DY? 2D DDYDOID ID : pp) DDD D2 2eM 223 E 2» 2») 222. TY DE: SD> > S >» ») > Dd >» 2 y 5 yy pp>y>>»»y DP Sb>) 35 D>” 2% a>. » 222 > 7D. 22 yyy>y> J <= - ~~ TRS a= = — MB. ph / mS ? YA | 1) a i OD eae 5 4g. ay f OA ae = Oo a / he i” ge x + an Ss If es Bae AUS, eos ee pale i ee eS Sy ») y yy ee ry ; . hae 3S \ Se Sa Caen / oa as x te t. p 7 J ao ‘> “at eae j : & ; Po 8 ee oe a p ae Z Oy o/ Ja ; LL ” pte == << - oN “ ] i, PS ot ee - = om i =a ied Ss eee — * a aie “i= S — = i. ona: ae SS ‘ = — 5 a ———___ Vrs = = : SS SS = c ; ‘ \\ YS eas SSN : e i = = e ‘ ~~ : eS ; yy » yyy ht, SD a: ee > NY > ’ . Ms % / f . ay 4 ae ry A y be J . rom ® “ } ‘ 2 - Yi, oe . J A, oe : ae A a ye 4 a ! FJ: aie at . “Sia a aa Oe ee age = ‘See ee Zo y Z 2 d eee oe Sb = ————— oe 2, ee Sn “ > > " . SSS > Sle ~ \ a . iH \ ¥ ss as x é '%. > \ WS Wedd 9 p. ’ \ % Bot SS NG. y Z y s Rak 2 ame be & _ DB. j ee ae p). OY SAE Le le + ge LLL” tiers Nile ote , —— ES a Co as aie SEATS = 2e8 2. . . ie. ~ We . = — : r I) - Sa ae a, : ‘ppm? Ea pay yt oe \ 1% v1 Sy ui ii Li. Ly Be ey EER 3 ij ¥ =- — das 4 Se ALE etre \ “aa e | ee (? —. a ee g ~ ~e ‘way s So = Z vs > )) yy) » * yyy & f ) / i 3 . < ee ee A Pt ani ath hat 4 a 5 \ im Pa Bee) a i H PROCEEDINGS Moston Society of Hatural History. VOL. XXIII. WITH EIGHT PLATES BOSTON: PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY. 1888. PUBLISHING COMMITTEE. S. L. ABsort, AtpHeuvs Hyatt, © F. W. Putnam, SAMUEL HENSHAW, J. WALTER FEWKEs. CONTENTS OF VOL. XXIII. PAGE General Meeting, January 2, 1884..cccccccsscceccee BRI COUE COCTOLIE ORL NG COKE BEET OOOrICe yee Filection Of Member's.c..cccscccccccccscccccens Salerclaiciatatevatetoestcheleteteis So ctobO6O 'c acer | sl Mr. THOS. T. BOUVE. Notes On ZemS.....-ceeeeeensceeece Poornopidbelcoecrooceccc nce: 7 Dr.S. KNEELAND. Remarks on earthquakes........ afafefaravetateletaletsleteleyeloia nogoooodedcor qe ( General Meeting, January. 16, 1884... . ccc dccccccccasccsccescsccvcces soououonoob 7! Prof. W.O. CROSBY. Relations of the conglomerate and slate in the Boston basin 7 Messrs. Q. E. DICKERMAN and M. E. WADSWORTH. An olivine, bearing diabase, from St. George, Maine............. aystata aeyerd, siavaieverete Vista's Syacietaeatel sietaysiateliaietd ols il diaialalera 28 General Meeting, February 6, 1884.............. A ioresbislalsiesaalete wistete elsieielse Bats astevere e’etare 29 Mr. Thos. T: Bouvsé. The genesis of the Boston basin and its rock formation..... 29 PEON. o. SHALE, 26On the Origin ‘Of, KAMES) s: ole sie\e(sl bala sie/etolile eis minialainiaitetsisiaiels pee wene mae woes 276 General Meeting, March 17, 1886......0..2c:-scccsvaccscessencee sieicleictarore Booticoscne “dG Dr. H. A. HAGEN. Monograph of the Hemerobide. Part Il............... SateGiae wee 276 Prof. WM. TRELEASE. North American species of Thalictrum (with figures and plate)...... aie a[e'a's s\e''© winie'p epinie o1o clminiole diam aiairin)n'al=isletot ia “aie dieisials:claw o aia nislaaie!ian e\els felts veee 293 General Meeting, Apyil 7, 1886...... elolalatalsietelotetataielerslsinis a4bonorducnD Sodonc Babe oncdn 305 Dr. S. KNEELAND. Remarks on metallic tubes found with the ‘‘skeleton in armor” SUL UE aM eERNV. CET mle etalaiclere elas ¢/cla'alale’piela's/elclnia’a alatalatgiatatetetaiateratetetaterate Brop aaron nica k aa alclena eae 305 General Meeting, Ayovill 21) USSG 51 6 aco x « afolaisie alate inlcloteleleletojelsie is alelatal clove tatelatnlsiammelntavet coos 306 Annual Meeting, May 5, 1886.........seeeesceveee Sraleteveys tetovslerets diese slavalerse¥elalareiareieverstatetme Oi Prof. Ay HyvAarrs! Curators ep ort <[c\./icca als ajelclalaislslatereleieierclejelalneiaclsteraiaisvaisierietatstatetetats ee. 307 Mr. EDWARD BURGESS. Secretary’s report......ceececcnvccescavacssscvccaccnsovese 319 Award of the Annual Walker Prize.....cscccscceceee npaaoeoonsceaenacconuoanaae: oe Oa) Mr. ©. W., SCUDDER. Treasurer’s report, « «0 dane seiiceiaiinisiaiaetee inte dele atatatstale eee one Election of Officers fOr V836—7.s q «> ai\cin «\cialojcleleie evalalcratelateteretcisiels sisters atelatnieiateterstsrsteists peesine oue Hlectton: Of Members... esi cece cesce ete ace ness enalaia ninie pitsateletalaiats siaiciete steel tele coos O24 General Meeting, May 19) US8Gii0:-)<2:0.0.,.\«:0:sra)« sae essieeote aides dppnoenoanoocc.. api! General Meeting, October 6,, US86:s\< o's «a0 0.0 mele anatase eelasteee eins meee susialotete ouetolorets - 324 Prof. W. O. CRosBy and Mr. G. H. BARTON. On the great dikes at Paradise, NEAL NEW POM). ccc ccs saecinceccccscccees ssisceisione eben eerie eee Ee CEEEEE . 325 General Meeting, October 20, 1886........ ..sccsccceee ABadoocc DoDsaC uote cdoAbnen- -. 330 Prof. A. HYATT. Obituary of Miss Lucretia Crocker..... lelelatcetetate sioehal miele eressee 300 Prof. H. W. HAYNES. Localities of quarries worked by the Indians for material for their) stone imp] ememtsin's)./scisiseielelercielere aie siee sie craieln oleate eet beleicoiane Asli) wlalaloyel aneveael General Meeting, November 3, 1886...........002. APSA AO Sane Anoondo mut ccadacadt Bale Election of Members....e..cscessees niooode iisiotaele! aigisle) atelateters di slg’ e\ale\s cfaiela alal atelstelolaiel eter aie CONTENTS. vil General Meeting, November 17, 1886......... e\sielulaloisislaaiets Balad sha ol ttm aig! 0,5/0'6 covccccses B00 Section of Entomology. Meeting, November 24, 1886. A 6 o5KiCO GOMOD OOO DEOD OCs 337 General Meeting, December 1, 1886...... ialels/<\binieid o0)p « viele pyeiaieiatds sable’s/si'eleelale'e\iv'e\s « 337 Prof. F. W. PUTNAM. Obituary of Capt. N. E. Atwood..........-. HOOD SDROOUDIGCC 337 General Meeting, December 15, 1886.0... 6.6.) ec cccccsccccnsnenvceoesevcedescncese 339 Prof. WM. M. DAviIs. Remarks on the mechanical origin of the triassic mono- clinal in the Connecticut valley................. aisiae ele'e aip'e) of el Meare aaE neta alata! a ED LOOL 339 General Meeting, January 5, 1887..... lctateiete Haaokne HAECUDO OI bn0ao 20D 0DDAGBOOWEONC . 341 PUCCEIOMT Of, MENU ECTS ainiale\n &'s)s\<{0)s/4'0)010'e(6)0)9 0) sleis'oissisinie=is dseipieldia ated victelo loa miata’ aiehaialate covcce DAL General Meeting, Pehruary 2, 1887... ce. sje cieielacss.0,0/0 wcie oem clss 0s bloc aiesisieecclse = -. 341 General Meeting, Hebruary 16, 1887... 2)... cose cece en see cite cseesscissls gonLonudode 341 General Meeting, March 2, 1887............. Moxa ai cise ahela ejeia lose mlavata eievefolseraelarehe s\n) ainloparan teva EVECELONMOPMMIVICTIUOCTS s sraiciorela\cialaicielelsicievercla/ciaveletelelaiaisieisieleleterelsisisieiciove elev eis seletoiateleinial> Edodoo BLY Mr. J. H. EMERTON. Remarks on the restoration of the skeleton of Dinoceras MANDI ITI Cisyera sper cleieieioie'- atslois wiaisic spavoleretviarisie, sletevenyofs ast elevoista dogdogooopoUd ld Steleteteve! siotwtdls coos 342 Prof. JULES MARCOU. On the use of the name Taconic SodcdaoouGoomOnoouoLog GUT cove 343 General Meeting, March 16, 1887.........-.-+.. sialistie’eintefelcteretele Sareilsiebaaneietaied tusveie bye 356 Prof. F. W. PUTNAM. A Collection of perforated stones from California........ code Bilt Section of Entomology. Meeting, March 23, 1887............+. seavala ataie SbooGrouodes alat Mr. S. H.SCUDDER. Cockroaches from the carboniferous period.........-++.. sese O00 Glands and extensile organs of larve of certain blue butterflies................ 357 General Meeting, April 6, 1887............... Rielelafereteicietaieieieicieielcisiciniereicieiaisielciaia seisvce GOS SCH CTHUPONICELEN Gg APTI ZO 188. 2's cleicesiolelsieisie cieie eisielebielsec tet eleasciacecise des acleielsiets 358 Dr. J. A. JEFFRIES. Note on the epidermal system of birds............... iia 3008 Annual Meeting, May 4, 1887........ Be letalelt sisia\bl nie ciety loiato(e ciel ciaate wirlavals) aleie cralets/ accounted for as due to the need of a respiratory and vortex pro- ducing trap-like vestibule, which might be at first open and then closed, but not necessarily having any anterior connection with the archenteron. Thus the neural canal does not necessarily represent an actinostome at all, but a primitive invagination, becoming a fore and aft tube by the elongation of the body, and the necessary transference of the principal opening to the forward end of the same body. Hubrecht’s and Lieberkiihn’s opinion that the hypophysis was the vestibule of a hollow notochord may be used to show that this is the representative of another fore and aft tube, which has arisen from the archenteron. Whether this can be considered as indicating a vermian ancestor for the Vertebrata (Hubrecht), we cannot discuss in detail; but we are not aware that any inver- tebrate embryos exhibit organs which can be considered as homologous with the medullary plate and groove. Until such characteristics are exhibited, the positive data afforded by the suc- cession of characteristics during the development of Ascidia and Amphioxus are decisive against any supposition that the noto- chord could have occurred in the evolution of the phylum before the medullary plate and fold. The ancestors of the Vertebrata must have acquired their characteristics in some succession, and that succession is plainly recorded in the embryos of the forms © mentioned. The notochord, whether primitively a tube or a solid 1884. J 121 [Hyatt mass of cells, arose according to Kowalevsky after, and not before, the canal. Such facts as these and the primitive nature of the medullary folds, which appear at first as mere outgrowths like a primitive stomodeum, seem to indicate a homoplastic origin for the essen- tial organs and stand in the way of choice of any known type of invertebrata for an ancestor of the vertebrata. One readily sees how the mechanical requirements of an elongated body might lead to the formation of the medullary plate, and it also opens the way by which it is possible to account for the conversion of the upper part of the mesenteron into the hypophysial tube and finally into a notochord, simply because of the need of a stiff axis to strengthen the neural fold. Possibly the forma- tion of the former may be traceable to reactions of the axial portions caused by the action of the lateral myoblasts in mov- ing an elongated vermiform animal with two regions divided from each other by a longitudinal tube. According to the well known laws of use this tube would be forcibly acted upon by these muscles and react by growth against them, tending continually to become solidified and more resistant. This view accords with Cope’s explanation of the distribution and formation of the neurocentra, pleurocentra and neurapophyses in the vertebrae of the Permian Rhachitomi. This author with his usual clear insight has illustrated the segmentation of these prim- itive vertebrae by means of the folds which occur on the inner side of a coat sleeve when compressed by the bend- ing of thearm. We find ourselves also in accord with Spencer, who first suggested the segmentation of vertebrae to be due to lateral flexion (Prin. Biol., 1, p. 195); and with Ryder in his last remarkable treatise on the mechanical evolution of the different forms of the tail in fishes. Our hypothesis simply completes their explanations by attributing the origin of the notochord itself to the same causes which have probably occasioned the subsequent segmentation of the calcareous plates, and the ine- qualities of the tail. | We think, also, that the evidence is very deficient for the accepted belief that the Ascidia have degenerated widely from 1 We have found, too late for insertion in this page, that Spencer has completely anticipated this theory. (op. cit. p. 199.) Hyatt. ] 122 [March 5, their original stock form. The Porifera in relation to the Coe- lenterata have been generally considered degenerate, and yet there are strong reasons against this opinion; and the Ascidia seem to us to bear a somewhat similar relation to the Vertebrata. Their embryonic history has no stage which exhibits, as does that of Cirripedia and many parasites, a distinct type-larval stage by which we can definitely show that they are degraded forms of a vertebrate type higher than Amphioxus. If the Ascidia are admitted to be Vertebrata, it is evident that they must have sprung from some lower type than the Amphioxus, and one in which the formation of a notochord was in a still more immature condition. The tail and its four muscles, though hard to account for, unless the Ascidian is a vertebrate, are the highest char- acteristics shown by the embryo; and these do not bespeak any origin more exalted than that of some type considerably less dif- ferentiated than Amphioxus. The formation of the lateral muscles from lines of cells derived from the lateral walls of the archenteron, as shown by Kowalevsky, is a case of direct conversion, and it remains to be determined whether these myoblasts can be considered as representing archenteric diverticula. Similar conversions occur in Cassiopea (Kowalevsky, Soc. Friends Nat. Sci., vol. x, pt. 2, pl. 2, f. 8-10), and yet these myoblasts are not diverticula, nor are the muscles so considered in other types when derived from the endoderm. Dohrn (Ursp. d. wirb. Thiere, Leipz. 1875) supported the theory of degeneration with strong arguments, but these are taken from comparisons of the later stages of growth in Ascidia with the adults of Cyclostomata ; and, if there are fundamental differences in the embryo, as suggested by Kowalevsky, they serve to show the affinites of Ascidia with vertebrates, but not that they are degenerate descendants of Cyclostomata, or even of Amphioxus. Dohrn’s law of the development of latent functions can be applied whether the changes are degenerative or progressive. It seems to fully account for the transmutations of structure which occur in the Ascidia, but this point is not essential to the present dis- cussion. , We may assume, if we choose, that the Ascidia are degene- rate as regards some free moving ancestry, but the Poritf- era are degenerate in this respect, and so are all attached ani- 1884.] 1238 [Hyatt mals from the nature of their habitat and habits. The original stock forms of the different branches of the animal kingdom probably possessed gradation and taxonomic rank, and we are at liberty to infer that the Hydrozoa sprang as a division, or had a starting point from animals of the original stock which were taxonomically higher or more specialized than those from which the Porifera were derived ; and possibly the Vertebrata may have sprung from some type higher in zoological rank than the ances- tor of the Coelenterata; but we know very little about this orig- nal stock, and can only infer from the embryos of animals that it must have contained forms, as stated by Haeckel, in some way similar to the gastrula and planula; farther than this there appears to be no solid ground for inference. ‘Thus in the Ascidia as worked out by Kowalevsky (Arch. Mikr. Anat. vol. vu, 1871) and other authors, there are, so far as we know, no suffi- cient grounds for imagining that any ancestor of this division possessed coelomic sacs or diverticula of the archenteron. The cavity of the body in the adult is emphatically declared by Kowalevsky to be continuous in its history with the primitive blastocoel: “bei den Ascidien die Leibeshéhle doch aus der Fiirchungshéhle abstamme.” It is evident, therefore, that no argument for a coelenterate ancestor can be based on their struct- ure in embryo or adult. Thus then, as the evidence now stands, the coelomic sacs in Amphioxus must have been derived from some higher type than Ascidia, — and probably, therefore, were not present in the original ancestral vertebrate type, which must have been more nearly related to Ascidia than it was to Amphioxus. Balfour’s idea that the Ascidia were more modified in their development than the Cephalochorda, or Amphioxus, was doubtless due to the fact that he compared the embryos with the vertebrata rather than with invertebrata; whereas, according to Kowalevsky, they have no coelom at any age, and in this respect approximate the invertebrats more than any form of verte- brates. They resemble, in their relations to higher forms of their own branch, the Ascones among Porifera and the Intaeniolata among Hydrozoa, which also have no coelomic sacs at any stage. The difficulties included in the view that the planula and gas- trula present separate and original modes of developing the endo- derm is admirably put by Balfour, who shows that this implies Hyatt.] 184; [March 5, » two distinct ancestral types for Hydrozoa, and that either the planula or gastrula, therefore, must have been a secondary or derivative form. By far the best and most complete analysis of, this difficult problem is given by Dr. Whitman (Embryol. Clepsine p- 800), where the author concludes that delamination is the second- ary, and gastrulation the primitive mode of developing the endo- derm, and also in large part anticipates the views advocated in this paper with regard to the origin of gastrular invaginations. When the gastrula and planula are found together, as in the Acraspeda, the gastrula procedes in development the planula (Claus, Polyp. Quall. Denk. Akad. Wien., vol. xxxvumt, 1877 Balfour, Embryol., vol. 1, p.137; and Alex. Agassiz, Embryol. Monog. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. rx, no. 38, pl. 7); and this planula is really a three-layered mouthless sac in Chrysaora, but, through the suppression of the primitive mesenchyme of the paren- chymula, it subsequently has the aspect of being only a two- layered hydroplanula. Among the Actinozoa it seems evident that the gastrula, often composed of primitive and amoeboidal cells, is an earlier condition of the ovum and leads to the formation of the hydroplanula which retains the blastopore as its mouth, as shown by Kowalevsky in Actinia? (Embry. Monog. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 1x, no. 3, pl. 11, f. 27-29). The tacit assumption that the planula was necessarily a mouthless form and preceded the gas- trula, was due to the resemblance between the hydroplanula and the parenchynula which are often considered identical and con- fused with the true planula. The figures of Cerianthus mem- branaceus, also from Kowalevsky (ibid., pl. xu, f. 1-6), is pre- sented as the next stage after the blastula, and compare closely with the similar period of the parenchymulain the sponges, which also in Halisarca precedes in development the permanent gastrula. The gastrula in Cerianthus, also, immediately follows this stage and becomes an elongated hydroplanula with a persis- tent blastopore. From our point of view the single layered embryo (i. 1) is a parenchymula in which the mesenchyme is. absent or has not been obsemved (a frequent occurrence among. sponges on account of the transparency of the layer or some 1 The originals of these and other figures, quoted from this author are to be found in Memoirs, vol. x, Imperial Soc. of Friends of Nat. Sci., Anthrop., and Ethn. Moscow, n). 2, 1874; and the text has been translated for the author by the kindness of Miss B. F. Hapgood. | ke 1884.] ‘125 : (Hyatt. defect in observation), the true hydroplanula is the apparently two-layered form immediately succeeding the gastrula (f. 8) ; but both parenchymula and hydroplanula are probably much abbrevi- ated. The difficulties presented by the change from invagination to delamination have been met by Lankester with the aid of hypothetical molecules of protoplasm respectively called deric and enteric, which were supposed to have acquired the develop- mental tendencies of the primitive membranes in which they originated. Thus the gastrula was imagined to have become changed by abbreviation of development into the planula, and this process was supposed to have been rendered possible by the existence of peculiar endoblastic, enteric molecules, which were finally transferred by these changes from the separate cells of the endoblast in which they arose to the inner poles of the primitive ectoblastic cells of the planula. We should prefer to seek for the solution of this problem in the relations of the planes of fission to the axes of the body, or of the cells themselves. The planes of fission by which the cells of the endoblast in the amphimorulae of Porifera are differentiated may have been parailel with their longest axes, or more or less inclined to them, but were probably not transverse. On the other hand the planes of fission in the delamination of the mesenchyme cells habitually appear to be transverse, and in Gery- onea (Fol) and in an unpublished plate of the embryo of Eutima by Prof. W. K. Brooks equally decisive cases of delamination of the ectoblast by transverse fission occur-+ In all instances the first stage of differentiation by fission would necessarily result in the formation of an endoblast, and it is quite within the limits of possibility that extra growth or quicker and earlier growth of the ectoblast may have been the immediate cause of the origin of the endoblast from the inner poles of the ectoblastic cells by transverse instead of by radial fission. This explanation we rejoice to notice has been anticipated by Dr. C. O. Whitman (op. cit., p. 303), so far as relates to the formation of the gastrula, and this gives us necessarily greater confidence in its general application to the origin of invaginations. Whitman’s remarks are as follows: “Starting with a typical blastula itis not 1 See also Zool. Anzeig., 1884, vol. vi, p. 709. Hyatt.] 126 [March 6» necessary to assume that unequal growth would always result in invagination; but it is easy to see that the more rapid growth of one hemisphere, accompanied perhaps by an absorption of the blastocoelic fluid, might lead to a double-walled gastrula.” 7 This hypothesis acquires support from the researches: which have been so far made into the direction of the planes of fission. Dr. Arthur Kollmann in his treatise (Der Tastapparat der Hand, etc., Leipzig, Voss, 1883) has announced an important law of fission. Thus in the development of cells in the epidermis when the predominating planes of fission are at right angles to the axis and to the surface of the body, the epidermis increases in length ; whereas, when the somewhat rarer form of cell division (in which the planes of fission are at right angles to the surface, but par- allel with the long axis of the body) occurs, the same membrane increases in breadth ; and when the planes of fission are parallel both to the surface and to the axis of the body the epidermis increases in thickness. The same author also shows that the epiblast in the neighborhood of the primitive streak consists of elongated cells. These give rise to the primitive streak below, and the cells change in form; those above being subject to considerable lateral pressure are elongated while those in the primitive streak vary, being often cuboidal. Finally, how- ever, these become similar to the forms from which they origi- nated when in course of growth the same influence is again brought to bear upon them. Dr. EK. G. Gardiner, to whom we owe the suggestion as to the correspondence of the modes of division and forms of cells, and the direction of the pres- sure (Beit. Kennt. d. Epitrich. Arch. Mikr. Anat., vol. xx1v, 1884) has shown that the cells of that part of the epiblast which is destined to form the medullary canal of the embryo are at first cylindrical cells, because of the lateral pressure of the epiblast 5’ but towards peripheral parts where the activity of the fission, and therefore pressure, is much less, the cylindrical cells are replaced by cuboidal cells. Ata later stage, after the medullary canal is closed, the rapid development of this part exerts such a pressure upon the superimposed epiderm that the cells become flattened and form only a single layer. The same is true of the cells of the epiderm immediately above the equally active protovertebrae, while between these places where growth and pressure are less _ 1884.) 127 [Hyatt. the epiderm consists of several layers. A corresponding trans- ference of the planes of fission from approximately vertical diag- onals to approximately horizontal diagonals is also figured in the same treatise. Itis evident that the planes of fission of the amphimorula must have been radial or perpendicular to the sur- face, and perpendicular and parallel to the long axis of the body > thus being in accord with Kollmann’s law in so far as the resultis an increase of the body in length and breadth. On the other hand delamination is an increase of the ectoblast in thickness and here again we find the planes of fission. parallel both to the sur- face and to the axis of the body also, agreeing with Kollman’s law. Kollmann’s and Gardiner’s results are pertinent and can also be applied to explain the transformations of the epithelium in sponges. The cells of the ectoderm in Porifera pass through the amoeboidal, wedge-shaped, columnar, and cylindrical forms. During the last two stages they acquire flagella and collars in most forms, but finally terminate in an epithelium of flattened cells. The major axes of the cells are shifted from a radial in the segmental wedges to a tangential direction in the flat epithelium, and in each case they are at right angles to the direction of the pressure due to growth of the neighboring cells. The excess of growth in the embryo is invariably in the ectoblastic layer, and this occasions the flattening and radial elongation of the cells in this membrane until the completion of the cinctoplanula stage; then the excess of growthis transferred to the mesenchyme and this increasing in thickness causes the flattening of the cells on the exterior in the older stages. The Ascones have an exceedingly thin mesoderm, but nevertheless an ectoderm is present of exces- sively flattened cells. No one, however, can study this in living specimens without seeing that considerable pressure is exercised by the stiff spicules which support the body, and that these parts must be taken into the account of the causes which may occasion the ‘flattening of the outer layer. The functions of assimilation being maintained by the endoderm throughout life in such forms as Ascones, the cylindrical cells are retained also, together with their hereditary protozoonal collars and flagella, even in adults. When, however, the function and pressure are transferred to the ampullae, as in Sycones, we find that flattened cells appear in Hyatt.] 128 [March 5, the archenteron and the elongated cells are present in the am- pullae. It may be inferred, though direct observation is needed to prove the facts, that the effects of use in catching and assimil- ating food restore the collars and flagella and occasion extra growth and pressure in the bodies of the cells. The theory accounts for the restoration of the elongated forms of the cells apd the radial direction of the axes as well as the fact that the imaginary centre instead of the centre or central axis of the body as in the embryo and in the long body of Ascones, is now the axis of the ampulla. The axes of the cellsin the gastrula are at first elongated and radial as shown by Schultze in Sycandra, but in this form and in the larvae of Carneospongiae as men- tioned above, they apparently lose their flagella, collars and elon- gated forms in the archenteron, and pass through an epithelial stage; though possibly such a stage may not be present in some of the Ascones. This change seems at first sight opposed to the ~ theory of pressure, but until we know what conditions surround these cells in the archenteron of the ascula we cannot say whether the advent of epithelial cells is due to heredity or to the cessation of the nutritive function and a consequent relief of pressure dur- ing this stage of growth. The mesenchyme maintains the globu- lar amoeboidal form in all its cells, except in those near the ecto- derm and endoderm. These becoming in part subject to the same pressure as the cells of the ectoderm and endoderm are also in the same degree transformed into membrane cells, and this theory derives additional support from the fact stated farther on, that in Spongilla the inner sides of the dermal cells are flat and the outer sides alone exhibit the capacity to expand and become globular. The general morphology, observed movements, and the granular contents show that the cells of the mesenchyme are probably the active agents of growth, and the immediate causes of the pressure, which is apparent in the shapes of the ecto- dermal and endodermal membranes. It still remains to be shown in accordance with the theory that these cells have different modes of division in correlation with the pressure exerted; but — with regard to this point we have no evidence of any value. The researches of Haeckel and Saville Kent have shown that the cells of the endoderm are subject to degeneration when taken out of their places in the membrane, and are apt to lose their 1884.] 129 [Hyatt collars and flagella, and become amoeboid. We have not, in these remarks, any intention of denying the effects of heredity. The protozoonal characteristics, the collars and flagella, are in no way, that we can see, necessarily the products of the mechanical conditions of pressure like the forms of the cells; these exhibit the effects of heredity and continued use as plainly as any of the organs of higher animals. Lieberktihn (Miiller’s Archiv. Anat. Physiol., 1856, p.11) describes three layers in the larva during the flagellated stages. An“ Epiteliumschicht ” of rounded amoe- boidal cells with single flagella. He here notices a fine and sug- gestive distinction between the primitive freedom of the cells in this outer layer and the condition of closer attachment prevalent in more mature membranes. The “ Corticalsubstanz” les next to this internally, and consists of a jelly-mass with scattered, fatty granules; he also stated that the cells in this when freed by dissection have the amoeboid motions, since described. by Haeckel and others, in the free cells of the mesoderm of sponges. The Corticalsubstanz occupies the centre of the embryo and has a spheroidal form, according to Lieberktihn. One cannot read this, and the descriptions of the feeding cells (p. 497), and of the ampullae and true cell membranes which he mentions (p. 498) as occurring in the tubes and upon the whole exterior of Spongilla, and the descriptions of amoeboid cells, their movements and granular contents, without seeing that the author had succeeded in optically distinguishing the ectoblast, mesenchyme, and endo- blast in the larva, though unaware of the meaning and impor- tance of his observations and not emphasizing these discoveries. This remarkable investigator fed the Spongilla with carmine and found that the grains were carried into the ampullae, which were situated in the axis of the tubes (one in each tube), - that the grains remained in these sac-shaped organs for a time; and that while a part were passed on and out of the cloaca, another portion remained, having been swallowed by the cells of the ampullae.t’ Carter, in the same year and independently of Lieberktibn (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1856, p. 242; and 1857, vol. xx, p. 21), repeated these observations, described and figured the “ampulla” and asserted that the cells of the “ampullae” alone swallowed the grains of carmine. He mentions in the same magazine (vol. vi, ser. 4, 1870, p. 330), that the cells of these PROCEEDINGS B. S. N. H. VOL. XXII, “| 9 MAY, 1885. Hyatt. ] | 13Ge [March 5, organs become loaded with carmine, and that after feeding the sponge closed the incurrent and excurrent orifices for a time, and when these were again opened the excrements were abundantly ejected. In 1871 (ibid., vol. vim, ser. 4, p. 6) this close observer confirmed Clark’s opinions with regard to the existence of the col- lar, using, however, Sycandra (Grantia) compressa instead of Asealtis. The inclusions of indigo and carmine by the flagel- lated and collared cells of the ampullae were observed in this species, but the apparent digestion of the food, as described by Clarke, was not mentioned. Clarke in his article on the “ Affini- ties of Spongiae Ciliatae” (Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1868, vol. I, p. 825) states that he saw the particles of food carried down into the collars of the ampullaceous cells of Ascortis fragilis (Leu- cosolenia botryoides), and observed particles of food in the- interiors of these cells apparently in different stages of diges- tive decomposition. Saville Kent’s descriptions and figure of the manner in which Monosiga gracilis (Man. Infus., vol. 1, p- 327, frontispiece) feeds upon carmine is. a fine piece of work and very instructive in this connection. He shows, in this and also other allied forms, that the collar, which is largely developed, becomes an organ for gathering the particles of floating carmine, which travel up its sides and from thence into the interior where they are swallowed, and reappear in the body of the zoon as globular masses inclosed in vacuoles and undergoing the pro- cess of digestion. With such a result before one’s eyes it becomes very difficult for an unprejudiced observer to refrain from con- cluding, that the function of the collar is similar in the ampullace- ous cells of Porifera and in Protozoa. The researches of Metschnikoff (Zeitschr. Wissen. Zool., vol. xxxu, and of Von Lendenfeld (ibid., vol. xxxvu) naturally excite admiration, but even these cannot be considered as resolving all. doubts, especially when Von Lendenfeld and Polaejeff take the extreme ground that the ampullae are solely excretory organs. Von Lendenfeld observed that the cells of the supply system, and those of the ampullae took up the grains abundantly, which, how- ever, they soon after ejected unaltered; and though not as abundant, the grains of carmine were also present in the cells of the lining membranes of the cloacal canals. The cells of the lining membrane of the tubes of the supply system, 1884. ] 13] (Hyatt. must have passed. the grains of carmine on to the cells of the mesoderm, because the amoeboid cells of the mesoderm in the immediate vicinity of the flattened epithelium of the supply canals were loaded with grains of carmine, while others more cen- trally situated were clear. The first named transported the grains through the mesoderm wandering to the neighborhood of the ampullae, and the contents became more or less rounded during this process. Von Lendenfeld, therefore, very naturally supposed that the office of the membrane cells was ingestion, that of the wandering cells of the mesoderm digestion and assimilation, and that of the ampullae excretion. We have had excellent opportunities for watching the surfaces of the canals in living specimens of Chalinula arbuscula, and never saw anything akin to excretion in these or in the cells of the am- pullae. The granules, which were abundant and highly refractile, may have indicated, as stated by Dr. Arnold Brass, the presence of nutritive matter; and their abundance in certain cells of the derm and mesoderm seems to support this supposition. The lining layer in the supply and cloacal canals was in all its characteristics the equivalent of the ectoderm; it was a thin epi- thelium, with more or less fusiform or irregular cells, which were hardly half the size of the mesoderm cells in living speci- mens and very liable to destruction by rough handling. Thus it often occurred, that the mesoderm cells lying under them, and forming a dermal layer of greater or less thickness, or of only one layer of cells, were uncovered and seemed to replace them. In one specimen the centres of the cells of the endodermal layer were slightly swollen with contained granules, but this was evi- dently exceptional and not a normal condition. The cells of the ectoderm were faithfully studied while living. and their contents noted in Ascortis fragilis, Halisarca Dujardin, Microciona prolifera, and several species of Halichondria and especially in Chalinula arbuscula. The coarsest and thickest cells occurred in Halisarca, but even here the outlines were more or less angular, and the membrane was a single layered epithelium, such as has been described by Schultze and others. No inclusions of food were seen in any case examined by us, nor have any been figured, so far as we have seen, by others. In Chal. arbuscula from’ Annisquam, Mass. (Sci. Guide, no. m1, f. 2) where these cells Hyatt. ] 132 [March 5, were constantly under observation for several months, nearly all possible outlines were seen in different parts of the ectoderm ; but they remained always angular and flat, or if swollen were barely convex and did not present the globular expansions of the outer surface once seen in the cells of the endoderm. The ordin- ary shape was fusiform, and usually the interior was clouded more or less with granules collected in two crescents around the poles of the nucleus. In this respect, however, there was no invaria- bility since we have seen unquestionable ectoderm cells absolutely filled with highly refractile granules ; but the nucleus on account of the flattened form of the cells was never obscured. Keller’s draw- ings exhibit the usual aspect of the ectoderm in dead specimens, but they are not in all cases so clear in the living, especially in the vicinity of the nuclei. Metschnikoff (Quart. Journ. Micr, Sci. Jan. 1874, translation) declares his opinion, derived from exper- iments with Ascetta primordialis and the embryo of Halisarea lobularis, that the ectoderm is not instrumental in the ingestion of food; and (though Von Lendefeld entertains doubts on this point as we have quoted below), most observations appear to sustain this conclusion. . The cells of the ampullae had the usual form, but my drawings give no observations of value, except that in living specimens I never saw any accumulations of an excretory nature in the ampullaceous chambers. The cells contained also an abundance of refractile granules. The cells of the derm (Sci. Guide, no. 1m, f. 2, 14-18) varied from transparent and flattened, with fusiform outlines in Chal. arbuscula, to opaque cells distended with highly refractile gran- ules. The former were constantly contracting and expanding without, however, leaving their places in the derm, and they lost their usually fusiform outline only in extreme cases when form- ing part of some thread-like extension across a tube.’ In one specimen some of these cells around a narrow tube were elongate- 1 These were the only cells found which could be described as possible muscular ele- ments; but as in all others examined by us inthe mesoderm they were capable of slowly but constantly changing their forms, and seemed to possess considerable pow- ers of adhesion to each other as if connected by bands. The nuclei were never modi- fied, but remained rigid causing the centres of elongated cells to stand out in minute prominences, There were no grounds for the supposition that these or others observed were muscular cells. 