up the liuing
My thread is spun

and all my glas is run
How wise are they

whose works not lef ondone
Who ere thou art that

—— >

DO lh BE ae ae ee ee

277

looks upon these lines:
Repent belieue and turne

to God betimes

To me to liue is Christ to die is gain

This motto thine

thou hast secur'd the maine
TH ‘Morts Mart 3
Atat: sue 36 A.D.

1681. ©

Lists of Churchwardens and Clerks can be pretty consecutively
made out to as far back as 1631.

There are six bells now in the Tower, all recast in 1724 by
Abraham Rudhall. In the Register occurs this memorandum :
1724 That the pale of five Bells belonging to ye Church of Twiverton were all

recast at Gloucester and made a pale of six by Abraham Rudhall,
Junt Anno Domini 1724.
ewt. qrs. Ibs.
The five old Bells . . 48 02 09
The six new ones Ay eee wees 46 03 12
80 yt ye new Bells are lighter than ye old ones 01 02 25 ~

James Ricu Vicar
SamtL Broap Church
W™ Favuitxner ) wardens
Unfortunately no record was kept of their former inscriptions ;
at present they bear the following :

ft. in,
1. Peace and good neighbourhood, 1724 2 5s
2. Prosperity to this parish, A R, 1724 Pf
3, 1724 2 8
4, Mr. James Rich, Vicar, 1724 2 104
§. Saml. Broad & Wm. Faulkner, ee 1724 3 13
6. I to the Church the living call,

And to the Grave do summonall, 1724 3 5s
_ The Rudhalls were noted bell founders at Gloucester from 1684
to 1828. An eprtaph in Gloucester Cathedral has :

Abraham Rudhall, bell founder, famed for his great skill, beloved and
esteemed for his singular good nature and integrity. Died Jany., 1735; aged
78,

He cast the Abbey, St. James’, St. Michael’s, and other bells in the

neighbourhood.

278

CirotaH MANUFACTURE..
It would be interesting to discover when this was first established
in Twerton. The neighbourhood has since the time of Chaucer -
been famous for this form of industry :

«“ A good Wif was ther of byside Bathe,
But sche was somdel deef, and that was skathe.
Of cloth-makyng sche hadde such an haunt,
Sche passed hem of Ypris and of Gaunt,’

King Edward III., who was friendly to Bath, did much for the
encouragement of trade in wool. In 1331 he invited men from
Flanders, who introduced some new manufacture of cloth. Later
he appointed certain towns as markets for wool; Bristol was one.
Noblemen and members of the Royal family speculated in the
trade. In the close of the 13th century the weirs were ordered to
be removed from the River Avon that the navigation might not be
interrupted, and this was repeated in later years,

In 1659 a coarse kind of cloth, a sort of drugget, having been
hitherto made, a leading clothier in Bradford obtained some
spinners from Holland for the purpose of obtaining through them
the secrets of the manufacture of the finer kinds of cloth. A great
deal of trouble was caused by the fear lest they should become
burdensome to the parish, and the place where they lived was called
the “ Dutch Barton.” In 1674 Mr. Wm. Brewer gave a bond of
£100 to save harmless the parish of Bradford against the “ Dutch-
men.” *

In 1699 Wm Cox is mentioned in the Twerton Registers as a
“ clothier.” In 1722 and on to 1732 there are notices of the
interments of various ‘ Dutchmen,” such as John Jockman, John
Brick, Thos. Michner, John Graft, and in the Church is a tablet to
“‘ Nicholas Graft, of Veit.” In 1729 Mr. Sperin was a drugget
maker, and in 1761 we have mention of no less than six different
trades carried on at the mills, among which were cloth, grist, edge-
tool, and leather-dressing. The cloth was manufactured by a Mr.
Brown. He was succeeded by his son, then by Mr. Naish, afterwards
by Mr. Cooke, who, according to Warner, “employed 300 adults
and 80 children, taking the latter from the Workhouse from 8 to

* See Jones’s History of Bradford, Wilts, Arch, Mag,

279

10 years old, and binding them as apprentices till they were 21.
During which time they are fed, clothed, taught the business of the
trade, and receive a humble but useful education.” There were at
this time two other cloth mills in Twerton, and one on the other
side of the river.

The cloth mills received a great impetus at the arrival of Mr.
Wilkins, in 1808, who during the forty years he was there became
the largest and best manufacturer in the West of England. In
1845 he was joined by Mr. Thos. Carr, brother of the present
manufacturer, and the medals they received in 1851 and 1862 in
England, in 1853 at New York, and 1862 in Australia, prove that
Twerton still maintains the fame of West of England manufacture,
though, as Mr. Earle says in “Bath Ancient and Modern, “ with
far other looms did the good wife of Bath make her cloth 500 years
ago, but perhaps in no other place than that same suburban ©
Twerton where it is still manufactured.”

In 1720 a paper mill existed in Twerton, and appears to have
continued for some time, mention being made of it in 1727 and
1738.

Besides the cloth mills there is also a large carpet factory
belonging to Mr. McMichael. Leather dressing is still also largely
carried on. :

Kineton Sr. MicHaet. ,

This Nunnery, founded before 1155, was dedicated to St. Mary,
Aubrey says by Empress Matild, and that the inmates were subject
to Glastonbury, but he states no authority. Adam de Britone gave
them all his land in Kington; Hugh and Roger Mortimer, lands;
Burnett, Bishop of Bath and Wells, 1274—1292, an acre of land and
the advowson of Church of Kyngton ; Petronilla Bluet gave all her
lands in Beadley ; Richard de Heriet, the Church of Somerford ;
Alexander de Stodleye, granges of Stodleye and Cadenham, -with
tithes of both places and of Redmore ; William de Harptre and
Roger de Villiers tithes in Stures and Sanford: Robert de Brynton,
Churches of Ewerne and Lazartone, the latter of which was con-
firmed by Joce, Bishop of Sarum; William Malreward gave the
Church of Twyvertone, which was afterwards confirmed by Geoffrey
Malreward.

280

Aubrey, in his ‘‘ Collections,” says :

On the east side of the house is a ground facing east, with a delightful
prospect to the south end, called Nymph Hay ; here old Jacques would say he
has seen forty or fifty sisters in the morning spinning with their rocks, and
wheels, and bobbing. He said the number was often 70, He might not be
mistaken in the number for there might be as. many lay sisters and pen-
sioners as nunnes, but nunnes not so many.

The buildings of this Nunnery are stated to have surrounded a
small square court, on the north side of which was the Chapel.
Some arches of the latter, with the buildings round the Chapel,
were standing about 1790. On the east was a large garden
walled round, with two raised terraces. Ina valley in front were
the fishponds of the Nunnery. The house was converted into a
family mansion by Sir R. Long, which Aubrey says was “a very
pleasante seate.” He adds that in his day neither glass, chancel,
nor monument remained in the Chapel. It has long since been
converted into a farmhouse.

Names oF Prioresses oF St. Mary’s, Kineton Sr. MicHaet.

Eleanor. 1280, Claricia; Edith of Bristow; Amice; Christina Charlton ;
Cecilia. 1319, Joan Duredent. 1326, Dionysia; Isabel Husee, 1349, Lucia
Paas. 1431, Alice More. 1434, Joan Donyton; Susanna; Alice Hankerton;
Christina Nye. 1454, Alice Lawrence. 1492, Katherine Moleyns. 1506,
Alice Staunton, 1511, Cicely Bodenham. 1534, Elizabeth Pede; Mary
Dennis.

She was last prioress, and pensioned with £5 a year. She was
of an old family at Pucklechurch, and died in Bristol in 1593 “a
good olde maide, veri vertuose and godlye, and is 8 buried i in the
Church of the Gaunts on the Grene.”

Myncuin Barrow Priory.
Extracts from Somersetshire Archeological and Natural History
Society, 1863—1864.

The founder was without doubt a member of the family of Gournay or
Gurney, lords of Stoke Hamden. (The History of the family has been
written by D. Gurney, Esq., “ Record of House of Gournay,” 4to., Lond.)

It was evidently founded before 1212 for Benedictine nuns and dedicated to
the Blessed Virgin Mary, St. Edward, King and Martyr, and also later to
the Trinity.

Robert de Gournay held land at Engliseumb.

It seems to have been a poorly endowed house, and to have given the Bishops
some trouble in its internal management.

281

PRIORESSES 80 FAR AS KNOWN.—1l. Johanna de Gournay, 1316. 2. Agnes
de Sancta Cruce, 1325. 3. Basilia de Sutton, 1328. 4. Juliana de Groundy,
1340. 5. Agnes Balun, 1348. 6. Margery Fitz Nichol, 1410. 7. Johanna
de Staller, 1432. 8. Agnes Leveregge, 1463 (?). 9. Isabella Cogan, 1502.
10. Katherine Bowle, 1535.

The latter received a pension of a hundred shillings at the dissolution,
1536, On the 20th of March, 1537, the site of the late Priory was leased to
John Drewe, Esq., of Bristol, for 101s. and 8d.

In 1416 the Prioress and Nuns are stated in a return made to
the collectors of the King’s Disme to have a certain annual pension
of 26s. and 8d. in the Parish Church of Twyverton.

By virtue of a mandate, issued at Dogmersfield the last day of
Dec., 1432, a subsidy of two-pence in the pound was levied on all
ecclesiastical benefices for the Council of Basle. The pension of the
Nuns of Barwe in the Church of Twyverton is duly set forth.

On the 16th of March, 1553-4 Isabella Cogan, Prioress of the
House of Nuns of Blessed Mary, Virgin, and of St. Edward, King
and Martyr, of Mynchynbarowe, and the Convent of the same,
leased to farm to John Baber, of Chewstoke, their Rectory of
Twyvertone, and their tithe barn, with all and every kind of tithes,
both of corn and hay, as of all other tithes, oblations, and profits
whatsoever appertaining to the said Rectory.

Mr. Skinner of Camerton. By H. J. Hunter, Esg., M.D. Read
January 3, 1872.

Mr. Skinner, the subject of this paper, was a man whose
character presented itself under very different aspects to the
_ various persons, or classes of persons, who had access to him. Not
alone was there much to excite the sympathies of the gentle and
cultivated, mixed with something not always acceptable to our
ruder neighbours, but there was from time to time frequent change
in him as seen from any fixed point. The barometer of his spirits
showed a wide range of exultant rise and moping fall, and to know
him well required that he should be approached from different
sides and also at different times. It was observed that with
sympathizing friends Mr. Skinner was notably lively and enthu-
siastic, but the presence of a companion whose tone of mind was
tinged with a little bustle or vulgarity would wither him into

282

silence almost morose. It is now thirty-three years since his death,
and no one (so far as I know) has glanced at his character, reviewed
his works or noted the chief incidents of his life. It is under these
circumstances, and in the presence of this omission only, that I
have ventured to undertake to say what I know about this
gentleman, poet, artist, scholar, and dutiful country priest, and to
show of how much more I am ignorant. It is not my purpose to
support his opinions, nor to condemn them, but to make the Club
acquainted with them so far asI can. To persons whose natural
genius leads them to dislike all but the plainest positive reasonings,
much of what Mr. Skinner wrote and said will appear too fanciful,
and his exploded errors hardly worth recalling. There are minds,
however, which feel that in our oldést history, far beyond the reach
of chronicles and traditions—where a few names or a few stones are
all that remain to help the ethnological historian, that in these
misty regions the veil of antiquity is more likely to be lifted by the
happy guess of an imaginative mind, taking a sort of bird’s-eye view
of the labours of other explorers, than through that diligent pursuit
of minute evidence by which the secret stories of more modern
times have been discovered. As an illustration I may mention
that so early as the year 1815 I find it was known to Mr. Skinner
and his friends “that a separation and distinction can be made of
the higher and lower periods of British sepulture,” an important
truth which has in our time received a perfect demonstration.
When your attention is asked to Mr. Skinner’s opinions, I do not
mean to ask more than that a man of singularly tasteful scholar-
ship, who in days when Antiquarian Field Clubs were not, occupied
his leisure in the pursuits which occupy our leisure, should be
remembered by us, who may in some sense be considered as his
successors and heirs to a delightful field of observation. Half a
century hence some one will perhaps recall our days to a strange
audience in this very room.

John Skinner, afterwards F.S.A. and Rector of Camerton, was
the son of Russel Skinner, of Newtown, in Hampshire, Esquire, and
was born in 1770 at the old Hall at Claverton, where his mother,
who had been a Miss Page of Tottenham, resided. When eight
years old, the duel fought close by between Barry and Rice made

a

283

on him a dark impression which, as he said, was never effaced, and
this, together with the gloomy beauty of the old place, may have
contributed something to the poetry and melancholy of his
character. He was sent to school at Cheam, and thence to Trinity
College, Oxford, where he took his degree of M.A., in 1797.
Although he had been entered at Lincoln’s Inn, the living of
Camerton was purchased for him, and he was inducted in the year
1800, when 30 years old.

Habits of industrious historical research began with him early,
and lasted his life. What he may have done in this domain of
study, is, I suppose, known hardly to anyone, nor will the secret of
his labours be revealed until fifty years shall have passed over his
grave, and the authorities of the British Museum, released by lapse
of time from the obligations of Mr. Skinner's will, consent to an
examination of his manuscripts. He sketched admirably and with
much industry ; his constant aim was the preservation of remains or
written matter which seemed in danger of destruction, and after a
visit to Britanny he brought home a very excellent set of drawings
and memoirs about the Druidical monuments at Carnac. In
addition to his published works and the volume we have here, out
of which Mr. Scarth, in the sixteenth volume of the Institute
Journal, has edited the account of the Mendip Barrows, he had
above a hundred bound quarto volumes, containing diaries and
drawings made on tours in England, France, and Scotland, with
many original and valuable observations. All these and many
others of his writings are now sleeping at the British Museum, and
few of us will ever see them.

I am content, however, to leave this great part of the subject,
and in this paper to endeayour little more than to give a short
outline of Mr. Skinner’s peculiar views on our own local topography,
and to convey some idea of his personal character. Of course, like
the rest of the world, he had his etymologic theory, and this had
for its basis the principle that in a Celtic language every sound or
particle, and as he would sometimes say, every letter, should in all
words have a separate significance ; that our topographical nomen-
elature is to be referred to the very infancy of society ; that such
particles as ic, or ab, or am, were employed by a primitive popu-

284

lation to designate and describe particular points of land, and that
these have grown up in different combinations to our modern stock
* of local names. Even names which seem to bear the most manifest
evidence of Saxon origin were by him supposed (except in some
rare cases) to be these primitive syllables with additions. He
extended this theory to the written literal characters, and used to
say that S was a winding and hissing stream, both in the form of
the character and the sound to be represented. Though somewhat
similar schemes have been attempted by Dr. Murray and others,
still his system of language, like his topographical system, was
quite an original conception of his own, whether on the large scale
on which he proposed to explain the whole of the British topo-
graphical nomenclature, or in the smaller local matters with which
we, for the present time, more usually connect hisname. Although
a notice of this theory, prepared by himself, may be found in
Mr. Warner’s Glastonbury, Mr. Skinner confidently proposed to
publish at large upon it, and for the publication of his manuscript
“ Analysis of the Original Names of Places, with a Reference to a
Primitive Language” he left £1000 by will, which fact brings me to
explain that he had derived very considerable property from
members of the Manningham family with whom he was connected
by marriage. Asa sample of his enthusiastic way of talking, it
may be mentioned that Mr. Skinner used to say that the mounds
and hollows on Hampton Down were the finest remains of a British
settlement he ever saw. Artificial work is here clearly traceable,
and in the blackened earth rude pottery occurs, but no skeletons nor
metallic remains have been, so far as I know, found. Mr. Skinner,
however, could never see difficulties, and said the circles had been
rifled long ago. In 1830 Mr. Hunter read at this Institution
a paper of Mr. Skinner's “On the Early History of Bath,” which
proved to be an attempt to show that the name of Bath is not
given to the place in respect of its being a place for bathing, but
that the name Badun existed as the name of this fortified hill on
Hampton Down, the Dunum of the Water Passage, as he analyses
it, and that this became in the mouths of the Saxons, Bathun.
The subject of the paper was allowed to expand into a summary of
the earlier Roman affairs in the South of England, or rather in the

285

small circle within which he professed to find the whole theatre of
the British war,

When he went to reside upon his living of Camerton he was
frequently being presented with coins and little pieces of pottery
or metal, which were found in the fields belonging to his parish or
the adjacent one of Radstock, near the line of the Fosse Road from
Bath to Ilchester. He was persuaded that there was something of
importance to be found there, and about 1816 he set about a
complete investigation of the place. The result was that he
uncovered the foundations of twelve or fourteen houses, and found
many hundred coins of all ages from the settlement of the Romans
in Britain to their departure, also many fibule and small instru-
ments, portions of pottery and the lower half of a female statue.
All this left no doubt that there had been a fixed settlement of
Romans at that place. Mr. Skinner could find no notice of it any-
where, nor any name which could be applied to it, when at length
he hit upon the bold hypothesis that this Camerton was no other
than the Camulodunum of Tacitus, and that the authorities have
been altogether wrong in placing that celebrated station in the
eastern provinces of the island. In 1823 he published five coloured
engravings of a pavement found in a Roman villa at Wellow,
about two miles from Camerton, a discovery of vast importance
to him, as this pavement will rank with any in the kingdom for
beauty of workmanship, and may therefore be assigned to an early
time, say the second century.

The establishment of his Camulodunal hypothesis was the point
to which nearly all his reading and thinking afterwards became
directed. An outline of his argument was laid before the Bristol
Institution, and was placed in the hands of Sir Henry Ellis, to be
read to the Society of Antiquaries. Mr. Phelps’s Somersetshire
(throughout which book you will remark that the place is named
Camalodunum, in agreement with Mr. Skinner’s rejection of the
derivation of the name from the god Camulus) contains observations
by himself and Mr. Skinner on the subject, and we may assume
Mr. Phelps to have agreed with Mr. Skinner, as also seems to do a
member of our Club in a Paper lately read before another local
society.

286

The evidence begins with the desirableness of Camerton as a
residence on account of its strong position and its proximity to the
lead ‘mines. There is no doubt that the early invaders of our
country, down to English times, valued her most for the yield of
metals, and this would influence their choice of a locality for settled
residence and central government. It is but a general probability,
but as in the distribution of Roman roads of the second class, one
sees that mineral traffic was the matter of importance, and as one
hears of no other export unless of slaves and fish, the probability
may be worthy of notice. Czesar, Mr. Skinner goes on to say,
describes the continental settlements of the Belge as Dunums or
Downs several miles round, on which the people formed groups of
villages, the intervening country being morass and forest bare of
inhabitants. These hills were not regular fortified cities, but
nevertheless had lines of defence and thus resembled the
Camulodunum of Tacitus. Now, though Sir Richard Hoare treats
Camerton as a mere vicus or village on the Fossway, we may
perhaps go with Mr. Skinner safely so far as to admit that the
great down on which the remains were found was a Dunum of
British Belgze, but the second step he asks us to take, that this was
a Camulodunum, is much less sure. In our local nomenclature
Cam and Camel are supposed to mean winding streams, and
rejecting the patronage of the God Camulus, Cam, Mr. Skinner
says, is the name of the stream which moated his Dunum ; he
appositely quotes Domesday for the earliest mention of Camerton, .
where it is spelt Camelerton, and it is certainly possible that there
were more Camulodunums than one in Britain. Then comes the
third step, more than dangerous; he says that Camerton is the
Camulodunum of Tacitus and Dion. In A.U.C. 803 or A.D. 50,
Ostorius was in command in Britain, and lead of about that date,
that is the ninth tribuneship of Claudius, has been found in
Mendip. Ostorius made a chain of forts from the Severn to a
river whose name has been read Antona and Aufona. To oppose
this fortification the Iceni made war, and were defeated. The Iceni
are usually thought to be East Britons, and the reading Aufona
with the translation, the Nen or Northamptonshire river, have the
authority of Richard of Cirencester, and of Camden, and an obvious

287

consistency. But Mr. Skinner reads Antona, the Anton or
Southampton Water, and says the chain of forts ran across from
Southampton to the Severn. To avoid discursiveness little may
now be said of the rather meaningless proposition to render the
name of the river by Avon. Many rivers were in the historian’s
time, as in ours, so called, and the limitation imposed by the name
Avon brings us little nearer to the truth. The camps of Glouces-
tershire may in a sense be said to run from the Severn to either of
two Avons, but so may also the Wansdyke be said to run from the
Severn toa third Avon. At one time Mr. Skinner seems to have
favoured the view of the Wansdyke being this line of Roman
fortified boundary, a proposition which may I believe be discarded,
and the question, if there is a question, be debated between the
advocates of the Nen and the Anton exclusively. To proceed with
the story, Ostorius then attacks the Cangi, and while in their
country he hears of a rising among the Brigantes. The General
returns and makes all safe in his rear. I am quoting Tacitus, I
feel the difficulty of the passage, and I think with Mr. Skinner that
these Brigantes could not have been the great northern nation of
that name who were then almost unknown, though we cannot be
quite so sure that the Cangi were not, as is by many supposed, a
north-western people. It is, however, part of Mr. Skinner’s theory
that the Cangi were the inhabitants of Somersetshire, where the

particle Can is common in topographical nomenclature, and that.
the Brigantes of the story were the people of the country round
Bristol. Briga, he says, is the etymon of the name Bristol, and
means a passage over water. To his southern Brigantes and
Cangi, Mr. Skinner adds a nation of Iceni, seated on the Itchen, in
Hampshire, and on this point he is supported by a happy conjecture
of Lipsius that the Iceni and Cangi of Tacitus were really no more
than the Ceni Magni of Cesar, who seem to have lived in the

south west, though of course it must be remembered that the Iceni
themselves are called Cenimanni in Richard’s Itinerary of the East
of Britain. As if dealing with the same war, Tacitus goes on to
say that the Silures, whom all allow to have lived across the Severn,
were not so easily quelled, and a long war ensues, in preparation
for which Ostorius plants a colony of veterans at Camulodunum.*

* Annals, book xii., c. 32.

288

And where was that ? Some respectable names of old antiquaries
may be quoted in support of the theory that these wars of Ostorius
were on a small scale, and were confined to the south-west, and that
Cadbury, or some such place, was the site of Camulodunum. On
the other hand the great majority of historians believe the wars to
have extended all over the island, and that the colony was placed
in the east. Camulodunums have been set up at Doncaster, at
Saffron Walden, and at Castle Camps in Cambridgeshire, besides at
Maldon the site ascribed to the city by Camden, and the now
almost universally accepted Colchester, Of this diversity among
his opponents Mr, Skinner made much fun, and compared the
clippings and the stretchings to which the Itineraries were
subjected by our predecessors to the efforts of a short fat parish
clerk to fit to his back the cast-off clothes of his tall thin rector.
The first notice of the city is the capture by Aulus Plautius, in the
reign of Claudius, of KapévA0déuvov 75 rod Kuvofedivod BactAéov,
the regal seat of a man, or, as Mr. Skinner, without sufficient
evidence and although Cunobelin’s predecessors and successors of
various names are recorded, says of a dynasty, named Cunobelin,
which he translates Belgic king, when the king retreated into South
Wales, and the Romans fortified the Severn. Coins of Cunobelins,
certainly with very varied portraits, have been found with the
letters c.4.M., and in an inscription the god Camulus is named in
connection with Cunobelin. This strengthens Dion’s statement of
Camulodunum having been the seat of Cunobelin, and if Mr.
Skinner’s translation Belgic king is admitted, we must place
Camulodunum in Belgic territory, which we know pretty well to
have been in the south-west. In A.U.C. 814 (A.D. 61), Suetonius
is in command,* and is resolved to subdue Anglesey, but while
there he hears of a revolt of Iceni, to whom the Trinobantes
joined. The insurgents’ cause must have appealed strongly to Mr.
Skinner’s feelings. It seems that the people around Camulodunum
were irritated by the diversion of their religious offerings from their
own clergy to the priests who ministered in the new temple erected
to Claudius, made a secret cause with Boadicea a chieftainess of
the Iceni, and suddenly attacked the colony. And where was this

* Annals, book xiv., c. 32.

289

despoiled place of Druidie worship but at Stanton Drew, and where
was this new temple in honour of Claudius which so vexed the
Britons, this Templum Claudii?’ “ Why,” says Mr. Skinner, “at
Temple Cloud, to be sure,” and a happier hit could hardly be made.

Before Suetonius could relieve the garrisons, London and Verulam,
as well as Camulodunum, were destroyed by the barbarians, The
mention of the Trinobantes, and of these towns, points to the east,
and now we come to a much disputed passage of Tacitus. Before
the ruin of Camulodunum presages were observed, and among them
a mirage in the “estuary,” the Severn, says Mr. Skinner, the
Thames, say the rest of the world. The passage, as it was at first
read, and so is found in MSS. in the Bodleian, Harleian, and other
libraries, as well as in the early printed editions, runs thus, “ visamq
speciem in estuar notam esse subverse colonize,” but the new
reading, which is now almost universally accepted, is the change of
*‘eestuar notam esse” into “zstuario tamesse.” This correction
owes as much, perhaps, to its agreement with Dion, as to the intrinsic
evidence of its truth, and it of course found no favour with Mr.
Skinner, who condemned the passage in Dion itself as a mere
augmentation by Xiphilin. The geographers, however, are all
against the western Camulodunum. Ptolemy and the Ravenna
geographer mention Camulodunum as the capital of the Trinobantes,
who, according to Dion, lived near the Thames. Richard of
Cirencester, with the other Itinerary, places a Camulodunum
between London and Norwich, and says “Ibi erat Templum
Claudii, Arx triumphalis et Imago Victorie Dez.” With charac-
teristic impetuosity, Mr. Skinner discards the mutilated old things,
and as for Richard, his work is nothing but a forgery of Stukeley’s,
and if genuine would be of no authority.

There is little to be added to the story, and in telling it to his
friend Mr. Douglas, author of the Neenia Britannica, he says, “ if
my foundations are faulty, tell me in time, for I do not wish my
Camalodunum to become a Caraboo,” an allusion nowadays scarcely
understood even in Bath. This was his truthful spirit, and his
hypothesis must not be called vanissimum mendacium, as Buchanan
said of Boece’s attempt to place Camulodunum at Camelon, on the
Carron, in Scotland.

290

At the present time among those who have paid attention to the
subject there are few or none, except some of our neighbours whose
Civic spirit may obscure the evidences and allure from the plainer
path, who do not accept Colchester as the site of the old and
famous city in question. The debate, it must be understood, is
not merely on the site of Camulodunum, but it carries with it this
great question, for Mr. Skinner’s theory involves no less than this:
—Were the events recorded by Tacitus and Dion spread over
Britain as we have mostly been taught to suppose, or were they
acted on a very small scale in a very small corner of the Island,
as Mr, Skinner would infer? _

It is no part of my intention to answer this question, for to do
so would be to repeat the ordinary story, so often told, yet still so
interesting, of Boadicea and her conquerors ; to tell you that which
is almost universally known, and as universally applied to the
South Eastern counties. What I have had to do was to set before
you this pretty quarrel! as it stands, I venture to think that, just
as he does of those Itineraries of the eastern counties, Mr. Skinner
makes too little of the noble remains at Colchester, and too much
of the argument that Colchester and Verulam, being nortb of the
Thames, could not have been included in the Province, or Britannia
Prima at all, and also of Pliny’s rather loose measurement of 200
miles instead of 300 miles of distance from Camulodunum to
Anglesey, where Suetonius was engaged when the war began.
Although it is true that the Thames is described as the northern
boundary of Britannia Prima, still the countries now called Essex,
Herts, and Middlesex, containing as they undoubtedly do, both
Verulam and London, cannot be taken as excluded from that
Province, and Thames is perhaps a name of not very definite
signification, The name Camulodunum soon disappears from
history, and Colchester, the successful rival of Camerton, is known
to the British writers as Caer Collon, which name seems to mean
no more than the Colony. In the story of Helena, the empress’s
father is usually named, ‘‘ Coel, king of Colchester.” Coel may
have been a Roman governor of British nationality, still the name
and title excite just suspicion, and we may, I think, disbelieve that
the musical court of the empress’s merry old father was ever held

291

in the towers of Cymbeline, whether they stood at Colchester or
at Camerton.*

It is worthy of remark that the ghost of Taliesin is made to say,

“‘T have been in Whitehill

In the court of Cynvelyn.”
I do not know whether use can be made of this Whitehill to aid
the advocates of either theory. The name has been explained by
the White Tower of London, and I can see nothing in it to help
Mr. Skinner. Indeed, like everthing else, the early date of this
Taliesin has itself come lately to be called in question. I may
here mention also that Mr. Thomas Leman, of Bath, whose com-
petence in judging of these matters equalled if it did not excel
that of any of his contemporaries, thought that the capital of
Cunobelin was at Lexden, but that on the Roman occupation it
was removed to Colchester, no great distance.

On the announcement of the Camerton theory, Sir Richard Colt
Hoare, in 1827, sent to afew of his Bath friends a pamphlet of
which only twenty-five copies were printed at Shaftesbury, and
which is now one of the rarissimi of local book collectors. It was
a letter to the Bristol Society intended-to overthrow Mr. Skinner,
and to support the Colchester view. Writing to Mr. Hunter, Sir
Richard says, “I do not recollect if I sent you CamuLODUNUM,
Hoare versus Skinner. I could not suffer such false doctrine to be
disseminated in our county. But my reverend friend is still
pertinax propositi and will not yield. But he has not an inch of
ground to stand upon. Send one copy to your Institution, and
keep the other. Truly yours, R. C. H., Stourhead.” Mr. Skinner
was rather warm in the controversy, and dismissed right and left as
interpolations, passages which did not fit his view. To Sir Richard,
whom he calls his patron, and whom he compliments in his principal
known poetical work, he writes amusing letters in a figurative style.
Sir Richard’s friend, Mr. Meyrick, in his caricature of the Stour-
head topographers, speaks of

“ Verlucio’s Offer skilled in Celtic Runem,
And he the famed Seer of Camulodunum,

* In the romantic story of Arthur there appears a Helena, daughter of
King Hoel, but Colchester is not, I believe, there associated with the family.
Cc

292

Of roots and derivatives many had he,
And of Temple Cloud too th’ etymologee.”’

With the rest of Sir Richard’s antiquarian friends, Mr. Skinner’s
portrait by Smith ornamented Stourhead. On the 11th of August,
1814, Sir Richard Hoare opened a barrow at Avebury, and Mr.
Skinner made the day the subject of his verse. The poem is called
Beth Pennard ; it has never been printed, although Mr. Douglas
in a letter to his friend the author, promises it a favourable recep-
tion. I must read you a few fragments, not now for the sake of
diction and versification, which here and there may be mended, but
for the familiarity with Celtic usages there shown, and the illustra-
tions it contains of the spirit of the author.

“ Fleeting ages have sped,

As light as clouds o’er yon green hillock’s head,
Which shrouds a chief’s remains.

Serene he sleeps. °

. tho’ closing round
Contending warriors shook the ground,
When charged the scythed car,
When Belgic clansmen, vainly brave,
Fell choked in blood beside his grave,
Transfixed by Roman spear.

And still he slept,. Ah! woe! the while,
E’en while profaning Abury’s pile,
Unawed by curses dire,
Their ruthless hands the hierarch slew,
And heaps of willing victims threw
To glut his altar fire.

The spirit slept, and slept serene,

Tho’ once he prized the sacred scene
Beyond all earthly store ;

Treading with awe the serpent’s maze,

At the huge sarsons oft would gaze,
Bend lowly and adore !”’

For much he prized the Druid band, and often sacrificed on the

hallowed stones.

“« Freely he gave, though valued most,
For herds exchanged on Cornwall’s coast
His azure beads of glass,

293

His ivory studs and rings of jet,
His amber drops, and, costlier yet,
His knives of Punic brass.

These gifts on Abury’s seers bestowed,
Expressed the gratitude he owed
For counsels well received.
Then till his death their blessings gave,
Then laid the chieftain in his grave,
The barrow heaped—and grieved,
* * * # &

I see the slowly moving train
In trunk of oak the corpse sustain
Down Silbury’s arduous height ;
For there the funeral rites begun,
Assembled there, the rising sun
They watched through mists of night.
And, as it dawned, with sprigs of yew
They sprinkled his pale corpse with dew,
Prefiguring the hour
When like the splendid sun will rise
His soul immortal to the skies,
Pure as the dewy shower.

And now the foremost ranks proceed,
In silence reach the serpent’s head
Where sarsons mark the ground,
Then hand in hand each Druid joins,
Filling the mystic circle’s lines,
While thousands halt around,”

Then the hierarch publicly addresses the deity. His address is
hopeful and almost Christian, and ends: —

“ From earth ascend to heaven above.
* * * * *

» For this our brother lift your prayer,
And joy in hope to meet him there,’

And here I would ask whoever may read this poem at length to
view it not only as a reflection of Mr. Skinner’s knowledge and
taste in antiquities, but to watch his poetic and religious sentiment.
I have no doubt he entered with personal feelings of reverence even
into the Druidic rites. Our ancestors’ superstitions lost their
grossness in his spiritual mind, he could fix his thoughts on their

294

highest idea, and could forget all which we, of a grosser clay, wish
we could forget. The chorus replies in the same spirit :
“The harpings stilled their charge again,
From Hackpen bears the funeral train
Towards Abury’s sacred groves,
Marshalled the host in order due
Along the winding avenue ‘
The mute procession moves.”

Then, no longer mute, come the bards, and then the soldiery.
The mob pours out of painted huts

Like beehives heaped on stages round
Above the velvet green.

An allusion, doubtless to the terraces and escarpments on Salisbury
Plain and Marlborough Downs.

‘¢ And now the leaders reach the lines,
Where serpent’s neck the body joins.

Here groups of sarsons bald and white,

Like ghastly spectres daunt the sight,
Forth starting from the gloom,

Averting rash offender’s feet,

From this lone spot, this last retreat,
Where Druids love to roam.”

A white steer is sacrificed. The poet proceeds to declare the
Dracontia to be—

« All emblematic to the eye,
Of that dread term Eternity.”

And of that

“‘ Great cause whence springs the endless chain,
Who was, and is, and ever must remain.” ;

To proceed :—
‘Slowly their winding course pursue,
The hosts through western avenue,
Describing sinuous maze,
Of serpent’s tail—this barrier past
The mournful bearers halt at last,
Beside the chieftain’s grave.

“Two feet beneath the verdant glade,
By bards a narrow cyst is made,
Yet ample to contain

295

Those listless limbs, in speed and force,
Which rivalled once the fleetest horse,
Light bounding o’er the plain.”

Then again the Archdruid addresses the multitude, he orders a
cup of dew to be put beside the corpse, telling the people that it
will be 2000 years before the cup will be found empty,

** When "tis decreed, I hail the sign,
The grave its treasure must resign,
To a kind chief who will revere,

A chieftain’s relics buried here,
One who with us delights to ken
The ancient works of Celtic men,”

The “ kind chief” is of course Sir Richard Hoare, and the critic
will remember that a similar thought is to be found in one of
Bowles’ published poems.

Mr. Skinner published his account of the Wansdyke in, as I
suspect, though I have not seen it, a separate pamphlet, and he
contributed to the Archzologia his account of the new discoveries
made on the Roman Wall since General Roy’s book appeared.

I have been led to take the more interest in Mr. Skinner’s
character, because he was, from the time of their first introduction
by Mr. Warner in 1817, to nearly the time of Mr. Skinner’s death,
a sympathetic friend and fellow antiquary of Mr. Joseph Hunter.
Of a visit made to Camerton in 1820, I find an account in Mr.
Hunter’s diary. ‘I spent a very pleasant day with Mr. Skinner
yesterday. I found him living with his son and daughter at the
rectory house which he has embellished with the hand of true
taste, and not less so the five acres of ground which adjoin it.
We walked to see a beautiful piece of the Fossway, about two
miles from his house. His theories are too bold for any more
cautious temper. In the embellishment of his house and grounds
he seems to have been eminently successful. There is not the
fritter and glitter of the Leasowes, there is more of a just economy
combined with the elegance, and the inscriptions which abound
are in purer taste. In the porch he has the Votum Horatii, and I
could not but observe one thing which none but a very tasteful
antiquary would have thought of. Barker of Bath had painted a

296

portrait of a great trout which he had taken. This he gave to
Skinner, who has suspended it in his porch, having added the word
IX@YS: serva nos, in characters, but just perceptible. In the hall
there are the more curious of the remains which have been dis-
covered at his supposed Camulodunum, and in the windows in
stained glass, and in other parts of the house he has figured
British and Romano-british emblems, and especially such as relate
to Cunobelin and Boadicea.”

In January, 1866, some members of our Club visifed Camerton,
and read with delight the memorials of Mr. Skinner and his family.
But the old Rectory house and grounds had given way to modern
requirements, and nothing of him was to be seen there except his
parchment protest in favour of his own Camalodunum, entered
with quoted authorities, in the parish register, and a certain grace
and amenity which seemed not to have deserted the house. Within
the Church (which was chiefly distinguished by fine altar tombs to
members of the Carew family) is a tablet to Mrs. Skinner, on which
is inscribed :—

THAT WORTH NO RECORD NEEDS ON PAGEANT STONE,
WHOSE PRAISE SURVIVES WHEN HUMAN PRIDE IS GONE.

Not far from the Church a fount of water is arched over with a.
number of Roman bricks and pottery pieces, besides which lies a
quern, and an inscription tells us that the arch was built as a
memorial of the great history of Camerton :

NE VESTIGIA ROM
PER TOTUM FERE
CAMALODUNI
AGRUM DISPERSA
SINT ADVENIS
OMNINO INVISA
HUNO ARCUM
E RUDERIBUS
ZDIFICIORUM
SUBLAPSORUM
JOH. SKINNER
CONGERI FECIT
A.D, MDCCCXVIII.

But it is the Churchyard which exhibits Mr. Skinner’s music and
pensiveness to most advantage. On the four sides of a small altar
tomb are these inscriptions :

297

The east side of the tomb is inscribed :

HIOC JACET

ANNA SKINNER

OBIIT

A.D. MDCCCXII.

TU SECURA JACES
NOBIS RELIQUISTI QUERELAS
PRAISTI HOSPITIUM DULCE

PARARE TUIS
VALE SED NON IN ZTERN,
VALE CHARISSIMA ANNA

On the south side :—
FLOS FUIT
M. Sz.
LAURZ SKINNER
VIXIT ANN. XIII.
M. XI. D. VI.
OBIIT D. MAII XXIII.
A.D. MDCCCXX.
DULCISS. VALE
ASPICE QUAM SUBITO MAROCET QUOD FLORUIT ANTE
ASPICE QUAM SUBITO QUOD STETIT ANTE CADIT
HEU FUIT EXIMIA SPECIE MIROQUE DECORE
MEMBRAQUE ERANT VERE PECTORE DIGNA SUO

That on the west is an inscription rather enigmatical :—

MS. + JS.

CUM VIDISSET PASTOR
OVES SUAS DISPERSAS
PASSIM BALANTES
PEDUMQUE FRACTUM
ET VOCEM EJUS GREGI
OMNINO INGRATAM
TOTO GEMUIT CORDE
ET DOLORE TABESCENS

VITAM AGIT MOLESTAM
IN CAULA
SED MUNERE PERFUNOTO
HIC ILLE TANDEM QUIESCAT
HIC PACE FRUATUR SUAVI
HOSTILIS QUAMVIS IN AGRO
SIT STRATUS CAMALODUNI*™

On the north we read:

genitive qualifying ‘‘ Camaloduni,” but if so hostili agro would be an improved
reading too obvious to have been overlooked by Mr, Skinner,

298

MORS NOBIS
JANUA VITE
HE SUNT CAREX TUZ
MEZQUE SEDES
HEC CERTA DOMUS
HO COLENDA NOBIS
HEC EST QUAM MIHI
DESTINAVI VIVUS

To this another hand has added :-—

HUJUS LOCI CAMERTON
ALIAS CAMELERTON
OLIM CAMALOD,
RECTOR.

OB. ANN. DOM. MDCCCXXXIX,
#7, SUH LXVIII.

Alas! men do not shape their ends. In the reasonable hope
there expressed, as in others, poor Mr. Skinner was disappointed.
A feeling of deep awe must sink into a man’s heart who reads these
pathetic aspirations by the light of the future. It was no vulgar
sorrow, though it was a sorrow from a vulgar cause, which drove
poetry and scholarship from Mr. Skinner’s mind. The study of
antiquity was but the amusement of his leisure, his duty was that
of a parish priest, and it was in that character that he was to
suffer in the cause of enlightenment and religion. After another
visit to Camerton during which Mr. Skinner seems to have opened
his heart to him about his troubles, Mr. Hunter writes as follows :
—‘“ Looking upon this beautiful residence, seeing the owner a
gentleman of refined taste, of extensive acquirements, with various
objects of interesting pursuit, withall of a very amiable disposition,
with a good fortune, promising children, and many friends and
acquaintance, one would be apt to say, surely this man if any is
happy! The last inscription, even when all allowance is made for
the melancholy which should attend the sepulchre, shows a sorrow
of another kind, which indeed is sometimes apparent in his con-
versation. He has all the wilder species of methodism around
him, ignorant preachers among the colliers of his parish, so that
his church is almost deserted. Hine illze lachrymz !”

Mr. Hunter pursues the subject with observations upon the
good, and the alleged evil of placing persons of learning, taste and
sentiment in the office which Mr. Skinner held. His argument is

299

strong, and though his language is strong it is only through fear of
Mr. Chairman that I withhold it. Mr. Skinner’s tender conscience
and fine taste could not bear rough usage. He had a law suit,
and thought he had a standing claim to some withheld tithe, and he
found a dispute with his parishioners a very different thing from
a controversy among polite and friendly antiquaries.

The year 1831-2 was in many respects not a happy time for
country parsons, and there were sorry people who found delight in
tormenting with their threats and forebodings sensitive men who
had made the clergy their profession. I then remember Mr.
William Lisle Bowles coming into our house on Belvedere with the
air of a man who had a mob at his heels, and anticipating with
tears the destruction of his beautiful parsonage at Bremhill by
incendiaries. In that year Mr. Skinner’s son died at his house of
a decline, and the family was seriously agitated by the visit of the
cholera. In that year a friend writes‘of him, “Skinner is very
lively and ingenious, said to be sometimes hasty, but he has much
to try his patience among the farmers of Camerton.”

As in mind so was Mr. Skinner irritable in bodily system, and
in the pangs of neuralgia he sought the fleeting friend of irritable
men—opium. His mind fell from her seat, and then he fell, and
in such a way that, although when the Pastor calls his sheep
together he will not be forgotten, still to the visitor to Camerton
his tomb is not, and can never be exactly that which he in hopeful
and poetic, though even then in pensive thought designed it.

The Viper: its Character and Species. By H. Brrp, M.D. Read
January 17, 1872.

The common viper of Great Britain, and of most parts of the
continent of Europe (wpera berus, Daudin—coluber berus, Linn :), is
the most poisonous of European reptiles. It rarely exceeds two
feet in length. The upper portion of the head is protected by a
few plate-like scales, somewhat larger than the others. The usual
colour is pale ashy-brown above, with a space between the eyes,
and a patch on each side of the occiput deep brown or black. A
zigzag band of black (composed sometimes of confluent spots) extends

300

along the back from the nape to the tail, with a parallel row of
small black spots on each side. The abdomen and sub-caudal
region are steel blue, sometimes marbled by a yellowish tint,
sometimes uniform, or nearly black. The abdominal plates are
about one hundred and forty-five, the sub-candal about thirty-five.

The aspic, vipera aspis, is a species nearly allied to the preceding,
of which it is by some regarded as a variety, and of which it seems
to assume the place in the south-western countries of Europe,
extending as far as the island of Sicily. Its form is more slender,
its head larger, its top covered by irregularly-formed scales, and
the muzzle is slightly turned up. The aspic is the species which
served the experiments of Redi, Charas, and Fontana. This
species was reported to have been found in some parts of Devon-
shire, on the borders of Dartmoor. Last year more than two
dozen vipers were obtained, but not one of that species was found
among them.

The male viper differs greatly from the female in form and
colour. It gradually tapers from the horny scale on the point of
the tail to the vent, and from that part to the head ; the spots and
zigzag markings on the body, and the V mark on the head, are
nearly black; the body is generally of an ash-colour, varying
to olive green, and in young ones there are red or copper-coloured
tinges on the neck and sides. Vipers vary much from very
dark yellow, almost black, to olive green and light ash colour.
All young vipers are copper-coloured with brown marks, and
have lead-coloured bellies. The teeth in the male are larger and
stronger than in the female, and there are two or three, and
even four fangs on each side of the mouth. The caudal glands
are double the length of those organs in the female, and the male
organ is protuberant, and armed with two curved bony hooks. It
has a long melt like a fish, lobulated kidneys, and a swallow of
from seven to nine inches long, expanded in the throat, and also
where it joins the stomach. The lower trachea, or windpipe, and
all the organs are of an elongated character. The male viper is
much more active than the female. It is called in Devonshire the
black viper, and its bite, though seldom fatal to animals of a
moderate size, is considered more venomous than that of the female.

301

The female viper is thicker than the male, and the tail is short
and stumpy. The V mark on the head, and the zigzag and round
spot marks on the body are generally brown; and the general
colour is more yellow or orange than in the male. The teeth are
smaller, and there are from one to two or three fangs on each
side of the mouth, and they are not so large as in the male. The
caudal glands are only half the length of those of the male. The
organs are all elongated as in the male; and the ova vary in
number on each side, from nine to fourteen, more or less, and are
in different stages of development. The movements of the female,
especially after feeding, are much more sluggish and slow than
those of the male, and for this reason it can be easily destroyed.
The knowledge of the production of vipers is very imperfect ;
from one to four or five may be born about the same time;
vipers pass from fourteen to twenty young, which are equally
savage with the older ones, between April and the end of September,
during which time the whole of the ova arrive at maturity.
The young viper when first born is coiled up in the form of
a “true lovers’ knot,’ surrounded with a most fine and delicate
membrane. It is five or six inches long, and a quarter of an
inch thick, very lively and active, and capable of taking care of
itself: its teeth being perfect it can bite and feed, and does not
continue with the old one, but quickly escapes and carries out an
andependent existence. It is rare to see old and young vipers
together. Young vipers are generally found separate and alone,
under stones or gliding through dry grassy spots, or coiled up on
rocks, stones, and dry grass in sunny spots.

Vipers feed freely upon the short-tailed field mouse ; no other
food was discovered in the stomachs of any that were killed upon
Lansdown, or in Devonshire ; they invariably swallow the mouse
head foremost, and when squeezed out of the stomach it is covered
' with slimy mucus, the tail first appearing in the mouth, and the body
scratched by the oblique teeth, and often some hair also removed.
A part of the mouse only is in the stomach, the tail and hind
parts are in the swallow, therefore not digested ; and digestion
slowly and completely extends from the head to the rest of the
body. It is astonishing what a large field mouse a small viper

302

can swallow. The viper never attempts to bite unless disturbed
and irritated. In the neighbourhood of Cheltenham a young lad
was bitten in Red Wood, in the act of picking a flower, a viper
being coiled up beneath it: he suffered some days from the bite,
but eventually recovered. A friend of mine was nearly bitten in
gathering a cucumber, a male viper being coiled up near the stem,
which he fortunately saw in time.

Vipers are become very common everywhere, much more so than
formerly. In Gloucestershire, the Forest of Dean, and around
Lansdown they are more numerous than the common ring snake.
In Devonshire they are very prevalent ; in and all around Dartmoor
you may see a dozen of them for every ringed snake you meet with.

An old viper that was forwarded to Mr. F. Buckland last
September had two fully formed young ones squeezed out of its
throat. It was supposed she had swallowed them, but they were
found to have escaped from the delicate egg bag into the
stomach and up the throat, another coiled up was discovered
in the ovi-duct. She was seen coiled up on a dry bank and
killed with a stick; her stomach was much distended, and it
was supposed at the time to be so from having swallowed a short-
tailed field mouse. It is very easy to squeeze a field mouse out of
the stomach of a viper, and in the act of so doing two young vipers
were forced from the ovi-duct into the stomach and up the throat.

Now arrives the question—do vipers when disturbed ever swallow
their young? The shape of the teeth sloping backwards, the narrow
long throat, the long stomach digesting rapidly, and contraction of
those parts being the state of health or repose, oppose that opinion
on the part of the old one. The young ones being formed perfectly
to defend themselves and fulfil all their instincts, and their size, when
passing from the old ones, indicate no necessity for such an act on
the part of the old one. And further, the large size of young vipers
when born, being from five to six inches long and three-quarters of
an inch in circumference, would greatly distend the throat of the
old one in the act of swallowing five or six, or even one or two
of such young ones, much more than a field mouse, which is
always lubricated with mucous secretion, and seems to take some
time to pass into the stomach.

303

Notes on Early Geologists connected with the neighbourhood of Bath.
By W. SterHen Mitcowet, LL.B., F.G.S. Read February 21,*
1872.

The early Geologists connected with the neighbourhood of Bath
of whom I propose to speak this evening are the Rey. Joseph
Townsend, the Rey. Benjamin Richardson, the Rev. John Josiah
Conybeare, and Mr. William Lonsdale. I shall probably. be asked
why I have not included Mr. John Walcott, who in 1779 published
“ Descriptions and Figures of Petrifactions found in the Quarries
and Gravel-pits near Bath.”t My reply is, that though the bookis
of interest Mr. Walcott was not a Geologist. At that time Geology
as a science did not exist. Cosmogonies and theories of the earth
had been produced in abundance, some few of which are still
referred to as showing here and there isolated records of facts and
speculations on causes which accord with our present knowledge ;
these however have perhaps a deeper meaning to us than they had
to the writers themselves. But it cannot be too distinctly stated
that so far as England is concerned it was the discovery of
William Smith, and his own development of his method, which gave
direction to systematic observation, and led to our present orderly
grouping of facts ascertained. Whatever may be the judgment of
posterity on the theories which have since sprung out of Smith’s
method, this will remain beyond dispute on the testimony of the
writers themselves, that all our great geological leaders adopted his
method in working out the history of the districts they examined.
He stands the acknowledged “ Father of English Geology.”

* The paper announced for this evening was one by Mr. McMurtrie on the
Carboniferous Strata ot Somersetshire. That gentleman was unable to fulfil
his engagement, and this paper was on a short notice read from the writer’s
note books. A brief resumé appeared in the “ Bath Chronicle” the following
morning. It has since then been put into its present form, and some additions
have been made, but many other engagements have prevented the writer
from giving it due attention before the time appointed for sending it to press,
As he pointed out at the time of reading, it must be regarded as a “ stop-
gap paper’’ rather than as one pretending to embody all the information that
can be hunted out. He will be thankful to any correspondent who will put
him on the track of other records than those he has here used.

+ Bath : Hazard.

304

To Geologists the interest in Mr. Richardson depends principally
on the fact that he was one of the first scientific friends of Mr.
William Smith, and, together with Mr. Townsend, laboured
successfully to bring his work into notice. Mr. Townsend has
further an independent claim on our attention, from having, in
1812, published his ‘“ Vindication of Moses,” which was the first
attempt at a connected account of the different strata of this
country viewed in the light of William Smith’s discovery. A
notice of the Rev. J. J. Conybeare would probably find a more fit
place in the pages of a Literary Club; but the geological work
which he did, though small in amount, shows great judgment, and
he was so intimately acquainted with the prominent members of
the early Geological School at Oxford, we cannot pass by him
without a brief notice. Mr. William Lonsdale, so recently
removed from among us, must have a place in this paper,
although it is confined to early Geologists, for he was a curator
of our Bath Museum as far back as the year 1825.

Rev. JosepH TOWNSEND.

Sources of Information.—The only connected account of Townsend
which I know isa short obituary notice in the ‘‘ Gentleman’s Maga-
zine” for November, 1816. It is reprinted almost verbatim in the
first volume of “The Annual Biography and Obituary.” This says
nothing of him until the time of his taking his degree at Cambridge.
“ Dodsley’s Annual Register,” vols. 12-16, contains many notes of
different members of the family. Several notices of his preaching
during the years 1765-1779 are scattered through the life of the
Countess of Huntingdon. His “ Vindication of Moses” has furnished
all my knowledge of his geological work. I have also found infor-
mation in Warner’s Literary Recollections,” “ Phillips’ Memoir of
Smith,” ‘‘Hunter’s Connection of Bath with the Literature and
Science of England,” and have obtained dates from newspapers,
calendars, and the tablet at Pewsey Chureh, but have not had an
opportunity of seeing his “‘ Travels in Spain.” :

His Family.—His father was Chauncey Townsend, a merchant of
Austin Friars, who was for many years M.P. for Westbury, in Wilt-
shire, and afterwards sat for Wigtown, in Scotland, being the first

305

Englishman who ever represented a Scottish burgh. Chauncey
Townsend had a family of two sons and three daughters, one of whom
married—Ist, Mr. Wordsworth, “and 2nd, Rev. Dr. Haweis. Te
Haweis was born at Truro, educated at Christ’s College, Cambridge,
and was temporarily appointed Rector of Aldwinkle, All Saints,
Northampton, in 1764, by Mr. Kimpton, who was both rector and
patron, but was then imprisoned in the King’s bench. Tohush up
the scandal the Countess of Huntingdon purchased the advowson,
and Dr. Haweis soon after was appointed one of her ladyship’s
chaplains.

The eldest son, James, was the celebrated Alderman Townsend,
whose name was so prominently connected with the Corporation
of London during the turbulent years 1768-69-70. In 1769 he
was elected MP. for Westlooe, in Cornwall, and in the same year
was chosen Alderman of Bishopsgate, and a Sheriff of London, the
other sheriff being John Sawbridge, Esq. Both as a City Magistrate
and as a Member of Parliament he showed great independence
of judgment, firmness of will, and inflexible determination. A
correspondent, writing to the “ Gentleman’s Magazine” at the time
of his death, says :—

« Mr. Townsend was a gentleman well known for his disinterested public
principles, ever indefatigable in supporting the liberties and constitution of
his country against those who attempted to violate them, uniting with no
party but with this view; the most active magistrate, executing the duties of
his office without the fear of offending any; a steady opposer of every innovation
of the laws where the least infringement of religious or civil freedom were
likely to be the consequence ; at all times the foremost in supporting the
police of the country, and preventing, in the first instance, the invaders of it,
The City of London experienced the good effects of his magistracy, and his
own neighbourhood benefited in a particular degree by his exertions in this
respect, as well as by a ready attention to the duties of private friendship.
Firm and intrepid in his resolution, he was not moved by the opinion of
others, nor thwarted from an apprehension of rendering himself unpopular ;
his own conscience and the laws being the standard of his conduct. The
public have indeed lost a true patriot and good statesman ; and those more
intimately acquainted with him a valuable friend.”

The years of his office were times when those who took a
prominent part in the affairs of the City must needs have been
remarkable men. The exciting contest between the City of London

306

and the House of Commons was then occupying men’s minds.
The question of the right of the House to apprehend any-
one within the jurisdiction of the Corporation without a warrant
signed by an Alderman made the dispute a subject of personal
interest to all connected with the City. Wilkes, nominated by
Alderman Townsend, had been returned for Middlesex. The House
declared him to be unseated. Repeated remonstrances on the
conduct of the Ministers were carried to the King by the Lord
Mayor and deputations of the Corporation. It was on one of
these occasions that Lord Mayor Beckford (father of the author
of “Vathek”) made his memorable- reply to the King, for
which he was refused admittance to the Royal presence on the
next occasion of his carrying a remonstrance. Many sharp
critiques were published on the conduct of the Ministers. The
House of Commons took cognisance of some and ordered its
Serjeant-at-arms to apprehend the printers, but his power was
set at defiance by order of the City authorities, so that in attempting
to carry out his instructions he was only laughed at by the servants
of those whom he went to apprehend. Lord Mayor Crosby for the
part he took in this was committed to the Tower. Townsend was
one of the most active to demand his release. Townsend himself,
on the ground that Middlesex was improperly represented, refused
to pay his taxes, was summoned, the judgment was against him,
and a distress was laid on his goods. The City appreciated his
firmness, and in 1772 he was elected Lord Mayor. Among other
notable acts he refused to go in state to St. Paul’s on the day of
the Commemoration of the Martyrdom of King Charles. He
continued to take an active part in the agitation about Wilkes’
return for Middlesex, and other prominent questions, and one of his
last public acts was a speech in the House which he made in the
defence of Warren Hastings.

He had married in 1763, Miss Mary Rosa Peregrina Du Plessis,
only child of Henry Hare, the last Lord Colrane of that family,
The manors of Tottenham Pembrokes and Bruces, of Dawbinies
and Mockings in Tottenham, and some considerable property in
Norfolk, were left to her by her father, but as she was an alien, a
special Act of Parliament had to be obtained to enable her to

307

inherit them. She dicd in November, 1785. After an illness of
only five days Alderman Townsend died at his residence, Bruce
Castle, in Tottenham, July 1, 1787.

{ have occupied this much space in speaking of the Rev. Joseph
Townsend’s brother, as so remarkable a man cannot fail to have
influenced him. Though directed in different channels we see in
both brothers the same firm determination, and the same disregard
of personal advantage in doing what they considered to be for the
general good.

His Life—I have nowhere found the exact date of the Rev.
Joseph Townsend’s birth. The tablet erected to his memory in
Pewsey Church records that at the time of his death, in November,
1816, his age was 78, so that be must have been born about 1738.
Of his early life and school days I know nothing. He passed his
college days at Clare Hall, Cambridge, and went out in mathe-
- matical honours in 1762, the year before Paley was senior wrangler.
In the Tripos list for that year, “Townsend, Clare,” stands second
of the Junior Optimes, with a foot note in the Cambridge Calendar,
“author of the History of the Character of Moses.” In the
“‘Gentleman’s Magazine” it is stated that he was a Fellow of
Clare, but he is not so marked in the Calendar.

Shortly after taking his degree he seems to have spent some time
in Scotland, and we learn from the ‘‘Gentleman’s Magazine” that
he studied Physic under Dr. Cullen, at Edinburgh. Mr. Warner,
in his “ Literary Recollections,” relates that he was throughout his
life proud of his medical knowledge, and “ the ready and gratuitous
exercise of his art among the poor and humbler classes was a
public blessing wherever he went.” I can find no indication of
his having ever passed any examination in medicine, though later
in life he wrote two medical books.

We can gather something of the bent of his mind at this time
from a short allusion to this period of his life written in 1812.*

“The author in early life turned his attention to Mineralogy, and in his
father’s mines had an opportunity of noticing the visible effects of the Deluge.

‘*When he had finished his education at Cambridge, and had left the
University, he took up his residence in Scotland, where his knowledge

* Introduction to his “‘ Character of Moses. Vindicated.”
D

308

progressively increased, and prepared him for a more extensive field of
observation.”

We see that even as an undergraduate he had given thought to
the subject of the traces of an universal Deluge, which led to the
publication, fifty years afterwards, of his “ Vindication of Moses.”
What was the range of the studies which he includes under the
title “ Mineralogy ” it is now impossible to tell. Mineralogy then
embraced much of what we now distinguish as Geology. The word
Geology did not come into general use until after 1800. The
Geological Society was instituted in 1807. In 1810 the
word Geology appeared on the title page of the “ Philosophical
Magazine,” and Farey, the author of “ Derbyshire,” made a point
of writing a letter to the editor, which is printed page 113, to
compliment him on its introduction. Cuvier and Brongniart,
however, continued to use the term Géographie Mineralogique.
In the Journal of the Society of Arts, 1815, W. Smith’s map
of the strata of England and Wales is called a “ Mineralogical
Map” in the official announcement of the award of the £50 prize.
Writers even now are not always particular in discriminating
between Crystallography, Mineralogy, Geognosy, Palzontology,
Petrology, Lithography, Geology,and Physical Geography. Whether
Townsend’s study of Mineralogy was confined to examination of
cabinet specimens, or whether it included the study in the field
of the disposition of the large masses of various materials, does
not appear. He certainly had then no knowledge of the facts of
stratification, for he tells us plainly in a quotation, which I shall
presently give, that he obtained this information from William
Smith, whom he did not meet until 1799. Yet we see that he
prosecuted now, and at various times of his life, field observations
on an extensive scale, his object up to 1799, however, being
apparently confined to searching for traces of an universal Deluge.
How long these studies in Edinburgh and his observations through
Scotland continued we are nowhere told.

The valuable rectory of Pewsey, in the vale of Wardour, Wilt-
shire, was purchased for him by his father in 1764. The rectory
house is a noble one, and the population of the village is even now
only 2,027. Iam unable to give the date of his ordination, or of

309

his induction to his office. It was not later than 1765. From the
“* Graduati Cantabrigienses” it appears that he took his M.A. degree
in 1765.

‘When, and by what means, he was led to take up the cause of
the Calvinistic Methodists I do not know, but he became one of
the many chaplains of the Countess of Huntingdon. From
the life of the Countess* we find that he frequently preached
for her in the summer of 1765 at Bretby Hall, Derbyshire,
sometimes in the Chapel, sometimes to large crowds in the Park.
At the opening of her Chapel in the Vineyards, at Bath, on
October 16th, 1765, Whitfield preached in the morning, and
Townsend in the evening. His “ Every true Christian a new
créature” was published in this year. The Countess frequently
took three or four of her chaplains on preaching tours, and
between 1765 and 1779 we hear of Townsend officiating for her
in almost all parts of the country, from the south of Cornwall
to Scotland, and in Wales and Ireland. Mr. Warner says, “I
have heard indeed, and I can believe it, that Mr. Townsend’s
preaching in the early period of his ministry was quite electri-
fying.” It must be remembered that the Countess believed that
by right of her peerage she was entitled to appoint as many
clergymen as she pleased to be her chaplains, and to direct where
they should, and where they should not, preach, while they still
retained their connection with the Established Church. Mr.
Sellon, the incumbent of Clerkenwell, questioned this supposed
right, and brought before an ecclesiastical court some of the
clergymen who preached in her chapel at Spa fields. The decision
of the court was that they must discontinne their services at the
chapel. She sought the highest legal advice, and after much
deliberation it was found necessary for those who wished to
officiate in her ladyship’s chapels to take the oaths of allegiance

as Dissenters under the Toleration Act. Some of her chaplains

thereupon seceded: from the Established Church, while others
chose rather to relinquish preaching for her. Townsend was
amongst those who adopted the latter course, and his connection

* The Coronet and the Cross: memorials of Selina Css. of Huntingdon,
by Rey. A. H. New, 1857, p. 375.

310

with her seems to have altogether ended in 1779, while Dr. Haweis,
his brother-in-law, remained one of her chaplains till her death.

Mr. Warner relates that in after life he rarely adverted to this
season of his zeal, or to the adventures and circumstances connected
with it ; but one day at a dinner party Dr. Shepherd, who still
continued to hold Calvinistic notions, and was a little sore at
Townsend’s desertion, tovk occasion to rally him on his apostacy.

“He begged to recall to his brother clerk’s remembrance the particulars of
their former ministerial career, describing with irresistible comicality the
various adventures, strange occurrences, and hair-breadth escapes they had
experienced in holding forth from market crosses, in barns and fields.
Townsend’s solemn face flushed at times with indignation, ever and anon
struggling with an unwilling smile, compelled by the Doctor’s exquisite
drollery to degenerate into a hearty laugh.” *

It has been supposed that Mr. Townsend was the original
from which the late Rev. R. Graves, of Claverton, sketched
the character of Timothy Wildgoose in his satire, “The Spiritual
Quixote ;” and the “Gentleman’s Magazine,” the “ Annual
Register,” and the “ Annual Biography,” definitely stated, “he fell
under the lash of the late Rev. R. Graves.” But the Rev. F.
Kilvert, in a paper which he read before the Bath Literary Club,
12th December, 1857, at page 108, says,

“The character of Wildgoose has by some been considered as a fiction, and
by others as representing either Sir Harry Trelawney or the Rey. Joseph
Townsend, former Rector of Pewsey, Wilts; but I have some suspicion that
the true original may be found in Mr. Graves’ brothers. Perhaps it is a
composition containing features taken from different individuals.”

Again Mr. Warner also doubts the correctness of this supposition.
He writes—

“ Tt is generally asserted, but I know not with what truth, that the hero of
‘The Spiritual Quixote,’ Timothy Wildgoose, was sketched from a then living ,
character; an estimable divine with whom I was afterwards intimately
acquainted, the Rey. Joseph Townsend, Rector of Pewsey, Wiltshire. He _
had certainly in early life afforded some food for satire by the exercise of a
sincere but injudicious zeal in his profession, a spirit which evaporated under
the influence of maturer years, a wider experience, and soberer views of
religious truth; but it has always been my opinion that the prototype of
Mr. Graves’s Timothy Wildgoose is not to be sought in the person of Mr,

i

* Lit. Rec., vol, i., p. 96.

311

Townsend, with whom the novelist was well acquainted, but in the character
_of the celebrated fanatic Sir Harry Trelawney, Baronct.”*
It is too late now to re-open the question. We can only state the
opinion of contemporaries.
Notwithstanding the energy he threw into his ministerial work
he did not allow this to take him away entirely from his study of
mineralogy and the traces of a universal deluge.

“In the year 1769 he traversed Ireland, and the next year he crossed over
to the Continent, that he might pursue his researches in Holland, France, and.
Flanders. In these journeys he had an opportunity of conversing with men
of superior knowledge in these subjects; and on his return to England he
read whatever had been written by modern travellers descriptive of their
geological excursions.

“During successive winters he ransacked every part of Cornwall and
visited its mines, to all which he had free access. t

In 1773 he married Joyce, the daughter of Thomas Nankivell,
of St. Agnes, in the county of Cornwall, gentleman, by whom he
had six children. She died in 1783, and was buried at Croydon,
in the county of Surrey.{

During these ten years of his married life he seems to have
remained in England, but three years after his wife’s death he
again went on the Continent, still bent on his favourite studies.
Whatever may have been the information he obtained from
the different mineralogists he visited, he had not lost sight of
the idea conceived in his undergraduate’s days, of tracing,
as far as he could, the effects of an universal Deluge. In
speculating on what were probably the ideas communicated to
him during this extended tour, we can hardly suppose that he did not
come into contact with some disviples of Werner, and learn his views
of universal formations. It must be borne in mind that this tour
commenced in 1786, and, as pointed out above, he certainly had
no knowledge of the facts of stratification which he worked out
and gave to the world in his “ Vindication of Moses” till so late as
1799. He had the reputation of being a good mineralogist himself,
and had held converse with the most distinguished mineralogists of
Europe ; but although he has written on many subjects, I do not
know that he ever wrote anything on Mineralogy in the sense, at

* Lit. Rec., vol.ii,,p.19. +‘ Moses.”? Introduction.. { Tablet in Pewsey Church.

312

least, in which we now understand the word. He gives, in his
Introduction to the “ Vindication of Moses,” thus a brief account
of his tour :—

‘In 1786 he again crossed tho Channel, examined the cabinets in France,
and had access to the most distinguished mineralogists, Daubanton, De Romé,
De Lisle, the Abbé Haiiy, Besson, Hassenfratz, Chaptal, and Stoutz.

“In Spain he met with few men of science; but in every part of the
Peninsula he had opportunities of tracing the effects of the grand revolution
which has happened to our globe.

“ Whilst traversing the mountains and viewing the lakes of Switzerland,
he saw innumerable vestiges of the universal deluge, and he is happy to find
his opinions confirmed by the two most experienced naturalists, who received
their education in the Alps. In their works the suggestions of his mind met
with support and his deductions from multiplied observations have been
confirmed.”

We are not informed over what period of time this tour extended.
The death of his brother in July, 1787, may have recalled him, but
we know that in 1788 he published his “Plan for the removal of
the Poor” when he was probably in London.

In 1790, he married Lydia, the widow of Admiral Sir John Clerke,
Knut.*

His “Journeys through Spain,” published in 1790-91, 3 vols.
8vo., at once gave him the reputation of a high position as an author.
Though he had given so much thought to traces of the Universal
Deluge, this by no means however occupied his entire attention. In
1791 he published “ Free Thoughts on Despotic and Free Govern-
ments,” and in 1794 the “ Physician's Vade Mecum,” which by 1807
had reached a tenth edition, In 1795 he published “ A Guide to
Health,” 2 vols. 8vo. How much time he devoted to the care of
his parish we cannot now tell, but the church books at. Pewsey show

® Friday, March 26th, 1790, was married at St. James’s Church, the Rev.
Joseph Townsend to Lady Lydia Clerke.—Bath Chronicle, April 2, 1790.

Friday, June 8rd, 1814, died at his house in Great Pultency-street, Lady
Clerke, wife of the Rev. Joseph Townsend, Rector of Pewsey, Wilts.—Bath
Chronicle, May 26th, 1814,

John Clarke, Capt. R.N., May 26th, 1761.—Beaton's Index IL., p. 43.

Captain John Clarke, of the Prudent, Man-of-War, received the honour of
Knighthood at St. James’s, Jan. 31, 1772, by the name of Sir John Clarke.
He is to sail as Commodore of a squadron to the Hast Indies to observe the
motions of the Frenchin that quarter and to protect trade.—@, Mag., 1772, p. 80.

313

that although his parish was frequently in the charge of a Curate,
yet he did, occasionally, do duty there himself.

He spent a large part of each year at Bath, his house being
No. 29, Pulteney-street.* There is for Geologists an interest
attached to this house from a circumstance which must here
be related. Townsend was on terms of intimate friendship
with Richardson, and it was through him that he first became
acquainted with William Smith. Of their observations together
I shall speak in my notes on Mr. Richardson’s life, but this is the
right place to insert an extract from Professor Phillips’s Memoir of
of Smith, page 29:—

“(ne day after dining together at the house of the Rev. Joseph Townsend,
it was proposed, by one of this Triumvirate that a tabular view of the main
features of the subject, as it had been expounded by Mr. Smith, and verified
and enriched by their joint labours, should be drawn up in writing.
Richardson held the pen and wrote down from Smith’s dictation the different
strata according to their order of succession in descending order, commencing
with the chalk and numbered in continuous series down to the coal, below
which the strata were not sufficiently determined,” :

This original M.S., now in the possession of the Geological
Society of London, has, in the corner, in Smith’s own hand-writing :—

“This table of the strata dictated by myself is in the hand-writing of the
Rey. Benjamin Richardson, and was first reduced to writing at the house of
the Rev. Joseph Townsend, Pulteney-street, Bath, 1799.

(Signed) Wit Sirs.”

Townsend, at the time of his meeting with Smith, was over 60
years of age, yet he eagerly took up the new ideas, and in the
course of a few years collected together a mass of information,
which he introduced into his “Character of Moses” (1812). We
shall notice this work more fully further on.

Although in the introduction he says that the work is the result
of laborious investigation during a period of more than 50 years,
yet we know clearly that his examination of the succession of
strata in England did not commence earlier than his meeting with
Smith in 1799.

He derived much information from the different mineralogists
whom he had met in his travels, yet he thus clearly states it was

* Bathwick rate books.

314°

by Smith that an entirely new direction was given to his observa-
tions, and froni him: his first idea of regularity in the order of the
succession of strata was obtained,—

“ But the person by whom he was first led to trace and clearly to ascertain
the succession of strata in our Island, is William Smith. The discoveries of
this skilful engineer have been of vast importance to Geology, and will be of
infinite value to this nation. To a strong understanding, a retentive memory,
indefatigable ardour, and more than common sagacity, this extraordinary man
unites a perfect contempt for money when compared with science. Had he
kept his discoveries to himself, he might have accumulated wealth : but with
unparalleled disinterestedness of mind he scorned concealment, and made
known his discoveries to every one who wished for information.”

“ It is now eleven years since he conducted the author in his examination
of the strata which are laid bare in the immediate vicinity of Bath. Subsequent
excursions in the stratified and calcareous portion of our island have confirmed
the information derived from this examination.”

However much he may have consulted, and obtained information
from, Smith as he went on, or how far he carried out his observa-
tions independently, we have no means now of ascertaining. The
drawings of the fossils for the plates were made by himself, and
fully attest his skill as a draughtsman.

There is no indication of his having left England after 1786,
yet he devotes a chapter to the “succession of strata of other
countries.” The numerous foot notes and references indicate this
portion is acompilation. In the chapters on England he writes as
if from his own observations. The immediate neighbourhood of
Pewsey and the West of England supplied him with far the larger
portion of his facts, so there is no inference that he travelled much
through England. We are not told when his “ Moses” was com-
menced, but it could not have been written without much time
occupied in the study.

While this work was in preparation he brought out in 1805
a volume of sermons on various subjects. His second wife, who
still retained her title and was known as Lady Clerke, died in 1814.

His own death occurred in 1816 at Pewsey.*

* “On the 9th inst., at his Parsonage House, Pewsey, Wilts, aged 78, the
Rey. Joseph Townsend Townsend, a gentleman of varied talent and extensive
information. . . . Asan author, the work which chiefly established
his celebrity was his “ Travels in Spain.” — Bath Journal, Nov. 18, 1816.

315

In Pewsey Church, on the north wall of the chancel between the
two lancet windows next to the altar, is a marble tablet, on which
is carved a chalice, an open book, and this inscription :—

Beneath this tablet rest
the mortal remains of
The Revd. Joseph Townsend, M.A.,
formerly of Clare Hall,
in the University of Cambridge.
He departed this life on 6th day
of November, 1816,
in the 78th year of his age.
With what diligence he strove to improve
the talents committed by his maker to his charge,
the remembrance of his labours for fifty-three years
in Christ’s ministry,
during which time he was rector of this parish,
and the fruits of his researches after truth,
as well religious, as moral, economical, and physical,
delivered in his writings,
bear a lasting testimony.
He was twice happily married,

First in 1773 to Joyce, the daughter of Thomas Nankivell,
of St. Agnes, in the county of Cornwall, gentleman,
by whom he had six children.

She died in 1783, and was buried at Croydon,
in the county of Surrey.

In 1790 he married Lydia,
the widow of Adml. Sir John Clerke, Kt.,
who was removed to a better world

on the 3rd of June, 1814,
in the 78rd year of her age,
and lies buried near this place.
Of Townsend’s personal appearance we have this description
recorded by Mr. Warner (Lit. Rec., vol. ii, p. 97), :—

« Tremendous, however, must have been his pulpit oratory, during the zra of
his religious excitation; for his stature was between six and seven feet in
height; his arms were vast and long; a forehead high, and broad, and marked
with mighty organs, indicated vivid imagination; intense fervour; inflexible
determination ; and all the sterner powers of the mind : and his voice, at all
times sepulchral; but, when exerted, of passing loudness; was admirably
adapted, to arouse, to denounce, and to alarm.”

Mr. Warner mentions in a foot-note that he had been very active

316

in the reparation and regulation of the highways in his neighbour-
hood, and from his stature he received the appellation of the
Colossus of Roads.

The great dissimilarity of the many subjects on which Townsend
wrote has been a subject of remark by many, and in connection
with this the note on his method of working, as. given by Mr.
Warner, p. 102, is worth introducing. In reply to a question
which Mr. Warner put to Townsend about some plate-glass
manufactory in some town in Spain on which he had written—

“Townsend replied that he had lost the recollection, both of the manu-
factory and of its products, but he might be assured of the accuracy of every
detail in his book, as he had noted the particulars of each account on the spot,
and had carefully superintended the printing of the volumes, and had then
dismissed their contents from his mind,”

The following is an illustration of his method of learning a
language :—

“‘ He was an excellent Hebrew scholar, but he had not possessed himself of
the roots of this venerable language by solitary fagging ; he literally carried
them at his finger’s ends ; marked a certain number of them (as he has himself
assured me) on the broad nails of his large hands every morning ; conned and
silently repeated these tri-literals at every vacant moment of his busy hours
during the day; and, when they were firmly fixed in his mind, obliterated
them from his manual horn-books, which were thus prepared to receive a new
series of roots on the succeeding morning.”

Mr. Broderip, of Oriel College, Oxford, was a great friend of
Townsend, and gathered much information from him, and Broderip
and Prof. Buckland were then the great geological collectors at
Oxford, and belonged to the clique of early Oxford geologists of-
which both the Duncans were members.

His Works.—Every True Christian a New Creature’; ; 1765;
12mo. Observations: plans for the Removal of the Poor; 17 88;
8vo. Journey through Spain ; 1790 ; 3 vol. ; 8vo. Free Thoughts
on Despotic and Free Governments; 1791; 8vo. The Physician’s
Made Vecum ; 1794; 10th edition; 1807. A Guide to Health ;
1795 ; 2 vols.; 8vo. Dissertation on the Poor Laws ; 1796 ; 8vo.
Sermons on various subjects; 1805; 8vo, The Character of
Moses established, 1812 to 1815; 2 vol.; 4to. Townsend also
communicated articles to various journals, magazines, &ec., the

Bath and West of England Agricultural Journal among the
number,

The only work of Mr. Townsend which we have here to notice is
that published in 2 vols., 1812-1815, under the title of “The
character of Moses established for veracity as a historian by
recorded events subsequent to the Deluge.” It consisted of two
distinct parts—-Geological and Mineralogical Researches, and
Etymological Researches. The geological plates, 21 in number,
are all drawings of fossils ; there are no sections nor maps given.
Each plate is dated July 1, 1812, and bears “ Rey. Jos. Townsend,
delin.” ‘ Bartw. Howlett, sculp.” These two parts were sub-
sequently published separately with different titles. The one—

“Etymological Researches, * wherein numerous languages apparently dis-
cordant have either their affinity traced and their resemblance so manifested
as to Jead to the conclusion that all languages are radically one. Those chiefly
considered and compared are English, Welsh, Galic, Manx, Gothic, Persian,
Slavonian, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic, Laponic, Ethiopic, Coptic,
Turkish, Persian, Sanscrit, and the languages of India. One volume, quarto,
£1 1s., boards.”

The other part appeared with this title-page :—

“ Geological and Mineralogical Researches during a period of more than fifty
years in England, Scotland, Ireland, Switzerland, Holland, France, Flanders,
and Spain; wherein the effects of the deluge are traced, and the veracity of
the Mosaic account is established. With 21 Illustrative Plates.”

Gye and Son, of Market Place, Bath, were the printers, and
Bagster’s name also appears on the title-page as publisher, 1824.

This book is very little known. To indicate its scope I transcribe
the headings of the different chapters. After an introduction he
begins with the consideration of Moses as a historian.

Chapter 1 is on the genuineness of the Pentateuch.

Chapter 2 is on the credibility of the Mosaic history.

Section 1.—The credibility proved by internal evidence.

Section 2.—The credibility proved by external evidence. This
section is divided into six subjects.

The first subject is the Creation. In this he quotes from early
classical writers of Greece and Rome, from Persian writers, the
sacred books of Hindustan and China, from travellers’ accounts of

* This is reviewed in the “ Quarterly,” vol, 14, pages 96-112.

318

the creeds of America, Mexico, Peru, Africa, Abyssinia ; in short,
from every source that was open to him.

Subject 2 is of the Septenary division of Time and the Sabbath,
in which again his quotations show his very extensive reading.

Subject 3. Of the State of Innocence and the Fall of Man.

Subject 4. Of Sacrifice, in which are notices of customs in all
parts of the world.

Subject 5. Of Tithes.

Subject 6. Of the Deluge. At page 96 [edition 1824] he says:

“Traditional reports have been collected and brought forward by every
apologist for revelation from the first ages of Christianity to the present day,
and may be referred to in Stillingfleet, Gale, and Ramsay ; but independently
of divine authority, the most convincing evidence is to be sought for in the
records which remain engraved in the deepest mines, and on the most elevated
mountains,

In the display I am about to make of this natural evidence scattered over
the surface of the earth, I shall simply state my facts, and then examine what
inferences may fairly be derived from them, and for this purpose I shall first
explore one small tract of country, that the attention of the young geologist
may not be distracted by a multiplicity of objects crowding at once upon his
view. When he has surveyed this island he may be the better qualified for
more distant excursions, and be able to compare its strata and extraneous
fossils with those of every other portion of the globe, He will be thus pre-
pared to follow me in my general conclusion, and will be convinced that the
Mosaic account of the deluge is agreeable to truth.”

Then immediately follows from page 97 to page 403 the geological
portion of the work, and we hear nothing more of Moses till at p.
403, we are told “we may safely draw this conclusion, that our
continents are not of a more remote antiquity than has been assigned
to them by the sacred historian in the beginning of his Pentateuch.”

Thus the bulk of the book is the sixth subject of the 2nd section
of the 2nd chapter “ of the Deluge,” and stowed away in this very
unexpected place, there was given to the world the jirst attempt ata
connected account of the English strata with their extraneous fossils,
with brief notices of (lithologically) similar strata in other parts of
the world. Farey’s Derbyshire, vol. 1., was published in 1811, but
though in this Farey was the first to refer in a book to Smith’s
discoveries yet his whole scope is very different from Townsend’s.

The matter is arranged under different headings. The first “ of

—————————— EE —— Ul

319

the order in which various substances appear.” He enumerates—
1. Chalk. 2, Sand. He notices green and red (our Green Sand
and Neocomian), and adds, “‘ beneath these beds we find good clay
(our Kimeridge), and at Road over the red sand brick clay” (our
Galt.) 3. The superior Oolite (our Portland). 4. Calcareous grit.
5. Coral rag. 6. Kelloway rock, which he says may be readily
distinguished by its fossils. 7. Cornbrash. 8. Forest marble.
9. The great Oolite. 10. The inferior Oolite. He mentions a
“rock of no utility” between 9 and 10 (our Fuller's earth), and
adds, the inferior Oolite “ reclines on calcareous sand, which is used
by our cooks at Bath to sand their kitchens.” These sands have
since been the subject of a sustained controversy as to whether
they should be grouped as inferior oolite sands or upper lias sands.
Professor Phillips has recently proposed the term Midford sands,
which happily avoids expressing any opinion as to their relationship.
11. The Lyas. Both blue and white are mentioned. 12. Red
ground, (Here the new red and pennant are confounded together.)
13. Coal and subjacent strata. ‘ Such,” he says, “is the usual
succession of strata, but in some places the intermediate beds are
wanting.” The lithological character and economical uses of each
stratum are mentioned, together with the localities in the West of
England where they can be well seen. I have elsewhere drawn
attention to the fact that Townsend notices limestones and sand-
stones, and almost neglects clays ; while Smith regarded the clay
vales as well-marked physical features, and based on them his
natural divisions.

The 2nd is “ Succession of Strata in other Countries,” pp. 108
to 122, which has already been alluded to as a compilation.
The main object of this is to show “ that the regular succession is
from granite to sandstone, with argillaceous schists, and then to
coal and the calcareous rocks.”

The 3rd, “On the Thickness of the Strata,” pp. 123 to 132.
In this is given the thickness of each formation in different
localities.

The 4th, “Dip of the Strata,” pp. 133 to 140. The dip
of the mountain limestone at Wick is given NW. 45°, but in all
other cases the dip is described as so many feet in a mile.

320

The 5th, “Range and Extent of the Strata,” pp. 141 to 187.
There is no attempt to define the limits of the outcrop of each
formation, but all places are mentioned where it was known
to Townsend to appear. The coalfields occupy 14 pages, but the
information does not seem to be from his own observation.

The 6th, “The Crop of Strata and their Dislocation,” pp.
188 to 246. From a foot-note it appears part of this was written
in 1803. The district round Bath is treated of at some length.
He uses the term “fault” when speaking of the carboniferous
series. Caverns, chasms, cataracts, estuaries and alluvial strata and
bowlder stones are all mentioned, and illustrations are given of
them, as evidence of dislocations.

The 7th, “Of Extraneous Fossils.” It will be remembered
that all organic fossils were in the early days of geology called
extraneous fossils, Each formation is treated by itself.

The 8th, “ Extraneous Fossils of other Countries,” p. 289.

The 9th, “Of Springs,” p. 304. The largest part of this is
devoted to Somerset and Wilts, and here is introduced a version of
Psalm civ.

The 10th, “Of Vallies,” p. 321. According to Townsend they
are not occasioned by rivers but by dislocations, but at p. 202,
under the heading “ Crop of the Strata,” he says that however
the separation was originally made it has been perfected by
attrition.

The llth, p. 327, “Of the Consolidation of Strata.” Here
chemical questions are discussed.

The 12th, p. 334, “Operating Causes of Dislocation.” He
begins, “From what has been stated it is evident that all the
habitable parts of the earth were originally formed at the bottom
of the sea,” and then he says that the problem to be solved is “ By
what means has it been accomplished that the strata once
horizontal are now either vertical or much inclined to the
horizon.” He does not_ however suggest the question how
strata accumulated under water became dry land. Here again
he shows extensive reading and enumerates a vast number of
earthquakes and volcanic outbursts. This passage is worth
transcribing, p. 373 :—“ Should it be established as a fact that

321

‘the most elevated portions of our island, and the highest of
the calcareous mountains were among the deepest parts of the
antediluvian ocean, this will account for a fact which has hitherto
puzzled the geologist. It is allowed that the analogues of many
petrified shells are not found recent.” He points out that the
probable reason is many of them were deep sea forms, and the
analogous may still be living at depths greater than we have
dredged. He says that when fish “ migrate it is generally in
search of food, and this ultimately depends on climate, season, and
soil.”

The 13th, p. 376, ‘General Observations on the Huttonian
Theory of the Earth.” This is a regular review article,
the drift of which may be gathered from this one sentence,
“« Among presumptuous philosophers, I fear, Dr. Hutton will find
a distinguished place.” The arguments of Playfair in the “ Illus-
trations” are to Townsend, “ specious, neither founded on facts nor
agreeable to observation.” This is indeed but a continuation of
heading No. 11. He entirely rejects the idea that heat was the
consolidating cause.

The 14th, p. 398, “ Geological Chronometers.” In this he
quotes De Luc. Deltas, lakes, estuaries, drift sands, and moul-
dering cliffs are the chronometers which lead to the conclusion
“that our continents are not of a more remote antiquity than has
been assigned to them in the beginning of his Pentateuch.”

The 15th, p. 404, “Geological Conjectures.” He considers
—lst, the question whether the greater part of China has been
gained from the sea; 2nd, whether by the deluge the earth
shifted her poles ; 3rd, whether the successive periods marked by a
progressively greater variety of animal productions may be periods
which in Scripture are called days; 4th, on the formation of
gypsum and the origin of flints. %

The 16th, “Of the great importance of Geology.” 1. To
gentlemen of landed property. The soil depends on the strata.
He gives lists of plants which are confined to particular soils, and
then speaks of surface draining and deep draining. 2. To civil
engineers. In this he principally speaks of canals. 3. To
builders. Especially he alludes to water supplies for houses.

322

4, To Commissioners of turnpike roads. 5. To brickmakers. 6.
To statuaries. 7. To clothicrs who need Fuller’s earth, 8. To
coal adventurers. In this he alludes to unsuccessful trials for
coal. In one case his father, he says, laid out £100,000 before
getting any return. 9. Mineral adventurers. 10. ‘ The science
of Geology becomes of infinite importance when we consider it as
connected with our immortal hopes. These depend on the truth
of revelation, and the whole system of revealed religion is inti-
mately connected with the veracity of Moses. The divine legation
of Christ and of the Jewish Lawgiver must stand or fall together.
If the Mosaic account of the creation and of the deluge is true,
and consequently the promises recorded by him well founded, we
may retain our hopes ; but should the former be given up as false,
we must renounce the latter.”

He answers the objection that at the deluge the water could not
have risen more than thirty feet, and the calculations of mathe-
maticians, that if the water did cover the mountain tops they
could not tell where it came from, by this :—

‘But when we consider that the fountains of the great deep were broken
up, and that the ocean poured its whole contents upon the earth, it must be

clear to us that a sufficient quantity of water could not be wanting for the
destruction of a guilty world.”

He goes on to say some “ pretenders to science” have appealed
to the natural evidence of the antiquity of the present system in
opposition to the chronology of Moses, but the end of his argument
(p. 436) is this :—

“Thus have I demonstrated that the Mosaic account of the Deluge, does
not merely accord with traditional reports universally diffused through
civilized and savage nations; but is confirmed by infallible records inscribed
on our Alpine rocks and legible on all the strata, discovered by our deepest
excavations in the bowels of the earth. The veracity of Mosesas an historian
stands therefore unimpeached by the natural evidence to be derived from the
actual condition of our globe.”

Then follow the twenty-one plates of the ‘“ Extraneous fossils.”
He says,—

“My object in this part of my work is to enable my readers by means of
extraneous fossils to distinguish the several strata of our island.

Such is the plan of this remarkable book. One’s curiosity is

323

aroused to know what was thought of it at the time it first
appeared, and what influence it had on the young science.

It contains a great mass of information which at first inspection
seems to be classified, but this is not so. Instances abound
throughout in which facts and explanations are placed under one
heading which belong to another. There is no index nor table of
contents. It appears as if the work was the result of notes made
at different times between 1799, or perhaps earlier, and 1812, and
that after these detached notes were strung together, the whole
was never revised with the object of seeing if the different portions
harmonized. Many inconsistencies are the consequence. Here is
one example. At p. 105 it is mentioned that between the Great
Oolite and Inferior Oolite is a rock “which, as being of little
consequence, and of no utility, I here pass unnoticed.” No name
is given to it. At p. 129 this same stratum is spoken of as “ clay
with Fuller’s earth, 140 feet thick ;” and at p. 427 this Fuller’s
earth is said to be a “prime necessity in the manufacturing of
cloth.” I have quoted above an extract on his method of working.
Possibly in like manner, as each heading was completed, it was put
aside and not referred to again.

But while we wonder at such want of care, still more do we
wonder at the deductions drawn from his facts.

After giving the order, range, thickness, dip, and crop of the
strata—after pointing out that the accumulation of material under
water was the only explanation that would account for some of the
phenomena attendant on the consolidation of the strata—after
speaking of the highest mountains as at one time amongst the
deepest parts of the ocean—after saying that a great question to
be solved was, how the strata originally horizontal had become
vertical or much inclined—after inferring that the different
“ extraneous fossils” indicated different depths and conditions of
sea bottom—after showing proofs of successive dislocations the
strata had undergone, and adding that attrition had in many cases
modified the first effects of the dislocations—after laying stress on
the need of recognizing air, rain, dew, and frost as agents always
changing the contour of a country, he most suddenly reminds us
that all this is laid before us to prove that our continents have not

E

324

a greater antiquity than Moses has assigned to them, and to
demonstrate by a reference to facts (p. 431) that the earth has been
overwhelmed by an universal deluge. But there is no hint (at
least that I can see) as to how all this bookfull of information
bears on the question.

If Mr. Townsend’s usual style of arguing is so correctly por-
trayed in the “ Spiritual Quixote” that his contemporaries regarded
him as the probable prototype of Wildgoose, then we can get an
insight into the man which lessens our wonder that he let his
geological work appear before the public in the form in which it
did. A great display of learning ; a slight regard to the accuracy
of his sequitur ; and he is satisfied.

As geologists we may weigh the value of the geological part of
his work on its own merits, quite apart from its entowrage. But
in regarding the man we cannot overlook the spirit in which he
wrote. It was the same as that which led him in his earlier days,
regardless of consequences, to address assemblies in the open air.
When he tells us that he looks on the truth of the Mosaic
account of the creation and deluge as intimately connected with
our immortal hopes, we see that to him the defence of Moses
would partake of the nature of a sacred duty. However we may
vary in our estimate of Townsend’s power, we must all agree in
our respect for his consistency. Whatever he did, it was, in his
sight, to the glory of God.

Rey. Benzamin RicHarDson.

Sources of Information.—It is difficult to get definite information
respecting Mr. Richardson up to the time of his being appointed
Rector of Farleigh. His name does not appear in the “Annual
Biography and Obituary.” The “ Gentleman’s Magazine” contains
only a brief notice under the date of his death 22nd Jan., 1832.

There is an article in the “ Bath and Bristol Magazine” for 1832,
p- 303, with the initials “ H. J.” * attached, but the writer has given
no exact information.

* “HJ.” is the Rev. Harry Jelly, M.A., of St. Alban'’s Hall, Oxford,
minister of Trinity Church, Bath. [Book of Sermons preached at Walcot
and Trinity. Simms, Bath, 1840. Ded. to Moysey.] This Mr, Jelly was

325

His Family.—I have been told that he was probably of an
Uphill family and that his father was a farmer. He had a
brother, a surgeon, who went to Egypt, and had a great idea of a
mathematical system in which 8 was the normal. Mrs. Richardson
was a daughter of Mr. Whatley, steward to the Duke of Kingston.

His Life.—I have not been able to learn, even approximately,
the date of Mr. Richardson’s birth. The earliest period of his life,
of which I have found any record, is that of his college days.
H. J., in the “ Bath and Bristol Magazine,” says he was a member
of Christ Church, Oxford, that he graduated, and left the University
somewhere about 1778. This is the only place known to me in
which he is styled “ M.A.” His name does not appear in the list
of graduates of Oxford of those who have regularly proceeded or
been created between Oct., 1659, and Oct., 1814. The “ Bath and
Cheltenham Gazette,” July 10, 1832, speaks of him as M.D. In
the obituary notice in the “Gentleman’s Magazine,” in the tablet
at Farleigh Church, and in the list of rectors of Farleigh in Mr.
Jackson’s ‘‘ Guide to Farleigh Hungerford” (May, Taunton, 1853),
Benjamin Richardson’s name appears without any degree. H. J.
may perhaps have been as inaccurate about his M.A. as he was in
describing him as rector of Farleigh Castle. I draw attention to
the discrepancies in the hope that someone may settle the question
whether he graduated in medicine or arts. A medical course would
probably have accorded with his love for the study of the natural
sciences.

H. J., speaking of Richardson while at Oxford, says—

‘‘ His predilection for the pursuits of science was early marked. I have often
heard him speak of the superior pleasure he received from attending the mathe-
matical lectures of a brother of the celebrated Dean Jackson when contrasted
with the critical disquisitions of his classical tutors; and this feeling of the higher
value of science when compared with polite literature, never deserted him in
after life. In this as in all other subjects of rational investigation he kept
steadily in view the great purpose, as he conceived, of social life—the advance-
ment of human good, and constantly referred every inquiry to that great end.
His favourite pursuit however was the study of Geology, and for the advance-

ment of this important science he spared neither personal exertion nor
pecuniary assistance to the utmost extent of his means.

cousin of Mr. John Gresley Jelly, of Caroline Buildings, and a distant
relation of Mrs, Richardson.

326

After leaving Oxford “about 1778” Richardson took Holy
Orders, and I am told had two or three different curacies in
succession. In 1796* he was appointed by Joseph Houlton, Esq.,
to the rectory of Farleigh Hungerford, which he held till his death.

In 1799 he mentions in a letter ‘‘ my residence in Bath ;’ and a
letter dated Feb. 1, 1802, printed in Phillips’ memoir of Smith,
from Smith to Richardson, is addressed to him at Lisbon Terrace,
Bath. Whether he kept up a house in Bath or only occasionally
rented lodgings, whether he was generally in Bath or at his
rectory, are points on which I have no information.

As mentioned in the introduction the geologist’s chief interest
in Richardson arises from his connection with Smith.

From a letter he wrote to Prof. Sedgwick in 1831 which is
printed in Prof. Sedgwick’s presidential address to the Geological
Society for that year, we read his own account of their first
meeting.

“At the annual meeting of the Bath Agricultural Society in 1799 Mr.
Smith was introduced to my residence in Bath, when on viewing my collection
of fossils, he told me the beds to which they exclusively belonged, and pointed
out some peculiar to each, This, by attending him in the fields, I svon
found to be the fact, and also, that they had a general inclination to the south-
east, following each other in regular succession. . . . . But we were
soon much more astonished by proofs of his own collecting, that whatever
stratum was found in any part of England, the same remains would be found
in it, and no other.”

It appears that it was through Mr. Richardson that Mr. Town-
send was introduced to Mr. Smith, and it was by means of the
interest taken by these two clergymen in Smith’s Geological work
that it was first brought under public notice. The writing qut by
Mr. Richardson, at Mr. Townsend’s house, of the first table of
strata of Bath and neighbourhood has already been alluded to in
the notice of Mr. Townsend.

“This connection formed at an early stage of Mr. Smith’s inquiries was
what afforded a most lively gratification to the one, and was of no inconsider-

* “Gent. Mag.” Obit. Notice.— The Rev. Benjamin Richardson, Rector
of Hungerford Farleigh, Somerset, to which he was presented in 1796 by
Joseph Houlton, Esq.”

327

able benefit to the other. Mr. Smith found what was of so much consequence
to him, a cabinet stored with specimens carefully and judiciously selected,
every one of which was referred to the locality from which it was taken, and
Mr. Richardson met in Mr. Smith a man capable of applying to its best use
the produce of his care and labour.’’*

Professor Phillips, in his memoir of Wm. Smith, several times
alludes to Mr. Richardson. As the book is out of print I give the

extract in full which refers to this meeting :—

It was fortunate for Mr. Smith and for the progress of his 3 views, that he
gained at this time the friendship of a man singularly competent to estimate
the truth and value of these views, and both able and willing to advocate the
merit of their author. The Rev. Benjamin Richardson was at this time
living in Bath, and possessed a choice collection of local fossils, mostly
gathered by his own diligent hands. Extensively versed in natural history,
and generally well acquainted with the progress of science, he was perfectly
enthusiastic in following out, and liberal in enabling others to prosecute
new and ingenious researches, especially if they tended to practical and
public good. He knew accurately the country in which Mr. Smith had
principally worked, and was acquainted with the views entertained on the
subject of fossils, which had been recorded in books, or were adopted
by the collectors, who were even then celebrated in the vicinity of Bath. He
had no knowledge of the laws of stratification, and the connexion between
the forms of organic life, and the order of superposition of the strata ; while,
on the other hand, his new friend had very little knowledge of the true nature
of these organic forms, and their exact relation to analogous living types.
The result of a meeting between two such reciprocally adjusted minds was an
electric combination ; the fossils which the one possessed were marshalled in
the order of strata by the other, until all found their appropriate places, and
the arrangement of the cabinet became a true copy of nature.

That such fossils had been found in such rocks was immediately acknow-
ledged by Mr. Richardson to be true, though the connexion had not before
presented itself to his mind; but when Mr. Smith added the assurance, that _
everywhere throughout his district, and to considerable distances around, it
was a general law that the “‘ same strata were found always in the same order
of superposition, and contained the same peculiar fossils,’ his friend was both
astonished and incredulous. He immediately acceded to Mr. Smith’s pro-
posal for undertaking some field examinations to determine the truth of these
assertions, and having interested in this object a new and learned associate,
the Rev. Joseph Townsend (author of Travels in Spain), they at once executed
the project.

“H. J.” further adds that Mr. Richardson looked upon Mr.
Smith as a man capable of advancing the knowledge he so anxiously

* Bath and Bristol Mag.

328

desired to disseminate in a greater degree than he himself could.
And to have withheld from him anything calculated to assist his
inquiries he would have considered not only an injury to him but
an injustice towards mankind. ‘My cabinet,” I have often heard
him say, “is of no use except for the purpose of disseminating
knowledge, and if I find that this end can be effected more readily
or completely by giving what I have than by only exhibiting it I
have no room for choice.” He mentions as a proof of his having
acted up to his profession that although he was to the very last a
zealous collector, and lived in a country finely adapted to the study
of Geology, yet his cabinet was at the time of his lamented decease
almost empty.

From the same article we learn that he gave considerable atten-
tion to Botany, and that he once planned, and attempted to
establish, a Botanic Garden in the vicinity of Bath. He was an
active member of the West of England Agricultural Society, and
early supported the practice of supplying the poor with small allot-
ments of land for cultivation in the intervals of their ordinary
labour.

In the First Annual Report of the Bath Literary and Scientific
Institution for the year 1825, we find that Mr. Richardson presented
a collection of antiquities and 57 fossils from the neighbourhood of
Bath to the Museum which was then just being founded, and his
name frequently appears in subsequent reports as making donations
to the Museum.

A tablet on the north wall of the chancel of the Church at Farley
Hungerford bears this inscription :—

‘‘ Sacred to the memory of
The Rev. Benjamin Richardson,
for many years rector of this parish.
He died Jan. 22nd, 1832,
deservedly lamented
by all who knew him.”

The following is the tribute paid to his memory by Sir Roderick

Murchison, in his address to the Geological Society, 1833.

“The Rev. Benjamin Richardson, of Farley, near Bath, one of the earliest
members of this society, was a man of great singleness of character and
generosity of disposition, and, as a cultivator of science, he was distinguished

329

by the extent of his knowledge,—not drawn from books, but from an examina-
tion of nature in her own domains. In the pursuit of Geology he was well —
instructed from his own researches ; but he was ever delighted to tell that he
owed his first clear ideas of the subject to Wm. Smith, and his latter days
were gladdened by knowing that the merits of his friend had beenacknowledged
by this Society. To his generosity of disposition our museum, and those of
many local institutions, are deeply indebted. He collected only that he
might give away; and, regardless of all personal fame, he never failed, when
a discovery was made, to call around him those who could profit by it.
Thus, though he was never seen among us, and though his name was rarely
heard, he was steadily labouring in our cause, and silently, but effectually,
urging it on.”

His Works.—It does not appear that he ever wrote any Geological
paper, nor made any communication to the Geological Society.

Rev. Jon Jostas CoNYBEARE.

Sources of Information.—

1. An article in the “Bath and Cheltenham Gazette” for Tuesday, 22nd
June, 1824, by Moysey, Archdeacon of Bath.

2. The “ Gentleman’s Magazine” for August 24th, 1824, p. 187.

3. The Biographical sketch in the “ Annals of Philosophy,’’ new series,
vol. 8, September, 1824, p. 162.

4, The ‘Gentleman’s Magazine” for October, 1824, p. 376, being an
abridged reprint of the article in the “ Annals of Philosophy.”

5. The “Gentleman’s Magazine” for December, 1824, p. 482, which has
a further notice of his publications.

6. “Dodsley’s Annual Register’’ for 1824 [published in 1825], p. 226.

The article in the “ Annals of Philosophy,” is by far the most

complete.

His Family.—His grandfather, Dr. John Conybeare [M.A. in
1716 ; D.D. in 1729], was some time Fellow and Rector of Exeter
College, Oxford,and Rector of St. Clement’s, Oxford. He owed
his preferment chiefly to his whig principles, and was the only
whig head of a house of his day at Oxford. January 27th, 1732,
he was appointed Dean of Christ Church, Oxford, and January
14th, 1750, Bishop of Bristol. He held these two posts in com-
mendam. Britton states that he died at Bath. He is buried in
Bristol Cathedral, next to Bishop Butler, his grave being almost
immediately under the present throne for the Bishop. The tablet
to his memory has been removed to the gallery.

330

A son of this Bishop, William Conybeare, of Christ Church,
Oxford, became M.A. in 1764, and D.D. in 1765. He married
Miss Olivier, a sister of whom married Sir W. Congreve.
He was Rector of St. Botolph, in Bishopgate, and left behind
him two sons—the elder, John Josias, the subject of this memoir—
the younger, William Daniel, born in 1787.

There is an obituary notice of this second son, the famous Dean
Conybeare, in Major-General Portlock’s address to the Geological
Society in 1858, and im the ‘“ Gentleman’s Magazine,” 1857, vol.
2, p. 335, He died August 12th, 1857.

His Life.*—John Josias Conybeare was born June, 1779. “He
educated at Westminster school, and in the year 1793, having
throughout the examination which precedes such admission,
distinguished himself in a most eminent manner, so as to be
constantly at the head of those who stood out, was admitted,
at the head of his election, a scholar of the college. The
reputation for ability and scholarship which he thus established
had been anticipated in consequence of the distinguished talent
shown in his school exercises, and it was afterwards supported
whilst he attended at Westminster in such a manner as to vindicate
to him the character of possessing greater abilities, and of being a
better scholar than any boy then in the school.

Early in 1797 he was elected to a studentship at Christ Church,
Oxford, and he maintaincd in that University a reputation as dis-
tinguished as that of his earlier years. Besides college prizes
which he obtained, taking always the first place, he gained, we
believe, in 1799, an University undergraduate’s prize for a Latin
Poem, the subject of which was Religio Brahme, which was
characterized, as his verses always were, by fine poetic taste, and a
peculiar facility of expression and harmony of numbers.”t

In 1803 he, for a short time, occupied the post of usher at
Westminster school, while Dr. Carey was head master; but he
soon returned to Christ Church.

* While this paper was in the press some pages of the MS, of this portion
were lost during the writer's absence from Bath. He is unable now, through

illness, to re-write them.
+ An. Phil.

331

I can find no clue to the date of his B.A., nor can I ascertain the
date of his ordination. He took his M.A. on February 3rd, 1804,
and in the same year the prebendal stall of Warthill, in the
Cathedral of York, was vacated by his father, and Archbishop
Markham immediately presented him to it.

About this time (1804) he had a laboratory, and busied himself
much with chemical experiments, thus perhaps laying the foun-
dation for that interest in scientific subjects which subsequently
led him as a relaxation by change of intellectual employment to
those few researches in Geology, Chemistry, and History of
Science, the results of which for the most part are recorded in the
“ Annals,” and the character of this is such that did we not know
him to be otherwise employed in promoting objects of equal utility,
we might have wished that the scientific researches had been
greatly extended.”*

In 1807+ he was chosen Professor of Anglo-Saxon, at Oxford,
and he also held the perpetual curacy of Cowley, near Oxford.

In 1812 he was elected Regius Professor of Poetry at Oxford,
and in the same year he was presented to the vicarage of Bath-
easton, near Bath, which is among the many livings in the patronage
of Christ Church, Oxford.

In 1824 he preached the Bampton Lecture. From Oxford he
went to Blackheath, where he was seized with apoplexy, on 11th
June, 1824, and died the next day at the house of Stephen
Groombridge, Esq. On the 20th his body was placed in the
Churchyard at Batheaston, in a spot selected by himself.

An article in the “ Bath and Cheltenham Gazette” gives some
details of the funeral, and speaks of the profound feeling of regret
and respect exhibited by the large number of all ranks who
attended.

His “ Tlustrations of Anglo-Saxon Poetry,” which were edited in
1826 by his brother, may be said to be a landmark as regards
those studies, and it still continues to be valued by Saxon scholars.

I have been told he was of dark complexion, with black hair,
and any stranger meeting him would have been struck by his

_ * An. Phil.
*?1809. Prefatory notice to “ Illustrations of Anglo-Saxon Poetry.”

332

peculiar jerky manner. He was considered to be one of the most
learned men of his day.
In Batheaston Church, on the east wall of the north transept, is
a tablet with this inscription :—
Sacred
to the beloved and revered memory of
John Josias Conybeare, M.A.,
Prebendary of York, and for 11 years
the faithful minister of this parish.
He completed his 45th year on the 10th of June, 1824,
when he was suddenly seized with a “ sickness
unto death,” and expired on the following day.
‘“« And now, behold, I know that ye all,
among whom I have gone preaching
the kingdom of God,
shall see my face no more.”
For the Lord saith,
“Surely I come quickly.
Amen. Even so, come
Lord Jesus.”
His Works. (Only Geological papers are here noticed.)—Papers
communicated to the Geological Society :—
Memoranda relative to Clovely, North Devon. 1 Trans., p. 495. Pub. 1814,
Memoranda relative to the Porphyritic veins, &c., of St. Agnes, in
Cornwall. 4 Trans., p. 401. Read Dec., 1813.
Notice of Fossil Shells in the Slate of Tintagel. 4 Trans., p. 424, Read

Dec., 1818.
On the substances contained in the interior of Chalk Flints. 1 Trans.,

Ser. ii., p. 422. Read June, 1822.
A list of his papers communicated to the “Annals of Philosophy”

will be found at p. 168 of vol. viii., 1824.

Wituiam LonspAte.

The name of William Lonsdale will ever be intimately associated
with our Bath Literary and Scientific Institution as the founder of
its Geological Museum, and its first honorary curator.

His Family.—His father was William Lonsdale, Esq., a member
of the family of Lonsdales which had been for many years connected
with Skipton-in Craven, in Yorkshire, and who had married Mary
Wagstaffe, daughter of William Wagstaffe, Esq., of Higham Ferrers,
in Northamptonshire. By this marriage there were five children.

—

333

William, the subject of this memoir, was the youngest. This is the
whole of the information I have obtained about his family.

His Life.—William Lonsdale was born at Bath 9th September,
1794. Of his early school days I have not been able to glean
anything. He obtained a commission in the army in February,
1810, as ensign in the 4th (King’s Own) Regiment. Two other
brothers were at that time officers in the same regiment. He served
in the Peninsular War and received the Peninsular medal, with a
clasp for the Battle of Salamanca. In 1815 he was present at the
Battle of Waterloo, and was the only officer in his regiment not
wounded on that day. He of course had the honour of possessing
a Waterloo medal.* The third battalion of his regiment in
which he had served was shortly afterwards reduced, and he
unexpectedly found himself placed on half-pay. He never again
applied to be employed on active service.

Among the list of donors to the Bath Museum in 1826 appears
the name of Lieutenant and Adjutant Lonsdale, 4th (King’s Own)
Regiment, and from which some have supposed that William
Lonsdale became Adjutant in his regiment. This is a misunder-
standing. Adjutant Lonsdale was his nephew, and William
Lonsdale retired simply as lieutenant.t

After Mr. Lonsdale left the army he lived for several years with
his mother at Batheaston, and a correspondent tells me that
according to his own statement he became a Geologist from hearing
the conversation of two ladies in the library at Bath. They were
speaking of a fossil that had been found in the neighbourhood, and
being so interested in what they said he thought he would try what
he could find. The collection in our Institution shows what was
the vigour with which he prosecuted this determination.

From the First Report of the Institution, page 25, we find that
in the year 1825 he presented to the Institution 800 geological
specimens, 290 fossils, and 69 species of land and fresh water shells.
The Institution was then in its infancy. Those who wish to learn

—— Oe
* This is now in the possession of William Lonsdale, of the 17th Regiment.
+ I state this on the authority of the sister of the donor, described as
Lieutenant and Adjutant Lonsdale,

334

what were the many unsuccessful attempts to establish an institu-
tion and museum for Bath will find some reference to the subject
in the Rey. J. Hunter’s paper on “ The Connection of Bath with the
Literature and Science of England,” and a Note, p. 98, vol ii.,
“ Warner’s Literary Recollections.” The specimens whieh Mr.
Lonsdale presented were all carefully mounted and labelled in his
own remarkably clear and neat handwriting, and I am glad that no
attempt has been made to change the tablets. They have an
historical value. They are interesting as souvenirs of Lonsdale’s
connection with Bath, and the names themselves mark a stage in
the progress of Geological Science. Whether it was an innate love
of method, or whether it was the result of military discipline, I
cannot say, but no one can fail to be struck with the regularity and
order impressed on everything to which Lonsdale put his hand.
We see it in the uniform arrangement of the tablets in the
Institution. The same is traceable in the work which he did sub-
sequently for the Geological Society of London, and the same spirit
was evinced in the condition of his papers and cases of fossils which
were opened after his death. Mr. Stoddart, of Bristol, showed me
some of the boxes which were bequeathed to him, and we were both
much struck with the orderly method in which everything was
arranged; a great contrast to what is frequently called, as an
excuse for slovenliness, “ literary confusion.”