1884. ] 1538 [ Hyatt. fusiform while others had the usual shape. The globular cells when loaded with granules were always quiet, the central parts of the outer sides swollen into projecting globes, and the periphery of the upper sides only slightly convex. The outlines were fixed, fusiform, and their bases were flat on the inner sides. The cells in the interior of the mesoderm were either coarsely granulated, and globular or more or less flattened and clear. The former when compressed showed a nucleus as a slightly clearer central spot, but the clear cells had visible nuclei and nucleoli ot large size. No movements or changes of form were observed in these cells, and they were never so regular in outline as were the cells of the ectoderm and endoderm, from which also they were easily distinguished by their large size. There were evidently but one class of cells in the mesoderm, which might differ in shape according to the quantity of granules they were carrying, or in size in some parts. The specimens examined had invariably passed through their reproductive periods, and all our observa- tions were made with the view of studying the histology; thus no efforts were made to observe the effects of feeding by direct experimentation. The distinctions which have been drawn between the functions of the collared and flagellated cells in the ectoderm of the embryo, and in the ampullae of adults, are purely physiological, and histologically these membranes appear to be very similar. ) The morphology of the central cavity and its membranes is also opposed to the opinions of Von Lendenfeld and Polae- jeff, that the ampullae are exclusively excretory. Most spongolo- gists will probably admit that the collared and. flagellated cells of the central cavity in the adult of Ascones and the ascon stage of the larva of Sycones are feeding cells, and that in the Carneo- spongiae and Leucones the ampullae are localized branches of this cavity, Jined with similar cells and standing in similar rela- tion to the inflow of water and food through the supply canals. However willing to grant, therefore, that these ampullae might have functions of excretion additional to those they probably possessed in Ascones, the facts do not justify the conclusion that that their collared cells are not also true feeding cells. Whatever the result of future research, it is evident, from the evidence above given, that the tissues in sponges are as primitive Hyatt. ] 134 [March 5, as their forms and general structure, and that from all points of view they exhibit no traces of derivation from any higher source than the colonial Protozoa. Von Lendenfeld, though claiming the sponges as properly belonging to the Coelenterata, entertains a similar opinion. “The question whether the sponges digest with the Ectoderm or with the Entoderm cannot yet be decided. But it does not appear improbable that both layers (Polaejeff, 1. c.) may have that function. The Keimblatter of other Coelen- terata are nearly analogous,so that we can conclude that the lay- ers of the much less highly organized Sponges are still more so, and that we have inthe Sponges different germinal layers before us.” - (Proc. Linn. Soc. N. 8. Wales, vol. 9, pt. 2) p. 4383) ae opinion of those of us who held that the tissues of sponges were more primitive than in other types of Metazoa was founded largely upon the observations of the structure of adults and their » general morphology. It is, therefore, very satisfactory when such a profound student of embryology and histology as Metschnikoft is found to be advocating a similar opinion after minute, thor- ough, and extended investigation of the embryology and _histol- ogy of the same forms. In speaking of the general relations of sponges to Coelenterata (Zeitschr. Wissen. Zool., 1879, p. 379) this author writes: “Es kann aber nicht bezweifelt werden, dass trotz aller Analogien, die Spongien einen viel niederen Zweig der Metazoa als ihre nichsten Verwandten, die echten Coelentera- ten, repriisentiren ;” and farther (p. 877), in describing the rela- tions of the tissues he adds: “dass bei den Schwiimmen diese Schichten (ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm) noch nicht den Grad der Selbstindigkeit und Unabhingigkeit erlangt haben, welcher bei den héher stehenden Thieren so characteristisch ist.”’ It is not at all adverse to this opinion that intracellular digestion should take place locally in the higher forms of Metazoa. On the contrary it would be very surprising if the cells of the tissues should retain the forms and structures of Protozoa without exhibiting similarity of functions.} The essay of Mr. Saville Kent (Embryol. Sponges, Ann. Mag. 1 We know from the researches of Metschnikoff (Zool. Anzeig., 1878 and 1880) that intracellular digestion takes place in the Planarians, Hydroids, and Medusae. Parker, (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1880) has also witnessed the same phenomena in the digestive cavity _ of Hydra, and Lankester (Jour. Micr. Sci., 1881) inthe curious Medusa, Limnocodium. 1884. | . | 135 [Hyatt. Nat. Hist., ser.2, vol. 11) is an able discussion of the Protozoonal characteristics of the Porifera. His efforts to show that these affinities are sufficient to justify the association of Porifera and Choanoflagellata, are, however, founded upon conceptions of the structure of the former which do not seem to us to be admissible. Mr. Kent has not detected the chorion, and in consequence has supposed Carter, the discoverer of this structure, to have been in error when he asserted that the segmentation of the sponge ovum always takes place inside of such a special envelope. This fact as has been stated above is unquestionable, and one of Mr. Kent’s strongest points, that the poriferan ovum is not a true egg, falls to the ground. Another of Kent’s views is that the ampullae are developed from ova-like bodies in the mesoderm, and are mere aggregates of Protozoa; but the series, which he figures as proof, is open to serious criticisms. The author must have confused the early stages of an ovum (pl. 7, f. 1-4) with a fully matured spermatocyst (pl. 7, f. 5), and a no less mature stage of the same body (f. 6), A spermatgocyst (f. 5-6) with its included zoons is thus presented as one of the younger stages of the ampullaceous sac (f. 7). The chorion appears in Mr. Kent’s figures 2-3 of this series, is not pres- ent in figures 4--6, and is of course absent in his ampulla (f. 9) which forms part of the same series of figures.) Thus Mr. Kent mixed up ova, spermatccoysts, and ampullae in his observations, and he was, therefore, unable to distinguish true ova among sponges, and has been led to make an erroneus estimate of the affinities of the Porifera and choanoflagellate Protozoa. Never- theless many of Mr. Kent’s comparisons, appear to us to prove a much closer relationship between the Protozoa and Metazoa than has been heretofore admitted by the opponents of this view. An undoubted Protozoon, Proterospongia Haekelii (Man. Inf, vol. 1, pl. xm, p. 8365) 1s described by the author as “a stock form from which all the sponges were primarily derived.” This col- ony of flagellate and collared cells buried in a structureless jelly does not essentially differ from the single layered colonies of the Dr. Wilson (Mittheill. aus. d. Zool. Stat. Neapol, vol. 5, pt. 1) observed similar phenomena inthe mesenterial filaments of the Aleyonaria. Metschnikoff also has made us familiar with other examples of a similar sort in his interesting article tran- slated in Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., Jan., 1884. 1 A part of these same figures is given in the Manualof the Infusoria, pl. 9. Hyatt.] 136 {March 5 Phalansterium and Spongomonas (pl. 12), except in being a round mass. Carchesinm and Zoothamniuin (pl. xi), which though Ciliata are similarly buried in a strtctureless blastema or at Zoocyntium,” show that the zoocyntium is a homoplastie structure which cannot be considered as an indication of close affinity between the flagellate cells of Protozoa and those of the Porifera. It is also an acknowledged product of the collared cells and not a cellular mesoderm or its homologue. The figure of Desmarella moniliforme (pl. 11, f. 80), a free floating colony of eight zoons with collars and flagella, is very similar to Clarke’s figure of an isolated fragment of the endoderm of Ascaltis, and seems to us more nearly allied to a sponge than any other Kent has figured, since this has no zoocynctium and the zoons lying side by side have more nearly the relation and aspect of a true membrane. Flagellate colonies like Proterospongia may be considered as remotely foreshadowing the ciliated larva of a sponge; .and possi- bly the blastema or zoocyntium may be the homologue of the structureless jelly which filled the blastocoel, and in this sense their characteristics seem to argue strongly for the derivation of the Porifera from the Choanofiagellata as the stock forms of Met- azoa. The figure of Desmarella appears to us to have a similar meaning as regards Biitschli’s placula and strengthens the theory of the derivation of the essential ‘characteristics of the monopla- culate embryo of the Calcispongiae from similar flat colonies of single Inyered Protozoons. The Monoplacula may have been a synamoeba, and the Desmarella merely a homoplastic colony, but it shows that collared cells may arise in a colonial form, which is similar to that of a true membrane and in which the cells adhere without the aid of a zoocyntium or enclosing blastema. Huxley was the first author, who realized the great differences between the Porifera and the remainder of the Metazoa. He des- ignated them (Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., 1875) as Metazoa Poly- stomata in contrast with the Metazoa Monostomata, which included all the remaining Metazoa. Though we have on several occasions criticised this view, we are now glad to be able to retract, and even to reinforce Huxley’s opinion with the theory of the peripheral growth of vases and oscula in sponges. Eeto- dermal invaginations are shown in the process of formation, in 1884.} 137 [Hyatt- this group, and we can homologize them with stomodeal, procto- ‘deal and possibly other invaginations occurring in the embryos of higher animals which are also traceable to a tubular origin. These homologies show that the cloaca of sponges are true oscula, though they must be estimated as primitive oscula. The stomodea of many higher animals are, however, not primitive oscula. That is to say they do not connect with the primitive archenteron as do the oscula of Porifera, but arise for example in Vertebrata, as secondary invaginations connecting with the mesenteron. McAllister in his “ Animal Morphology” first correctly desig- nated the sponges as a distinct branch equivalent to Coelenterata unler the name of Poriferata. This view was supported by the author (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 19, 1878 ; and in Johnson’s Encyclopedia, Appendix, p. 1668) from an independent stand- point, and before having seen McAllister’s statement. Polaejeff, in his Calcispongiae of the Challenger, lately advanced a similar, but more reserved opinion, apparently without having read either of these views. These observations and conlusions in so far as the sponges are concerned can be summarized as follows: The Porifera are peculiar in the plasticity of their forms, pre- senting great variation within the same species, and tendency to coalescence; in the possession of an inclosed skeleton formed by the ectoderm; in the universal presence and essential necessity of pores, and the peculiarities of the external aspect arising from the presence of these structures, and in the absence of any marks of bilateral distribution of the parts. The interior of primitive forms has a unique character due to the protozoonal forms of cells in the endoderm of the lowest type throughout life, and to the pores perforating the wall ; while the interior of higher forms has a still more marked appearance due to the vast number and irreg- ular radiatory and often branching arrangement of the coelomic sacs or ampullae and their primitive shapes ; the presence of two systems of gastro-vascular tubes; the epithelium of the archen- teron, and the protozoonal forms of the cells of the ampullae. The habitat is universally sedentary, and complicated colonial associ- ations of spongozoons are unknown. ‘The sieve-like organization and mode of growth of the coelomic sacs, and middle layer, and the comparative uniformity of the habitat have all contributed to A Hyatt. ] 138 [March 5, the suppression of the formation of complete buds. Thus the direct growth of the individual has built up spongozoons which may be called massive or branching individuals, but are in no sense colonies, except in the forms with a thin mesoderm, Ascones. The characteristics of the middle layer are so exceedingly primi- tive that we have called it mesenchyme. It is the seat of the reproductive, as well as assimilative cells in all except the lowest forms, Aseones, thus presenting a strong contrast with the meso- blastic and mesodermic tissues of higher forms. The peculiarities of the type are still more marked in the young. The earliest stage, as in all Metazoa, is amoeboidal, but in the next stage the monoplaculate form of embryo is prevalent, as might have been anticipated, in the Calcispongiae as the most generalized structures among the Metazoa. The more concen- trated forms of the ovum, the morula, amphimorula, parenchy- mula and gastrula, are not peculiar to the Porifera; but in the later stages the Cinctoplanula appears, and at once enables the ob- server to distinguish any form in which it is present as a sponge, and this is followed by the equally characteristic ascula and am- pullinula. There are unquestionably type-larval stages in most of the branches of the animal kingdom, and time and fuller knowledge will probably bring embryology and adult structures into agree- ment with each other. Not only can we distinguish a sponge by the Cinctoplanula, Ascula and Ampullinula, and the Hydrozoa by means of the Hydroplanula and Actinula, and the Actinozoa by the formation of the fleshy septa and characteristics of the Gulinula, but it has been Jong recognized that this was practicable in the last two branch- es, as well as among Crustacea in which the Nauplius is preva- lent, among Mollusca in which the Veliger is typical, among Echinodermata in which the Pluteus prevails, and among Verte- brata in which the test of affinity is the notochordal stage. In all of these branches, except the last, there are groups in which the typical embryonic or larval stage is absent, and in some certainly this absence can be accounted for as due to the law of concentra- tion. The suppression of the Cinctoplanula in Sycandra, the absence of the nauplius in the Astacidae, and of the Veliger in the Cephalopoda are all examples of highly specialized type which concentrate or suppress the characteristics of the type-larval stage /. - 1884.] 139 [Hyatt. in their development. The absence of the type-larval stage in an animal is not, therefore, evidence against its association with a branch to which its structure brings it in undeniable affinity, pro- vided the omission can be explained upon the basis of concentra- tion and specialization ; but on the other hand the presence of this stage is absolutely determinative. The term Radiata established by Cuvier has been banished from the literature of Zoology under the impression that the general homologies which might be made between the types of Porifera, Hydrozoa, Actinozoa and Echinodermata would kave no taxonomic value. While recognizing that the distinctions which have been shown between these types are sufficient to entitle them to the rank of different branches, we have never felt dis- posed to slight the homologies founded upon the prevalence of the tendency to vertical division of the body and the predomi- nantly radiatory symmetry in the arrangement of parts. This appears now to receive additional confirmation since the radiate symmetry evidently correlates with similarities in the modes of growth of the diverticula of the archenteron as was shown by Alexander Agassiz (Embryol. Starfish Agass. Contrib., vol. v, p. 65) before the views of the Hertwigs with regard to the coelom enabled him to use the general homologies of the body cavity in support of these views. The Hydrozoa, Actinozoa and Echino- dermata are the higher terms of this grand series of animal types, and to this list we add the Porifera as the first and lowest term, thinking that we are amply justified by the facts adduced above in estimating them as true Metazoa radiata. We can now, therefore, proceed with a certain confidence to point out still more definitely the primitive character of the struc- tures of Porifera. These animals with their thick middle layer filling up the space between the diverticula, and with these cavi- ties in direct connection with the exterior by means of tubes, present us with a structure, which in horizontal section would not be very remote from Prof. Sedgwick’s ideal diagram of the sup- posed ancestral type of the segmented animals (op. cit., pl. 3, f. 7). If we imagine this figure altered so as to obliterate the peripheral tube connecting the coelomatic cavities, it would become an approximate diagram of a horizontal section through an adult sycon or the ampullinula stage among Carneospongiae. Hyatt.] 140 [March 5, The figure, however, would be round instead of elliptical and there would be no nervous ring above and around the actinostome (stomodeum), which would also be circular. We should also goa step farther and trace under this diagram another in which an embryo in similar section would appear without an actinostome. The mouth would be presented as an open, enlarged blasto- pore leading into a ciliated cavity, the walls of which would be porous and presented as triple, but with extremely thin mesenchyme, and the cells of the ciliated endodermic and smooth ectodermic cells almost in contact on the severed parts, and actually in contact in each pore. This diagram would correspond with an ideal horizontal section through an ascon if supposed to have the mouth and blastopore coincident, and if deprived of the skeletal spicules, or to a similar ideal section through a larval sycon in the ascon stage of development when without spicules. This ideal form would be essentially a gastrula perforated with pores, but consisting of three layers and not of two layers as imagined by Haeckel, Huxley and Sedgwick. Thus although obliged to differ in important details from these authors our results are approximately similar. In other words the gastrula theory appears to be supported by both the observed gradations of structure and those of embryology among the Porif- era; and the adult ascon, the lowest Metazoan, is a triploblastic gastrula differing only from the ideal gastrula in being perforated with pores. RECAPITULATION AND REMARKS. The tissues of Metazoa are, as is now generally recognized, built up by the parthenogenetic fission of cells; and it is evident that the massiveness of tissue is due to the extremely rapid growth of cells by this mode. They form membranes or masses united in forms similar to Desmarella, and not in forms similar to those colonies of Protozoa which are bound together by means of plasma or by stalks. In so far as this morphological result is concerned, therefore, the cells of the tissues are completely divided, and represent only the most exceptional structural results of agamic fission when compared with the formation of colonies: among Protozoa. = a 1884. ] 141 [Hyatt. The simplest free zoons of the Amoebinae may break by com- plete agamic fission into many zoons, but this is evidently a prim- itive unencysted condition introductory to the association in simple colonies, which characterizes the adults of most of the Protozoa, and to the more concentrated mode of reproduction by complete fission within a cyst, which follows this stage in the complicated cycles of transformation among the higher forms. The Protozoon has normally three periods in its life, the youngest individualized zoon, the intermediate or adult, during which it forms simple colonies, and the final reproductive encysted form, which is an individualized zoon again. Ova and spermatocysts or their homologues accompany the cysts in the higher Protozoa, and are the direct descendants of the reproductive or encysted zoons. They are the third products of the ontological cycle, and through them all the influences of heredity are conveyed. By this per- petual reduction of the cycle in every individual, and the con- tinuous acquirement and transmission of new characteristics, more and more complicated colonies appeared; and finally the three-layered Metazoa were established. These have also the three periods of life in homologous cells and in similar order, the indi- vidualized zoons or cell of the ovum, the complex colony which is built up by its growth and fission, and the production finally of reproductive and encysted zoons or cells through which the in- fluences of heredity are transmitted. These transformations, however, occur in a very concentrated fashion, and the reproduc- tive zoon must be considered as belonging to the young and adult period of the complex colony instead of the degradational or senile as in Protozoa.! No connected colonies of zoons or cells are built up in the Metazoa, representing the incompletely divided colonies of the adults of Protozoa, except in incomplete segmentation of the 1 We have formerly pointed out (Memoirs Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1866, vol. 1; and Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vol. xx xu, p. 354) that there was a constant tendency among fossil Cephalopoda in the highest and most specialized forms (those which nec- essarily possessed the most concentrated development) to inherit senile characteristics of progressive and earlier geological forms so that they appeared sometimes even in larval periods. This law is of great interest since it enables us to correllate the trans- formations of the senile individual-with the degradational changes taking place in the highest and often most specialized forms occurring in the paracme of groups, and to show that degradational transformations are similar in their results whether occurring in the individual, or in the species, or in larger groups of the same class or branch. Hyatt. ] 142 [March 5, ovum. These forms are skipped and the complex colonies, which arise by fission, consist of zoons completely divided from each other. The cycle of transformations is not only shortened by this omission, but the origin of the reproductive bodies is car- ried back into the adult stages and earlier in many forms, and the rapidity of the processes of complete fission due to concentration produces masses of tissue and membranes in place of loosely con- nected colonies as among Protozoa. We have not considered the structure of the cells as worked out by various modern investigators, because we do not believe the reticulum (Ffrommann) and the possible connections of proto- plasm binding cells together into masses (Heitzmann) could sensibly shake this result drawn from the general morphol- ogy. The many disconnected, wandering cells with their inde- _ pendent organization and functions favor this conclusion ; and the sight of these and of ova in the mesenchyme of sponges, and the evidence of their functions here and elsewhere in the animal kingdom are sufficient to bring a candid mind to open confession of the existence of exact parallelism between them and the single, individualized Amoeba. These and other morphological facts have led, so far as we know, only to comparisons between the ordinary tissue cells and the adults of the amoebae, and it has been assumed that these cells are the equivalents of the adult amoebae. Morphologically this seems to be true, but it does not account for the physiologi- cal differences between the Protozoon and the cell. The ontol- ogy of the cell, its production of tissue, and the reduction of the cycle of transformations cannot be explained, unless we attribute to it a concentrated energy in reproduction and a tendency to form complex associations much greater than that of the Proto- zoon. Morphological comparisons show that the succession of events was first growth, then fission, then the union or concrescence of the divided zoons and an exchange of their complementary parts; evidently all of these influences bear upon the tissue cell and influences its reproduction. Nevertheless two cells do not combine previous to reproduction by fission, and whatever the effect of the original impregnation may be, we are obliged, therefore, to regard a young cell as a modified agamic larvalike 1884.] 143 (Hyatt. form or zoon, when compared with the full grown Amoeba. If descent from Amoebae, through Flagellata and Ciliata is assumed, then the task of proving young cells to be immature forms becomes easier. In this case they are obviously forms, which, like the ova of many Metazoa, have retained their ancient, amoeboidal characteristics while losing their later acquired flagellate and cili- ate similarities. We cannot use the words embryo and larva, which belong to the ovum after impregnation, and we, therefore, propose to designate the cell an autotemnon,! in contrast with the embryo which is more specialized. The least specialized tis- sue cells of the mesenchyme differ least from the individualized agamic zoons of the Protozoa; while the spermatocysts, as more highly specialized, encysted male zoons, retain the cycle of agamic transformations derived from their male Protozoonal pro- totypes, and are intermediate to the encysted female zoon or ovum. The spermatocyst, in other words, is not dependent upon impregnation for its development and has necessarily retained more of the characteristic, successive transformations of the prim- itive agamic form than the ovum. This last has become depen- dent upon impregnation. The tendency to earlier and earlier impregnation in successive generations, and the correllative con- centration of useless autotemnic stages has finally established the ovum as a more highly specialized form of cell. , The conditions under which fission occurs in the cyst, and in the ovum and spermatocyst are similar as long as the zoons or cells are all similarly confined, but when they burst the envelope and become free, the surrounding conditions differ and they cor- respondingly diverge. The early encystment of the ovum, the non-production of the colonial form by incomplete fission, the dependence of the femi- nonucleus upon impregnation, and the great rapidity and exten- sive character of the changes by which the diploblastic paren- chymula and triploblastic gastrula are built up, all show the excessive concentration of development which has taken place, when any blastula is compared with the corresponding forms among the Volvocinae. There is also a distinction between the mode of development of the Volvocinae, and the lower Proto- 1 From aves, self, and Tépva, to divide. Hyatt.] 144 [March 5 zoa, Which has, we think, great significance! They have a pro longed gestation which can be compared with the similar prolon- gation of this period in the development of the ovum in the Met- azoa. The reproductive bodies of all kinds, whether asexual or sexual, are retained within the body for a comparatively pro- longed period, during which they undergo division and attain very nearly the adult structures and aspect, according to Biitschli, and acquire cilia before they become free. They, in fact, attain the age at which they compare quite closely with the locomotive embryos of Porifera and many other types of the Invertebrata before they become free. The whole process of segmentation takes place under condi- tions which effectually protect the earlier stages just as it does in the Porifera and in the higher Metazoa. The action of protection as correlative with concentration, and the consequent suppression of the more indirect modes of development of the ancestral types, and the subsequent influence of protection in helping heredity to maintain unitormity in the embryo of the type, have been discussed by the author in “Genesis of Planorbis at Steinheim,” and also in “ Fossil Cephalopods of Mus. Comp. Zool.” (Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. Sci., vol. xxxi1, p. 232. Balfour also subsequently advocated the same idea, but attribu- ted concentration, or, ashe called it, abbreviation, to the action of protection, whereas we regard the two things as correllative, since protection often does not exist when concentration takes place. It needs only be said here that protection of the embryo often appears to arise simultaneously with concentration, and to occur through some change of habit or habitat. Such changes are in our view reactions of the organism, due to its efforts to meet the requirements of changed or new surrou iings by modi- fications of its acquired structures and organs partly according to Dohrn’s hypothesis, and partly according to Ryder’s theory of 1 We cannot see why their sexual reproductive bodies cannot be designated as ova and spermatocysts. They are ova aid spermatocysts in characteristics and structure, and must be considered as essentially the same. Volvox itself is, therefore, in reality a true egg-bearing animal withculy one layer to the body, and must, therefore, be con- sidered a true Protozoan; but it differs only from an embryo sponge in respeot to the number of layers inthe body, and the ordinarily accepted difference between Metazoa and Protozoa breaks down in the effort to find the differences between its sexual zoons and those of the Porifera. ‘ : yi , % 1884. ] 145 rev ate mechanical evolution, and we must also recognize the influence of effort as an essential cause of modification, as suggested in Cope’s theory. Effort, either as a purely mechanical reaction in response to irri- tation or excitation, or in less primitive shape, is probably one of the causes of all structural modifications, the more remote or ultimate cause being the direct action of the environment producing the primary irritation or excitation. The older nat- uralists respect the Lamarckian theory of effort when applied to man, and designate all attempts to apply it to the lower ani- mals as speculative, whereas it is not more so in their case than in the history of progress in man himself. Intelligent effort has no definite boundary by which it can be separated from auto- matic effort, or the exercise of any of the organs or functional powers on the part of man, or the lower animals, and they all have their birth in purely mechanical reactions which have been demonstrated by many authors, notably Semper, Dohrn, Cope and Ryder. There is a gradation in the stages of development of the ecto- derm, endoderm and mesenchym in the sponges which shows them to have retained the ancestral protozoonal characteristics in some cell-zoons more than in others. Thus the ectodermic cells in all the Porifera become permanently transformed into flat epithelial cells losing their feeding organs, the collarsand flagella, whereas the cells of the endoderm in some forms, such as the Ascones probably, never lose these organs at all, and in others lose them only tran- siently at certain stages, or only locally on the walls of the archenteron in the intervals between the diverticula or ampullae. In the mesenchyme the cells have been subjected to fewer changes and they preserve their ancient amoeboidal forms comparatively unaltered. The great change in the evolution of the group prob- ably took place after the transfer of the principal seat of assimilation | from the endoderm to the mesenchyme. This transfer occurred in the genesis of some Sycones, and other higher forms. Then the.. mesenchyme probably began to become thicker and to show more definite tissues, as in the dermal layers in many forms, such as Spongilla and Spongia, Apysilla, etc., but whether this differen- tiation ever goes to the extent of producing specialized contractile muscle cells having a fixed form is doubtful. The localization of PROCEEDINGS B. 8. N. H. VOL. XXIII. 10 MAY, 1885. Hyatt.] 146 [March 5, reproductive zoons in this layer may be a secondary result of ad- aptation, or may have a primitive and hereditary meaning, but of this there seems at present no solution. Their presence, however, gives to this layer an apparent complexity, which is puzzling until one notices that the mesenchyme contains elements, which in higher animals are more completely localized in other layers and in distinct organs. This polymorphism of the cells is really a gen- eralized characteristic which is in strong contrast with the highly specialized uniformity of the flat epithelium of the ectoderm, and the intermediate condition of the endoderm in the Sycones, Leu- cones and Carneospongiae, as shown by the flat epithelium of the archenteron, and the collar cells of the ampullae.! .. The spermatocyst in the mesenchyme of Porifera is like asingle wandering cell or any other cell of the tissues, an autotemnon, but it becomes confined in an envelope within which it undergoes spontaneous fission, and the zoons produced possess sufficient | resemblance to true monads to have justified Oken and other authors, in considering them as actually monads.? They are, however, morphologically, forms of secondary origin, which have these characteristics developed at an early stage of growth. Their ordinary form and structureless body remind one very forcibly of the simple form of cell as figured by Frommann, in his Struct. etc., Zellen, pl. 1, fig. 1, and their development and subsequent history prove that they are nuclear in origin and affinity. Whether they do or do not take food seems to us to have no bearing upon the facts of morphology, and to be a question of adap- tation to surroundings. The essential difference between them and flagellate Protozoa is, that they, though structurally young forms when compared with the more highly organized adults ofthe Flagellata, or even with the cell from which they originated, have already acquired the habits of full grown males or microgonids among 1According to Roux ‘‘Kampf der Theile im Organismus” this would be the result of natural selection acting upon the cells: this may be true in part, but the origin of the epithelial form may be due to pressure, the origin of the ampullaceous form also to pressure and excess of growth, the origin of the collar and cilia to heredity purely, its preservation to continuance of similar conditions and natural selection be only a sec- ondary influence. 2In this connection it is very interesting to read the comparisons of Nussbaum (Archiy. Mikr. Anat., Vol. XVIII, p.1) and their conformation by A. Swaen and H. Mas- quelin (Archiv. de Biologie, Vol. 1V, p. 797) upon the structure of the testicular and ova- rian envelopes and the development of the spermatocysts and ova. 1884.] VAT [Hyatt. Protozoa, and are ready to seek out and fertilize the female zoon, which in Metazoa is of course the ovum.! Their habits, there- fore, sufficiently explain this retention of the agamic, flagellated, primitive form. When we consider the whole series of transformations of the ovum it becomes apparent, that it is an autotemnon having the amoeba stage well and clearly developed. The ovum develops parallel with the spermatocyst up to the period of division of the nucleus into two parts, the masculonucleus and the feminonucleus. We have tried, in common with other authors, to show, that the masculonucleus of the ovum is probably thrown off in the polar globules during the stage of agamic division of the nucleus and that this process which is the homologue of that by which the masculonuclei are excluded from the spermatocyst after having been transformed into spermatozoa.? M. O. S. Jensen has combated this theory (Archiv. de Biol- ogie, Vol. rv, p. 68) on the ground that there is no structural dis- 1J¢ is here interesting perhaps to note, that this conelusion was formulated before we became acquainted with Butschli’s or Carter’s researches (Amer. Nat., Vol. XVIII, p. 460, 1884). 2 We greatly regret the inexcusable carelessness of having omitted to notice the re- markable writings of Prof. Ed. Van Beneden on the bisexual nature of the nucleus. These are the only embryological writings which produce the proofs of this hypothesis in illustrated form, but we were not aware of their existence until too late for notice. Prof. Ed. Van Beneden (Fecond. Maturat. de loeuf. Archiv. de Biol. Tome VI, 1883 ) advances precisely similar views to those of Dr. Minot, and shows the phenomena of fecundation and the double composition ofthe masculonucleus in aseries of remarkably clear illustrations. The author claims to be the discoverer of the bisexual composition of the nucleus of the ovum and refers to his paper of Dec., 1875 (Bull. Acad. de Belg., Ser. 2, Vol. XL, 1875) as containing the first statement of his discovery. Though not pretending to forestall the judgment of those better qualified to decide the merits of these claims, we find that Prof. Van Beneden was probably the first to announce the basal facts of the bisexual theory, but that he did not give all of the essential conditions of the phenomena of conjugation between the male and female parts of the nuclei in his first paper. This author in the work just cited (p. 700) suggests, that the peripheral pronucleus is probably partially formed of spermatic substance, that the central pronucleus is female and that the segmentation nucleus is a compound body resulting from the union of these two nuclei, and is, therefore, probably bisexual. This statement includes all the basal facts of the genoblastic theory, with, however, two im. portant exceptions. It omits any notice of complementary behavior or functions of the useless parts of nuclei in both the spermatocyst and ovum. This essential condition of the conjugation of the nuclei does not seem to have been elaborated by Van Beneden until 1883, long after the appearance of Dr. Minot’s paper. I have also to apologize for having overlooked the fact that Dr. Minot (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. xix, p. 170) had already proposed to name the original bisexual nucleus ‘‘ genoblast,” the fe- male part, ‘‘ arsenoblast,” and the male, “‘thelyblast,” and these terms have pr ecedence of those we have advanced above, or of those proposed by Van Beneden. Hyatt] | 148. [March 5, tinction (visible?) between the central cells which are useless and the peripheral cells which bear the spermatozoa, that they differ only in position and that it is more reasonable to suppose that the cells becoming earlier developed would necessarily assume a peripheral arrangement, and not only prevent by their excess of development the growth, but even occasion the degeneration, of the internal cells. This might be in a certain sense perfectly acceptable as an explanation of the way in which the peripheral mode of growth arose, but it is difficult to explain the evident eagerness of the spermatozoa to enter the eggs, or the tendency » of the spermonucleus to unite with the feminonucleus of the ovum upon any supposition which does not assume heredity as its basis. If this be true, the appearance of this process in the ovum during the agamic stage exhibits an earlier inheritance of a characteristic which in the Protozoa occurs only after and as a result of impreg- nation, except in some of the more specialized Flagellata and Ciliata, where the existence of spermatocysts and spermato- zooids leads one to anticipate a corresponding differentiation in the female zoon, which appears to be in reality an ovum, and to de- velop, like an ovum, into a blastula, as pointed out by Butschli. The vitelline membrane seems to have been considered as a dif- ficulty in the way of homologizing the ovum and the body of an encysted Protozoon. Dr. Minot, in a paper as yet unpublished, has homologized the wall of a cyst, and the zona pellucida of the ovum with each other (Science, Vol. rv, 1884, p. 339). We feel naturally doubtful whether this comparison can be proven, but we do not, on the other hand, consider it at all necessary, that such close com- parisons should be made between purely adaptive parts like the protective coverings of the ovum and the structureless cyst wall of the Protozoon. The cellular membranes of the pouches in which the ova and spermatocysts are isolated and developed in the Porifera are very instructive in this connection. The ovum and spermatocyst must make room for themselves, and provide at the same time necessary food for their early growth and it is well known that these reproductive bodies are predacious cells which doubtless grow at the expense of the neighboring cells. They can, therefore, be regarded as having a decidedly irritating action upon the adjoining tissues. This process of continued irritation would be sufficient to cause the flow of wandering cells to and 1884.] 