The Second Report of this Institution shows that a great effort
was made not only to establish a Museum on a permanent basis,
but to place the different departments in the hands of gentlemen
who were well qualified and had leisure for the task to act as
honorary curators. Mr. Lonsdale was appointed the first honorary
curator of the Natural History department of the Museum, At
p. 14 of this Second Report we find that he was specially thanked.
He remained energetically working at the establishment and
arrangement of the Museum until 1829. I have been told by three
or four people who knew him that he used to walk in from
Batheaston to the Institution quite early in the morning, when
light permitted, often as early as six o’clock, and that he would
steadily work the whole day through with no voluntary interrup-
tion whatever, not even for refreshment, a few biscuits while

335

at work being all that he required till he returned to his
home in the evening. The care shown in the mounting and
neat labelling the collection which he presented to the Insti-
tution is noticeable through all he did. His catalogues of
our Museum, apart from their scientific value, are well worthy
of inspection as probably unrivalled specimens of neat and
methodical work. Of all the catalogues of different museums
which I have seen I do not recollect one which could be in any
way considered superior in these respects. Fresh views and fresh
classifications have to some extent rendered these catalogues
obsolete, and our Museum is without a catalogue in harmony
with the present state of science. Shall we find another William
Lonsdale to do for our Museum now what was done more than
40 years ago }

On May 15th, 1829, he was elected a Fellow of the Geological
Society, and in his nomination paper he is described as lieutenant.

Unfortunately for Bath he was so well known as an energetic
and painstaking curator that he was appointed curator and
librarian of the Geological Society of London. His predecessor in
that office was Mr. Thomas Webster. I cannot learn the exact
date of his leaving Bath, but his name is first printed as curator
and librarian in the “Transactions of the Geological Society,” vol.
iii, part 1, 1829. He held his office from 1829 till 1842, when he
was succeeded by the celebrated Edward Forbes. His work during
this period was very important, and on several occasions it
received direct acknowledgment from the Council of the Society.
The care with which he edited the publications of the Geological
Society has been frequently spoken of with pleasureable recollec-
tions. That the value of his services in this way may be duly
understood it should be mentioned that although authors commu-
nicating papers to the Society are responsible for the views
expressed in them, yet the form in which they appear when
published has always depended much on the editor. The amount
of supervision exercised has from time to time with different
editors varied considerably. Lonsdale in this carried matters with
a high hand, and not merely contented with revising proofs and
arranging punctuation, he freely excised and condensed where his

336

judgment considered it desirable, and his judgment was always
regarded as a sound one in such cases.*

Though absent in London his Bath friends did not forget him.
In the Fourth Report of the Institution, p. 9, we again find
a resolution of special thanks to Mr. Lonsdale, and in 1830 his name
entered as an honorary “ proprietor” of the Institution, a com-
pliment which, as far as I know, has been accorded to no one else.
Nor did he, on his part, forget the Institution at Bath, for he
regularly presented copies of the publications of the Geological
Society to the library.

At the request of the Council of the Geological Society he
undertook an investigation of the Oolite districts of Gloucester-
shire.

Lonsdale on four occasions received the Wollaston fund, and on
one occasion the Wollaston medal. I prefer to put these and other
notices of him at the anniversary meetings of the Geological Society
in their sequence, that they may be the more readily referred to in
the publications of the Society.

The first was in 1832 (see “ Proceedings,” vol. 1, p. 362),
when Murchison announced that the Council had awarded the
Wollaston fund to him. The object of this donation was to assist
him at his further examination of the Oolitic formations.

* Since the above was written the President of the Geological Society in
his presidential address to the Society, remarks :—‘‘ Those who remember the
Society in the days of his Assistant-Secretaryship will never forget the
unceasing and manifold labours with which he devoted himself to its interests,
nor the patient and valuable assistance he was ever ready to render to such as
sought his counsel and advice. Too many nights, indeed, were, I know, given
up by him to those disinterested and friendly offices. The unseen hand and
the thoughtful head may be felt and recognized in many of the important
papers which then appeared in our ‘Transactions.’ Added to a great
knowledge of geology and paleontology, Wm. Lonsdale was endowed with
extreme caution, and had a keen sense of the importance of using, in scientific
papers especially, as few words as possible, whence in many cases a free use
of scissors and brush whenever allowed—a use, in fact, generally freely
granted, by many of the then great leaders in geology, in consequence of
their high opinion of the sound judgment and discrimination of their able
Assistant-Secretary.”’

337

In 1833 (“ Proceedings,” vol. 1, p. 423) the Council report
on the work done by him in the Oolitic district north of Calne.

In 1843 (‘ Proceedings,” vol. 4, pp. 42, 43) is the announce-
ment by the Council of his resignation. And at p. 67 are the
remarks which Murehison made in his address as President of
the Society when alluding to the official changes which had taken
place.

In 1844 (Proceedings,” vol. 4, p. 336) is the announcement
of the award by the Council for the second time of the Wollaston
fund. Warburton was then president, who gave no presidential
address at either of the anniversaries during his term of office.
There was, therefore, no formal handing over of the fund and no
speech on the occasion.

In 1846 (Journal vol. 2, p. ili, in the “ Report of the Com-
mittee”), both the medal and fund were awarded to him. The
address of the president, Leonard Horner, on presenting these
is given on p. 141. The recipient of the medal, as has frequently
been the case, was not present, and it was placed in the hands
of Fitton to convey to Lonsdale, who after the usual formal
thanks to the Council, took occasion to supplement, in a way
we now much value, the remarks which the president made
on the importance of Lonsdale’s work. He had for some time
before this devoted great attention to the study of corals, which
formed the largest part of his scientific labours up to the time of
his death.

In 1849 the Wollaston fund was again for the fourth time
awarded to him ; on this occasion to aid him in his researches. in
fossil corals. At p. xviii. of the Journal for that year is the
address of the president, Sir Henry Delabeche, on presenting the
fund. Lonsdale himself was absent, and the fund was entrusted to
Hamilton for transmission.

The report of the Council in 1843, and Murchison’s address at
the time, together with the address of Horner in 1846, and that
of Delabeche in 1849, are the best notices of Lonsdale’s work to
which we can refer. It has rarely fallen to the lot of any officer
of the Society to receive so often expressions of the esteem of the
Council and of their appreciation of the value of his work.

338

As above stated, Lonsdale resigned his post in connection with
the Geological Society in 1842. He then went for a short time
into Devonshire for his health, and afterwards for some time lived
at Melksham and at various places in Somersetshire until he
removed to Bristol. During his later days he sought retirement,
and it was frequently impossible without great difficulty for his
Geological friends to know how to communicate with him. For
many years previous to his death his name appeared in the list of
the Geological Society without any address attached to it, and he
frequently changed his place of abode. At the time of the British
Association meeting at Bath in 1864 he was living at Catherine
Place, Bristol, where Sir Roderick Murchison visited him. He_
afterwards moved to City Road, Bristol, where on the 11th Nov.,
1871, he died at the age of 77, and was buried at Arno’s Vale
Cemetery, being followed to the grave only by Captain Lonsdale
and Mr. W. W. Stoddart, F.G.S.

A relative of his writes to me :—

‘Though he did not apply to be again employed, he always appeared to
have liked the life he had in the army, and had always a strong interest in
military matters, and especially in his old regiment. He worked hard for
Geology, but with us he was the old soldier to the last.”

His Papers.—Lonsdale’s papers, communicated to the Geological
Society, are as follows :—

“On the Oolitic District of Bath.” Trans., ser. 2, vol. iii., pp. 241 to 276.
1829.

“Report of a Survey of the Oolitic Formations of Gloucestershire.”
Proc., vol. i, p. 4138. 1832.

“On the Age of the Limestones of South Devonshire.’”’ Trans., ser. 2,
vol. v., pp. 721 to 738. 1840.

Three papers on Polyparia from America in Journal vol.i. 1845.

“On Fossil Zoophytes found in the Section from Atherfield to Rocken End ,
Isle of Wight.’ Journal, vol. v., pp. 65 to 108. 1848.

Two of these papers we must briefly notice.

“ On the Oolitic District of Bath.” Trans., ser. 2, vol. iii., p. 241.
—It was read on the 6th Feb., 1829, and he mentions that it was
prepared at the suggestion of Dr. Fitton and Mr. Delabeche, from
the notes which a residence here had enabled him to make. The
sources, beyond his own observations, from which he obtained
information, he tells us were Smith’s map of Wiltshire, Conybeare

339

and Delabeche’s map of 24 miles round Bath (a copy of which is
in the Institution), the “outlines” of Conybeare and Phillips, and
the Rey. B. Richardson, of Farleigh, “a gentleman long and
extensively known as a diligent and successful cultivator of
science.” The district comprised is a large one. The formations
included in the circuit are from the lias up to the lower chalk.
He gives descriptions of the sub-divisions of each with their
thickness and the localities where they may be well seen. Accurate
measurements are given in inches of the sub-divisions as seen in
different quarries. His paper deals exclusively with the lithological
characters and relative positions of the divisions of the strata,
which in this part of the country are very strongly marked. At
the end of the paper is a list of organic remains, in which only
those found by himself are recorded, but he does not attempt
to distinguish characteristic forms from others. A reference
to the Mineral Conchology or some other standard work is
given with each species, together with the locality at which the
specimen had been found. Without any attempt to give a
résumé of the contents of the paper, it may be interesting
to allude to the following points. The sands, sometimes called
upper lias sands, are classed by him with the inferior Oolite ; in
the Fuller's earth he recognizes in the lower clay one or-two strata
of tough rubbly limestone, Fuller’s earth rock. At p. 254 he
gives a diagram showing the thinning out of the Great Oolite ; he
wished to class the Bradford clay with the forest marble; he
regarded the sand and sandstone of the forest marble as a
representative of the Stonesfield slate of Oxfordshire ; he used the
terms for this part of the country adopted from Prof. Phillips
“Upper Calcareous Grit” and ‘Lower Calcareous Grit ;” and
the divisions Lower Green Sand, Galt, and Upper Green
Sand, which had been but just introduced. The value of his
example in following the orthodox way of spelling galt should not
be overlooked. He notices the existence of chalk flints on isolated
downs and hills in the neighbourhood of Bath, and gives a list of
mammalia found in the gravel pits at Larkhall. Although the
list of fossils has been largely increased since his time, yet the
paper itself, which was the first detailed description of the district
F

340

since Townsend’s “ Vindication of Moses,” is still the only paper of
its kind.

“ Notes on the Age of the Limestones in South Devonshire.” Fifth
vol., second series, ‘‘ Transactions,” p. 721. March 25, 1840,—
This is the most important communication Lonsdale made to the
Society, in consequence of which he has been called the founder of
the Devonian system. He begins—

“The reasons which have induced me to assume on Zoological evidence that
the limestones of Southern Devon, between Dartmoor and the Coast, would
prove to be of the age of the old red sandstone, not having been placed on
record in a separate form, Mr, Murchison has begged me to lay before the
Society a distinet notice of my claim to having been the first to propose the
classification recently put forth by Prof. Sedgwick and himself, and in con-
sequence of an extension of those views to Belgium and the Boulonnais, Dr.
Fitton has urged me to comply with the request.* In the memoirs in which
Prof. Sedgwick and Mr. Murchison announced the change in their classifica-
tion of the older sedimentary strata of Devonshire and Cornwall the clearest
and amplest acknowledgments are made of my share in promoting the
alteration; but as it is possible that some mistake may hereafter arise relative
to the nature and limits of my suggestion, I conceive it is a duty to others as
well as to myself to comply with the above request.”

He gives a notice of the writers from Woodward (1729) down-
wards who have in any way geologically noticed these rocks, adding
a resumé in each case where the observations are of any value.
The three papers he especially notices are these :—

1st.—Prideaux, which is published in the “ Transactions” of the
Plymouth Institution, of whom he remarks that his inference of
age was based on mineral characters alone.

2nd.—Delabeche’s, which was the first attempt to define the
Zoological character of the Devonshire calcareous rocks. The list
of fossils contains 21 species, and Lonsdale considered that
Delabeche was justified on such evidence in regarding the new
species rather as an addition to the fauna of the mountain lime-
stone than as an indication of a distinct period of organic life.

ard.—Mr. John Phillips. Out of a list of 38 species of Devon
limestone shells 21 are marked as common to the transition and
the carboniferous series, and the writer doubts to which formation
these limestones belong. Lonsdale reminds that—“ The Silurian

* Lond. and Ed. Phil. Mag., April, 1839, p. 680.

341

system was not then published, and thus only one of the two terms
necessary for comparison was known.”

Such was the state of the question with regard to the South
Devon limestones when Lonsdale turned his attention to it. At p.
726 he says—‘ I will now state briefly the Zoological evidence on
which I assumed that the Newton Bushel and other limestones
would prove to be of the age of the old red sandstone. He mentions
certain collections of fossils which he had inspected, and then says
—“Jt was, therefore, by combining together this evidence, the
presence in the same series of beds, of shells resembling or identical
with mountain limestone species, of Silurian corals, the calccola
sandalina, and various distinct testacea, that I was induced to
suggest that the South Devon limestones are of an intermediate age
between the Carboniferous and Silurian systems, and consequently
of the old red sandstone.” Murchison and Sedgwick supported
this suggestion, and the independence of the Devonian system was
recognised. How the Devonian rocks have continued to be subjects
of controversy all geologists know.

LLL eee
CONTEMPORARY EVENTS, TOWNSEND. RICHARDSON. CONYBEARE. LonsDALE.

1730
1738 Born

1740 Lazzaro Moro published

1749 Buffon’s Natural History
1750 Werner born
1756 Lehman’s treatise

1760 Prof. Michell’s paper 1762 B.A., Cambridge
1766 Brander’s Fossilia Hantoniensia | 1765 At Edinburgh
1769 W. Smith born 1765 Rec.of Pewsey& Chaplain
J to Countess Huntingdon
1775 Werner app. Prof at Freiberg | 1769 InIreland & on Continent | 1778 Left Oxford

1779 Walcott’s ** petrifactions” 1779 Ceased to be Chaplain to
Countess of Huntingdon
1788 Hutton’s theory of the earth 1786 On Continent ° 1789 Born
1790 Married Lady Clerke 1793 Scholar of West-
. 1794 ‘* Vade mecum” 1796 Presented to rectory minster 1794 Born at Bath
1797 Hutton died 1795 ‘‘Guide to health” of Farleigh 1797 Student Ch. Church,
1799 W. Smith’s M.S, table 1799 First met W. Smith 1799 First met W. Smith Oxford 2
1800 Cuvier’s Legons d’Anat. Comp. 1804 Prebend of Warthill
1807 Geol. Soc, instituted 1807 Prof. of A.S., Oxford
1810 Cuvier and Brongniart’s paper | 1812 ‘‘ Vindication of Moses” 1812 Professor of Poetry at | 1810 Commission in army
1815 W. Smith's first map 1816 Died in November Oxford 1815 At Waterloo
1817 Werner died ; 1816 Left army
1822 Conybeare & Phillips “‘outlines” Lived at Batheaston
1824 Bath Museum founded 1824 Died in June 1826 ee Curator Bath
; useum
1830 Lyell’s principles 1832 Died in Janu 1829 Paper on Oolite Dis-
1836 Buckland’s Bridgwater treatise ae a trict of Bath
1839 Murchison’s Silurian system 1829 Sec. to Geol. Society
1840 Murchison and Sedgwick on 1837 Suggested Devonian
Devonshire 1840 Paper on Devonian
1842 Resigned post at
1855 Godwin Austen, ‘‘ Extension of Geol. Society

coal measures ”
1859 Hull, ‘Thinning out of the
secondary rocks ”
1863 Salter, ‘ Upper Devonian”
1866 Jukes, ‘‘ Devonian”
1867 Moore, ‘‘Abnormal secondary
deposits” ; Etheridge, *‘ Rocks -
[and Fossils of Devonshire.” 1871 Died

343

Summary of Proceedings of the Bath Natural History and
Antiquarian Field Club for the year 1871-72.

Mr, PRESIDENT, AND GENTLEMEN,

The following pithy words occur in an address on “ Education”
delivered before a certain Scotch University : “As we advance in
life we learn the limits of our abilities. Our expectations for
the future shrink to modest dimensions.” The force of the
truth of this remark we must all feel, and no one feels it more
than your Secretary, who, according to annual custom, gives a
summary of the year’s proceedings. In reviewing what we have
done the record is somewhat scanty ; his expectations for the
future shrink to modest dimensions. Is it that our advance in
Club life has exhausted the field of our observations, in other words,
that subjects of Natural History and Archeology have been used
up in our neighbourhood? Or is it that the freshness of youthful
ardour has somewhat abated, and our zeal slackened? One of the
great advantages attending this study of Nature is that all her true
students never grow old or weary in her service. Something fresh
and unexpected is ever springing up to give new life and impart
fresh energy. Life, in short, is evolved from life. Let us then, in
looking back upon what we have done, look onwards to what we
shall do for the future.

With these preliminary remarks, then, let me commence with
the Evening Meetings. Picking up the thread where it was dropt
last Session, the fourth and concluding Evening Meeting claims our
first attention. This took place on March 15th, under the presi-
dency of the Rev. Prebendary Scarth, the Rev. Leonard Jenyns
being absent through indisposition. The first paper contributed.
was by the Rev. J. Earle, “ Notes on a Saxon Poem of a City in
Ruins supposed to be Bath” (wide p. 259). This was a very im-
portant contribution to the local archxology, as the discussion that
took place afterwards indicates; indeed one member did not
hesitate to state his opinion that it was one of the greatest “ finds ”
of recent times.

Mr, Earte commenced by saying that the idea that in a certain
Saxon poem of which he was going to speak we really had a
description of Bath, was not one which had suddenly occurred to

344

his mind, for three years ago he told Mr. Winwood that he thought
he discerned in it some very strong allusions to Bath, and he now
saw no reason to change his opinion ; on the contrary, he thought
it more probable than ever. Inthe Chapter Library at Exeter there
was a book which was given to Exeter Cathedral by Leofric, the
last Bishop of Crediton, and the first who moved the see of Devon-
shire to Exeter, and who died in 1072. There it had lain ever
since. It wasavolume of Saxon poetry. Now we find in Leofric’s
will a list of books and other objects which he bequeathed to his
new Cathedral. The book under consideration was included in the
list, and among the contents of this book was the piece now to be
spoken of. This piece consisted of the description of a ruined city,
and, more than that, of a particular city. Whether it was or was
not the old Roman city of Akemanchester was a question he should
not pretend to decide ; he would only invite attention to the best
arguments he could produce for its probability. Mr. Earle then
gave a translation of the poem, remarking, before doing so, that the
chief obstacle he had to contend with was the extreme difficulty of
representing it by a modern translation. He then said that the
feature of the poem on which he rested his argument for the city in
ruins being Akemanchester, was the twice repeated mention of
baths, in the plainest and clearest terms, and a third time rather
obscurely, And not only so, but there was the description of a
stream of water, of large volume, hot without artificial heat ; and
where was there a place where the description could be matched
except Bath, not in this country only, but in Europe ; a stone-
built military city, in ruins, and with a magnificent spring of hot
water? To this description his knowledge did not offer any
response except Akemanchester. The architectural grandeur of the
poem would be fully satisfied by Akemanchester, for that there
were in and after the Roman period great and handsome buildings
of stone was manifest from a glance at the remains collected in that
Institution. As to the stream of hot water, the condition was here
fulfilled with singular precision, and the only question that
remained was this:—Was Akemanchester ever deserted and in
ruins? When the Saxons had conquered the country we know that
many cities were deserted, and the existence of many was unknown

345

until they were brought to light by the labours of modern arche-
ologists. The Gothic races differed from the Roman whom they
conquered in that they preferred the country to the town ; and
municipal habits and tastes were not cultivated by them. In this
there seemed to be a sufficient reason for the general desertion of
the Roman cities, and many instances could be cited of Roman
cities, now populous, which were deserted in the ninth century.
Chester, for instance, was a desert place in 894. In the present
case the disappearance of the ancient name of Akemanchester, and
the substitution of a totally new one, was a great argument that
the place passed through a period of desertion and ruin. When
might this period have been? In the year 577 there was a great
battle at Dyrham between the Saxons and the Britons, in which
three British kings were slain, and the Saxons became masters of
the three strongholds of the west, viz., Gloucester, Cirencester, and
Akemanchester. From this date there were just 99 years before
we heard anything further of Akemanchester, and then it was
found to bear the name of Bath. The grant of Osric for the
building of a monastery at Bath was dated Nov. 6th, 676, so that
in round figures there were a hundred years in which we might
reasonably surmise that Akemanchester was desolate. Then as to
the poem itself. Before he had worked out the historical question
of time he had asked—What, in a purely literary or philological
light, should be the date assigned to this poem? He would
attribute it to the seventh or eighth century ; it belonged to the
oldest type of Saxon poetry, to that type of which the Beowulf was
the most striking example. If we indulged in the hypothesis that
the description referred to old Akemanchester, we should find
some minor coincidences arising to confirm the identification. The
term which he had rendered as “ pictured gable” was rather
obscure, but before he had found words to express the meaning of
the original he had found a thing which would answer to it, and
that thing was the great sculptured pediment in the Institution.
There was a local tinge about the phrase “lichen-spotted,” which
he had put down in the translation. The exact Saxon was “ ruddy
mottled,” and many would know that our oolite walls had a very
pretty way of filming themselves over with a ruddy lichen.

346

The CiairMAN, in presenting the thanks of the meeting to Mr.
Earle, said he had made a step in the history of Bath, and had
thrown light upon a subject which was at all times dark. He very
much concurred in what Mr. Earle had said, and he thought there
was a strong presumption that the city must have been Bath and
none other, because there were no hot springs anywhere in England
except at Buxton, where apparently at that period they were
unknown ; and where, moreover, there was not any Roman
occupation, At Bath there were traces of Roman occupation
for a considerable period. It seemed probable that after the battle
of Dyrham the city was pillaged and left. The Saxons, Kemble
(Saxons in England) says, did not destroy the cities, but pillaged
them and then left them, and there was little doubt, Mr. Scarth
added, that wherever the Saxons came the British inhabitants
receded from them. The probability was that after the battle of
Dyrham the place was desolate for a hundred years; in fact the
Roman remains found showed that. They were at the depth of
eighteen or twenty feet from the surface, and there was a great
accumulation over them. Referring to the discoveries just made
at the baths, Mr. Scarth said they afforded another confirmation of
the truth of Mr. Earle’s statement and of the plans that had been
laid down. Mr. Irvine had examined the place, planned it, and had
filled in on his large map that portion which had Jately been opened.
There was also a later discovery made by Mr. Davis, who had
found, on the site of the new Corporation offices, an altar to the
Genius Loci, which was the first with that dedication that had ever
been found here. But the remains found tended very much to
show that the city was pillaged and destroyed, and to corroborate
what Mr. Earle had said. This ray of light from the manuscripts
at Exeter showed what really could be gleaned from the libraries
we possess if they were well examined. He had always felt it to bea
certain thing that in the nature of Providence all memorials should
not be lost, but that the truth would come bubbling up to the
surface. The Club were greatly indebted to Mr. Earle, because he
had contributed a really valuable paper.

Mr. J. Goopwin thought that Mr. Earle had thoroughly made
out his case. If anything were wanted to complete his argument

347

it was a reference to that very remarkable monument in the
vestibule of the Institution to Julius Vitalis, a member of a college
of smiths or armourers in the neighbourhood of Bath, where the
stone was found, and justifying as he (the speaker) thought the
conjecture that if any place in England, circumstanced as Mr. Earle
had described, was entitled to the designation of an “arsenal” in
the Roman era, Bath was par excellence to be so regarded. During
the reading of the paper he had been trying to think of any locality
that would present anything like analogous features to those
described in the poem. Buxton, if he recollected right, bore no
traces of Roman occupation, and no evidence of the early use of its
baths. In Bath, if his conjecture as to the existence of a college
of armourers was well founded, there were all the elements
necessary to make an arsenal, so to speak, in the time of the
Romans.

Dr. Hunter said Mr. Earle quite carried him away with him.
Were the words of the Anglo-Saxon, which he had translated “ bath-
houses,” consistently the same throughout the poem, and the words
“hot water,” were they perfectly clear? These seemed to be the
chief tests of the applicability of the poem to our city. He also
asked whether it was possible that this poem might be a translation
or paraphrase of some Roman, or Greek, or Bible story, or did it
bear evidence of being an original work? One would like also to
hear whether the name Akemanceaster was abandoned when the
monastery was called Bath ?

Mr. H. D. Skrine said that the paper carried conviction to his
mind, and filled up a gap which was wanting in the early history
of the country.

Mr. Earwe did not go quite so far as Mr. Goodwin about the

_Julius Vitalis altar, because then, as now, men retired to spend
their latter years in this place, whereas their active vocation had
been exercised far away. With regard to Dr. Hunter’s question,
as to the recurrence of the word “ bath-houses,” it was found more
than once. The word “bath-houses” was the equivalent for an
obscure expression, which, literally rendered, would be “ fountain
hall,” though Dr. Grein, who had no thought of any local connec-
tion, had given “bath-houses” as his rendering of the word-

348

Baths were mentioned twice plainly, and once somewhat obscurely,
the form he had just explained being the obscure one, but in the
two other cases it was as clear as could be, “ bathu,” the very same
word. As regards the originality of the poem, all he could say
was, if it was a translation, where was the original story? None
such was known to him. So many things were wanted together—
a stone city, a copious stream of hot water, a Roman garrison ; and
if other towns where hot springs existed were taken into considera-
tion, for instance, Aix-la-Chapelle, Aix in Provence, or Dax in the
Pyrenees, the conditions did not apply.

Norse.—In connection with the above discussion it will be interesting to
recall the remarks of Mr. C. Moore, made after the reading of Mr. Karle’s
paper on “Traces of the Early History of Bath and the neighbourhood,”
Dec. 18th, 1867, which are so apposite as to be worth quoting, especially as
they do not appear in the Proceedings, though reported at the time; they are
the following :—‘“‘ Mr. Moore observed that it had been suggested by the. Rev.
J. Earle that there was no city here before the Roman occupation, and that
had brought to his remembrance a point that he wished to have cleared up,
viz., as to whether there was any city for a long interval after the Roman
occupation had ceased. With reference to this point he had been particularly
struck by what he had witnessed in the excavations on the site of the White
Hart Hotel. It there appeared that the whole of the Roman foundations had
been filled up with a kind of alluvial deposit or peat, which seemed to indicate
that after the Roman occupation there must have been an interval in which
certainly on the site of the White Hart no person lived. It must have been
a regular swamp, for the labourers working there had grubbed out great pieces
of trees and wood, and this swamp must have covered the whole of the
foundations of the Roman city.

Mr. Earle’s paper was followed by a contribution from the Rev.
W. S. Shaw, of “ Notes on the History of Twerton, from the earliest
records to the present time.” (Vide p. 270.)

In returning a vote of thanks to Mr. Shaw for his paper, the
CHAIRMAN expressed a wish that the history of every parish was
worked out in the same way.

As it was agreed at the Quarterly Meeting in April that this
should be the last Evening Meeting for the session, the papers that
ought to have been read on April 19th were postponed. The
Winter Session was to have commenced on Dec. 13th. Owing,
however, to the dangerous illness of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales,
it was thought to be more consistent with the wide-spread feeling

349

of sorrow and sympathy expressed throughout the country to defer
the opening meeting. A favourable change having taken place in
H.R.H.’s health, the first paper was read by Dr. Hunter on Jan,
3rd, 1872. (Vide p. 281.)

The chair was taken by the President, the Rev. Lronarp
BuiomerieLp (the new name lately assumed by him instead of
Jenyns), who opened the proceedings by an allusion to the cause
of the postponement, and announced that a portrait of the geologist,
William Smith, together with his memoirs by Professor Phillips,
had been presented to the Club by Mr. Kemp. Mr. Blomefield
said that so far as his recollections went the portrait was a very
good likeness.

The CHAIRMAN, in tendering a vote of thanks to Dr. Hunter,
spoke of the advantage of local biography, which was of great
value to literature, and the study of it came legitimately within
the province of a Club like the present one.

The Rev. G. W. Newnuam supplemented the paper by some
details which were in his knowledge as an old personal friend of
Mr. Skinner, for it was his privilege to have had the run of his
house for many years. In the Fourteenth Book of Tacitus
Camulodunum was described as being sime munimentis, and
Camerton was entirely open and unprotected, so that in this
character of openness was fulfilled one of the conditions, besides the
phrase which cannot well be got over, “ Mare quod spectat ad
Hiberniam.” Mr, Skinner always used to say that it was the place
which had made him what he was, and he went to Camerton with
no bias for any particular theory. His inscriptions were numerous
—English and Latin verse and prose decked water-trough and seat ;
the largest and most conspicuous was on the little glebe farm, now
removed for peace sake, which provoked the sharp wit of- his
antagonist and blister old Sam. Day. It was to this effect :—

‘* HAS DES
AD REPRIMENDA AGRICOLARUM
LATROCINIA
EXSTRUXIT JOHANNIS
NON TAM EXOORIATOR QUAM EXCORIATUS.”
Good, says Sam to a passing friend, ‘‘ More calf than butcher.”

His sermons were frequently philippics on the ingratitude of men,

350

and the want of an appreciation of kindness. His hospitality was:
marked, and he (Mr. N.) had frequently experienced his bounty. Dr.

Hunter had not mentioned his remarkable discovery of the tumulus

at Stony Littleton, in which a number of skulls with peculiar
foreheads were found, the cave being quite an artifieial cave of
Machpelah, with three cists on each side and one at the end. He
really must bear testimony to the great accuracy of Dr. Hunter's.
statement, and especially to all that had been said of Mr. Skinner’s.
hospitality and his bonhommie.

Mr. H. D. Sxrine said he had made some notes from Mr.
Skinner’s account of Camulodunum, but he felt unequal to going
into the subject with the same accuracy that Dr. Hunter had done.
He was of a different opinion from Dr. Hunter, and he came to his
conclusion, not simply because Mr. Skinner had started and ably
argued out the theory of Camerton being Camulodunum, but
because that theory fitted in with the history of the Roman
conquest of Britain. It was certain that Cesar did uot conquer
Britain, but that he simply made an incursion into the country,
got the tribes to declare themselves allies of Rome, and then
retired. The conquest of Britannia Prima was made by Aulus
Plautius, who went so far as to think it wise to call in the Emperor
Claudius to complete the success, and the temple which was
erected to the Emperor in honour of the conquest was supposed by
Mr. Skinner to have been as near as. possible to the north western

boundary of the province. It seemed that the Belge had also |

conquered this part of the country, for Ptolemy said that their
territory extended from the British Channel to the mouth of the
Severn. Cunobelin was said to have been the king of the country,
and there were coins in existence with Camul on one side, and
Cunobelin on the other, all which was confirmatory of the idea that
somewhere about here there was a strong occupied city of the
Belge. Looking at the map the spot certainly appeared to have
been intended by nature for the position of a fortress, and it was
natural that it should be occupied by a nation that wanted to
conquer Britain. It seemed, too, to be a good strategical position
for the advanced post of the southern province, more especially
with reference to the subjugation of Wales or Britannia Secunda.

351

The Temple Cloud near Camerton appeared perfectly consistent
with the Templum Claudii, which was said to be close to Camulo-
dunum, and this temple was supported by the revenue previously
given to the British priests, who might well have been those at
Stanton Drew, where there was a Druidical temple, the priests of
which might have stirred up the people to resist payment. Ona
consideration of the whole of the concurrent evidence, he could not
resist the conclusion that Mr. Skinner had made out a very good
case for Camerton being the ancient Camulodunum.

The Rey. J. Earte expressed his thanks to Dr. Hunter for the
very interesting paper he had read, and for the very felicitous and
incisive way in which he had laid his views before them. He could
not help thinking that he had something of the peculiar manner of
that author who had been so frequently mentioned—the inimitable
Tacitus. Dr, Hunter had given, in aslight tone of incredulity and
sarcasm, ;Mr. Skinner's idea of the identity of Templum Claudi
with Temple Cloud, but he must say that before altogether
discarding that idea he should like some other explanation of what
the name did mean. It was a name “singularly singular,” and he
knew nothing like it anywhere. It certainly struck him as being a
hitch in any view that would throw Mr. Skinner overboard, if any-
thing like another reasonable explanation of the word could not be
given. In answer to Dr. Hunter, Mr. Earle said that the theory
about Cunobelin being etymologically equivalent to “‘ King of the
. Belgee,” struck him as being simply preposterous, inasmuch as it
implies that a Saxon word which was not known till some centuries
later in this island had been embodied in a British name.

' Dr. Barrett and Mr. StepHen MircHett also took part in the
discussion, which elicited an exhibition of the remarkable jealousy
with which Western antiquaries argued against the honour of the
site of Camulodunum being given to the Eastern coasts, and Dr.
Hunter, after replying to certain remarks, again mentioned the
bequest of Mr. Skinner for the editing of his book. There might
be some in this city seventeen years hence who would be com-
petent to edit the work, and he hoped that the £1000 left for the
purpose would not go to a metropolitan man, but to some citizen,
to whom it would be more due.

352

The second meeting of the’ Club for the season was held on
Wednesday, Jan. 17th, the President, the Rev. Leonard Blomefield,
in the chair, when “ Chemistry in its relations to Physiology,” was
the subject of a paper by Mr. Cuartes Exin, F.C.S. The paper .
was a resumé of recent discoveries in chemistry, bearing on
physiology. Details were given of experiments made in Germany,
by which it is unexpectedly proved that during the process of
respiration much more oxygen is absorbed during the night than
during the day, and hence the immense importance of our sleeping
apartments being properly ventilated. Allusion was made to the
wide dissemination through the vegetable world of even rare metals,
ordinary articles of diet containing frequently lithium and rubidium.
Manganese, which is so abundant in the lias formation, is taken up
by the trees growing on it, and probably in this way the vegetation
of liassic districts is much affected. “Blight” was shown to be
sometimes the result of peculiar electrical conditions of the at-
mosphere. .The greater part of the paper was devoted to a
consideration of the recent synthetical triumphs by which we can
obtain artificially alizarine and conia, the latter being the active
principle of contwm maculatum (hemlock). Dr. Bastian’s experi-
ments, by which he claims to have witnessed the generation of
life from chemical solutions containing the fundamental ingredients
of living things, viz., nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, were
detailed, and the “spontaneous generation theory” brought up to
its present aspect.

The PresipDENT remarked how much closer scientific men went
into things now-a-days, and what a desire there was to go into the
origin of things. His own opinion was that animal and vegetable
life had sprung from a common point, where we could really discern
no difference between one and the other, and that they then kept
diverging the more they advanced in their organization. He
thought that the results of what had been done of late years seemed
to negative more and more the idea that we have life emanating
from anything but previous life, and that nothing that Dr. Bastian
or others had done had cleared the matter up. Dr. Bastian’s
experiments were clever, but not careful, and from what had been
told him by Mr. Berkeley, one of the first botanists in this country,

353

who saw him conduct some of them; he did not think that they
could be trusted, or were of any value. Mr. Ekin had also alluded
to Sir William Thomson’s theory of the origin of life, and, with all
respect to Sir William, very few would for a moment listen to it.
It was very ingenious, and very clever, but there was certainly one
strong objection to it, if no other. Supposing all he had sketched
out in his imagination, was it possible that any life whatever could
have gone through the extent of space that it must have passed
through, and the temperature of that space, without being destroyed.
The mere question of climate alone would be quite sufficient to
negative any such idea, Mr. Blomefield concluded with some
observations on the action of metals upon animals, and on blight.

Dr. Hunrer remarked on the apparent approach which the
chemical synthesis of urea and the vegetable alkaloids made to a
true non-parental generation of organised substances. These
alkaloids were, however, no more than stored secretions, and, not
like the starch on the fibre, parts of the growing structure.
Chemical synthesis should be understood to be very far from a
vital generation, and, if indeed it could be extended to all
crystalline matters, the excitation of growth in an artificial
protoplasm was as far off as ever.

The next paper, “The Viper: its Character and Species,” was
read by the Secretary, in the absence of Dr. Brrp ( Vide p. 299).

The PresiDENT read a letter he had received. on the subject from
Dr. Gray, of the British Museum, who wrote :—

Vipers have frequently two pairs of fangs ; they are renewed when broken,
and sometimes a second pair is produced when the originals are still there,
and the difference between the two European vipers is that one has sym-
metrical small shields on the head which are not present in the other; only
one species of viper that I am aware of has been found in this country, which
varies greatly in colour, from grey to bay and to black, the northern specimens
being generally of the latter colour.

Mr. Blomefield also made some remarks on Dr. Bird’s paper. He
stated that the viper seemed much more abundant in the western
counties than in the eastern ; in Cambridgeshire it was so rare that
he had never heard of but one well-authenticated instance of its
being found there. Its geographical distribution in this country
was rather remarkable, abounding in Scotland and some of the

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Scotch islands, but not occurring in Ireland, where indeed none of
our British reptiles have been found, excepting where introduced.
The black viper is merely a very dark variety, and he believed it
was not confined to the male sex, as Dr. Bird seemed to think.
Dr. Leach has figured this variety in his Zoological Miscellany
from the western islands, where it is said to be not uncommon.
He quoted “ Charas,” and “ White’s Selborne,” in confirmation
of his belief that the young, from 20 to 24 in number, were excluded
all nearly about the same time. He read a statement in “ Bell’s
British Reptiles” to the effect that the poisonous secretion is rendered
more copious by local irritation, and also that, after inflicting one
or two wounds, rest was necessary to allow of the animal regaining
its powers before it could inflict others, the venom taking time to
secrete again or to acquire its proper strength. With regard to the
viper swallowing its young when in danger, the fact had been so
positively attested by Dr. Crisp and others that it could hardly be
doubted, however improbable it might appear. There was no
physical impossibility in the case. The sesophagus of the viper is
of great capacity, very dilateable, and, according to Charas,
not less than a foot long. There would be ample room for the
young brood to conceal themselves, supposing such to be the
habit of the species, and there would be no occasion for their
passing into the stomach, where digestion commences, or chance of
their being affected by the digestive process, as Dr. Bird intimates
would be the case. At the same time it would be very desirable
to have further evidence on the matter, and from persons who had
actually witnessed the young having recourse to such a place of
refuge or coming out of it.

The Rev. H. H. Winwoop adduced an instance (vide “ Science-
Gossip,” May 1st, 1865) where a viper was actually seen to swallow
its young. The writer of the letter alluded to vouches for the
truth of his assertion that, when a boy with three or four com-
panions, he came suddenly upon a viper sunning her brood on an
open grassy spot, and that immediately on the writer’s approach
she began to hiss, and away went her young towards the mother,
rushed into her mouth, expanded widely to receive them, and
disappeared down her throat one after another. On killing her

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and opening the body, the little ones came out alive. Another
instance from the same periodical (p. 160), was also alluded to, and
he concluded with some remarks in reference to the absence of
reptiles from Ireland, and the difficulty im accounting for this fact.
Bearing in mind the argument of Sir Charles Lyell from the
similarity of the fauna and flora of the two countries that England
and Ireland were once connected by land within the post-pliocene
period, if the migration westwards of the viper extended so far as
Devonshire and the western islands of Scotland, why should it have
stopped there and not crossed still further west and reached Ireland ?

Mr. SrerHeN MircHett and the Presipenr spoke upon the
subject broached by Mr. Winwood, and the meeting concluded.

The Third Evening Meeting took place on 21st February. Mr.
-McMurtrie having been unable to give his promised paper upon
the ‘Geographical Position. of the Carboniferous Formation in
Somersetshire,” Mr. StepHen Mircnet kindly undertook to supply
his place with “Notes on Early Geologists connected with the
Neighbourhood of Bath.” (Vide p. 303.)

EXCURSIONS.

The first excursion, which had been fixed for May 9th to
Milborne Port was postponed owing to the inconvenient arrange-
ment of the trains, and one to Midford Castle and Wellow Tumulus
substituted on May 23rd at the kind invitation of Mr. Buxton
Whalley, who met the Club in the park, and conducted the
members through the grounds to the chapel attached to the Castle,
where they spent some time in examining the reredos, which contains
a variety of sculptured subjects—Scriptural and legendary. The
castle was built by Mr. Disney Roebuck, about 1787, and is a
triangular building, with towers at the angles. After examining
the paintings and other curiosities of the mansion, they were
courteously entertained at luncheon, before starting for Wellow,
where they arrived in the afternoon, and visited the church under
the guidance of the vicar. This church, which is one of the most
interesting in the county of Somerset, and contains probably more
original work than any other, the roof and seating being original,
and only repaired and repolished when the church was restored in
1845, occupied their attention for a considerable time. It was

G

356

deemed worthy of a visit by the Somersetshire Archeological and
Natural History Society in 1851, and has also been visited by the
Archeological Institute. According to Collinson, the abbot and
convent of Cirencester were the patrons of this church, which was
granted to them by their founder, Henry I., A.D. 1133, but the
church, which exhibits two or three styles of architecture, was pro-
bably almost wholly rebuilt at the cost of Sir Walter Hungerford,
A.D. 1372, its principal features being of that date. The interior
contains a very interesting effigy of a priest, which was discovered
buried outside the south wall of the chancel when the church was
restored in 1845, There is also a debased monument of the early
part of the 17th century to a lady of the Popham family, with a
Latin epitaph under it, and some memorials of the Hungerford
family ; the church is dedicated to St. Julian. There are some
ancient mural paintings on the north and east wall of the side
aisle, and a rood screen of ancient though not very elaborate work
divides the chancel from the nave.

After completing the inspection of the church, the party having
procured the necessary means for lighting up the tumulus at Stoney
Littleton, a mile distant, proceeded to walk thither. This very
interesting barrow has been carefully described in the “ Proceedings
of the Somersetshire Archeological and Natural History Society.”
It was first described by Sir R. C. Hoare (Archzologia, vol. xix.,
pp. 43-48) from drawings and measurements made by the Rev. J.
Skinner, Rector of Camerton, which is the parish adjoining to
Wellow. When the party had arrived at the tumulus, and had
entered and inspected the interior, they were assembled at the
entrance by the Rev. H. M. Scarth, who gave them an account of
its discovery, and of the nature of its contents when first opened.
He reminded the Club that last year they had visited a similar
chambered tumulus at Uleybury, in Gloucestershire, in which
county several barrows of a somewhat similar kind had been
opened, and their contents and the arrangement of their chambers
described. None were however so perfect as that at Stoney
Littleton, which he believed to be the only perfect one existing in
this country, and therefore it ought to be very carefully preserved.
Some years since (A.D. 1854) it had been injured by the falling in

357

of two of the side chambers ; this having been discovered by two
members of the Field Club, and an application made for permission
to restore it, the stones were replaced as formerly, and the exact
form of the barrow remained uninjured. Mr. Scarth hoped that
this might be done to the tumulus at Uleybury, which had been to
all appearance wantonly injured. The Club had, however, called
attention to its present ruined condition and pleaded for its preser-
vation. It was much to be regretted that any of these ancient
sepulchres of our British or Celtic forefathers should be wantonly
destroyed. They were now standing upon a spot where many
successive periods of history were distinctly marked. There was
this barrow, which probably existed before the Romans set foot in
this island. There were in the field called Wellow Hayes, on the
north side of the brook which runs through the valley, and almost
directly opposite to this tumulus, the foundations and floors of a
very interesting Roman villa, which had been uncovered when the
Somersetshire Archzeological Society visited this spot, and which
had all been carefully drawn and described by the Rev. J. Skinner,
and an abbreviated account of them would be found in “ Aque
Solis.” Then there was the handsome medizval church which they
had just visited, marking a third period in our national history,
and its growth into a great and settled nation, with all the blessings
of Christian ordinances. After instancing other tumuli, and
especially the one which was known to have existed at Nempnet in
the parish of Butcombe (which was not far from his own parish of
Wrington), Mr. Scarth described how that tumulus had been
wantonly destroyed for the sake of the limestone of which it was
composed. Happily an account of it, together with drawings, had
been preserved. In this latter one the chambers run entirely through
the whole length of the barrow, but at Wellow they only penetrated
about half way, while at Uleybury they were clustered about the
entrance. Having alluded to the researches of the late Sir R. C.
Hoare and Mr. Skinner in past times ; and in recent, Dr. Thurnam,
among the Wilts barrows, the Rev. Samuel Lysons, in Gloucester-
shire, and the indefatigable labours of Canon Greenwell in the north
of England, by whom the results of his researches were carefully
classified and arranged, and who had obtained much information

358

from the contents he had found, Mr. Scarth explained the form of
the barrow, and conducted the party round it, pointing out where
the walling, wherever it had fallen, had been carefully replaced, and
upright stones marked the extent of the repairs. Originally the
whole had been covered with soil ; it was only in recent times that
the dry walling, which now formed the boundary of the tamulus,
had been uncovered. It was much to be regretted that when the
entrance to this tumulus was first discovered, the contents were
found to have been disturbed and the chambers rifled, and nothing
that could accurately fix the date had been found, but the internal
construction appeared to show that no iron tool had been used in
its formation ; it was constructed of flat slabs of the stone that
abounded in the neighbourhood, and small fragments collected from
the surface of the ground filled up the interstices of the chambers,
and composed the dry walling around. The party went back to the
vicarage where they partook of tea, and afterwards returned to
Bath. They were accompanied on the excursion by Mr. and Mrs.
Buxton Whalley, besides having the advantage of the presence of
Mr. Vaux, lately over the department of medals and coins in the
British Museum, and several other visitors.

The distance of Wellow from Bath is about five miles, and Stoney
Littleton a little more than a mile beyond Wellow.

Excursion to Frocester Hill and Nympsfield Tumulus. June 6th,
1871.—The very unseasonable weather, more characteristic of
March than June, was probably the cause of so small a muster
at the Midland Station, nine members only of the Club
answering the tempting invitation for a day on the breezy Cottes-
wolds—classie ground for both geologists and archeologists. The
excursion this time was arranged especially with a view to geology,
but as there are, alas, so few who care to soil their aristocratic
fingers with the workman’s hammer, it was found necessary to add
to the day’s programme a visit to the chambered tumulus of
Nympsfield. Arriving at the Frocester station at 10 a.m, the
members at once proceeded to ascend the hill; on their way crossing
in succession over the Lower Lias of the valley, the various beds of
Marlstone and Upper Lias, and finally ascending the steep and
wooded slopes of the Oolitic or Liassic sands, reached the top of the

359

hill, which is capped with about 70 feet of Inferior Oolite—the
workable beds of the district. The remains of the chambered
tumulus, in a field to the west of the road, on a hill called Crawley
Hill, were inspected. Of the three sepulchral chambers recently
visited by the Club this one is the least perfect ; whilst those at
Stoney Littleton and Uley have their roofing stones intact, this has
merely the upright stones of the entrance, the passage, and of the
loculi or chambers standing. The tumulus is of a long or oval
shape, and a few feet shorter than that of Uley, and in both the
chamber is at the east end. When opened by the Cotteswold Club
in 1862, it was found in its present unroofed state, having probably
been disturbed at some previous time. The entrance faces the
east, as is usually the case, and the passage runs east and west.
On the north side was found a diminutive chamber, which contained
the bones of a child, and from the fact that the other bones found
belonged to men and women of all ages, it appears to have been the
burial place of a family, and not merely of a single chieftain.
About seventeen stones remain in situ, but one of the upright
stones on the south side has recently fallen over ; as a fox stole
away from its friendly cover’ on the approach of the party, the
mischief may be laid to Reynard’s account. As the Uley Tumulus
was only about three quarters of a mile distant on the same ridge
to the south, though the Club had already visited it on a former
occasion, yet, as some of the members present had not seen it, and
more especially as it was hoped and expected that the result of the
Club’s communication as to its ruinous state had been successful,
and that measures had been taken to repair the damage already
done, a second, visit was agreed upon. Much, however, to the
regret of all those who had seen it last year, nothing had been
done for its preservation ; the large covering stone at the entrance
remains in its overturned position, and the chamber is being
gradually filled up with the debris that rolls down through the
entrance. What are the guardians of the Cotteswold antiquities
doing? Returning to the main road, a halt was made at the fine
section of the Inferior Oolite beds, on the right hand, and a letter
from Dr. Wright, the indefatigable geologist of the Cotteswold
Club, was read, giving a slight sketch of the geology of the hill) A

360

most remarkable example of oblique lamination ovcurs near the top
of the beds, which are here of great thickness when compared with
those in our own more immediate neighbourhood. The top beds
are quite horizontal, and rest upon others which dip away from
them at a considerable angle—the line of junction is distinctly
marked and is perfectly straight. There is no evidence of the beds
beneath having been planed off by water action, as is often the case
when a pebbly conglomerate of the older deposit remains, but the
upper and lower beds appear homogeneous. Whence then arises
this apparent obliquity of bedding? Is it to be attributed to
cleavage or current action? Proceeding down the hill at the base
of the Inferior Oolite comes in the celebrated ‘‘ Cephalopoda-bed,”
about which much has been written and much may still be
written. Lithologically it differs but little from the Oolite above,
paleeontologically, says Dr. Wright and others, it assimilates itself
to the Liassic formation below. This statement is principally
founded on the character of the Ammonites, Nautiliand Belemnites
which abound, and which are said to be more allied to those of the
Lias than of the Oolite—as these beds, about six feet thick, together
with the sands succeeding them below (150 feet)—are evidently
passage beds from one formation to another, and as geologists are
every day more inclined to the opinion that there are no sudden
breaks or pauses in the sedimentary formations, one passing
insensibly into the other, it is but what we may expect to hear
when one distinguished savan says “ this is a Liassic fauna,” and
another equally distinguished “ this is truly Oolitic.” The three
members who remained behind working most desperately, with a
view, if possible, to settle this knotty point, though satisfying
themselves as to the accuracy of the title ( Cephalopoda-bed ) by the
number of Ammonites and other head-footed mollusca which they
disinterred, were not successful, it need hardly be written, in
deciding the controversy, whether they were essentially Liassic or
Oolitic. The rain which now came down somewhat obscured the
magnificent view of the rich vale below stretching away to Gloucester,
with the flava Sabrina winding amidst its fringe of dark green
luxuriant foliage, and a hasty descent to the station was made.
The botanists of the party added to their vasculum, Polypodium
caleareum, Epipactis grandiflora, and Epilobium angustifolium.

361

Excursion down the Avon Gorge to Avonmouth. Tuesday, June
27th, 1871.—As the excursion fixed for Littlecot was found to be
impracticable a large party started by the 9.45 a.m. train to Bristol
for the Gorge of the Avon at Clifton, an omnibus having been
chartered to convey the members along the New Cut. As the
water in the river was low the New Red Sandstone of its banks was
well seen in section. Mr. Stoddart, F.G.S., of the Bristol Field
Naturalist Club, who had kindly promised to accompany the party,
joined them at the new docks: A short stay was made to examine
the works, and it was pointed out that the whole depth of the
docks is cut out of Alluvium which rests on New Red. From here the
members walked down the road on the right side of the river,
Numerous halts were made to listen to the explanations of Mr.
Stoddart. The first halt was opposite the Railway Inn, which is on
Dolomitic Conglomerate, or, as the Bristol naturalists prefer to call it,
Triassic Conglomerate. It consists of rolled pebbles of Old Red, Mill-
stone Grit, and other older rocks, all cemented together. A little
further down the river the upper Shales of the Carboniferous Lime-
stone series come in. Every casual observer must notice the high
angle at which these dip, and must see why it is that though their
stratigraphical position is below the Triassic Conglomerate they form
much higher ground. These Upper Shales are very gritty: they
are about 500 feet thick, and contain numerous thin coal bands,
and a quantity of carbonate of iron. Underlying these Shales is the
so-called ‘ massive” portion of the Carboniferous Limestone which is
estimated at about 1000 feet in thickness. These beds are con-
formable with the Shales, the dip of both the series being in this part
to N.N.E. The site of the Hotwell house marks the place where
the “massive” series of the Carboniferous Limestone commences.
It is a curious fact that in pulling down the house the source of
the spring has been in some way interfered with and cannot now be
found. Whether the nymph who presides over the spring, and
who seems to have modestly retreated on the destruction of her
temple, may be propitiated by a more splendid building remains to
be seen.

From the site of this Hotwell House, the passenger passing
along the road is, owing to the dip of the beds, walking through the

362

“massive” series. The first 400 feet contains fossils, the remainder
does not. The limestone is very variable in its character—in some
places very compact, in others very oolitic. It is in this “ massive”
series the well known great fault occurs. The contortions must
have been noticed by everybody who has passed along the
road. The total displacement is estimated at 800 feet—z.e., beds
which were before separated by other beds to the thickness of 800
feet are now side by side. All trace of this at the surface of the
ground has been of course obliterated by subsequent denudation.
There is much difference of opinion among geologists as to the
extent of this fault ; some hold it runs to Radstock and to Blaize
Castle. In Nightingale Valley the coal with true coal plants is
seen in some places thrown up, and on the right hand side of the
river there is for a.distance of about 200 yards “ broken ground”
containing portions of several strata confusedly mixed together.
Continuing along the road it is noticed that the dip of the beds
from here is changed to S.E. The limestone beds which occur at the
upper part of the “ massive” series here in consequence of the fault,
come in again; the unfossiliferous portion is also repeated. Then
below this again comes in a series of fossiliferous Shales, about 500
feet thick. A cutting through these first by Cook’s Folly has a
strangely Liassic appearance—the limestone here contains much
alumina. Further along the road, which (be it recollected) in
consequence of the dip, implies lower down in stratigraphical
sequence, comes in the Old Red Conglomerate and the Old Red Sand-
stone. There is a thin band which has been the subject of much
discussion as to whether it is the representative of the marine
portion of the so-called Devonian series. But only a few minutes’
halt was made here, for the words “lunch” and “ appetite” were
heard as frequently as geological terms, and some of the party
were already pushing on more rapidly to Avonmouth. The New
Red lying unconformably on the Old Red, which is well seen in the
railway cutting, was the only other point of interest noticed.

In walking on to Avonmouth many of the phenomena which had
been noticed were discussed, among others the appearance of a large
hollow at the “ Black Rock” quarry, where the roof had given in,
It was said there was a difficulty in accounting for this displace-

363

ment, as the floor showed no signs of it. Mr. S. Mitchell, who has
kindly furnished the Secretary with the notes of this excursion,
suggested that the excavation had probably been made in the first
place by water charged with carbonic acid, and that then the drop
of the roof would in no way influence the floor.

Although lunch had been ordered beforehand, the Avonmouth
Hotel was found somewhat in confusion owing to the presence of
the large party of crack shots competing for the honour of being in
the eight selected to represent England at Wimbledon, Lunch,
however, was ready by half-past three, to which 19 sat down. Mr.
Stoddart’s health was proposed and thanks were formally expressed
to him. He contributed materially to the happiness of the day,
and not only very clearly expressed what he had to say at the
different halts that were made, but very good naturedly translated
over and over again into the ordinary vernacular the remarks
which he had made in technical language. After a short time spent
in watching the shooting the party returned by train to Clifton and
left Bristol by the 6.30 p.m.

Excursion to Malmesbury. Oct. 10th, 1871.—A genial October
morning induced a goodly number of the Club to assemble at the
Great Western Railway station for the last excursion of the season,
the point of attraction this time being that “right magnificent
thing” of Leland’s time, the Abbey Church of Malmesbury. A
large break with four horses and post-boys, and a humbler one
horse “‘shay” bringing up the rear, were barely sufficient
to convey the concentrated intellect of the Club from the
Chippenham Station to the prettily situated ‘‘ Maidulphi Urbs.”
An undulating country with nothing remarkable to attract atten-
tion for a distance of nine miles was quickly traversed. Section C.
(Geological) having but few representatives, the road side quarries
of Oxford Clay and Coral Rag (members of the Middle Oolite)
could not be examined, for fear of the weighty archzological
anathemas that might have been hurled against the would-be
investigators ; no delays therefore occurred en route, and the large
but now disused cloth mill near the bridge reminded the members
that they approached the scene of the labours of one Stumpe, the
clotkier. The first thing that attracts the eye on entering the

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town is a Transition arch walled up, with some arcading over it,
which forms the end of one of the houses facing the street ; this is
said to be the remains of the Hospice of St John of Jerusalem. At
the entrance to what is now the church-yard stands that “right
fair and costely peace of worke made al of stone and curiously
vaulted for poore market folkes to stand dry when rayne commeth,”
in other words, the Market Cross, where the townsmen held “a
good quik market every Saturday,” and which, Leland says, was
made by “‘ men of the towne in hominum memoria,” «.e., somewhere
about the time of Henry VII. Notwithstanding the mutilations
which the old Abbey has undergone at barbaric hands, it still
presents a very imposing and venerable aspect. A small portion,
however, only now remains, viz., the nave, which has been turned
into a parish church. The principal point of interest is, of course,
the magnificent and deeply recessed Norman porch on the south,
with the figures of the twelve Apostles in the interior, six on each
side, and the vesica piscis upborne by two winged angels containing
a figure of our Lord, in the tympanum of the doorway. The
peculiar feature of the interior is the massive Norman piers with
“‘scolloped” capitals, bearing pointed arches, bespeaking the
Transition period when the late Norman was passing into the Early
English style. A most peculiar stone box projects from the triforium
on the south wall, and is a puzzle to many ; various suggestions
have been made with the view of explaining its use—one of these
being that the Abbots of old used to view from thence the
monastic processions ; but perhaps the most likely explanation
after all of this excrescence is one which was worked out from the
internal consciousness of one of the members, viz., that worthy old
Stumpe, the clothier (temp. Henry VIII.), had it erected for the
purpose of overlooking his looms, which history credits him with
having placed within the walls. Whether this be accepted or not,
it is ingenious. There seems to be a little obscurity with regard to
the early history of the building. The first monastic institution in
the place appears to have been a house of British nuns, at some
little distance from the present Abbey. These said nuns having
misconducted themselves were suppressed, and one Maildulphus, a
Scottish monk, comes on the scene. Unable peacefully to pursue

365

his devotions in his own country he sought the pleasant banks of
the Avon, where he built unto himself a hermitage, an early and
striking instance of the acuteness of that race who always know when
they are well off, and are said when once they have set their faces
towards England never to return to their native home again. From
this Maildulphus the place took the name of Maildulphesburg
(bery), and finally Malmesbury, and from this small. beginning
sprang the great monastery which, under successive mitred Abbots,
Aldhelm (who was the first Abbot, 4. D. 670) and others, rose to
such importance that it became a “ goodly Abbey,” whose buildings
finally covered forty-five acres of ground, Besides the worthy
Stumpe, this town gave birth to William of Malmesbury, the
historian, who was precentor and librarian of the Abbey about the
middle of the 12th century ; Oliver of Malmesbury, the artificer
who made unto himself wings wherewith to fly, and came to sudden
grief from the pinnacle of the Abbey ; and Thomas Hobbes, the
philosopher. Having sufficiently surveyed the ruins of the Abbey,
and made themselves acquainted with the Wiltshire cheese and ale,
the members walked to Charlton Park (two miles), and through the
courtesy of the Earl of Suffolk were permitted to view the pictures.
The house cannot be seen from the road owing to an intervening
screen of woodland ; this being passed through and the park entered,
a grey irregular and by no means unpleasing pile of buildings, of
17—18th cent. date, is seen across a broad expanse of meadow
land, backed by a bank of fine trees. The pictures in the long
gallery by Mytens, Vandyke, Lely and others, consist of historical
portraits chiefly, and from them may be singled out as especially
worthy of notice the three halflength portraits of the children of
Charles I. by Vandyke, a curious old portrait of Queen Elizabeth,
and one of Villiers, first Duke of Buckingham. Charles II.’s
beauties, by Lely, adorn the walls of the staircase, amongst them
Moll Davis, who, report says, was not unknown in the Charlton
dairy. The pictures by the old masters are in the drawing-room ;
amongst numerous works of high art two alone may be singled out
as gems, the well known picture by Leonardo da Vinci, called “ La
Vierge aux rochers,” and a most exquisite little painting by
Annibale Caracci of our Lord when a child, watching his father

366

Joseph, the carpenter, working at his trade, his mother in the
background looking on. Having sufficiently satisfied their pictorial
tastes, and admired the contrast of the grey buildings in their
frame work of autumnal tinted trees, the members rejoined their
respective vehicles, after a rapid walk across the park, and reached
the Chippenham station, well pleased with their day’s excursion.

Walks and minor Excursions.—Many agreeable walks and by-
excursions have been organised during the year, amongst the most
instructive may be recorded a visit to Neston Park on April 27th
to examine the course of the Wansdike, on the invitation of Mr.
Fuller, who kindly sent his break to meet the party at Corsham,
where they arrived soon after 12 o’clock. The party being larger
than the conveyance could contain, some members went on foot,
while the rest called on Mr. Fuller, jun., and under his guidance
walked to the point nearest to his residence where the Wansdike
can be traced. From hence they followed its course to within a
short distance of Neston Park. On the approach to Neston Park
from the east the ridge is very evident, though the ditch on the
northern side has been filled in or obliterated by the progress of
agriculture.

At the park the party were most kindly received and courteously
entertained by the owner, who had provided a sumptuous luncheon,
after which the paintings were examined and the conservatory
visited. From the house, which has a handsome Grecian portico
in front, they proceeded under the guidance of the Messrs. Fuller
to the park, where, in front of the house, the Wansdike is discerni-
ble, and has been cut through in the process of making a road.
This section is very interesting, as it shows the “ statumen” of the
Roman road on the crest of the dike, which has been lowered to
receive it. The bed of the road itself is about a foot thick, and
formed of stones and concrete, presenting now almost the appearance
of a natural rock. The section here is about 10 feet across, a
portion having been destroyed. The concrete bed of the Roman
road is visible as you follow the course of the modern ditch which
has been made to protect the park. Further westward, where the
dike is very visible, two trees of considerable age stand upon the
top of it —the height to which the dike at this point was subse-

367

quently raised—or else when the trees were planted, mounds have
been formed on the Roman road to receive them and promote
their growth. It is probable that the latter has been the case.
Still further on the dike is now in process of removal, and the
same bed of hard concrete matter has been found, although at this
point the road seems to have been parted from the dike. Here, at
the request of the members of the Club, the Rev. H. M. Scarth
entered upon a brief description of the course of the dike and its
probable object, tracing it from the camp at Maesknoll, between
Keynsham and Bristol, to the woodlands in Berkshire, beyond
Savernake and Great Bedwin. He reminded the Club that at
different intervals they had visited the various traces of its course
which still remain—at Compton Dando, Stantonbury, Englishcombe,
Breach Wood, from the Wells-road to the Cross Keys, behind Prior
Park, over Hampton Down, and across the Avon to near Warleigh
Manor. They were now filling up the interval between that point
and Neston Park, from whence it could be traced from Savernake
Forest, and on to the Thames. Mr. Fuller informed the Club that
the line of the dike was the boundary between two parishes.
Some observations were also made by the Rev. John Earle, who
quoted references made to it in Saxon documents, and also instanced
works of a similar character, especially the famous boundary of the
Roman Empire erected by Trajan against the Dacians. This was
probably, as supposed by Stukeley, Dr. Guest, and others, an early
boundary line formed by the earliest invaders of Britain, the Belge,
who, according to Cesar, had occupied that portion of Britain
between the Thames and the Severn. It had been asserted that
since the formation of the Roman road in the course of this boundary
line (ze. in the portion between Ashley coppice, near Monkton
Farleigh, and Morgan’s Hill,* or near that point on the Marlborough

* Stukeley, describing the Roman road from Marlborough to Bath, says—
“Tt passes just by Calston lime kiln, and is defaced by it, for the workmen
make no scruple to dig through it for their materials, and this practice has
been so old as to denominate the town lying beneath. Soon after it meets
with the Wansdike descending the hill just by the Gibbet; here it enters full
into it, and very dexterously makes use of it all along to the bottom ona very
convenient shelf or spurn of the hill; at the place of union is a flexure of the
Wansdike, so that the Roman road coincides with it directly, and in order to

368

Down), portions of the dike had been raised in height ; and this
might be the case, as battles had taken place on its line, and it was
at Wanborough that the Saxon chief Ceaulin was defeated, A.D.
591. After this the Club continued their examination of its
course, and came upon it at two or three other points where portions
had been removed, and the bed of the Roman road was very dis-
tinctly marked. Mr. Fuller, jun., who accompanied the party,
confirmed the fact of the dike having been converted to the pur-
poses of a road, by stating the difficulties which the workmen
experienced in removing the concrete portion. The course of the
dike was followed to the top of Monkton Farley Down, where all
traces are lost, but from this point it may be seen in the valley
below, on Mr. Skrine’s property, who accompanied the party, and
aided them by his information and notes on the subject.

From this visit of the Club the following points were ascertained :—

1.—That the dike can be successfully traced from Neston Park to
near Farleigh Down.

2.—That it has carried a road upon its crest, portions of which
still remain and can be seen at successive intervals, but the road
may not always keep upon the crest of the dike,

3.—That it is probable that in places the dike has been raised to
a greater height, probably in Saxon times.

4,—-The course of the dike through this part of Wilts is very
straight and unlike other portions by reason of the level face of the
country over which it travelled, not like the broken ground in
Somersetshire between Maesknoll and the Avon, opposite Warleigh
Manor.

The attention of the Club having been called to the threatened
obliteration by the plough of that portion of the Wansdyke which
crosses Claverton Down, a walk was taken in that direction on 14th
March, and the imminent destruction of that ancient monument
was but too evident, for the plough was then at work in dangerous
proximity. The tenant of the land was, however, luckily present

raise it from a ditch into a road the Roman workmen have thrown in most of
the rampire, still preserving it as a terrace to prevent the danger and terror of
the descent on one side,.’”’—Stukeley Itiner. Cur. Iter., vi., p. 134.

369

at the time, and was induced by the representations then made to
him by the members to reconsider his determination. When so
much damage has recently been done to prehistoric and historic
remains in England, it is but just that we should record the fact
in our Proceedings, that both the landlord, Mr. Carr, of Twerton,
and his tenant, Mr. Giffard, most kindly acceded to the request
made to them on behalf of the Club, and made arrangements whereby
the traces that still remain of this ancient boundary have been
spared. If our efforts have been attended with success in this
instance, we have on the other hand to lament the inclosure and
filling up of the fosse adjoining the shire stones, whereby one of the
best examples in the neighbourhood of the ancient fosse-road has
been hidden from the public. No opportunity was afforded the
Club of making a representation to the proprietor on the subject,
as they were quite unaware of such a thing being in contemplation,
until one day in September, on crossing Banner Down, they saw a
six foot wall already in course of erection. Before passing from
this subject, it will be well to state that in accordance with a general
movement taking place among kindred Societies, our Club has for-
warded a memorial duly signed to the Secretary of State, praying
that effectual means be taken for the preservation of prehistoric and
other remains in Great Britain and Ireland, which are constantly
undergoing destruction by persons who are ignorant of their value:
July 25th was selected for a visit to Ammerdown. As permission
could not be obtained to inspect the house owing to the illness of
the Rev. T. R. Joliffe, the members drove through the woods to
the Tower, ascended its 171 iron steps, and from the glass dome
enjoyed a fine and extensive view. The oscillation of the tower
was distinctly perceptible in the summer gale which was then
blowing. After a short delay at the base to partake of lunch,
which was rendered all the more enjoyable by the scent of the
newly made hay, and by the admirable arrangements of Colonel
Wyndham Baker, the drive was continued through the park in
front of the house, and hence to Bath through Radstock. On 24th
Oct. an excursion was planned to the Somerset Tower, near
Hawkesbury; the 8.25 train was taken to Wickwar, and the
members walked thence to the tower on the top of the hill, a

370

distance of four miles from the station. The inscription on the
north face states, that “ to commemorate the distinguished military
services of General Lord Robert Edward Somerset, G.C.B., K.M.T.,
K.T.S., K.St.W., this tower was erected Anno Domini mMDcccxLvI.”
The height to the top of the cross is 117 feet. Skirting the edge of
the hill a very pleasant walk lead to the camp called “the Castles”
over the village of Horton ; a single high bank runs round the
exposed sides, but on the one overlooking the valley the steepness
of the hill renders a bank unnecessary. Proceeding still further
along the ridge, the strong Roman camp of Little Sodbury, with its
double ditch and high ramparts, was traversed, and the pace of the
members somewhat accelerated as the ‘“‘ Cross Hands,” well known
in hunting annals, came in view. A short and necessary halt was
here called before descending the hill to Old Sodbury and Yate.
Many other Tuesday walks have been taken in the neighbourhood,
one of which to Priston by Pensilvania and Wilmington may be
mentioned ; fine bright weather, combined with cheery companion-
ship, left a pleasant memory of this day. Geology, too, was not
neglected ; the appearance of the Lias, sands, and clays under the
Inferior Oolite was noted in the steep lane descending to Marks-
bury. During a walk to Farleigh Down an inspection of the
gravel beds opened at the Bathampton Station was made, and a
portion of a mammalian bone (tibia of a bos) found. Several visits
have been paid to the springs, which are the sources of the new
water supply to Bath, and the highly ferruginous and nodular bed
of the Marlstone, with abundance of Ammonites, was traced just
where the upper Monkswood spring breaks out. A mere list of
other places visited is unnecessary, as there is nothing of any
importance either in an archeological or natural history point of
view to record. Although the interest attaching to these walks at
first before the novelty had been worn off has somewhat abated,
yet it is hoped that members will still keep them up, if for no other
reason yet for the pleasure and instruction which is afforded when
men of kindred habits and pursuits are brought together, and
healthy recreation is given to mind and body in this exercise and
exchange of thought and ideas. In conclusion your Secretary
congratulates the Club upon its continued prosperity so far as

371

numbers are concerned, but at the same time cannot refrain from
adding that the small attendance at the evening meetings, when
members have so kindly come forward to supply information on the
various topics with which they are covversant, is by no means
complimentary to those members or a satisfactory feature in the
working of the Club. Any suggestion will in the meantime be
gladly received how this difficulty can for the future be remedied.
H. H. WINWOOD, Hon. Sec.

Address of the President after the Anniversary Dinner, Feb. 19, 1872.

GrntTLEMEN,—In my last year’s address the subject I chiefly
spoke about was Biology. I propose on the present occasion—
before adverting to the affairs of the Club itself—to draw your
attention to a very different branch of science, but one scarcely of
less interest or importance—one which comes legitimately within
the field of our operations, and for the advancement of which our
Club, I think, has it in its power to do something—TI allude to
Meteorology. Meteorology is a very young science ; the youngest
perhaps of all the Natural Sciences, if it may be included in that
class, except Anthropology. 1 remember when the late Principal
Forbes read his “Report on Meteorology” at the first Oxford
meeting of the British Association in 1832, many who heard it
said that the science was so completely in its infancy, and had so
little to show for itself, any report upon the subject was premature.
That report, however, which would have been still useful had it
only pointed out the deficiencies of our knowledge, at once gave
the science a start; and from that time to this it has gone on
continually advancing and attracting more and more the notice,
not merely of scientific men, but of the public generally. Societies
for the cultivation of it have sprung up both in England and
Scotland, to say nothing of those abroad, and perhaps at the present
day there are nearly as many meteorologists in this country as
there are naturalists.

The test’ of a science having made sure and considerable progress,
and of its being based upon correct observation, is its power to

H

372

predict the occurrence of the phenomena of which it takes
cognizance. We know with what precision and certainty astronomy,
which has so long taken the lead of all the sciences, does this. The
solar and lunar eclipses commence at the very moment for which
they were set down years before they come to pass. Probably a
very long time must elapse before meteorology can make any
approach to such accuracy of knowledge, from the extremely
complicated phenomena it has to deal with ; though, if we knew all
the factors which exercise an influence in each particular case, and
the laws of their respective variations, there seems no reason why
it should not ultimately do so, at least to some extent. Hitherto
we have only had the vaguest guesses about weather and seasons,
and ‘“‘ weather prophets,” as they are termed, have seldom met with
favour from men of true science, however eagerly they have been
listened to by some persons. It is, however, a circumstance to be
noted that the science of meteorology has advanced thus far, that
prognostications which used to be confined to charletans are now
being ventured upon by observers even of high scientific attainments.
TI would refer especially to Professor Piazzi Smyth, Astronomer
Royal for Scotland, and the result of his discussions of a long series
of observations, carried on for more than thirty years, with “ four
large earth thermometers sunk to different depths in the rocky
ground near the Observatory at Edinburgh, with a view to deter-
mining the temperature of the earth and its fluctuations.” He
thinks he has discovered “ in addition to the ordinary annual cycle
of temperature, three other cycles which he calls supra-annual,
differing in duration, one being a little more than two years, the
second more than eleven years, and the third about fifty-six years ;”
and it was the determination of these cycles, to which “ our so-called
changes of climate are due,” that led him to predict the late severe
winters of 1869-70, 1870-71, and the probable severity of the
winter of 1871-2.* This prediction was fully realized, as we are
aware, in the two first cases, while the present winter set in early
with great severity, the month of November having had a lower
mean temperature than any previous November since the year

~* See a more full account ofthe results of the Calton Hill observations in
the ‘ Athenzeum”’ for June 18, 1870.

373

1786,* though since the middle of December the season has been
unusually mild.

One of Professor Smyth’s periods “corresponds to the sun spot
period, 11:1 years, as deduced by Schwabe from his long observation
of the solar phenomena.” Professor Smyth thinks this merely a
coincidence. Whether it be so or not other observers seem to be
taking up the question as to how far our knowledge of the changes
constantly taking place in the sun’s atmosphere, which knowledge
is being added to every year, may not in time lead to a better
understanding of the conditions under which our seasons are so
variable as regards temperature and rain. The sun is undoubtedly
the prime mover of all the atmospheric changes that take place on
the earth, though these changes may be often complicated by the
influence of local circumstances, so as to necessitate us to take in,
with a view to their explanation, other considerations besides the
state of the sun, at the particular time of observation.

But I leave these higher questions, which are not likely to engage
the attention of many of our members, and pass on to what more
nearly concerns us —the meteorology of the Bath district. On this
head I would remark that the meteorological observations made in
the Institution Gardens, which commenced in 1865, will have been
carried on for seven years this next spring, and when completed
for that period, I hope to be able to get some results from them
that may prove an addition to our knowledge of the Bath climate.
But it must be remembered that Bath has, so to speak, several
climates, according as we fix our station near the river, or at a
greater or less elevation on the slope of the hills which rise up from
it and on which a large part of the town is built. For this reason
it will not do to confine ourselves entirely to observations made so
low down as in the Institution Gardens, however serviceable these
may be in their way. To give completeness to the inquiry, others
should be made higher up as well; and it would be a great boon
to science if gentlemen could be found, members of this Club or
not, who would take the subject up, and keep a register, com-
mencing next month, and running parallel with that kept at the

* According to Mr. Glaisher.—See Reg. Gen. Quart. Returns of Weather
No. 92, p **

374

Institution, for another seven years. The observations should be
made wherever possible in an exposed spot; and for a central
locality, neither too far up nor too low down the hill, none could
be better chosen than the open space in front of the Royal Crescent,
could it be made available for the purpose. The thermometer and
the wet-and-dry bulb would be the instruments alone required ; and
a single observation in the day, made always at the same hour,
9 a.m., and with tolerable regularity, would be sufficient. The only
important points to be attended to are, that the instruments before
being used be ascertained to be thoroughly trustworthy, that they
are so fixed as to be properly screened from all sources of error, and
that the observer himself be very careful in noting down the
observations correctly. From neglecting these three precautions a
large number of registers are worthless for all purposes of science.

But the matter which I am more particularly anxious to bring
under your notice just now is the subject of rain-fall. No part of
meteorology has of late years received more attention, or been more
closely inquired into by observers in this country than that which
relates to the “ British Rainfall.” This is mainly, if not entirely,
due to the zeal and activity of Mr. G. J. Symons, Secretary to a
Committee appointed several years back by the British Association
for the investigation of this subject. Mr. Symons has been the
means of getting raingauges to the number of nearly two thousand
set up in various parts of the British Islands, the same being
watched over by an “amateur staff of observers having no equal in
the world.” A large number of these gauges are visited annually
by himself or others appointed by him, and the whole system of
observations is carried on under his directions.

The question what is the mean annual rainfall in this country, as
also whether it has remained the same for as long a period back as
our observations reach, or whether the quantity that falls now is
greater or less than formerly; these are questions which have
excited lately a good deal of interest from apprehensions in many
quarters caused by several remarkably dry seasons, that in conse-
quence of excessive sub-soil drainage and a too extensive felling of
timber, the average quantity of rain might be diminishing, and a
permanent deficiency of water for agricultural, manufacturing and
domestic purposes likely to follow.

375

It is doubtful whether there is any real ground for this alarm,
and whether the diminished rainfall at certain periods is not rather
due to a secular variation, the same as is thought to occur in
temperature.

Of the two supposed causes of deficiency above mentioned
excessive drainage perhaps, as far as this country is concerned, is
more likely to have had an influence than timber felling, from the
system having been so widely adopted throughout England,*
whereas the felling of woods has been a more partial operation.
That the latter, however, when carried to a great extent has really
an injurious effect on climate we can hardly doubt, from the many
complaints that have been made on this head in other countries,
not only in some parts of the Continent, but in India and Australia. t

But to bring this matter also nearer to ourselves I would appeal
to the members of this Club whether they might not render Mr.
Symons some assistance in his arduous undertaking. He wants
returns of rainfall from as many stations as possible throughout
Great Britain ; and notwithstanding the number of gauges already
at work, there are yet several places still without them, where it
would be very desirable to have them set up. A list of these
localities will be found in the ‘“ Meteorological Magazine” for
December last ; and among them the following places occur in the
county of Somerset :—Minehead, Dulverton, Castle Cary, and
Weston-super-Mare. In a letter, however, which I have received
from Mr. Symons since this list was published, he expresses a
desire that to the above-named places these be added :—TZhornbury,
Gloucester, Watchet, Axbridge, Wincanton and Bridgwater, and
especially Exmoor. These places, though not all in Somerset, are
most of them within the distance to which the Club often extends
its excursions, and it would seem strange indeed if, among our
members, none could be found having friends in some of the places,
or who were in other ways connected with them, so as to be able to
procure the additional observers so much wanted. I need only add
on this point that if any new observers can be obtained, they should

* See a paragraph in the “ Times” for Aug. 30, 1870, headed ‘“ Rainfall in

England.”
+ See “ Nature,” vol. i, p. 291; and vol. ii, p. 284; and vol, ili., p. 496.

put themselves in communication with Mr. Symons, who will give
them full directions as to the right sort of gauge and the proper
method of fixing it.*

But there is another way in which we may help Mr. Symons.
He is not only desirous of having new gauges fixed in certain
localities, but he wants to get all the information he can respecting
old registers of rainfall kept formerly, though perhaps long since
discontinued, wherever such exist. These would help him to
determine, by comparison with those of the present day, whether
the average rainfall in this country is the same now or not as in
the days of the last generation. There are some registers indeed
which go back much earlier, which would allow us to compare the
rainfall of the latter half of the last century with that of the first
half of the present one if they could be hunted up. I think the
Club might do something in this way, if its members in their
excursions and weekly walks would only take the trouble to inquire
of the clergy or other intelligent persons in the towns and villages
they come to whether they know of any parties who formerly
measured the rain in their respective neighbourhoods, and where
the registers are likely to be found now if the parties are dead or
gone elsewhere. Other Naturalists’ Clubs have assisted Mr.
Symons in his rainfall investigations,t and why should not ours
assist him? I put this question with the greater earnestness,
feeling that our good name with those among whom we move, if
not the very existence of the Club, depends upon our activity and
usefulness in the walks of science,

For these are days, gentlemen, in which all public institutions—
even private enterprises when taken in hand for the public good—
are watched with extreme jealousy and closely scrutinized in
respect of what they do and what they leave undone. No office of
trust or power having privilege and opportunity attached to it is
allowed to be held by those who are not duly qualified, and who are
not prepared to give au account of their proceedings when called
upon to do so. Nor is this confined to offices in the civil depart-
ment, to charitable institutions, or those for the promotion of

* Met. Mag. vol. vi., pp. 189-190.
+ See “ British Rainfall,” 1870, pp. 66, 67.

377

literature and the fine arts. It extends to scientific institutions:
Formerly science was little understood or cared for. Very few were
those who made it a study or who took any interest in its pursuits.
But how different at the present day. Now science is the one
thing we seem to hear most about go where we will, and in behalf
of which louder demands are being made every year. Scientific:
societies have multiplied beyond enumeration, and all who. belong to
them are expected to do their share in the work they profess to
undertake. You know, in the case of the Royal Society, how much
more the qualifications of those who seek its fellowships are inquired
into than formerly. But it is not merely these higher bodies to
which the public eye is directed. Those occupying a much more
humble position are equally looked after. It is beginning to be
asked in some quarters what are our Field Clubs doing? What
have they to show in proof that they have not forgotten their proper
calling? These questions closely concern ourselves. For though
we may have our volumes of “ Proceedings” to produce, in which
are many valuable papers and some of great local interest, complaint
has still been made that, with a few praiseworthy exceptions, Field
Clubs are not attending generally or at least sufficiently attending
to that particular department of inquiry which they engaged to
undertake. The natural history properly so called of the district
in which they are located—its zoology more especially—is left in a
great measure untouched, while many of the papers they print,
however excellent in themselves, might find a place equally well in
the publications of any other society ; and there is yet another
complaint, viz., that the published “ Proceedings” of these Clubs
have so very limited a circulation beyond their own locality that
they are unavailable to the great body of naturalists scattered over
the country.

I will not dwell on the first of these charges brought against us,
having spoken of it before. But perhaps the time is come when it
may be desirable to give our consideration to the second, Those
who were present at the last meeting of the British Association at
Edinburgh, or who, like myself, have only read a report of its
proceedings in the different periodicals, are aware that the matter
last referred to was the subject of a paper read to the biological

378

section by Sir Walter Elliot. Its author mentioned that he had
ascertained the existence of no less than 115 provincial natural
history societies in Great Britain and Ireland, and that the way in
which these societies were isolated from each other, without
“ systematic co-operation” among themselves, few knowing anything
of the work done by others, was detrimental to each of them.
“Two modes of remedying the evil suggested themselves to his
mind. One was to have a central committee or single editor to
collect and condense the most useful materials in all the local
Transactions, and the other to form groups of societies, and publish *
the more original and valuable papers in each group under a joint
editorship.”

As I was not present at the meeting I know but little of the
discussion which took place after the reading of Sir Walter Elliot’s
paper. But I think the suggestions he threw out may be pro-
ductive of good, and I fully look for some well-considered scheme
being brought forward before long for the better organization of
these local societies, which, while they continue to be mere
independent units, may prove a check to any healthy growth of the
sciences to which they attach themselves. The present time will
not serve for deliberation on this matter. I am quite aware also
that there are two sides to this question as there are to so many other
questions. It may be said that, in surrendering that exclusive
control we now have over our own affairs, we relinquish to a
certain extent our present standing, and fall back into a lower
position shared by others associated with us. In other words we
let go somewhat of our self-importance. But if it be for the
interests of science that we merge our individuality in the general
community of scientific bodies similar to our own, such considera-
tions should not weigh with us for a moment.

But whatever course we determine on when this question comes
properly before us, we must see that we do not lose ground with
the public. We must not only keep our Club together, but get
more men into it who will really do work in the field or in the
closet. Perhaps our Club labours under some disadvantage in this
respect from the circumstances which led to its formation. We
were in the first instance, as is probably known to all, not so much

379

a working Club as a walking Club. That is the name by which
outsiders still call us, and many know us by no other. Our object
was to join in visiting the most remarkable spots in the neighbour-
hood of Bath, rich in its scenery and abounding in objects of
general interest, mainly for the walk’s sake, heightened in enjoy-
ment by the companionship of friends. The few who first met
weekly for this purpose were in time joined by others; and the
idea of combitiing with the walk Natural History and Antiquarian
pursuits, and forming ourselves into a society, was an after thought;
very desirable in itself, but leading naturally to many men becoming
members for the walk’s sake alone, which was still kept up, in
addition to the four more distant excursions during the summer.
It were useless now to regret this circumstance ; but it seems to
call upon us to do what we can in the way of counteracting any
prejudicial influence it may have on the interests of the Club in a
scientific point of view. Nothing suggests itself to me except for
the future limiting membership, as some other societies limit it, to
working-men. Our numbers are now considerable ; why seek to
increase them, or even keep up our present number, if, calling
ourselves a scientific body, no advantage to science arise from doing
so. I think in this large town or its neighbourhood, there must be
some unknown to us fond of Natural History pursuits. I have
myself in the summer time seen collectors in the fields and lanes
busily plying their occupations, showing that there are such men in
the district. Let them be inquired for, sought after and encouraged.
To get them to join us would be a reciprocal benefit. Young
naturalists would be stimulated to give an increased attention to
the subject that interests them when countenanced in this way,
while the Club would profit by their researches. I think also it
might lead to an increased number of short communications to our
proceedings, which I have always thought desirable, if they only
contained notices of a few facts of interest or importance. Such
records would help forward the mass of details which have to be got
together before making any approach to a complete Natural History
of the district. At present, I apprehend, short papers are not
unfrequently held back, under the idea that we only care to have
longer treatises or lectures, such as make up the bulk of our hitherto

380

published proceedings. To see more exactly what I mean I would
ask you to open any of the volumes of the Proceedings of the
Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club, and observe how many short papers
there are there of the kind I allude to. That Club is the oldest
of all the Field Clubs. It exists to this day in as much life and
vigour as when first started. It has done an immense deal of work
in the district to which its labours are directed ; and younger Clubs
may well copy after its example in all that relates to their own
operations and method of carrying them on.*

Gentlemen, I hope you will bear with me in these remarks,
which—though I fear I am detaining you rather long—I have
been the more anxious to make on this occasion, feeling that the
time is near when I must ask your permission either to retire from
the office of President of this Club, which by your indulgence I
have now held for several years beyond the period when I was able
to join in its excursions, or, still retaining the office, to delegate to
others its more onerous duties. Conditions of health I need not
enter into oblige me to solicit this at your hands. In either case,
if you accede to my request, this anniversary would be my last
opportunity of addressing you in this way on the affairs of the
Club. My own work for science is nearly done. But my love for
science continues, and will remain by me. I might almost say
my interest in the sciences increases as I grow in years, when I
reflect from time to time on the wondrous advances they have
made since the day when I first took up and began to read the
vast book of Nature. Yet more am I carried away by them
when I note the way in which the sciences have gradually
inter-penetrated almost all other branches of human learning,
serving to check and regulate our often too hasty judgments
and interpretations of the events and phenomena of this lower
world—even such events as belong to history and _ social
progress, and which would seem to be removed from the province
of science properly so called—nor stopping there, but shedding
their light upon that other great volume, the Book of Revelation,
which we all look up to and revere as man’s highest source of life

* See two good articles on Field Clubs, and what should be their aims, and
how best managed, &e., in ‘‘ Nature,” vol. ii., p. 469, and vol iii., p, 141.

381

and happiness—true in all its teachings as regard his moral and
religious welfare, but demanding the same care and caution that is
required in the study of other things, in order to elicit the truth
before applying it to his own heart and conscience.

But apart from such high considerations, it is a pleasant thing
in the evening of life to look back on the unalloyed enjoyment, I
might add the improvement of mind, derived from the study of
science taken up in boyhood and carried on to that maturity of
years when the ripened judgment is able to discern its true worth.
St. Pierre, in his ‘Studies of Nature,” has left this record of what
he had himself gleaned from those studies. “I can say with
truth,” he remarks, “that I have not permitted a single day to
pass without picking up some agreeable or useful observation.”*
A much more recent author, Sir Henry Holland, a man of general
literature and science though not a naturalist, in his “ Recollections
of Past Life,” quite lately published, thus speaks of the advantages
enjoyed by the mere collector of specimens of natural history :—
** Were I devoid of other pursuits there are none I should so much
desire to assume as those of a collector, whatever the object of his
research. The collector of beetles or moths, of ferns or fungi, is a
happier man, ceteris paribus, than one who has no such definite
object of pursuit. The interest here is one which augments with
its gratification, is never exhausted by completion, and often
survives when the more tumultuous business or enjoyments of life
have passed away.”

I feel the force of both these remarks. I have sought to copy
after St. Pierre in what he states to have been his daily habit,
while I can aver upon my own experience that never were any
commendations more just than those bestowed by Sir Henry
Holland on the Naturalist’s pursuits. But the satisfaction’ I have
myself derived from those pursuits does not stop here. It has been
enhanced by a desire to get others to drink of the same well-spring
of intellectual enjoyment which has so thoroughly slacked my own
thirst ; and I trust I may, without vanity or boast, point to this
Club as the issue of my endeavours, feeble though they have been,

* English Translation by Hunter, voli., p. 2.
+ Recollections of Past Life, pp. 53, 54,

382

to get a more sure footing for the natural sciences in this place. I
feel called upon, however, to speak of the Club in other terms than
what relate simply to the work which it has done. That work is
good as far as it goes, and it will endure. But I cannot forget that
to this Club I am indebted for many friendships I might never
otherwise have enjoyed, while from all its members I have
uniformly received marks of kindness and regard which demand my
most sincere thanks. Those thanks I beg now to proffer. May
the Club long continue to act out its chosen part, and hold its place
as one of the institutions which this ancient city of Bath “ delights
to honour.”

CONTENTS.

PAGE.
1.—An ANcIENT Saxon Poem or A Orry IN RUINS
SUPPOSED TO BE Batu, BY Rev. J. EARLE, .
_M.A. ese eee eee eee one 259 ’ :

-2.—Nores ON THE History or Twerton, By Rev.
W. S. Soaw ... ae ee PHAN 270

3.—Mr. SKINNER OF CAMERTON, BY H. J. Hunver,
MDs a ead exe ee OL.

4.—THE VIPER: ITS CHARACTER AND SPEctEs, By H.
Brrp, M.D. ae wae a. Br hy

5.—NoTEs ON EARLY GEOLOGISTS CONNECTED WITH _
THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF Batu, By W. STEPHEN.
MircHe., LL.B5 F.G.S. ... ees «» 303

6.—SUMMARY OF PROCEEDINGS FOR THE Year
1871-72, BY THE SECRETARY wnt wee 343

7.—ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT AFTER ANNUAL
DINNER, 1872 eee eee eee eas 371 ¢

Vou. IL, No. 3.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

% BATH NATURAL HISTORY

AND

ANTIQUARIAN FIELD CLUB.

VOL. II. No. 4.
% 1873.
ee

PRICE HALF-A-CROWN.

- BATH :
PRIN' ED (FOR THE CLUB) AT THE ‘‘ CHRONICLE” OFFICE, KINGSTON BUILDINGS.
1873.

373

Local Biology, followed by remarks on the Faunas of Bath and
Somerset. By the Rev. Leonarp Biomerievp, M.A., F.L.S.,
F.G.S., &¢c., President. Read November 13th, 1872.

Local Natural History, rightly studied, is a very different thing
in these days from what it was formerly. If we look to the older
works on the Natural History of these Islands published towards

2 ass ~_--

ERRATUM.

s

In Vol. II., No. 4, the paging from 373 to 382 inclusive es
is in duplicate through error. is

—>—

that give an interest to their history.

* Treland’s Natural History, by Gerard Boate, 1652. + Britannia
Baconica, or the Natural Rarities of every Shire of England, Scotland, and
Wales, by S. Childrey, 1662. { Pinax Rerum Naturalium Britannicarum,

by Christopher Merrett, 1667. § Scotia Ilustrata, 1684. || Synopsis
of the Natural History of Great Britain and Ireland, by John Berkenhout,
1789. {1 British Zoology, by Thomas Pennant, 1776.

Vou. IL, No. 4.

373

Local Biology, followed by remarks on the Faunas of Bath and
Somerset. By the Rev. Luonarp Buomerietp, M.A., F.L.S.,
F.G.S., &e., President. Read November 13th, 1872.

Local Natural History, rightly studied, is a very different thing
in these days from what it was formerly. If we look to the older
works on the Natural History of these Islands published towards
the end of the 17th century, such as those of Boate*, Childrey f,
Merrett {, and Sibbald §, we either find Natural History, in the
ordinary sense of the word, largely mixed up with Topography ; and
only notice taken of those objects which attract by their rarity or
curiosity ; or, as in the case of Merrett, who confines himself more.
to the subject, little more than a bare list of species of animals and
plants without reference té their characters and habits, though still
valuable from the loéalities in, #hich they are to be found being
added in many instaheés!/ “Coming down to a later period we find
in Berkenhout || and: Pennant q mére information on the subject,
the latter being the firstauthor “who treats of British Zoology,
detached from all other branches of Natural History ; though as
in the case of Bewick, who followed only a few years after—his
work is more of a ‘popular than a scientific character.

From the time of Bewick downwards, able and accurate works have
been written by Montagu, Selby, Bell, Yarrell, Curtis, Stephens,
and many others on the Birds, Quadrupeds, Fishes, Reptiles,
Shells, and Insects of this country,—but in few of these works do
we find more than an endeavour to ascertain in the first imstance
what species in each class are natives, or occasional visitants, of
Great Britain and Ireland, and then to give full descriptions of
the several species as regards their external characters, adding what
is known of their haunts and habits, along with any particular facts
that give an interest to their history.

a ee ee ee

* Treland’s Natural History, by Gerard Boate, 1652. + Britannia
Baconica, or the Natural Rarities of every Shire of England, Scotland, and
Wales, by S. Childrey, 1662. { Pinax Rerum Naturalium Britannicarum,

by Christopher Merrett, 1667. § Scotia Dlustrata, 1684. || Synopsis
of the Natural History of Great Britain and Ireland, by John Berkenhout,
1789. {| British Zoology, by Thomas Pennant, 1776.

Vou. II., No. 4.

374

It seldom~ occurred to any of these writers to take up the
questions which draw the attention of Naturalists at the present
day ; questions as to the evolution of species and varieties—the
causes of variation—the relationship between the animals of a
particular country, and the same animals as met with in other
countries—the local influences which operate, sometimes on the
structure, sometimes on the habits of certain species, giving them
a local character, often to the extent of causing them to be con-
sidered distinct from others, which do not possess this local
character, though in all essential respects the same—the causes
which act in confining some species to very limited districts, while
others nearly allied are found ranging over a whole country; ina
word, questions arising out of that interaction which is constantly
going on between every living creature and its surroundings as
regards both the organic and the inorganic world, giving rise to
changes, not perceivable at first, but tending ultimately to an
entire alteration of the Fauna of any particular country or district.

For these questions had not at that time been brought forward.
It is only since the appearance of Darwin’s important work on the
“Origin of Species” in 1859, that they have offered themselves for
solution ; or if thought upon by a few before that time, that they
have become a general study, opening up indeed quite a new branch
of Science—Philosophical Biology.

Professor Huxley, speaking of that work, says—‘‘In a dozen
years it has worked as complete a revolution in biological science
as the “ Principia” did in astronomy—and it has done so, because,
in the words of Helmholtz, it contains “an essentially new creative
thought ;’* and a writer in a late number of “ Nature,” alluding to
this revolution, remarks that it “has augmented the number of
special problems in such enormous proportions that Biology is now
completely at a loss to solve all these problems by the aid of the
means placed hitherto at its disposal.” It is this felt difficulty
which led to a suggestion, at the Edinburgh meeting of the British
Association in 1871, that Zoological Laboratories or Observatories,
which is the subject of the article in ‘“ Nature” just mentioned,
should be established at suitable stations in different parts of the

* Contemp. Rev., Nov. 1871, p. 443.

375

globe, and especially on our own coast for the study of the
embryology, development, and habits of marine animals, and their
relationship to all those conditions under which their life is carried
on.* With the marine department of Zoology we have nothing
to do on the present occasion. But the same system of careful
observation is needed for the study of animals inhabiting the land
and fresh waters. And wherever Field Clubs exist they should
consider themselves as an associated band of observers for collecting
the Natural History facts of their own district. Every local
Faunist should have his own little private Observatory, where he
may watch over the ever-shifting phenomena of the animal world,
where, too, he may carry on those investigations and experiments,
which I shall have to speak of in the course of this paper, and
which can only be properly undertaken by those resident on the
spot. J

It may be remembered that I made some allusion to this subject
in my Anniversary Address for 1871. Speaking of Biology, and
the questions it gave rise to at the present time in connection with
the Darwinian theories, I went on to mention the opportunities
afforded to the local naturalist to take up some of these inquiries.
They might call for much patient and lengthened research, but the
result would be of great value. It would have the more value
from being entirely the result of personal observation. There is
nothing like a man’s “own autopsia,” to use Gilbert White’s
expression, for verifying facts in Natural History. Indeed, had
White belonged to the present generation, no man would have been
better fitted than he was to undertake such work as is required at
the hands of the local naturalist at the present day. A close and
accurate observer, he let nothing escape him. He watched nature
with untiring patience and assiduity, content to labour on fora
considerable term of years in his own narrow field, which never
lost its interest with him, nor failed to yield something new so
long as he continued to give it his attention. And from the habit
of “keeping a sharp look out,” he was able to record many little
points and features in the history of the animals about him, which,
though of common occurrence, had never been noticed by any

* See “ Nature,” vol. v., p. 277.

376

previous observer. No work of its kind has indirectly had more
influence upon the study and advancement of local natural history
than his charming volume on the “ Natural History of Selborne ;”
the fascinating way in which he has treated the subject having
stirred up in the minds of unnumbered readers, youthful readers
especially, just beginning to feel a taste for such pursuits, a desire
to investigate after a similar manner the natural productions of
their own neighbourhood.

But to return to the matter alluded to above. I did not in my
Address, for it was impossible then, go into any of the details of
local biology, but I expressed a hope to do so at some future time.*
The object of my present paper is to supply some of these details ;
or rather to state, in the way of suggestion, such observations as
have been made of late years by various naturalists relating to the
habits, characters, and economy of animals, the same serving to
illustrate what kinds of facts are wanted from the local zoologist to
give value to his researches, and to make them available for modern
science. To go fully into the subject, and follow it up through
each department of the animal kingdom would require a volume.

I assume then that he wishes to know and understand thoroughly
the Fauna of a particular district—say the Bath district—in all
its entirety. In addition to selecting certain fixed stations in woods
or other retired spots best adapted for getting a knowledge of the
habits of animalst, he must provide himself with a note-book
wherein to enter upon the spot every little fact and occurrence that
offers itself, even when his mind is not particularly set to Natural
History researches. White here furnishesan example. In one of his
letters to Daines Barrington on the singing of birds he says, “‘ For
many months I carried a list in my pocket of the birds that were to be
remarked, and, as I rode or walked about my business, I noted each
day the continuance or omission of each bird’s song, so that I am
as sure of the certainty of my facts as a man can be of any trans-
action whatsoever.” But a Journal of a more enlarged character
than White’s, and adapted to receive the more numerous entries
which the Naturalist is called upon to make at the present day, if

* See Proc. of Bath Nat. Hist. Field Club, vol. ii.. pp. 256, 257.

+ See “ Observations in Natural History. Introduction on Habits of

Observing,” pp, 40-44.

377

thoughtfully devised, may be kept without much trouble or taking
up much time. It maybe done almost entirely by signs and symbols;
and as a specimen of such a Journal, or rather note-book, | would
refer to a paper by Professor Alfred Newton in the “ Transactions
of the Norfolk and Norwich Naturalist’s Society for 1870-71,” t
in which he has given full details respecting one kept by himself
for ten years, accompanied by a lithographed copy of two pages of
the Register, so as to present to the eye the arrangement of the
entries, and the particular symbols used for the different kinds of
observations. Moreover, to show the value of such a Journal, he
states that the very first autumn of his using it he ascertained a
new fact respecting the Song Thrush, which the observations of
succeeding years fully confirmed, viz. that this species “ was
one of the most regular migrants among birds,” disappearing in
November, and reappearing the end of January or the beginning
of February ; “a fact which although well known on the continent
had never been suspected by any English Ornithologist.” This
shows how much there is yet to be learned respecting our native
animals, if naturalists will only take up the inquiry in some such
way as Professor Newton has done.

But even in the case of species thought to be the best understood
differences of character are noticeable in different localities ; nay,
in the very same locality many changes will occur in the habits and
instincts of certain animals with the lapse of years. Instincts
have often been considered as invariable. With many persons the
very idea of instinct is that of a blind impulsion prompting animals
to move always in one beaten track, to work bya rule for the
supply of life’s wants which never fails, and from which there is no de-
viation,—a rule they never learnt, and which their offspring equally
observe without any teaching from their parents. It is now, how-
ever, getting to be more and more allowed, as Zoological Science
advances, that this is not the case. Instincts do vary, and not
only this ; they are sometimes at fault. Mr. Maclachan mentions
the case of a caddis worm, which, when attaching itself to the
stem of an aquatic plant, previous to assuming the pupa form, in
accordance with its usual habits, did not make allowance for the

f p. 24.

378

growth of the plant, in consequence of which the pupa, instead of
remaining under the water, was gradually lifted up two feet above
it and perished. * Insects also not unfrequently lay their eggs in
wrong places, where the larvee when hatched can get no suitable
food. The flesh-fly, attracted by the carrion smell, will deposit its
eggs in the flowers of the stinking Stapelia; at another time,
where the eye or touch may direct it, but where the right odour
cannot exist, on a fur cap. Kirby and Spence mention the case of
the common house-fly even laying its eggs in a snuff-box, the snuff
being mistaken for dung. t

In reference to the general subject of instincts it may be
remarked that they depend for the most part on the conditions of
the outer world as manifested in the particular locality in which
animals are placed. These conditions act differently upon different
constitutions. If we suppose the conditions of a country changed,
the result will probably be that some species of animals who
cannot accommodate themselves to the change fall victims to it
and at once perish ; “others more or less affected may continue
through several generations, but with decreasing vigour, and die
out gradually ;” while all those who are suited to it, or who can
adjust their habits to meet the requirements of the case, thrive and
prosper. The adjustment may not be made at once, or completed
in the life time of an individual, but if at all successful, the
advantage arising from it will be inherited and improved by the
offspring, and each generation in this way will gain upon the one
that preceded it. The changes above supposed may arise from
various causes. There may be a change of climate, or a change
affecting the supplies of food, or the face of a country may be so
altered as to bring about the destruction of the fittest places for
rearing young, or the change besides being unfavourable for some
of its old inhabitants may be favourable to other species, strangers,
which come and live there, and which may be the natural enemies
of the former. But whatever the change may be, it is obvious
that unless an animal can accommodate itself to the new circum-
stances, or go elsewhere, which not all species have it in their

* See Ent. Trans., 3rd Ser., vol. v., Proceed. pp. xiv., xv.
+ Introd. to Entomol., vol. ii., p. 471.

EE

379

power to do, it must necessarily succumb and take its fate. Unless
its constitution can get accustomed to a warmer or colder, a drier
or wetter climate, or to some different food from what it has been
used to, or its young can be reared in some different way from
formerly with precautions against its coming to harm, or the
animal can contrive some new stratagems for evading its enemies,
as the case may be, it can never hold its place long where it is,
What evidence have we then to shew that with very many animals
there is that elasticity of constitution, if we may use the expression,
as opposed to anything rigid and unalterable in their nature, which
enables them to meet and get over the difficulty? We might
appeal in the first instance to the case of domestic animals, which,
from long living under the care and tutelage of man, have some of
them become so different in their habits and even in structural
characters, that we can no longer point with certainty to the stocks
from which they originally sprung ; as on the other hand, if after
long domestication, they are neglected and turned adrift, they lose
the characteristics they had acquired in their reclaimed state, and
gradually reassume their feral habits.

Though not directly connected with our subject, it might be men-
‘tioned that it is the same with the Cerealia among plants. UHither
the original stocks of some species have passed away altogether, or
they are become so metamorphosed by continued cultivation as to
be no longer recognizable. Here, too, cultivation being withheld,
the plants fall back in luxuriance and fertility, making probably an
approach to their original condition.

But not to dwell upon the case of domestic animals we have
plenty of instances of changed instincts among the wild ones.
And it is worthy of note that many such changes must have
occurred in the case of species, which though not kept or cared for
by man have long attached themselves to his dwelling or its
immediate neighbourhood. Such are the rat and mouse, the house
sparrow, chimney swallow, and several others. The rat and the
mouse have been carried by man unwittingly all over the world.
The sparrow which now generally places its nest under the eaves
of buildings, no doubt in former ages built in trees, which it still
does occasionally, the nest in such cases being better constructed,

380

and the materials not so loosely put together as when placed in the
holes of walls. It has also become so habituated to man that ‘“ by
its boldness it secures food not available to its congeners, and as a
result has several broods in a season, while its field-haunting
kindred have none of them more than two broods, and some have
only one.”* Other animals, though not usually approaching houses,
keep in great measure to the lands on which man raises his crops,
deriving their chief support from the produce of his labours.
These, which are often much molested on account of the damage
they do, have evidently been made more wary in the course of
generations, and are not easily approached. t It may be remarked
indeed that the fear of man which shows itself more or less among
all wild animals living in the same countries with hin, is itself
evidently an acquired instinct, not being exhibited by species
entirely unacquainted with him, as in the case of animals living in
islands where man has not got a footing. {| According as they are
brought more into contact with civilization and the human race,
they find cause more or less to alter their mode of life, shaping their
course in reference as well to the advantages which man sometimes
throws in their way, as, on the other hand, to the power he has
over them derived from his superior faculties and intelligence.

A curious instance of the former, leading to an entire change of
habit, is recorded in the case of a rare bird called the Kea (Nestor
notabilis) one of the brush-tongued parrots found in New Zealand.
This bird appears to have formerly derived its food “from the
nectar of hardy flowers, the drupes and berries of dwarfed shrubs”
that grow at a high elevation, to which may be added, “ insects
found in the crevices of rocks or beneath the bark of trees ;” but
since the European has come in, and it has got acquainted with the
flocks of sheep introduced by him, it has acquired a taste for

* Herbert Spencer’s Principles of Biology, vol. ii., p. 458.

+ See some remarks by Weissenborn on the “‘ Transmission of experience
in birds, in the form of instinctive knowledge ;” with instances adduced to
show “that the collective experience of many generations of animals has a
much more powerful influence on their behaviour, than their individual
experience.” Mag. of Nat. Hist., 2nd Ser., vol. ii., p. 50.

${ See some remarks by Darwin on the tameness of the birds in the
Galapagos Archipelago. Journal of Researches, &c., p. 475.

381

mutton. In fact it has gradually become carnivorous, taking
advantage of the carcases hung up by the settlers in winter in the
open air, or even tearing away pieces of flesh from the living
animal, “exhibiting, it is said, an amount of daring akin to the
savage fierceness of a raptorial.” *

It may be remarked also that many animals that have been
brought into contact with man feed upon artificial substances
which they could not have obtained formerly. M. Fatio, in a work
on the Swiss mammals, describes a little black mouse found in the
Grisons and supposed to be a new species, which “lives on tobacco.
It was first noticed in a tobacco-factory, and was found to make
great ravages among the stores of the nicotian weed.” t

Darwin also has observed that there are ‘‘ many British insects
which now feed on exotic plants, or exclusively on artificial sub-
stances.” {+ Among the latter might be mentioned certain species
of moth which in the larva state make the same havoc in stores of
tea which the mouse above alluded to makes in the tobacco stores.

Another remarkable fact connected with man’s movements is
noticed in a paper in the “ American Naturalist” for October, 1871,
where Mr. T. Martin Trippe speaks of “the difference in habits,
note, time of breeding, &c., in the same species of bird in the
eastern and newly-settled western portions of the American con-
tinent, and the manner in which the indigenous avi-fauna of the
Western States is becoming gradually superseded by Eastern =?
along with the advance of man.” §

But irrespectively of man, many facts are on record serving to -
show the altered habits and instincts of animals under particular
circumstances. Thus it has been ascertained, a fact I can confirm
by my own observation, that the reproduction of frogs and toads
occasionally takes place without the intermediate stage of tadpole,
the occasion being that, in which they have accidentally got into
places from which there is no escape, and where the tadpole
state would be impossible for lack of water. || Efts also lose many

* See “ Nature,” vol. iv., p. 489, and vol. v., p. 262. + “ Nature,”
vol. i., p. 282. { Origin of Species, 1st Ed., p. 183. § Id., vol. v.,
p. 313. || Edinb. New Phil. Journ., vol. 55 (1853), p. 184. See also
Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 2nd Ser., vol. xi, p. 341., Id. p. 482. _

382

of their characters when found on land, and in dry places and dry
seasons are often found in the perfect form so extremely small,
that there can be little doubt these too like frogs and toads are occa-
sionally reproduced without first going through the larva state. *

A remarkable case of altered instincts in a small species of spider
(Neriene errans) found in coal mines is mentioned by Mr. Tuffen
West. In its natural state this spider is met with in fields about
the time of hay-harvest, and is only known as a solitary wanderer,
making 2o web of any kind, further than a few scattered lines, In
the coal-pits, into which they are supposed to have been carried
down originally by accident with the provender for the horses, they
become gregarious, and live in large colonies, constructing sheets
of web of vast size. Mr. West saw one 30 feet long by 44 feet
wide, hanging from about the middle of the roof. t

Another striking instance of animals accommodating themselves
in time to localities not originally natural to their organization and
habits, was that noticed some years back by Professor Lovén of
certain Crustacea occurring in the Swedish lakes, which had pre-
viously only been known as marine species inhabiting the Arctic
and Baltic seas. The explanation of it was thought to be “that
the gradual elevation of the Scandinavian Peninsula had cut off
these originally marine creatures from their natural habitat, and
that they had been able to accommodate themselves successfully to
altered conditions of life.” This fact is suggestive, and should
not be lost sight of by those who study the productions of our
fresh waters, whether fish or any lower forms of animal life,
especially waters communicating with the sea or uot far distant
from it.

Instances such as the above might be adduced to almost any
extent, in proof that the habits of animals are dependent mainly
upon outward circumstances. But we will now confine ourselves
to those more particularly connected with the subject before us.
Among the vertebrate animals the class of birds is that which to
the local naturalist will open up the widest field for observation.
The mammals, fish, and reptiles, found in a limited district, such

* See Man. Brit. Vert. An., pp. 304-305.
+ Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1861. Sections, p. 163. ¢ “ Nature,”’ vol. i, p. 455.

383

as for instance the Bath district, are few in number, and the life
history of most of them is tolerably well understood. The birds
are more numerous, and the particular species we may expect to
meet with more uncertain. From their powers of flight, and
from various circumstances, some of regular occurrence, others
accidental, birds often wander far and wide from the place of their
nativity. Unlike mammals, more fixed to the spot, they can in a
very short time transport themselves elsewhere in the case of food
failing, or under any other influences which affect their welfare.
Hence it occasionally happens that while some species desert a
particular locality, others new to it introduce themselves in
their stead. Nor can we always argue that because a country
or district seems well suited to a particular species it is likely to
occur there. For no accident may have brought it over the
boundary that separates that country or district from an adjoining
one, in whatever plenty it may be found in this latter. The rule
seems to be that having once got a footing in any locality, if it
find everything there requisite for its support and safety, unless it
be a migratory species, there it will remain; and even if it do
migrate to any other place at certain seasons, unless hindered in
its flight by opposing circumstances, it will return to the locality it
had left. It has been noted as a remarkable circumstance in the
geographical distribution of birds that, notwithstanding the large
rivers and other waters in America, ‘a continent with more rivers
and more fish than any other,” there should be so few kingfishers ;
whereas in the Australian regions, where rivers are smaller and
less numerous, kingfishers abound, We even find there nearly
half the species of the whole world.* We may easily suppose,
however, Australia to have been the centre in which, from some
particular cause, many species originated, and that nothing has led
to the dispersal of such species over other parts of the globe.