149 [Hyatt. around the ova, and, thus as in the case of internal burrowing parasites, bring about the formation of more or less thick walled cysts. These in time would tend to stiffen and lessen the supply of food, and thus limit the size of the spermatocysts and ova. There are marks of this differentiation in the sponges, some of which have cysts with thick walls composed of several layers of cells as in Aplysilla sulphurea (Von Lendenfeld, Zeit. Wissen. Zool., Vol. Xxxvill, p. 262), while the thin walled cysts prevail in others, and probably in all the cysts become single layered and build a more or less stiffened chorion in later stages. Those with thick walls show the transition from the unprotected ovum as it occurred in the higher Protozoa, or possibly even in some sponges, to the inclosed ovum of the higher Metazoa or higher Porifera. The chorion, in other words, is a covering which arises at first as a protectign of the tissue against the ova and sperma- tocysts, and then, acquiring through heredity fixed and inherit- able characteristics and thin walls of differentiated cells, becomes finally a highly specialized single layer of epithelium. With regard to the meaning of the early stages of the ovum, we come nearer to Bitschli (Morph. Jahrb., 1884), than any other au- thor, and regard his placula theory as opening a way far more prom- ising than any so far proposed. This author, however, voluntarily rejected the aid of the sponges in his arguments, under the erro- neous impression that they were Protozoa. The embryo of the Calcispongiae is, however, as we have tried to show above, a single layered placula or a monoplacula, and is, therefore, directly com- parable with the undifferentiated flat colonies of Protozoa which were more primitive than the blastula form and represent the sim- plest condition of a colony of Protozoa, like Desmarella of Saville Kent. ‘They are, however, devoid of cilia at this stage and there- fore more nearly perhaps represent a mass of amoeboid forms. The formation of the apical or esoteric cells from the cells of the mon- oplacula transforms this stage into a diploplacula, the older or basal cells becoming our exoteric cells. The approximation of the later stage in which true ectoblastic and endoblastic cells first appear to the more primitive and earlier stages in which the exoteric and esoteric cells of the diploplacula are formed can be explained by concentration of development and would necessarily end in the fusion of these two stages, and the ultimate production Hyatt.] 150 [March 5, of a rounded globular and more or less solid form in which it would be difficult to distinguish the exoteric and esoteric cells, or in which this stage of differentiation might be entirely skipped in accordance with the law of concentration in development. The rounded globular forms of the morula would then replace the placula earlier in the life of the embryo and occasion its disap- pearance in more highly specialized forms, as in the Carneospongiae. This theory is very similar to that of Butschli,! so far as relates to the origin of the placula, but differs in making the morula an important stage of the evolution of forms. Butschli points out the resemblances of the embryo of Cucullanus, Rhabdomena, and Lumbricus to the placula, and the apparently primitive mode of forming the segmentation cavity in the latter by the separation of the two layers is also given in detail by him. Butschli also con- siders the Trichoplax adhaerens of Schultze, as a living illustra- tion of a full grown, primitive, placulate form. We think also, that one ought to find primitive stages in the embryos of a primitive type, and this is eminently the case with Porifera. We should anticipate the opposite with a higher type. like the worms, or any metameric animal, and this appears to be borne out by what Butschli brings forward in support of his theory. “ In Cucullanus the earliest stages are rounded, and we cannot agree with Butschli, that the flattened form which follows this is a primitive placula, or diploplacula. The primitive placula is a single layer, must precede the morula, and cannot succeed this stage. It will be seen by our remarks above that the esoteric and exoteric differentiations would have occurred normally be- fore the morula stage in the placula of Cucullanus, or else in fusion with it and therefore the double layered placula of But- schli must be necessarily a flattened morula in which the two layers had already been fused. The relations of the planula stage in Cucullanus and Lumbricus to the gastrula also indicate, that it is simply a modification of the morula stage, and not com- parable with the earlier premorula stages of the embryo. The formation of the gastrula in Cucullanus is a beautiful example of 1 We first became acquainted with Butschli’s views from an article handed us by a friend just before the reading of this paper at the meeting of the American Association, and our ideas with regard to the primitive nature of the sponge placula had been formed and written sometime before this event. x 1884.] 151 [Hyatt. extra growth of the ectoblast, as has been pointed out by Balfour, and in this and in Lumbricus a true epibolic gastrula is built up by this process which is not more primitive than that which occurs in the Ctenophorae or Tubulariae. The gastrula in other words is formed according to a highly concentrated secondary mode of de- velopment, and not by primitive or simple processes. We should, therefore, even while adopting Butschli’s theory, decline to accept his typical examples as true illustrations of the theory, and hold rigidly to the law of succession in the stages of the embryo for . justification of this opinion. The central eavity of the blastula stage, the so-called Proto- gaster of Haeckel, connects with the exterior by a blastulapore, the ‘*‘ Protostoma”’ of Haeckel, which is normally closed later in the growth, but remains open for long periods in some sponges, as may be observed in the figures of Sycandra raphanus and in the larva of silicious sponges, as in the embryos of Halichondria and Tethya described above. The assumption, that such a prim- itive cavity necessarily originated as a gastric cavity, seems im- probable. ‘The prototype of this cavity, the aula, must have first appeared as the central hollow in a moving colonial form of Pro- tozoa, simply as a mechanical necessity of the habits and mode of growth, and might have been useful as a float, but was probably not a gastric cavity, but on the contrary similar in every way to the internal cavity of the Volvox-blastula. The additional advantage of the possession of such a hollow in enabling the cells to use two sides instead of one, and to perform the functions of respiration, ingestion and excretion more completely, is obvious. The grow- ing of the cells of the ovum into a hollow sphere, the blastula with its blastulapore. opening externally, is described by Butschli as es- sentially similar to the growth of the adult, floating, spherical colo- nies of Volvox and Eudorina from a single zoon by fission. This author (Bronn’s Thierreichs, Protozoa, pl. 45) gives a series of figures illustrating the development of the asexual zoons of Vol- vox, which fully substantiate his conclusions and together with Carter’s (cited above), show that the closest comparisons may be made between the early stages of the ovum and those of all forms of Volvox, which is an open blastula like that of some Pori- fera before it leaves the parent colony and becomes free. A friend has been kind enough to criticise this conclusion, and Hyatt.] : 152 [March 5, has pointed out the fact, that this early differentiation of exoteric and esoteric cells may be translated as due to an early inheritance of a tendency to form an endoderm and ectoderm which might possibly have been derived from a type in which these membranes had been present. This objection can, we think, be met by two considerations. The Porifera are, if we are correct, the lowest type of Metazoa, and in them the succession of embryonic metamorpho- ses indicates, that a true endoderm cannot be considered as repre- sented by any external cells occurring in the placulate or early stages of primitive types of ova. The succession in the embryo is first, formation by segmentation of a placula with cells all similar, then the differentiation of apical or esoteric, and basal or exoteric cells. These are followed by the rounded morula, and the hollow amphiblastula, and in both of these last the endoblast is formed ; but, as shown by Schultze in Sycandra, this endoblast is of mixed derivation, not being confined to the products of the apical or eso- teric cells alone but partly formed by division of the more prim- itive exoteric or basals also. There is evidently here a confusion of elements which can be explained, if we are dealing with cells representing a colony of Protozoa in which the exoteric cells gave rise to esoteric cells above, and continued to supply the esoteric layer with new recruits from their own ranks by peripheral growth. This fact is, however, at variance apparently with the view that the esoteric cells are in any sense descendants of true endodermic cells, since as simple endoblasts they alone should be the fathers of all the descendent endoblasts and endodermic cells, and not stand in need of reinforcements from the exoteric cells below. The esoteric cells of the amphimorula of Porifera have not descended from forms in which the endoderm was fully differentiated, but from forms in which this membrane was only in the first confused stages of formation. The fully differentiated esoteric cells of the amphimorula become invaginated in the gastrula and become the rudiments of an endoderm, or a true endoblast. | Our view is, therefore, that the esoteric cells should be con- sidered as the forerunners, and not as the descendants of true endodermic cells. In those cases in which an endoderm occurs in- ternally by delamination, like that of Geryonea, and of Eutima, the internal cells arising from the inner ends of the external cells must be considered as due to the fusion of the earlier stages, and should be 1884.] Iya) [Hyatt. regarded as true endodermic cells produced suddenly by concen- tration of development, the ovum having skipped the earliest stages and also the gastrula. In other words, the mere fact that these cells are permanently internal makes them for the first time truly endodermic, and such cells are truly endodermic because they have become internal through inheritance from some ancestral gastrula. That is, we claim that the old and established laws of homology apply not only to the organs and parts, but to the primitive layers of ova and to the cell-zoons. Thus cells and the primitive layers must occupy similar positions with relation to each other in the body of the embryo before they can be considered as strictly homologous, and, therefore, no external esoteric cells can be homologized with internal endodermic cells, or be consid- ered as their descendants. The closure of the blastulapore, which occurs in most forms, in- dicates very clearly, that the internal cavity or blastocoel was not a digestive sac in any sense. In order to account for the differen- tiation of the esoteric cells, we have imagined them as necessarily and by position feeding cells in the ancestors of the diploplacu- late stage. In the free morula and closed blastula the same cells, or their more modified descendants, would tend to retain similar functions. The differentiation of the poles would occur in this blastula form according to the same law, as is observed in the higher animals, and the tendency already initiated of the zoons of one pole to become exclusively feeding zoons would be increased by more frequent contact with food, and by being constantly occu- pied in the act of ingestion. ‘The dimorphism of the colony hav- ing been thus kept up and established by a continuance of similar _ habits, and the aula correlatively developed, we should have a free moving form with the cells at one pole feeding cells, and at the other probably more efficient as respiratory cells. ‘These last need not be necessarily inefficient as feeding zoons, but might have re- mained quite capable of this office, as well, also, as that of devel- oping flagella for moving the body, and in fact resembling in aspect and structure what we actually find in the amphiblastula of some sponges. We here claim for the exoteric or ectoblast cells, that their possession of collars and flagella implies the existence of powers of ingestion. We think the negative evidence, adduced by Metschnikoff and others, in regard to these cells in the em- Hyatt.] 154 | [March 5, bryos of sponges is entirely inadequate to prove anything but the fact that they have not seen them actually feeding, and does not weigh against the observed functions of the collars and flagella of the Flagellata, especially the positive and convincing proofs brought forward by Saville Kent. This view is quite similar in its result to the opinion of Balfour (Comp. Embr. vol. 1, p. 122) which was also founded upon the idea that the Porifera presented characteristics of amore primitive kind than was usual in the higher types of Metazoa. Balfour rec- ognized a difficulty in the invagination of the ciliated cells in Sy- cones, and thought that the possession of cilia was an essential character implying respiratory and locomotive functions. Balfour perhaps laid too great stress upon the similarity of functions, and this led him to suppose that the three layers in sponges might pos- sibly prove to be distinct from the three layers of other Metazoa (ibid. p. 123), whereas they are truly homologous. A dimorphic colony, like the amphiblastula with the cells at one - end becoming better fitted to take in food, could be transformed into a parenchymula by the migration of differentiated feeding cells into the interior and the parenchymula could as we have tried to show become a true gastrula. There are no living forms, so far as we know, with which the parenchymula can be compared, and its probable meaning has already been indicated by other writers, especially by Metschnikoff, namely, that it implies a radical form in which the mesenchyme has arisen as a primitive mass by delam- ination. We have also claimed that the gastrula of the Porifera was of general and genetic significance. This possibly indicates the former existence of an amphiblastula-like ancestor in which the invagination of the esoteric layer arose from the pressure occas- sioned by the unequal growth of the hemispheres, as first suggested by Dr. Whitman. This theory is satisfactory, so far as pressure may be considered as assisting in the first introduction of the ten- dency to invagination, but as a purely mechanical theory it cannot fully explain the whole series of phenomena. The aid of concentra- tion in heredity is essential in order to account for the early ap- pearance of both embolic and epibolic gastrulae in the embryos, and for the skipping of these stages in cases of the formation of the endoderm directly by delamination. The inwandering of the es- 1884.] aD (Hyatt. oteric or endoblast cells of the parenchymula might be reasonably assumed as in part due to pressure. This appears to be a primi- tive mode of forming the endoderm, as stated by Schmidt and Metschnikoff, and, therefore, we should have to consider pressure as simply a possible cause aiding the tendency to inwandering, as it appears in the habits of these cells of the parenchymula. It is probable that this tendency was derived from ancestors in which a primitive invagination appeared as a late characteristic of the development, due to excess of growth in peripheral parts, as sug- gested above in the stomodea of Porifera, and that the same con- ditions of growth and pressure would continue to be present in the similar parts in the young of descendent forms as long as the con- ditions and habits were sufficiently similar and did not interfere with hereditary tendencies. The fact that the esoteric hemi- sphere is an excessive peripheral outgrowth of the exoteric cells in the amphiblastula isin perfect accord with the successive stages in the development of pits, and minor invaginations of the ecto- derm. These are universally in their primitive stages peripheral outgrowths of the outer membranes, which form simple hollows and then these cups become hereditary invaginations in the em- bryos of descendent forms. ‘The formation of stomodea and other ectodermic invaginations can thus be accounted for as in every way parallel to formation of gastrulae, and due to similar causes. The invagination of the endoblast in the ordinary form of the gastrula is immediately accompanied and caused, as stated above, by pressure arising from the excess of growth in ectoblastic cells. The pressure on the endoblast after invagination is shown by the forms of the cells, which become elongated along the middle part of the cup, as in the well known case of Amphioxus described by Kowalevsky, and many examples by other authors. The growth and excess of pressure are also evinced in the elongation of the planula and the tendency of the at first broad blastopore to close up to a narrow opening by growth of the ectoblast. The usually columnar aspect of the ectoblastic cells of the planula, their long- est axes being radial, or at right angles to the direction of the pressure is also favorable to this theory. These cells may be at- tenuated in Porifera at this stage (Barrois, Epong. de la Manche) so as to assume an almost linear aspect under low powers of the microscope. ‘The succession of the stages is first a peripheral out- Hyatt.] 156 [March 5, growth increasing continually the diameter of the amphimorula, then invagination, then peripheral growth of the ectoblast, fol- lowed by elongation of the planula and contraction or obliteration of the blastopore. Heredity in these cases seems to be subordi- nate to growth, but this we think is due to the necessarily identi- cal action of these inseparable forces. Heredity and growth are also necessary in order to account for cases of epibolic gastrulae, as well as for the existence of the planula. The action of hered- ity in the planulais obvious, but in the transitional epibolic gas- trula the obvious mechanical action of growth still interferes with the clear perception of the influence of heredity. The growth of the ectoblast cells is so rapid in the last named, that the endoblast cells become inclosed as in the Ctenophorae, and the gastrula is formed by a process much shorter than is usual in embryos of the embolic type. In a planula we can see very clearly, that some other force in addition to growth has been at work, and that, whether we adopt Lankester’s hypothesis or some other, we are equally obliged to call in the aid of heredity in order to explain the hidden steps by which the embolic gastrula has been trans- _ formed into this concentrated form of development. Keller (Anat. und Entwickelung einiger Spong. d. Mittelmeers, Basel, 1876), has given the fullest illustrated account of what we, in common with Metschnikoff and Schultze, have called the transient gastrula of the Calcispongiae.! A recent perusal of this interesting paper has suggested, that there is probably no better field for the study of the effects of pressure upon cells, than in these cases of tran- sient invagination. Itis possible that the invagination stage may be traceable directly to excess of growth in the ciliated cells, and their subsequent invagination as outgrowths to the reversal of this process, and at any rate this field is a very promising one in this direction. We havealso noted above, the probability that the me- dullary fold was primitively a stomodeal invagination due to extra growth, and we are able to quote in this connection an observa- tion of Dr. Hatscheck’s, which appears to bear out this supposition 1 We entirely failed through an unlucky oversight, to quote this paper above, where it would have been more appropriate. This is especially regrettable, since Keller’s ~ observations on the possible entodermal origin of the primitive spicules, and the as- sertion that the transient gastrula occurs normally after and not before the larva has left the parent, and that the young larvain the early part of the ascula stage is without cloaca, are exceedingly interesting in connection with the questions we have discussed. 1884.] 1 yi¢h [Hyatt. and also to sustain other conclusions cited above, with regard to the effects of growth in the primitive production of such organs, especially among the ancestors of the Vertebrata. Dr. Hatscheck (Arb. Zool. Inst. Wien., vol. 1v, 1881, p. 45-48) attributes the origin of the primitive segments and other changes of form in the embryo of Amphioxus to the growth and energy of cells. He explains the origin of the medullary plate by differen- tiations in the cells caused by the extra growth of the neighbor- ing cells of the ectoderm, and attributes the rise of the ends and final inclosure of the neural canal to lateral outgrowths due to the same cause. The general presence of the different forms. of the gastrula, in- cluding the planula, indicates, as we have tried to show above, that Haeckel was right in supposing that these stages indicated common ancestors for the whole animal kingdom. To this we have also joined (page 87) the architroch of Lankester by imagining a very ancient origin for the circles of oral cilia, around the blas- topore of the primitive gastrula-like ancestors of the Invertebrata. The history of the structural transitions through which the layers of the body pass in their subsequent history sustains the view that the Porifera are the lowest type of Metazoa. The endoderm and ectoderm reach a highly differentiated stage and appear as flat epithelial membranes, but the middle layer remains a mesenchyme containing, as we have stated above, the reproductive bodies of both sexes. ‘The appearance of spermatozoa and ova indifferently in the same animal shows, that entire separation of the sexes does not take place so far as now known, among Porifera. It is not yet established, that cross fertilization occurs in any form, though there are as yet no grounds for the positive assertion that it does not occur. The history of the early stages exhibits a larval form in which the interior is solid for a certain period and the mesen- chyme plays a much more important role than in any other branch of the animal kingdom, as might be anticipated from the adult - condition and importance of this layer in the morphology of the group. We have also tried to show that the general morphology and development indicated the gradual evolution of series of forms from a type similar to Ascones but without a skeleton, which we have considered directly comparable, as stated by Haeckel, with the Hyatt.] 158 [March 5, gastrula. During this evolution the mesenchyme became more and more important, and as a result of its thickening the habit of budding was more or less suppressed so that the higher types must be considered as individuals with highly plastic forms, Hable to excessive outgrowths, but not as branching colonies. The arch- enteron also remains unchanged throughout life, or gives rise to simple diverticula, orin forms with thicker mesenchyme the diverti- cula themselves form branching tubes. The fact that no coelom or body cavity is formed, in spite of the opportunity offered by the increasing thickness of the mesenchyme is very significant. It is not yet established that the mesenchyme does receive some addi- tions in course of its growth from the endoderm and ectoderm, but so far as the histology is now understood it is doubtful. In other words the Porifera are intermediate with regard to structural com- position between primitive larval individuals, like the free larvee of all colonial types, and the differentiated colonies which arise from such primitive individuals after they become attached, as in the Hydrozoa. They contain all the elements necessary for the formation of complicated colonies with complete zooids of all kinds, sexual and asexual, in all their varieties as displayed in Hydrozoa ; but in consequence of the less differentiation of the mesenchyme their primitive individuality is maintained and the processes of budding take place internally and externally without perfect cor- relation. That is, the exterior has outgrowths and so has the archenteron, but these are not strictly coincident and produce true buds only in the forms with thin mesenchyme. The evidence in favor of the opinion that the diverticula or am- pullae are strictly homologous with the archenteric diverticula of all other animals is verystrong. The young have no diverticula un- til the ampullinula is formed and this correlates with the absence of these organs in the adults of the lowest type, Ascones. These facts among sponges seem to be in accord with the history and development of the diverticula among Hydrozoa and Actinozoa, This has led to the conclusion that in all three of these types the diverticula are homoplastic organs. The considerations we have presented above have, therefore, a direct application to the results of the work done of late years by Semper, Dohrn and others in tracing the origin of the vertebrata to some worm-like type. The whole of this evidence hangs neces- f 1884. ] 159 [Hyatt. sarily upon the probability that the somites of the embryo of Amphioxus imply descent from a segmented animal; whereas, if we are correct, exactly the opposite view may be considered as the more probable, and the very close comparisons made by Semper between what he considers homogenous organs and parts in Ver- tebrata and Vermes can only be considered as evidence of the production of homoplastic effects by means of similar modes of erowth and to the similar habits of elongated and necessarily bi- lateral animals. We also object to the theory that the Vertebrata may be con- sidered as descended from a coelenterate ancestor because the actinostome probably arose independently and very late in the phylogenetic history of the Hydrozoa, and undoubtedly arose in- dependently in the Porifera. A stomodeum as it appears in the ascula stage or in a sycon or ascon may be a single opening not due to invagination, merely an enlarged pore or outlet. The cloaca of the more specialized sponges is first an outgrowth of the peripheral parts which becomes inheritable and causes the ap- pearance of the ectoderm as a lining layer extending to an indefi- nite depth into the interior. A stomodeum, also, does not exist in most of the Hydrozoa except in the primitive shape of an out- srowth, the hypostome, which is the homologue of the internal actinostome of the Actinozoa. These facts and the late stage at which it arises in the Actinozoa during the gulinula stage shows us that so far as the low types are concerned it is an independent and homoplastic organ in all three. There are no exact comparisons between the embryos of Ascidia and Amphioxus and those of the invertebrates which seem to in- clude any stages later than the planula. Those that have been traced between the mesoblastic somites indicate homoplastic or- gans, but they seem to have no phylogenetic meaning. The dis- tinct modes of development of the anterior invaginations of the vertebrates show that they had a different origin from the anterior tube of the actinostome, and cannot be considered homogenous with that organ in the Coelenterata. The medullary invagination is at first a stomodeum arising as a funnel around the blastopore, and then spreads forwards in the shape of two folds, which sub- sequently form a tube, and it is probable that the notochordal tube, and the lateral differentiations of the archenteron may have Hyatt.] 160 [March 5, had a similar homoplastic simplicity of structure. The develop- ment in Ascidia of the notochordal cells and muscle cells from the walls of the archenteron invite the suggestion, that no true diverticula exist in this type. That the lateral muscles might have arisen as entirely disconnected and more primitive structural elements than the coelomata is shown by Kowalevsky’s work on Cassiopea already quoted (Soc. Friends of Nat. Hist., etc., Moscow, pl. 2, f. 10-13). In this Hydrozoon portions of the archenteric walls grow out and become directly converted into muscles, butnoccelom isformed. ‘The notochord may have primi- tively originated as a tube, but connections with the hypophysis seems to be a necessary condition of this theory, and though this is highly probable, it is not proven!. The homoplastic origin of the notochord, when explained in this way agrees with the subsequent origin of segmentation in the vertebrae as suggested by Cope. These facts and agreements in theory render it highly probable, that the whole phenomena of seg- mentation as shown in the distribution of the muscles themselves, the appendages and internal organs, including even the primitive somites, may have arisen independently in the Vertebrata in re- sponse to the simple mechanical requirements of motion in elon- gated bodies. Herbert Spencer in a treatise much neglected by naturalists (Prin. Biol., Am. Ed., 1871, vol. 11, p. 199), has clearly shown that the origin of the notochord and of segmentation of the vertebrae and muscles may be attributed to muscular strains, and our speculations, though entirely independent, cannot lay claim to any original merit. Our results are similar to those of Haeckel in so far mer dis- tinctly point to the gastrula and planula as the last stages which have a general genetic meaning, and show that these indicate a stock form for the whole animal kingdom. ‘The clear distinctions between the type-larval stages in different branches of the animal kingdom and the fact, that the type larval stages make their ap- pearance invariably after the planula or gastrula, and never under any conditions break this natural succession gives strong support 1 We desire in this connection to correct the erroneous impressions likely to arise from the note regarding antero-posterior symmetry on page 107. We by no means meant to be committed to an assertion that the antero-posterior correspondence of the segments could be considered as in any sense the same as the lateral correspondences. 1884.] 161 (Hyatt. to this opinion. It is possibly premature to say that no one type can be held to have descended from any other, but the Porifera, Hydrozoa, Actinozoa and Vertebrata appear to us entirely inde- pendent of each other. It is also very suggestive that two such closely allied groups as the Actinozoa and Hydrozoa, can be con- sidered as homoplastic types, and that many examples have been brought forward by the author and Prof. Cope, where smaller and more closely allied groups, orders, families and genera show the same phenomena and are plainly homoplastic with reference to the origin of important characteristics of structure. These results sustain the opinion that homogenous characteristics are frequently so similar to homologous, or simply homoplastic characteristics, that it is not safe to consider any characteristics occurring in dis- tinct groups as homogenous until their phylogenesis has been traced or their comparative embryology is fully understood. The views here advocated are also important in their bearing upon the opinions of those who like Cuvier, Louis Agassiz, Gegenbauer and Packard have denied that there is any genetic connection be- tween the parts of the body in Vertebrata and Invertebrata. We quote in this connection the following significant words from Dr. A. S. Packard’s paper on the ‘‘Aspects of the body in Vertebrates and Arthropods” (Amer. Nat., 1884, p. 855) a subject upon which he is so eminently qualified to judge. ‘* At all events the present problem is, as embryology shows, so remote in its bearings; the common point of origin of arthropod and vertebrate, the fork in the primitive developmental path where the two branches began to diverge, is set so far back in the animal scale, and is so remote in geological time, that with our present knowledge we are inclined to regard the consideration of such problems as belonging rather to metaphysics than to pure science ; although it should be granted that farther researches among the lower worms may yet result in the discovery of facts bearing upon the origin or the singular differences in the disposition of the arthropod and vertebrate nervous systems.” The hypothesis of the common, but independent origin of types is also supported by all collateral evidences. The results of pal- aeontologic research have carried back the origin of distinct types farther and farther every year. It is now established, that there was an excessively sudden appearance of vast numbers PROCEEDINGS B. S. N. H. VOL, XXIII. 11 OCT., 1885. Hyatt.] 162 [March 5, of forms in the Cambrian or perhaps earlier as claimed by Pro- fessor Marcou. | We have applied this specific statement as a generalization to the history of smaller groups of fossils in several branches of the ani- mal kingdom, and in many formations, and have found that the sudden appearance of the smaller groups occurs according to the same law. There is an obvious plasticity in the animals which first make ~ their appearance in any unoccupied field, or at the beginning of any new formation, which reminds one of the plastic nature, of the most generalized type of Metazoa, the existing Porifera. The generalized types, which always occur first in time, exhibit excep- tional capacity for adaptation to the most varied requirements of the surroundings, and meet the conditions of the new period or habitat by the rapid development of numbers of suitable and more highly specialized forms, species and genera. The whole picture as presented by morphology, embryology and palaeontology favors the hypothesis we have previously advanced | in papers cited above, namely, that the early geologic history of animal life, like the early stages of development in the embryo was a more highly concentrated and accelerated process in evolu- tion, than that which occurred at any subsequent period of the earth’s history. | The history of the Porifera and higher Protozoa suggests also that the evolution of the Metazoa may have occurred more rapidly than we can now calculate. One of the great errors of the present day is the assumption, that such changes and transitions occurred slowly and gradually; and it is evident, that this assumption is based almost wholly upon investigations of the more highly spe- cialized animals, in which the capacity for change may be reasona- bly considered as very much less than in their more generalized and embryonic ancestral forms. The history of every embryo is a progress from a more general- ized to a more specialized form. Wemay make partial exceptions in favor of those forms in which the surroundings have been such as to destroy progressive characteristics, and have replaced them with retrogressive characteristics, but even these exceptions are the very best examples of a high specialization, as in the case of parasites, the Cirripedia, and hosts of other forms. All special- 1884.] 163 [Hyatt. ized forms which are strictly progressive, show a certain stability and uniformity of characteristics, a less noticeable tendency to va- riation, which is a result of their fitness for the narrower fields and habitats in which they exist. It is, therefore, illogical to argue from investigations upon them, that a corresponding uniformity existed in their ancestors. The great mass of life, as shown by the fossils, has been pro- gressive, and the progress was similar to that of the individual from a more generalized to more and more specialized conditions and structures. The primitive stocks like the primitive Metazoa, the Porifera, were certainly much more variable and unstable than the later and more complicated forms which are more stable and less susceptible of change. ‘Thus when radical changes become necessary in order to sustain the life of the species of a group, they die out as did the Ammonites, or decay as did the Nautiloids, and exhibit most clearly the stability they have acquired as progressive forms in their inability to meet the requirements of different modern conditions. This law of progress in structure is precisely parallel to Dr. M. E. Wadsworth’s law of the evolution of chemical compounds on the earth’s surface, and forms a supplement to his hypothesis of the progress of inorganic substances from unstable to more and more stable combinations, and his researches first suggested the idea we have given above. In conclusion we desire as a personal matter to state, that as it proved impossible to illustrate this paper, the author, being about to enter upon along series of researches of a very different na- ture from those given above, was obliged to take advantage of the present opportunity of publication, or resign altogether the idea of making his work in this direction useful outside of the class ¢ room. Dr. M. E. Wadsworth read a paper on the evidence that the earth’s interior is solid. (See Amer. Naturalist xvii, 587 et seq.) The following letter from Dr. S. Kneeland was read: Apropos of the ‘‘Sea Serpents,” alluded to at the meeting of Jan. 2, I will relate my experience with seme water snakes which I caught in Manila bay in November, 1881, while undergoing a quarantine of three days. We were anchored about three miles from land, in water twenty Garman.] 164 [March 19, | feet deep. To while away the time we fished, but either our tackle was too clumsy or our bait unsuitable, for we had not even a bite all day. As night came on we kept our lines in the water, merely for experi- ments’ sake without the remotest idea of catching anything. The sea was calm, and the darkness intense. Between 9 and 10 P.M. we caught six water snakes on hooks of large size, baited with salt pork, and resting quietly on the bottom. They were of about the same size, 38 feet long, with small head and neck, but very thick and strong body; scales thick, rough, and sharply ridged and edged; body compressed laterally; tail wide and flattened, making an excellent swimming organ. General color blackish brown, with yellowish white bands on the sides. These snakes are often seen in the bay, swimming with the head above the surface to breathe; they are sluggish in their motions, progressing by lateral undulations of the body. They probably come down into the bay, which is salt, from the river Pasig, in which I have often seen them where the water is fresh. They were very savage, snapping at everything within their reach with a mouth well provided with small teeth of uniform size. The natives believe their bite to be dangerous, and such is the usual opinion inregard to the Hydrophide or water snakes. That they have natural constrictor powers, like the anacondas and boas, I judge from the fact that while holding one suspended by the hook in its mouth, its prehensile tail by accident was inserted in the ring of the heavy steamer lantern which we were using on deck; the tail instantly closed around it, and so tightly that I raised by it the heavy lantern, at least 15 lbs. in weight, and kept it up until I could hold it no longer. It would be interesting to know precisely what is the modification of the organs of respiration and circulation, which enables these animals to remain so long under water, and to be feeding in utter darkness in such deep water. GENERAL Meetinc, Marcu 19, 1884. The President Mr. S. H. Scudder in the chair. Thirty-two per- sons present. The following paper was read : ON THE USE OF POLYNOMIALS AS NAMES IN ZOOLOGY. BY S. GARMAN. Amone the Aimaras and Quichuas, Indians of Peru, the names of animals are very often mere imitations of the sounds or cries they utter. A certain bird is called ‘‘Leke leke,” another ‘*Po- 1884. ] 165 [Garman. b) coo pocoo ;” and these names as pronounced by the natives dis- tinguish with much accuracy the birds to which they are applied, for one,who has seen and heard them. Without special demand for conciseness, as in writing and printing, the length of the name is often increased at the will of the speaker by repetition. Proba- bly many of the earliest names originated in similar practice. In the earlier literature, whatever may have been their origin, the names are generally more concise, most often monomials, and in many cases they are still in use as names of more or less compre- hensive groups. Previous to the sixteenth century, knowledge did not call for very close distinctions, and such names as Canis, Felis, Falco, and Bufo were sufficiently definite. Afterwards as differences in the kinds of dogs, cats, falcons, and other animals came to be recognized and recorded the binomial was commonly used. ‘The genus was subdivided and such names as Raia laevis, Raia aspera, and Raia oxyrhynchus became numerous. Further increase of knowledge, accompanied by desire to make names as suggestive as possible and by lack of system, lengthened the names and introduced a vast amount of confusion. Names such as Sciurus virginianus Cinereus major are not rare in the literature of the century immediately preceding Linne. In the work of Artedi we find the most suggestive designations as well as the best attempt at system. Here the generic name is followed by an enumeration of characteristics amounting to a short description ; ‘* Coregonus maxilla superiore longiore, pinna dorsi ossiculorum quatuordecim,” for example. Convenience aside, this method worked tolerably well when the describer knew a number of individuals or when the species was well known, but when represented by a single speci- men the species was frequently unrecognizable. For purpose of reference in literature it was necessary to use numbers. The in- troduction of the binomial system by Linné, or the introduction of system and the return to binomials, secured an amount of con- venience in length of the names that much more than compensated for the loss of some of their suggestiveness, and brought about a general agreement in their use and a degree of permanence which contributed greatly toward the dissemination of science. The con- traction which names underwent is illustrated by the case of the Coregonus cited above, which became Coregonus lavaretus, Linn. Recognition of plants and animals by their scientific names has Garman.] 166 [March 19, become more and more general since Linné’s time. There was hope that in time these names would displace the vernaculars. Lately, however, the progress of science is marked by subdivi- sions of species and variety, subdivisions which demand record in names. It is claimed by some that the trinomial system is bet- ter adapted to the science of the present. If the present only were to be considered we should have little to say. The import- ant question is how can we best adapt present science to future use. Evidently the trinomial is only sufficient to the day. According to recent lists all names are to be trinomials, either through duplication or addition. Cinosterum pennsylvanicum pennsylvanicum, for instance, is suggestive of a step backward toward the repetition by the Aimara Indian. Cinosternum penn- sylvanicum doubledayi, is another example. Compared with the binomial there is in the trinomial a manifest increase in inconven- ience on account of length. The stability or permanence of the name is decreased by the addition of an element liable to change or displacement on account of differences of opinion. Even if it were adapted in other respects to the needs of science in the pres- ent and the future, it is a question whether the trinomial compen- sates for loss of permanence and convenience. It is apparent to those who make studies of species that it will not be long before increase of knowledge will demand subdivision of varieties, and that reasons similar to those now used in favor of trinomials exist | and will be urged in favor of quadrinomials. Certain ornitholo- gists assert that the end has come with the trinomial, that further subdivision is unnecessary. They admit that varieties of varie- ties exist and are distinguishable, but, like writers of a short time ago who would not notice varieties, they do not consider them worthy of attention. The following quotation from the Auk, April, 1884, p. 202, gives an idea of their attitude in regard to pursuing their own route farther than they have decided to lead us: ‘There are also many local variations that are not too slight to be detected but which are either too slight or — too inconstant to require recognition. ... While theoretically it is possible to recognize ‘varieties of varieties,’ in practice this rarely occurs, and should never be countenanced; if a form is different enough to be recognized, it should stand as a variety of the common stock, not as a variety of a variety although it may be 1884. ] 167 [Garman, more nearly related to some one of several varieties than to any of the others. ... The recognition of a variety is a matter to be as carefully and conscientiously considered as the recognition of a species or any higher group.” The recognition of varieties of varieties ‘‘should never be countenanced”! Why not? If they exist, as is acknowledged, we cannot do otherwise than recognize them ; they must be recognized and will be named and recorded. Knowledge of the whole species or group being made up of that of its parts, the recognition of a variety of a variety becomes ‘‘a matter to be as carefully and conscientiously considered as the recognition of a species or any higher group.” A classification in which varieties of varieties are arbitrarily placed as varieties of the common stock is not one to be accepted as a natural one. Yet the author quoted above rightly says ‘“‘the object of classification in zoology is to express the natural or genetic relationship of the object classified,” 7. c. p. 201. | The derangement of the binomial by the recent changes affects not-only the name itself but also the clews usually given as aids in tracing the history of the animal to which the name belongs. In the practice of advocates of the tri- or polynomial system its adop- tion necessitates changes in the authorities. Amblystoma jeffer- sonianum for which the authorities are Green, for the species, and Baird, for its position in the genus, becomes in the trinomial form Amblystoma jeffersonianum jeffersonianum (Green) Cope. Baird, . the authority for the identification of the species as an Amblys- toma, is dropped for the name of the duplicator. This change de- prives us of a clew to the work of Prof. Baird in connection with this species. To take another example, Diadophis punctatus pulchellus (Linn.), Yarrow, is a Californian variety of the species named by Linné Coluber punctatus. Originally this variety was described by Baird and Girard as Diadophis pulchellus. Linné knew nothing whatever about it; it is a form he never saw, and, if he had seen it, he would have been very unlikely to have consid- ered it distinct. In the trinomial there is no clew to the describers of the form, the authorities for its existence. For punctatus we can go to the twelfth edition of the Systema; but if we take pul- chellus it may be that the authority given for the combination will lead us to a list of species to find that all that has been done by this authority has been to place the names together, without indi- Garman. ] 168 [March 19, cating the sources whence they are derived. Unless three author- ities are given with trinomials, four with quadrinomials, and so on, the work of tracing the history is greatly increased and becomes practically impossible to any one except the specialist. Sucha method puts a premium on changes and offers inducements in favor of instability, by an appeal to the vanity of would-be authorities, which will not prove ineffectual. Some trinomialists disclaim re- sponsibility for the repetition or duplication, and say they have been betrayed by their disciples. The great aim of science being the diffusion of knowledge, it is apparent that the more convenient, permanent and suggestive the shape in which knowledge is put, the more easily it will be dif- fused amongmen. In zoology the names are but symbols. Those symbols are most perfect which are at once most convenient, most permanent and most suggestive. Symbols of this character would represent as far as possible our knowledge of the animals to which they were applied. If inconvenient they would not be so easily thought, spoken or written ; if not permanent to some degree they might not continue in use long enough to receive general recogni- tion, and thus they would introduce confusion and doubt as to fact; and if not suggestive they would compel the student to de- pend on previous knowledge or subsequent tentative search for clews to identity and history. Objections to the use of polynomials, including trinomials as now used by some, are that they are inconveniently long, that they are less likely to be permanent than binomials, that they do away with certain advantages derived from long use of the latter, that they increase the labor of tracing, and that they are less sugges- tive as clews to history, etc. ‘The binomials introduced by Linné, though less suggestive in some respects, were so much more con- venient that they at once supplanted Artedi’s names in which con- cise descriptions occupied the place of the specific title. Following the polynomial idea to its logical sequence we should have bino- mials for species not subdivided, trinomials for such as have va- rieties, quadrinomials for such as have subvarieties, and so on. One animal or plant would have a name of two words, and its closely allied neighbor might have one of three, four or half a dozen. ‘To secure uniformity in the length of these names, repeti- tion is the only alternative. A system of such possibilities is not 1884. ] 169 [Garman. to be adopted hastily. The opportunity it affords a writer to re- place the name of the preceding authority by his own, whenever by duplication, displacement or addition he may change the name of a species, does not enhance its value. I have already, in a list of Batrachia and Reptilia, as an answer to the assertion that ‘*there is no other or better method,” par- tially suggested one which affords the means of retaining the bino- mials, making them indicate the subdivisions recognizable only by the expert, and at the same time fixing upon forms seen without close comparison to be distinct names at present more or less familiar to the general observer from long use. ‘Take for purpose of illustration a single species including several varieties. Each of the forms may be represented by the generic and specific names preceded by a symbol indicating the subdivision and its extent. The symbol represents the history, the description and synonymy of the race or variety ; it appeals to the specialist in particular. In the list a species would appear thus: AMBLYSTOMA TIGRINUM Green; Baird. (A) Salamandra tigrina Green, 1825, Jour. Phil. Ac., v, 116. (B) Amblystoma bicolor Hallow., 1857, Pr. Phil. Ac., 215. (C) Amblystoma mavortium Baird, 1849, Jour. Phil. Ac., Ser. 2, 1, 292. (D) Amblystoma californiense Gray, 1858, Pr. Zool. Soc. Lond., x1, pl. 1, Ste. .ebe: Desiring to call the attention to the fourth form, it is not neces- sary to spell it out; it is simply the (D) form, and is to be written (D) Amblystoma tigrinum. As it precedes the name, the symbol catches the eye at once and shows that it is a variety of the species and not the species itself which is dealt with. In this position it is out of the way of the abbreviations used to note the authorities, and being a letter it cannot be confused with the number of speci- mens. The order in which the letters are given is immaterial. The (B) may be nearest the (A) in order of discovery, or it may not; it may be nearest in affinity, or it may not. There are chances that (K) or (M) may be found to have been discovered previously ; or a form discovered to-morrow may be more closely allied to (A) than (B), (C) or (D). A chronological or genetic arrangement of to-day may be disarranged by discoveries of to- morrow. Until our knowledge of the species is more complete we Garman.] | 170 | [March 19, cannot hope to make an arrangement that will be permanent ; consequently it is as well to start with the understanding that the order of the letters means little more than that the forms occur in the same order in the list or synonymy, which order may be changed in various ways by a genetic or a chronological arrangement. Thus far we have dealt only with varieties or subspecies. Suppose the specialist to discover that (C) A. tigr. is composed of several subvarieties. What change shall be made in the name that it may at once show to the expert that he is dealing with one of several local races, and at the same time point out to those whose knowl- edge is not so special, that it is a species with which they may be acquainted under the specific name of the common spotted sala- mander west of the Mississippi Valley? Suppose farther that a student has named one form nebrascensis, another has noted a form as hallowelli, and a third one as parvimaculatus (possibly through misinterpretation of individual variation) ; they can be designated (C*), (C’) and (C°) Amblystoma tigrinum. A further subdivision could be marked (C*!), (C2) A. tigrinum, Green; Baird, and, again, subdivision of these (C*!’), (C*!”’), etc., the equivalent poly- nomial for one of which might stand as spelled out, Amblystoma tigrinum mavortium hallowelli maculatissimum suspectum. The advantage of the contraction (C*!”), Amblystoma tigrinum, for general literature is apparent. Again, varieties exist which pos- sess characters of one or more other varieties. A case of this character can be marked by placing together the symbols of those varieties to construct that of the new one, thus: (AB) or (AE) Amblystoma tigrinum or in more complicated case of relationship, thus: (B* C"!) Amblystoma tigrinum, and so on. ‘Though the symbol is for the benefit of the specialist, the designation of the species remains the same in all cases for the advantage of the general student. The authorities for the genus and species are retained as in common use. Should it be desirable to note the responsibility for subdivision and combination, it can be done thus: (B) A. tigrinum (Green, Baird) X, Y ; X being responsible for the variety and Y for the combination. Enough has been said to indicate the possibilities of the method. Among its special points are these: the name of the species, a form more likely to be recognized by the general or ordinary ob- server, retains a more convenient size, is more permanent and at f 1884. ] 171 (Garman, the same time records the steps in the work of the special investi- gator; the more desirable of the authorities are retained ; subdi- vision when necessary is not prevented by dread of long names; _ the symbol, preceding the name, is not to be overlooked or con- fused with the abbreviations for authorities ; more complex rela- tionships can be indicated as readily as the more simple. Of course it is not expected that we shall soon have use for five or six or more subdivisions, but we should build for time to come. Unless a system is soon to be thrown aside as useless it must be prepared for the needs of the future. Whether the trinomialist agrees or not, the recognition of varieties of varieties or of varie- ties of subvarieties will be countenanced. His objections to sub- division are only new forms of those put forward against making varieties of species a short time ago. Research is not at all likely to end when the capabilities of a trinomial system are exhausted. No doubt any system that may be devised will be imperfect enough, yet this would be a poor reason for adopting one that is evidently but a makeshift for present use. Mr. C. O. Whitman discussed the various theories of the origin of vertebrates, advocating their annelidan ancestry. Dr. G. L. Goodale showed a collection of vegetable monstrosi- ties arranged according to Dr. Masters’ classification, and prepared by Mr. Herbert Watson. GENERAL Meetine, Aprit 2, 1884. The President, Mr. S. H. Scudder, in the chair. Twenty-five persons present. Prof. G. Frederick Wright gave an account of his last summer’s field work in tracing the continental terminal moraine through Indiana, and discussed the effects of a glacial ice-dam across the Ohio at Cincinnati. Professor E. S. Morse described the various methods of ancient Wadsworth.] 172 [April 16, | and modern arrow-release, defining four principal types, North American, Indian, Saxon, Asiatic and Malay, each showing some variety. Dr. Hagen read a paper on the Hessian fly, showing from the records of the American Philosophical Society, that the fly bore this name before the Revolution. GENERAL MeetTInG, ApriIL 16, 1884. Ex-President, Mr. T. T. Bouvé in the chair. The following paper was read : ON THE RELATION OF THE ‘‘KEWEENAWAN SERIES” TO THE EASTERN SANDSTONE IN THE VICINITY OF TORCH LAKE, MICHIGAN. BY M. E. WADSWORTH. At the present time it is well known that in their typical condi- tion the copper-bearing rocks of Keweenaw Point consist of a se- ries of lava-flows, sandstones, and conglomerates, piled one above the other and dipping in a northwesterly direction. On the eastern and western sides of the series the fragmental rocks are most abundant, while in the central portions the lava flows are the predominating rocks, which oftentimes followed one another without any intervening conglomerate. Wherever the lava poured over the earlier detrital rock it baked and indurated it, while in every case the conglomerates and sandstones are found to be laid down on the eroded surface of the underlying lava flow, whose debris is seen mingled with the old rhyolitic, trachytic, and granitic material of which the conglomerate is chiefly composed. This alternating action of sea and lava went on from the beginning to the end of the series, the relative proportion of the detrital ma- terial to the lava depending upon the rapidity of the succession of flows. There was thus produced between every flow and between each flow and its underlying and overlying rocks complete uncon- formability the same as everywhere exists when eruptive rocks reach 1884.] tie [ Wadsworth. the sea—an unconformability which indicates sequence of time but not difference in geological age. The one vexed question over which geologists have been exer- cised is: are these copper-bearing rocks pre-Potsdam or not? On every hand it has been admitted that the sandstone to the east- ward of those rocks on Keweenaw Point is of Potsdam or more _ recent age—the weight of authority being at present in favor of the Potsdam. Again the relation of that sandstone to the inter- calated lava-flows, sandstones, and conglomerates is looked upon as decisive proof of the age of the lava. ‘Two strong parties of geol- ogists have discussed this question—one claiming that the east- ern sandstones were of the same age as the lava flows, the other that the latter formed a distinct and older series. The principal evidence in support of this latter opinion was ob- tained at the Douglass Houghton Falls near Torch Lake. Here it was stated that the horizontal eastern sandstone extended up to the base of the falls, the rock forming the cliff over which the river runs being the old basaltic lava. It was further declared that the cliff at the falls formed an old seashore bluff and that the sandstone and conglomerate abuting against this contained its water-worn debris. Here on its face was good evidence that the traps were older than the eastern sandstone and of greater geological age. ‘This was the only evidence of importance that originally caused the copper rocks to be named Keweenawan and regarded as pre-Potsdam. In 1879 the present writer examined this locality, studying not only the bed of the stream but also the steep banks of the ravine below the falls. He found that the accounts of the structure here, that every geologist who had examined the district for thirty years previously had given, were according to his observations in- correct. The sandstone was not horizontal or at most dipping from one to five degrees, but the dip gradually increased up to 25°, until the falls were reached. Furthermore these northwesterly dipping sandstones and conglomerates, that every one until that day had conceded to be truly the eastern sandstones were found to contain intercalated lava flows and to possess the structure of the typical copper-bearing rocks. These observations fully explained the occurrence here of the basaltic debris, and showed that it came from the underlying lava flows instead of from the hypothetical Wadsworth.] 174 [April 16, seashore bluff. These observations also proved that at the birth- place of the ‘‘Keweenawan Series” that formation and the ‘‘eastern sandstone” were one and the same. : This evidence has been recently examined by Professor R. D. Irving and the results published in the ‘Third Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey.” Irving, who was and is a warm advocate of the integrity of the Keweenawan Series, admits the cor- _ rectness of my evidence and argues that for some distance below the Douglass Houghton Falls the copper-bearing rocks exist, as stated by myself. He then abandons the idea that an old shore bluff exists at the falls but places such a cliff some distance below nearer the lake. Irving states that the rocks are here covered for some two hundred paces, but that below this space the eastern sandstone appears dipping from two to five degrees. He also as- serts that I bridged in my imagination this covered space, and united without evidence this low dipping eastern sandstone with the more steeply dipping Keweenawan series below the falls; this however did not prevent Irving’s imagination from placing be- tween the two observed points the hypothetical sea-beach cliff, which other observers had placed above at the falls. If we care- fully read Irving’s published works it will be seen that he no more knows that the sandstones below the covered gap are distinct from the rocks above, than I do that they are the same, according to his own statement of my observations. Since the question now turns upon the manner in which my observations were made, it is impor- tant to know how our geologist in Wisconsin could allow himself to state so positively what I did in that ravine walled by high banks and concealed in the forests of Northern Michigan? For his state- ment that Limagined the connection between this eastern sandstone and the so-called Keweenawan Series is entirely erroneous ; since the sandstone seen by me to dip five degrees to the northwest I found, by digging in the stream and on the sides of the ravine, to under- lie others, and those in their turn were traced by digging until it was proved that all formed a continuous series with a grad- ually increasing dip up to the falls themselves. By actual inspec- tion of the uncovered rocks and their superposition above one another, the writer proved then that no such bluff, as Irving im- agines, exists in the locality. It is to be remembered that the exact spot at which the Douglass 1884.] 175 [Wadsworth. Houghton Falls are situated is the typical one on which the Kewee- nawan Series was founded ; and now when my observations have showed the erroneousness of the evidence said to have been found there, Irving changes the boundary of the series and places it in a covered district some distance below, a locality in which no one before dreamed of imagining the limit of the series to be. Since he has reckoned incorrectly on my method of observation, it will now be necessary for him to move the boundary line still further to the eastward. I protest against such methods, for if a geologist can change the limits of his formation at will, in order to save it, one will have to dig a canal across Keweenaw Point and tunnel under Lake Superior before this question can be settled. Another locality in which the eastern sandstone and Keweena- wan Series were shown by myself to be the same formation is on the Hungarian River, flowing into Torch Lake. Irving, following later, has stated that the sandstone and conglomerate often lie hori- zontally, sometimes dipping slightly northwest and at others south- west. From his language and section it may be seen that his observations were made on the more or less undermined blocks on the banks, and he states that he failed to find any evidence of an increasing northwesterly dip but a general horizontality. Also that the sandstone beneath the first lava flow of the Keweenawan Series is probably a fallen block but if it is not, the overlying lava flow certainly is.! It now becomes necessary to give the basis of my evidence as published. My observations were made chiefly in the bed? of the stream, the water being at that time exceptionally low so that the rocks were traced continuously. It was found here that in general, when the sandstone and conglomerate were undis- turbed, the dip increased from 10° to the northwest up to 15°, to 18°, and 20°. Quaquaversal dips were seen and noted but the pre- vailing dip obtained on the undisturbed bed rock was found to be as givenabove. Instead of the sandstone in the bed of the river, next to the lava, being a loose piece, it was found to extend across the stream at the fall and into both banks; also it was continuous with the sandstone farther down the stream. Now this sandstone was baked and indurated by the overlying flow of lava at the foot of the fall, the same as the sandstones are elsewhere in the Ke- 17. c. pp. 149-151, 153-155. 2 This Irving marks on his section as unexposed. Wadsworth.] 176 [April 16, weenawan Series where the lava rests on them. Further, this lava mass is not a loose piece because it had not only indurated the sandstone, but it was also found to extend across the stream into both banks, and to underlie the conglomerate forming the fifth fall of the stream; while the detritus of this lava was dug out of the base of that conglomerate by myself and is now pre- served in the collections of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. All this conclusively shows that the sandstone in question is a constituent portion of the eastern sandstone, that it was overflowed and indurated by the basaltic lava now lying there and admitted to be a constituent portion of the so-called Keweenawan Series ; and further that this lava flow was denuded and its detritus built into the overlying conglomerate which in its turn was overflowed by another lava stream. It is still maintained that this evidence, published with sufficient fulness in 1880,* demonstrates that the eastern sandstone here is a constituent part of the copper-bearing rocks and underlies them; also that the Keweenawan Series, as first established, has no existence as a distinct formation older than the sandstone. It is to be distinctly remembered that Irving’s evidence consists solely in the fact that he has not seen, or negative evidence, while mine is positive or a statement of things seen, and therefore by all laws of evidence leads. In other words the whole question depends upon this: did I see that which I affirm I saw or not? If I did, and no one has proved that I did not, then the Eastern sandstone underlies the copper-bearing rocks on the Hungarian and Douglass Houghton Rivers, and the Keweenawan series, as now held, is an impossibility. It can hardly be considered egotism if I claim, considering the history of events since 1878, that my statement that I have observed a certain fact is at least as good evidence as the statement of some others that they have not seenthe same. In the district in question one of the favorite arguments advanced by a number of observers in favor of the essential difference in age between the eastern sandstone and the traps has been that the de- trital rocks intercalated with the latter are largely composed of old rhyolitic and trachytic debris, but that the eastern sandstone is composed chiefly of quartz. Since the rhyolitic and trachytic ma- terial is eruptive, its absence proves nothing regarding difference $ Bull. Mus. Comp. Zo6l., vi, 113-116. 1884.] 177 [Wadsworth. in geological age in sandstone formed fifteen minutes before the beginning of these eruptions. However, it was pointed out by me in 1880 that the eastern sandstone (now admitted to be such) did contain this debris on the Hungarian River! and elsewhere. It was also pointed out that the colorless condition and the ab- sence of argillaceous material in the eastern sandstone at some points was due to bleaching by thermal waters which had likewise bleached and destroyed the felsitic material in portions of the conglomerates and sandstones now admitted to belong to the Ke- weenawan series (1. c., pp. 116, 117). It was further pointed out at the Sandstone Quarry near Torch Lake, that while the sandstone was composed in part of the same materials as those found in the sandstone in the Marquette district, that it also contained a large proportion of short hexagonal crys- tals of quartz, terminated by pyramids at both ends, the same as the quartz grains are in the old rhyolites (quartz porphyries) in the Keweenawan series. It was further shown that the horizontal so- called bedding planes of this sandstone were joint planes, while the true bedding planes were determined by numerous coarser layers of sand, pebbles, clay masses, etc., which extended long distances approximately parallel to one another at an average dip of N. 45,° W.15.° It was again stated that this sandstone had been subjected to thermal waters and the felsitic? material had been converted into clay or removed. While part of the clay masses are distinctly altered pebbles, others which were not taken into account in determining the dip are probably formed from infiltrated clay. Irving throws doubt on the correctness of the above observations by stating he cannot find the same evidence and claims that while he finds traces of the trappean material in the sandstone he finds none of the porphyry material belonging in the conglomerates of the Keweenawan series. This last proves too much, for if as he claims this sandstone must have been deposited against the mixed lava flows and detrital rocks and made up of their ruins, then it should be full of their debris, and the old rhyolitic and trachytic material ought to be far longer retained than the more easily perishable basaltic material. The basaltic debris, indeed, is comparatively rare even in the midst 1Irving admits this in his Final Report, p. 354. 2 Misprinted feldspathic in Bull. Mus. Comp. ZoGl., 1880, vu, p. 117. PROCEEDINGS B.S. N. H. VOL. XXIII. 12 NOV., 1885. Wadsworth. ] 178 [April 16, of the copper-bearing rocks. Irving’s testimony is directly op- posed to his own views, as also is the testimony of all those who claim that the sandstone near the traps is composed of different material from the detrital rocks of the so-called Keweenawan series. I have, while writing this, before me, under the microscope, sand from this Torch Lake sandstone which shows the structure of the quartz stated. ‘The bi-pyramidal quartz has since been found by Irving, who however considers that it has been produced by the secondary enlargement of rolled quartz grains (Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., 1884, No. 8, p. 41.) At the time of my observations Sor- by’s Presidential Address, which Irving makes the basis of his studies on the secondary deposition of quartz, had not been pub- lished, or at least been seen by me. I made my observations sim- ply by examining the dry sand in air under a lens and by the lower powers of the microscope. I have never recurred to the subject since except at the time of writing the above paper, when my ex- aminations were made as before, simply to see if I had been mis- taken in observing the bi-pyramidal forms. Now, however, ow- ing to the publication of the Bulletin above referred to by Messrs. Irving and Van Hise, I have prepared mounted sections especially for the purpose of testing the correctness of Irving’s supposition. These preparations fully confirm his views as to the secondary origin of the quartz facets deposited on the rolled quartz. I there- fore entirely retract all of my conclusions based on the observed pyramidal forms. In order to ascertain the derivation of the quartz grains, sections were ground and mounted in balsam, so one could see if they internally presented the structure of the quartz of the Copper-bearing felsites or not. None of the bi- pyramidal inclusions were observed (Bull. Mus. Comp. Zodl. 1880, vii, 120), but numerous fluidal cavities and in some grains many of the hair-like trichites so commonly seen in the quartz of granites and in many of the conglomerate pebbles of Keweenaw Point were found. The evidence is far from being decisive whether this sandstone is composed entirely of the detritus of the Azoic rocks or in part from the debris of eruptive rocks similar to those in the Keweenaw conglomerates. While the facts only are to be sought, yet I am very much pleased to be able to confirm Professor Irving’s observations and to amend my conclusions, for if this sandstone is 1884.] 179 [Wadsworth. composed entirely of Azoic debris it is in perfect accord with my observations that the eastern sandstone underlies the copper- bearing rocks, and is opposed to Irving’s view that it abuts against these rocks and is made out of their ruins. I also have before me specimens that were selected in the quarry expressly to show the difference between the true bedding planes and the joint planes. This angle as measured on one specimen is about 18°, but in others it is less. Irving is further mistaken in his statements that he was the first to point to the presence of acid eruptives in the so-called Ke- weenawan series, and that Foster and Whitney regarded all the acid or jaspery rock as metamorphosed sandstones, and all the conglomerates and sandstones as friction detritus.! I further have reason to object to Professor Irving’s general method in the first part of his report inasmuch as it is written so as to convey to persons not familiar with the literature of Lake Su- perior geology, the idea that he was the first to microscopically study the Keweenawan felsites, granites and quartz-porphyries, when instead they were first so studied by myself.2. There is all the greater reason for a protest against such a method of writing since I have evidence that it has resulted in misleading persons in the past. Still 1 have no complaint to make of the latter part of Irving’s report or of his papers since 1883, on this score. In the final report, however, Irving makes statements regarding the views of Foster and Whitney, and my writings, that are so incorrect, that it is difficult to find excuse for them, except on the supposi- tion that he quoted us from memory, and that his memory is de- fective. Again Irving’s statements of the views and labors of others are often incorrect or partial and misleading. I may cite for examples the assertions that Rivot only had maintained the metamorphic (sedimentary) origin of the traps; that Pumpelly and Marvine first recognized definitely that the amygdaloids were the upper portions of the trappean beds; that Marvine made the first plainly and thoroughly worked out argument from structural characters alone in favor of the lava-flow origin of the traps; that 1 Geology of Lake Superior, Part I, 1850, pp. 58, 59, 70, 71, 78, 79, 103, 109. Irving has partially rectified this in a foot-note appended to his final publication,: issued since this paper was read, Wadsworth. ] 180 [April 16, Wadsworth maintained that Foster and Whitney were the only authors who had written correctly on Lake Superior geology ; also I may further cite Irving’s charges that Wadsworth did not dare to point out wherein he disagreed from Foster and Whitney, and that he did not render due credit to Pumpelly and Marvine. All of the above statements of Irving I pronounce entirely incorrect, as any one can see who cares to read my work on Lake Superior geology with care. Therefore I need not discuss the matter further except in Marvine’s case to simply say that I was the first, so far as I am aware, to publicly call attention to the great value of his Lake Superior work. While I frankly disagree from Professor Irving in the above points and some others!, I yet recognize the great merit of his work in other directions and find myself there in full accord with him.? ANNUAL Mertine, May 7, 1884. The President, Mr. S. H. Scudder, in the chair. The following annual reports were presented: » REPORT ON THE MusEum. By A. Hyart, Curator. As in former reports, we have still to lament the melancholy state of our finances and our inability to do work such as this Museum is fitted to do for the benefit of the community. We wrote last year that we hoped to be able to establish loan collections for circulation, basing our idea of the need of such col- lections upon the constant demands for specimens which are made but have to be denied by us. We have held for years past that the time must come when people would realize the necessity of seeing 1See further Science, 1883, i. 248, 249, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zo6l., vii. 482-498, 2Concerning the replacement of feldspar by prehnite in coarsely crystalline diabase, to which attentionis called by Irving in the final report (pp. 40, 43) his case may be strengthened by the fact that like change in avery coarsely crystalline diabase of Mas- sachusetts was pointed out by the writer in 1877, Proc. Bost.Soc. Nat. Hist., 1877, xix, 228, 229. ! 1884.] 181 [Annual Meeting. the things themselves, and be as eager to know them by sight as they are now to read descriptions of them in books. It will not take many years of such training as is beginning to be given in some of our public and private schools to bring a multitude of the more intelligent minds to this stage. The progress of the past few years has been slow, but it is substantial and encouraging, and that of the next decade will probably be much more rapid. After that, if the same law holds in education as in the history of other events, we must anticipate a demand for natural history instruc- tion greater than our imaginations would now consider reasonable. Mineralogy. Prof. W. O. Crosby returned from Europe in October and re- sumed his duties as an assistant in the Museum of the Society. A large proportion of his time has been absorbed in the preparation of a Guide for the mineralogical collection. The difficulties which are to be encountered consist in the mixed purposes of the collec- tion. This is devoted not only to the exhibition of objects, but also aims to make them directly useful to teachers and students as illustrations of natural laws and relations. ‘Thus we can appro- priately use neither a text book, nor an ordinary form of guide, and we have had to learn this fact by actually writing the guide first in the text book form, and thus, by experience, proving that it would not answer. Prof. Crosby, assisted by Miss Carter, dur- ing the past winter, catalogued and mounted all of our New England minerals, but this part of the collections of minerals is still too imperfect to be worthy of a final report. Prof. Crosby has given twenty-five specimensof minerals selected from his European collection. Geology. In the last annual report it was stated that our want of means would probably seriously interfere with, if not prevent, the com- pletion of the rearrangement of this department. ‘These forebod- ings have been unfortunately fully verified, and the collections remain as they were two years since, when apparently advancing rapidly to their last stage of preparation. ‘The materials on hand Annual Meeting. ] 182 [May 7, will enable us to bring forward most of the departments to just about the same condition, and then, as in the present instance, if not supported by donations for the purchase of specimens and the employment of labor, they cannot be effectively completed. Mr. Crosby has added to the lithological collection about 75 specimens of volcanic and stratified crystalline rocks, collected in Europe; also several large specimens of lava illustrating impor- tant points in structural and dynamical geology. Botany. Under the direction of Mr. Cummings, Miss Carter has continued the revision and relabelling of the general collection of plants, and has finished the Gamopetalous orders. These now contain 41 or- ders, 974 genera, and 4524 species. The bundles of dried plants containing 7270 specimens laid aside by the gentleman formerly in charge of this department and supposed tobe only duplicates of the Gamopetalae, have been reexamined, and 1116 specimens repre- senting as many species and varieties, which were not in the general collection, have been picked out and restored to their proper places. A small but interesting collection of thirty-six species of the fruits of native forest trees, accompanied by wa- ter color sketches of the flowers of the same species, has been pre- sented to the Society by Miss E. M. Jack of Chateauguay Basin, Canada. Some of our members may possibly remember this col- lection, as having been on exhibition in the Woman’s Department of the New England Mechanics Fair last year, where Miss Carter saw it and obtained itas adonation from the exhibitor. The New England herbarium is indebted to Miss C. H. Clarke for 16 spe- cies of Algae. Mr. E. T. Bouvé has continued to take an interest in this department and has added a number of specimens to the in- teresting and valuable collection of trees and shrubs of New Eng- land which the society has already received from him. Anatomical Collection. Mr. Henshaw has expended much time upon this collection, and the whole has been rearranged, and the labels revised. It has been found to contain about 1700 preparations, many of them rep- 1884.] 