But to take a case nearer home ; we know that the nightingale,
which is a migrant, returns to the same parts of England every
spring, leaving other parts year after year unvisited, though in
many of the counties which it seems to avoid there is nothing we can
fix upon as prejudicial to its welfare if it chose to resort to them.

* See “ Nature,” vol. iii., p. 467.

384

Let us proceed then to consider those points in bird-life to which
the local naturalist should particularly give his attention. After
having as¢éertained what birds are to be found, or are known to
have occurred, in the district he has marked out for himself, he
will first separate these into the usual classes of fixed residents,
regular or occasional migrants, stragglers, &c. But this part of
their history has been so generally noted down in faunas, it is
unnecessary to say much about it.

At the same time there is one question connected with our
regular summer migrants which the local naturalist might well
attend to, not often considered, viz., what are the relative numbers
of each species that return to a given locality in the spring, where
an estimate can be made, compared with the numbers that left the
autumn previous? White, speaking of the house martin, has
remarked that “the birds that return yearly bear no manner of
proportion to the birds that retire.” This is, however, probably
to be explained by the old birds driving the young away and
“ obliging the latter to seek for new abodes ”—an explanation given
by White himself in another part of his work in reference to the
swift, of which he “was confirmed in the opinion” that they had
at Selborne “every year the same number of pairs invariably.”*
Observations bearing on this matter made in other places would be
valuable.

But let us pass to other particulars. It will be remembered that
we want facts for the support or otherwise of what is commonly
called the Darwinian theory, viz., that every species of animal
has been derived from a preceding one, through the instrumentality
of causes acting slowly over a long period of time. Now any plain
facts speaking to an alteration of character or habit will have a
certain weight one way or the other in this argument. In the case
of birds, any variation of plumage or song, or mode of nidification,
or of food, which sometimes affects the colour of the plumage,t
should be especially noted. Plumage we know varies in certain

* Nat. Hist. of Selb. Letters xvi. and xxxix. to Daines Barrington.
+ White has remarked that “ bullfinches, when fed on hempseed, often
become wholly black.’ [Letters xv. and xxxix. to Pennant.] See other
instances of ‘‘ the effects of different kinds of food on the colours of birds,”

385

species with age, with sex, or with season. In some birds the
sexes are alike, but the young different from either ; in others the
sexes are different and the young like the female. In some the
male during the nuptial season assumes brighter colours than
the female but is like her at other times ; occasionally he is adorned
with a crest or other long plumes found at no other period of the
year. It would be a very important fact if a case occurred at any
time in which the rule of the species, whatever it might be, was
not observed. ‘For it would seem not always to be observed in
other countries. Thus Mr. Blyth has noticed that the ruff
(Machetes pugnax) is “ tolerably common” in the vicinity of
Calcutta, “but never met with in breeding plumage.”* This is a
remarkable circumstance, and its interest would be much increased
if in only a single instance a parallel case was met with, as regards
this species, in England. The ruff on the neck, by which the male
bird is distinguished in the breeding season, and from which it
receives its name, is notoriously variable in its colours, hardly being
found exactly alike in two individuals, and the same or similar
causes which bring about this variability, might possibly lead
occasionally to there being no ruff at all.

Again in very many species, especially among the aquatic birds, the
summer and winter plumage differ considerably, and the degree of
difference seems to be dependent in some measure on the character of
the season. This question is of greater interest when we take the case
of migrants which are generally travelling at a time when this change
of plumage is taking place, and which may possibly be affected by
the climate or state of the weather in the countries it traverses in
its flight, especially if it stop to sojourn anywhere for a time before
resuming its journey.t For the change sometimes takes place very
cul Ea ee SS ae
as also the influence of temperature, mentioned by the late Mr. E. T. Bennett,
in his edition of White's Selborne, p. 165, note 19.

* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. 12 (1848), p. 170.

+ See some remarks by myself, many years ago, on the variation of
plumage in birds as affected by climate, seasons, and other conditions, with
reference to a memoir by M. Gloger, in which he states he has “no doubt

that individuals of one and the same species of bird present different arrange-
ments of colouring, according to the climates which they inhabit, and that

386

rapidly. Mr. Yarrell mentions the case of a common black-headed
gull in the Zoological Gardens, in which the change of colour on
the head from white to dark brown in the spring was completed in
five days ; “it was a change of colour, and not an act of moulting,
no feather was shed.” * Some light might be thrown by the local
faunist upon this subject, as also upon the still larger question of
species generally, especially when established upon slight differences
of plumage only, if those in which any of the above particularities
were conspicuous were compared with the same or closely allied
species obtained in other localities in England or abroad at the
same seasons of the year, and if this were done for several years in
succession. By close comparison of specimens in this way many
formerly supposed species among the waders and swimmers are
now recognized as mere varieties of others, or different states of
plumage dependent upon season or other circumstances. Also
among our land birds, we know that there are many other European
species closely allied to some of them, and it would be important
to note if in any of our home specimens we ever found an approach
to the slight variations of character by which some of these
foreigners are distinguished, or any thing intermediate that tends
to bring them together.t That many local races or sub-species
only retain their peculiarities and distinctness from other nearly
allied forms, so long as they are confined to their own locality,
seems shown by the remarkable circumstance mentioned by M. de
Selys-Longchamps, that the Cisalpine sparrow, when transferred to
Paris and made to build there, had for its progeny the common
house sparrow. { But in fact the whole question as to the light in

one and the same individual, amongst the birds of passage, changes during
nearly the whole year the colours of its plumage, according to the different
climates through which it passes.”—Mag. of Zool. and Bot., vol. 1, pp. 24-26.
Mr. Gould, too, has remarked “that birds from the central parts of con-
tinents are always more brilliantly coloured than those inhabiting insular or
maritime countries. He attributes this principally to the greater density and
cloudiness of the atmosphere in islands and countries bordering the sea.’”’—
Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. xvii., p. 510. * Brit. Birds, vol. iii., p. 438,
+ See remarks “ on the variation of species,’ with reference to many very
closely allied European species of birds.—Rep. Brit. Assoc., Cheltenham
meeting in 1856. Trans. of Sect., pp. 103-4. { Faune Belge, p. viii.

387

which we are to consider sub-species and local races, as they have
been called at different times, is one that can be taken up by none
better than the local naturalist.*

On the subject of song it may be remarked that, though in the
case of what are usually called song-birds, each Species ordinarily
keeps to its own note, and which is often characteristic of it, yet
certain variations in that note may be noticed in different localities,
Practised bird-catchers can often tell by the song the exact county
in which some of our native cage birds have been taken, I
remember a blackbird at large when I lived in Cambridgeshire,
whose song was so peculiar that I could at once distinguish it from
all the other blackbirds in the neighbourhood ; this continued for
three years, at the end of which period I missed it, it having
probably met with its death. In any similar case that might occur
to the local naturalist it would be interesting to discover the nest
of the particular individual, and rear the young brood with the
view of ascertaining whether their song was like that of the parent
bird or not. It is quite certain that many birds acquire their song
by imitation. Wallace says “that young birds never have the
song peculiar to their species if they have not heard it, whereas
they acquire very easily the song of almost any other bird with
which they are associated.”+ When birds are kept in cages, too,
they not unfrequently lose in part the song they have when at
liberty, or it is mixed up with that of other birds in cages near
them. I remember many years back a nightingale in a cage kept
by Mr. Yarrell, which it was quite disappointing to hear, the song
being so little like that of the wild bird in its native haunts. ft
Some birds, like the great titmouse and reed warbler, have a
great variety of notes. The peculiar note of the former, like the
whetting of a saw, so often heard in the early part of the year, was
noticed by White, though attributed by him, I think erroneously,

tothe marsh tit,§ but it has many other notes besides, which it
ee nee ee ee

* See the whole subject of the variation of plumage in birds, treated at
much length in Darwin’s “Descent of Man,” vol. ii., ch. xiii., pp. 71-98;
also ch. xiv., pp. 124-153; also ch. xvi., especially “Rules or Classes of
Cases,” pp. 187-223. t Natural Selection, p. 220. $ See also Wallace,
Nat. Select., p. 222. § Nat. Hist., Selb., Letter xl. to Pennant,

388

often takes up in succession, harping for a longer or shorter time
first on one and then on another.*

All these facts are of importance, especially when we take into
consideration the case of those birds, in which we not only find the
song never varying, but in which the peculiar note is characteristic
of the species, as distinguished from others, in almost all respects
except the note, most closely allied to it. Thus the willow wren
and chip chop, even in the living state but still more in the
dead, are so extremely similar as regards plumage, size, and pro-
portions, that it is difficult to believe they have not sprung originally
from one stock. Yet supposing this to have been the case, there
must have been a time when the song of the two species, which is
now quite different, was similar also; and there must have been a
gradually increasing divergence in this partieular until the difference
became what it is.

And as with the song of birds, so with the nests. These last
are not always alike in the same species, nor constructed of the
same materials, nor placed in the same kind of situations, Allusion
has already been made to the difference in the nest of the house-
sparrow, according as it is placed in trees or buildings. The jack-
daw’s nest is found in various situations, most often perhaps in
steeples or hollow trees ; in Cambridgeshire, they build much in
chimneys ; in some open places, where there are neither trees nor
towers, according to White, in rabbit-burrows. t+ White also long
ago remarked that the form and material of the nest of the same
species of bird, in certain cases he noticed, were adapted to the
“circumstances of place and convenience.” Quite recent observers,
comparing the nest of the house-martin as constructed at the
present day with the way in which it was constructed formerly,
have come to the conclusion that they have undergone with the
lapse of time “certain progressive modifications of structure.” §
This if correct would be an alteration not arising directly from any

* See Knapp’s Journ. of Naturalist, 3rd ed., p. 164, t+ Nat. Hist.
Selb. ‘Lett. xxi. and xxii. to Pennant. { Id. Lett. lvi. to Daines
Barrington. 9 “Nature,” vol. i, p. 522. See also Wallace, Nat
Select., p. 228.

389

outward circumstances, but due to a modification of instinct in the
course of several generations.

With regard to the material used by birds in building, it seems
to depend very much upon what comes to hand. Some keep more
to the same materials than others ; but that they will often abandon
the old material for a new and a better one if thrown in their way,
is shown by a circumstance mentioned by the late Mr. W. Thompson,
of Belfast, that “the chaffinches and sparrows at Whitehouse, near
that city, which build around two cotton-mills, always use cotton in
the construction of their nests.” * Wallace also has remarked that
“thread and worsted are now used in many nests instead of wool
and horse-hair.” t

A curious case occurred at Cambridge many years ago when the
Botanic Garden was in the midst of the town. The jackdaws
that frequented the buildings about there were very much in the
habit of stealing the wooden labels attached “to the plants, and
carrying them off when the gardeners were not on the watch for
constructing their nests. These labels on being searched for were
found in large numbers in holes in the steeples and towers of the
churches and colleges near, as well as in the chimneys of houses.
From one chimney shaft in the immediate neighbourhood of the
garden which was found “stopped up below,” no less than eighteen
dozen labels were got out and brought back to the curator. f

As the song of caged birds often differs from that of the same
species when at liberty, so too it would seem to be with the nests.
On this point Wallace remarks that “birds brought up from the
egg in cages do not make the characteristic nest of their species,
even though the proper materials are supplied them, and often
make no nest at all, but rudely heap together a quantity of
materials.” § He also quotes Wilson as “strongly insisting on the
variety in the nests of birds of the same species, some being so
much better finished than others, and he believes that the less
perfect nests are built by the younger, the more perfect by the
older birds.” ||

* See Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist., vol. viii, p. 412. + Wallace,
p- 227. { See Loud. Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. vi., pp. 397-8. § Wall.,
pp. 219, 20. | Id., p. 224. See ulso an Article by Wallace, on the
“Philosophy of Bird’s Nests.” Intellectual Observer, vol. xi., p. 413.

B

390

The above facts recorded by different observers—and they are a
mere sample of what might be got together on this subject—serve
to show that there is a certain amount of variability in the plumage,
song, and nidification of our native birds. They are influenced
by circumstances ; they profit by their experiences ; they can learn
to do things differently from the way in which they did them
formerly ; they know how to turn to good account any accidental
advantage favourable to the purposes they have in view.

To what extent all this may be carried, and whether the accumu-
lated results of small advances year by year towards an entire
change of character, of instincts and aptitudes, may not lead in
time to such a divergence as we now see, in so many cases, between
two closely allied forms thought to be distinct—this is a question
that must be left to be determined by local naturalists in different
parts of the countyy, when they shall have brought a much larger
number of facts and observations than we at present possess to
bear upon the points at issue.

Let us now pass to the invertebrate division of the animal
kingdom. None of the classes of animals in this division offer a
more promising field for the consideration of the Darwinian theories
than the class of insects. This arises from the circumstance of
the immense number of known species of insects, and the still
larger number probably which remain to be discovered, from the
great variety of forms which every order in the class exhibits,
and the remarkable changes which most of the species undergo
before arriving at maturity. In the larger families too, the species
are not only numerous, but often so variable and connected with
each other by such close affinities, that it is extremely difficult to
determine them at all, still more to group them into genera.
This is particularly the case with the Longicorn Coleoptera, a
family of beetles containing 8000 species, in which variability
would seem to have attained its highest pitch. Mr. Bates remarks
that “if we except the two or three primary divisions of the
Longicorns, there is no portion of structure which retains a given
form throughout a number of species, sufficient to form a well-
defined genus of ordinary length or a group of genera.” *

* See his Address to Ent. Soc, Trans., 1868, p. lxv.

391

We might also refer to the economy and habits of many insects,
of those especially living in societies, which taken in connection
with the low development of their nervous system, have no parallel
in the rest of the animal world.

But no adequate study can be made of the remarkable peculiari-
ties of the insect race, except where the observer is long stationary
in a given locality, and content patiently to watch and record what
comes under his eye from season to season, while confining his
attention, for a time at least, to some particular genus or family.
The life-long history of even a single species will throw more light
upon our reasonings about development, and do more for the
' science of entomology than the most extensive collection, in which
every insect in the district finds a place without more being known
about it than when and where it was taken. Many active workers
in this desired way are already in the field, and what sort of work
they are doing may be gathered from the papers they have published
in the Transactions of different Natural History Societies. There
ought to be similar workers wherever there exists a Natural History
Field Club.

We have a praiseworthy instance in one of our most distinguished
entomologists, Sir John Lubbock, who has devoted much of his
valuable time to the study of some of the obscurer forms of insect
life, in connection with biological questions of the deepest philoso-
phical import. It is perhaps by the study of the lower forms of
animals generally that we shall arrive at any sure knowledge of
the laws of development in the higher forms. But it is especially
so in the class of insects, where the departures from a given type
of structure are much more marked and diverse than among the
vertebrate animals, not merely when we compare together orders
and families, but when we compare the different stages of develop-
ment in the same species.

In a series of papers in the Linnean Transactions commenced
some years back, Sir John Lubbock has given a detailed account of
the Thysanura of Latreille, a group of very small wingless insects
found in woods and other damp places, low down in the scale of
insect life, undergoing no well marked metamorphosis, and by some
entomologists hardly accounted as true insects, a group to which few

392

in our own country besides himself have given any attention. He
has carefully described all the species met with in his own neigh-
bourhood in Kent, he has “‘ watched them in their native haunts,”
noted their habits, “kept them for some time in confinement,”
experimented upon them in order to ascertain their power of
reproducing lost parts, and even worked out all the details of their
inmost anatomy, small though they be, and insignificant as they
would appear to an ordinary observer.*

In other papers he has traced the whole process of development
in a small species of May-fly, Chloeon dimidiatum, from birth to
maturity, showing that the larva, which is aquatic, passes through
no less than twenty changes of form before emerging from the
water to assume the winged state, all of which he has described
and illustrated by figures.+ These numerous changes, which tend
very much to modify our old views respecting the metamorphosis
of insects, which was generally thought to be confined to the three
well-marked stages of larva, pupa, and imago, he considers as
having no exclusive relation to the form ultimately assumed, but
“bearing reference only to the existing wants” of the insect, and
brought about “through the influence of external conditions.”
And the remarks he makes upon this point, in connection with
others relating to the general question—What are the circum-
stances and conditions which necessitate the striking metamorphoses
which most insects pass through? more especially, what calls for
that death-like repose of the pupa, sometimes extending over many
months, before the imago appears, with structure and habits so
entirely opposite to what it had in the larva state ?+take us at once
to the subject of Darwin’s views, whether we accept natural
selection, or any other agency, as a right explanation of the
matter.t

* Linn. Trans., vols. xxili., pp. 429, 589; and xxvi., p. 295; and xxvii.,
p. 277.

t It has been asserted “that the pups of Hymenoptera go through a
series of mutations of form, analogous to those of Chloeon, as detailed by Sir
J. Lubbock,” and Prof. Westwood has “suggested that the hive bee affords a
good subject for observations in corroboration of this theory.’’ See Ent.
Trans., 3rd Ser., vol. v., Proceed., p. xxiii.

{ Linn. Trans., vols, xxiv., p. 61; and xxv., p. 477.

393

In another paper, read to the Linnean Society only last year,
Sir John Lubbock has returned to the subject of the metamorphosis
of insects, and in connection with it has been led to speculate even
on that highest of questions relating to insect life “the Origin of
Insects.” What may we conceive to have been the parent stock of
the whole race? or which of all known existing forms probably
most nearly resembles it? He thinks he sees t&e answer to this
question in the Collembola, a name applied by him to certain
families of the Thysanura described in the series of papers first
alluded to, in some of the forms of which group he finds the
structure of the mouth intermediate between mandibulate and
suctorial, to one or other of which two types the mouth of all other
insects may be referred. *

I have dwelt the longer on these papers of Sir John Lubbock,
because they afford a notable instance of the way in which Local
Natural History may be brought to bear upon some of the great
questions of the day in the science of biology.

But there are many other inquiries besides those relating to the
development and metamorphosis of insects which suggest themselves
to a thoughtful observer. The strange habits of certain species arrest
our attention and excite our curiosity to know more of insect life
in general. Ona former occasion I spoke of the remarkable fact
ascertained by Sir J. Lubbock, of a small Hymenopterous insect
that swam on the surface of the water by the help of its wings.t
We have now on record the still more remarkable case of a winged
insect—by some thought to belong to the Phryganeide, but more
probably a truly Lepidopterous insect, and having wing scales like
the Lepidoptera, of the genus A centropus—which is not only born in
the water, the larva having gills and feeding on aquatic plants
below the surface, but the pupa state is also passed under water,

* Journ. of Linn. Soc. (Zool.), vol. xi., p. 422. See also a Lecture on
“Insect Metaphorphosis’” by Prof. Duncan, delivered before the British
Association, 1872, in which are many details connected with the Development
of Insects, with conjectures as to what were probably the earliest forms of
insect life from which all others have been derived. ‘ Nature,’* vol. vii.,
pp. 30 and 50.

+ Proceed. of the Bath Nat. Hist, Field Club, vol. ii., p. 156.

394

so that the moths themselves are born in the water, and these last
have even the faculty of entering the water in their perfect state,
having been seen to “creep down a pond-weed stem for an inch or
two, emerging again with unwetted wings.” *

And then to pass to other questions of more general import.
What is the relation of insects to the particular spots in which they
are found living? What are the causes which operate in the
general distribution of insects? Very many species seem to
migrate instinctively at certain seasons, and if carried by storms
and adverse winds beyond their mark may easily make their
appearance in countries in which they had not been seen before.
Many travellers and voyagers testify to having witnessed, on dif-
ferent occasions, countless myriads of butterflies, as well as of other
insects, all traversing the air in one direction, the passage of the
whole body occupying several hours. The migrations of the locust
tribe in the East are notorious. Even in our own country, towards
the end of summer, we may often observe large flights of aphides,
winged ants, and occasionally insects belonging to other orders,
when they have increased beyond their usual numbers, quitting
their homes and seeking spots where they may found new colonies.
Indeed all insects that are in the habit of taking wing, without any
intention of migrating, are liable to be transported by sudden gusts
to regions far distant from the places where they were bred, or to
be carried out to sea and borne upon “ floating timber and other
drift materials ” to entirely a different quarter of the globe.T

It is perhaps to migration that we are to attribute the circum-
stance of the appearance in this country, some years in considerable
abundance, of certain species of butterfly well known on the Con-
tinent, but of which in other years no specimens are to be seen here
even for several seasons in succession. Such has been the case this
last autumn with the Vanessa antiopa, or Camberwell beauty ; which
“‘ appeared in scattered localities all over the country, the capture
of upwards of 200 specimens” having been recorded in different
places “from the Channel Islands to Aberdeen.” This is usually

* Ent. Trans,, 1872, pp. 134 and 138.
+ See a Paper on the “ Dispersal of Insects,” by Albert Miiller, Trans. Ent.
Soc., 1871, p. 175.

395

considered as one of our rarest as well as most beautiful butterflies 5
and it is long since there has been any record of its occurrence in
England, with the exception of solitary individuals taken at distant
intervals.

If this species comes over to us from the Continent, as some
think, it is a remarkable circumstance that nearly all the English
specimens “ differ in colouring to a perceptible extent from the
Continental variety, the border being creamy-white instead of buff-
coloured.” This, however, may perhaps be explained by the
circumstance of their being two broods on the Continent, at least
in Silesia, the spring brood “ having the border of the wings sulphur
yellow, whilst the autumnal brood, like British specimens, have a
white margin.” It is generally in autumn that the insect appears
in this country. If it is a genuine native, the question arises, and
it is one not easily answered, what are the peculiar conditions of
season or local influences to which we may attribute its very
irregular appearance ? *

It is more difficult to explain the appearance of insects, naturally
stationary, in places where they had not been seen before, es-
pecially if apterous, or which having wings very rarely use them.
This is a question which calls for close investigation on the part of
the local entomologist.

It is also a curious fact, that while a large number of species
of insects, irrespective of the causes which first brought them into
a particular district, are found generally diffused through it, others
are so extremely local as to be confined to a very small space of
ground, perhaps toasingle field, or to a particular hedge. Haworth,
the great Lepidopterist in the early part of this century, alludes to
this circumstance in his work, which being very scarce I give the
passage at length. He is speaking uf the Papilio cinwia (the
Glanville fritillary butterfly), and he mentions it as one of those
insects—“ So extremely attached to particular plants and to peculiar
situations and places, that a collector on one side of a hedge often
finds plenty, while another on the opposite side, the hedge alone
intervening, cannot procure a single specimen. They appear to
fly up and down, backward and forward, for a few score yards only ;

* See “ Nature,” vol. vi., p. 461; and “ Zoologist,” vol. iii., p. 888.

396
playing joyously at intervals with each other ; or, gaily perched,
sip nectar from their favourite flowers.” * What keeps such insects
from wandering ?

Mr. Bates, in reference to the limited ranges of closely allied
species of butterfly in the plains of tropical America, remarks that
the most effective possible barriers are sometimes opposed to the
spread of species “without any physical barrier existing which is
perceptible by our senses.” And he believes the explanation of the
fact to be—“ That there really are subtle differences of physical
conditions from place to place, even in a uniform region ; slight
differences in soil, humidity, succulence of foliage, and so forth,
which require in each a readjustment of the constitution of any
new immigrants from adjoining areas ; but that each area being
kept well stocked with allied species already adjusted to its minute
conditions, such migration rarely occurs.” t

This reasoning would probably be found to apply to numerous
cases in our own country, in which we find closely allied species in-
habiting contiguous areas of greater or less extent without inter-
mixing ; and it is suggestive of many points of inquiry to be made
by the local entomologist in connection with the circumstance.
Perhaps in the case of the Papilio cinaia, alluded to above,
we may suppose that, being naturally slow fliers, and meeting
with all they require in a particular spot, they have no inducement
to leave it, unless their numbers so increase as to oblige them to
do so.

There are other remarkable cases in which species met with
generally on the coast, and from which they seldom if ever wander,
are found to occur in places far inland. Thus it is recorded by
Mr. Barrett, an entomologist in the eastern counties, that at
Brandon, in Suffolk, he finds several species of Lepidoptera, some
in abundance, which have always been considered as “‘ most exclu-
sively coast sand-hill insects ;” the soil of Brandon being ‘‘a loose
light sand, precisely such as is found on the North Denes, at
Yarmouth, at the present time.” His explanation of the phe-
nomenon, on the authority of an eminent geologist, is “ that this

* Lepidoptera Britannica, p. 149.
t Ent. Trans., 1869. Proceed., p. xlvi.

397

tract of country was actually a range of coast sands, at a compara-
tively recent point of the post-glacial period, while the great valley
of the fens was still submerged ;’ and that the species in
question have occupied the ground there from that time to the
present. Nor is this the only remarkable circumstance. “ They
have remained,” it is stated, ‘unchanged in form, and even in
colour, all through the changing conditions of life occurring during
the upheaval of the fen valley, and the consequent alteration of the
‘coast line, and particularly those caused by the change from the
saline influences of the neighbouring sea, to those of a warm inland
district.” *

This fact is of importance in all discussions about the variation
and origin of species, and the more so from the circumstance of
most of the lepidopterous insects above mentioned “ belonging to
large genera of closely allied and abundant species (Agrotis,
Mamestra, Gelechia ), genera such as have been pointed out as most
likely to produce new species by natural selection, dominant groups
in fact.”

And this leads to the subject of variation in insects, and the
causes which affect it, while it is suggestive of the amount of infor-
mation that might be got on these points by local entomologists if
they would take up the inquiry.

It was formerly the practice of entomologists to pay very little
attention to varieties, and to collect species only, or what were
considered such. But it is now found that however fixed in their
characters some species may be, as in the case above mentioned, or
even whole genera, the greater part are more or less unstable ;
stability being probably due to the forms in which it prevails
having been for a long time back cut off and isolated from their
congeners, combined with some peculiar circumstances in the
localities to which they have been since confined. Where we find
stable and unstable species living together in the same area of
dispersal, and exposed to the same physical influences, we must
look to their economy and habits, or to peculiarities of structure, if
existing, as affording the only probable hope of explanation of the
phenomenon.

* Trans. of Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society, 1870-71, p. 61.

398

We must see, then, the importance of getting together in our
cabinets in all cases as large a number of varieties as can be obtained.
It is by the study of these alone, in connection with the particular
circumstances under which they are found living, that we can
arrive at any theory of variation, much more approach the question,
how species have originated *

Britain is said to be considered by foreign entomologists as rich
in varieties ; and Mr. MacLachan, who has paid great attention to
the variation of Lepidopterous insects, attributes the circumstance
as “due, Ist, to our insular position ; 2ndly, to our anomalous and
variable climate, and 3rdly, and perhaps chiefly, to the diversity in
the geological structure of these islands.” + He doubts, himself,
the influence of food in causing variation ; at least he doubts its
influence on the imago, though he seems to think it may have some
effect upon the larve or caterpillars, the colours of which often
assimilate themselves to those of the plants on which they subsist,
being a case of mimicry for protective purposes. Other ento-
mologists, however, are of a different opinion on this last point.
Professor Westwood has recorded an instance in which there would
seem to have been clear evidence of the influence of food upon the
perfect insect. A number of caterpillars having been hatched from
a particular lot of eggs of the Liparis dispar, or gypsey moth, they
were divided into two portions, some being fed on elm, others on
whitethorn. There was no difference in the larve, cocoons, or
pup ; but the male moths fed on elm were larger, and the colours

* So long back as 1839, Isidore Geoffroy St. Hilaire spoke of the importance
of attending to local varieties of animals, and appreciating those slight dif-
ferences arising from the influence of local circumstances “ tending to
establish the passage of one species into another.” He considered such
inquiries as possibly one day affording a key to the solution of the difficulties
which beset the study of zoology, and an answer to “important questions
affecting the very philosophy of science.” He says, “if it be of importance
to zoology to enumerate animal species with exactness, and carefully to note
the differences which distinguish them, are not the origin and formation of
species, the nature and causes of their differences, likewise questions of real,
nay, of immense interest.” This was written twenty years before the publi-
cation of Darwin’s “ Origin of Species.” —See Edinb. New Phil. Journ., vol.
XXViil., pp. 55 and 65-67.

+ Ent. Trans., 3rd Ser., vol. 2, p. 458.

399

much darker and richer, than the males of those fed on whitethorn.
The elm-fed females were not so large as those of the hawthorn-fed
larvee ; and most of them were crippled and imperfectly developed.
There were also many of the whitethorn-fed females crippled ; and
the whole experiment went to show that had the species depended
solely on the existence of either elm-fed or whitethorn-fed indi-
viduals, it would probably have soon degenerated or become
extinct.* Further experimevts on this point, carefully conducted,
are much needed; and it is just the inquiry for the local ento-
mologist to take in hand, rearing from year to year successive
broods of the same species, feeding the larve upon such different
plants as they can be got to eat, taking care to preserve all other
conditions the same, and then from time to time noting down the
results. t

Cases of variation, however, and to a great extent, have been
known to occur in some species of moths among specimens reared
from the eggs of one parent, even when all were fed upon the same
food. Mr. MacLachan mentions that of the Sterrha sacraria, L.,
in his paper above alluded to on the variation of the Lepidoptera.
He has there described and figured a series of varieties of this moth
so remarkably different from each other, that had they been taken
separately on the wing, instead of having been brought up by the
hand, it is not likely that any one of them would have been referred
to the species from which the eggs had been obtained. And this
fact leads him to think that several supposed foreign species which
he notices are in like manner all one and the same, and identical
with the S. sacraria of this country, from which the above varieties
were derived. t

* See Ent. Trans., 3rd Ser., vol. v., Proceed., p. xliv. Id., vol. i., Proceed.,p. 15.

t+ Other experiments might be made in reference to the influence of the
various rays of light upon the larve of butterflies and moths. See a case
mentioned in the ‘‘ Zoologist’” (vol. iii., p. 1198), in which several caterpillars
of the peacock butterfly (Vanessa io) were confined in different boxes covered
with glass of different colours. This treatment seems to have affected the
development and colours of the imago. Some that were kept wholly in the
dark produced butterflies in general larger than the others, and their colours
brighter. Other results are recorded, though not very decisive ones.

{ Ent. Trans. 3rd ser., vol. ii,, p. 453., pl. xxiii.

400

That climate is a more powerful and a more frequent cause of
variation than food, would appear from several facts adduced by
Mr. MacLachan as well as others. In the above paper Mr. Mac-
Lachan gives instances of more than thirty species of Lepidoptera,
in addition to some whole genera, which become more or less
“‘ melanised” when occurring in the North of England or Scotland,
“the darkening becoming more marked the further we proceed
northwards.” * On the other hand, he says “there are a few
species which become paler the further we proceed north.”
A yet more remarkable fact has been noticed in the Shetland Isles,
where “locality actually changes and confuses the normal sexual
variation in the colour ;” a form of Hepialus humuli (ghost moth)
being met with there, in which the male is coloured the same as
the female, the fine white silvery hue, which characterises the male
in England, being entirely lost. Variation is found also to extend
to other particulars beside colouring. It has been observed that
some species “ which are double brooded in the South of England
have only one brood in Scotland.” It has been also said that
“many species in Scotland habitually remain there in the pupa
state for two or three years, although in the south this would form
quite the exception to the same species ;” and it is thought that
“this retardation of development may probably have some effect
in causing variation.”

Without reference to locality, it is a well-known fact that some
species which are variable in the larva state are constant in the
imago, and, on the contrary, that others which “ are very variable
in the imago state, are constant, or nearly constant in the larval.”

Variation in insects prevails mostly in species which are widely dis-
persed. This we might expect ; as, when spread over a far-extended
region, they are exposed to very varying conditions of life. But
Mr. Wallace tells us that “what is commonly called variation
consists of several distinct phenomena which have been too often
confounded.” These he enumerates as, “1st, simple variability ;

* A similar remark is made by’a writer in the “ Zoologist,”’ (p. 1731), who
thinks, however, that “‘ this deep colour is given them by the quantity of iron
in the soil, which is taken up by the vegetation on which they feed.”

+ Ent. Trans., 3rd Ser., vol. ii., pp. 460 and 465.

401

2nd, polymorphism ; 3rd, local forms ; 4th, co-existing varieties ;
5th, races or sub-species ; and 6th, true species.” The first is the
case of those insects “‘in which the specific form is to some extent
unstable,” differences of form continually arising, between which
there are gradations that are not capable of being easily defined.
By polymorphism or dimorphism, he understands “ the co-existence
in the same locality of two or more distinct forms, not connected
by intermediate gradations, and all of which are occasionally pro-
duced by common parents. These distinct forms generally occur
in the female sex only.” Mr. Wallace believes “ it will be found
that a considerable number of what have been classed as varieties
are really cases of polymorphism ;” and this may be suspected in
most instances “‘in which well-marked varieties occur in company
with the parent species, but without any intermediate forms.”
Local forms “ constitute the first step in the transition from variety
to species.” They “ occur in species of wide range, when groups of
individuals have become partially isolated in several points of its
area of distribution, in each of which a characteristic form has
become segregated more or less completely.” On coexisting varieties,
or cases in which a slight variation of form “ exists in company
with the parent or typical form, without intermediate gradations,”
he does not lay much stress as of doubtful occurrence. ace or
sub-species is the name applied to “ local forms completely fixed and
isolated,” and it is a mere matter of opinion which are to be “con-
sidered as species and which varieties.” *

The above distinctions should be carefully attended to by the
local entomologist. For though Mr. Wallace’s observations in the
paper referred to below, relate to the Papilionidz alone, he has no
doubt that facts similar to those he has collected would “‘ be found
to occur in other groups of insects, were local faunas carefully
studied in relation to those of the surrounding countries ; and they
seem to indicate that climate and other physical causes have, in
some cases, a very powerful effect in modifying specific form and

* See Mr. Wallace’s instructive paper, ‘‘Onthe Phenomena of Variation
and Geographical Distribution, as illustrated by the Papilionide of the
Malayan Region.’’—Linn. Trans., vol. xxv. p. 5.

402

colour, and thus directly aid in producing the endless variety of
nature.”

“ Local forms” are perhaps what are most likely to come under
the notice of the local entomologist, or what at least he should look
for, reference being had to the physical and geological features of
particular situations. Sand-hills and sand-plains, chalkpits, marshy
spots, the undrained residuum of extensive fens that existed
formerly, but which have long since disappeared, mountainous
ravines and glens, or hills composed of the older rocks thrown up
amid the newer; all these places not only have their peculiar
species, but are likely to impart apeculiar character to other species
also found in them, though at the same time free rangers over the
country around.* It needs, of course, much inquiry and com-
parison to ascertain the fact of such peculiarities, for which it is
necessary to examine other local collections ; and any similar con-
ditions of soil, &c., occurring in two different localities in which the
same form prevails should be carefully noted.

Cases of ‘‘dimorphism” and “ polymorphism,” which have only
of late years attracted the attention of naturalists, and which are
now found to be so frequent both in the animal and vegetable
kingdoms, should be equally sought for, and wherever suspected to
exist, the economy and habits of the species in question must be
closely looked into, which will often throw light on the phenomenon.

We are all familiar with the phenomenon itself as exemplified
in some of the social Hymenoptera ; the hive-bee, for instance, in
which there is a second imperfect form of the female, the neuter or
worker bee ; and the different species of ants, in which we find three
or more-distinct forms associated together in the same nest, each
form being “ specialised to a distinct function in the economy of
the species.” British coleopterists in this country have also long
colour, in meadow lands green.”’—Ent. Trans., 3rd Ser., vol. v., Proceed., p.
exxiv. Gnophos pullata is said to be “ found nearly white on the chalk downs,
and to vary from nearly white to sooty black according to the geological for-
mation of the locality where it occurs.” Again, Apion germart, when found
on Mereurialis perennis to be constantly of one form, and when found on

Mercurialis tomentosa constantly of another form.’”’-—Ent, Trans., 1870,
Proceed., p. xiv.

403

noticed the fact that some of the larger water-beetles belonging to
the genus Dyticus “have females of two forms, the most common
having the elytra deeply sulcate, the rarer smooth as in the males.”
Mr. Wallace remarks that it is in “ the female sex alone that these
distinct forms generally occur ;’ and in his work on “Natural
Selection” he has largely illustrated this fact by reference to the
Papilionidz of the Malay Archipelago. He has even suggested the
way in which “dimorphism may be produced.” Taking the case
of a particular species of butterfly found in most of those islands,
and in which there are two extreme forms of the female, one
occurring in Sumatra, the other in Java, Borneo, and Timor, he goes
on to remark that an allied species is found in the Phillipine
Islands with the same two extreme forms of females, along with a
number of intermediate varieties. If then we suppose “ the
extreme Phillippine forms to be better suited to their conditions of
existence than the intermediate connecting links, the latter will
gradually die out, leaving two distinct forms of the same insect,
each adapted to some special conditions. As these conditions are
sure to vary in different districts, it will often happen, as in
Sumatra and Java, that the one form will predominate in the one
island, the other in the adjacent one.”

The same reasoning might be found to bear upon cases of di-
morphism in the British Isles, or in different localities in England,
and serve perhaps to explain the marked variations of form and
colouring that occur in certain species of our own Lepidoptera, the
varieties being sometimes widely apart, and confined to very limited
districts.

A remarkable case of dimorphism in a British moth (Acronycta
leporina) was not long since exhibited to the Entomological Society,
“the right hand wibgs being coloured and marked as in the variety
known as bradyporina (at one time considered a distinct species),
whereas those of the left hand were entirely typical of leporina.
The body also partook of the two forms, being divided longi-
tudinally into two tints.”* This circumstance is of much interest,
as not only speaking to the fact of the existence of dimorphism, but
as presenting us with a clear case in which two varieties of a moth,

* Ent. Trans., 1872. Proceed., p. x.

404

considered, at a time when dimorphism was unknown, as distinct
species, are proved to be the same. It encourages us to search for
other cases of variation, in which dimorphism may play a part,
though not hitherto suspected.

Mr. Wallace considers as “analogous” to dimorphism, though
“ not of an identical nature” with it, the phenomenon of the dis-
similarity of the spring and autumnal broods in many species of
the Lepidoptera which have two broods in the year. It is one that
a local entomologist may investigate with advantage. He can
ascertain what species there are in his neighbourhood having this
habit ; observe whether the differences in the two broods are
constant from year to year; whether they vary according to the
character of the season ;* whether they are found in both sexes
alike ; whether there is any difference in the food of the larvee of
the two broods, or other circumstances that throw light upon the
question.

Leaving the subject of variation, I proceed to notice another
matter for inquiry likely to yield important results, if taken up by
the local entomologist, namely, all that relates to the reproduction
of insects. Many anomalies in this part of their history have been
noticed of late years, and there are probably others as yet unob-
served, showing how imperfect our knowledge is on this subject,
and how mistaken were some of the views formerly entertained.
It was at one time generally supposed that among insects, as is
universally the case among vertebrates, there could be no con-
tinuance of the species without the united influence of the two
sexes. And no doubt this is the general rule, but there are many
exceptions to it. The phenomena now comprised under the names
of parthenogenesis, pseudo-parthenogenesis, and metagenesis, lead
us to the knowledge of other ways in which “ the production of new
organisms is carried on,” and involve considerations that tend to
enlarge our views respecting development.

We have an example of pseudo-parthenogenesis in the case of

* The occasionally dwarfed size of certain species of butterfly has been
attributed in some instances to peculiarly hot seasons, as in 1868.—If this ba
correct, it shows that seasons do exercise an influence according to their cha-
racter. Seo Ent. Trans. 1868. Proceed., xxxvili.

405

Aphides, where there is a succession of generations of imperfect
females, viviparously produced, derived from fertilised eggs laid in
the spring by perfect females, the last generation in the series
giving birth in the autumn to both perfect males and perfect
females.* True parthenogenesis is the case in which reproduction
is carried on for a longer or shorter time by unimpregnated females.
In some instances this parthenogenesis is exceptional, as in the case
of the silkworm-moth, only taking place under particular circum-
stances. In a few other Lepidoptera it ‘‘ appears to be the normal
process.” t
It is not known within what limits parthenogenesis may continue
to be carried on where no access to the male can be obtained. Very
few experiments have been made in reference to the question. In
a case, however, recorded in “ Nature,” in which some very care-
fully conducted experiments were made by a Dutch entomologist
upon Liparis dispar, it was found that “ after the first impregnation
of the female, in the autumn of 1866, three successive broods of
caterpillars, and ultimately of moths made their appearance ; and
four successive times eggs were laid without further impregnation,
in three of which they proved endowed with vitality.” As the
writer of this notice justly observes, the value of these experiments is
very great, ‘“‘as bearing on the theories of spontaneous generation ;”
and they are so easily conducted that they commend themselves to
all those disposed to help in carrying on the researches which
science needs at the present day,—who are unable perhaps to do
-much, but who from local circumstances can best undertake such
investigations as the above. t
There is also a remarkable form of reproduction recently ascer-
tained to exist in certain Diptera, to which has been given the
name of “internal metagenesis,” to distinguish it from ordinary
metagenesis, such as occurs in the Polypi and other low forms of
animal life, which propagate by budding outwards. Here the larva

* For a full account of the nature of the process of development in the
Aphis, see two memoirs by Professor Huxley in Linn. Trans., vol. xxii., pp.
193 and 221. + Herbert Spencer, Prine. Biol., vol. i., p. 215.

{ See “ Nature,” vol. v., p. 149. Also vol vi., pp. 483 and 523, where a
detailed and interesting account is given of the latest. researches on the
subject of “ true parthenogenesis ’’ by Siebold, who was the first to demonstrate

Cc

406

of a species of Cecidomyia “develops in its interior a brood of larvee
of a like structure with itself,” these again giving birth to other
larve in succession. It is thought by Herbert Spencer that, as
in the case of the Aphides, the fact may be explained by the
circumstance of there being “‘ abundant food combined with low
expenditure.” The larve of the Cecidomyia “are found in such
habitats as the refuse of beet-root sugar factories, where each of
them has a practically unlimited supply of sustenance imbedding
it on all sides.” * If this be the explanation, it seems not at all
unlikely that internal metagenesis may prevail in the case of
many other insects, the larve of which are similarly circumstanced,
and such cases should be diligently sought for by the local
entomologist and carefully looked into.

Sir John Lubbock considers this case of the larve of the
Cecidomyia as “a distinct case of alternation of generations, as
characterized by Steenstrup.” And he thinks “ probably other
cases will be discovered in which insects, undeniably in the larval
state, will be found to be fertile. It even seems to him possible,
if not probable, that some larvee which do not now breed, in the
course of ages may come to do so.” T

And there are yet other cases of abnormal reproduction which
have been noticed of late years equally at variance with our
preconceived ideas on the subject. Two instances are on record of
viviparous insects ; 7.¢., insects in the perfect state, instead of
depositing eggs, producing living larvee. One of these is that of a
species of Tinea (Tinea vivipara) found in New South Wales. t
The other that of a small species of Staphylinus found in the nests
of the Zermites, or white ants, in Brazil.§ It is true these are
both cases of foreign insects, but there is no @ priori reason why

the occurrence of this phenomenon in moths and bees. In a recent work he
has recorded many new observations in support of “ his position that not only
do unimpregnated eggs develop into perfect animals, but that such an event
is by no means an exceptional occurrence among certain groups, and has a
definitely-fixed and orderly recurrence amongst them.”

* Princ. of Biol., vol. 2, p. 467. + Linn. Trans., vol. xxy., p. 488.
{ Ent, Trans., 8rd Ser., vol, i., Proceed. p. 153. § Nature, vol. iii.,
-p. 330.

o
407

the same phenomenon might not occur in this country, and it is
one that it would be interesting to discover.

Another circumstance cannected with the subject we are con-
sidering, which has not been satisfactorily explained and needs
further investigation, is the fact of a large proportion of the females
of many Lepidoptera, especially those of the larger Sphingide,
when bred in the autumn, being perfectly barren. Some have
thought this to be a provision of nature, in the case of double brooded
species, to meet the circumstance of the scarcity of the right sort
of food for the larvee, if hatched in large numbers, at a season
when the leaves are about to fall. But this can hardly be sus-
tained ; it having been observed by others that though “ the
females of some species are mostly barren when disclosed in the
autumn, in cases where there are two distinct broods of a species,
a vernal and an autumnal brood, both are fertile.” * It is clearly
a physiological phenomenon only to be elucidated by a series of
observations continued for several years, and extended to a large
number of species, all particulars respecting time, place, character
of the season, condition and sex, being carefully noted down.

Another remarkable phenomenon in the history of insects, and
well worth the attention of the local naturalist is the fact of the
extreme disproportion of the sexes in some species, so far beyond
anything that occurs in the higher animals. It is allied to the
phenomena before treated of, so far as it may be due to
parthenogenesis or perhaps to dimorphism. Instead of the
sexes being pretty equally balanced in numbers, as we might
‘be led to expect, in certain cases we find the males largely
predominating over the females, or on the contrary the females
over the males. Mr. Darwin, in his last work on the
“Descent of Man,” has gone very closely into this subject,
and collected a large number of instances in point.t ‘ From
various sources of evidence, all pointing to the same direction, he
infers that with most species of Lepidoptera, the males in the
imago state generally exceed the females in number, whatever

* Ent. Trans., 2nd Ser., vol. 4., Proceed. pp. 72, 73. t Vol. 1,
pp. 309-314.

408

their proportions may be at their first emergence from the egg.”
With reference to the other orders of insects, he has not been able
to get much reliable information ; but he mentions some instances
among the Coleoptera, in which the males are thought to be much
more numerous than the females; others in which the females are
greatly in excess over the males. As an instance of the latter he
quotes a statement made by Mr. Janson to the Entomological
Society, “that the females of the bark-feeding Tomicus villosus are
so common as to be a plague, whilst the males are so rare as to be
hardly known.” * In the orders of Hymenoptera and Neuroptera
he adduces many instances of the same extreme disproportion,
sometimes one sex and sometimes the other predominating. “In
some European species of Psocus, thousands of females may be
collected without a single male, whilst with other species of the
same genus both sexes are common.”

There is one group of Hymenoptera, the gall-making Cynipide,
in which the males of some species “ have never been discovered or
are excessively rare,” and which, from the great ignorance in which
we are with regard to many parts of their economy, call for
particular investigation. The habits of an American species found
on the Black Oak (Quercus tinctoria) are thus described by Mr.
Walsh. ‘The Oak-apples are first observed in May, and reach
their full growth in a few weeks ; by the middle of June, male and
female gall-flies emerge from a small proportion of them, say one-
fourth ; the remaining three-fourths do not develop flies until the
autumn, and then produce gall-flies closely allied to, yet quite
distinct from those produced in June, and out of thousands of the
autumnal flies examined not one was a male.” From the result of
many experiments in the breeding of these gall-insects, Mr. Walsh
was led to infer that ‘‘the two forms were not distinct species, but
dimorphous forms of the same species.” t

The account of this insect, though a foreigner, deserves notice,
from its giving us a clue which may be serviceable in working out
the history of some of our own native gall-flies, and it is not at all
unlikely that dimorphism will be found to prevail in many other

* See Ent. Trans. for 1868, Proceed. p. x.
+ Ent. Trans. for 1869, Prec. p. xii.

409

species besides the above. Also it is of the more importance to
get at the true economy of this family of insects, from the damage
done by some species to our forest trees. A few years back the
oaks in this country suffered greatly from their attacks, and I
believe the evil still prevails in places. The young shoots and
leaves were loaded with galls of the size of hazel nuts caused by
the punctures of the parent insects, the gall being both the nidus
and the food of the larva; and the healthy growth of the trees in
young plantations was much interfered with by these abnormal
_excrescences. Whether the particular species of gall-fly in this
instance was actually new to this country or not I am ignorant,
but it does not appear to have been noticed before in such abund-
ance ; it came like a plague, appearing first in the western counties
and gradually spreading from thence in different directions. It
was in Devon in 1853, the following year in Somerset, and all the
woods about Bath were full of it as I myself witnessed ; in 1855
and 1856 in Gloucestershire, in 1857 in Worcestershire, and within
three or four years afterwards it had reached N. Wales, Sussex,
and Kent. *

There is yet another subject to which I would briefly call the
attention of the Local Entomologist, as one which we cannot as
yet be said thoroughly to understand, though different theories
have been put forth to explain it, and that is mimicry. This
name, as many are aware, has been applied to cases in which we
find certain species of animals adopting the form and colouring of
other species to which they bear no direct affinity ; so that ina
general way and without close examination we might easily be led
to mistake one for another. Such cases of similarity are sparingly
met with in many very different classes of animals, but it is
amongst insects, and especially the diurnal Lepidoptera, or Papi-
lionidee, that they are found to prevail most. They have been long
known to Naturalists, and at one time attracted much attention,
as relations of analogy, a name given to them, in contradistinction
to relations of affinity, by Macleay and Swainson, who brought

* This gall-fly is alluded to by Sir John Lubbock (Phil. Trans. 1857,
p. 95), under the name of Cynips lignicola, and he remarks that among
“ several thousand specimens not a male occurred.”

410

them to bear upon their peculiar views respecting the classification
of animals. It is to Mr. Bates, and to his observations on the
butterflies of S. America, embodied in an able and elaborate paper
in the Linnean Transactions* that we are indebted for thuse
details on the subject which have given it so much attraction of
late years, and which have led to a reconsideration of the causes
to which mimicry may be attributed and the object of its existence.
Darwin and Wallace have followed in the inquiry, the latter
gentleman especially testing, by the results of his own observations
in the Malay Archipelago, the correctness of the theory by which
Mr. Bates would explain the circumstance. The explanation rests
on the belief that the imitation is for protective purposes, and that
it is gradually brought about by natural selection seizing hold of
any little accidental variations in the form or colouring of the
mimicker, by which it makes the slightest approach towards the
species mimicked, and constantly increasing the variations in
that direction until the two species are outwardly similar. The
mimicked and mimickers are almost always found together in “ the
same district, and in most cases on the very same spot ;” the former
being in much larger numbers than the latter. Mr. Wallace
observes “that the forms imitated always belong to dominant
groups, or those excessively abundant in species and individuals,
and therefore presumptively free from the attacks of those insect-
enemies that keep down the numbers and threaten the extinction of
other species.” In some cases it is thought to be a powerful odour
emitted by species enjoying this immunity which serves for their
protection. Where this is the case, other species not possessing
this odour, and therefore more often falling a prey to birds, would
have great advantage in assuming the colour and markings of the
species mimicked so as to be mistaken for it, and to escape being
devoured.

For further illustration of this subject the reader is referred to
Mr. Wallace’s book on ‘“ Natural Selection,” where ample details
are given.t All the most striking cases of mimicry among the
Lepidoptera hitherto recorded are from the tropics. Not many

* Linn. Trans., vol. xxiii, p. 495. + Contributions to the Theory of
Natural Selection, p. 75, &c.

411

have been noticed in this country, but this may be from insufficient
search after them. One instance of probable mimicry is mentioned
by Mr. Wallace, that of “avery common white moth (Spilosoma
menthrasti ) which was found by Mr. Stainton to be rejected by young
turkeys among hundreds of other moths on which they greedily
fed. Each bird in succession took hold of this moth and threw
it down again, as if too nasty to eat.” Its odour or taste evidently
serves to protect it from its enemies. Now there is another
white moth (Diaphora mendica) appearing about the same time as
the Spilosoma menthrasti, of about the same size, and sufficiently
resembling it in the dusk, whose female only is white, * and this
moth is much less common. And he thinks it not improbable that
these two species may stand to each other in the relation of
mimicked and mimicker. He even goes so faras to anticipate that
all white moths, if at the same time very common, will be found to
be generally rejected by birds, “‘ because white is the most con-
spicuous of all colours, and had they not some other protection
would certainly be very injurious to them.” t This is a matter
of trial and experiment for the Local Entomologist and is suggestive
of other experiments. It leads to the general inquiry what are the
species of moths and butterflies eaten with avidity by birds, and
what species are rejected, also whether the same rule holds with
the caterpillars that holds with the perfect insects, and what is the
degree of frequency or infrequency of occurrence in the case of
each particular species, or the circumstances of locality, &c., by
which it is conditioned. This enquiry has been already taken up
by a few Entomologists, but it needs to be continued by other
observers, and in reference to a larger number of species of birds
and insects than have hitherto been experimented upon. ¢
The above remarks relate to Lepidopterous insects exclusively.

* p. 89.

t See Wallace's remarks on “‘ Mimicry by Female Insects only,’’ p. 110.

t See two important papers on this subject, one by Mr. Jenner Weir “ On
Insects and Insectivorous Birds; and especially on the Relation between the
Colour and the Edibility of Lepidoptera and their Larve” : the other by Mr.
A. G. Butler, containing “‘ Remarks upon certain Caterpillars, &c., which are
unpalatable to their enemies.” Ent. Trans., 1869, pp. 21 and 27 ; also another
paper by Mr. Jenner Weir, on the same subject. Ent, Trans., 1870, p. 337.

412

There are other cases in which the mimicked and the mimicker
belong to distinct orders of insects. Among the Lepidoptera,
there are “two families of day-flying moths, the Sesiide and
Aigeriide, particularly remarkable in this respect from their strange
resemblance to stinging Hymenoptera.” There are several
dipterous insects also so extremely like bees and wasps as often
quite to deceive persons who are not entomologists. In these
and numerous other examples that might be adduced, the
object of mimicry no doubt is to_give immunity from attacks,
being probably connected with the habits of the mimicker,
and its dependance in some way upon the species mimicked
for carrying out the conditions of its existence, as in the case
of ‘flies whose larve feed upon the larve of bees,” and who
by their resemblance to these last ‘“‘ can enter the nests unsuspected
to deposit their eggs.”

Mimicry shows itself also in the form and colouring of insects
being adapted to the surrounding conditions of the spots which
they inhabit. Caterpillars are often found so closely resembling
twigs of wood, or so exactly the colour of the leaves of the plants
on which they feed, as to deceive the most practised eye. If this
is for protection against enemies it would be curious to ascertain
how it would be with a succession of broods raised under artificial
conditions, where no enemies could come, or when brought oP
on other food.

In like manner the Cicindela campestris (tiger beetle), and some
other insects found on grassy plains, are of a bright green like the
grass itself. Other insects are of the colour of dead leaves, or
resemble small lumps of dirt. Certain moths, which are in the
habit of resting upon the bark of trees during the day time, can
hardly be distinguished from the lichens which grow close by.
Such might easily escape the notice of birds, which are much
influenced by colour in the selection of insect food.

Nor is mimicry confined to insects. Birds inhabiting sandy
plains conform to the colour of the ground in the general colouring
of their plumage. Many animals in northern climates are white,
or, like the hare and ptarmigan, turn white in winter, and are then
hardly distinguishable upon the snow. Even in our own country,

413

in severe winters, the stoat, or ermine as it is then called, assumes
a white dress, the white being more or less pure according to the
character of the season.

In fact cases of mimicry, of one sort or another, occur throughout
the whole animal kingdom. Some of these resemblances may be
due to accident. In many instances, however, mimicry must afford
some protection tothe mimicker against the attacks of its enemies,
though it may be questioned whether “natural selection” is
sufficient to account for its origin, and whether some other cause
must not be sought for and brought in fully to explain the
phenomenon. The whole subject needs further inquiry.*

Below insects there are few classes among the Invertebrata which
call for particular consideration in this paper. The myriads of
forms inhabiting the sea do not form part of our subject. There
still remain, however, certain groups of invertebrate animals, found
either on land or in fresh water, which the local naturalist should
attend to, thongh the species are few compared with those of
insects, while their instincts and habits offer less variety to the
observer. The Entomostraca, Annelida, Entozoa, and Mollusca,
all open up to him an important field for investigation, in which
there is much yet to be done and learnt for the furtherance of
biological science. In reference to the Entomostraca, which abound
in our ponds and ditches, he will do well to read Sir J. Lubbock’s
admirable memoir on the Daphnia (water-flea),t which is a model
for those who desire to take up the study of the structure and
habits of these aquatic animalcule.

— Fresh-waters indeed, no less than the sea, teem with life, and
deserve all the more consideration, as not merely having a fauna
of their own, consisting of species which never quit the water at
any period of their life, but as being the nursery of many other
species, mostly belonging to the class of insects, which are born in

* See Wallace, p. 108, for some of the objections that have been made to
Mr, Bates’ Theory of Mimicry.
¢ Phil. Trans. 1857, p, 79.—See also another paper by him “on some new
or little-known species of fresh-water entomostraca.”’ Linn. Trans. vol. xxiv.,
p. 197. Baird's work on the British Entomostraca, published by the Ray
Society, should also be consulted,

4'4

the water and pass there the first and often the longest part of
their existence, though they leave that element when arrived at
maturity.

The Mollusca, too, must not be passed over, though by far the
greater number of species in this large group are marine. A few
are found in fresh water; more upon land. And there is one
circumstance connected with these last which I think deserves
mention, as showing that the distinguishing characters of animals -
are affected by the medium in which they live, and so far of
importance in respect to the Darwinian theory, viz., that the land
species are as a whole less variable than the aquatic.* Of land
shells in this country we have about 65 species ; and there are
scarcely more than 10 of these which present any difficulty in the
determination of the specific characters, the most variable being
the Succinee, which though not actually aquatic, are always found
in the neighbourhood of water, and often upon aquatic plants.
Among the true aquatic shells, less numerous than the land, a large
proportion are variable ; and in many instances there is difference
of opinion among conchologists as to what are to be accounted
species and what are varieties, the variation being especially
noticeable in the fresh-water bivalves, one-half at least of which
have been split into two or more species according to the views
of those who have made a study of them. It is also observable
how, even in the case of those aquatic shells about which most
are agreed, we find the species varying according to the nature of
the water in which they live, rapid streams generally having the
effect of making the shell smaller, and the valves of bivalves
thicker and stronger, and often more rugged outwardly ; the same
shells in stagnant waters growing to a much larger size, with the
valves thinner and of a more delicate texture.

* See, however, an important article in ‘‘ Nature” (vol. vi., p. 222) on the
variation of land-shells, as illustrated in the Achatinellide, in one of the
Sandwich Islands; where a remarkable number of species and varieties
of the group in question are found within a very limited area, being much
influenced in character by the circumstances of their geographical dis-
tribution.—Though relating to a single family of shells in a distant region of
the globe, the statement is suggestive of what might come of a more close
inquiry into any other group similarly studied in any other locality.

415

It is very probable too that something depends upon the quality
of the water. In a paper read to the British Association at
Brighton Jast August by Prof. Semper “On the normal and
abnormal growth of Lymneus,” it is remarked that “separated
individuals grow more rapidly than those remaining and reared
in company together,” though all are reared under the same
conditions as regards water, food, and temperature. And it is
suggested “ that there may exist in the water a substance,
probably chloride of calcium, the presence of which, at a certain
low per centage, will determine the growth of the animal,”* This
is a fact not to be lost sight of by those who make a study of the
fresh-water shells of any particular district.

I have thus gone over some of the chief matters for inquiry to
be attended to by the local Faunist, in order that his researches
may be available for the furtherance of modern science. It may
be useful to recapitulate them. Ina general way, then, we want a
detailed account, not merely of the species of animals found in a
particular district, but of the varieties of each species, and this
especially in the class of insects. We want to know how far these
varieties can be traced to local circumstances, and for this purpose
to have them compared with others of the same species met with in
other places. We want a record of any changes noticed from time
to time in the habits and instincts of animals, especially as to how
far they can accommodate themselves to new conditions of life
forced upon them by accident ; any variations in their food, or
mode of obtaining it, or mode of defending themselves against their
enemies.

In birds, we want a register kept of their movements, whether
migratory or otherwise, strict account being taken of the appear-
ance of any new species in the district, or of the disappearance of
old ones; details respecting variation of plumage, especially in
birds of passage, as also in those species whose plumage is subject
to sexual or seasonal changes ; times of commencing and ceasing
song, with record of any variations in the note of particular
individuals ; any variations in the manner of making their nests,

* See “Atheneum,” No 2340 (Aug. 31, 1872) p. 276.

416

or in the materials employed ; we may mention also remarks on
the habits of species in captivity compared with the same species
at liberty.

In the amphibious reptiles, it would be desirable to have further
observations as to whether under any circumstances metamor-
phosis is arrested, and the adult state never arrived at; or, on the
other hand, whether in some cases they are not born adults as
regards form and structure, the larva state being passed over
altogether.

In insects, we need a closer investigation of their economy and
habits, especially of those that live in societies ; of their structure,
development, and transformations. We desire to know the rela-
tion of insects to the particular localities they inhabit ; how far
their characters are influenced by climatal or geological considera-
tions ; to what extent variation is connected with wide diffusion of
the species, and whether in any cases it is dependent upon the
food of the larva, or on the season of hatching in double-brooded
species. We want more facts throwing light on dimorphism and
polymorphism ; a record of any cases of abnormal modes of
reproduction ; inquiry to be made into the cause of barrenness in
the females of autumnal broods of Lepidoptera ; also respecting the
relative numerical proportion of the sexes in all insects generally ;
this last question to be especially taken up in the case of the gall-
making Cynipide, in connection with their economy. Lastly, the
whole subject of mimicry, not merely as it occurs in insects, but
in all other classes of the animal kingdom as well, calls for much
further and long-continued attention in order to be thoroughly
understood.

It is not expected, nor is it to be desired, that any one observer
should take up all these questions at once. The science of biology
will be best promoted by his selecting such as fall in with his
particular taste, the knowledge he already has of the subject, and
the habits of research he has been most used to. But, having
made his choice of one or more according to circumstances, let him
give his chief attention to these points, only gathering information
on others as it may come to hand. There is enough in any one
of these inquiries to employ the leisure hours of a man’s life if he

417

will give his mind to it. Results of value, however, can only be
obtained after many years of close observation, carried on for the
most part in the same locality. It is the Local Faunist to whom I
particularly address myself in this paper; and such surely there
ought to be—many we might suppose—in every Local Natural
History Society.

And here I might stop, did I not feel that this paper would be
imperfect if it had no bearing on the Fauna of the district,
which it belongs to our own Field Club to investigate. Before
concluding, therefore, I would say a few words respecting the
Zoology of the West of England, stating more especially what has
been done towards a knowledge of the animals found about Bath.
Having spent all the first part of my life in Cambridgeshire, while
for the last twenty years I have been resident in the Bath neigh-
pourhood, it has afforded me an opportunity of comparing in a
general way the Fauna of the Eastern counties with that of the
Western.

Our knowledge of the actual species of animals met with round
Bath rests mainly on the lists furnished by Mr. Charles Terry to
“Wright’s Historic Guide to Bath.”* These lists embrace the
Mammals, Birds, Fishes, Reptiles, and Lepidopterous Insects. The
mammals amount to 29; to which not many additions are likely
to be made, except in the bats, of which there are a considerable
number of species in Great Britain, and several others are likely to
occur in this neighbourhood besides those mentioned by Mr. Terry.
On some of the species mentioned in his list J will make a few
remarks, The Vespertilio emarginatus is a species ill understood ;
first described by Geoffroy in France, and it must be considered a
very doubtful native of the Bath district, if really found in this
island.t

The common bat of Mr. Terry is probably not the Pipistrelle, of
which I have seen only one or two Bath specimens, though
. See 6! )) nee

* Pp. 415-446.

+ See some remarks by Mr, Tomes on this species of bat, which he does not
believe to occur in the British Islands. He is of opinion that the Vespertilio
mystacinus has been mistaken for it. Proceed. Zool. Soc., 1858, p. 80.

418

extremely common in Cambridgeshire, but more likely the J.
mystacinus, which he has not included in his list, and which though
rare in Cambridgeshire, seems to be of frequent occurrence in Bath,
many individuals having been brought to me captured in shops and
houses. The genus Ahinolophus, containing the two horse-shoe bats,
is unknown in Cambridgeshire. The Great Horse-shoe is met with
in some other of the eastern and south-eastern counties ; but the
Lesser Horse-Shoe seems to be confined to the West. Both species
_ I believe occur in the hollows of Hampton Rocks, and some other
places.

The Black Rat, no doubt formerly plentiful in the old city of
Bath, must be very rare now if not extinct ; the brown Norway rat,
a more powerful animal, having, as in so many other towns, taken
its place. The Oared Shrew, Sorex remifer, I consider as only a
variety of S. fodiens.

The Badger and Otter seem to be more frequent about Bath than
in Cambridgeshire, where both animals have become very rare.

The bird fauna in Mr, Terry’s list numbers 159 species; many
more probably occur as occasional visitants, if not constant resi-
dents. As some species in their flights range over a wide extent of
country, and are much less locally fixed than other animals; no
result of any value can be got by comparing the eastern and
western counties in this class with reference to Mr. Terry’s list
alone. It will be better here to take for our standard of comparison
Smith’s Birds of Somerset,* which enables us to set county against
county. The number of birds in Cambridgeshire, when I left that
part of England, amounted to 225 species ; of these 105 were land
birds and 120 aquatic. The number found in Somerset, according
to Smith, is 215 species, 115 being land birds and 100 aquatic.
Thus it appears there is no very marked difference between the
two counties in this respect; east and west fare much alike,
proximity to the Bristol Channel, Glastonbury and Shapwick Moors,
and other moors in the county of Somerset, attracting many water
birds, and proving an equivalent to the fens of Cambridgeshire.
The parallel is equally exact, or very nearly so, if we take the orders

* Cecil Smith. ‘The Birds of Somersetshire,’ 1869.

419

and families separately, and compare the relative numbers of species
in each in the two counties.

The only species in Somerset among those constantly resident,
quite unknown in Cambridgshire, are the Dipper, the Cirl Bunting,
and the Black Grouse. The first of these inhabits rocky streams
chiefly in mountainous districts ; the second is plentiful in some of
the southern and western counties, but does not get to the eastern ;
the third, common in Scotland, and the North of England, is only
met with in a few localities further South, the Quantocks in
‘Somerset being one of them.

Perhaps the most interesting addition to the ornithology of
Somerset of late years is the Great Bustard. A flock of these fine
birds appeared at Braunton, near Barnstaple, in Devonshire, during
the severe winter of 1870-71, whence they dispersed themselves
over the country, and individuals were seen about the same time in
several different places, one occurring at Shapwick. The bustard
is well known to have been formerly plentiful on Salisbury Plains,
as well as on open heaths in Cambridgeshire and Norfolk, but has
long since been extinct as a permanent resident in this country,
though stragglers have been occasionally met with. The appearance
of the flock in the above instance was probably connected with the
severity of the weather that season, causing a scarcity of food in
their native haunts, and obliging them to migrate elsewhere.*

The reptiles and fish in Mr. Terry’s lists do not contain so many
species as are found in Cambridgeshire, and the number of fish
probably might be increased. I do not think it at all likely that
the Sand Lizard, said to have been “killed in Bennett Street, in
1840,” really belonged to this species. The sand lizard was first
described by myself as a native of this country from specimens
taken at Poole, in Dorsetshire, and it so nearly resembles a large
variety of the common kind that unless great attention be paid to
the structural characters the two species may easily be con-
founded.

The Viper which abounds in the west of England is very rare in
Cambridgeshire, as I mentioned at the reading of Dr. Bird’s paper
on this reptile, in which he gave so full an account of its whole

* See “ Nature,” vol. iii., p, 198.

420

history.* The Ringed Snake, on the contrary, seemingly the less
plentiful of the two in this neighbourhood, abounds in Cambridge-
shire, especially in the fenny districts, where it attains a great size.
This may be accounted for by a difference in their habits, the viper
preferring a dry soil, the ringed snake thriving best in wet or
damp places.

I have never collected the insects of this neighbourhood myself,
and can therefore say very little about them. Mr. Terry has given
a list of the Lepidoptera alone, including 541 species. This list
appears a tolerably full one, and probably contains the greater part
of those inhabiting the district. Some of the Papilionide, how-
ever, of which fifty-five species are given, judging from a paper by
Mr. Herbert Jenner Fust, on the “ Distribution of Lepidoptera in
Britain,” t are perhaps doubtful. Mr. H. J. Fust only assigns 46
species of Papilionide to the whole of Somerset, besides five that
he considers doubtful, and four of these doubtful ones, viz.,
the swallow-tail (Papilio machaon), the brown hairstreak ( Thecla
betule), the mazarine blue (Polyommatus acis), and the silver-
spotted skipper (Hesperia comma), are included in Mr. Terry’s
list. At the same time it is possible that they may have occurred
in the Bath district in rare instances.

Though I am not able to make any direct comparison between
the insects of Somerset and the insects of Cambridgeshire, there
is one circumstance I cannot help mentioning, which has often
struck me since I first exchanged the east of England for the west,
and that is the greater number of insects in the eastern counties
than in the western. I am not now speaking of the number of
species in any particular family. There may be no great
difference here, though I suspect the actual number of species
preponderates in the eastern counties. And this idea seems borne
out by the statements of others. Mr. Stainton, in a paper on the
“Geographical Distribution of British Butterflies,” remarks that
there are fewer species of butterflies in the western counties of
England than in the eastern.” Mr. Bates also, in his Address to

* See Proc. Bath Nat. Hist. Field Club, vol. 2., p. 299.
+ Ent. Trans, 3rd Ser., vol. iv., p. 417.
{ Ent. Trans., New Ser., vol. v., p. 229,

421

the Entomological Society in 1870, speaking of the “ distribution
of insects between the east and west in the southern part of our
island,” remarks, “I am not aware that comparative lists have yet
been published, but it will not be disputed that many hundreds of
species of Coleoptera are known in the east, many of them abundant,
which are totally unknown in the west, and a smaller number are
known in the west which are not found in the east.” * |

But in the present instance I refer to insect life generally.
The hosts of insects that appear on wing on a fine spring or
summer's day in Cambridgeshire, the many ground beetles that are
to be seen, Carabide and other Coleoptera, crossing one’s path, or
found concealing themselves beneath clods on the arable lands,
other insects nestling in the flowers by the way-side, or hovering
over the trees and shrubs, is such as I never saw to the same
extent anywhere about Bath. And this is especially the case in
the fen districts, where there are a large number of species, many
too of great rarity, peculiar to marshy places, affording a rich harvest
to the collector.

I feel inclined also to the opinion, though here I may be
mistaken, that birds as well as insects—taken in the aggregate and
not in reference to any particular species—are more abundant in
the eastern counties than in the western. If this be so, in the
case of either class some explanation of the fact might be given
from the circumstance, generally allowed both by Zoologists and
Geologists, of our island having received the main part of its
Fauna from the continent previous to the separation of the two
lands. This might lead very naturally to a larger number of
species as well as individuals settling down in the eastern parts—
if they found there all they wanted, and other species permitted
them to stop—without seeking a residence further off. That birds
soon contract a partiality for a fixed home, is seen by the fact of
their returning year after year at the breeding season to the’same
spots, even such species as are migratory, and which have to
traverse large tracts of land and water, in order to reach their
accustomed haunts.

* Ent. Trans. for the year 1869, Proceed., p. xlvi.

422

I am quite aware that there are many local species, birds as well
as insects, some rare, others of frequent occurrence, found in the
west of England and not in the east. I have already mentioned
three instances in the case of birds. But this may probably be
accounted for by such species having found no spots suitable to
their habits till after travelling long distances, or to their having
first got footing in the country by some other road.

What has been just said respecting the Fauna of this part of
England relates only to the Fauna of the present day. But, taking
a more extended view of the subject, we may regard that Fauna in
connection with what it was in days past, as also in reference to the
changes it is likely to undergo hereafter. It has been for modern
science to discover and trace out the unbroken law of continuity
which not only pervades all physical phenomena, but the whole of
the organic world. In working out the Natural History of any
district we cannot entirely dissociate living forms from those which
have ceased to act their part in nature, and which have disappeared.
For we can draw no marked line between them. We see, indeed,
a broad distinction between the Fauna of these islands at a remote
geological epoch and what it is now; but by slow continuous
change one has passed insensibly into the other. Taken at intervals
of one or two generations only, scarce any change is perceptible,
though still silently going on. It is like watching the hour hand
of a clock which, if observed at intervals only of a few minutes,
remains to all appearance unmoved, though, when noted at the end
of a whole hour, its advance is manifest. Let us illustrate this by
reference to the British Mammals, and those of the Bath district
especially. Mr. Moore tells us* that in the gravel deposits of this
district constituting the Mammal drift are found remains of more
than one species of elephant or mammoth, the long-haired
rhinoceros, the great Bos primigenius, the musk ox (Ovibos
moschatus ), the reindeer, the wild boar, and the wild horse. None
of these animals are now found living in this country, and two, the
mammoth and the long-haired rhinoceros, have been long extinct
everywhere, though believed to have been contemporaneous with
man in the earliest periods of his existence on this earth. The
Bos primigenius lived on to historic times. The musk ox and

* Proceed, of Bath Field Club, vol. ii., p. 51.

423

reindeer continue at the present day, but only in high northern
latitudes.

Mr. Boyd Dawkins, so well known for his paleontological
researches, introduces us to yet auother large mammal, formerly
an inhabitant of Britain, the fossil lion, Felis spelea, probably
identical with the existing lion still abounding in Africa, and in
times previous to the Christian era found also in Europe. This
carnivore was not merely an inhabitant of this part: of England,
but it seems to have been plentiful. Mr. Boyd Dawkins even con-
siders West Somerset to have been its ‘‘ Metropolis.” He says it
was in the greatest abundance in the western half of the Mendips
—from Wells to Weston-super-Mare, where were also the “ feed-
ing grounds of incaleulable numbers of reindeer, bison, horse, and
tichorine rhinoceros,” on which it preyed. In another place he
says— There is evidence that a larger number of lions, bears, and
hyzenas dwelt in this neighbourhood than have been proved to have
lived in a similar area at any time in the past history of
the earth.”*

Could we for a moment gaze upon the scene that must have pre-
sented itself in those days, when huge mammoths and other wild
beasts roamed over the hills and valleys surrounding this fair city
—now given up to man and his works—how astonished we should
be. But even coming down to within a few hundred years of our
own time—a short period to look back upon, and but as yesterday,
compared with the ages that have elapsed since the days of the
mammoth and the lion of Somerset, during the whole of which
period changes upon changes were following in slow succession—
what a novel sight would open upon us. Fitz-Stephen, who wrote
in the 12th century, tells us—‘that the vast forest that in his
time grew on the north side of London was the retreat of stags,
fallow-deer, wild boars, and bulls.”t Contrast this picture with
the modern north of London. Where have all these beasts gone
to, along with others that might be mentioned—the bear, the
beaver, and the wolf—which equally existed in this country not
long before, some till long after, the time of that author? They
have, one by one, silently dropped off. The bear is stated by

* See a paper on “ The British Lion’’ in Pop. Sci. Rev., No. 31, p. 150.
t Penn. Brit. Zool., 4th Edit., vol. i., p. 58.

424

Pennant to have infested Scotland up to the year 1057. The
beaver, formerly an inhabitant of Wales and Scotland, and in earlier
times of various parts of England, was observed in Wales by
Giraldus de Barri in the year 1188. It is not known exactly when
the wild boar or wild cattle were extirpated. Some of the latter
are still preserved in a semiferal state in a few large parks, as at
Chillingham, in Northumberland, where I once saw them myself:
The wolf was formerly abundant throughout Great Britain. It has
been thought that, “in the wilder parts of England—the fells of
Yorkshire, and the Forest of Dartmoor—wolvyes still existed in the
fifteenth, and perhaps in the sixteenth century, if we are to give
any credence to local traditions.”* In Scotland they kept their
ground till the year 1680,t and in Ireland they were not exter-
pated till the late period of 1710.

And how is it at the present day? The scene is still shifting
under our very eyes. Other species, though yet living, are gra-
dually dying out, or soon would do so, but for the preserving hand
of man in a few favoured cases. They are driven from their former
haunts, and, where left to themselves, only to be found in wild
fastnesses or the thickest forests. The stag, once common every-
where in the island, is now confined to the Highlands of Scotland,
with the exception of those still to be found on Exmoor, and a few
yet remaining in the New Forest and in two or three other places,
being strictly preserved. The roe, equally dispersed formerly over
the country, now exists in the Highlands only. The wild cat
likewise is now rarely found except in extensive woods in the
northern counties. The martin, the badger, the otter, and the
black rat, are all greatly reduced in numbers ; the first three of
these being now hardly ever met with in some parts of the country,
though more plentiful in ethers,—the badger and otter certainly
much more frequent about Bath and in the western counties
generally than in the eastern,—while the black rat is confined to
London and a few other old towns.

* “Nature,” vol. i.,p. 352.
+ See an interesting Paper on the *‘ History of the Wolf in Scotland,” by
Mr. Hardy, in Proceed. of Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club, vol. iv., No. 5,
p. 268.—The Author is disposed to think, from existing traditions, “‘ that the

final extinction of the wolf must have happened ata period considerably later
than has been usually assigned,

425 3

I have illustrated this part of the subject we are considering by
reference to the mammals alone, but similar cases of species, gra-
dually getting more and more scarce, and ultimately becoming
extinct, might be brought forward in other classes of animals—in
birds and insects especially.

And what of the future? The same changes will continue to
take place, slowly and silently, not perceptible to ourselves, nor
perhaps to those who immediately succeed us, though, after a
longer or shorter period, making their effects visible, and not ceas-
ing till every species of mammal of any size now living, and not
wanted by man for his own use, shall have passed away, and
been added to the remains of those myriads of dead already
entombed in the great graveyard beneath our feet. Man, indeed,
is the chief exterminator at the present day, so far as regards the
larger animals. Wherever he plants his foot he lets his power and
dominion over them forthwith be felt. He reclaims those which
can be brought to share his home and do his work. He hunts and.
catches those not easily domesticated, but still serviceable for food
or clothing ; while all others, dangerous from their size or ferocity,
or which interfere in any way with his property, he mercilessly
destroys.*

We may gather the extent to which this destruction is carried
on from statements occasionally published expressing it in actual
figures. In the ‘ American Naturalist” for September, 1871, Mr.
W. J. Hays, after speaking of the diminishing numbers and the
contracted range at the present day of many wild animals in North
America, “reckons that not fewer than half-a-million bisons are
annually destroyed by the hand of man.”t In like manner—
“Indian papers state that during only the first six months of
last year (1871) as many as 183 tigers and cubs, 393 panthers and

* “The history of man . . . involves the condition of a great many
species of the lower animals, and on account of the strict dependence of all
the species on others, or on the rest of the natural productions which man
likewise modifies, we are, perhaps, warranted in concluding that there is no
species whose natural relations have not been materially affected by human
influence.” — WVeissenborn. See aninteresting article “‘ On the influence of Man
in modifying the Zoological features of the Globe, &c.,” in Mag. of Nat. Hist.,
Ser, ii., vol. ii,, pp. 18, 65, 122, 239. See also an article by Fleming on the

“ Influence of Society on the Distribution of British Animals.’ Edinb. Phil.
Journ., vol, xi,, p. 287. + See “‘ Nature,” vol, iv., p. 399.

426

leopards, 203 bears, 281 wolves, and 188 hyzenas were destroyed in
the Central Provinces, at a cost to the Government of about 9,000
rupees (£900).”*

Verily it would seem as if man were destined in the end to stand
alone upon the earth, or with only those animals about him needed
for his own purposes, all noxious animals having been got rid of,
except those which, by their small size and sequestered habits,
escape his vigilance.

And this appears to be the view really taken by some Naturalists
at the present day. A writer in the Anthropological Review
remarks that—‘“ the animal constantly loses territory which man
gains. The day will arrive when there will be on the surface of the
earth only such animals as are useful to man.”t More lately we
find Mr, Wallace, taking a yet broader view of things, and extend-
ing the same reasoning to the vegetable world, where it may equally
be applied, writing thus :—“ We can anticipate the time when the
earth will produce only cultivated plants and domestic animals ;
when man’s selection shall have supplanted ‘natural selection’ ;
and when the ocean will be the only domain in which that power
can be exerted, which for countless cycles of ages ruled supreme
over all the earth.” t

Thus, in conclusion, have we seen biology, even mere local
biology, to be indeed a large subject. It regards life in all its
manifold forms and phases. It investigates the several changes
through which each animal passes, from life’s first beginning to its
full maturity. It seeks to determine the laws upon which depends
the stability or instability of the species itself, in connection with
the outward conditions under which it exists. It looks into all
time—past, present, and future. It turns from the consideration
of those animals which walk the earth now to those which once
roamed over it, the lords and possessors of the soil before man was,
but which, having fulfilled their mission, have long since disappeared ;
and it looks onward to the day when, perhaps, all the races of
animals now living shall, in like manner, have made way for
other forms, better suited to the age in which human progress
shall have reached its highest point, and civilization have spread
over the face of the whole earth. :

#6 Nature,” vol. v. » Pp. 171. ; + Anthrop. Rey. (1869) vol, vii., p. 170.
t “ Natural Selection,’’ p, 326,

427

Devonian Fossils from the Sandstones on the N.E. of the Quantocks.
By Rey. H. H. Winwoop, M.A,, F.G.S. Read Dec. 11, 1872.

Facts are to most of us dry things, and geological facts are
perhaps to the uninitiated the dryest of the dry. How then am I
to dress up the record of the few facts that I have to present to you
- this evening in such a way as to gain your attention for a short
half hour? I will do my best, and if I can succeed in stirring up
an interest in the pursuit to which some of the pleasanteSt hours
of my life are due, I shall be amply rewarded.

Premising in the first place that the Quantock Hills are a some-
what terra incognita to many, if not most of you (as they were to
me till recently), let me say a few words as to their distinguishing
features. Many a traveller, as he is rapidly whirled along the
Bristol and Exeter Railway to some Devonshire watering place in
pursuit of health and sea breezes, passes by those blue hills, which
on approaching the Bridgwater Station he sees swelling away roll
upon roll towards the northern horizon, unconscious of their inte-
resting associations. He may have the curiosity, perchance, to
enquire their name ; but the answer—‘ Quantocks”—conveys to
him no idea of the beauties embosomed amidst the swells of
that gently undulating ridge. Ranging across West Somerset
from Quantocks Head or St. Audries on the N.W., to West
Monckton on the §.E., seamed with romantic “ coombs,” which
generally run at right angles to the shore, they are twelve miles
long by about four or five miles broad. Though not remark-
able for elevation yet owing to their rising directly out of the
surrounding plain at a height averaging from 1000 to 1100 feet
they give very extensive and charming views on all sides. The
three culminating points are Wills Neck 1270 feet, Cothelstone
Beacon 1066 feet, Danesborough, or Dowesborough, 1022 feet. -

It is almost impossible here to help making a digression, and
taking my mental stand on Danesborough Camp or Wills-neck,
to review in thought the joys of a summer’s afternoon upon
that “speculative height,” when nothing disturbs the still air
around, save the cracking of the furze pods in the summer

428

heat, the buzz of some insect in his joyous flight, or the throb of
the paddles as some distant steamer passes down along the yellow
sea. What a glorious view too stretches away on either hand !
The anticlinal ridge of the Mendip Hills in the hazy distance to
the N_E., with the rich alluvial and New red sandstone plain inter-
vening, hiding we know not what secrets beneath its tantalising
covering ; the busy town of Bridgwater just where the plain begins
to swell into the Quantocks, only distinguishable by its veil of thin
smoke, thus not intruding the officiousness of its bustling life to
mar the tranquil beauty of the scene. Church tower and farmhouse
dotted here and there in the woodland below ; and then in front
that yellow expanse of water, looking rich and golden in the sunlight,
with the distant mountains of Wales forming a fitting background !
I said it was impossible to help running over all this in thought,
but I must remember that some dry facts of geology are my theme,
not however forgetful that it is after all these dry geological facts
that are the cause of this digression ; for without the formative
process of these facts, cutting and carving out the physical features
around, this scenery would not have existed to have called forth
the admiration of its worshipper.

Well, it was amid this “cheerful beauty” * (as a friend happily
characterises the Quantock scenery), that I was spending a few days

* “The chief characteristic of the Quantock scenery I venture to designate
as cheerful beauty. Unlike the savage grandeur of the Scottish mountains, or
the wild and bleak uplands of Northern England, its heath-clad summits rise
in gentle and graceful undulations, and sink into woody ‘ coombs’ of the most
romantic beauty, each with its own little stream winding through its slopes,
fringed with ferns of luxurious growth, or purple with heather, and abound-
ing with the dwarf oak and the whortleberry, the fruit of which last shrub
known locally as‘ whorts’ becomes from its sale a source of considerable
profit to the surrounding villages. These numerous coombs, in the sheltered
hollows of which may be found some of the rarest of our native plants, form
perhaps the most marked feature of the district, and lying, as they generally
do, at right angles to the sea-shore, break the outline of the mountain range
into ‘ heads’ as they are locally termed, and these eminences, seen from the
Bristol Channel, gave rise in days of yore to their Keltic name of the
Quantocks, ¢.e., ‘the water headlands.’””—‘ The Quantocks, with some reminis-
cences of Wordsworth and Coleridge,’ read before The Bath Literary Club, by Rev.
W, L. Nichols, M.A.

429

last summer. Amid the scenes of Wordsworth’s daily walks and
musings, and in company with one who most duly appreciates, nay,
I may say venerates, the name of that great observer of Nature’s
works, I was intent more with its poetical than geological sur-
roundings; but having been asked a most practical question, «.e.,
‘‘What is the formation of the Quantocks? Is it Old red sand-
stone; aS it has always been my wish to live upon an Old red
sandstone soil?’ I at first, without much hesitation, answered in the
_ affirmative, as from the lithological eharacter of the sandstone
blocks lying around, and in the absence of fossil evidence anyone
might easily be led to that conclusion. However, as geologists are
(or at least ought to be) careful to bring their opinions to the test
by actual examination, I at once turned into a quarry to the left of
the Bridgwater and Williton Road leading to Holford about a quarter
of a mile distant from the latter village, and after plying my hammer
vigorously upon some of the extremely dense and hard greyish
sandstones at the base of the quarry, more for the purpose of testing
their lithological structure than for any other, was agreeably sur-
prised to find a series of fossils which are the subject of this
communication. I may here mention that, so far as I knew at the
time, this discovery of fossils in the sandstones north-east of the
Quantock Hills was new to science. Having since read over more
carefully Mr. Etheridge’s exhaustive paper on the Physical
Structure of W. Somerset and N. Devon, * I find him thus writing
of the difficulty of correlating the North Devon and Somerset
beds owing to the scarcity of the fossil evidence in the latter :
“The full relations of species occurring in the Lynton group
of West Somerset and North Devon cannot be clearly arrived at—
so little, as yet, being known of the fossils of the lower gritty
slates of the Quantock Hills, and of the lower beds that sweep
round the Croydon Hill promontory,” &e. At once recognizing
them as putting on the same facies as other fossils with
which I was familiar in the North Devon rocks, I sent them
to the Geological Museum, Jermyn Street. Being thus encouraged,
I ransacked every possible section and quarry for further
organisms, and was rewarded by discovering in four different

* Quant. Journ. Geol. Soc., Dec., 1867, p. 637.

430

localities sufficient fossil evidence to determine the particular
position which these beds on the N.E. of the Quantocks occupy in
the order of geological sequence. I will now proceed to describe
in detail the different sections, and the position of the fossil-
bearing beds in these sections. The first examined was that which
I call Holford or Woodlands quarry. The harder beds which are
at the base have been here worked back for the purpose of
obtaining “ metal” for the roads, and consist of a series of fissile
sandstones, much coloured externally with peroxide of iron (as all
the rocks in the neighbourhood are), imparting a bright red tinge
to every thing it comes in contact with, I say externally, for upon
fracture the beds present a more or less grey colour. The bottom
beds which have been worked down somewhat below the level of
the road are close-grained purplish grey sandstones, with greenish
coloured marly partings; in these traces of plants occur. Succeeding
them in ascending order is a series of thicker beds of a dense
silicious texture and lighter grey colour, also very fissile. A con-
venient little section has been made in these beds close to the road
side of about 5ft. in depth, and it was near the middle of these
beds that I came upon the fossils. A thin, rotten, dark-coloured
parting here separates the close-grained sandstone beds, and in this
occurs abundance of Hncrinital plates, casts of Brachiopods, Corals,
and Zentaculites, The dense grey sandstone itself also yields fossils
though not in the same abundance, and they seem to die out
altogether the further you search upwards from the rotten parting,
as if the conditions of the sea bottom became gradually less and
less favourable to animal life. At the back of this quarry, which
has been worked down some 20 or 30ft., about half way up a dark
rotten arenaceous band almost black (but drying red) comes in ;
as this reminded me very much of similar bands in N. Devon, in
which I had found abundance of organic remains, I was not long
in ascertaining its contents, and found a similar series of fossils to
those below. Owing, however, to the extremely friable nature of
the matrix it was very difficult to carry away any perfect specimens,
All these beds have a more or less 8. E. dip, but the harder beds
near the base run more rapidly away beneath the road at an
angle of 25° to 30° S.E.

» 431

Another small quarry on the same road about one mile distant to
the S.F. at the bottom of Sherwage wood contains similar highly
coloured ferruginous sandstones with a mottled grey fracture ; here
traces of plants (2) only could be found. To the N.W. of the
Holford quarry, and nearly opposite the gate leading to Alfoxden,
at the base of a spur of the hill, is another section. Some hard
beds have here also been worked back from the road, and their
peculiar mottled coarse-grained silicious appearance reminded me
at once of certain beds which occur near Combe Martin, called the
“ Hangman Grits,” and upon examination I found that they
contained organisms peculiar to those grits 7 ¢, casts of a
gasteropod (prob. a Natica) and Petraia. These beds dip likewise
in a S.E. direction.

My doubts, if any existed after this fossil evidence as to these
sandstones of the Quantocks holding the same position as the
N. Devon beds in the neighbourhood of Combe Martin and Hang-
man’s Hill, were finally cleared up most satisfactorily, for during a
traverse of about three quarters of a mile in a S, E. direction from
the above quarries, my attention was called to a road-side section
close to and at the N. W. end of Dodington church, opened (as I after-
wards ascertained from my friend Mr. Nichols) within the last four
years, some of the beds of which have been used for the purpose of
building the garden-wall of the adjoining Rectory. From the external
appearance of these beds, coloured red as all the others are, they
might readily have been mistaken for sandstone; there was a
peculiar look about them however, which, to an eye accustomed as
mine has been to the limestone bands in the neighbourhood of
Combe Martin and Ilfracombe, indicated their unmistakable cha-
racter. The blocks lying about, taken from the bottom of the
quarry, were covered with the usual Devonian coral, Cyatho
phyllum ccspitosum, &e., &e., thus confirming my former
impressions from their lithological character that they were bands
of Devonian limestone. These beds dipped in the same direction
as the sandstones at Holford, and at about the same angle, 1.€., 25° to
30° S.E,, or about S. of E., and graduated upwards through
granular crystalline bands, into purplish grey close-grained cal-
careous fissile sandstone, coloured externally with the same bright

432 '

red colour as the other sandstones, and slightly effervescing when
touched with muriatic acid. Though a mantle of new red covers
up the intervening distance between the two sections, yet we may
naturally conclude that these limestone bands come in above the
sandstones at Alfoxden and Holford, and belong to a higher
horizon, corresponding in time with the calcareous bands or
lenticular masses which were formed in the North Devon area, and
follow the ‘‘ Hangman grits” in geological suceession.

Mr. Etheridge having examined the fossils has since kindly
forwarded to me the following list :—

Favosites cervicornis (olim polymorpha ).
Petraia celtica. (?)

Atrypa desquamata (?)

Tentaculites.

Fenestella plebeva.

A ctinocrinus,

Plant remains (?)

Not a very large list, but sufficient to determine that they
“belong to the Middle Devonian sandstones on the same horizon
as Hangman and all the country from Ilfracombe to North
Petherton.”

So far then for the beds which flank the N. E. side of the
Quantock Hills. My pleasant stay at Woodlands having drawn to
a close, I was unable to make a traverse across the hills, as was my
intention, for the purpose of correlating these beds with those on
the W. flanks. An opportunity, however, occurred soon after, and,
in company with my friend Mr. Boyd Dawkins, I crossed over from
Crowcombe to Danesborough and examined all the sections that
were exposed with the following result :—After leaving the pretty
church of Crowcombe on the left hand, which, together with the
village, was all en féte in expectation of laying the foundation stone
of the new school, we ascended a lane to S. of the church, and a
little distance up on the right hand, at the point where the heath-
clad down joins the cultivated land, is a quarry on the N. W. slope
of “ Fire Beacon” hill, composed of grey and olive-grey close-grained
sandstone, much cleaved and broken up into cuboidal masses.
The dip of the beds here, taken by prismatic compass, contrary to

433

my expectation, we found to be 14° N. and N.W. A careful
search failed to reveal any fossils. About 100 yards higher up and
on the same side a ‘“‘scree” showed blocks of somewhat coarser-
grained olive-coloured and purple-patched yellow sandstones.
Still higher up, at the distance of 100 yards, a section exposed
mottled purple softer sandstone, with a hard band at the base.
The dip of the beds corresponded with that of the lower quarry.
This, too, was unfossiliferous. On the top of the hills, and
especially in the vicinity of Danesborough Camp, blocks of a
coarse conglomerate were lying about wearing the character of
millstone grit. The absence of any sections here prevented us
from ascertaining whether these blocks existed im situ ; there
could. not, however, be any reasonable doubt of it.

Yet another day’s examination of the N. end must be recorded.
On a dripping wet day, of the many wet days this autumn, in
October, I took the train to Williton, and walked thence along
the Wew red sandstone valley to St. Audries, for the purpose of
examining the basement beds if possible. At a small road side
section before reaching Perry quarry, the hard compact close-
grained silicious beds dip 25° N.E. by E. They are grey, slightly
micaceous, and streaked with red. Linear impressions occur
most probably those of plants. A little further on at Perry
quarry, the same sort of compact silicious beds occur at the
base dipping at about the same angle 30° N.E. by N., as these
proceed upwards they became more fissile and micaceous, with
_partings of shale. A most interesting case of weathering, looking
at first sight almost like ice marking, occurs here at the top of the
quarry in a series of grooves parallel with the bedding, and running
at right anglesto the cleavage. About 100 yards beyond the 12th
mile stone is a bank section where the road is cut through a wood.
The beds here dip about 30° N. E., and consist of hard reddish
sandstone at the base, becoming very fissile and micaceous towards
the top, with black specks of some mineral, probably iron, scattered
about. These appeared unfossiliferous. On my return I visited a
quarry to the S.E. of the church at St. Audries, at the side of
the Parsonage House. The spot is marked by the word “ or” in
the Ordnance Map owing to the shivery nature of the greenish

434

and red shale which was well adapted for gravel, and was being
worked for that purpose, the dip was somewhat difficult to obtain,
but appeared to be so far as I could ascertain about 25° to the W.

From the various direction of the dips obtained during these
examinations I came to the conclusion that they generally corres-
ponded with the slope of the hills, and though the general dip of
the Quantock Hills is to the S. E., yet that there were a series of —
small anticlinal rolls, which caused the reversal of the dip in many
places, but did not alter the persistent strike of the range. It is
probable that the dip of the beds seawards at the N. end, near
Perry Court, is caused by a fault which traverses that end of the
hill from the church at St. Audries to Alfoxden, throwing down
the beds on the N., and thus concealing the lowermost beds of the
series. Indeed on my talking to Mr. Etheridge about it he showed
me a map in which this fault had been traced in.

The conclusion then to be drawn from these observations seems
to me to be that the sandstones at the base of the Quantocks,
unfossiliferous with the exception of some doubtful impressions of
plants, do not correspond with the Foreland sandstones, #.¢., the
lowest beds of the lower Devonian, but with those of the middle
Devonian group ranging upwards through a series of coarse and
fine sandstones, fossiliferous in places, into the highly fossiliferous
beds of middle Devonian limestones, and thenee upwards possibly
into the upper Devonian sandstones of Pickwell Down, represented
perhaps by the coarse conglomerates which occur on the top of the
Quantock hills.

But still the question remains unanswered with which we started,
“ Are the Quantocks Old red sandstone?” There is neither time,
nor would you have patience to hear this question discussed.
Suffice it to say that there are two theories respecting those beds
which intervene between the Silurian and Carboniferous forma-
tions ; on the one hand the late Professor Jukes, correlating them
with certain Irish beds with which he was more familiar, and view-
ing them especially from a physical point of view, pronounced them
to be identical with the Carboniferous slates of Cork, which attain in
some places a thickness of 2,000 feet. Thus, according to his view,
they ought stratigraphically to be placed between the top of the

435

Old red and the base of the Coal measures. On the other hand Mr.
Etheridge, Palzontologist of H. M. Geological Survey of England,
viewing them purely from an English point of view,.and laying
more stress upon their Palzontological contents, affirms that they
are one great and well-defined system called Devonian, divisible
into three groups, lower, middle, and upper, each of these divi-
sions characterized by a distinct marine fauna, and possibly equal
in time and position to the O/d red.

In other words Mr. Jukes would do away with the term Devonian
altogether as indicating an independent geological system, whereas
Mr. Etheridge would preserve it as a useful nomenclature for a
group of rocks especially developed'in Devonshire. The general
body of Geologists incline, I think, to uphold the latter view. It is
then to this group of beds to which the Quantocks belong. Those
who support Mr. Etheridge’s view would call them Devonian ; those
who agree with Professor Jukes would consider them Old red sand-
stone. If fossil evidence is to have any weight in deciding the
question, and I know not what else in the absence of direct super-
position can supply its place, then certainly this evidence clearly
tends to corroborate the view that the Quantocks are an Easterly
continuation of the Devonian beds. All will, however, agree that
they come in the order of stratification between the Silurian on
the one hand and the Carboniferous formations on the other.
There is much yet to be learnt of the geology of these hills. Let
all those who are interested in the subject narrowly watch every
section likely to throw any light upon the beds which constitute
the base or nucleus of the range.

In conclusion, then, I would ask whether a study which leads
i Through weeds, and thorns, and matted underwood,

To force your way : now climb and now descend

O’er rocks, or bare or mossy, with wild foot

Crushing the purple whorts,

which brings the glow of. health to the cheek and adds new vigour
to the limbs, and not merely this, but supplies new thoughts to the
mind, leading you onwards from Nature’s works to Nature’s God :
whether such a study as this can be dry and profitless ?

436

Ancient Register of Wrington Church. By the Rev. Pres. Soars,
M.A., Rector of Wrington, Read March 13, 1872.

The Old Register dates back to 1538, and is in good preservation.

It begins with the following entry :—
WRINGTON PARISH.
Within the County of Sommesett,

Theis Booke of Register wherein is written the names of all those that have
been Baptized, Married, and Buried within the same parish, and the days and
years of their Baptisms, Marriage, and Buriall from the year of our Lord God
1538 unto this year 1599, &c.

There is added at the bottom of the title-page which contains the

above entry—
“ A Book of Register
was
appointed to be kept in every Church in England—

1. By authority of King Henry VIIL., in injunctions published in the 30th
year of his Reign, Anno Dom: 1538, wh: injunctions are recited in Acts and
Monuments, p. 389, 390, volum 2, London 1641.

2. By the injunctions of Queen Elizabeth in the 1st year of her Reign,
Ano Dom. 1559. Injunct. 10.

3. By the Constitutions and Canons Ecclesiastical, Can: 70, agreed upon by
the King’s License, in the 1st year of the Reign of King James over England,
&e. An? Dom: 1603.

Junii 13tio Anno Dom: 1663.
Memorize ergo posuit.
F fran: Roberts, s.T.p.
Rector, &c.”
The first entry under the head Christening is—
December 11 Agnes Newell the Daughter of John
Newell.
There are 10 Christenings entered in the year 1538, and only 9
under the next 2 years, we. to 1540.
Under the year 1541 there are 20
+ 1542 a 3
3 1543 + 15
boa5* . .,, 27
PAG. sonal
a (es
ee ee i er
; « Two years.

437

Under the year 1548 there are 17

x 1549, 21
7 1550, 12
s yal. 21

1552, 21

The average of Christenings therefore was 14 annually in the first
15 years after the Register was first directed to be kept. The
entry is simply the date (of the Christening) and the name of one
parent, the father, but often simply the name of the child.

Under the year 1612 certain entries occur in Latin, in a different
handwriting. Thus—-

“ Christian filia Johannis Partridge et uxoris ejus baptizata fuit 62 Octobris
ane dom: 1612.”

The name of “Laurence” frequently occurs in entries of the
earliest date. At the bottom of the page after entries under the
date of 1621 is signed the name of “‘ George Williams, Curate,” and
this is the first attestation of any entry. The bottoms of the pages
are each, with one exception, so signed by him. In the year 1632
we find the following entry of the birth of John Locke, the Philo-

sopher—
Aug.29. John the sonne of John Locke.

Under the date of 1637 we find an entry of the birth of another

Locke—
Julie 16. John the sonne of Jeremy Locke and Elizabeth his wife.

Unfortunately this latter entry has been mistaken for the former,
which is the correct one, and the date of the Philosopher's birth has
been wrongly placed upon a Tablet erected to his memory on the
house where he was born, and which forms part of the N.W.
boundary of the churchyard of Wrington. It was also wrongly
recorded on the pedestal of the pillar supporting the stairs in the
Rectory House. John Locke, the writer, was the son of John, not
of Jeremy, Locke, and his father resided at Pensford, where he had
property. His birth at Wrington is said to have occurred during a
visit of his parents to the village. The attestation of the Register
by “ George Williams, Curate,” continues to the year 1638, after
which the entries are again unattested, and simply entered, as for

instance,—
“Aug. 30. Joan daughter of Edmund Badman.”
E

438

Under the year 1650, I find this entry, headed in large characters ;
ANNO DOM: 1650.

“John Hill, John Hill sonne of John and Dorothy Hill was born on the
fifth day of April and Baptized on the 16th day of aa (the first baptized
by me at Wryngton).”’

And the bottom of the page has the following attestation :—-

“ Ffran: Roberts, Rector hujus Ecclesiz.”’

The handwriting here is of a different character, clear and. well-
formed, and more resembling that of the present day, and the
pages are all headed by the word “ Laptismes,” and all, at the bottom,
bear the attestation of “‘ Francis Roberts, Rector,” to the end of the
year 1653. The names of each person are by him entered ina
column in the margin.

This Francis Roberts has a monument erected to his memory in
the church. He appears to have been a laborious and painstaking
pastor, and the works he has left behind him attest his deep studies
in Divinity. He has left a voluminous treatise on the “‘ Covenants”
and “Clavis Bibliorum,” a copy of each of which is now in the
vestry of the Church, along with other Books. These were formerly
chained to a desk in a side chapel of the choir, and lay open for
public reading. He was Rector about 26 years, and his monument
states, “‘Feedus juxta Evangelii quod (dum viveret) haud calamo
majis quam vita dilucidavit.” He also printed a small work entitled
“ A Communicant Instructed,” or ‘ Practical Directions for worthy
receiving of the Lord’s Supper,” and his Epistle dedicatory of this
book is dated from ‘‘my study in Wrington, in Somersetshire, June
12,1651.” He died 1675, aged 67 His wife died three years before
him, and a monument also records her worth in the following lines—

“ Quee moribus extitit Elizabeth, proli fuit Hannah,
Sara viro, mundo Martha, Maria Deo.”*

In the year 1653 is the following entry at the top of the page—

Somerset

Mr. Robert Rowland of Wrington approved and sworne Register of the
sayd Parish according to the Act of Parliament, in that Session provided, this
15 day of December, 1653. Jo. Buckland.

* This epitaph i is an imitation of one on the tomb of Richard de Clare in
Tewkesbury Abbey Church.
Hic Pudor Hippoliti, Paridis Gena, Sensus Us,
Enew pietas, Hectoris Iva jacent.
See Dugd : Baron: 1,213,—* Collinson’s Somerset,” vol. iii,, p. 148.

439

From the year 1653 to 1658 the Registers are signed at the
bottom of each page with the name of “ Robert’ Rowland, Regist :”
This was during the Protectorate, but in the year 1659 the name
of “ Francis Roberts, Rector,” again appears at the bottom of each
page, who is always careful to state not only the day of the baptism
but the date of the birth of each child.

The same names exist in the village now which are to be found
in the Registers of this and preceding dates.

After the death of Mr. Roberts, the Register is not so well kept.
Under the year 1676 the page is signed by “ John Powell, Rector ;”
1682, by “Giles Pooley, Rector ;” and then simple entries without
any attestation. The Old Rosiottr of Baptisms continues without a
break to March 19th, 1809, at the end of which is an entry referring
to a New Register begun 25th March, 1809.

The entry of Weddings begins with the year 1540, two years later
than the entry of Baptisms and Burials. The Weddings are in a
single entry, having the date first, then the name of each party, thus—

** Noy. 29. Daniel Long and Agnes Plummer.”
Number of Marriages.

1540 - - =3, 9

1541 - - - 38

1542 - - - 6

1543* - - per.

1544 - - - 5

1545

1546) - - - 13

1547

1548t - - = sald

1549 - - 22-2

1550S - - 3

1551s; - - 10

1552; . - 5

1553—i- - 5
The bottom of the pages from *. year 1558 to 1590 are signed
“Robt. Foster.” After this year the entries are more careless in the

* Top of Register cut away for this year.
t Top of leaf cut away, but date of first entry, Jan, 31, 1548.

440

style of writing. In 1611 we have some entries in Latin in the
same handwriting as in the Baptisms of that date.

In the year 1654 the page is headed “ Marriages and Publications
of Marriages since the 29th day of Sep: in the year of our Lord
1653,” and the entries are made and signed by ‘“ Robert Rowland,
Registr’’ but the bottom of each page has the signature of ‘“ Fran:
Roberts, Rector.” ‘ Robert Rowland, Registt” signs for the last
time in 1658. The form of entry of Marriage is the following—

“ The Intention of Marriage between Edmund Short Hussman and Elizth
Bevan, single woman, both of this parish, was published thro’ several Lords’
Days according to the Act of Parliament in that case made, viz., the 2nd, the
9th, and the 16th day of Jany 1658. By me, Ro. Rowland, Registr ”
And this is followed by a certificate of the date of the Marriage,
thus,—

““The above-named were married the —— day of —— before

”?

Some entries show that Banns of Marriage were not always pub-
lished in the parish church. There are several instances, thus—

“ Abraham Lyne of St. George’s yeoman and Sarah Buddon single woman
was published the 8th the 15th and the 22nd days of May Ano 1660 in the
Market Place.” F fran : Roberts, Rector.”

The entry of the date of Marriage after the year 1655 bears the
signature of ‘‘ Wm. Cole,” but the entry of the ztention of Marriage,
which corresponds to putting in the Banns as at present, is signed
by the Register, ‘‘ Robert Rowland.”

In the year 1680 the Register is headed “ Matrimonio conjuncti,”
and the handwriting becomes exactly similar to that of the present
time, previous to this date it more resembles “ engrossing.”

The entries of marriages are regular, and for the most part very
clearly written until the year 1754, when after the entry of two
marriages, dated March 24 and May 26 in that year, I find this
note.

“This Register is not to be depended on. Refer to the Register of 1754
according to this place in the Marriage Act.”

All the entries are then crossed by a line drawn from the top of
the page to the bottom, from the years 1755 to 1795, @.e., 40 years.

The entries of Burials commence in 1537. Wrington is spelt
Wrinton, the (g) being omitted. Under the year 1538 are only 7

441

Burials. From 1538 to 1541 they are thrown together, 15.
Under the date of April 8, 1538, is the curious entry—
*« John, the wife of Thomas Browne.”

“ John” being, I conclude, a mistake for “Joan.”

In 1542 there are 12 burials.

», 1543 ? 4 ”

» 1544, 8 »

” 1545 ” 15 ”

», 1546 ”? 13 ”?

Ped 1547 ”? 22 ”

» 1548, 9 »

» 1649, =: 10 Ss=»»

PAA iz) jes os

» 1551 t, Io OY

», 1552 e 14> 3,

»» 1553 ” 2 ”

The average number of Burials at that time in Wrington was 11
annually ; the average of Births in the same number of years was 14.
During these earlier years the date of death and the name only

is given. Thus, for 1558,—

“Sep. 21. William Hopper.”
* Oct. 30. Anne Lawrance.”’

In the year 1558 the bottom of the page containing the entry is
signed “ Robert Foster,” and each page has the same signature to
the year 1602, when we find the following entry in the Register,
which is enclosed in a space, having a double line drawn on each
side of it :—

Aug. 22. Robert Foster Rector of Wrington,
(was buried) *

* These last words are in different coloured ink, and have been added at a
later period. Foster was Rector for forty-four years, from 1558 to 1602. The
following is a curious entry in the other old Register :—

“ Robertus Foster, clericus et Rector ecclesiz parochialis de Wrington,
residens fuit in sua predicta rectoria in festo Sancti Michaeli Ag] : Anno
Domini 1565. Ac Anno Regni Elizabethe Regine Angle, Francie, et ct,
Septimo, etiamque predictus Robertus in sua propria persona, sacramenta

442

In the year 1611 we have the entries made in Latin, as follows :—

Johannes Norcot sepultus fuit, 190 Die Decembris, 1611.

After the year 1621 the bottom of the page containing the
entries is signed, “‘ George Williams, Curate,” and this attestation
continues to the year 1638. The year 1649 contains this entry, in
a space enclosed by lines—

Jan, 3rd, Mr. Samuell Crooke, parson,
1649 of the parish of Wrinton
Dyed Dec. 25, January the 8, 1649 was
buried buried.

This is the Rector to whom a monument was placed in the N.E.
corner of the Chancel, the Tablet being arched at the top and

circumscribed—
O I1ISTOS OIKONOMOS O AYXNOS O KAIOMENOS
M. &.

In spem gloriose resurrectionis exuvie juxta deponemtur pretiose viri
venerabilis Mtri Samuelis Crooke S. T. B., fidelis pastoris hujus ecclesiz ;
qui post annorum 47 labores indefessos ibidem exantlatos mortalitatem exuens
jn Christo placidissime requievit 25 Dec: 1649, Aitat. 75. Atque etiam
cinares Juditha Crooke, uxoris pientiss: que desideratissimum conjugem
meerens, plus octo annis illi superstes feeliciter in Christo obdormivit Juniil0,

1658.
Formosi gregis, O custos formosior, umbram

Quam potis Artificis labor hance post funera finxit.

Nulla verecundos par dextera reddere vultus ;

Dona minus mentis poterint pulcherima pingi. *
AyS.D.' 8. Bi

Dr. Crooke was evidently a man of piety and learning, and much
beloved, and is the first Rector of whom any record exists.

He was succeeded by the Rev. Francis Roberts, whose name at
the bottom of each page testifies to the Register, and he has followed
the same plan as in the entry of Baptisms, of placing the name of
the person opposite the entry. His writing is peculiarly clear, and
the Register is beautifully kept under his hand to the date of 1675,
when there is this entry—

Dr. Roberts, F francis Roberts, D.D., Rector of this Parish died Nov.
29, was buried December 9.”

et alia ceremonia secundem ordinem Regiz manifestationis in ecclesia minis-
travit. Finis.” * The monument is now in the south porch.