183 [Annual Meeting. resenting delicate injections, and interesting points in the anatomy of the vertebrata. Some sections of skulls and limb bones have been added, all the specimens mounted and catalogued, and many labels prepared. Large descriptive labels have also been printed explaining such topics as the homologies of the skull and limb bones and the bones themselves correspondingly lettered. About half of the material not on exhibition has been arranged and classified, and it is an- ticipated that Mr. Henshaw will be able to make a final report next year. | Synoptic Collection. A few Blaschka models of Coelenterata and Worms have been acquired by purchase. Miss Martin has made preparations exhibiting the external skeleton of six of thé orders of insects, and has begun to work up the illustrations intended for the exposition of the structure and affinities of the Protozoa. Mr. Henshaw has completed the mounting and cataloguing of the osteological and anatomical preparations of the Vertebrata. The descriptive labels for about two-thirds of this part of the col- lection have been printed, and the labelsof the odlogical specimens prepared for printing. Sponges. Mr. Henshaw has completed the labelling and Miss Martin the mounting of the Keratosa, which have been monographed, and published in the memoirs of the Society. Mr. Henshaw has also completed the cataloguing of the whole of the collection now on exhibition. Mollusca. Mr. Henshaw has spent a very large proportion of his time upon this collection. He has gone over and arranged the miscellaneous accumulations, about one-third of which have been placed in good condition. During this process one hundred species representing fifty genera, mostly pulmonates, were found, named, labelled and Annual Meeting.] 184 [May 7, added to the systematic collection. The internal aspect and gen- - eral structure of shells have been illustrated by a few sections prepared by Mr. Henshaw. Miss Martin has also spent consid- erable time on this collection, in dusting and remounting the specimens on exhibition, and other miscellaneous work. Crustacea. Mr. Kingsley has been kind enough to continue his work upon the valuable collection which he so generously gave the Society. He has finished the revision of a part of the entire number of bot- tles, and we hope to be able to make a full report next year. Miss Martin, under the direction of Mr. Henshaw, has catalogued and placed in order the whole of the general collection. The dry specimens, including a number of interesting species, represent- ing, in some cases, the types of Randall, Say and Stimpson, have been in a bad condition for several years, and it is a gratification to report them repaired and mounted. Insects. Mr. Henshaw reports that one hundred and thirty specimens representing the early stages of fifty-two species of American (chiefly New England) butterflies have been given to the Soci- ety by the President, Mr. Samuel H. Scudder. We are also in- debted to Mr. Roland Thaxter for a valuable gift of the species of Noctuidae, selected by him in order to fill gaps in our New England collection. Dr. S. W. Williston, of New Haven,.has kindly undertaken the identification of the Society’s collection of Diptera, and has finished and returned the Syrphidae. There are one hundred and seventy-two specimens representing sixty species, and the New England forms are the first of this order we have ever been able to place on exhibition. Mr. Henshaw has gen- erously given to the Society about 3500 specimens representing one thousand species. These were especially selected to fill gaps in the New England and systematic collections, and were, there- fore, very acceptable. Donations have also been received from Drs. Hagen and Dimmock, and Mr. Sheriff. 1884.] 185 [Annual Meeting. Fishes. Dr. H. E. Davidson has finished and presented to the Society eighteen specimens, representing as many species, of his valu- able preparation of fishes. Reptiles. Mr. Henshaw has identified, catalogued, and labelled sixty specimens, representing twenty-five species of turtles. Birds. Mr. William Brewster, who continues to take an active interest in the Museum, has succeeded in obtaining a number of important species not previously represented in the New England collection. We are also indebted to Mr. F. J. C. Swift, and J. M. Wade for gifts. The rearrangement of the general collection by Mr. Brewster, assisted by Mr. Henshaw, has been completed throughout eight families of singing birds. The duplicates and poor specimens have been weeded out, and the identifications of the North Ameri- can species and also of the foreign forms, wherever practicable, have been verified. Mammals. Three species, including a fine specimen of American Wild Cat taken in Lenox, Mass., and presented by Dr. R. C. Greenleaf, jr., have been added to this collection. A pair of African monkeys presented by Miss R. L. Learned, has been added to the general collection. Teachers’ School of Science. The liberal action of the trustee of the Lowell fund in defraying the expenses of the lessons, and also in continuing to grant the use of Huntington Hall, has enabled the Society to persevere in its effort to extend the benefit of its instruction in this department to teachers of all the neighboring towns as well as to those living in Boston. The agents who acted in the adjoining towns and villages last year continued their kind offices, distributing and receiving applications and also tickets according to the plan of which de- tails were given in the last annual report. The Superintendent of Public Schools in this city also materially assisted us by at- Annual Meeting. | 186 [ May 7, tending to similar technical details in Boston, and 1 in his annual report, noticed our work very favorably. The following extract is taken from that publication. ‘“Besides the general instruction afforded by these lectures, the teachers find in them valuable practical suggestions as to methods of giving observation lessons and elementary science lessons in school. This school is doing an invaluable work; and the wise liberality with which it has been supported out of the income of the Lowell Institute fund deserves grateful public acknowledg- ment.” There were fifteen lessons given during the past winter. They consisted of five on the ‘“‘EKlements of Chemistry,” by Prof. Lewis M. Norton of the Mass. Inst. of Technology, and were as follows : 1, first principles of chemistry; 2, the chemistry of the air; 3, the chemistry of the water; 4, the chemistry of combustion ; 5, the chemistry of the metallic elements. There were also five on the ‘‘Practical examination with simple apparatus of the phys- ics and chemistry of vegetable physiology,” by Prof. Geo. L. Goodale of Harvard University, and were as follows: 1, vegetable assimilation; the mode in which plants prepare food for themselves and for animals; 2, the kinds of food stored in vegetable organs; illustrations of the starches, sugars, oils and albuminoidal matters ; 3, how food is used by plants and ani- mals in the formation of new parts; mechanics of growth; 4, how food is used in work of all kinds by different organisms ; 5, adaptation of organisms to extremes of heat and light, ike with respect to geographical distribution. The course was concluded with a series of five lessons on ‘‘Chemical principles illustrated by common minerals,” by Prof. W. O. Crosby of the Mass. Inst. of Technology. The lessons began with the usual large attendance of over five hundred, and this number was slowly reduced until the audience averaged less than two hundred. The excessively bad weather had undoubtedly a serious effect upon the last course but less, we think, than the fact that Saturday is not only the teachers’ sole holi- day, but it is almost all the time that can be made available for study outside of the regular professional work. Though greatly in need of some leisure which can be devoted | to the studies necessary to keep up with the requirements of a progressive curriculum, teachers are as closely confined to pro- 1884.] 187 | Annual Meeting’ fessional work as if it consisted, only, of the daily repetition of precisely the same mechanical tasks. A proper and wise fore- thought should long ago have given them, at least, half a day in every week, besides Saturday, for study, the pursuit of the infor- mation needed for teaching new subjects, and other similar mat- ters. The efficiency of the individual teacher would be greatly increased by this expedient, and much more than compensate for the small amount of time lost to the pupil. The decline in atten- dance atour lessons is not due to the subject, nor toits mode of treat- ment; it occurs with all lecturers and subjects alike, and evidently arises from the weariness and fatiguing work, which the teachers have tosupport. This becomes more and more onerousas the spring approaches, and under these circumstances it is highly creditable to the profession that so large a proportion are capable of keeping up throughout the entire course. The average attendance at the first series of lessons, in proportion to the number of tickets dis- tributed, was about thirty per cent, at the second series, about twenty-five per cent and at the third, about: fifteen per cent; five per cent of this extraordinary falling off, in the last series, was as we have said, probably due to stormy weather. The follow- ing abstracts give the items as taken from the records on file. Number of applications received 854. Number of tickets distributed, Chemistry 928 Vegetable Physiology 938 Mineralogy 932 2798 To teachers, Chemistry 781 Vegetable Physiology - 764 Mineralogy : 750 2295 To others, Chemistry 147 Vegetable Physiology 174 Mineralogy 182 Annual Meeting.] 188 . [Ma; LIST BY TOWNS. Chem. Veg. Phys. Min. Andover 1 2 Lid Arlington er 5 9) Day Ayer 1 1 1 Boston 437 4276). 434 Bridgewater 6 6 6 Brockton 1 1 1 Brookline 21 22 22, Cambridge 65 62 58 | Canton 12 18 12 Chelsea , 38 3) 33 Cohasset 1 image ab Dedham 10 10 10 Hingham ; 10 8 8 Hyde Park 23° 24 24 Kingston i Le 1 Lawrence 9 8 8 Malden 9 8 s) Medford 6 ie 6 Melrose 11 13 11 Newton 30 a) 25 Quincy 23 20 20 Salem i 7 6 Saxonville 1 1 “Til Somerville 5 3 1 Stoneham 10 10 pe Wakefield 15 5 , Waltham 12 12 12 Watertown 10 10 10 Weston 6 6 6 Weymouth | 1 1! it Woburn il 1 1 TOTALS 781 764 750 Thirty towns in the neighborhood of Boston. * ‘ ‘ We mm ; Sr tec BS « } - My . : ee Tay, ; Peete Woke Oe. 1884.] 189 [Annual Meeting. GRADE OF TEACHERS. Boston Public Schools, Tickets distributed to Superintendent i| as BS ‘¢ ~Masters 31 Re ee ‘¢ ~Sub-Masters 28 ee “ ‘* Assistants 389 Out-of-town Schools, Tickets distributed to Superintendents - 4 Ge es ‘¢ Masters and Principals 81 cs oS ‘¢ Sub-Masters 8 a 6 ‘¢ 6Assistants 258 Laboratories. The laboratory has been used by the following classes: one in Zoology and Paleontology from the Mass. Inst. Technology, one in Zoology from the Boston University, both of these being under the charge of the Curator; also one in Botany and one in Physiol- ogy, from the Boston University, both of these last named being under the charge of Mr. B. H. Van Vleck. There has been the usual activity in this department, and its teaching power has been slightly augmented by the addition of selected specimens and dia- grams. The Annisquam laboratory was more useful, and its instruction more highly appreciated, than had been anticipated at the date of the last annual report. The falling off in attendance was much less than had been expected, and we think it has probably reached its lowest point. The introduction of the study of natural science into the schools has taken a definite form, and there is also a re- vival of these subjects in the curriculum of the Mass. Inst. of Tech- nology. These two sources will furnish some students to the lab- oratory next summer, and these will increase in numbers in future years, if the department can be kept up to the requirements of the times. Mr. Van Vleck, who has voluntarily attended to the laboratory and the details of teaching, reports that ten pupils were pres- ent, five women and five men. Four of these were teachers in colleges and academies, four were special students of natural his- tory, and two intended to study medicine. ‘The average time was Annual Meeting.] 190 [May 7, three weeks anda half for each person. The laboratory was opened on the sixth of July, and kept running until the twentieth of September. : It must be remembered also that the laboratory has been very useful to Mr. Van Vleck himself in furnishing him opportunities for the prosecution of his studies, and it is likely to become of ‘value in the future as a station to which an investigator can re- sort, who wishes to study on that part of the coast. SECRETARY’S Report. By Epwarp BurGEss. Membership. The Society’s list of members has fallen off in numbers consider- ably during the past year. By death we have lost two Honorary Members,—Oswald Heer of Zurich, and Joachim Barrande of Paris; three Corresponding, seven Corporate, and one Associate Members. ‘T’wo Corporate and five Associate Members have re- signed; while five and six of these classes, respectively, have been dropped for non-payment of assessments. Sixteen Corporate and four Associate Members have permanently removed from New England, and their names have, therefore, been taken from the roll. The total loss in all classes is thus fifty-one, while only twenty-three new names have been added to the list, as follows: one Honorary, seven Corresponding, six Corporate, and nine As- sociate Members. ‘The Society has also lost by death two of its patrons, Thomas G. Appleton and Jonathan Ellis. Meetings. The weather on Wednesday evenings, this winter, has been per- sistently horrible, reducing the average attendance at the sixteen General Meetings to twenty-eight, or five below the average for three years. The largest attendance at any one meeting was fifty- four, and the smallest only four; while on two other evenings only eight and twelve persons were present. Thirty-five communica- tions in all were made at these meetings. The Section of Entomology hibernated for the season, one meet- ing only being held by four persons. 1884. ] 191 [Annual Meeting. Library. The additions to the library amount to 1951, distributed as fol- lows : 8vo Ato Fol. Total Volumes, 227 74 301 Parts, 852 277 205 1334 Pamphlets, 254 16 2 272 Maps, etc., 44 Total: 1951 Two hundred and forty-six books have been bound. We have arranged an important number of exchanges, as shown by the following list :— Seismological Society of Japan, Tokio. Société Impériale des Amis d’Hist. Nat., d’Anthropologie et d’Ethnographie de Moscou. Comité Géologique (de Russie) St. Petersbourg. Revue Geographique Internationale, Paris. Société Géologique du Nord, Lille. Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle de Marseille. Société Francaise de Botanique, Auch. Geographische Gesellschaft, Greifswald. Thurgauische naturforschende Gesellschaft. Indiana, Department of Geology and Natural History. Botanical Gazette, Indianapolis. Minnesota Academy of Natural Science, Minneapolis. Vassar Brothers Institute, Poughkeepsie. Tromso Museum, Tromso. Four societies formerly among our correspondents, but which had for some years ceased to send their publications in exchange, have again consented to renew their relations with us. These are the Berliner Gesellschaft: fur Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Ur- geschichte, Verein fur Naturkunde, Cassel, Sociéte Linnénne de Normandie, Caen, Reale Accademia di Scienze, Torino. The Society is indebted for valuable gifts to its Library, to Messrs. S. H. Scudder and Samuel Henshaw, and also to the fol- lowing Societies for large series of their publications : Société Géologique de France, Paris; Société de Géographie, Paris; Société des Amis d’Histoire Naturelle, d’Anthropologie et Annual Meetiug.] 192 [May 7, _ d’Ethnographie, Moscou; Allgemeine Schweizerische Gesellschaft f. d. gesammten Naturwissenchaften. Hight hundred and forty books have been borrowed from the Li- brary by one hundred and nine persons. Publications. The Publishing Committee has published three parts of the twenty-second volume of Proceedings. Of the Memoirs the chief article published is the essay on the embryology of Oecanthus and Teleas, by Mr. Howard Ayers, to which the first Walker prize for 1883 was awarded. ‘This essay forms number vii of vol. mI. 56 pp. and 8 plates ; numbers vi and rx containing farther contri- butions by Mr. S. H. Scudder to our knowledge of fossil insects have also been published, and number x, containing notes on the life history of the peeping frog, by Miss M. H. Hinckley, has just been issued. Walker Prizes. The annual prize for 1883 for the best essay on the life history of any animal was awarded to Howard Ayers of Fort Smith, Ark., and his essay has been published as just stated. The second prize was divided between the authors of two papers of equal merit: Mr. H. W. Conn of Baltimore for an essay on the development of Thalassema, and Mr. Wm. Patten of Watertown, Mass., for one on the embryology of a Phryganid!. Lack of means prevented the pub- lication of these two important papers. The same subject, the life history of any animal, extended to include the life history of any plant, was announced for this year’s prize, and two essays have been offered. The present year being that for the award of the third Grand Honorary Prize, the Council last December appointed a committee consisting of Dr. Asa Gray of Cambridge, Prof. S. F. Baird of of Washington, and J. S. Newberry of New York, to recommend the names of one or more persons as worthy of the Prize. Their report was duly made, and its recommendation adopted by the Council, as will presently be announced. 1 Published in Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. XxIv (N. S.), 549. [Annual Meeting. 193 1884.] Lo OFF TS 0S SS LSLS8e‘T$ 6L'0SF 96°COFF1S 00°0ST £0 286° OF 8Z0'T Sk SF Go SzE 9L'SLF 00°0¢L‘9 SZ 6811 88°989 LO'GC8 ‘L9LNS DIL], ‘IHGdNOS ‘M “SVHTO tanks ake cee Lard oe Neen eee ena istie nce nL etter ete saea gies Ss Spe TUL LOU ]Y UO JOUR Siokarteseierereleieieteisreteiei sic sisrrclesieererere ate T Oe SOM OO al IOJ popusdxa ‘QDUTIOG JO [OOYOY ,SslIYyova, seceeerceseecesconia00q IdA0 ‘satnjIpusdx| Jo ssooxiy tree oeeeeeeseeseeseeGazIIg JON[VAA PUCVE PUL ISITA pIVg clube egcraicie/ tie (9 stele sissecocisae:staieress {efehesenerejel eiekere: siessikessiel sole seer Ojo Ces D1G.0.0 GD0 ODOUR OOD ORCOU CIO UOO OO UIUO0 CQG0C OOM ST aya 5 ig [ [vtouey OO ONY OO BS aN OC BOO OOD CONDO COORG OD OFFI a @eseeeeoeseseevnesevseseecseseeveesreeeseeeeeee0080 e@oceeeeseoeseeee Jou SOOO C UO OOOOIOOICIOICCOIOCICE seeeeeceoerees QOIDING Jo sarvdoyy seen cct esse cere cecececceesecccesesecessesgaQR AK PUL SOLILIVG FISGG teers e ee -g NODE SIU UO SJdiaoeq sso] L8°169'T sloke oele\ejaieiess/ove) oie ,0(ereiee\eselecs «SU UCT slays pur UOMBOT[QU sletelens aes cicieiciamnesciaie oie sieisieleie/siaieyeiwieieiecetece wisleleie’ a sle/srexeleyoeere = sR TC Tali Gin: wach o-ohen am raebedeaene (= ime le,” ess ee) eveseie8ishsneseie.@) yiece sere: svakezeiase eee UMS LNT "FEST ‘T AVIA 09 ‘egsr ‘T AVI ‘F88I ‘I AVI ‘NOLSOog LO'OFF'TS OOFST ococttteseesse se goqsnay [amo] snysnsny woay suonvu0og 10 OL Coe eeevecessescscecocsvcecccssse TAK 4S¥BI WOT enp souLv[vg ‘QOMdING JO [OOO sloyovay, 96° COFFS G6. OSPF Ce OOS Oe Di aon apes aaah anaes ae ats KO) 0 (12) FCG CLIILSS ccc cst soaq syuopnyg puev AqisraAIUgQ uojsog ‘A.10}vV1OQL'T 02° 2S eoeceeees eeereeeeesreeecesteecece “OUONUT puny [BOISO[OWO UA 88'8I¢ teceeesoossOTOOUL PUNT WOOO M WLYySUlyIO., uoysuryun xT 00 Lt9 Sianeinieveisieke ereteienm sree sAcacze sveneh keynes evsie.ee SUTO OU puny 181g ‘d “9 00 ZIST een e eerie cee 08) Se shein ne ere ekeiosene ee SULO OUD puny O1vIsH 49 youyg [ng OG LOP Pi aia alate eg a ee CP aa Cee 10 ET Pr] OLONCHE pals Oh gu OKe) 03’ 60L poo eee ese ere OUOOMY PUNT CZI PULLS) ose Ay 00 GLG pe actiedics aber ma Ae Bg woncneae ee t= § SSO UU O OUI) pubs OZ loyl[U Ad 08'FOL'Z BAO ACIS IOS CSAS UOC CP SOIC IS SOO COMMENT K AUG H LONGI BE ARISTA FGOLO'G crrceecseseesss*ypuNny [Vlouloy WOT OULOOUT PUB SpUdpPIAIG 00°09U'T Stee vas eeengecencessccccccccveveseesses senTIQUSSOssSY [VHUUY 00: cos Sate eeeeceerscecesseesceaeceeecceesereseseserodgT UOISSIUPV "PSST ‘TL Avy 09 ‘eset ‘TL AVI "FOOT SL AVIA ‘SUUMNLIGNAAXY GNV SIdIGOAY AO LINIWALVLG IVOANNY ‘UHUASVANT, ‘MHAGNOS "AA SATAVHD AO LYOAAY 13 VOL. XXIII. PROCEEDINGS B.S. N. H. Annual Meeting.] 194 [May 7, The Committee to audit the Treasurer’s accounts, Messrs. ad C. Greenleaf and S. Wells, reported the same correctly cast and properly vouched. The three annual reports were then accepted. The Secretary read the following report of the Committee to whom the award of the Grand Walker Prize was referred, and an- nounced the action of the Council in adopting the recommendation of the report and awarding the prize — $1,000 — to Prof. James Hall of Albany. To the Council of the Boston Natural History Society: The undersigned, designated as a Committee for suggesting the most suitable person to whom may be awarded, at this time, the Grand Honorary Prize instituted by Dr. Walker, ‘for such in- vestigation or discovery as may seem to deserve it, provided such investigation or discovery shall have been made known or pub- lished in the United States at least one year previous to the time of award,” after due consideration of the subject, have unani- mously concluded to recommend for this prize — Professor James Haut of Albany. As the founder would appear to have contemplated some particular or integral ‘‘ investigation or discovery,” we need not take into account Professor Hall’s numerous works or publications upon North American Geology and Paleontology for the last forty years and more!, except as they relate to a special time of inves- tigation which Professor Hall early made his own, in which he has long been eminent, and which he may be said to have essentially completed, although a considerable portion of the results, which have been from time to time ‘‘made known” to the scientific world, are not yet published in extenso, with the illustrations pre- pared for the purpose. It is, then, especially for Professor Hall’s investigations in North American Paleontology, notably the paleontology of the State of New York and the regions adjacent, and of the ear- lier geological formations that we suggest this award. In this field Professor Hall holds a position like that which has ~ 1Comprised in about twenty-six volumes or parts of volumes and in over two hun- dred articles or papers, reports, etc. 1884.] 195 [Annual Meeting- been so long occupied in Europe by M. Barrande. If his actual publications are as yet less extensive than those which have made the name of Barrande illustrious, this has not been from lack of material, still less from lack of industry and scientific acumen on Professor Hall’s part, but because he has not enjoyed the advan- tages of independent fortune and magnificent patronage. Giving due credit to the State of New York for what it has done to fur- ther the publications of researches prosecuted in its service, it still appears that his prolonged labors have been carried on under many discouragements and with insufficient means. It is understood, however, that deficiencies in this respect are about to be remedied ; and it is hoped that this veteran paleeontol- ogist may have the satisfaction of superintending the full publi- cation and proper illustration of his completed investigations. In recognition of the great value of the scientific work to which Professor Hall’s life has been so untiringly and successfully de- voted, in encouragement of his closing labors and in testimony of the Society’s high appreciation of these services to science, your committee would recommend that the maximum of the prize be awarded upon this occasion. [ Signed ] Asa GRAY, J. S. NEWBERRY, SPENCER F. Bairp. March 21, 1884. Mr. F. W. Putnam for the Committee on the annual Walker Prizes reported that the Committee recommended that a first prize should be awarded to the author of an essay on Lunatia heros. . The envelope containing the author’s name was opened and Mr. Albert H. Tuttle of the Harvard Medical School was an- nounced to be the successful competitor for the prize of 1884. The report of the Committee was accepted. The Society proceeded to ballot for Officers for the new year. Messrs. Kingsley and Blake were requested to collect and count the ballots, and they announced the election of the following Annual Meeting.] OFFICERS FOR 1884-5. PRESIDENT, SAMUEL H. SCUDDER. | cf VICE-PRESIDENTS, JOHN CUMMINGS, F. W. PUTNAM. CURATOR, 3g ae ALPHEUS HYATT. 2 HONORARY SECRETARY, S. L. ABBOT, M.rD: SECRETARY, EDWARD BURGESS. TREASURER, CHARLES W. SCUDDER. LIBRARIAN, EDWARD BURGESS. COUNCILLORS, J. A. ALLEN, THEODORE LYMAN, Henry P. BowpitTcu, M. D., Cuarues S. MINOT, SAMUEL CaBOT, M. D., EDWARD S. Morss, ay W. G. Fariow, M. D., WILuiaM H. NILEs, a SAMUEL GARMAN, R. H. Ricuarps, | GEORGE L. GOODALE, M. D., N. S. SHALER, ; H. A. HaGen, M. D., CHARLES J. SPRAGUE, HENRY W. HAYNES, M. E. WADSWORTH, B. Joy JEFFRIES, M. D., SAMUEL WELLS, AUGUSTUS LOWELL, WILLIAM F. WHITNEY, M. D. MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL, EX-OFFICIO, Ex-President, THomas T. Bouvs, Ex-Vice-President, RicHarD C. GREENLEAF, Ex-Vice-President, D. HUMPHREYS STORER, M. D. Miss C. G. Soule and Messrs. J. C. Branner, C. L. Burling- — ‘A ham and G. L. Chandler were elected Associate Members. eA ee 1884.] 197 [ Wadsworth. Mr. F. W. Putnam occupied the rest of the evening with an in- teresting account of discoveries by Dr. Metz and himself in mounds of the Little Miami Valley. He also showed a portion of a human jaw-bone discovered by Dr. Abbott in the Trenton gravel; and human footprints in tufa in Nicaragua found sixteen feet from the surface under several strata of tufa and sands by Dr. Ear! Flint. The following papers were read by title: THE THEORIES OF ORE DEPOSITS. BY M. E. WADSWORTH. Tue recent publication of the interesting chapter of Professor Sandberger’s work relating to mineral veins, in the Engineering and Mining Journal: (Vol. xxxvu, pp. 186, 198, 218, 219, 282, 233) has served to call renewed attention, on the part of Ameri- can mining men, to the theories of ore deposits. The theory of lateral secretion (infiltration, segregation, and impregnation) so strongly advocated by Sandberger is very old, and has been a fa- vorite one among American writers on the subject of mineral veins, appearing even in the older text books, like Whitney’s Me- tallic Wealth of the United States, 1854, pp. 62-68, and Dana’s Manual of Geology, 1863, pp. 712-714. This theory appears to have a direct connection with many other forms of ore de- posits, besides true fissure veins, and to follow from a universal . law, intimately interwoven with the history of the rocks of this globe. It is proposed here to point out this law and its relation to ore deposits, and to call attention to the uncertainty of conclusions drawn from the analysis of the wall rock and its contained minerals. In order to do this, it is necessary to pre- sent a brief but comprehensive view of the entire field. Without entering at all upon the question of the source of those rocks which have come from below the earth’s surface, which are known as eruptives, and which form a large portion of the so-called metamorphic series, it is sufficient for the present pur- pose to state that when they reach the exterior of the earth, their condition is one not adapted to the circumstances in which they | Wadsworth.] 198 [May 7, are hereafter to exist. For a time, at least, prior to their erup- tion they have been placed in far different conditions from the atmospheric ones on the earth’s surface ; and, of necessity, there will be a constant tendency on their part to conform to these changed conditions. This is manifested most conspicuously in their loss of heat, and their passage from a liquid to a solid con- dition. When solid, it may be said that these rocks are in an un- stable condition, in respect to their temperature, and also to the chemical combinations formed on solidification. Their chemical arrangements, as manifested in their constituent glass and min- erals, are such as to necessitate a transference to a condition in which they are less acted upon by the agencies to which they are exposed, on the earth’s surface and this leads to a degradation, dissipation, and loss of energy on their part. In other words, the rocks tend to pass from an unstable towards a more stable state. The rapidity of these changes depends not only upon their chemical constitution, but also upon the special circumstances in which the rocks are placed. In the basic rocks, or those containing much iron, magnesium, calcium, aluminum, etc., the alterations are comparatively rapid, but in the acidic rocks much slower. If rocks of eruptive origin are studied under the microscope these alterations can be readily traced from their beginnings to the extreme changes, which are usually found to be proportional to their age or some special condition. It is these alterations which have led to the multiplicity of rock names, and to the confusion of nomenclature ; lithologists and geologists generally proceeding on the supposition that as a rock now is, so it always was and always will be. For example, the lava flows of Keweenaw Point, which were once identical with the modern basaltic lavas of Mt. Etna and Kilauea, are now designated, on account of their alteration and age, as melaphyrs, diabases, diorites, etc.; andesite in its changed guise is designated as propylite, diabase porphyrite, porphyrite, diorite, etc.; rhyolite as felsite, quartz porphyry, petrosilex, orthofelsite, etc. ; peridotites or olivine rocks, as serpentine, tale schist, etc. The propylite of the Comstock Lode. is a striking example. ~The present writer was the first to call attention to the fact that the fortieth parallel propylites were altered forms of 1884.] . 199 [Wadsworth pre-tertiary and tertiary andesites.! The position then taken has been fully confirmed by Dr. G. F. Becker?, who unjustly appropri- ates to himself the credit of this discovery, and is supported in this appropriation by his colleague, Arnold Hague. Dr. Becker further states that every rock in the district has been taken for propylite when decomposed. The above mentioned changes or alterations in rocks of the same composition appear to be largely dependent upon the action of infiltrating waters, and their rapidity seems proportionate to the temperature. These alterations appear to consist in general, of molecular transferences or chemical reactions in the rock mass as a whole, and are not confined to special minerals ; hence has resulted the failure of theories of mineral pseudomorphism to explain rock metamorphism or alteration—the pseudomorphic changes in the rock mass being but the resulting accident of the greater and more general metamorphosis. In the process of alteration the origina glass of the rock is broken up, forming various minerals according .to its composition, while the original crystallized minerals are changed to a greater or less degree; the whole resulting in the formation of quartz, various ores, anhydrous and hydrous silicates, carbonates, etc. In the course of these changes there is everywhere seen a tendency to localize these secondary products, especially the ores, which results in the removal of material of one kind and the deposition of another in its place, or in the filling of fis- sures and cavities in the rock. It is not uncommon to find minute veins in rocks, which, under the microscope, show variation in their filling material as they pass through different minerals. That which has now been described as taking place in one rock takes place in all, and frequently with various interchanges and reactions between the different associated rocks. If instead of minute fis- sures to be filled and the alterations to be observed under the microscope, we gradually pass to deposits visible to the unaided eye, and to the joint or fissure planes affecting large masses of rock, to cavities or to any condition of rock structure that will admit of deposition of mineral matter, then whether we have ore deposits or not seems to depend upon the activity of the altera- tion and upon the amount and kind of matter stored. It is well known that valuable ore deposits are more apt to occur in regions of 1Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 1879, Vol. V, 281, 285, 286. 2 Geology of the Comstock Lode and Washoe Districts. 1882, pp. 12-150. Wadsworth.] 200 [May i, eruptive and altered rocks. From what has been said the general alteration of rock masses, and the partial localization of their contained mineral matter by percolating waters, would appear to give rise toa large proportion of the ore deposits found in veins, segregations, and impreenations. Instead of the mineral matter taken up by the percolating waters being deposited in the rock again or in contiguous cay- ities, it may be borne far away, appearing in spring, river, lake, and ocean waters, and in deposits laid down by them, precipitation taking place wherever the proper conditions exist. | If we start, as all geologists do, with the belief in an originally hot fluid globe, all rocks must have been derived, primarily, from fluid material. The detrital rocks would naturally partake of the characters and changes of the rocks from which their material came; while in the chemically and organically formed rocks there can be readily suggested, in accordance with their special condi- tions of formation, agencies for the precipitation of useful ores throughout their mass,—the precipitated ores being gathered up - subsequently by the percolating waters. In order to draw any conclusions concerning the reliability of deductions regarding the source of the ore, based on the analy- sis of the minerals in the country rock, adjacent to an ore deposit, it is necessary to look into the question of the origin of these minerals. It has been found, that if the point of consolidation of rocks be taken as the reference point, their minerals naturally fall into three classes: 1. Those of prior origin—foreign. 2. Those produced by solidification (crystallization )—Zindigenous. 38. Those produced later by alterations in the rock mass, or by infil- tration—alteration or secondary.! ‘The first class can be conveni- ently separated into two divisions : 1. The minerals that are characteristic of the rock whatever may be its locality or age. 2. Those that are accidental, as for instance, fragments caught up during the passage through or over another rock. Any rock may have in it all three classes or only one or two as the case may be. A few minerals may be cited in illustration : olivine, in the peridotites is an indigenous mineral, but in the ba- salts is foreign, although generally characteristic of them. Ser- pentine, when not an infiltration or veinstone product, is always a 1 Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 1879, v, 277, 278. 1884. ] 201 {[Wadsworth, secondary or alteration one. Hornblende in the recent andesites is foreign, but in the older forms, and in almost all the older rocks of every kind, it is either a secondary product or is a more or less altered mineral. The micas, feldspars and quartz occur as foreign, indigenous and secondary products. As a rule in the modern rhyolites quartz is foreign, but in the older rocks of this type —felsites and quartz porphyries—it is both foreign and secondary. All hydrous oxides and silicates and all carbonates appear to be alteration products, Ags a rule the different modes of occurrence of these minerals can be readily distinguished from one another under the micros- cope by their characters and their relatioris to the rock mass. Further, it may be pointed out that olivine, except in the more recent rocks, is found, as a rule, to be more or less altered to, or replaced by, serpentine, quartz, iron ore, carbonates, etc. ; augite by hornblende, biotite, chlorite, etc.; and feldspar by quartz, kaolin, micaceous and chloritic minerals, etc. These changes are so common that it is rare to find original minerals in the older rocks that remain unchanged. Again, almost every mineral in rocks is found to contain inclusions of other minerals, glass, liquids, and gases, thus vitiating conclusions drawn from the chemical analysis of the mineral. Since ore deposits are, in general, associated with altered or metamorphosed rocks, and occur in regions in which thermal waters have been active, the country rock would naturally be more or less changed, and sometimes completely decomposed. In the process of the formation of the ore deposit, it may happen that the ore ma- terial will be entirely removed from the adjacent rock, or this rock may have deposited in it ores which never existed there before ; or again, the ore material may have been brought from a distance by the percolating waters. From the above it follows that chemical analyses alone, either of the country rock or of its inclosed minerals, lead to unreliable conclusions as to the source of the ores; and hence it is an unphilosophical procedure to build any general theory upon such analyses. If, by chemical analysis, any accurate deductions are to be drawn regarding the original source of the ores it seems necessary that we should select those rocks and minerals that are known to Wadsworth. ] 202 [May 7, be fresh, unaltered, and free from any foreign inclusions that would influence the result. Such materials could only be ob- tained from recent lava flows, recently formed limestones, etc., for no rock that has been exposed for a considerable length of time to the earth’s meteoric agencies can, in the writer’s opinion, be said to be in its pristine condition. Most analyses of such rocks have dealt too little in tests for minute quantities of such mater- ials as comprise the more valuable ore deposits, to permit as yet any general conclusion to be drawn. The nearest approach we have to such analyses is in the meteorites, which are unaltered and which in composition and structure are closely allied to certain classes of terrestrial basic rocks.! These meteorites are found to contain copper, tin, nickel, cobalt, arsenic, zinc, manganese, chromium, and graphite. While it would appear probable that the elements of the useful ores were often originally disseminated through the rocks with which they are associated and subsequently concentrated, by the agency of percolating waters, proofs that this theory is correct are yet wanting, the theory resting mainly on the observed structure of the ore deposits, their association and the alteration of the ad- jacent rocks. Of all theories that have been proposed to account for ore de- posits, there are few, which are not correct for some form of ore deposits in certain localities, while the practical use of these theories is to aid us in understanding the nature of the deposits, as a guide in their exploitation. The difficulty in the use of these theories lies in their abuse, through their indiscriminate application to all deposits. Our rule ought to be to study every deposit thoroughly, and after that study, not before, apply that theory which best answers to the observed conditions, since all theories ought to be generalizations or expositions of observed facts, with a prophecy for the future. It is not doubted here that all ore deposits, not of a mechani- cal or eruptive origin, can be attributed to the general alteration and change in rocks, resulting from the general dissipation and degradation of the potential energy of the constituents of the earth’s crust, in the universal passage of matter from an active state towards a passive and inert condition. : . This general alteration manifests itself in a universal chemical 1 Science, 1883, I, 127-130. 1884.] 903 [Wadsworth. or molecular transference —a transference of material, leading to the segregation or localization of the ores in the places in which they are now found; it manifests itself in the deposition of min- eral matter in the veins and cavities of the rocks themselves, in deposits from springs, in bogs, lakes, etc. From this it would fol- low that all ore deposits, not eruptive, are superficial phenomena as regards the earth, and dependent on its external agencies ; although they may be deep enough so far as man is concerned. Again, few of these ore deposits would be expected except in regions in which percolating waters and their resulting meta- morphism have been efficient agents ;! while the various forms of ore deposits would be expected to be associated with, and grade into, one another. APPENDIX. It has been thought that the writer’s meaning in the above pa- per would be better understood, if some illustrations were added to show how the principles employed have been varied by him to accord with the special conditions observed in different localities. Heidelberg, Feb. 14, 1885. COPPER DEPOSITS. In the famous districts of Portage Lake and Keweenaw Point, south of Lake Superior, the rocks consist of a mixed series of old basaltic lava flows and conglomerates traversed in part by fissure veins. Locally the conditions in which the native copper is found in these districts give rise to four forms of deposits, known as: 1. Amygdaloid Mines in which some of the thinner lava flows (melaphyrs) are worked, the copper being distributed through them in an irregular manner. 2. Ash-bed Mines which are in reality the same as the Amygda- loid but in the ‘‘Ash-bed” the melaphyr is of a more irregular, open, and scoriaceous character. 3. Conglomerate Mines in which old sea-beach conglomerates are mined. 4, Vein Mines in which true fissure veins are worked. All these deposits seem to the writer to have been produced by 1Whitney. Contributions to American Geology, 1880, Vol. I. The Auriferous Gravels of the Sierra Nevada of California. pp. 310, 331, 350, 356. Wadsworth.] 204. [May 7 one cause—the action of percolating waters (whether thermal or not) in collecting the copper disseminated through the old bas- altic lavas and concentrating it in whatever suitable recep- tacles existed in the lavas and their associated conglomerates, and in the fissures traversing them. Here the theory of ‘‘Lateral secretion” applies, not only to the copper, but to its associated gangue and amygdaloidal minerals.! At Cape D’Or, on the Bay of Fundy, native copper occurs in relations similar to those observed on Lake Superior. Here, how- ever, are found only the basaltic rocks (melaphyrs and diabases), and the copper is disseminated in part through them, and in part occurs inveins. As at Lake Superior the rocks are more or less amygdaloidal, and the preceding explanation is used here to account for the origin and concentration of the copper; which, however, has not been found at Cape D’Or in sufficient amounts to warrant exploitation. The copper ores of Newfoundland, in the vicinity of Notre Dame Bay, are chiefly the yellow sulphide (chalcopyrite) associated with pyrite and quartz. These ores occur in connection with argillaceous and chloritic schists cut through by dikes and irregular masses of old basaltic rocks (melaphyrs and diabases), in all of which the ores are either disseminated or form gash veins. ‘The theory of their origin adopted by the writer is as follows. During the eruptive activity, but after the principal portion of the basalt, if not all, had been extraversated, the action of percolating thermal waters on the eruptive rock and its adjacent fissured and broken sedimentary rocks led to the concentration and deposition of the copper ore, iron pyrites, and quartz in the places in which they are now found. As in the preceding cases the copper is supposed to have been brought up from the earth’s interior by the basalt, at which time the ore was finely disseminated through the lava?, and subsequently concentrated. Copper ore occurs on Waugh’s River in Nova Scotia about three miles from Tatamagouche Harbor, an inlet on the south side of Northumberland Strait. The country rock is a sandstone composed of granitic detritus, and contains clay, fragments of lignite, and other carbonaceous materials. Associated with this ' Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 1880, VII, 76-157; Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 1880, XX1, 91-103. 2Am. Journ. Sci., 1884, XXVIII, 94-104. 1884.] 905 [Wadsworth. sandstone are intercalated beds of red shale, some of which is of so fine a quality that it has been used as a mineral paint. All these rocks dip N. 20° E. 26°. The ore is in nodules and lentic- ular masses composed of chalcocite or its hydrous carbonate (mala- chite) scattered through the beds of sandstone and shale. It is so associated with the carbonaceous materials in the rocks, that it is believed that the copper was collected by the percolating wa- ters, precipitated and reduced by the organic matter, and thus col- lected into the masses found at present, many of which are now in: part lignite and in part chalcocite. The change to the carbonate is, of course, a still further change, wrought through the medium of the percolating waters.! ZINC. During the mining excitement in Maine, in 1879-82, a mine was opened in the town of Castine, Hancock County, known as the Hercules. The country rock is a fine grained mica schist, much indurated and quartzose. In places it approaches, in character, quartz schist, and in others, a gneiss. The rock contains, in places, abundant pyrites. The dip and strike are variable, the former varying from south to 30° or 40° west, with an inclination of 75° to 81°. The country rock is traversed by small quartzose veins, cairying pyrite and sometimes sphalerite and it is more or less broken and jointed, part of the jointing being parallel to the foliation. When the jointings cross one another obliquely and also when parallel, if sufficiently close together, so that the rock has been crushed or finely divided, the percolating waters have deposit- ed in the interstices more or less zinc-blende, iron pyrites, galena, tremolite and quartz, which in part replace the rock material. This segregating action of percolating waters thus gave rise to the local aggregations of mineral matter in the form of impregnations of the country rock, and of segregated veins. So far as the writer can learn, the above deposit is a fair sample of the majority of those heretofore worked in Maine. GOLD. Another of the Maine mines was on Seward’s Island, town of 1Gesner’s Remarks on the Geology and Mineralogy of Nova Scotia, pp. 139, 140; Am. Journ. Sci. 1828 (1), Xv, 151-153; Trans. Am. Acad., 1831 (2), 1, 289-292; Dawson’s Acadian Geology, third editon, pp. 345, 346; Report of the Department of Mines of Nova Scotia, 1876, p. 63; 1877, pp. 48, 49; 1879, p. 18; 1880, pp. 75-77. Wadsworth.] 206 | [May 7, Sullivan, Hancock County. Here a fine grained argillaceous mica schist was cut by a diahase dike some forty feet in thickness, in- truded approximately parallel to the bedding. Numerous segre- gated quartz veins cross this diabase and are locally limited to it. The quartz contains calcite, tremolite, chlorite, tetradymite and gold. The geological history appears to be, first, the formation of the sedimentary country rock, secondly, the intrusion of the di- abase, and thirdly, the concentration (mainly from the diabase mass) of the vein materials, including the gold.} MANGANESE. At different times in past years, considerable work has been done in New Brunswick on a manganese deposit at a fall of the Tete-a-gouche River, a few miles from Bathurst, on the southern shoreof the Bay Chaleur. The country rock is a reddish, fine orained argillite, much fissured and broken. The manganese ore (pyrolusite, wad, etc.) has been infiltrated along the fissures, ap- parently passing from above downwards, and making small irreg- ular gash veins and pockets, the richest portion being in the upper part of the rock. Another deposit of manganese has been worked at a locality four or five miles southeast of Truro, Nova Scotia. The country rock isa sandstone and shaly schist, quite indurated, folded and faulted. As before, the manganese ore is found deposited in fis- sures and pockets in the rock, and is infiltrated from above. This deposit, like that at Bathurst, is found on the side of a stream, to which, when cutting its bed, the formation of the deposit is prob- ably due. In such cases as these, the theory of lateral secretion has no bearing, according to the writer’s judgment. IRON ORES. The writer has given sufficient reasons in previous papers why he, in common with some others, can not regard the iron ores of the Marquette District of Lake Superior as coming either under the head of a deposit by lateral secretion or by sedi- mentation; but holds that they are for the most part of eruptive origin. Those who have opposed this view have in general based their conclusions on theoretical grounds and not onthe actual mode 1Bull. Mus. Comp. Zo6l., 1880, vii, 181. 1884. | 207 [Wadsworth, of occurrence of the ores themselves. That the ores have been subjected to mechanical.and chemical action since the time of erup- tion appears clear. This action has not only given rise to subor- dinate mechanical deposits and to impregnations, segregations, and minor veins, but has also been the means of the molecular re- arrangement of much if not the whole of the ore.! The iron ore of Cumberland, Rhode Island, has been shown by the writer not to be a simple ore, but a rock composed chiefly of titaniferous magnetite, feldspar and olivine. ‘This ore appears to be of an eruptive origin.? The iron ore (magnetite) of Port Henry (Cheever Ore Bed) is associated with and lies in a peculiar gneissoid rock composed prin- pally of a clear, glassy, triclinic feldspar. This ore partakes of the flexures of the gneiss and is in all respects to be regarded as a sedimentary deposit; but whether it is to be regarded as a chemical precipitate or a detrital accumulation the writer has at present no opinion. ‘The ore at times ramifies through the gneiss in a way that only a chemical deposit or eruptive mass could, but otherwise it has none of the characters of an eruptive. ‘This ramification then belongs to, or is the result of, chemical action, yet it probably is not original, but a secondary result of chemical agencies since deposition. Evidences of such action are com- monly seen in the limestones in the vicinity, while its exciting cause may have been the eruptive rocks (gabbros, etc.) which are quite abundant in the vicinity. The ores in this part of the Lake Champlain region have been cited as proofs by analogy that the Lake Superior iron ores were also sedimentary deposits, but such arguments are deceptive, since the deposits in the two districts in question have nothing in common in their structure, their relations to the associated rocks, or in their apparent origin, beyond the fact that both are magnetite and both are associated with old crystalline rocks. In the vicinity of Bathurst boulders of iron ore (hematite and jasper) were found in the bed of the Tete-a-gouche River which closely resemble the associated hematite and jaspilite of the Mar- quette District, Lake Superior. 1 Bull. Mus. Comp. Zo6l., 1880, VII, 28-36, 66-76, 494, 495.—Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. His- tory, 1880, Xx, 470-479. 2 Bull. Mus. Comp. Zo6l., 1881. vi1, 183-187.—Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1881, xxr, 195-197.—Lithological Studies, 1884, pp. 75-81. Wadsworth.] 208 May 7, The origin of these boulders, or rather of similar ores, was found to be as follows: near the Peters River, diabase dikes had cut through the red argillite (see above, under manganese) indurating it and filling it more or less with iron ore. This argillite when broken away and water-worn gave rise to the deceptive boulders mentioned above, which had thus an origin entirely different from the Lake Superior ore. ON A SUPPOSED FOSSIL FROM THE COPPER-BEARING ROCKS OF LAKE SUPERIOR. BY M.E. WADSWORTH. My attention was called by my friend, Professor Hyatt, to this specimen, which he had seen in the collection of Professor James Hall, of Albany. On my application Professor Hall very kindly sent it to me, and permitted all necessary work to be done on the specimen that could be accomplished without injuring its value. The great interest attaching to this form is owing to the dis- puted age of the copper-bearing rocks and to its resemblance to a fossil, a resemblance which is so great, that so far as I am aware, every paleontologist, who has seen the specimen, has taken it for an organic body. That this resemblance is close, is shown by the fact that even the eminent paleontologists just mentioned have regarded it as a fossil. | Instead, however, of being of organic origin, it appears to have been- formed by the flowing of a pasty lava in such a man- ner as to raise a series of ridges, giving the surface an appearance closely like that of some cephalopods. This lava flow, which evidently was once a basaltic lava, like that of Mt. Etna, or of the Sandwich Islands, has since undergone certain changes which have altered itsinterior structure and composition. As is the case with all lavas, the structure is more crystalline in the interior, and more compact on the surface. At the present time the dark reddish brown rock is one that would be denominated, by most lithologists, a melaphyr. Much crystallized calcite occurs in the specimen, having the same characters as have nearly all of the sec- 1884. ] 209 [Wadsworth. ondary calcite in the Lake Superior traps. If the surface of the apparent fossil be examined, the lava flow is seen to be covered by a hard reddish deposit, probably arising from the decomposition of the surface of the crust. Beneath this coating appears the dark reddish brown compact rock, containing green delessite and white calcite. On a polished surface this portion is found to ex- tend, with a gradually increasing coarseness of crystallization, and greater alteration, until the rock mass proper, or matrix of the fossil, is reached. ; AQ ee z i nfs an, PSSA AL Aa Ae ty He is cs BROOKS, STRUCTURE OF THE SIPHON AND FUNNEL OF NAUTILUS POMPILIUS, €. W. COBB, DEL. racer ono ink ar nay nen 1887.] BMT fAnnual Meeting. OFFICERS FOR 1887-88. PRESIDENT, FREDERICK W. PUTNAM. VICE-PRESIDENTS, JOHN CUMMINGS, GEORGE L. GOODALE. CURATOR, ALPHEUS HYATT. HONORARY SECRETARY, SAMUEL L. ABBOT. SECRETARY, EDWARD BURGESS. TREASURER, CHARLES W. SCUDDER. LIBRARIAN, EDWARD BURGESS. COUNCILLORS, Henry P. BowpitTcu, Epwarp L. Mark, WILLIAM M. Davis, CHARLES S. MINOT, GEORGE DIMMOCK, EpWwarp S. Morss, JAMES H. EMERTON, WILLIAM H. NILEs, WiILiiaAM G. FaRLow, ELLEN H. RICHARDS, CHARLES L. FLINT, WILLIAM T. SEDGWICK, EDWARD G. GARDINER, NATHANIEL S. SHALER, HENRY W. HayNgs, CHARLES J. SPRAGUE, B. JOY JEFFRIES, SAMUEL WELLS, AuGUSTUS LOWELL, WILLIAM F. WHITNEY. MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL, EX-OFFICIO, Ex-President, THomas T. Bouv#, Ex-President, SAMUEL H. SCUDDER, Ex-Vice President, RICHARD C. GREENLEAF, Ex- Vice President, D. HUMPHREYS STORER. Annual Meeting.] 378 [May 4, Mr. Scudder, on withdrawing from the presidential chair, thanked the Society for its uniform courtesy and support during the seven years in which he had directed its deliberations. He had been a member of the society now for a generation, had even held some office for half his life-time; and in retiring from his position had no wish nor intention of withdrawing from the active service of the Society, whose best interests were and ever would be his own. Professor Putnam then took the chair. In a few well chosen words he thanked the Society for the honor of his election, while he could but regret that Mr. Scudder had persisted in his determina- tion to decline a reélection to the position he had so worthily filled, and in which he had done so much to promote the interests of the Society. He then asked for the support of the members in carry- ing on the Society’s work. A communication from the Council recommending the passage of the following resolution was read : Whereas an effort is being made to establish a marine biological station upon the New England coast, and whereas it is the opinion of this Society that such a station is urgently needed and will be of great benefit to science and education, fesolved: That the Boston Society of Natural History expresses a cordial approval of the attempt to start the proposed station and directs the Council of the Society to codperate in the foundation and maintenance of the station in such ways as it shall deem most advantageous to science and suitable for the Society. The resolution was unanimously adopted. The following letter was read : 71 Chester Square, May 4, 1887. Epwarp Bureesss, Esq. Secretary Boston Society of Natural History: Dear Sir: I have received the notice of the Annual Meeting of the Boston Society of Natural History, and as the state of my health will prevent me from being present I desire to say to the mem- bers that my absence from this, as well as from the regular meetings of the Society, is from no lack of interest. I watch the progress of the Society with rejoicing. I know well how much it is do- ing in many departments of natural history, awakening a deeper interest, and that the teachers of this community have derived the greatest possible benefit from the efforts made by the Society for their advantage. 1887.] 379 [General Meeting. Accept, if you please, the enclosed: [a check for $200] one- half for such additions to the library as may be thought best, and one-half to aid in the noble arrangements you have made, and are more and more fully perfecting, to assist the teachers of our schools in their work of instructing the young under their care in a true knowledge of the great works of nature. With high regard and best wishes, ; Very truly yours, R. C. WATERSTON. The President expressed the thanks of the Society for this gen- erous gift from the Rev. Mr. Waterston. Mr. S. H. Scudder read a paper! on the introduction and spread of the cabbage-butterfly through North America, from 1860-1886. GENERAL Meeting, May 18, 1887. Vice President, Dr. G. L. Goopa gs, in the chair. The following resolution was offered by the Council. Resolved: That the grateful thanks of the Society be offered to Mr. Samuel H. Scudder for the great interest he has taken in its work during the seven years he has presided over the Council, directed the proceedings of the general meetings, and aided and en- couraged the several officers in their various duties. That the long continued association of Mr. Scudder with the Society, in different capacities, including the offices of Curator, Librarian and Secre- tary, previous to the last high office, which it was equally honorable to the Society to give, and to him to accept, has so effectually bound him to us that every member will continue to look to him for ad- vice, with the feeling that his interest in the welfare of the Society will be as great in the future as it has been in the past. The resolution was unanimously adopted. Mr. J. H. Emerton described the structures and habits of the Ciniflonidz, showing twine models of their webs. The following paper was presented :— 1 Printed in the Memoirs, Vol. Iv, p. 53. Brooks.] 3 8 0 [May 18, PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE SIPHON AND FUNNEL OF NAUTILUS POMPILIUS. BY HENRY BROOKS. Tue shell of Nautilus pompilius has, besides all the ordinary shell layers, a tube connecting all the air chambers together and open- ing into the living chamber. This tube is the covering of the fleshy siphuncle and will be spoken of as the siphon, as is customary among paleontologists and conchologists, and this paper is writ- ten to describe its structure in detail. The siphon commences in the first chamber as a cecum. ‘The closed end rests against the inner surface of the apex of the shell in a cup-like depression that is generally situated over the scar, but is often found a little on either side of it. This has been ascer- tained by examining more than thirty shells of Nautilus pompilius. The siphon consists of a series of tubular sections extending from septum to septum and increasing in diameter as the chambers ex- pand. Each section is made up of two parts, an outer calcareous sheath and an inner tube of conchiolin. ‘The outer sheath extends from the inner surface of a posterior funnel of one septum to and embracing the outer surface of the anterior funnel of the next sep- tum. The inner tube extends from the inner surface of a posterior funnel to the outer edge of an anterior funnel. The outer sheath is made up of calcareous spicules overlying one another and arranged in such a way as to form an exceedingly porous structure. Numerous small openings may be seen in its wall with a low power, and a fluid when poured in above any septum rapidly permeates the wall of the sheath and runs down its outer surface into the chamber below. The spicules are fusiform and as a rule are arranged in stellate figures. There are irregu- lar holes or cavities on the outer surface of the sheaths. These cavities do not extend through the sheaths but are partially closed by the spicules forming the middle portions of the sheaths, which are more closely interlaced than those forming the outer surfaces. The spicules that extend beyond the outer surfaces of the sheaths often terminate in irregular knobs, many of which are covered witb. slender bristles or spikes, giving the knobs ah appearance similar to that of a chestnut burr. Others are hollow at the centre ter- minating in concave discs, made up of slender sticks or bristles 1887.] 381 ([Brooks. radiating from the hollow of the main shaft. The pin-shaped spicules also occur on the inner surface of the sheaths, but here they are smooth and without the bristles, and somewhat flattened on their ends where they rest against the conchiolin tube. The spicules forming the inner layer of the sheaths are almost wholly fusiform, or of some slight variation from that shape. In the extremely young siphons, including the czecum, the sheaths are made up of slender threads, placed in the same way as the spicules of the older sheaths. There is no regular arrangement of the spicules except at such points on the anterior portions of the funnels where the siphuncle rested. Here they are placed at right angles to the surface of the funnel. The same arrangement is found in the spicules forming the disc-like bottom of the cecum. Here they are placed at right angles to the inner surface of the apex of the shell. The spicules are made up of slender transparent sticks of cal- careous matter, much smaller than the threads forming the young sheaths but still similar to them. ‘These transparent sticks are held together in bundles by organic matter. These, when exam- ined under a high power, have the appearance of bundles of fagots. In the older sheaths the bundles are yellow, while in the extremely young ones they are white. The spicules of the anterior portions of the sheaths where they embrace the funnels, are much smaller than those of the posterior portion and often appear as mere granules. At this point the sheaths are marked with a series of ridges extending around their entire surface. These ridges are much deeper and more pronounced on the dorsal or inner side of the sheaths than on the ventral or outer side. The ridges indicate a series of interruptions in the growth of the sheaths and the commencement of the formation of new septa. The sheaths of the older siphons commence as a dense layer sit- uated on the posterior inner surface of afunnel. This dense layer extends through the funnel for a short distance when it at once as- sumes the open structure which is retained throughout its entire length. There seems to be a well marked period in the growth of the siphons when they first commence to form spicules, but this, as yet, has not been fully determined. The formation of sheaths of the young siphons will form the subject for another paper, when it has been fully examined. Brooks.] 382 [May 18, The conchiolin tube commences as a closed sac fitting into the sheath of the apical chamber. It extends unchanged in thickness through the first funnel. From the second to the fourth septum the tubes are much drawn out and attenuated so as to be transpar- ent at the points where they pass through the funnels. At the fifth or some subsequent septum, the exact number of which has not been fully ascertained, a change takes place and the tubes no longer pass through the funnels but are disconnected. They extend from the posterior inner portion of one funnel to the outer posterior edge of an anterior funnel. The anterior ends of the tubes are often forked and embrace both the outer and inner edges of an anterior funnel. The funnels of the young septa are much longer in comparison to the depth of the chambers than are the funnels of the older septa. The older funnels diminish in length as the chambers increase in size. They are made up of five layers: (1) An outer layer formed by the anterior end of a posterior sheath, where it embraces the funnel. (2) A darker and denser layer than the outer layer which con- tains more organic matter. (3) The shell layer of the funnel proper. (4) The dense layer forming the posterior end of an anterior spiculous sheath. (5) An inner layer that is extremely short and reduces the open- ing of the funnel at its posterior end. This inner layer shows in section as a semicircle. The last two layers are not present in the funnel of the living chamber. The formation of the funnels of the young septa will be de- scribed in another paper. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. PLATE 1. A longitudinal section of an older funnel showing the five layers, and a portion of the anterior and posterior spiculous sheaths and conchiolin tubes. PLATE2. A diagram explaining Plate 1. a. Anterior end of a spiculous sheath where it embraces a funnel. b. The dense layer between the sheath and the shell layer of the funnel. c. The shell of the funnel. d. The dense end of a posterior sheath before it becomes spiculous. e. Dense layer that reduces,the opening of the funnel. Jj. Anterior portion of a conchiolin tube. ax. Posterior end of a sheath showing how it fits into the funnel. jx. Anterior end of a conchiolin tube showing where it joins the posterior end of a funnel. 1887.] 383 [Ridgway. GENERAL Meetine, Nov. 2, 1887. The President, Prof. F. W. Putnam, in the chair. After calling the meeting to order the President welcomed the members to the Society’s hall once more, and hoped that the pa- pers announced for the evening foreshadowed an interesting season. The President then spoke in fitting terms of the deaths, dur- ing the summer, of Ex-Vice President, Mr. R. C. Greenleaf and of Prof. S. F. Baird, an Honorary Member of the Society, and stated that notices of both members would be given at a future time. The following papers were presented : NOTES ON SOME TYPE-SPECIMENS OF AMERICAN TROGLODYTIDA IN THE LAFRESNAYE COLLECTION. BY ROBERT RIDGWAY. Curator Depariment of Birds, U. S. National Museum. Havine been kindly permitted by the authorities of the Boston Society of Natural History to examine the type-specimens of a number of Lafresnaye’s species belonging to the genera Campy- lorhynchus Srix, Thryophilus Bairp, Thryotborus VIEILL., and Troglodytes V1I£ILL.,—species for the most part involved in more or less uncertainty,— it affords me much pleasure to present here- with the results reached by the examination in question. 1. Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus, Rev. Zool., 1846, 94. (Picolaptes brunneicapillus, Mag. de Zool., 1833, Ois. pl. 47.) Type, No. 2600, ‘‘California.” This specimen agrees exactly with examples from the south- western border of the United States (Texas to San Diego, Cali- fornia) identified as C. brunneicapillus by Professor Baird and other American writers, and is therefore not C. afinis Xanrus, as suggested by Mr. Sharpe (cf. Cat. B. Brit. Mus. vi, p. 196). 2. Campylorhynchus unicolor (Rev. Zool., 1846, 93). Type, No. 2598, Guarayas, S. W. Brazil. 3. Campylorhynchus unicoloroides (Rev. Zool., 1846, 316). Type, No. 2599, Bolivia. The former of these two specimens is in decidedly abraded plum- Ridgway.] 384 [Nov. 2, age, with the edges of the greater wing-coverts, remiges and rec- trices, faded and very obviously worn. This may account for the entire absence of the somewhat indistinct lighter and darker spot- ting which characterizes the edges of these feathers in the type of C’. unicoloroides, in which the head and neck and the edges of the secondaries have a very strong fulvous-buffy tinge, the plumage being in very fresh condition. A specimen in the National Mu- seum collection from southern Brazil (No. 16439, 9 ad., August, 1858, Chr. Wood) is decidedly nearer the type of C. wnicolo- roides, in coloration, notwithstanding the feathers are somewhat worn. ‘The measurements of the three are as follows :— Type of C. unicolor: wing 3.35, tail 3.35, exposed culmen .80, bill from nostril, .58, tarsus, 1.05. Type of C. unicoloroides: wing, 3.55, tail 3.40, exposed cul- men, .85, bill from nostril .58, tarsus 1.00. No. 16, 489, U. S. Nat. Mus.: wing 3.53, tail 3.55, exposed culmen .82, bill from nostril .60, tarsus, 1.10. 4. Campylorhynchus brevirostris (Rev. Zool., 1845, 339). Types, 2609, Bogota, and 2610, ‘*Mexico.” These two specimens, which are very much alike, and both probably from Bogota, are undoubtedly the young of C. zona- toides, Larr. (Rev. Zool., 1846, 92). 5. Campylorhynchus zonatoides (Rev. Zool., 1846, 92). Types, Nos. 2606, ‘‘Mexico”, 2607, ‘‘Columbia,” and 2608, ‘‘Co- lumbia.” These are all adults, and agree substantially with Bogota spe- cimens in the National Museum collection. 6. Campylorhynchus palliceps (MS. only?). Type, No. 2614, ‘*Mexico.” This specimen agrees minutely with the type of C. balteatus Bairp (cf. Review Am. B., 1864, p. 103, in text), the habitat of which is western Ecuador and Peru. 7. Campylorhynchus pallescens (Rev. Zool., 1846, 93). Type, No. 2613, Lafresnaye collection; ‘“Mexico.” This is not the Mexican species usually known under this name (i. e., C. megalopterus La¥rr.), but a very distinct one, allied to C. balteatus Bairp, from western Ecuador and Peru. From the latter it differs in lighter coloration, the darker markings dusky grayish brown instead of blackish, and white bands across remiges 1887. ] 385 | [Ridgway, about equal in width to the dusky bands instead of only about half as wide; breast narrowly barred or transversely lined, instead of spotted, with dusky ; middle tail-feathers sharply banded entirely across with dusky grayish brown and very pale brownish gray. Wing 3.30, tail 3.50, exposed culmen .75, bill from nostril .52, tarsus 1.05. The true habitat of this species is of course unknown, but, con- sidering the fact that its nearest relative is C. balteatus Bairp (cf. Review Am. B., p. 103, in text), it probably inhabits some portion of northern or western South America. 8. Campylorhynchus megalopterus (Rev. Zool., 1845, 339). Types, 2611 and 2612, Mexico. While differing in some particulars, which are probably attribu- table to the more worn condition of their plumage, these specimens agree essentially with specimens of the so-called C. pallescens from Mexico. Compared with five adults of the latter, the differences are found to consist (1) in the darker spots on the lower parts, which are also !ess tinged posteriorly with pale brownish buffy, and (2) in the decidedly paler and less buffy lighter bars of the rump and upper tail-coverts. In measurements they do not differ, as the following may show. No. 2611: wing 8.50, tail 3.30, exposedculmen .80, bill from nostril .57, tarsus .95. No. 2612: wing 3.70, tail 3.70, exposed culmen .90, bill from nostril .65, tarsus 1.05. No. 32471, Nat. Mus.: wing 3.65, tail 3.25, exposed culmen .85, bill from nostril .59, tarsus 1.10. 9. Campylorhynchus curvirostris (MS. only?). Type, No. 2621, ‘*‘N. Granada.” This is a small species allied to C. brevirostris, Larr. and C. zon- atus (Lxss.), but apparently quite distinct from either, its charac- ters being as follows :— Campylorhynchus curvirostris, sp. nov. (ev. Larr., MS.) Sp. Cuar.—Similar to C. brevirostris Larr., but much smaller, with bill slenderer and more curved though proportionally wider at base, whitish bands of upper parts relatively broader, tail much more distinctly banded (the middle feathers banded entirely across) and strongly tinged with dull buffy or fulvous, and spots on lower parts much smaller, those on throat and chest decidedly longitudinal, the belly immaculate buffy. Total length (mounted PROCEEDINGS B.S.N. H. VOL, XXIII. 25 FEBRUARY, 1888. Ridgway.] 386 [Nov. 2, ‘*pecimen) 6.50, wing 2.80, tail 3.10, exposed culmen .75, bill from nostril .55, tarsus 90. The measurements of five adults of C. brevirostris are as follows: length (mounted specimens) about 7.00-7.30, wing 3.20-3.45, ‘tail 3.40-3.60, exposed culmen .65-.85, bill from nostril .55-.60, tarsus .95-1.00. 10. Campylorhynchus minor (MS.only?). Type, No. 2620, locality unknown. This is a young bird in first plumage, and belongs to the same group as C. nuchalis Cas. and C. pardus Sci. It may be referable to one of these two species, but this I am unable to determine from the material at hand. 11. Thryothorus rufalbus (Rev. Zool. 1845, 337). Type, No. 2647, **Mexico.” This specimen is clearly a typical example of the northern (Gua- temalan) race which Professor Baird named Thryophilus rufalbus, var. poliopleura (cf. Review, pp. 128, 129), which name must there- fore sink into a pure synonym of 7. rufalbus. ‘There is in the La- fresnaye collection another specimen marked as type of 7’. rufalbus (No. 2649, Columbia”) ; but since only “Mexico” is mentioned as the habitat in the original description, which furthermore agrees exactly in all essential points with the so-called Mexican specimen, there can be no doubt as to which is really the type. Unless the name T'roglodytes cumanensis Can. (J. f. O., 1860, 408, ew Licurt., MS.) is found to be applicable to the southern form, I do not know of any available name for that subspecies. According to CaBanis (l. c.), ZT. cumanensis, which is from Cartagena, differs in several respects from the ordinary bird from the interior of Columbia (Bo- gota, etc.) ; and if this proves to be really the case, the name in question should be restricted to the coast form. Pending the de- cision of this question, it may be well to provide a_ provisional name for the bird which Professor Baird considered to be the true T. rufalbus, the range of which extends from Nicaragua te the highlands of Columbia, and I therefore propose for it that of Thryo- philus rufalbus castanonotus. 12. Thryothorus maculipectus (Rev. Zool., 1845, 338). Type, No. 2657, ** Mexico.” This specimen is identical in coloration with Mexican examples in the National Museum collection; hence, the allocation of the name in a restricted sense to the Mexican form, as has been done in my Manual of North American Birds (p. 552), is correct. 1887.] 387 [ Ridgway. 13. Thryothorus ruficeps (MS. only ?). Type, No. 2659, Brazil. This is 7. felix Scu., and is therefore probably from Mexico. In the color of the sides and flanks, this specimen agrees exactly with Professor Baird’s description (cf. Review, p. 136) of a specimen from Oaxaca in Mr. Salvin’s collection, the color being ‘‘a shade of brownish, paler than the back,” and also with the colored figure in the Biologia Centrali-Americana (Aves, pl. vu, 1). Four Ma- zatlan specimens in the National Museum collection, however, have the sides and flanks a deep and decided buff, totally different from the color of the back. Were this difference in the color of the sides and flanks constant, the birds from Mazatlan would be very readily separable from those from Oaxaca ; but that the latter vary in this respect would appear from the fact that Dr. Sclater’s origi- nal description (cf. P. Z. S,, 1859, 871) of the species describes the color of the under parts as being ‘‘cinnamomeo-rufescens, ventre medio pallidiore, gutture albo,” while Mr. Sharpe (Cat. B. Br. Mus., vi, p. 232) says, “ sides of the body and thighs fawn- buff.” 14. Thryothorus fasciato-ventris (Rev. Zool., 1845, 337 Me Type, No. 2658, ‘‘ Bogota.” This specimen differs from Mr. Sharpe’s description (cf. Cat. B. Br. Mus., vi, pp. 229, 230) in having the entire breast barred with whitish, there being no uniform black band as described or as shown in the colored figure on plate 14 (fig. 1). In fact, both the latter and the description agree essentially with a specimen from the Isthmus of Panama in the National Museum collection (No. 03897, & , McLeannan), which again differs from an adult male from Santa Marta (No. 34095, Nat. Mus.,) only in having the dusky (not ‘‘orayish black”) of the ear-coverts and the uniform black of the breast rather more extended, the thighs more distinctly barred with black, and the under tail-coverts more narrowly barred with white, the whitish bars on the sides, flanks, and abdomen being also rather Jess distinct. According to Mr. Sharpe’s views (/. c.), the Pana- ma bird should be 7. albigularis Sci. (Cyphorinus albigularis NCLss P. Z. §., 1855, 76, pl. 88), but the original description of the lat- ter makes no mention of uniform black on the breast, while the colored plate shows distinct white bands over the whole breast as well as the more posterior lower parts, these white bars being at the same time altogether broader than in any example of the species (in its comprehensive sense) that has come under my notice. In other words, there is far greater resemblance between the Panama Ridgway-] 388 [Nov. 2, and Sta Marta specimens than between the latter and the type of T. fasciato-ventris, and quite as much resemblance between either of the former and two examples of the Veraguan and Costa Rican form (Thryothorus melanogaster SHaRPE, Cat. B. Br. Mus., vi, p. 230, pl. 14, fig. 2), in the National Museum collection (Nos. 61966, @ ad., Bugaba, Veragua; E. Arce, and 42808, ¢ ad., San Mateo, Costa Rica; J. Cooper), the two latter agreeing with the Panama and Sta Marta specimens in having the whole breast uniform blackish and the upper parts a rich rusty brown or chestnut, instead of a much lighter and more fulvous brown. TZ. melanogaster may, however, be distinguished by the pale rusty brownish instead of white bars on the under tail-coverts, and much less distinct (sometimes quite obsolete) bars on the sides, flanks, and abdomen. ‘There can be no question, however, that this form grades directly into the Panama form, which in all probability is only a local race of 7. fasciato-ventris. If this view of their relationship be correct, the three would stand respectively as 7. fasciato-ventris Larr., T. fas- ciato-ventris albigularis (Scu.), and ¥%”. fasciato-ventris melanogas- ter (SHARPE). 