443

The bottom of the page for 1678 is signed by “Th: Powell.”
Under the date, “Sep. 10th, 1681,” there is the entry of his death—
“Sep. 10, Johannes Powell, Rectr de Wrington,”
and the bottom of the page is signed with the name of ‘‘ Aigidius
Pooley, Rett’ “ Aigidius” being the Latinized form of “ Giles ;”
the remainder are signed simply ‘Giles Pooley, Rector.” His
writing is peculiarly clear and neat, but it ceases in the year 1693,
when he seems either to have left Wrington to the charge of a
curate, or not to have made the entries himself, for I find the page
containing the entries under the year 1701 signed ‘“ Mr~ Thomas
Goddard, Curate,” and the succeeding ones are so signed to 1707.
Under the year 1709 the Christian names are put in a separate
column, where the dates had before been put, and this continues to
1720, after which no line is ruled or any space left, but the entry
is simply a record in one line. The writing now becomes clumsy
and ill formed, more as if the entries were made by an uneducated
hand, and the-spelling is incorrect. Thus the female name
“ Aoripina” is written “ Eggripiney” or “ Egrapiny,” and “ Henry”
is spelt ‘“‘ Hennery” with two (n)’s. The Rev. Jno. Rogers died in
1720, but he seems to have made no entries with his own hand
after the month of Jan. 1716, and the entries after that, though
clear, are very slovenly written until Nov., 1731, ae., three years
after Dr. Waterland came into possession of the living. The hand-
writing then becomes very clear and scholarlike, and the handwriting
is the same to 1752. The Book is then reversed, and the entries
made on the opposite side to where they were begun, but in a less
educated hand, these are continued on to the year 1807, till they

touch the erased entries of marriages, which I before mentioned.
This ancient Register Book is perhaps one of the most perfect in
the kingdom, and the entries for the most part have been made
with much care, while the handwriting is in most instances very
good. It manifests how very simple was the first system of
registry in our parish churches, and how it gradually developed
into the present accurate and elaborate mode of entry. But it is
clear that the more perfect the system has been made the more the
handwriting has deteriorated, and the less the interest taken in the
Register. The modern Registers of Wrington are however an

444

exception to this, as they have been very well kept, and the entries
beautifully made, especially during the long period in which the
Rev. Henry Thompson was Curate of Wrington,—nothing can
surpass his neatness and accuracy,—but the Registers themselves
being no longer kept upon parchment, but on thick paper, and kept
formerly in the church where there is of necessity much damp, the
writing becomes faint, and must in time be-entirely lost, unless the
records are copied carefully. To preserve these Records is most
important, to insert the entries accurately and clearly is no less so,
and anything that can be done to secure their preservation is doing
a service to society for generations to come.

Ancient Churchwardens’ Accounts, Wrington. Read Feb. 12th, 1873.

The Churchwarden’s Accounts which are to be found in many
parishes in England, and extend to a remote date, are not the least
curious and instructive records from which matter of interest and
historical value may be drawn. They present a faithful record of
what was done in those times, both in the church and in the parish,
and give us indications of parish life which are not only amusing
but instructive and useful.

Somerset seems to be rich in these parish documents, and a
history of the passing events in each parish might almost be drawn
from the entries in these accounts.

Some have been published, both in London and in the country.
Thus in the volume of the Archeological Association for 1868, p.
150, will be found extracts from the Account Books of the Parish of
St. Peter Cheap, in the City of London, which date as far back as
A.D. 1431. These have been published by the Rev. W. Sparrow
Simpson, M.A., and give not only an account of the possessions of
the Church at that time, but also much may be inferred of the
manners and customs in the City of London in the 15th and 16th
centuries. Mr. Simpson has also given extracts from the Church-
wardens’ Accounts for the Parish of St. Matthew, Friday Street, in
the City of London, which extend from 1547 to 1603.*

In the Parish of St. Michael, Bath, the Churchwardens’ Accounts
go back to a Still earlier date, A.D. 1349 (23 Edw. III) to A.D.

* See Journal of Arch, Assoc., 1869, p. 356.

445

1571 (the 14th of Elizabeth), and are therefore nearly a
‘century older than those of St. Peter Cheap, in the City of
London. They were exhibited in 1852 at the Meeting of the
Somerset Archzeological and Natural History Society, and a brief
notice will be found of them in the Volume for that year, p. 17, and
extracts from them are given in the Appendix to “‘ Warner’s History
of Bath.” '

The Churchwardens’ Accounts of the Parish of Banwell have
been carefully preserved, and commence A.D. 1516 (7 Henry VIII.),
and continue to the present time. Facsimiles have been made of
portions of these, and extracts from the accounts are given in
“ Rutter’s History of Somerset,” p. 140.

The Churchwardens’ Accounts in the Parish of Yatton, go back
as far as 1445, and are therefore nearly two centuries older than
Wrington, which only go back to 1634.

Book of Churchwardens’ Accounts for Wrington Parish.

This Book commences 1634, and has on its title-page ‘‘ A Booke
for the Church Wardens Accompt 1634.” *

In this Book the ratings are given both for Wrington and Broad-
field.t John Tilly and John Phippen, Churchwardens, 1635.
The Rate Book begins thus—

A Comon and General Rate for the Church, the particulars whereof } 1635
appears as followeth, vizt :—

The first entry is—

Imprimis William Capell Esq.—ls for the Heyes; and xd
for Oldburyes; x4 for Wiltons ; xd for Barkleys Grunds aa
and in toto... oo ore eee si iii 6°
Mr, Samuel Crooke for Blanch Hay ee 35 ij &e.

&., &e., &e.
Two bequests are entered, the one of xx£ and the other of x£, each
bearing date 8 May, 1635. The latter is signed by the Church-
wardens ‘‘ Thos. Bevan and Jno. Notrett and overseers.” The first
is from Sam. Crooke, late Rector of the Parish, Wrington, to the
poor of the Parish. The second from Mr. Augustus Spalding, late
of the Parish of Wrington, gentleman, deceased, for the poor of the

* Begun in the Rey. Sam. Crooke’s Incumbency, 1602-1649,
+ Written Brodfield.

446

Parish. There is a copy of the extracts from the Court of Probate
of these two wills bearing date 1636 and 1649. Then comes a
list of those who did not pay to the common rate, but to the
churchwardens for bread and wine at the Holy Communion.

Ordered, 30 March, 1662. That these may be added to the Register Booke
of Christenings, Weddings, and Burials now purchased,

Then follows a list of church furniture, and plate, and books.
Also the following entry,

Presented at Wrington the 18 of April 1659 at a Meeting before the Sheriff
or deputy,

Wrington isa Rectory formerly in the hands of Mr. Samuel Crooke, who
deceased the 25 of December, 1649, since which time it hath been and now is
in the hands of Mr. Francis Roberts, Rector, the presentation thereof is in
the hands of Arthur Lord Caple, Barron of Haddham.*

After this come entries on parchment, the former leaves appear to
have been bound up with these ; there are eight paper leaves.
p. 15. To Richard Powell for 2 days’ work about the
A.D. 1634, Church and Church yard and mending the zl
1635. Wicked to make him rune att several times... ij.
To Two poore Ministers at severall times by the s.
entreaty of Mr. Crooke .. a iiii.
Beginning of Eeetoaent tte

Fe Bia

Wrington.
The Accompt of Henry Backwell and John Hale-

stone, Churchwardens, from the fifth day of
May, 1633, unto the 9th day of May, 1634;
as followeth—
p. 8. Item, Recd of John Amery, Willm Ffoord, Mr
Willm Tynt, Richard Willett, John Hale-
stone, and James Philpes for their seats under ne
the north window, iiijd. a year, in all 2.00: js: 00
p. 9. It., Spent upon the Commissioners when they
viewed the Church the sum of ... we 00" (pace
p. 12. Contains a memorandum of the letting of pews,
May, 1634. Thisis signed by Sam, Crooke, John
Phippen, Jo. Amory, and eight parishioners.
p. 14. Item of Mr. Bennett and Henry Backwell for their
two seats in the new pew under the south wall
at the end of the upper alley.
p. 26. It., Paid to Mr, Haywards of Bathe in earnest
A.D. 1636. towards the repayring of the organs.
* The advowson of the Rectory of Wrington, with the Chapelry of Burring-
ton, was granted to the Capell family by Henry VIII. See Patent Roll,
38 Henry VIIL., p. 3, m. 8.

+p

447
p. 27. It., To Mr. Crooke for Rent for the Church House.
p. 30. It., Payed Thomas Leamon and John Lovell for li.

1637-38 making the Gallery for the organes +s Vii, Vil, 00
It., Paid to Mr. Haywards of Bathe towards the j,; .
repayring of the organes as -.» Vill, XViii,
8. d.
It., Payd for playing on the organes... ree vi. vi.
d.
1638. It., Laid out for going in procession ... +. 00 00 iiij,
It., Laid out to three poore mencoming out of — ,
captivitie from the Turkes 00 j. 00
It., Laid out to George Tilling a 5 ohn Covet li
for painting and guilding the organes* Sells O00 O00.
It., Laid out to Richard Reynolds for whiting the li.
Church and painting it with other worke ... lii 00 00
8. d.
It,, Laid out for killing of 19 hedge hogges s+. 00 vii.

It., Laid out for an hood for Mr. Crooke for the li

stuffe and for making thereof Ftc i, vi. 00
It., Laid out upon them that did pull up the “tack 4

aad great bell wheele in beere ... 00° J. 90
It., Laid out to Two Gents. + borne in the Palatirite at

ie Mr. Capell’s appointment as 00 ij. 00
It., Laid out to Mr. Tynte and Francis Panes if a.

for bread and wine for the whole year - wee _ 00 me
It., Laid out for hospitall money _... J aie ai : it.
Terman out at the Viniiation a Bedmineae” 40 guoeaL vil
It., Laid out and given to a gentleman and his =

wife and children that came out of Holland ...00 i. 00

p. 35. It., Laid out and given to an Englishman whose
house and wife were burnt in Ireland, going to
the King ... 00 00 Yj.
1638-39 It., Laid out toa apieine that had lost one of his
Raids in the King’s service, -by Mr. Crooke’s
appointment He 00M 3;, VIS
It., Laid out and given fai a poor English woman
Have a passe and travayling to the Earl of

Bathe in Devon 4 00 00 Vi.
It., Laid out to Thomas Willshire more oir uiowear
the organ bellows ae ve -. 00 V. 00

* “ Organes,”’ in the plural number. The expression in old accounts of
Churchwardens is sometimes a “ pair of organs,’ which means simply an organ
with more pipes than one, or stops. See “‘ Hopkins and Rimbault’s History
of ye Organ,”’ pp. 40, 41. + (?) Gentlemen.

448

It., Laid out to William Wreath for a gudgeon &

en the great bell soe +. 00 iiij. oo
It., Laid out to the organist for his athe half-year’s li.
wages +8 ... lil, 00 00

p. 45. Mem : It was agreed the days af the giving We: of this general account,

1640-11 by all that then present, that every Communicant from henceforth
within this Parish shall send every year before they shall commu-
nicate or partake of the said, and shall pay ijs. towards bread and wine
upon demand.

And likewise it is agreed that ifany person or persons whatsoever which
do not pay to the repair of the Church for themselves or for their
friends, dying or interred within this parish, will have the great bell
hanging within the Tower of Wrington Church to ring at such time
or times, (they) shall pay the sum of one shilling at the least at all
such times when it shall happen, unto the Churchwardens for the
time being.

There are repeated entries of payment for killing sparrows and

for killing hedgehogs.
p. 53. The Acct of Edmond Horte, one of the Churchwardens from the 13 day
of Maye, 1642, until the. . . day of. . . 1644, as followeth, vizt :-—
Among the entries is the following :—
= Item, the said Warden desireth to be allowed towards his
charges for going to Wells to the King’s Commissioners,
there to undoe all his neighbours by informinge against
them for not setting their hands to the pretended petition
for peace and what Rebells they were that did refuse, » , g
specially Mr, Dollinge, John Amory,and John Tilley ... 0110 0
t= It., More he desireth to be allowed for his charges att 2
visitations holden att Pensford for his good service there
and nothinge done ... see «. 00 14 00
John Tilley, Ch: Weaden 1642-1646.
p. 55. It., More to him for mendinge the second bel! clapper in all
haste to ring for joy that Scotes were utterly routed which
contrary wastrue, blessed be thenameofthe Lordtherefore 00 64 00
ge It., To Walter Laurence towards his wages, which is 054

more than he paid him by Walter’s attorney ..» 03 00 00
At the end of the Account, p. 54, is this entry—
Sume totall layd out by this Accountant Horte is . 24 6 07

Sume rec, and sume layd out is one and the same for
nothing remains.
p 56. It., More laid out for my imprisonment att Welles for not
returning men’s names of this Parish which did refuse to
subscribe to the pretended petition for peace.

449

It., More for a Drume (Drum) for the use of the Parish... 00 7 08
p. 59. It., Rec. from those that kept ill order at the Inne to be dis-
1646-7 tributed unto the poor of Wrington oa pee OP: 8. «4

Among the payments for that year is—

It., To poor travelling Irish people at several times wa Ob 6
It., Bestowed upon the Ringers at Christ(mas) tide i 4 2
p. 65. Reed for Bread and Wine of those that pay no Church Rates
1647-S thesumof . 00 7 4

Rec. for the Rent of 3 pews in His Ch: below the ath
aisle (yeele), viz. :—

Of John Amory iiiid Willm Ffoord iiiid Mr. Tynte iiiid
Willm Marye iiiid Willm Willet iiiid John Halstone

iiiid The whole totall sum is ... Hi } 40

Rec. of Henry Backwell for six seats in the eat side of a
the Ch: eOesO Ii.

—— of Mr. tiowiind for the eae ‘of Mrs. Banca inthe ~
same seat “fe wed ws ae 0. 10 + 1i0%
&e. &e. &e. =

p. 67. Pd. to Willm Mannings for killing of 3 Authors (otters) ... 00 ij. o
1648. Pd. —— to hinder the fives playing* aa ae i vi,

p. 56. It.,To the ringers when the Queenf passed through the town 00 03 10
It., To 4 Irish women and their children having a passe for
Eeelaned from the Parliament{ ... ... 00 04 00
It., To John Horte of Winford for work and yi tymber
for the great bell, and a new wheel for the third bell ... 00 4 06
It., For beere to make the carpenters drinke and others that
did help about the belles .. 00 4 6
It., To Edmund Horte of pho aa for oe Bee and
doing of other worke about the bells and to keep them in

repair for one year ... as Sas .- 0010 0

~More for Beere to make him Bricks .. 0000 6

p. 67. Pd. to Thos Wilshire for ou before and va to hinder a ae
the fives playing aa 1 6

p. 76. Pd. for diggin before the Tower ... 1 6
— to Will™ Manning for 4 polecats and one Roache 1 6

p. 84. It., For one key and Pao, for the loft where the organ pe
1649-50. "stool ae ore nee z
To the Ringers on the 5th Nov. «. a 10 0

To a poore woman that came with a brife an Bristall aoe 1 0

et 2 Sy i, OS | le 36 Oreo) BE Bh

* This was against the Church Tower. Charges are made for repairing of
windows and such like damage done tothe Church. + Queen Henrietta, wife
of Charles I., when she fled to France. { Notice of the Commonwealth.

450

To the Ringers on the day of thanksgiving for the good
(news) in Ireland ... ae Ee “E
To a poore blinde Irish Minister
To aide other Irish haying Seciaks from tid Paar
to passe to Ireland
To the poor people from Giadihentan
p. 87. Pd. for chaynes and clasps to chayne the Bade of Hatten
1650-51. given by Mr. Francis Roberts,* Rector, unto the Church
p. 92, Pd. Thos. Willshire for mee pits to Sand Church
1651-52. windows..
Pd.; to inente for sin peties for j in of the a at Wate

2

1
5

0
0

The Account is signed by the Rector, Francis Roberts, in this year

for the first time.
p. 96. Pd. to the Whitelymere for Whitelyming the Church

1652. a », Playstering the Church windows...
For making duplicates for the moneys gathered for New
England ..

To Willm Wreath for he gard desi @,¢. Iron) Bhoid the Bells
and Church windows...

The Account continues now to be ained by the Rector ‘and several

parishioners.
To Manning and Griffen for Foxes heads
p. 101. To the Ringers when the Lord Protector was pidaisittal™
1558-4. To poor people (strainge) at several times this year
To the Ringers upon the Victory against the Duchmen at
sea : cap
p. 108. Recd for 13Ib + of penal pipe and ‘ead

The organ seems now to have been destroyed, | A.D. 1654-5.

p.104, Pd. for Hospital and Maymed Souldiers at Midsummer
1654, Sessions
Pd. Constable for Hospital and it aymed Bouijees for the
Sessions att Twelvetide, Michaell: and at Lady day ...
Pd. for Velvet for ye cushinge to Mr. Lane of London ...
Pd. to Js. Notrut for ye making of the cushinge 4
Pd. Will Orbb for three Locks and keys for the chest ..

eS!
5
2

3

2
6
las

5

1

1

or tb

0
1
0
5

0
0
0

6

one

This is the large chest in which the parish documents are now con-

tained.

Pd. him for an Iron Rod to lock the Books beside the Broach,
and for a brass for one of the Books and setting on all ye
rest and for staples for ye basen and settingiton ...

Given to the poor people within the year

* From 1649 to 1675.

an

oo

451.

1656, Recl towards Bread and Wine of those that pay not the

common rate He a 6 7
Seats Rents in the Church were paid Stor the frst commencement
of the Account. ‘Two rates were collected, as appears from the
following entry—

Recd of the parishioners for two double Rates... cae 36 6 %

1657. Pd. John Thomas for an Author’s Head see 1 0
Gave the Ringers the Thanksgiving day for God’s discovery

of the bloody plott against the Lord Protector 6 0

Riding to Wells to make return to Major Ferlong of an
order from Major Goodall Desbrow in which the Parish
was wrongfully accused for setting up a tennisse in the
Church yard 2 6
In 1656-7. is the first doniad <5 is mage of the School
p.115. Pd, William Webb for mending the School house lock and

nails and new stockings Hho 3h xe 1 6
Pd. for a Lock for the studdy coc +f “oo 8
Where was this study ?
p. 118. Pd. for a Booke for the Observation of the Sabbath day ... 0 6
», for another Booke for Observation of the Lord's day... 0 6
1660-62.
p.181. To the painter for the Commandments ee 3 ee 0 0

This is the first mention of the setting up of the Ten Com-
mandments.

Willm Webb for keeping the Clock 2.years. ... see ol: O10
Pd. by Willm Hewlett for seven quarters for Hospital
Money at 48 per quarter aes .. £413 4
Pd. by Willm Hewlett to poor people yt came ats passes,
travellers, and seamen within the two years 10 6
Pd. for setting upthe King’s Arms and for 3 cramps of iron 2 8
Spent the day the King* was proclaimed upon the Ringers
and drammers aay ae 13 0
Pd. the Ringers upon the idiga leapt days day ... 5 0
Pd. Richard Noble for Whiting the Church and joing the
leads ee 20 6
Spent upon the aos as RE eakaeivine day, 28 mi une, 1660 2 6
Spent upon the Ringers the 29 May, 1661 __—... Sas 2 6
Pd. Robt. Rowland for keeping the Register Book for one
year, 1661 ... 3 4
p. 132. Pd. Edward Winter fis setting up a: oeeh. anor and for
finding timber thereto ao oe xan! gp 20.

* Charles II,

452

Pd. him more for the frame of the Commandments Fe 10 0
More paid him for boarding them, and for the piece of
timber that was under them 4 0

p.135. Mem., yt Mr. Francis Roberts, Rector, gave eau to the parish to place
the india Ss Pepe at in the chancel window provided that if it do

much dim up the light they shall be set lower or taken away.

p. 1387. Pd. for a Rope for the Clock 4 8
Pd. to John Brean of the Hill for a foxe’s heat 13t0
Pd. for casting the ditch about the Church yard 1G
p.138. Pd, to Will™ Webb for ea the Clock for the whale
year 10 0
Pd. for the paetinidat ad for new ys ane Heme
Book... “ae con 18 0
Pd. to Robert Rowlands for Eau ‘the Register Book the
whole year 3 4
Pd. for new writing the joes ee abst out of hig eoinen
Booke when he was new bound 14 sides__.... as 2 6

p.141. Mem., that upon the giving up of this acconnt it was declared by joint

1663-4,

consent of the minister and parishioners present that whatsoever
parish seats have been now or shall be sold to any parishioner for his
life time, it is the true sense and meaning of the said parishioners
that such term is only to continue so long as the said persons buying
such seats shall be residents and inhabitants in this parish and that
it is thought most convenient that if any of the said seats shall fall

in hand, to be let out at a yearly rent by the churchwardens.

p.142. Pd, and laid out going to Bedminster about the King's
Majesty’s fishing places.

», five men for helping the 4th bell 0 010
» for melting the old Brass and for 8lb. of new Brass ... 16 10
»» carrying the brass to Bristoll and home again 10
»» Spent upon the Ringers for the Coronation Cretitle
Crownation) day 5 0
» given to Travellers such as came with Seed for the
whole year 1
»» for a Book of Canine and 39 iaeeeias of eee 220
p.145. Recd of Sam! Backwell in the name of a fine for a Seat in
1664-5 the Church which his Father built to hold same during
his life, provided he continue a resident in the parish and
paying a four pence a year to the succeeding Church
wardens, the new Church wardens to give in account for
the same... wae = 6 «8
xii. seats in hand to be let out.
p. 149. Recd of the Lord Powlett for fowling the Bell when the
1665-6. corpes went through the Towne... ae in 6 8

453

The said 6/8 is thought fitt by the Parishioners to be returned to my
Lord’s officer, Mr. Brice.

Mem, that upon giving up this account it was agreed upon by joint
consent of the parishioners present that if any man hath purchased
a parish seat and doth absent himself for one whole year having no
estate in the same, he shall loose his seat; and if any other person
hath purchased a parish seat having an estate in the same and do
neglect or refuse to pay the yearly rent after notice left by the
churchwardens of the demand of the same, then the said person to
loose his seat, and moreover if any person having purchased a seat .
in the church having an estate in the same shall in his absence let
or dispose of his said seat to any other person for a benefit, that then
it shall be lawful for the churchwardens to take and receive the
benefit thereof or to dispose thereof to the use of the parish,

The entries in this parish account extend from 1634 to 1675.
They are clearly written, and a charge is entered in the yearly
account, in many of the years, for engrossing the account. It
appears—

1.—From the first entries, that seats in the church have been
let from the commencement of the account, and how much earlier
it is impossible to say. The custom, therefore, in Wrington
Church prevailed as early as the time of Charles I.

2.—We find also that a rate was annually made and collected,
but not enforced upon those who objected to pay. Such parishioners
were charged a small sum when they attended the sacrament of the
Lord’s Supper, and also for the tolling of the bell in case of death.

3.—Frequent charges are made for destroying foxes, polecats,
otters, and hedgehogs, which were considered detrimental to the
general good, and therefore paid for out of the rate. These have
now almost disappeared under the improved cultivation of the
land, and greater extent of clearing.

4.—Great attention appears to have been paid to keeping the
church in good repair, the bells, the clock, the organ, and every-
thing pertaining to Divine service, whatever might have been the
political feeling of the time.

5.—Very clear intimations are given of the distress occasioned
by the civil wars, in the entries for relief afforded to various
sufferers,

¥

454,

6,—Symptoms of the lax and irreligious spirit of the times are
indicated by the habit of playing fives against the church tower,
which however seems not to have gone unnoticed, as a charge was
laid against the parish in the bishop’s court at Wells.

The church tower at present bears nmiarks of the ill-treatment it
had received, in the damaged condition of the string course around
the lowest stage of the tower. That such profanation was not
uncommon some years ago, both in this county and in the
principality of Wales, appears by an inscription still legible on a
stile at the entrance to the churchyard at Llanvair in Monmouth-
shire—

““ Whoever here on Sunday
Will practise Playing at Ball

It may be before Monday
The Devil will have you all.”

We are thankful that no such warning is now needed in the
parishes of our land.

The Geographical Position of the Carboniferous Formation in Somer-
setshire, with Notes on Possible Coal Areas in Adjoining Districts
of the South of England. By J. McMourrrm, F.G.S. Read
Jan. 15, 1873.

In the sessions of 1868 and 1869 I had the pleasure of submitting
to this Society two papers on the carboniferous strata of this
district. In the first I gave a typical section of the formation, in
the second I endeavoured to place on record the principal faults
and dislocations by which the coalfield has been broken up, and I
would this evening direct attention to another branch of the same
subject, viz., the probable geographical limits of the carboniferous
system in Somersetshire, taking in an adjoining portion of Glou-
cestershire which forms part of the same coalfield.

In bringing this question so frequently before your notice I fear
I may be devoting too much of the time of the Society to one
department in geology, but the extent of our coalfields is a subject
s0 intimately connected with our national prosperity that it has
occupied a large share of attention in most scientific societies of

ABS
late years, and the importance of the inquiry may be urged asa
reason for promoting so far as we can the investigation of our own
immediate neighbourhood.

And I would remark at the outset that this investigation is
attended with many sources of difficulty from which some of the
better known coalfields of this country are altogether free. In
South Wales, Scotland, and a large portion of England we find the
coal measures outcropping at the surface in regular succession, and
it only requires a careful geological survey to map their outlines
correctly. But in a district like Somersetshire a new difficulty
presents itself. We there find the carboniferous strata extensively
covered up by many newer formations, and it is only at a few
points widely separated from each other, where the more recent
strata have been denuded, that we are enabled to examine the coal
formation on the surface.

The Map of the Ordnance Survey to which I would direct your
notice shows very correctly those portions of the coal measures
which are actually exposed, but it must be obvious from what I have
stated that any ordinary geological map, however good and accurate,
can convey but an imperfect impression of the extent of this
formation, and it is only by constructing a geological map leaving
out the covering of a more recent strata that we get any
adequate idea of its vast area and importance. The construction
of such a map however involves considerations of the gravest
kind. It requires us to recall the condition of things over a
large portion of the South of England at a very early period
of its unwritten history. It requires us to realize the outline
of that great basin in which the Coal measures were originally
deposited, of the disturbing forces by which it was afterwards torn
asunder, and of those denuding agencies which for ages must have
been in operation, smoothing off all inequalities, and over large
tracts of country washing the formation entirely away. In short,
we require to construct a map of this neighbourhood, as it must
have appeared after the coal measures had been successively de-
posited, broken up, and denuded, and before the first coating of
Conglomerate had been deposited on their surface at the bottom of
the Triassic sea.

456

Tue Known Coau FIExp.

I propose in the first instance to treat the geographical position
of the Carboniferous formation in Somersetshire in its more limited
sense by confining your attention to the known coalfield of this
district ; and I would at the outset recall to your recollection the
different subdivisions of which it is composed as seen most clearly
in the section* from Chewton Mendip to Southstoke, near Bath, now
exhibited. You will observe that the upper part of the section is
occupied by the secondary rocks, beginning at the Bath end with
the Great oolite, and in proceeding westward descending through
the Pullers’ earth rock, Fullers’ earth, the Inferior oolite, the Lvas,
and the Keuper marls, to the Conglomerate beds of the Z'rias, which
form the base of the secondary rocks in this district. You will also
observe that the lower part of the section consists of the Old red
sandstone, which is extensively exposed in the anticlinal ridge of the
Mendip Hills. Between these limits lie the Carboniferous strata
which consist in descending order of—

1. The Radstock series

2. The Farrington ditto

3. The Pennant sandstones.

4, The lower division of productive Coal measures, consisting
of the New Rock and Vobster groups.

5. The Millstone grit or farewell rock, and

6. The Carboniferous limestone with its associated shales.

The probable limits of each of these sub-divisions, and especially
of the upper four, which are of the greatest commeicial importance,
I propose this evening to investigate ; describing first of all those
areas which are exposed on the surface, and afterwards endeavouring
to define the range of each sub-division beneath the secondary rocks.

Outcrops of Old Red Sandsione.

It is obvious that the extent of the Carbonijerous rocks must be
very much affected by the position of the Old red sandstone, the
foundation rock on which they rest.

The Old red is seen at various points on the west, north and
south of the Somersetshire and Gloucestershire basin. On the
south it forms the backbone of the entire Mendip range, extending

\ forming the upper division.

* A section prepared for the Royal Coal Commission, and not yet
published.— Bp,

aR

with comparatively little interruption from Whatley at the eastern
extremity of those hills, by way of Downhead, Stoke Lane, Maes-
bury Camp, Pen Hill, North Hill near Priddy, and Charterhouse,
to Shipham and Rowberrow. Here it takes the form of a true anti-
clinal, or series of anticlinals, throwing off the Mountain limestone
on its northern and southern flanks. It was within this area, imme-
diately adjoining Stoke Lane, that Mr. Charles Moore discovered
the presence of 7'rap rock, throwing much additional light on the
physical structure of the district.

On the north-west the Old red sandstone occupies the coast line
from Clevedon to Portishead, and it is also.extensively exposed
between Portbury and Stoke Bishop, a good section being seen in
the gorge of the Avon where the members of this Society had the
advantage of inspecting it a year or two ago,

On the extreme north it flanks the coal basin almost continuously
from Thornbury by Milbury Heath to Tortworth, and thence by
Charfield to Wickwar, where it is lost beneath the secondary rocks
and is seen no more on the eastern side of the basin.

Outcrops of Carboniferous Limestone

- The Carboniferous limestone exhibits an immense development in
this part of England. {+t occupiesa much more extended area than
the Old red sandstone, and its outcrops can be traced continuously
round the greater part of the basin. It appears to hem it in com-
pletely on three sides and partially so on the fourth or eastern side.
Beginning at Orchard Leigh, near Frome, and proceeding west-
ward through Vallis to the summit of the Mendips, we find the
Mountain limestone flanking both sides of that range all the way
from Mells to Weston-super-Mare. At Broadfield Down it also
presents a large area, but there it would seem to be rather an island
of limestone which has been lifted up through the surrounding Coal
measures than a portion of the chain forming the margin of the
basin.

On the west its outcrops stretch continuously from Clevedon
under Leigh Down, Clifton and Durdham Down to Henbury, where
for a short distance it passes beneath the overlying rocks, but it
reappears at Knole Park and extends through Almondsbury, Crom-
hall, and Wickwar to Chipping Sodbury. Beyond we only meet

, 458
with it at a few isolated points, viz., at Tyning’s, near Codrington,
at Doynton, Wick and Beech, but these are valuable landmarks in
determining the eastern limit of the basin.

Outcrops of Millstone Grit.

The Millstone grit is a deposit of much less importance than that
I have been describing, and as it lies nearer the base of the hills, it
is much covered up by secondary rocks. The only connected out-
crop of it on the south side of the basin is between Mells and
Ashwick, where it occupies a considerable area, but it is seen at one
or two isolated points besides. At Emborrow, where I examined
the ground in company with a friend in the course of the present
autumn, we detected to the north and east of Lechmere water
what we believed to be unmistakeable outcrops of the rock. These
are not shewn in the Ordnance Map, which at this point does not
exhibit the usual amount of accuracy, portions of the grit and of
the true Coal measures having been coloured as mountain limestone.
Mr. Saunders also appears to have discovered outcrops of the grit
at Compton Martin and Winford which had escaped the notice of
the Government Geologists.

Passing northward it appears in a succession of patches extending
from Long Ashton to Durdham Down, and we then see no more of
it until we reach Tytherington, from whence it passes round the
northern end of the basin by Cromhall to Yate. At Cromhall it
belies its usual character of being the miner’s farewell rock, for
workable seams of coal have actually been found in it. After leaving
Yate the only point at which it is exposed is Wick, where it flanks
the limestone on two sides.

Outcrops of Coal Measures.

Taking then the outcrops of the Old red sandstone in connexion
with the ranges of Mountain limestone and Millstone grit by
which they are flanked, we get a general outline of the basin of
productive Coal measures lying to the north of the Mendip Hills.
Within this basin as I have already stated there are few outcrops
to guide us, and from the prevalence of shales which are much de-
composed near the surface, coal measure outcrops are generally less
instructive than most other rocks.

459

In the southern end of the basin we find a continuous area of
exposed Coal measures, extending from Mells on the east to Blacker's
Hill on the west. The strata consist chiefly of the shales and sand-
stones of the lower division, but at Lookham Wood and Walton
Farm there is a considerable development of Pennant rock. The
special feature in this part of the coalfield, is that which I had
occasion to bring prominently before your notice in a former paper,
viz., that during the elevation of the Mendip range the strata have
been folded or doubled back upon themselves, the order of super-
position being entirely reversed. As a consequence, we have
Mountain limestone resting on the under division of. Coal measures,
the under division in its turn resting on the Pennant rock, and this
not for a short distance only, but over a district of country four
miles in length.

Proceeding northward, the next Coal measure outcrops we meet
with extend in an irregular patch from Farrington Gurney through
Hallatrow, High Littleton, Temple Cloud, Clutton, Chelwood,
Stanton Wick, Pensford, and Compton Dando to Chewton Keyn-
sham. At Hallatrow we find the low ground occupied by the
outcrops of the Farrington group of veins, but in approaching
Temple Cloud the Coal measures suddenly attain a high elevation,
forming the picturesque escarpments of Highbury Hill and Temple
Hill. This has been brought about by a great fault, an upthrow
north of 420 feet, passing east and west through Clutton Union
Workhouse, by which the Pennant sandstones have been lifted
up, carrying with them the secondary rocks which have subse-
quently been denuded from their higher summits. At Highbury
and Temple the Pennant is extensively developed, presenting many
instructive sections, and dipping eastward at an angle of 20 degrees
beneath the Farrington series at Greyfield colliery.

After leaving Temple the Coal measure outcrops gradually become
narrower until they are only visible in the bed of the brook, but a
little to the north of Chelwood they suddenly attain a breadth of
three miles, I think it not improbable that at this point there
may be an east and west fault, running from Chelwood towards
Coal-pit Lane, which has lifted up the strata to the north, but of
this we have no direct proof. In Coal pit Lane, between Moorledge

460

and Stanton Wick, there is an extensive area of Pennant sandstones,
which dip eastward at a moderate angle, and pass beneath the
Coal measures of Stanton Wick and Pensford.

As to the district between Pensford and Compton Dando some
uncertainty exists. The mines there have not been worked during
the present generation, and very little local information can be
obtained ; but there would appear to be several distinct groups of
coal outcrops lying above the Pennant. One of these comes to the
surface a little to the west of Stanton Wick, its presence being
indicated by a double row of old shafts ; another is seen between
Stanton Wick and Pensford, where there is a second line of old
pits ; and a third group of seams appears in the cuttings of the
‘North Somerset Railway, near Publow. The latter, after some
experiments, I am disposed to corelate with the Radstock series,
and the others probably belong to the Farrington group, but at this
point faults may have led to a multiplication of outcrops, I
believe Mr. Prestwich’s opinion is that near Pensford the
carboniferous system attains its greatest vertical depth, there being
a greater thickness of unproductive strata above the Radstock
group than at any other part of the coal-field,

Passing on by Newton St. Loe, where there is a small patch of
Coal measure strata, chiefly Pennant, we arrive at Brislington, and
here we enter upon what is by far the most important area of
exposed Coal measures in the entire district. It extends without
break from Brislington to Cromhall, a distance of 13 miles, and
attains its greatest width between Stapleton and Bridge Yate,
where it may be traced for five miles. Within this area, and
near its southern end, occurs the great Kingswood anticlinal,
extending across the entire basin from Bristol to Wick.
Kingswood Hill, from which the disturbance takes its name,
forms the summit of the ridge, the strata on one side dipping
southward towards Brislington, while those on the northern side dip
northward towards Mangotsfield. Certain gritty sandstones which
occur in the summit of the ridge were at one time believed to form
part of the Millstone grit, and they were so coloured in the earlier
ordnance maps; but it is now generally acknowledged that they
are ordinary sandstones belonging to the Coal measures, Although

Sy

Lerticreh

WW Aatied
y

Wickwar

PLAN
Shewung rarege of
SOMERSET & BRISTOL COAL FIELD,
(ifly) under —
SECONDARY ROCKS.
1873.

he
etingiemn

Ott ushead etiithury

Maa te

? -

Mire \

DIL EY
ehuridl

VATA

Gt Ste MHA HIOE.

Midi

phan

e
ah
fe Vis

REFERENCE.
ant

RADSTOCK SERIES
RED SHALES
FARRINGTON SERIES Coat MEASURES
PENNANT ROCK

LOWER DIVISION

MicitsTONe Grit
CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE
Oro RED SANDSTONE

>< UNCERTAIN GROUND

tell |

@ WelLLs

@ Swerron MALLET.

461

Somersetshire and the southern part of Gloucestershire form
one connected coal field, the anteclinal of Kingswood has separated
the latter into a subordinate basin, in which the strata dip towards
the centre from all points. It appears to me that the whole of this
northern part of the coal field, commencing at Kingswood, has been
raised to a higher elevation than the Somersetshire end of the
basin, and it has thus been more exposed to those powerful
denuding forces which have swept over the district. The Zias and
the Keuper marls have here been to a great extent removed, and the
highest Coal measure strata of which we have any evidence are the
red shales which intervene between the Radstock and Farrington
groups, these having been proved in the sinking of Parkfield -
colliery.

We next pass on to the Nailsea basin, the extent of which is
little known. Only a small portion of its northern end is exposed
at the surface, and it speedily disappears under the alluvial deposit
which extends under Kenn Moor towards the Channel. So far as I
have been able to determine, the strata belong to the under part of
the Pennant and the lower division of Coal measures, chiefly the
latter.

A little to the north of the Nailsea basin, between Clevedon and
Clapton, we find a curious little strip of Coal measures wedged in
between two ridges of limestone, and near to Clevedon it presents
the appearance of dipping beneath the limestone. This is caused
by a fault, which happens to be so nearly coincident with the
bedding of the strata as to deceive a casual observer. The Clapton
Coal measures doubtless belong to the under division, but they are
of small area and importance.

Range of the Coal Measures under Secondary Rocks.

I have dwelt with some degree of minuteness on those parts of
the carboniferous system which come to the surface, and which are
‘therefore open to examination. Much additional information has
been obtained from mining operations, but this being of too
technical a character to be of general interest, I will now endeavour
to define the probable range of the different members of the
productive Coal measures beneath the secondary rocks, taking them
in their ascending order (see diagram ).

462

Resting on the Willstone grit, then, we have the under division,
comprising the Vobster and New Rock groups of veins. Beginning
at Mells this division extends through Vobster, Coleford, Edford,
Nettlebridge, and Blacker’s Hill, to Old Down and Emborrow.
From this point its probable course is by way of Chew Down, Litton,
Cawley, East Harptree, West Harptree, Compton Martin, and
Ubley, to Nempnet. Here a narrow neck of the under division
probably passes down the valley between Broadfield Down and the
Mendips into the Nailsea basin.

The margin of the division in the principal basin, however,
extends northward from Nempnet by Ridge Hill, Upper Littleton,
Barrow House, Long Ashton, Bristol, Horfield, Filton, and Little
Stoke to Cromhall, in the extreme north of the basin. To define
its eastern margin we must take a line from Yate by Wapley,
Abstone, Wick Court, Beech, Twerton, Odd Down, Southstoke,
Lower Twinhoe, Norton St. Philips, and Buckland Dinham, to
Mells; the point from which we set out.

We have thus traced as by a ring fence the outline of the
principal field. In the Nailsea basin the under division probably
extends from Clevedon by way of Tickenham, Nailsea Heath,
Backwell Common, West Town, Brockley, Yatton, Churchill, and
Banwell, on towards the Channel, but in that direction there are
few facts to guide us.

The Pennant sandstones come next in ascending order, and it is
desirable that their range should as far as practicable be defined,
because they form the great separation beds between the upper and
lower division of productive Coal measwres, and further, that mining
adventurers may be deterred from embarking their capital in
barren ground of enormous thickness, beneath which the under
division for the most part lies at too great a depth to be
profitably worked. The Pennant lies in three separate districts.
Taking the more extensive first—its outcrops probably extend from
Babington by Holcombe, Stratton-on-the-Fosse, Chilcompton, and
Stone Easton, to Cameley and Temple Cloud. Between Temple
Cloud and Coal-pit Lane its course is uncertain. In the opinion of
some it passes round by Hinton Blewet to the west of Bishop
Sutton and thence to Coal-pit Lane, in which case the veins at

463

Bishop Sutton must form part of the Farrington group, but it is
thought by others that the Pennant takesa direct line by Temple to
Coal-pit Lane, in which case the Sutton collieries must be in the
under division. Something may be said in favour of both views,
and until further explorations have been made the question must

. remain undecided.

Leaving Coal Pit Lane, the boundary of the Pennant may be taken
on the east side of Chew Magna, by East Dundry, Buishport, Bed-
minster, Hanham, the eastern side of Bitton, Kelston, Newton St.
Loe, Combehay, Wellow, and Hardington to Babington.

In Gloucestershire a separate basin of the same rock extends from
Stapleton by Winterbourne, Rangeworthy, Yate Common, Puckle-
church, and Siston to Mangotsfield and thence back to Stapleton.

In the Nailsea district also we have a Separate area, extending
from Kenn, by Nailsea village, Chelvey and Horse Castle to
Brinzey, and thence under the Marsh towards the Channel, but its
range in that direction is very uncertain.

We now pass on to the Farrington group which has hitherto
been little developed, but in future will probably command greater
attention. Beginning in the village of Farrington, from which it
derives its name, this series passes round by Hallatrow, Grayfield,
Clutton, Stanton Wick, Norton Malreward, Keynsham, Burnet,
Marksbury, Dunkerton, Foxcote, Kilmersdon, Norton Down and
thence back to Farrington. In the Gloucestershire end of the field
there is a separate area of the same series. Its range is from
Shortwood by Parkfield Collieries and Westerleigh to Iron Acton,
from which it follows an undulating line nearly due south to
Pomphrey. There is no evidence of this group being represented
in the Nailsea basin, the Pennant being the highest division
hitherto known there.

It will be observed that each group in ascending order becomes
more and more limited in area, the Radstock or upper series being
the least extensive of all, although from the excellence of its produce
it has been more largely worked than all the others put together.
In the neighbourhood of Publow, as I have already stated, there is
probably a district of the Radstock series, but its veins are probably
not so thick and valuable as further south, and its boundaries are

464

too uncertain for me to venture to define them. The proved part
extends from Fry’s Bottom Collieries, Clutton, through High
’ Littleton, Paulton, Midsomer Norton, Huish, Writhlington, Foxcote,
Carlingcote and Tunly to Farmborough, beyond which its course is
unknown.

Briefly then, the coalfield which I have been endeavouring
to describe has a total length, from Cromhall to the Mendips,
of 26 miles, and it attains its greatest width between Ashton
and Twerton, where it extends for twelve miles. According to
the report of the Royal Coal Commission, it embraces a total
area of 152,780 acres, or 238 square miles, of which about 190
square miles are covered by newer formations.

The total quantity of coal it contains has been estimated in round
numbers at 6,104 millions of tons, which at a million tons per
annum, the present rate of exhaustion, is sufficient to last for 6,104
years, and even if we omit all below 4,000 feet in depth as being
unworkable we still have 4218 millions of tons, equal at the present
rate to a supply for 4218 years. Whatever may be the condition
of things in other parts of the country, it must be evident that in
this neighbourhood there is no cause for anxiety. ©

PropaBLeE Coan AREAS IN ADJoINING DISTRICTS OF THE
SoutH oF ENGLAND.

Having considered in its more limited sense the geographical
position of the carboniferous basin of Somersetshire, I propose very
briefly to point out its relation to certain other coalfields and its
bearing on certain areas of the South of England within which it is
believed that coal may ultimately be found.

After the valuable labours of Sir Roderick Murchison, Mr.
Godwin Austin, Mr. Prestwich, and others, it would be presumptuous
on my part to attempt to throw new light on the subject, and my
object is rather to lay before you a very brief summary of the pre-
vailing opinions respecting it. .

The Somerset and Gloucester Basin seems to be a link ina chain
of coal basins extending from Germany through Belgium and France,
again appearing in Somerset, the Forest of Dean, and South Wales>
from whence it crosses to Ireland, and a further continuation

-

465

of which may possibly be found in the coalfields of Nova Scotia.
I think we are justified in this view, for not only do the separate
coal areas alluded to range uniformly in one direction, but there are
many points of similarity in their conditions leading to the con-
clusion that they were not originally isolated and distinct, but
rather that they originally formed one connected area of great extent.

The coalfields of South Wales, the Forest of Dean and Somerset-
shire, all present the same distinctive feature of two productive
divisions separated vertically by an intervening mass of Pennant
rock, and in the number of seams as well as the general character |
of the strata there is a close correspondence. The coal districts of
Westphalia, Belgium, and France also have many points of re-
semblance to each other, and although they will not bear a close
comparison with the strata of Somerset and South Wales (which is
hardly to be expected considering the intervening distance), yet in
the number of seams, the fossils they contain, the ironstone
associated with them, and the total thickness of strata, the dif-
ferences are not greater than may often be found on opposite sides
of the same coalfield. Perhaps the greatest difference between
them is that on the Continent productive Coal measwres take the
place of the barren Pennants of England and Wales.

The most marked points of resemblance however’ are well stated
by Mr. Prestwich to be “the uniformity of subjection to like
physical causes, and their relation to the underlying older and the
overlying newer formations.” The prevailing opinion is that the
several coalfields mentioned owe their position to one great axis
of disturbance which begins in the South of Ireland, extends along
the Coast of South Wales into the Mendip chain, forming the
southern margin of the Pembrokeshire, South Wales and Somerset-
shire coalfields, and the eastern termination of which may be found
in the anticlinal of the Ardennes on the southern edge of the
Belgian coalfield. If then in England on the one hand, and on the
Continent on the other, we find to the north of this axis a series of
basins which present every appearance of having originally formed
one great coalfield, it has been thought not improbable that under
a large area of the South of England intervening between Frome
and Calais productive Coal measwres may one day be found.

466

Sir Roderick Murchison has argued that, inasmuch as the
Somersetshire coal field is apparently entirely cut off to the east-
ward by older rocks ranging from Wickwar through Bath to
Frome, and as the French coal field is cut off to the westward by
Devonian rocks, which have been met with iramediately below the
chalk, there is no reason to expect Coal measures in the intervening
area. He has argued further that the continental coal fields
become deteriorated in proceeding westwards, so that even if coal
strata should exist in the south of England, they would probably
be of no commercial value.

While the alleged deterioration is disputed by some authorities
the other statements cannot be denied, but the argument Sir
Roderick based on these is not conclusive. Subordinate to the
principal east and west axis there would appear to have been many
cross lines of disturbance which have separated the South Wales
coal field from the Forest of Dean, the Forest of Dean from
Somersetshire, and which have in like manner split up the conti-
nental coal field into many parts. The Devonian rocks of the west
of France and the Mountain limestone to the east of Somersetshire
may therefore be only additional examples of these transverse
elevations of the older rocks, and their presence at opposite ends of
the area under consideration by no means implies the absence of
Coal measures between.

The only other evidences of palaeozoic rocks bearing on the
question are the presence of Cambrian rocks at Charnwood Forest,
and the fact that at Harwich the Carboniferous limestone and near
London the Devonian have been found to underlie the chalk, but
these lie to the north of the supposed basin of productive Coal
measures, and we must hope that the Wealden boring will shortly
throw additional light on the subject.

Another possible coal area, which has given rise to a good deal
of discussion, lies to the south of the great axis of disturbance to
which I have referred, in the country intervening between the
Mendips and the Quantock hills, and under the Bristol Channel to
the south of the Welsh coal field. The Mendip range, as I have
already said, is a true anticlinal, the centre of the ridge being
occupied by the Old red sandstone, from which the Mountain lime-

467

stone, together with isolated patches of the Millstone grit, dip
northwards in the direction of Bath, and southward towards Wells.
But although the Coal measures are met with in their greatest
thickness and perfection on the northern side of those hills, pre-
cluding the idea of this having been the margin of the basin in
which they were originally deposited, we have hitherto had no
evidence of their presence towards to the south, unless we accept
as such the carbonaceous beds of North Devon.

In the year 1815, the late Earl of Ilchester, acting under the
advice of Wm. Smith, put down a boring at Compton Dundon to
discover coal. It began in the Keuper marls, in which it was
continued to a total depth of 173 yards, but without success.

Another unsuccessful trial was made a year or two ago near to
Marston, on lands belonging to the Earl of Cork. It began in the
Ozford clay, and after sinking and boring to a depth of 600 feet,
without getting through the secondary rocks, the work was
abandoned.

We have nothing further to guide us until we reach the Quantock
hills, where there is a large exposed area of Devonian, forming
the southern boundary of the district under consideration.
At Cannington Park, in the northern slope of the Quantocks,
certain limestones were until lately believed to be of carboniferous
age, but Mr. Etheridge has pronounced them to be Devonian.

Against the prospects in this southern area three objections have
been raised: first, that as the Mountain limestone on the southern
slope of the Mendips, and the Devonian on the northern flank of
the Quantocks are covered by secondary rocks without any ap-
pearance of true Coal measures between, coal does not exist there ;
second, that as the rich Coal measures of Somersetshire degenerate
southwards into the worthless Culm measures of Devon we are not
likely to taeet with coal of any commercial value ; and thirdly, that
if Coal measures exist at all they lie at too great a depth to be con-
sidered workable. In the first of these objections I can see no
force whatever. In the known basin to the north of the Mendips
the Mountain limestone is immediately overlaid by the Trias for
eighty miles out of a hundred of its course, but valuable coal exists
there nevertheless. As to the second objection, I would remark

468

that if Coal measures exist immediately to the south of the Mendips
they will hardly have lost the productive character which they
exhibit immediately to the north of those hills. Itis not unlikely
that the southern margin of this supposed basin may show a
transition towards the Culm measures of Devon, but it is equally
probable that its northern margin adjoining the Mendips may
exhibit the true productive character. The third objection relating
to the thickness of the secondary rocks is one on which Mr. Charles
Moore has ably written, and on which he has collected much useful
information, but in his estimate he confessedly takes “the greatest
thickness of secondary strata without the basin” as his guide, so
that it is probably over rather than under the mark, and even this
estimate does not place the Coal measures beyond workable depth.

Another coal area of less extent has within the last year or two
been discovered under the Severn, between New Passage and
Portskewit, but time will not permit me to describe this, and I
would only in conclusion express the: hope that the facts I have
stated as to the known and probable coal areas of the south of
England will make us feel more strongly than ever the importance
of our national resources.

Bells of Somerset. By Rev. W.S, SHaw, M.A. Read Feb. 12, 1873.

Our worthy Secretary suggested to me the title of the Bells of
Somerset for the Paper which I have the privilege of laying before
you this evening. I feel, however, in adopting it somewhat as if
I were trespassing. Probably most of you are aware that Mr.
Ellacombe, of Clyst St. George, is engaged upon a work in which
a full account will be given of all the Somersetshire bells. What
knowledge I may have picked up with regard to bells has been
largely due to excursions I have made to some town or other, an
account. of which Mr. Ellacombe wished to obtain. You must
therefore understand the title of the Paper to imply that my
remarks will be confined to Somersetshire bells, and those only to
a very limited extent.

469

Bells may roughly be divided into two classes, pre-Reformation
and post-Reformation bells. Pre-Reformation bells were generally
heavier for their size, and therefore richer in tone, and were often
longer in their shape than more recent bells, were not as a rule
dated, and did not frequently bear the founder’s name: it was
enough for him that he had turied out a good article and dedicated
it to the service of God. The inscriptions are usually prayers to
Some saint under whose protection the bell was placed, and to
whose honour it was cast. Post-Reformation bells aré often
lighter, have broader shoulders, shorter waists, generally dated,
with founders’, and churchwardens’, and vicars’ names given in
full, and bear inscriptions in which religious feeling is often
conspicuous by its absence. We will, then, thus dividing the bells,
take, somewhat at haphazard, a few belfries in Somerset it has
been my lot to visit. And first for pre-Reformation bells.

At Englishcombe there are two of interest ; the 4th, which bears
the inscription,

+ SANCtaA - MIARIA - GORA. eo NOBILIS.

The dth—

+ JHU - FL - DEL - MUSABRERE - MeL.

The letters are all crowned and set wide apart. The words are
divided by stops.

Mr. Ellacombe states that about twenty belfries in Somerset
have bells apparently from the same foundry, only one in Devon,
one also in Essex. The word “JESU” is abbreviated and spelt
“THU.” The F, too, in “ Filii” is peculiar.

At Batheaston the 4th is a remarkable bell, with the inscription,
+ UIRGIDIS - ECHREGIE - VOCOR - Campana -

SHARLIE.
It is I believe unique. The letters are of singular elegance in form
and ornament, and would, I suppose, be called Lombardic.

Passing on to St. Catherine's we find three out of the ring of four
are old bells. The 2nd and 3rd are by the same founder, one
. bearing

+ Sancta Maria Ora Pro Nobis,
+ Sincta Mecollae Ora Bro Nobis,

the other

a

470

The dedication to St. Nicolas is uncommon: as patron of
merchants, sailors, or schoolboys one does not see any special
connection with St. Catherine’s. There is a bell of the* same
founder’s at Waterstock, in Oxfordshire, also dedicated to St.
Nicolas. The cross is an elegant one. Two bells at Bawdrip, in
this county, bear the same shield but different cross. The shield
is sometimes found connected with the Winchester arms. At
Headbourne Worthy, near Winchester, this cross and the curious
head and Edwardian groat are also found. The 4th bell is
dedicated to St. John the Baptist ; it bears the initials “t g.”
The cross of four fleur de lis appears in one or two sizes on several
Somersetshire bells. The letters are all small, no capitals.
occurring. There are seven bells of this founder’s in Devonshire ;
I do not know how many in Somerset.

At Bruton there is the earliest dated bell which I have met
with. Before the Reformation bells were rarely dated. There is
one at Bayeux dated 1202. Dates in England did not appear
commonly on bells till after 1550. This bell has 1528. It bears
also curious devices, a shield with “W. G.” on it, the arms
it is thought of a Wm. Gylfard, who was abbot at the time, a
flower, a fish, and rabbit. It is dedicated to the Virgin and St.
Stephen.

At Ditcheat there is a splendid bell, the tenor. It is 474 inches
in diameter at its mouth, and probably some 20 cwt. in weight.
The letters are all crowned capitals of very beautiful design,
Curiously enough two of the stamps on it are not raised as the
letters, but impressed.

+ AVE GRACIA PLENA BOMINUS TECUM
is the inscription.

The 5th bell at Ditcheat is also old, bearing inscription,

+ SANCTA MMABIA - ORA PRO NOBILIS.
The S’s are placed backwards. The cross and stop are simple.

At Whatley, near Frome, out of a ring of five there are four
pre-Reformation bells ; two, the 3rd and 4th, dedicated to St.
Clement, the 2nd to St. Thomas, the 5th to St. Gregory. The
2nd, 3rd, and 4th have no “ ora pro nobis” and no capitals. They
all bear a crown which is peculiar: it occurs at Yarncombe, in

471

Devon, and there is associated with a ship. The 5th bell, dedi-
cated to St. Gregory, is altogether different. There are crowned
capitals, two crosses, and the initials “W. H.” Gregory is spelt
“ Grygori.”

At Great Elm are three old bells of peculiar interest. The Ist
with an inscription to St. Thomas, the 2nd to the Virgin, the 3rd
to St. Ann. The Ist and 3rd have ships on them, the meaning of
which is uncertain ; the 2nd has a crown like those at Whatley ;
the 3rd is in larger capitals than the others.

These are some of the more interesting of the pre-Reformation
bells I have seen ; but you will perhaps allow me to bring before
you a cross, stop, and letter of Stephen Norton’s,—also a cross at
West Monkton which is unknown elsewhere.

Let us pass now to post-Reformation bells. Sometimes the cross
which belonged to an old founder is found passing down to later
days. For instance, at Combehay, on the 3rd bell there is the cross
used by “tg” as at St. Catherine’s with inscription of 17th

century—
+ god the fa—ther - of - hen.

And also in St. Matthew’s 4th—
praise - ye - the lord.

Several of our bells about 1624 were cast by “J. L.,” whose

name appears on the 4th bell at Frome—

“T AM HEE, FOR JOHN LOTT MADE MEK.”
His letters are very flat and broad on the surface. One of his may
be seen at Batheaston ; the 3rd bell there.

The Purdues, of Closworth, also used this style of lettering.
They were noted founders. In 1676 they re-cast “ Great Peter,”
Exeter. The vine leaf and grape was their favourite ornament.
Thos. Purdue died in 1711 at the age of 90, on his tomb is
inscribed—

Here lies the bell founder, honest and true,
Till the resurrection—named Purdue.

Sometimes you meet with curious freaks in lettering, as, for

instance, on a highly ornamented bell at Bruton, bearing date 1649,

is this curious inscription—
EVILA ‘RA: TAHT: ESOHT : OT - DUOL ° SEIRC : EVIF : ESOHT
FO: TSRIF -EHT* MA *TI
SE: RB. 1649

472

Which has only to be read backwards, and then runs—
I am the first of those five
Cries loud to those that are alive.

At Dunkerton we have two interesting bells from Bilbie’s foundry
at Chewstoke. They were founders from 1700 to 1815. The two
at Dunkerton both bear date 1732. The 2nd appears to have been
originally a good bell; was then broken and recast, not however very
successfully, by Cockey, at Frome, it was then apparently sent to
Bilbie, who has commemorated the matter thus—

BEFORE - I- WAS - A BROKE* I - WAS: AS: GOOD: AS * ANEY +
BUT : WHEN : THAT - COKEY - CASTED - I - NEAR - WAS - WORTH - A+ PENNEY.
THOMAS BILBIE CAST ALL WEE.
MR, THOMAS HARDING AND MR, THOMAS FLOWER, CHURCHWARDENS.
1732.
The tenor has—

HARKE « HOW * THE CHIRIPING - TREABLE : SOUND: SO: CLEARE
WHILE - ROWELLING - TOM - COM - TOMBELLING - IN + THE: REARE,
The Bilbies were not apparently without a fair opinion of their own

merit. Witness the first bell at Bruton—
ONCE I’D A NOTE THAT NONE COULD BEARE
BUT BILBIE MADE ME SWEET AND CLEAR.
They sometimes adopted a better, as the 3rd bell at Bruton—
PRAY RING THE BELLS AND PRAISE THE LORD:
WITH TUNEFUL NOTES AND SWEET ACCORD,

I have no rubbings of our own Bath bells. They are most of
them by the Rudhalls at Gloucester, who for many years were
excellent founders, as the bells of St. Michael’s Tower bear witness.

And now I have rung all the changesI purpose to-night. It has
only been, in ringers’ phrase, a mere “touch.” But perhaps enough
has been said to show that a visit to a Church ought not to be con-
sidered complete without paying a visit to the Belfry. Belfries are
often forgotten, often neglected, but none the less deserving of the
visit of the antiquary ; and I would humbly suggest that it would
form an object of interest in many a walk taken by members of our
Club to visit all the towers in the neighbourhood of Bath, and
obtain a careful account of the number of the bells, their sizes, and
inscriptions.

473

Summary of Proceedings of the Bath Natural History and
Antiquarian Field Club for the year 1872 3.

Mr. PRESIDENT AND GENTLEMEN,

The first subject both in order of time and of importance calling
for especial notice is the statement which you, Sir, made to us at
our last Anniversary dinner. On that occasion during one of those
short and pithy addresses which it has been your pleasure to give,
and our delight to hear, we were grieved at the decision which
the necessities of your health obliged you to announce, i.e., that
we were then listening to the last of those Anniversary Addresses.
We earnestly hope, however, that strength will be granted you for
many more years to advise us by your counsel and encourage
us by your example, so that we may still continue to derive benefit
and pleasure from similar wise words spoken on other occasions
than those of formal dinners which are at all times a tax upon the
strength and energies of a President. We hope, too, that the
appointment of Dr. Hunter as chairman will tend to relieve you
from a portion of those onerous duties necessarily attaching to the
office of the Presidential chair during our evening meetings. The
next point in our review of the past year is to conclude the account
of the third evening meeting held on Feb. 21, 1872, and to explain
that although the printed Proceedings for the year generally end
with the President’s Address on the 18th, yet it was thought
advisable to depart from the usual custom and insert Mr. Mitchell’s
paper as it touched upon subjects connected with local Geology
which otherwise would not have had any place in that number.

The Chair on that oceasion was taken by Dr. Hunter, who
in conveying to Mr. Mitchell the thanks of the Club for his
valuable biographical notices, said he had done what ought
to have been done long ago, arranged in an _ interesting
manner whatever could be collected on Townsend, Richardson,
Lonsdale, and one or two other distinguished men who early saw
that the spark here struck by William Smith would illumine the
universe ; and that he had now secured ‘to Bath the right to add
to her many titles to honour that of the maxime scientie incuna-
bula, Mr. Conybeare he described as a very dark man with a

474

singular twitch and jerk in manner of which one was reminded
when it was stated that he died suddenly of apoplexy. Mr.
Conybeare lived at Batheaston, and so did Mr. Lonsdale, the latter
in a cottage just past the new chapel, known as Lonsdale Cottage.
Samuel Peace Pratt who had been mentioned lived in Lansdown
Crescent ; he was a gentleman of fortune who occupied himself
entirely with natural history, chiefly mineralogy. Dr. Davis was
Dr. John Ford Davis who lived in the Royal Crescent, and was an
active member of the Committee of the Institution for a long
time. In his boyish days there was a gentleman whom he knew,
named Frederick Bakewell, who lived at Upsala Villa, Bath-
wick Hill, and who wrote for the booksellers ; among his works
was a treatise on geology. Colonel Page, the chairman of the
Kennet and Avon Canal Company, deserved to be remembered, for
to the early geologists he was very much what Sir W. Watson was
to the early astronomers of Bath ; at his death he left Lonsdale
£1000 from sympathy with his devotion to natural science. At
the conclusion of the subject Dr. Black exhibited some trap
pebbles and a portion of trap boulder from the immediate vicinity
of Edinburgh, with certain grooves and scratchings upon them
supposed to be indications of ice markings. Some doubt was
however thrown upon this supposition, as the scratches appeared
quite freshly done as if by the plough or some iron instrument.
The fourth and last evening meeting was held on March 13th,
the Rev. Prebendary Scarth presiding in the absence through
indisposition of the President. The proceedings opened with a
paper by Dr. Hunter on Trade Fraternities, beginning with a short
relation of what is recorded of the Companies of Weavers and other
trades in Bath. These Companies assumed the monopoly of the
exercise of their respective callings in Bath, and the Corporation
affected to give a legal sanction to the pretension. The last
Company, that of the Drapers, was formed by a Deed under the
seal of the Corporation in 1752. In 1765 the question of their
authority was raised in a court of law, and judgment going against
the Companies, the whole system fell to the ground. Dr. Hunter
exhibited the Deed creating the Drapers’ Company, which is now
in the possession of the Rev. H. E. Howse... It appears that ata

475 : .

Common Council held at Bath on the 17th February, 1752, there
attended Francis Bennett, Samuel Howse, James Terry, John Howse,
Richard Harford, John Richardson, John Bowden, William Clement,
Thomas Farr, James Crawford, Charles Harford, and William
Smith, Freemen, Linen Drapers, Woollen Drapers, Mercers, and
Haberdashers, and demanded of the Corporation that they and
others whom they represented should be formed into a Company
or Fraternity, and they proposed a set of Bye-laws for their
government.

The Deed relates that the trading companies already existing
have been immemorially governed by laws and ordinances made or
sanctioned by the Corporation, and the order is made that the
drapers, &c., who are now free citizens, and all other such free
citizens inhabiting the city who shall hereafter exercise these
occupations therein, shall be of one Company, and subject to
certain laws, ordinances, and constitutions.

The members, who are to be called by the name of Master,
Wardens and Company, shall have served apprenticeship and shall
be Freemen, They may make convenient bye-laws and present
them to the Corporation for approval. They shall have a Common
Hall to be called Linen Drapers’ Hall, and there they shall meet
to consult and advise. Mr. Francis Bennett is appointed the first
Master for a year, and Messrs. Samuel Howse and James Terry
are to be Wardens. ‘The fifteenth of August is to be the annual
day for electing new officers. The Company shall, if required,
attend upon the Mayor and Corporation on all solemn occasions as
the other Companies do. The conclusion should be given entire,
“ All which said Ordinances or Constitutions being conceived to be
for the Regulation and advancement of Trade by reducing the
said artificers into a Company to meet and consult on future and
further Regulations of themselves and their Trades, and for the
common good and publick utility. We the said Mayor, Aldermen,
and Common Council do (as far as we lawfully may or can) ordain
and establish, approve, ratifyand confirm” the ordinances, reserving
power to revoke them. The deed is dated September 25, 1752, and
there is appended the first bye-law which orders the members to
subscribe 10s. per annum to the Company. Dr. Hunter observed

476

that the only reason conformable to public policy for the obligatory
apprenticeship to these incorporated Trades was the necessity of a
due learning of the art and mystery professed, and that when a
mere retailing shop-keeper demanded the same right of binding
apprentices as was possessed by a surgeon or a watchmaker the
abuse became apparent, and he suggested that the foundation of
this Compauy, whose Deed was now before the Club, was the indirect
and unintentional cause of the liberation of commerce in Bath. Dr.
Hunter proceeded with some observations on the special exceptional
characteristics which justified the continuance of some of the old
Companies in the present day. The Trinity House, the College of
Surgeons, the Apothecaries’ Company, the Goldsmiths’ Company,
and the Cutlers’ Company of Hallamshire still flourished, not
because they afforded any protection respectively to their members,
but because they performed services of public utility. The paper
concluded with a recommendation of the Historical view as the
best means of reading political truth in general, but especially with
regard to new legislation on the question of Trades Unions on
which men will work blindfold if they do not study the experiments
afforded by the rise and fall of the old civic Companies.

Mr. W. S. Mrrcuett then laid before the meeting a number of
photographs. bearing upon the features of the physical geology
of the district recently taken under his direction, and said
that a comparison of the archeological, botanical, and _pale-
ontological work done by the Club would show that the
strictly geological work was very much in the background, and
since the time of Lonsdale had been too much neglected. It
would, therefore, be well to endeavour to get the different
geological features of the district represented by photographs as
well as by taking notes of them; but then they would want ta
know the relative heights of these different places, and it had been
felt by many that a map of the district, say within a six-mile
radius from the Guildhall, on a scale of four inches to the mile,
- would be desirable, on which might be laid down the heights taken
from the Ordnance Survey, and from other sources which could be
depended upon. With these data lines, and with the assistance of
a new portable theodolite used by the corps of Royal Engineers,

477.

and by the Geological Survey, they might get a large number of
points mapped out, but in order to do this it would be requisite
that some members of the Club should undertake to assist in the
work, and he proposed that a committee should be appointed for
the purpose, Mr. Mitchell’s suggestion was favourably received,
but as it was considered that it was not a matter which could be
dealt with at such a meeting it was deferred until the quarterly
meeting in April,

Discovery oF AncreNT Remains at TwerTon,

The Rev. W. S. Saw communicated a few notes descriptive of
a stone coffin which was exhumed on Friday last, in some garden
ground near the Temperance hall, Twerton. When found, the
coffin was about 2ft. 6in. below the surface, and lying north and
south. It was filled with mould, in which nothing was found
except some large headed iron nails, very short, and with the points
dinted. Below the earth was a complete skeleton, from the position
of which he assumed that the coffin was not large enough for the
body, as the left shoulder rested against the side, and the skull lay
on the chest as if it were cut off or bent round. Near the coffin
was found a roughly worked stone pillar, 2ft. 4in. high, and
two small pieces of pottery were picked up close at hand.
Neither the coffin nor the pillar bore any inseription. In connec-
tion with this discovery, Mr. Shaw noted that some six years ago
two similar coffins were found in the same parish,

The CHarrMan thought it a very interesting discovery, and said
that such discoveries had been very frequent in the neighbourhood,
at Combe Down, Partis College, Langridge, Swainswick, and in St,
Catherine’s Valley. It was difficult to fix a date for them. In the
case of one found on Combe Down, on turning over the lid there
was an inscription which had nothing whatever to do with
the interment, but had belonged to the front of a Roman building
_ which had fallen into decay ; this showed that these stone coffins
were used at a much later date than the Roman period. At
Langridge there was a martel de fer found in a stone coffin, a weapon
used by the Crusaders, so that burials in stone coffins were not
always to be referred to Roman times, though the Romans cer-

478

tainly did bury in them. He was inclined to think from the form
of the pillar that it was a Roman interment, for it had much of the
form of a Roman altar which seemed to have been erected for the
purpose of pouring libations upon, which would lead to the suppo-
sition that it was a person of note and dignity. The nails found
were the ordinary shoe nails.

The Srcrerary had examined the coffin, and from the form of
the skull did not think it Roman, but probably a second interment
of a later date.

Mr. SHaw imagined that the burial was not a Christian one, from
the fact of the coffin lying north and south.

Saxon Remains aT BatHrorp.

Mr. SKRINE announced that in taking down a portion of Bathford
Church for restoration they had discovered an ancient figure,
which the architect pronounced to be Saxon. It was a curious
fact that the church was dedicated to St. Swithin, to which saint
there were not more thau fifty churches dedicated in England, and
in all probability they were all built in the tenth century. The
architect said this was tenth century work, which showed that the
church must have been built very soon after Edgar was crowned
in Bath. The figure, which is much mutilated, was most likely
intended for St. Swithin himself, as it is the figure of a bishop in
the act of blessing, and Ethelwold, Bishop of Winchester at that
time, was the person who removed St. Swithin’s bones to the shrine
in the new cathedral of Winchester, and he was a monk of the Abbey
of Bath about the time when the Manor of Forde was granted to
the Abbey, A.D. 957. It was natural, therefore, that he should
take an interest in the erection of the church and couple it witb
St. Swithin’s name. The discovery of this one piece of Saxon work
was interesting, because there were very few pieces of Saxon
sculpture to be found, for what was called Saxon generally turned
out to be Norman. A piscina, which may be Saxon also, had been
found, and fragments of pillars of the old Norman work, showing
that the church was restored in the time of John de Villula. They
could not very well be used in the church, and it was proposed to
arrange them in niches in a wall which was going to be made in
the churchyard.

479

The evening was brought to a close by a communication from the
Rev. Prebendary Scarth, rector of Wrington, respecting the Ancient
Register of that parish (wde p. 436), which was stated to be one
of the most perfect in the kingdom.

The Session of 1872—73 commenced on Wednesday, Nov. 13th,
and the members were glad to see their President again in the
chair and able to read his paper, which he was obliged through
indisposition to postpone giving last Session. Having first made
some appropriate remarks respecting the advantage of meetings
like the present, and the necessity, and at the same time the
difficulty of keeping pace with the rapid advance of modern
science, Mr. Blomefield requested Dr. Hunter to take the chair,
and proceeded to read his paper on “Local Biology, followed by
remarks on the Faunas of Bath and Somerset” (vide p. 373).

On Dee. 11th, your Secretary opened the second evening meeting
by an account of the discovery during the summer of Devonian
fossils from the sandstones on the N.E. of the Quantocks (vide p.
427), and was followed by Dr. Hunter with “A Note and Query
ona Roman Pavement,” which he had found in his garden in
Bathwick, adjoining the railway; it was acorner bit, and had
tesserze of blue and white lias set in cement.

Dr. Hunter shortly discussed the sources whence the cubes were
obtained which were found in Britain, and he expressed the hope
that geologists would settle the question. Those found in Bath
and the neighbourhood seem to be entirely native, being of pottery,
of chalk, or of variously coloured lias. Of what they are com-
posed in the south-eastern counties, where hard stone is rare, does
not seem to have been exactly ascertained.

The frequency of the occurrence of the story of Orpheus in
lapidary work here was also briefly considered, and it was suggested
that the Orphic poem, Ta AcOixd, which treats of twenty kinds of
precious and common stones, may have been a favourite with the
artists in opus musivum.

The conversation which*ensued was not prolonged, and the
subject may be taken up on a future occasion.

A geological paper of great interest was read by Mr. McMurtrie
on Wednesday, Jan. 15th, the Rev. Leonard Blomefield in the

480

chair. The title of the paper was “‘ The Geographical Position of
the Carboniferous Formation in Somersetshire, with Notes on
possible Coal Areas in adjoining districts of the South of England”
(vide p. 454). Mr. McMurtrie treated first of the actual outcrops
of Carboniferous strata in the Somerset basin, then he endeavoured
to give an outline of the known Coalfield as it probably exists
beneath the Secondary rocks, and finished with some remarks on
the probable Coal areas in the South of England, South of the
Mendips, and between Bath and Qalais. ‘The paper was illustrated
by very fine maps and diagrams.

In thanking Mr. Mc Murtrie for his paper, the PREsIDENT said
that it was especially interesting at this time, as touching on the
coal question. Taking into consideration the fears which were
entertained as to the continuance of the present supply of coal,
and the cost of the article, the paper was deserving of the greatest
attention, and he was much obliged to Mr. Mc Murtrie for bringing
the subject forward.

The Secretary said that the paper had been due to the Club
for a year, but Mr. Mec Murtrie had refrained from giving it until
the Report of the Royal Coal Commission, on which he had been
recently consulted, had been published. He would commence at
the latter part of the paper with regard to the thickness of the
Secondary formation south of the Mendips. Mr. Prestwich, he
believed, adopted Mr. Moore’s estimate of the great thickness of
that formation. Was there coal south of the Mendips? that was
the question, He ventured at the meeting of the Somerset
Archeological Society—standing as he then did on the axis of
the Quantocks, and looking towards the Mendips, with the vast
intervening plain of New red sandstone stretching before him
—to state that he saw no reason why there should not be coal
south of the Mendips, and he was pleased that Mr. McMurtrie had
now stated the same opinion on the subject. As he said then he
said now, that if only some public spirited individual would bore
through that thick mantle of Marls and sandstone which covered
up the intervening plain he could set the question at rest. If coal
were found there he did not think it would interfere with the
profits of the coal fields north of the Mendips, because the expense
of raising it would be so great on account of the depth.

481

Mr. Exin asked whether the coal fields were deposited originally
in basins, or horizontally and then broken into basins by upheaval.

Mr, Winwoob said that the generally received opinion was that
the coal was originally deposited horizontally, and that the basins
had been formed by the crumpling together and upheaval of the
strata subsequently, which formed the anticlinals and sinelinal
troughs in which the coal is now won.

Mr, Ex1in—That is quite possible from Belgium to Wales, which
is a comparatively limited area, but my question is with reference
to the statement that has been made that this same series of beds
stretches to Nova Scotia. Does Mr. Mc Murtrie think that the
coal strata were deposited horizontally and coutinuously throughout
the whole of this distance ?

Mr. Mc Mourrriz, answering Dr. Hunter's question where
coal was to be found in the Millstone grit, said that a place
in the neighbourhood of Bristol was the only point near Bath
where that could be seen. The best example of the Millstone
grit that he knew of was at Mells. The other question whether
there was any possibility of there being an overlooked portion
of Carboniferous Limestone in the eastern edge of the coal
basin near Bath, he thought, would be better answered by Mr.
Winwood, who had examined the district as thoroughly as any one
present. The country was so well known, however, that he hardly
thought an overlooked body of Carboniferous Limestone was likely
to be found. Then as to the thickness of the Secondary rocks, Mr.
Prestwich adopted Mr. Moore’s estimate of 2000 feet, but if this mode
of estimating were adopted in reference to the district between Bath
and London, the secondary rocks under London must be at least
7,150 feet in thickness. But the fact was that boring had shown
them to be only 1000 feet thick. In answer to Mr. Ekin’s question,
Mr. Me Murtrie said that the extension of coal beds to Nova Scotia
was not a bond jide part of his suggestion. He should be inclined
to limit it to our own country.

After some remarks from the Szcrrerary respecting the curious
and unique physical feature at Vobster, where the coal is worked
beneath a patch of Carboniferous Limestone, so that what is usually
the floor is there the roof of the working,

482

Mr, Jostan Goopwin presented to the Jenyns’ library what he
described as an “ unknown book,” reading a short paper in reference
thereto. The book, which was the work of Dr. W. Falconer, of
this city, and printed in 1793, at the Cambridge University Press,
is entitled “ Miscellaneous Tracts and Collections relating to Natural
History ; selected from the principal writers on that subject.” It
was originally in the possession of Mr. W. Sutcliffe, and is of quarto
size, unbound.

The Preswent thanked Mr. Goodwin for the book, and at the
same time exhibited another book (from the Jenyns’ Library),
printed at Bath, and probably as little known as the one exhibited
by Mr. Goodwin. This was “Connubia Florum,” a Latin poem by
De La Croix, something of the character of Darwin’s “ Loves of
the Plants.” It was first published at Paris, in 1723, afterwards
republished at Bath with notes, in 1791, by Sir Richard Clayton,
Bart., spoken of by Monkland as “a gentleman of classic mind,”
who formerly lived in Camden Place,

The fourth Meeting took place on Feb. 12th, under the Presidency
of the Rey. Prebendary Scarth, when the Rev. W. S. Saw
illustrated his “Notes on Somersetshire Bells” (ude p. 468), by
some admirable drawings, tracings, and casts of the figures,
lettering and verses which occurred on some of the most ancient
Bells he had met with in his summer rambles.

The CuamMan conveyed the best thanks of the Club to Mr.
Shaw for his paper. Campanology had, he said, only been taken
up of late years, but it had certainly been thoroughly investigated
by Mr. Ellacombe, who had just brought out a very valuable book
on the subject, a copy of which ought to be possessed by the
Institution.

A discussion ensued as to the frequent occurrence of the
representation of a ship and other markings on Bells, which Dr.
Hunter suggested might in some cases be guarantees of value.

The extracts from the Churchwardens’ Accounts at Wrington
was the title of the next paper read by Rev. Prebendary ScartH
(vide p. 444.)

Dr. Hunrur asked about what period the overseers of the poor
had a separate account from the churchwardens ?

483

Mr. ScarTH said there seemed to have been no payments to the
* poor of the parish ; they were gifts to strangers.
New Rain Guace.

Dr. Buack exhibited a marine rain gauge which he has invented
for the purpose of obviating the difficulties that at present exist in
making observations on the rainfall at sea. He had tested the
instrument on a small scale and found it to act successfully, but of
course it required more extended trial. Dr. Hunrer thanked Dr.
Black for bringing the matter before the Club.

EXOURSIONS.

The four distant excursions have all been carried out with but
partial success owing to the extremely uncertain state of the
weather during the past year. The first to Brockley Combe and
Wrington was decidedly successful, however, and is remembered with
pleasure by those who joined owing to the kind exertions of our Vice-
President, now Rector of Wrington, and the profuse hospitality of
Mr. Long. The morning of the 7th of May opened most unpro-
pitiously ; in spite, however, of the pelting rain seventeen members
with their friends, induced no doubt by the enticing programme of
the day, started by the 8.50 a.m. train for Brockley Comb and
Wrington. . Arrived at Nailsea the first gleam of sunshine welcomed
them as they turned towards the hills and continued with but
slight intermission throughout the day. Following the turnpike-
road as far as the hamlet of West Town a detour was here made
to the left, and the Dolomitic conglomerate, which flanks the hills,
traced to the opening of Brockley Combe. Delightful was the
stroll up the ravine through the flickering shade of the yet almost
unopened vernal leaves, rendered well nigh translucent by the
rain-drops and sunshine. Botanical and geological excursus’ were
made on either hand ; the fertilization of an orchid illustrated with
knife and pencil; the “‘serees” on each side of the ravine pointed
out as the result of Nature’s perpetual wear and tear. Halts were
also involuntarily made from time to time to admire the contrast
between the dark foliage of the gnarled old yew trees, springing up
wherever the joints in the limestone afforded a hold, and the
beautiful light green and variously tinted foliage of the larch, the
oak, and the ash. It was generally agreed that the leaves were

484

just sufficiently out to set, as it were, in a frame, without obscuring
the fine and precipitous rock masses on the north side. Time thus
passed swiftly away, and the head of the ravine was reached, when
voices were heard in the far distance proceeding from several of the
members who had hurried on in front, evidently intent upon other
enjoyments than those of lingering amid the beauties so richly
spread around them by Nature’s bountiful hand. After crossing
the Warren the object of their impatience was at once discovered,
for, by some unaccountable prescience on their part, they had
ascertained that the Vice-President had provided cakes and
ale at the Warren House. Ample justice having been done
to the refreshments so kindly provided by Mr. Scarth, under
his guidance the remaining portion of the Warren was tra:
versed, and standing on the top of the limestone anticlinal,
bearing traces on all sides of the effects of rain, frost, and
other atmospheric influences, in splitting up and detaching
the limestone blocks, the distant points in the charming view
around, so much enhanced by sunshine and shadow, were pointed
out. After a rather precipitous descent, which somewhat taxed
the powers of the elders, a delightful little sunny nook was chosen
at the bottom of the ravine, where the Secretary gave some notes
on the geology of the district, of which the following is an outline.
“Since leaving home this morning, he said, the Club had traversed
a varied and most interesting geological tract. Starting from the
eastern edge of the Somersetshire Coal Field, they had crossed
from the Oolitic escarpment of the hills in the neighbourhood of
Bath over the Lias, a patch of the New-red-sandstone, the Pennant-
sandstone (in which the Bristol tunnels were cut), and finally
emerging on the New-red again they had followed that formation
to the foot of Broadfield Down, a mass of Mountain limestone, one
of the western boundaries of the Bristol coal-field. Before entering
more particularly upon the geology of the Down, he explained the
term coal-field or coal-basin—gave a general idea of the agencies
which had caused the various dislocations so familiar to all those
who know anything of the coal measures, with especial allusion to
the paper read by Mr. Hull before the British Association at
Liverpool (1870), and then described the form of the coal:

485

field near the southern edge of which the members were then
standing. Triangular in shape, its apex was at Tortworth, its base
the range of the Mendips, its eastern boundary ranged through Wick-
war to Mells, its western was the three groups of limestone hills—
Knole Park and the Ridgway ; Leigh Down ; and Broadfield Down
—the latter was the last and most southern limestone anticlinal
which divided the several basins. Having explained the position
of the beds dipping away from the centre on each side at an angle
varying from 5° to 25°, he said that, like the Mendips, its trend
was in an easterly and westerly direction. Its saddle-back shape
was probably due to the form of the Old-red-sandstone beds below,
which, though unexposed on the Down, formed the core of and
were visible on the Mendips, and likewise were seen at the base of
the rocks in the Avon gorge. The peculiar cavernous features of
all limestone districts were then touched upon, and the common
occurrence of ravines generally at right angles to the trend of the
hills. Then came the question how these ravines were formed ?
and the members were left to their own conclusions whether that of
Brockley, which they had just ascended, or that of Goblin, at the
head of which they then were assembled, was due either to the
erosion theory of water cutting its way gradually down from above,
assisted by the effects of frost and heat; or of water acting
chemically and mechanically in the interior of the rocks, forming
passages and caverns, the roofs of which being gradually eaten away
step by step in the course of countless ages, finally assumed the
form of ravines (this theory the members might remember was
ably placed before them by one of their honorary members, Mr.
Boyd Dawkins, during one of their past excursions) ; or to the
dislocation theory, which called in earthquakes and igneous agency
to its assistance. There was yet another theory, which, as it
combined the other two, might be worthy of consideration ; that
was the one which attributed these gorges to disturbances in the
crust of the earth, causing lines of weakness in various directions
which the water sought out and enlarged into ravines and gorges.
Sufficient theories, however, were placed before them to create any
amount of discussion. The evidence on all sides of great denuda-
tion was then pointed out ; ¢g., the Dolomitic conglomerate which
H

486

flanked the Mendips and Broadfield Down, and a patch of which
they examined on their way up this morning, was nothing more -
than an old water beach composed of the pebbles of the rocks on
which it rested, cemented together by a matrix of carbonate of
lime and. carbonate of magnesia, and abounding in metalliferous
veins and pockets. In conclusion the Secretary said that it was
his intention, had time permitted, to have visited and given these
notes from one of the Trap bosses which crop out upon the Down,
whence the Vale of Wrington might have been seen in all its
fertility, a fertility and peacefulness which the necessities of
advancing civilization might possibly some day interfere with, for
there was every reason for supposing that coal might be won
beneath those rich plains which stretched away to the Mendips,
and the clank of the engine would then be heard in place of the
whistle of the ploughboy and the bleating of the sheep. Absit
omen !” 'The notes were finished, and a rapid walk down the south
slope of the anticlinal soon brought the members to Wrington, not
before the rector of the parish had, with fond admiration, pointed
out at every favourable spot the pretty peeps through the trees of
the fine church tower, a tower to which there is hardly a superior
in England. A glimpse at the rectory—-which, if a perfect cube
is to be admired, may certainly come in for its share of admiration,—
and the members found themselves in the interior of the well-
restored church listening to Mr. Scarth’s notes thereon, of which
the following is a summary :—The Church of Wrington, of which
the chancel is the most ancient part and of the Decorated period,
is dedicated to All Saints. The side aisles continue the length of -
one bay beyond the nave, and are of the same length as the
chancel, thus forming two chantry chapels, that of St. Mary on the
north, and probably that of St. Joseph on the south. A fine rood
screen of oak and of elegant work of the late Perpendicular period
extends right across the Church. It is surmounted by an
elaborately carved cornice which once supported a rood loft, the
brackets of which still remain. The tracery in the windows, of
Perpendicular date, has a peculiarity in the head lights exactly
resembling that in the Church of St. Mary Redcliff, Bristol.
' Previously to 1859 there was scarcely any stained glass in the

487

windows, but at the time of its restoration by the late Rector, the
Rey. J. Vane, an east window in the chancel and side aisles and a
west window in the tower were inserted, the execution of the
subjects by Bell, of Bristol. Lately a window in the south aisle,
by Clayton and Bell, has been erected in memory of Mr. Vane, the
designs being in the true conventional style of art, and a great
contrast to the others. The font is a fine specimen of Perpendicular
work, consisting of an octagonal basin supported by sculptured
angels, and rests upon a plain shaft set upon a square step. The
monuments which were removed from the chancel during the
restoration in 1859 are now on the walls of the south porch, which
formerly had a parvise or upper chamber connected with it, The
most aucient is that of the Rey. Samuel Crook, rector, 1602-1649,
with this honourable title attached
“O Ilusrés “Ocxovdpos “O
Adyxvos “O Katdpevos.

At the east extremity of the nave is a very beautiful Perpendicular
campanile containing the Sanctus or Priests’ bell, with the following
inscription in old English characters, ‘Sancta Maria.”

Before leaving the Church general admiration was expressed at
the elegant gas pendants, the generous gift of W. Long, Esq. Some
of the members ascended the tower, whence a fine view of the rich
vale of Wrington was seen, others assembled in the house, at the
north end of the churchyard, where Locke was born 1632, and
where Mr. Scarth exhibited some old chained books and commenced
reading an account of the parish of Wrington. As this appears in full
in the Club’s Proceedings (p. 436), it is unnecessary to give it any
prominence here. An adjournment was made to Westhay, and the
day was brought to a fitting conclusion by the kind reception and
extremely hospitable entertainment given to the Club by Mr. and
Mrs. Long. An extremely clever Darwinian valentine was put
into the hands of the Secretary to read afterwards, and thanks were
given to the kind host and hostess for their hospitality, and also to
the Rev. Prebendary Scarth for the information he had imparted
respecting his church and parish. The following plants which were
gathered during the excursion must not be omitted :—Cardamine
sylvatica, abundant in Brockley Combe ; Dwarf viola, plentiful on

488

the stony hillside of Goblin Combe, supposed to be an unusual form
of Viola hirta ; Polypodium Calcareum, abundant in Goblin Combe ;
Orchis morio and Mascula, a pure white specimen of the latter was
picked, which is rare. »

The Second Excursion, fixed for May 28th, to Fonthill and
Wardour, seems to have been less successful. In the unavoidable
absence of the Secretary, Col. Wyndham Baker kindly undertook
the necessary preparations. The train was taken to Warminster,
where conveyances were in waiting to take the members on ; owing,
however, to the vehicles being badly horsed and proving unequal to
the task before them, much time appears to have been wasted on
the way. The day was neither too hot nor too cold, and the drive
across the downs with the gorse in full bloom was most refreshing.
The American gardens at Fonthill had outbloomed themselves, and
their beauty consequently gone by. The Marchioness of West-
minster, with her usual courtesy, afforded every facility for viewing
the grounds, and her steward conducted the members through the
garden,

The Third Excursion to West Harptree and the Mendips took
place on 25th of June, under a persistent downpour, which
contrary to the usual Club weather seems to have continued
throughout the day. A party of members and their friends (20
in all) started in a break at 8 a.m., and after a wet drive of 17
miles through a country undulating and interesting but viewed
through a dismal veil of moisture, arrived at East Harptree, where
they were met by Mr. Charles Kemble. Some, under the latter
gentleman's guidance, ventured through the rain to seek out the
beauties of the Combe, and perhaps the least said about this part of
the day the better. Others sought the hostlery, and under its
somewhat more friendly shelter listened to some notes from Mr.
’ MecMurtrie, on the’ “ Mining Laws of the Mendips,” which we hope
to have embodied on some future occasion in a number of the
Club’s Proceedings. The Church of East Harptree, dedicated to
St. Lawrence, was visited, and is reported to be in a most
dilapidated condition and sadly needing restoration. The architec-
ture is principally in the perpendicular style. One of the objects
worthy of notice in the Church is the effigy in armour and in a

489

‘recumbent position of a Sir John Newton, d. 1568, the father of
20 children (8 sons and 12 daughters). This figure has been
removed from the west end of the Church and placed behind the
altar, shrouded by a dirty red curtain, whilst the canopy originally
over the tomb lies in pieces in a corner behind the pulpit. A
doorway with zig-zag mouldings (a sketch of which in water colours
Mr. Skrine has kindly presented to the Club’s album) leading into
the vestry at the west end of the Church, was pointed out as a
curiosity. At a short distance from the Church are the few
remaining vestiges of Richmont Castle, the old fortress of the
Harptrees and the Gournays, garrisoned in the time of the war
between King Stephen and the Empress Maud by a Sir Wm. de
Harptree on behalf of the latter. The return home was accom-
plished by 6 p.m., the original programme of the day having been
impracticable owing to the extremely unpropitous state of the
weather. The Secretary is indebted to Col. St. Aubyn for the
above notes.

The excursions for the season were brought to a close on Tuesday,
Oct. 1st, by a visit to Nunney Castle and the Vallis. The G.W.R.
Company, with their usual consideration for the convenience of the
public, having discontinued the 9.25 morning train, perhaps one of
the most convenient on the Weymouth branch, eighteen of the
members started for Frome in a break with four horses. Nothing
of any great importance occurred on the way until Lullington was
reached, save that the spirits of the party were kept up during the
somewhat humid drive by the never flagging humour of one of the
members well known for his “ short cuts” in wit.as well as in cross
country routes. It was owing, however, to his timely suggestion
that a halt was called opposite the park gates of Orchardleigh, and
a visit paid to the pretty, well kept, and thoroughly English village
of Lullington, called in Domesday Loligtone, and granted by the
Norman conqueror to the Bishop of Coutances. Under the
guidance of the vicar, the Rev. A. D. Wilkins, the architectural
features of this extremely interesting church were pointed out.
Like all other objects, whether of nature or art which represent a
debatable ground between two distinct periods, this church,
showing in pillar, arch, and window tracery the peculiarities of one

490

style of architecture combined with that of another, is worthy of
careful study. Entering through the south porch, which has the
character of early Norman work in pillar and tympanum, you see
on the left hand a round font with a conically hollowed out
interior, which at once gives rise to a discussion whether it is early
or late Norman work. Transition seems to be the verdict. Round
its lower part is a series of interlacing round arches, succeeded by
bands of ornament, one of which is composed of open flowers. Just
under the rim is an inscription in plain letters picked out with
black :—‘ Hoc fontis sacro pereunt delicta lavacro.” The letters
cut upon the rim are—
LVATR «+ PART-IDTV.DA
++ CVu-L FEC.

Passing on to the central tower you see a pointed arch with some
of the voussoirs ornamented with zig-zag work springing from
Norman piers with grotesque caps. Was this pointed arch cut out
of a more ancient round Norman arch ? or is it original, marking
the transition from Norman to early English? are questions at
once occurring. Entering the vestry another puzzle exists ina
slab let into the face of the wall with a cross somewhat Maltese in
shape, with round stem, and a hand extending over it issuing from
a cloud, cut in alto relievo—of what date is this, early or late ?
Then again leaving the Norman work and looking at the chancel
windows, another instance of transition meets your eye. The
head tracery of the east window, with its remarkably elegant
flowing lines, marks the Decorated period, turn your eyes to the
side windows, there you see a style partaking of Decorated and
Perpendicular ; and this mingling of boundary lines meets you at
every point. In the south chapel, called St. Catherine’s, and now
the Duckworth resting place, is a very elegant and well-
proportioned early English window. Passing out through one
Norman porch you come round to another on the north side, a
finer specimen than which—vwith its lofty triangular hood-moulding
enclosing a figure of the Deity in sitting posture, with right hand
held up in the act of blessing, its bird-beaked heads, grotesque
capitals, twisted columns, and other curious mouldings—
does not exist in any other Somersetshire village church. The
crown of the arch is filled up with a single stone, on which is

491

carved an object difficult to determine, apparently, griffins vainly
endeavouring to swallow the fruits of the tree of knowledge, or,
as supposed by a writer in the Som. Arch. and Nat. Hist-
Soc. Proceedings for the year 1851, a cross with two animals
either supporting or fighting for it, or, as others have thought,
a “Lamb holding a cross and combating with the power of
evil.” The Manor and advowson were conferred on the Priory
of Longleat. At the dissolution of that Priory they were granted
to John Prior, of the Carthusian Monastery at Hinton, and in the
next year ceded to the King, who in 1541 conferred them on the
Earl of Hertford, by whom, in 1542, they were sold to Sir John
Thynne, from whom they descended to the Marquis of Bath, and
eventually to Wm. Duckworth, Esq. This pleasant interruption
in the drive having terminated, leave was obtained through the
kind intervention of the Vicar, to pass through Orchardleigh Park,
and many a pretty peep of wood and water was obtained through
the stems of its finely grown oak trees. A walk of three miles,
after arriving at Frome, along a dirty and uninteresting road,
brought the members to the village of Nunney with its fine ivy-
mantled castle just peering above the trees. The Secretary having
taken for his rostrum one of the deeply splayed recesses of the
elegant narrow windows, gave some notes on the castle, its
situation, construction, date, rise and fall, and afterwards pointed
out in the north chapel of the adjoining church the tombs of the
noble family of the De la Meres, the founders and builders of the
castle. As there was no one present connected with the church
who could give any information respecting the five figures of
knights and ladies represented there, the only information
obtainable was from the coats of arms, which showed the lions
passant gardant of the De la Meres, and the three daggers in pile
base of the Powlett’s, together with some other crests, which, owing
to the hideously high-backed pews, it was almost impossible to
read off. Before leaving Nunney the Secretary expressed a wish
that he could obtain some more accurate information respecting
the family of the De la Meres, who must have played a very
important part in the local history of the times, than that
contained in Collinson, and hoped some one would kindly help him
to the sources whence it might be drawn. He also alluded to the

492

efforts which were now made by local societies to protect the
ancient historical monuments of the country, and lamented
the destruction that was now silently undermining the fine old ruin
before them. Archeology having had its fair portion of the
morning, the rest of the walk was devoted to geology, and the
members hastened on to the Vallis by the Whatley Road. The
wonderful sections of Mountain Limestone, with the beds of
Inferior Oolite, deposited unconformably on their basset edges, and
the conglomeratic bed of Rheetic age were, of course, the chief
points for examination ; in the latter beds fish teeth of Rhoetic age
were found associated with water-worn pebbles of coral from the
Mouutain Limestone. The inspection of the Liassic infillings of
the fissures was, however, much interfered with by the sound of
rifle bullets impinging upon the targets close at hand, and the band
of geologists, now much reduced in numbers by the fatigues of the
day, found themselves “ under fire” for the first time, as the range
was directly over their heads and unpleasantly near. Frome
was, however, safely reached, and a frugal meal of meat and beer
refreshed the members for their homeward journey.

As one of the features of our Proceedings the excursion of some
of the members of our Club to Great Malvern must not be omitted.
A joint expedition of the Malvern and Bath Field Clubs, with the
Woolhope Naturalists’ Club, was arranged for 17th of May, and
our Treasurer, Col. St. Aubyn, undertook the command of the
Bath division, somewhat limited in number, however, owing to the
distance and the unfavourable weather for long excursions, The
muster at Malvern seems to have been good notwithstanding, and
a party of 60, under the guidance of some veteran geologists and
naturalists, proceeded to explore the geology of those famous hills
considered by Mr. Symonds as some of the oldest known rocks in
Britain. The principal object of the day was the search at the
base of the Worcestershire Beacon for Miss Phillip’s conglomerate,
all traces of which, owing to certain quarrying operations, had
unfortunately been obliterated. Mr. Lees, the President of the
Malvern Club, therefore explained that this conglomerate, a mass
of Llandovery and Syenite, was so called from the sister of the
eminent Professor of Geology at Oxford. ‘‘ The Llandovery shells,
he said, which were mixed up with quartz and felspar, proved by

493

this intimate combination without any trace of fusion, that when
the last uplift of the Malvern chain took place, the crystalline
rocks were cold and consolidated.” A dinner concluded the day’s
excursion, and our Treasurer in returning thanks for the members
of the Bath Club, acknowledged the kind reception they had
received, and hoped that an opportunity would be afforded them
of showing a similar attention to the Malvern and Woolhope Clubs
when they visited Bath.

It now remains briefly to summarise our walks. My notes here,
Sir, are sadly deficient and meagre. One reason for this is owing
perhaps to the fact that Tuesday’s weather has been more or less
uninviting. The month of April gives the record of one only from
Freshford to Farley Castle, by Iford bridge. It is worthy of note
that some of the members both saw and heard the nightingale on
the leafless boughs of one of the trees in the Court yard of the
Castle on that day, April 9. The inscription over the South porch
of the Church at Farley—

+
MVMI A THOCEMPLVCRVCEG LO
RIFICA NSMILROEOSMVQGENVIT
XPMMISERISPCEFI AT ASILVM

caused discussion both as to the meaning and the date of the
lettering, which, of course, is much older than the present building.
On one of those foggy mornings ushering in a bright noon and
rainy afternoon in October, an expedition was made to the brick-
works at Shortwood, about a mile from the Mangotsfield Station.
After inspecting the ingenious machinery for rolling and powdering
the clay and the stamping it into moulds before insertion in the
ovens, the members proceeded to the excavations whence the New
red marl with its usual green streaks was conveyed in trucks
down an inclined plain and shot under the rollers. Having
satisfied themselves as to the great thickness of the Marls they
walked to Bitton and took the train thence to Bath. One of the few
fine days in that very wet month of October, tempted the members
out on the hills. Following the Roman road, which runs by Mr.
Broome’s gate, they continued over Bannerdown, and struck the
Fosse road which they traversed to the Shirestones ; these old

494

boundaries have been enclosed in questionable taste. After an
indifferent lunch at the Hunters’ Arms the walk was continued to
the head of Pope’s valley, leading down to St. Catherine’s, rendered
more beautiful than usual by the lovely autumnal tints of the
maple and other trees. Many more walks have been taken, but
nothing worthy of note has been made of them, and here your
Secretary would express an earnest wish, that members would
employ pen and pencil more freely and send in to him from time to
time any record of noticeable objects they meet with in their walks.

Mr. Chas. Moore and your Secretary were appointed delegates
to represent the views of the Clnb before the Sub-Committee of
Section C of the British Association, which was summoned by Sir
Walter Elliot for the purpose of discussing the question of the
better combining and utilizing the valuable works done by Local
Scientific Societies. Your Secretary attended, together with various
representatives of other Provincial Field Clubs, and after some
discussion as to the details of co-operation, a sub-Committee was
appointed for the purpose of considering a plan of organization.

In conclusion allow me to congratulate you on the steady
increase of your members, the limit of seventy-five has now been
extended to one hundred. As you, Sir, have before said, it behoves
us to give a good account of our work if we wish to maintain our
position amongst Scientific Societies. There is much yet to be
done. New sections of the rocks whenever opened to be carefully
examined ; introductions of new plants to be looked out for and
noted ; trees remarkable for size, age, historic, or any other
association to be described, and if possible, photographed. The
time of the coming and going of the migratory birds to be
observed. Unpublished monumental inscriptions in churches about
to undergo a restoration destructive to these memorials to be
copied ; little out of the way bits of architectural detail to be
preserved, so far, as pencil and brush can do so from entire
obliteration in this rapid age—in short, how innumerable are the
objects which occur worthy the attention of an intelligent mind,
and presenting themselves to the members of the Bath Natural
History and Antiquarian Field Club in their walks and excursions
through this beautiful neighbourhood !

H. H. Winwoop, Hon. See.

RULES

Sith Natural Histor & Antiquarian
i Field Club,

1873.

1.—The Club shall be called “ THE BATH NATURAL HISTORY
AND ANTIQUARIAN FIELD CLUB,” and shall consist (for
the present) of not more than One Hundred Members.

2.—The object of the Club shall be to make Excursions around Bath,
with the view of investigating the Natural History, Geology,
and Antiquities of the neighbourhood.

3.—The Founder of the Club, the Rev. Lronarp Biomerrex, shall
be considered the permanent President ; and a Vice-President,
Secretary, and Treasurer, shall be chosen each year from among
the Members at the Anniversary Meeting on the 18th February.

4,—Quarterly Meetings for the election of Members, and for other
business, shall take place on the First Tuesday in April, July,
October, and January.

5.—There shall be a Committee of Management, consisting of the
officers and two other Members of the Club (the latter to be
elected annually), whose business it shall be to consider and
determine all matters connected with finance, and printing
the proceedings of the Club, or papers read at any of its
meetings ; or any business requiring consideration previous to
the Quarterly Meetings.

6.—There shall be Four Excursions during the year, to be fixed at
the Anniversary Meeting, subject to alteration at any previous
Quarterly Meeting, if agreed to by all the Members present—
Six to form a quorum. A list of such Excursions, with the
respective Places of Meeting, shall be suspended in the Vesti-
bule of the Bath Literary and Scientific Institution. Such
Members as feel disposed shall also meet every Tuesday, at the
Institution, at 10 a.m.

7.—The hour of meeting shall not be changed, except for the con-
venience of taking particular trains, when it is arranged to go
by rail to any place ; in which case the altered time shall be
posted at the Institution, not later than Twelve o’clock on the
Tuesday previous.

8.—In arranging the Excursions, due regard shall be paid to Natural
History and Antiquities, so as to secure an equal share of
attention to each subject; with this view, when the same
Excursion does not include them both, they shall, so far as
practicable, be taken alternately.

9.—Special Meetings shall be appointed for the Reading of Papers or ~
Exhibition of Specimens, notice being given to the Secretary,
at, or previous to, any one of the Quarterly Meetings, by
Members having such communications to make to the Club.

10.—Persons wishing to join. the Club may be proposed by any
Member at one of the Quarterly or Special Meetings, and
elected (by ballot) at the next meeting afterwards. Three
black balls to exclude.

11.—Any Member of the Club may invite friends to accompany
them on the proposed Excursions.

12,—It shall be the business of the Secretary to take Notes of the
Day’s Excursion, and to draw up a summary of the Year’s
Proceedings, previously to the next Anniversary ; he shall also
see that the proper Notices of Excursions are suspended at the
Institution, and communicate with the Members by letter,
when occasion shall require. The Treasurer's accounts to be
passed at the Anniversary.

13,—A Subscription of Seven Shillings and Sixpence shall be paid
yearly by each Member, with an entrance fee of Five Shillings,
to defray any expenses the Club may incur otherwise than
by journeys and refreshments. This Subscription to be
considered due on the Anniversary. Newly elected Members
to pay such a subscription for the current year at the time
of their election.

14.—Members whose Subscriptions are in arrear for one year shall
be considered as having withdrawn from the Club, if, after
application, the same be not paid up.

15,—There shall be a Supernumerary List for Members whose
absence from Bath is only temporary. Such Members, on
their return, and on payment of their Subscription for the then
current year may be admitted to the Club at once, or so soon
as a vacancy occurs.

H. H. WINWOOD,

Hon, See.

BATH
NATURAL HISTORY & ANTIQUARIAN FIELD CLUB,

INSTITOTED FEB. 18th, 1855.

~

LIST OF MEMBERS FOR THE YEAR 1873.

President,
*REV. LEONARD BLOMEFIELD, M.A., F.1.S., F.G.8., 19, Belmont.

Vice President.
*REV. PREBENDARY SCARTH, M.A., Wrington Rectory.

Secretary,
REV. H. H. WINWOOD, M.A., F.G.S., 11, Cavendish Crescent,

Grensurer.
COL. E, P. ST. AUBYN, 7, Great Bedford Street.

STEELE, Rev. T., LL.D., D.C.L., 35, Sydney Buildings
*BROOME, C. E., ” Esq. , MA, F.L. S., Elmhurst, Butheatti
*HEWITT, Captain ays 3, *Church "Street, ‘Widcombe
*MOORE, C., Esq., F. G S., 6, Cambridge Place
DOBSON, W., Esq., Oakwood, Bathwick Hill
ELLACOMBE, Rev. H. N., Vie: e, Bitton
BARRETT, J., Esq., F.R.C. S13, Pierrepont Street
BUCKLE, Rev. Prebendary, M. Vicarage, Twerton
EARLE, Rev. Prebendary, M.A, te Swanswick
JOHNSTON, J., Esq., 9, Park Street

EKIN, Mr. Charles, F.C. ce 8, eae Sis

LON Be W., Esq., West Haye, ’Wrin

BAKER, Colonel bine ree 3) , Marlborough Bs ae
HUNTER, H. J., Esg., M.D., 35, Daniel

MEADE, Rev. D’Courcy. ry, M. A., North aby
MARCHANT, J. Le, Esq., 14, St ee bye
MITCHELL, Ww. SAE Esq., LL .B.,

FREEMAN, "Lieut. -Colonel Wicthans > ‘Johnstone Street
FRAMPTON, en R., R.N., 46, Pulteney Street
RODWELL, W., Esq., F.L. S., 34, "Marlborough Buildings
GOODRIDGE, J. F. , Esq. pies Henrietta Street

SHAW, Rev. W. S. Me M. A., Beechen Cliff Villa

BOND, Rev. Prebendary, M.A. Vicarage, Weston
LYSAGHT, Ca Oe eisiord 3, Sion Row

BAKER, Rev. Tellisford Rectory, near Bath
BAYNES, Lieut. ‘Colonel W. H. Gay Street
BEAN, Major J. H , 8, Sydney Pines

GREEN, a ‘Esq.

SKRINE, H. D oe a Warleigh Manor

ROGERS, Rev. T P. Vicarage, Batheaston

BAN KART, A., Esq., 27, Green Park

GOODWIN, J oniali, isq. ., F.S.A., Batheaston

*Original Members,

ALLEN, W., Esq., The Cloisters, Perrymead
COCKELL, Colonel wW., 5, Queen’s Parade
DAVIS, C Esq., ES. A 55, Pulteney Street
McoMURTRI tig, 3 , Esq., Radstoc
KEMP, S., Esq. vida House, Widcombe
YEELES, J edgewood, Esq., Bathford
ACTON, 7 'B., Esgq., 4, Great Bedford Street
ENGLAND, Lieut. -Colonel, 7, Norfolk Crescent
INMAN, H. B., Esq., Batheaston
CHANDLER, Major J. T., 33, Marlborough Buildings
INMAN, T. F., Esq., Batheaston
BIRD, H., Esq., M.D., Christow, Exeter
WALKER, T. F. , Esq., F.G.S., ER. G.S., 6, Brock Street
TIMINS, C., Esq., 12, Somerset Place
SAYCE, Rev. H. (a Apeen 8 House, Batheaston
TAYLOR, Colonel R. Fem Lodge, Weston Road
BRAIKENRIDGE, Rev. G. W., M.A., F.L.S., F.S.A. Scot., Winash,
rislin
CRICKITT, R. E., Esq., 4, Belvedere Villas
MATTHEWS, Major- eneral, 14, Bathwick Hill
SAINSBURY, Captain, Frankleig h, Bradford
H. Holla land, Esq., 31, arlborough Buildings
WHS LEY. Buxton, Esq., Midford Castle
MENARS, Major H., 10, Daniel Street
SOWDON, Rev. F. , Dunkerton Rectory
RDMAN J., Big, 7, Camden Crescent
HARPER, dc, ing Ma anor Hout, Se epare
FALCONER, R ae , D.C.L., F.R.C.P., 22, Bennett Street
Mes) Qaslow, oe ea Lodge :
PLO sq., 19, Brock Street
SPOTTISWOODE, ‘Colonel, 16, Park Street
FADDY, Colonel 8. B., 2, York Place, Bathwick
THRING, : tan a -» Summerfield, Weston Park
GORDON oe 6 ilaig
BROADWOOD, F dney Place
BARRETT, Caleb, “Bet, be aj. 1 By House
SHUM, Fred., Esq., hic 11, Laura Place
JANVRIN
WILSON, J. B., Bsq., 1, Belmont
LEMAN N, see Esq., Holme Lodge, Bathampton
MARTIN, "Re Bennett Street
WARD, Rev. H. N., ‘Radgtock Rectory
WILKINS, Rev. A. "Do. Lullington Parsonage
BIGGS, Robt., Esq., 3, Trafalgar Place
MURCH, J erom, sq. , Cranwells, Weston
LISTER JAMES Esq., 6, Lansdown Place West
CLARKE WM., Esq., 12, Bennett Street

Hon, Members.

DAWKINS, W. Boyd, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S., &e.
NIBLETT, ox); T., Esq., The Knoll, ‘Tuitley, Gloucestershire
CARPENTER, W. Lant, B. A,

Semgueaiinee Hist,

HEWETT, Sir G. J. B. Bars Albury, Guildford, Surrey
VILLIERS, Captain G. Ww. a
FALKNER, T. Felton, Esq.
HEYWOOD, J. M., Es
JAMIESON, W., Esq., MLD
PUCKLE, Colonel
YOUNGHUSBAND, Colonel, C.S.1.
COXE, Colonel Holled

CONTENTS. ;

——

1.—LocaL BioLoGy ; FOLLOWED BY REMARKS ON THE
FaunAS OF BATH AND SOMERSET, BY THE REV.
LEONARD BLOMEFIELD, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. ...

2.—DEVONIAN FOSSILS FROM THE SANDSTONES ON THE
N.E. OF THE QUANTOCKS, BY THE Rev. H. H.
Winwoop, M.A., F.G.S. phe ee

3.—ANCIENT REGISTER OF WRINGTON CHURCH, BY THE
Rev. Pres. ScartuH, M.A., Rector or WRINGTON

4—ANCIENT CHURCHWARDENS ACCOUNTS, WRINGTON,
BY THE SAME ay, are ioe B.

5.—THE GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION OF THE CARBONIFEROUS
FORMATION IN SOMERSETSHIRE, WITH NOTES ON

PossIBLE CoAL AREAS IN ADJOINING DISTRICTS OF
THE SOUTH OF ENGLAND, BY J. McMurtRig, F.G.S.

6.—BELLS oF SOMERSET, BY Rev. W. S. SHAW, M.A. ...

7.—SUMMARY OF PROCEEDINGS FOR THE YEAR 1872—3,
BY THE SECRETARY ns oe wan

Vot. IL, No. 4,

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