15. Troglodytes tecellata (Larr. & D’OrB., Mag. de Zool., 1837, cl. 1, p. 25). Alleged types, Nos. 2692 and 2693, “Peru.” It is very doubtful whether these are really the types of this spe- cies, since they do not agree in all respects with the description. Of one thing, however, there can be no doubt, viz., that they are identical with JZ. brunneicollis Scu.! Compared with four exam- ples of the latter from southern Mexico, they are found to agree in the minutest particulars as regards form, size, and coloration, in which respects they are entirely unlike any South American species of the genus. Not only are the under tail-coverts, but also the entire flanks, barred with dusky and whitish (only the tips of the flank-feathers being of the latter color, the basal portion being pale fulvous or buffy) ; the middle wing-coverts have minute ter- minal white spots; the head a broad and conspicuous buffy super- ciliary stripe sharply contrasted with the brown pileum and post- ocular stripe, and the anterior and lateral lower parts are deep tawny-buff, becoming much paler on the belly. Their measure- ments are as follows: Total length (mounted specimens) 4.00- 4.20, wing 2.00-2.12, tail 1.70-1.80, exposed culmen .48, bill from nostril .35, tarsus .75. U.S. Nationat Museum, July 6, 1887. 1887.] 389 [Fewkes. A NEW MODE OF LIFE AMONG MEDUSZ. BY J. WALTER FEWKES. SEVERAL pamphlets and one or two books have been written on the influence of parasitism in the modification of animal structure. Perhaps nowhere do we find this mode of life better illustrated than among certain of the Crustacea, where the anatomical struct- ure is so masked by their parasitic habits that for a long time in the history of research it was impossible to recognize their Zo0- logical affinities, and it was only when the immature stages in the erowth were studied and larval conditions, unaffected by parasit- ism, had been investigated, that the true relationships of the group could be discovered. What we find in the so-called Lernean worms exists wherever parasitism is found among animals. It may, in fact, be concluded that ordinarily in parasites there is a degradation in structure, or at all events such a modification as to lead.to important changes in anatomy and external form. It would seem that among the lowest animals we ought to find a larger number of parasitic genera than among the higher. While there is little doubt that there is more variety in lower animals, I am not so confident that this mode of life has led to as great modifications in structure here as might be expected. While we cannot ascribe to parasitism the many variations in animal struct- ure which occur, and it is impossible to give this mode of life a primary importance in theories of origin of species as has been at- tempted, it is no doubt true that many variations in structure have been derived either directly or by heredity from parasitic ances- tors. Nowhere among lower animals is there more likelihood that we should find parasitic conditions than among the Meduse. Re- flect for a moment that the young of a majority of these animals live attached to submarine objects, and it seems easy to see how by changing its habitat a parasitic attachment to another animal might easily take place. Considering the probabilities, however, although the number of genera which might be mentioned as liv- ing upon other animals is large, the number of recorded instances Fewkes. ] 390 | Nov. 2, of those which have suffered a modification in structure by their attachment is very small. Everyone who has taken a hand in the most fascinating part of the study of marine zodlogy, viz., dredging in the ocean, knows how often ascidians, brachiopods, large mollusks and other ani- mals are brought up with attached hydroids growing upon them. These hydroids, in one sense, are not parasitic, as they draw no nourishment from their hosts, nor are they at all modified by their mode of life. Forinstance, Hydractinia, from a Natica shell inhabited by a hermit crab, is not unlike Hydractina from the un- derside of a floating bell-buoy. Obelia from the stalk of Boltenia is specifically the same as Obelia on a submerged log. In these and similar instances, for they are numerous and varied in nature, there is no resultant modification either of host or parasite, as the attachment is in no way vital or intimate. There are, however, among the Meduse, certain recorded cases of parasitism where there is a vital connection so to speak, where there is a parasitism or even commensalism of such an intimate character that not only the structure of the parasite, but also even that of the host itself is modified. It is a study of these cases which has a most interesting morphological importance, for it af- fords, in some instances, at least a means of estimating the modi- fications of structure which may result in Medusez from parasitic habits. ‘They introduce into the discussion of the theory of evo- tion a series of facts which may well be carefully considered by those who ascribe to selection an all-important factor in the mod- ification of animal structure. It is not my purpose, however, to enter into a discussion of this subject upon which so much has already been said by abler naturalists than myself. I have simply introduced it in prepara- tion for the consideration of new observations bearing upon the question among the jelly-fishes. Let me, as an introduction, men- tion a few instances of modification of Medusan genera by the mode of life called parasitism. One of the best known instances of parasitism among Medusze is that of Cunina which lives parasitic in the stamach of another Medusa, Geryonia. We, undoubtedly, have, in this case, a mod- ification of the parasite by its peculiar mode of life in the host, although a reciprocal effect on the host is not recognizable. Less known than Cunina, although quite as interesting, is that of 1887.] 391 [Fewkes. Mnestra parasita, a Hydromedusa which lives parasitic on the pel- agic mollusc, Phyllirhoe. We find here a modification in the structure of Mnestra by the attachment, although we know but little of the nature of that modification, while of the growth of the medusa we know nothing. A most interesting instance of parasitism, and consequent modi- fication among Meduse, is found in the problematical organism, Polypodium. This undoubted hydroid is found parasitic in the ova of the sturgeon while in the body of the fish. We have in Poly- podium, as described by Ussow, a hydroid-like animal which develops and drops buds which can be directly compared with Meduseze. These are not the only instances of parasitic Meduse thus far recorded, but they are typical and useful for comparisons. None of them are as valuable as they might be in estimating the amount of change in anatomy which has resulted, since we are either ignorant of their whole life-history or of that of related adults with simple development. It is with the greatest pleasure that [am able to add to the above- mentioned instances of parasitism among Meduse another of most extraordinary character. This instance is peculiarly adapted for the study of the effect of parasitism in modifying the Medusan structure, as its close allies are well known and comparisons with them can be easily made. ‘This instance is, I believe, unique and the first recorded example of a hydroid living attached to the outside of a fish, and modified in structure by its life. It may thus properly be called a new mode of life among Meduse. In the pelagic fishing which has been carried on for the last ten years at the Newport Marine Laboratory we have taken several specimens of the well-known fish, Seriola zonata, Cuv. This fish is a Close ally of the ordinary ‘“ pilot fish” and is often seen in calm weather swimming near the surface of the sea. Three of these fishes were found in company last summer, and upon the side, near the anal fin, of one of these, curious appendages were noticed which had never been observed before. On capturing the fish and mak- ing a superficial examination of the attachment, I was reminded of an attached fungus growth. Everyone is familiar with the growth on fishes of the fungus, Saprolegnia, and the resemblance seemed so great, except in color, between the supposed fungus of Seriola and Saprolegnia that at first I regarded the former as a fungoid growth. The color of the supposed fungus of Seriola was, however, reddish and yellow ; and, although I have since learned that super- Fewkes.] 392 [Nov. 2, ficial fungoid growths of this color sometimes exist on fishes, at the time when Seriola was captured I was ignorant of this fact, the red color led me to doubt its fungoid affinities. A glance at the supposed fungus through a small lens easily dispelled my error and showed me that I had a new and unique case of a par- asitic hydroid. It is to the peculiarities in structure of this ani- mal and the medusa which was raised from it that I wish to call the attention of the Society this evening. As the genus of hydroid which shows this curious mode of life is new, it will be necessary to assign it a name and I suggest that of Hydrichthys mirus as expressing one phase at least of the cu- rious life which it leads.! The majority of genera of Hydromeduse have ordinarily two stages of growth, one of which is called the hydroid and the other the medusa stage. The latter is a medusa-form zooid of the for- mer. Let us consider each of these stages in Hydrichthys. Hydroid. —The hydroid of Hydrichthys consists of sexual and asexual individuals, both of which arise from a flat plate of branch- ing tubes which is fastened to the sides of the body of the fish. The sexual individuals may be called the gonosomes, the asexual the filiform bodies. The gonosomes consist of a simple contractile, highly sensitive axis, upon the sides of which are borne lateral branches with ter- minal clusters resembling minute grape-like bodies. These grape- like bodies are medusze in all stages of growth. The filiform in- dividuals are simple, flask-shaped bodies, without tentacles, and with terminal mouths.? No circle of tentacles about a mouth opening was detected either in the gonosomes or the filiform bodies. This is a significant loss, since, with the exception of Protohydra, Microhydra, and the sec- ondary zooids of certain Alcyonians, tentacles of some kind are found near a mouth or in relation to the oral opening of most of the fixed hydroids or polyps. Medusa.—The gonophore of Hydrichthys has a Sarsia-like bell and manubrium, four radial tubes, four tentacles without append- ages, as already elsewhere described by me.? In the light of what we know of the affinities of the medusa of 1An accurate diagnosis with figures will be found in my paper ‘‘ On Certain Medusze from New England.” Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., x11I, No. 7. 2Somewhat like spiral zooids in Perigonimus except this particular. sBull. Mus. Comp. Zool., XIII, No. 7. 1887.] | 393 [Fewkes. Hydrichthys it is interesting for us to consider those of the at- tached hydroid. Jf our problem was to determine the relationship of Hydrichthys from a study of the medusa alone, we could easily conclude that it is a near relative of Sarsia. Such a conclusion is, I believe, one which can be easily defended. When, however, we come to compare the hydroid of Sarsia and the hydroid of Hydrichthys, we find the greatest differences between the two. These differences are so important that they have affected the whole structure; for a comparison of the two reveals the effect of the peculiar mode of life in Hydrichthys. The typical structure, or schema, of the tubularian hydroid, as Coryne, is a slender axis which may be naked or encased in a chitinous tube, an enlarge- ment at the free end, and a terminal mouth opening. This mouth Opening or the walls of the enlargement bear tentacles in rows irregular or otherwise. Somewhere among these tentacles, or else- where on the stem, arise buds which may or may not develop into meduse. The widest variations from such a schematic type might be noticed among hydroids. Our purpose here is to compare Hy- drichthys with the so-called schema. | In the case of the gonosome of Hydrichthys I suppose that the stem of the schema remains, that the terminal mouth opening is present, but that the enlargement of the axis has disappeared. From the sides of the axis arise lateral branches as in some hy- droids and the medusa buds have been crowded to the distal ends of these branches. Tentacles have disappeared on account of the parasitic nature of the life of the hydroid. It is from this fact that we find in Hydrichthys the schema of the ordinary tubularian hydroid reduced to a simple sexual body or gonosome. In the homology of the ‘‘filiform bodies” of Hydrichthys the reduction, as compared with the schema of a hydroid, has gone still further on account of the parasitic life, and nething remains but a simple axis without appendages of any kind. If I am right in this homology of the two kinds of individuals in the Hydrichthys colony, it would seem as if there ought to be a meaning for their simple structure as compared with the typical hy- droid. The relation of the medusa to that of Sarsia-like genera would imply degeneration, not phylogenetic simplicity. Cannot we find in parasitism a cause for such a degradation? Is the conclusion legitimate that these great differences between Hydrichthys and the fixed hydroid closely related to it are the re- Fewkes.] 394 [Nov. 2, sult of its peculiar mode of life? Ibelieve itis. I believe that the modification in the hydroid Hydrichthys, the loss of tentacles, the polymorphism, and the increase in prominence of the sexual bodies, are exactly what we should expect to find a priori if a deg- radation had taken place in its structure. There is one other point to which I wish to call the attention of the Society before closing my communication. The existence of a polymorphism, such as we find in Hydrichthys, is exceptional among fixed hydroids of the tubularian group. Something similar exists in Hydractinia and Perigonimus and one or two other genera, but this kind of polymorphism is not common among fixed Hydro- medusee. A similar polymorphism exists, however, in Velella, a floating hydroid well known to all naturalists. In Velella we have the basal plate with anastomosing tubes of Hydrichthys mod- ified into a complicated float. ‘The gonosomes are the same in both genera, the filiform bodies of Hydrichthys are represented by the single central polyp, so-called, in Velella. The medusz of the two closely resemble each other. There are only two kinds of in- dividuals in both genera. Strangely enough, after I had reasoned out this likeness between Velella and Hydrichthys, on morphological grounds, my memory went back to a strange story I had once heard from an Italian fisherman of the origin of Velella from the common mackerel. This story or a similar one long ago found its way into the books. According to Marcel de Serres, the Mediterranean fishermen sup- pose that Velella originates as a bud from the head of the mackerel, and Pagenstecker goes on to explain this error, after quoting its source, from the fact that young Velelle are often found in the nets with the fishes, and it is easy to suppose, as their color is similar, that one budded from the other. While we accept without ques- tion this explanation and the want of foundation of the fisher- men’s yarns, it is a strange coincidence that a possible relative of Velella should be found attached to the body of a fish. It is well for us to enquire, in the light of phylogeny, whether Velella, if it has not itself originated from hydroids on the fish by budding, has not been directly derived from one which is so intimately related to Hydrichthys, which is attached to the body of a fish, that an unskilled observer might be easily deceived. . Hydrichthys is, in point of fact, the nearest known ally of Velella among fixed hydroids, and their morphological likenesses have 1887.] 395 [Fewkes. already been pointed out. It would be premature to suppose, how- ever, that Velella has derived its peculiar anatomy from its descent from a form like the parasitic Hydrichthys, rather than that Hy- drichthys is a parasitic descendant of Velella ; while the acceptance of the last mentioned theory would lead us to regard fixed hydroids like Coryne as likewise descendants of parasitic forms with which they have few resemblances. Indeed, we know next to nothing of the egg and early growth of either Hydrichthys or Velella. We have at all events found in Hydrichthys a near ally of Velella as far as the hydroid is concerned, whatever may be the story told by the early history of both. | There is also another point long since known to those familiar with the literature of the Hydromeduse, which is beautifully illus- trated by Hydrichthys. Several naturalists have mentioned or called attention to the resemblance of the meduse of hydroids of very different form. We may have meduse so nearly related as to be placed in the same genus, but their hydroids would otherwise be placed in different genera. In Hydrichthys we have an illus- tration of this principle. The medusa is similar to Sarsia, but there is only a remote likeness between the attached hydroid Hy- drichthys, and Coryne the hydroid of Sarsia. Ifa special student of the hydroids was called upon to identify the parasitic hydroid, he would consider its zodlogical distance from Coryne very consid- erable, but a study of the medusa would lead him to a somewhat different opinion of its zodlogical position. Do these facts of a difference in the form of the hydroids of allied medusa-form gonophores, or vice versa, as sometimes hap- pens, the diversity of medusze derived from similar hydroids, mean anything morphologically? The question is an interesting one and admits of several interpretations which, however, it is not my purpose to consider this evening. There is one thing which has a bearing on the subject, which I wish in closing to say in this connection, viz.: the true affinities of the majority of genera of cum- panularian or tubularian hydroids, or of Leptomeduse and An- thomeduse derived from the same, cannot be definitely made out until both hydroid and medusa are studied together. Papers were also read by Dr. W. G. Farlow on the conception of species in cryptogamic botany; and by Prof. Wm. M. Davis on the physical history of the Somerville slates. Hyatt.] 396 [Nov. 16, GENERAL Meetine, Nov. 16, 1887. Prof. W. H. Niuszs in the chair. The following paper was read : VALUES IN CLASSIFICATION OF THE STAGES OF GROWTH AND DECLINE, WITH PROPOSITIONS FOR A NEW NOMENCLATURE. BY ALPHEUS HYATT. In accord with views brought to the notice of the society in 1884, under the title of the ‘* Larval Theory of the Origin of Tissue,”! an abstract of which was subsequently printed in Amer. Journ. Sci., May 31, 1886, we divide the animal kingdom into three com- prehensive divisions: (1) Protozoa, unicellular animals, which propagate by means of asexual (autotemnic) fission and by spores, and build up colonies, but always remain typically unicellular. (2) Mesozoa, multicellular colonies, but composed of only one layer of cells, so closely connected, that they may be called a prim- itive tissue, and having more or less spherical forms.2. They prop- agate by means of ova, spermatozoa, and by autotemnic fission,? and have an aula or common cavity, but no specialized digestive cavity or archenteron. (3) Metrazoa, complexes of multicellular colonies, in which growth by sexual union, and resulting fission of the ovum, forms three primitive tissue layers and builds up a body in which an archenteron is always developed. ‘They propa- gate always by means of ova and spermatozoa, autotemnic fission occurring only, if at all, during the earliest stages of the ovum. Holoblastic ova may be regarded as the more primitive or gener- alized forms to which all other forms of ova having more or less 1Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Xx1IT, 1884, p. 45. 2See Butschli’s remark that the closely appressed hexagonal cells of the envelope are connected with each other by threads of protoplasm. SBronn. Thierreichs, I, Protoz., p. 775. 3 The best summary of all observations is in the work just quoted, where Biitschli calls the sexual cells ova and spermatophora, but alludes to the cells developing by au- totemnic fission as Parthenogonidia. They are by his own descriptions and those of others, ova, which differ from sexualized ova only in their ability to develop through autotemnic fission. 1887. ] 397 [Hyatt. specialized and concentrated modes of development may be re- ferred as derivatives. The stages of holoblastic ova may be ina general way classified as follows, to accord with that given above for the Animal Kingdom: (1) The ovum or Monoplast (Lankester) ; (2) the first stage of segmentation, which normally results in the production of two cells in the same plane originated by vertical fission, the Mono- placula; (3) the second stage of segmentation in which two lay- ers arise, the Diploplacula. The first two stages alone seem to have parallel or representative adult forms among Protozoa. The differentiation into esoteric (primitive ectoblast) and enteric (prim- itive endoblast) cells takes place in the Diploplacula, and the mor- phological equivalent of this stage of the ovum, having an upper layer of differentiated feeding cells, has not yet been found among the adults of the Protozoa; though, if this is correct, such a dis- covery may be reasonably anticipated. We have proposed to clas- sify these stages under the name of Protembryo. (4) The Blastula is in aspect and general characteristics the morphological equivalent of the adults of the genera Volvox and Eudorina, the types of the Mesozoa or Blastrea. The latter are animals in which growth remained permanently arrested at the single-layered, spherical stage in the evolution of tissue-building forms. We have proposed to classify these stages under the name of Mesembryo. . (5) The Gastrula can be compared, as has been done by Haeckel, with the lower Porifera (Ascones), but these have three layers like the lowest Hydrozoa, in which a three-layered gastrula-like stage has been permanently preserved.4 ‘The proper name for these stages would therefore be Metembryo, in allusion to the fact that the ovum at this stage is probably essentially a Metazoon. (6) The first and simpler planula stages, though often character- istic of the larger divisions of the Animal Kingdom, would not, if arrested at this period, be recognized as belonging to the same 4The true two-layered Gastrea type of Haeckel has, therefore, not been discoyered. Doubtless, some such animals bridging the gap in the line of graded modifications be- tween three-layered Ascones and single-layered Volvox will yet make their appear- ance, but we cannot consider any of the animals heretofore described as filling this gap to be entitled to such a position. They have all proved to be either three-layered, or else to belong to the true Mesozoa or Protozoa. See also for remarks on the prey- alence of the three layers even in the gastrula, Metschnikoff, ‘‘ Ueber gastrula einiger Metazoen” Zeitsch. Wiss. Zool., XXXVII, 1882, p. 305. Hyatt.] 398 [Nov. 16, groups as their existing adults. They do not possess, as a rule, the essential diagnostic characters of the larger divisions to which they belong, and we propose to call them Neoembryos. Examples: the Cinctoplanula is not a sponge, the Planula of the Coelenterata is not a Celenterate, nor the Pluteus an Echinoderm, nor the Tro- chosphere a Mollusk, nor the Pilidium a Nemertean worm, nor the earliest planula-like ciliated stages of Amphioxus a Vertebrate. Neoembryos are, as pointed out by Semper,° Lankester® and Bal- four’, so similar, that they may be considered as indicating a com- mon ancestor for the entire Animal Kingdom. (7) The latest of the more specialized planula-like stages are either directly transformed into, or else give rise to other forms in which the characters of the larger subdivisions or types of the An- imal Kingdom begin to appear, at least so far as essential charac- ters are concerned. Examples: the Ascula and Ampullinula are true sponges, the Actinula is a Hydrozoon, the Gulinula is an Ac- tinozoon, the Veliger is a Mollusk, the internal worm-like form arising in Pilidium is a true Nemertean, the formation of the no- tochord in Amphioxus makes the planula-like embryo into a ver- tebrate animal. ‘They have the essential characters of the larger subdivisions, though it is equally true, that embryos in this stage of development are very remote, in some cases, from the adults of any normal forms. We do not, therefore, misinterpret these relations by naming the embryo in these last stages the Typem- bryo.8 This term can be applied to the Nauplius of Crustacea, and the Echinula’ of Echinodermata, as well as to those above noted. 5 Semper, Stammsver. Wirbel. und Wirbellos., Arbeit. Zoolog. Zootom. Inst., I, p.59,and 1, p. 384. This distinguished author states in Volume II, that his *‘ Tro- chosphaera” is identical with the ‘‘ ungegliderte Urnierenthier,” which in his first table in Volume II, appeared as the common ancestor of the higher animals, 7. é., of all animals except Echinodermata and Coelenterata. 6 Lankester traced the Mollusca, Annelida, Rotifera and Echinodermata to what he calls the Architroch, a common form taken from somewhat earlier stages of the Planula than those selected by Semper for his Trochosphaera, Embryol. and Classif., Journ. Micros. Sci., XVII, 1877, p. 423. 7 Balfour, Comp. Embryol., 11, p. 311. 8 From "Tvmos, type and*EuBvov, embryo. ® Alexander Agassiz, Address, Am. Ass. Adv. Sci., XXIV, 1880, p. 410, shows that there is a stage of the embryo common to all orders of living Echinodermata. This stage, however, was not named in the address above quoted, which was intended as preliminary to an illustrated essay on the same subject, and Mr. Agassiz has supplied that omission in the following note, which I quote from a letter to me. ‘I intended sometime when revising my ‘Address on Palaeontological and Embryological Devel- opment,’ to call the earliest common stage of echinoderm embryos, ‘ Echinula’ for convenience in making comparisons.—A., Agassiz.” 1887.] 399 [Hyatt. Typembryos serve to connect the earlier stages of the Neoem- bryos with the true larval stages which succeed the former. Bal- four and other embryologists have used the term ‘ larva” for free neoembryos and typembryos. ‘This term should be confined to the designation of stages of growth which are immediately con- tinuous with later stages and parallel, or referable in their origin to the adults of allied existing or fossil forms, which are not so remote as those from which the embryonic stages were derived. The application of such principles to the study of the younger stages of fossil Cephalopoda is productive of what seems to be satisfactory results. ‘The protoconch of Owen is, according to this nomenclature, the shell of the univalve veliger of the Cephalous Mollusca, and a true typembryo which, though eminently charac- teristic of that group, has no exact morphological equivalent among adults of normal forms whether recent or fossil. The protoconch in fossil Nautiloidea is represented by a withered- looking lump sticking to the apex of the conch in a very few ex- ceptionally perfect specimens. ‘The very general absence of this lump and the presence of a scar left by its removal on the apex of the conch, and the wrinkled, shrunken aspect of the lump when preserved, indicate the protoconch to have had a horny texture in this order. ‘This typembryo shell must have existed among Nau- tiloids with an almost unchanged aspect from the earliest Cambrian (Lower Silurian) horizon until the present day, and its adult equiv- alent probably existed before its appearance in Cephalopoda or in the equally ancient and allied group of the Pteropoda, which also had similar protoconchs. The true larval, or as they are here named, Silphologic!® stages, began with the formation of what Owen has appropriately called the apex of the conch or true shell. Among Nautiloids this was a sbort living chamber occupied by the body of the animal, but having no siphon or septum. It was completed by the deposition of the apical plate, which sealed up the aperture of the protoconch thus closing the opening and cutting off communication between the two interiors. This stage can, therefore, be named the Asiphonula or siphonless larva. The apex of its conch was rounded, being built out in con- centric circles from the contracted aperture of the protoconch, "10 3iAdbn, a grub. Hyatt.] . 400 [Nov. 16; probably before this was plugged up by the deposition of the apical plate. The Asiphonula was not a Cephalopod, since it had no central siphon, nor even a septum, It may have resembled more or less closely the adults of some of the ancient Pteropoda. Von Jhering has thought, that the characteristics of the early stages of Ammonoids justified a comparison between them and forms of Pteropoda having similar Protoconchs. ‘This was our own posi- tion also, but we now see, that the Asiphonula was not necessarily a wholly pteropod-like animal. It may have retained many of the veliger’s characteristics, and may have more or less resembled a generalized type to which a Scaphopod is the nearest living ap- proximation. Prof. W. K. Brooks’!! opinion, that the Scaphopods are such a generalized type and that the veliger has characters which can be compared with those of the adult of Dentalium ought at any rate to be considered here. It is not at all improbable, that the Pteropoda may never have © served as radicals for the Nautiloids or Ammonoids, but the latter may have sprung directly from the ancient Scaphopoda. The cicatrix naturally suggests comparison with the posterior opening in the shell of Dentalium, but if our view is the true one, and it represents the aperture of a protoconch, no such comparison can be made. The development of the conch in Dentalium is, ac- cording to Lacaze Duthier’s researches, directly continuous with that of the protoconch, and the posterior opening is the result of the peculiar mode of growth of a primitive plate of shell which isnever closed up. The shell, in other words, is a periconch grow- ing around the body in the veliger and finally coalescing to form a tube open at both ends. The second larval stage in Nautiloidea was composed of a liv- ing chamber closed apically and completed by a single septum, which had a ceecal prolongation reaching across the first air cham- ber and resting upon the inner side of the scar. It is proposed to call this stage the Ceecosiphonula, since it is undoubtedly the primitive stage of that organ. The cecosiphonula may indicate the former existence of an ancestral form having a central axis com- posed of similar closed funnels or cecal pouches.!? The third silphologic stage in Nautiloids was completed by a sep- 11 Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Aff. Moll. and Molluscoid., xvitI, 1876. 12 See also similar remarks by Whitfield, Bull. Amer. Mus. New York, No. 1, and Embryol. Ceph. by the author, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., lI, No. 5, p. 100. 1887.] 401 [Hyatt. tum (the second in the apical part of the shell) having an open funnel extending apically and joined to a loose textured siphonal wall which reached down into and lined the czecum, thus forming a secondary closed tube. In accordance with the structure this has been named the Macrosiphonula. The protoconch was present in Ammonoids and also in Belem- noids, but in both of these orders it was calcareous. The tendency to form a calcareous shell, which first appeared in the apex of the conch of the asiphonula in Nautiloids, became by concentration of development inherited earlier in the Ammonoids and Belemnoids in the veliger stage, thus transforming what would otherwise have been a horny shell into a calcareous one. The protoconch was, however, not otherwise changed in external aspect and retained the usual egg-like shape of the univalve veligers of the Cephalophora. As in the protoconchs of other similar veligers of Gasteropoda, etc., and as a result of calcification, the protoconch became fused with the apex of the conch more intimately than in Nautiloids. In other words the asiphonula, after transmitting a portion of its characteristics to the typembryos of the Ammonoids and Belem- noids, disappeared, having been replaced by the cecosiphonula. The septum of the czecosiphonula was consequently also inherited earlier, and became a functional substitute of the apical plate serv- ing to close the aperture of the protoconch, and its cecum ex- tended into the upper part of the otherwise empty protoconch, in place of occupying the first air chamber as in Nautiloids. This is a remarkable example of the law of concentration, but by no means exceptional. The fourth larval stage of the Nautiloids was com- pleted by the building of the third septum. This septum had a long funnel and attached porous wall, but the wall formed a true siphonal tube opening apically into the next section, the macrosi- phon. This was the beginning of the small siphon and can be ap- propriately termed the Microsiphonula. The microsiphonula was the typical stage of nearly all the known genera of Nautiloids, beginning with the Orthoceratites of the Cambrian and found at the present time in Nautilus, and also in all Ammonoids and Bel- emnoids without exception. Fortunately the genesis of both macrosiphonula and microsi- phonula can be traced in the adult forms and silphologic stages of some well-known fossils. Crytocerina had a siphon which was PROCEEDINGS B. 8. N. He VOL. XXIII. 26 MARCH, 1887. Hyatt.] 402 [Nov. 16, macrosiphonulate probably even in the adult stage, since it in- creases in diameter throughout life. Piloceras had a huge siphon hardly at all contracted in the adults of some species, but consid- erably lessened in diameter during the same stage in others. En- doceras had also a large siphon always more or less contracted in the silphologic or later stages. The uncontracted macrosiphon- ula occupied in this genus a number of air chambers varying ac- cording to the species, from a few to six or more. This was evidently due to the earlier inheritance or concentration of the ten- dency to decrease the diameter of the siphon first manifested in the adults of Piloceras. Sannionites was a genus in which the siphon was smaller than in Endoceras, and probably, though this is not yet ascertained, inherited the tendency to microsiphonu- lation at the first septum at an earlier age than in Endoceras. None of these forms, however, attained a true microsiphon, since even Sannionites had the siphon filled by endocones and in the centre an endosiphon. These organs entirely disappeared in true microsi- phonulate forms and, in fact, could have existed only within a large siphon. Nevertheless this tendency to decrease the size of the siphon re- sulted in the formation of a definite constriction. This constric- tion was inherited at earlier and earlier stages after its origin in the siphon of Piloceras, until it became constant perhaps in Sanni- onites and certainly in the Orthoceratids. The constriction marked the line between the larger and smaller siphon in the macrosiphonulate forms, and, in becoming constant through con- centration, it became invariably fixed behind the first septum, be- tween the ceecosiphonula, and the smaller siphon. This smaller siphon though still a macrosiphon in structure as explained above, even in Sannionites, was undoubtedly transitional to the inhi mi- crosiphons of the Orthoceratide. The ceecosiphonula was in all Orthoceratites, which are other- wise similar to Endoceras, confined by concentration of develop- ment to the first air chamber, and a true microsiphonula appeared at an early stage as an open narrow tube. Thiswas similar to the siphon of the vast majority of all succeeding forms of both Nau- tiloids and Ammonoids. According to the classification here advocated, the stages preceding the microsiphonula, viz.: the asiphonula, czecosiphonula and macrosiphonula, became silpho- logic stages in all the groups of Cephalopoda descending from the 1887.] 403 [Hyatt. radical Endoceratidz. Microsiphonulation became silphologic in the Orthoceratida, and the smooth shell which they evolved was subsequently inherited among Nautiloids, Ammonoids and Belem- noids during the younger stages in all the species of these orders. Other forms, with depressed and involved whorls, were introduced in the main stock of radicals among Goniatitinge, and were modifications of the smooth cylinder of the simpler Orthoceratide with its microsiphon. These in turn became the proximal radi- cals of derivative groups. Thus the Anarcestes!® among Goniati- tinge became the radicals of the Ammonoidea, and the smooth silphologic stages of all Ammonoids after the expiration of the Devonian were like the adults of these lowest forms of Goniati- tine. This later acquired silphologic stage has therefore been styled the Goniatitinula. It has also been found that, in tracing the descent of forms 0e in smaller groups, sub-orders, families, and genera, it is practi- cable, as in the case of the family of Endoceratidee, to prove that characteristics usually appear first in adult stages and are then inherited at earlier and earlier stages in successive species of the same stock, whether they occur on the same horizon, or in differ- ent horizons. The adolescent or Nealogic!4 stages are of as great importance for tracing the genealogy of small groups as are the silphologic characters in larger groups. ‘Thus one can speak in definite terms of the relations of the nealogic stages, and their meaning, and importance in tracing the genealogy of families and genera, without danger of confusing them with the characters of any of the silphologic stages. : After the silphologic and nealogic stages have been disposed of there still remains the adult period, which is equally important in genealogical investigations, since it enables the observer to study the origin of many characters, which afterwards become silphologic and nealogic in descendent forms. It is not uncommonly assumed, that adaptive characters ap- pearing in embryos and larve are apt to be transient and have but little effect on the subsequent history of the early stages in the same group; also, that such characters have appeared just as readily in the larve as in adults. Up to the present time this has 18 Gen. Ceph. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., XXII, 1880, p. 305. 14 NeaAjs, youthfulness. Hyatt.] 404 [Nov. 16, not been found to be true among fossil Cephalopoda, and there exist, so far as known to the author, but few characteristics prob- ably originating in the early stages. The constant recurrence of hereditary characteristics in silphologic and nealogic stages which originated in adults, like those given above for the Endoceratide, makes the probability of the assumption, that the asiphonula and veliger represent the adult stages of lost types, so highly probable, that the burden of proof must rest upon the opponents of this ar- gument. Each case of the origin of characters in embryos and larvee should in other words be regarded with distrust until proven. The appearance of the incomplete modes of segmentation in ex- isting Sepioidea may possibly be a case of origination in embryo. There are no adult forms known to the author, which store up food in their tissues in such a manner that they can be used to explain the origin of the specialized food yolk. Nevertheless special inquiry might have very unexpected results. The case above given of the calcareous nature of the protoconch, and all the other characters of this stage in the Ammonoids and Belemnoids, seemed to have originated in embryo until it was found that a dis- tinct silphologic stage, the asiphonula, existed in Nautiloids, and that this indicated the former existence of an asiphonulate ancestor having a calcareous shell. } Some of the characters of the goniatitinula, such as the deep ventral saddle of the first septum in the angustisellate yeung, as described by Branco, doubtless originated in the younger stages. These are, however, correlative with the anarcestian form of this stage and with a general tendency to closer involution, which acted the same way in every series of forms, whether we select series of adults or of embryos for comparison. The use of a distinct term for the adult period becomes necessary not only on this account, and to separate its relations from those of preceding periods, but also because of the constant recurrence and importance of representative forms. ‘The term Ephebology! | has accordingly been adopted for the designation of the relations of the adult stages, and under this term can be classified also the rep- resentation of similar forms in different groups or morphological equivalents. These are often so exact that it becomes very diffi- 15”EdnBos, the age of puberty. 1887.] 405 [Hyatt. cult to separate them. They have been and will continue to be the most difficult and misleading obstacles to the student of gene- alogy and classification. In former essays we have described and defined the senile transformations and their correlations with the degraded forms of the same groups. The nature of these relations is, as has been explained, quite distinct from those of the progressive and adult stages, but the correlations are nevertheless equally important for the classification and tracing of genealogies during the declining period of a group, and in the case of degraded and aberrant forms. We have, therefore, for some years past designated these relations by the term Geratology.!° This nomenclature is similar to that adopted by Haeckel, but is, when properly considered, also supplementary and based upon morphological rather than physiological grounds. This eminent author regarded the ontogeny of an individual to be divisible into three periods: first, the stages of Anaplasis or those of progressive evolution; second, the stages of fulfilled growth and develop- ment, Metaplasis; third, those of decline, Cataplasis. He also appreciated and gave full weight to the general physiological cor- relations which are traceable between the history of a group and the life of an individual, and, in accordance with these ideas, des- ignated the progressive periods of expansion in the phylogenetic history of a group as the Epacme, the period of greatest expan- sion in number and variety of species and forms as the Acme, and the period of decline in numbers of species, etc., as the Paracme. Haeckel used also the term Anaplastology for the physiologi- cal relations of the stages of progressive growth and those of the epacme of groups, Metaplastology for those of the adult and the acme of groups, and Cataplastology for those of the senile stages and the paracme of groups. These terms seem to cover the same ground as those we have employed, but they were in reality chosen for the purpose of classifying physiological relations. Thus the anaplastic relations of the embryologic, silphologic and nealogic stages to the phenomena occurring in the epacme of groups, and the metaplastic relations of the ephebolic stages to the phenomena occurring at the acme of groups, and the cataplastic relations of the geratologic stages to the phenomena occurring during the par- 16 Tépas, old age. Hyatt.) 406 [Nov. 16, acme of groups, are the functional relations of one class of mor- phological modifications to those of another class and do not properly include the morphological phenomena themselves or their structural correlations. The necessity for a double set of terms may possibly not be at first admitted by many zoologists on account of their too exclusive devotion to the morphological side of their studies, but a very slight experience in trying to express the serial correlations of morphological and physiological phenomena will very soon show them the convenience of such a nomenclature. Geologists have al- ready arrived at this conclusion with regard to the classification of strata in the earth’s crust and have begun to use two parallel series of terms one giving the nomenclature of the relations in time, era, period, age, etc., and the other the faunal relations under the headings of group, system, stage, and so on.!” The time has come for recognizing a similar parallelism between structural or statical phenomena of organisms and their dynamical or physi- ological relations in time, and it is necessary to separate these clearly by different series of terms in order to see not only how they are separable, but also their correlations. We have been more or less constantly observing and publishing on the geratologic stages among fossil Cephalopoda for more than twenty years and have repeatedly described the more or less exact comparisons, which can be made between the different stages of decline in the individual and the degraded forms occurring in the same group. There were two stages in the old age period among Ammonoids : the first of these can be designated as the Clinologic!® stage. This immediately succeeded the ephebolic period, and during its continuance the nealogic and ephebolic characteristics underwent retrogression. Ornaments, spines, and sutures degenerated and lost their angularity, the ribs or pilee, and often the keel and chan- nels, when the latter were present, became less prominent, and before this stage closed the whorl! itself sometimes decreased, show- ing that degeneration in the growth force of the animal had taken place. Similar phenomena can be easily observed in other de- partments of the animal kingdom, notably in man, whose habits tend to preserve life until he has attained extreme age. During 17G. K. Gilbert, Address, Am. Ass. Adv. Sci., 1887. 18 KAivw, to incline downwards. 1887.] : 407 [Hyatt. this period there is a steady loss of the differential characters ac- quired during the stages of progressive growth and there is a tendency to resume the proportions and aspect of the earlier nealogic stages. In man, baldness of the head, loss of teeth and resorption of the alveoli, loss of the calves, rotund stomach, and the return of early mental peculiarities, are phenomena of similar im- port. The last changes in the ontology of the animal may be termed the Nostologic stage,!9 and during this stage these tendencies reached their highest expression. Among Ammonoids the orna- ments were all lost by resorption, the whorl became almost as round and smooth as it was in the silphologic stage, and in ex- treme cases it was separated from the next whorl, leaving a per- ceptible gap. This almost complete reversion to the aspect of the silphologic stage can of course only occur in animals which attain an extreme age. The correlations of Clinology are exact, and indicate the changes which may be expected to occur in the same group whenever de- graded or aberrant species can be traced in a more or less con- tinuous series of graded modifications starting with any given normal form. Many such series have been traced, and these are recognized now by all paleontologists as genetically connected. They began with normal, close coiled, ornamented shells, the de- scendants were smaller, showing a tendency to be less involved by growth, to lose their ornaments, and simplify the outlines of the sutures, though they had coiled young stages similar to those of the normal forms from which they must have originated. The correlations of Nostology can only be artificially separated from those of Clinology, but there existed one class of forms which can be compared only with the nostologic stage. These are the degenerate straight baculites-like shells, which belong to several distinct genetic series and should often be widely separated on that account. ‘Their resemblances are undoubtedly close, but they are due to degeneration and, therefore, simply homoplastic. Nat- uralists sooner or later will begin to recognize that degeneration may produce close representation in forms having distinct origins. The Baculites is a smooth, straight, cylindrical though slightly compressed shell, which has so completely reverted that it resem- bles an Orthoceras, though it is an unquestionable Ammonoid of the Jura and Cretaceous. 19 Nooros, a return. Shaler.] 408 [Dec. 7, *, S. H. Scudder gave an account of the means adopted by the Ms flies of the genus Basilarchia for the perpetuation of the spe- cies. GENERAL Meetine, Dec. 7, 1887. Vice-President, Dr. G. L. Goopa.s, in the chair. Prof. N. S. Shaler read the following paper: ORIGIN OF THE DIVISIONS BETWEEN THE LAYERS OF STRATIFIED ROCKS. BY N.S. SHALER. (Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geol. Survey.) Ir is a well-known fact that the greater part of our stratified rocks are divided into distinct layers or beds of varying thick- ness and generally of somewhat diverse composition. I am not aware, however, that the origin of these divisions has ever been made a subject of extended inquiry. The very generality of the phenomena has served to hide its importance. Toa great extent our geologists have accepted the existence of stratified planes as something inherent in the nature of sedimentary deposits. Where they have sought an explanation of their existence, they have gen- erally found it in presumed geographic changes though they rarely have been able to indicate the character of the change which has led to the institution of the divisions between the beds. As apreparation for the study of the alterations which have oc- curred in the coast line of North America I have found it necessary to consider the effect of geographic change in producing altera- tions in the character of sedimentary deposits. It was obviously necessary to consider the evidence afforded by the successive layers of our sedimentary formations and to determine how far they could be taken as evidence of geographic change. Although these con- siderations are but a fragment of a considerable inquiry, they seem to me to have a sufficient importance to justify their presentation apart from the matter with which they will finally be associated. The only part of this subject connected with stratification which 1887.] 409 [Shaler. has been made the matter of study is that which concerns cycles of deposition. Dr. Newberry and others have given us some very interesting studies on this point. I shall endeavor, however, to show in the sequel that, while these cycles of deposition afford phe- nomena of very great interest and are particularly valuable to those who are endeavoring to unravel the ancient geography of this continent, they constitute’ but a small part of the problem which we have to consider. Divisional planes in rocks which have a bedded nature are clearly separable into two categories. First, those which are due to a change in the operation of forces which bring detrital materials to the point where deposition takes place. Secondly, to the opera- tion of forces which in any way serve to make the deposition of this material irregular through the operation of conditions com- ing into action at the point where the deposition takes place. I propose to consider these causes separately, taking first those which are due to an alteration in the circumstances of carriage, by which the sediments were brought to the place where they were built into strata. The most familiar examples of change in this class occur in sandstones: the best illustrations are found in the or- dinary cross-bedded rocks of this nature. In such cases it is easy to see that modifications in the run of currents may be due either to geographic changes of the neighboring shore lines or to altera- tions in the depth of the water in which the deposits have been made. Where the deposits have been brought to their site alto- gether by tidal currents the changes may be due to geographical changes at points very remote from the seat of the deposits in question. Thus in the case of the Mediterranean we have at present processes of deposition going on along the shores in which tidal currents have but slight influence for the reason that the tides in that basin are generally of trifling amount and with few exceptions give rise to but feeble currents. If it should happen that the tides of the Indian Ocean or those of the Atlantic were by geographic change freely admitted to this basin we should have a sudden change in the character of the sedimentary deposits formed along the coast lines it may be a thousand miles away from the point where the change itself occurred. So, too, geographical modifications may profoundly alter the height of the tide in any particular basin. Thus if the barrier which separates the Bay of Fundy from the Gulf of St. Law- rence should be lowered so as to afford a free passage to the Shaler.] 410 [Dec. 7, tidal waves in that region, the result would be the great and imme- diate diminution in the run of the tides in that section. At the close of the last glacial period, during the time when the land re- mained depressed much below its present level, it seems certain that this passage was wide open and there are reasons to believe that the energy of the tides in the Bay of Fundy was much less considerable than at the present time, as is shown by the fact that the amount of cross-bedding exhibited in the stratified gravels at heights greater than that of the land which separates these two areas of water indicates a smaller amount of tidal action than is indicated by the strata now forming along thé shore. The change in the regimen of tidal currents is propagated to great distances from the point where the cause of the change oc- curs. Thus if Cape Cod should be cut through by the action of the tides, the effect in the run of the currents along the shore would be felt for many scores of miles in the direction in which the tide moves. In this way we may account for very many alterations in the direction of the bedding in our sandstones which have been due to the action of tides. Changes in the level of the sea floor on which sediments are deposited naturally induce profound differences in the character of the beds which are formed upon it. ‘This re- sult is brought about in either of two ways. In the first place, by bringing the point in question nearer to or removing it farther from the shores, the character of the sediments derived from the land is much altered. In the second place, the changes in the depth of water are apt to lead to a modification in the character of the or- ganic life which enters into the formation of the deposits and thus produce a considerable modification in the nature of the sediments. As before remarked, several students have noted the fact that many cycles of change in rocks are to be explained by these alterations in the depth of the sea floor and consequently in the remoteness of the land. In general the process of subsidence is marked by a diminution in the amount of material derived from the land and a de- crease in the average size of the grains which compose it. Where the alternation of level brings a deep-sea area to the condition of shallow water or the reverse, the range of variation brought about by the change of conditions is often very great and is shown not only in the character of the sediments themselves but in the nature of the organic fossils embedded in them. : Well-known instances of a wide swing in the conditions of organic 1887.] 411 [Shaler. life are afforded in our paleozoic sections. The most conspicuous of these is that which gives us the alternations between the Medina sandstone and the millstone grit. During the period of the Medina sandstone a large part of the region east of the Mississippi River was in the condition of a shallow sea. After it came a time of considerable depression in which the seas probably became several times as deep as they were in the Medina period. In the time of the Oriskany sandstone a good deal of the area was returned to the condition of shallow water. Then a profound subsidence oc- curred bringing a large portion of the area of the Appalachian dis- trict into the condition of deep sea during which the deposits of the Devonian black shale or Ohio shale were formed. After a long period in which this subsidence endured elevation the rocks again became more and more composed of coarse sediments until finally in the period of the millstone grit a large portion of the area be- came dry land or shallow sea. Every important step in these changes is distinctly marked by profound alterations in the char- acter of the sediments. We thus see that changes of elevation and the consequent variations of geographical relations may produce many important alternations of strata. There can be no question that geological science owes much to those who have developed the principle of cycle in sediments. At the same time geologists must recognize the fact that very important variations in the character of sedi- mentary deposits are not explicable in this way. Thus, if we come to the central portions of the Mississippi valley, we find a great succession of limestones composed of beds varying from a frac- tion of an inch to a number of feet in thickness each of which is separated from contiguous beds by a thin partition of clay. Ex- amining any of these beds in detail we find that it extends hori- zontally for a distance of miles in every direction with more or less considerable variations in thickness. It is noticeable, how- ever, that the variation in the depth of the clay parting is gener- ally inconsiderable, usually indeed so slight as to escape detection. There is reason to believe that some of these clay partings, not over an inch in thickness, extend over many thousand square miles of area. It is manifestly unreasonable to suppose that these divisions can be explained on the theory of change in level. They evidently need to be accounted for in other ways. The very fact that they are so extensive and invariable shows clearly that Shaler.] 412 [Dee. 7, they cannot be due to alterations in the nature of the sediments brought to the bottom by changes in the movement of tidal or ether oceanic currents. If we examine a typical section of stratified rocks, we per- ceive that beside the alteration in the physical character of the deposit is in most cases an important coincident change in its fossil contents. Inthe greater number of cases these clay partings are destitute of fossils. If they contain organic remains they are generally, in part, at least, of other species than those in the lime- stones which lie above and below. In many cases it can be ob- served that the limy matter slowly reappears in the layer above the clay, though in most cases it suddenly disappears in the layer below. It may thus often be noted that the upper part of a layer of a limestone abounds in well preserved fossils which project slightly from its surface, while the lower layer of the overlying limestone stratum exhibits no such distinct fossils. Those which it contains are more or less commingled with the clay matter. At first sight the clay element of the partition between adjacent beds of limestone appears like a new material introduced into the section, but if we proceed to dissolve in dilute acid the lime from the layers of limestone, we find at the end of the process a resid- uum which is essentially like that composing the clay partitions. It is evident that the whole section is composed of a continu- ously formed deposit of clayey matter in which the lime element occasionally attains such prominence that the clay is hidden from ordinary observation. ‘The clay is the steadfast element in the deposit; the lime laid down by the organic forms, the invariable element therein. If the above conclusions are correct, then it is necessary for us to account for the sudden variations in the organic life on the sea floor which has led to the changes in the proportion of the limy element of the sediments. It is evident that this variation in the organic element of the rocks can best be explained by some cause or causes which may have led to the sudden death of the organic species, and, after a time, during which they did not contribute their remains to the strata, a tolerably swift reintroduction of the forms. As before noted, the lower portion of each bed commonly exhibits a somewhat gradual transition from the condition of clay to that of limestone, indicating a gradual passage from one state of the bottom to the other, while the upper part of the layer shows 1887.] 413 [Shaler. a sudden interruption in the organic life. The phenomena, as ex- hibited in the sections, would be exactly explained by any causes competent to destroy by one stroke the life over a wide field of sea. On such destructions taking place, the clay element would continue to be deposited though free from any admixture of lime. When, after a time, organic species found their way back to the field and gradually repossessed it, the limy element would be reintro- duced into the strata. Postponing for the time our consideration as to the source of this clay element, we will proceed to consider the causes competent to bring about the sudden destruction of ani- mals which lived on the sea floor over a wide field of that area. We know as yet little of the causes which are competent to pro- duce sudden destruction of organic life on the seafloor. We may, however, by a careful consideration of the known facts logically arrive at certain conclusions which appear to me to be impor- tant. In the first place we perceive that these destructions which bring about the termination upwardly of a limestone layer come suddenly over a wide field and that they affect a great number of the species living on the floor. We may, therefore, assume that this death is caused not by any disease affecting the creatures, but by some external physical accident. It seems to me that such an accident is explained by earthquake shocks. In the first place it is manifest that earthquake shocks affect the sea floor with some- thing like the frequency and intensity of those which operate on the land. This is shown by the waves in the sea water which are produced by such commotions. The amplitude of the wave itself clearly indicates that the range of movement in the disturbance is often as great as is ever observed on the surface of the land. At their origin the waves which have repeatedly swept in upon the coast of South America cannot have an altitude of less than three feet and at times the movement may have amounted to as much as five feet. Within the limits of human history we have known of some scores of these accidents affecting the different portions of the ocean basins. They do not appear to occur in the North Atlantic, but the greater part of the shores of the other great water areas have felt their impulse. The effect of a movement on the sea floor having an amplitude of a foot or more would probably be disastrous to the greater part of the organisms which inhabit the bottom. The rate of vibra- tion of the water and the subjacent earth would be diverse. The Shaler.] APA [Dec. 7, result would necessarily be that friction would occur between the floor and the overlying water. This would tend to stir up the in- coherent material on the bottom of the sea and to make the water unsuitable for the use of organic life. Itis a well-known fact that the greater portion of our marine animals are singularly intoler- ant of muddy water, even if the quantity of dissolved mud be rel- atively inconsiderable. The forms which normally live on mud bottoms are to a great extent provided with contrivances which en- able them to meet such accidents by peduncles or stems which lift their bodies some distance above the floor, by siphons, or by shells which may be closed during the period when they are subjected to risks of this sort. In the deeper seas, these provisions do not generally exist and the animals dwelling on the bottom are, there- fore, very likely to be overwhelmed by such catastrophes. I am, therefore, inclined to believe that the sudden terminations in the organic contents of our layers, in stratified rocks formed on floors in the deeper seas are to be in the main accounted for by the ac- tion of earthquakes in stirring the mud. Some portion of the de- structive influence may be exercised through the direct effect of the shock itself. It is a well-known fact that an earthquake shock is competent to destroy our fishes. The effect of jar on the inverte- brate animals has never been investigated, but it seems not im- probable that they too may be destroyed by such accidents. In the case of fishes the destruction effected by earthquake shocks is often extremely extensive, as has been noted by various observers. Several bone-beds, composed of fish remains which occur at vari- ous points in the geological section, may, perhaps, be explained in this manner. It is difficult, indeed, in any other way to ac- count for such a deposit of bones as that which occurs in the Rhaetic deposits of Europe, where over an area of several hun- dred thousand square miles we find a bone-bed at a particular level which appears to indicate a widespread and simultaneous destruc- tion of these forms. It is very desirable that we should secure a series of experi- ments designed to determine the effect of explosive shocks on in- vertebrated animals, but it is not necessary for our purpose, for the reason, that the muddying of the water which would inevita- bly result from a powerful shock will be quite sufficient to ac- count for the destruction of organic forms which we seek to ex- plain. Nearly every part of the sea bettom has considerable amount 1887.] 415 [Shaler. of incoherent material which will be shaken into the water by an earthquake disturbance. Even where: there is no other source of sediment than the organic remains themselves, the bottom is cov- ered with a sheet of ooze. By far the greater part of the organic remains, deposited on the sea floor, fall into the condition of mud or are brought into that state by the action of creatures, such as our boring worms, which obtain their subsistence from the hard parts of various dead creatures. A very slight annual contribution of such material maintains a considerable depth of incoherent mat- ter which is only gradually converted into deposits of such solid- ity as will resist the action of an earthquake shock and not be shaken up into the water. Observations on our crinoidal limestones serve to confirm the foregoing hypothesis. It is well known that where strata are mainly composed of the remains of crinoids the beds are usually very much thicker than those which are formed of mollusks. ‘The rea- son for this is plain. Thecrinoidal species are in most cases sup- ported on flexible stems of considerable height. In many cases the sea floor, particularly in the sub-carboniferous period, appears to have been covered by vast groves or thickets of these animals, the stems standing almost as close as those of wheat upon a field. When subjected to an earthquake shock it is not likely that these creatures would be seriously damaged. Their elastic stems would in a measure protect them from the direct blow and as their mouths were elevated several feet above the plane of the bottom, it is not likely that the invasion of mud would have any considerable influ- ence upon them. At various points we may observe where ap- parently an invasion of mud has somewhat affected the various lowly forms of life which dwelt upon the bottom in the spaces be- tween the crinoid columns. Still the principal element of the sea floor life, the crinoids themselves, have maintained their existence and prevented the formation of a layer of pure clay where otherwise such deposits would have been made. Again where the limestone deposit is made by the remains of floating animals, and is dropped to the bottom as is probably the case with a part, at least, of our chalk deposits and also with the deposit now forming on what has been termed the telegraphic pla-. teau of the North Atlantic, the accumulation is not arrested by any disturbance affecting the sea floor. It thus may come about that very massive limestone strata are slowly deposited. Shaler.] 416 [Dec. 7, Where a series of limestones, originally in the bedded form, has been extensively metamorphosed, the process of change often brings about a consolidation of the whole mass. The clay is infiltered with lime to such an extent that the beds of it appear only as dis- colored portions of the whole section and not as distinct partitions. It is not to be denied that there are other possible actions which may serve to produce partitions in the rocks, but the one above suggested seems to be the most likely cause which is known to us to be of an efficient nature. In our ordinary limestones of paleozoic age the average number of successive limy layers and shales may be counted as about four to each foot in depth or in such a succession as the Trenton limestone which may be called fifteen hundred feet in thickness there may be as many as six thousand of these divisions. It seems not unreasonable to suppose that in a period which continued as long as the Trenton this number of earthquake shocks may have affected an average sea bottom. Moreover this hypothesis will account for the interesting though little observed fact that the number of these divisions in a given thickness of strata varies greatly in different portions of the world. ‘Thus we may find in one region the divisions of the strata amounting to as many as six to the foot, while in another region a thousand miles away the divisions may not exceed one to the foot of depth. From all we know of earthquake action we may fairly presume that the la- bility to shocks in particular regions has varied greatly and thus a variation in number of the partition planes would be brought about. It may. indeed be the fact that in certain regions a geo- logical period may go by without any shocks of decided violence on the sea floor. Thus in the North Atlantic there seems to be in the present period a notable exemption from submarine disturb- ances of a seismic nature. Some recent studies which I have made on the kame deposits along our American shore clearly in- dicate that no inundating waves such as are produced by earth- quakes have rolled upon the coast of New England since the shore assumed its present level. "We cannot well estimate the continu- ance of the present level along that shore at less than ten thous- and years ; it probably exceeds twice that period, as is shown by the amount of cutting done by the sea along the rocks which are now exposed to wave action. For this great period of time the delicate kames which extend down to within twenty feet of high- 1887.] Aatad [Shaler. tide mark have been exempt from such invasions of swiftly moving water as have been impelied against the west coast of South Amer- ica several times within the present century. This hypothesis furthermore affords us an explanation of one of the most puzzling features in the history of sedimentary forma- tions. It is a fact well known to geologists that in almost all the great formations there exist considerable sections of shales or de- posits of clayey materials which are destitute of organic matter, al- though the beds above and below them contain an abundance of fossils. It seems not improbable that the frequent occurrence of earthquake shocks may serve to prevent the establishment of or- ganic life on certain portions of the sea floor and so leave work of sedimentation altogether to the gradual down-showering of the inorganic sediments which the sea is constantly depositing on its. floor. The destruction accomplished by an earthquake shock is likely to extend over a very large area. In the greater of these disturb- ances the field of a whole ocean such as the Atlantic may possibly be involved. In lesser shocks the surface affected is likely te be several thousand square miles in area. The reéstablishment of or- ganic conditions on such a desolated sea floor could not be imme- diately effected. In the depths of the sea where the currents are inconsiderable such a reéstablishment of organic relations. might well require a period considerable even in a geological sense. We can often see evidence of this slowness of return on the part of ani- mals and of the difficulty with which the reestablishment is effected in the considerable thickness of the clay layer which intervenes between the limestones. There is hardly any doubt that the lime- stones of the Cincinnati series in the central portion of the Ohio. valley were deposited at a considerable distance from. shore lines. which could have furnished sediments, and yet we often find shales. a foot or more in thickness which were deposited between two layers of limestone. The time required for the accumulation of such a stratum in the thallassal seas is probably great ;. it certainly must be reckoned by thousands of years. ‘Therefore we may pre- sume that the impoverished condition of the life continued for a long time and that repeated shocks of great violence might retain a sea floor in the condition in which it could not be occupied by life even if the shocks came at intervals of several thousand years. It is evident that such a disturbing agent as would prevent the PROCEEDINGS B.S. N. H. VOL, XXIII. 2T APRIL, 1888, ‘Shaler.] 418 : | Dec. 7, possession of the sea floor by organic forms for a considerable pe- riod must have much effect upon the rate of deposition of sediment. In many of our limestone sections limy matter is more than nine- tenths of ‘the whole contents of the strata. Thus the arrest in the development of organic forms may reduce the rate of growth of deposits to one-tenth their original amount. In this manner through the recurrence of seismic accidents in particular areas for long continued periods we may have a slow deposition of strata on one portion of the sea floor while in other regions, exempt from such disturbances, accumulation may proceed with great rapidity. It seems likely that the movements of the earth’s surface are con- siderably affected by the rate of deposition upon the sea floor. In — some manner, as yet not well explained, rapid deposition appears often to be accompanied by a subsidence of the surface on which the deposit is formed while the neighboring land area may undergo a corresponding elevation. ‘Therefore a cause which interferes with or which fosters the development of organic life on the sea floor may have a considerable influence on the movements of the earth’s crust. It is also easy to see that the effect of such destructions on the history of organic species may be most important. Each time a re- gion is depopulated it becomes a free field for the life which is enabled to return to it. Wherever such a free field is afforded to organic species an opportunity is given for a readjustment of rela- tions between various forms and consequently for rapid diversifi- cation. In an old settled region, whether on sea floor or on the land, adjustments iave been accomplished which tend to limit va- riations. In the return of life to such a region an opportunity is given for readjustment which is never afforded without the access of cataclysms which laid the area open for resettlement. ‘Thus whether it be in reoccupying the field opened by the retreat of glaciers on the land or in repossessing an area over which life has been expelled on the sea floor, organisms find an admirable oppor- tunity to effect variations when they work their way back into the region whence they have been driven. It would be interesting to follow the considerations suggested in the last paragraph, but it would lead us away from our subject matter, the main point of which concerns the causes of the breaks in strata. We may sum up the propositions of this paper in the following manner. Geographic change, alterations in the level of the sea floor or in the position of shores in relation to areas of 1887. ] 419 [General Meeting, deposition account for certain important successions of deposits and in some cases may explain the interruptions in the continuity of beds. By far the larger portion of the intervals between the beds of stratified rocks, however, must be accounted for in another way. The most likely explanation of them appears to be that which is above suggested, viz.: the shocks produced in earthquake movements and the consequent disturbance of the mud on the sea floor. No other cause appears to be of, so general a nature as this. Though the poisoning action of volcanic gases may effect considerable destructions of marine life, it does not seem proba- _ ble that they can account for any considerable part of our strati- fication planes. To seismic movements it appears to me that we must look for the larger part of the horizontal divisions which characterize our sedimentary deposits. , Dr. T. Sterry Hunt and Prof. Hyatt discussed the subject. Dr. G. L. Goodale showed some glass models made by Blatschka of Dresden, illustrating the morphology of plants. Dr. Goodale also spoke of the discovery by Just of new respira- tory organs in certain plants. Dr. T. Sterry Hunt gave an account of his personal experience of the Sonora earthquake of last May. Professor Shaler stated that he had been investigating the ex- tent of earthquake action in New England since the Glacial period, and would be glad to receive information concerning the location of balanced rocks. GENERAL Meetine, Dec. 21, 1887. The President, Prof. F. W. Putnam, in the chair. The President called the meeting to order and addressed the members as follows: Members of the Society:—Ill health has prevented my being with you for the’ past two meetings, and J regret that on resuming this chair the sad duty again falls to me of announcing the loss of General Meeting.] 420 {Dec. 21, another of our corporate members, Cordelia Adelaide Studley, who died on the third of the present month, in her thirty-second year. Miss Studley was a woman of broad culture and of a remarkable mind, but possessed of such extreme sensitiveness that it was dif- ficult for her to meet the trials of the independent life she felt it her duty, from the highest and most honorable of motives, to follow. To these were added such true womanly attributes as to endear her to all who had the good fortune of claiming her personal friend- ship, while to those who knew her but slightly these lovely qualities were so marked as to make her a most attractive woman. With the firm belief that it is the duty of every woman to have some special purpose in life, she entered upon medical studies, first at the Boston University and afterwards at Ann Arbor, where she hoped to take her degree ; but she overtasked her strength and returned to Boston for medical treatment under one of our highest specialists. In October, 1881, she became a special student in the Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology at Cambridge, where her remarkable qualifications soon led to her appointment as an assistant, and until July, 1886, she there devoted herself to the special study of human osteology, with the hope of solving the great problem of the American races, so far as it could be solved by that study. In these investigations she made remarkable prog- ress and the paper upon the human remains from the caves in Coahuila, Mexico, printed in the 18th Report of the Museum, in 1884, placed her at once in the front rank of craniologists and in- dicates how important would have been her maturer studies in that direction. Unfortunately, pecuniary reasons led her to abandon these researches and accept another position where the duties proved to be beyond her strength. She resigned this place and while hopefully awaiting restored health in order, as she hoped, to become a teacher at Hampton, she was nervously prostrated and her lamentable death soon followed. So few women have taken an active part in scientific research in our community that it is meet for us to take particular notice of our gentle and gifted associate whose presence we shall so greatly miss at our gatherings. The records of the last meeting were read and approved. ‘The list of candidates for membership was read. eeige Fo | 1887.] 431 [Putnam. The President then, as a text for the discussion and papers for the evening, showed a collection of palzeolithic implements from America and Europe. The following is an abstract of his comments :— It falls to me to open the discussions which are to follow, by ealling your attention to the character of the objects known as pa- leolithic implements, or the weapons and tools of early man, which have been found under similar geological conditions in many por- tions of the world. For this purpose I have selected from the col- lections in the Peabody Museum of Archeology at Cambridge, a comparative series of specimens from both sides of the Atlantic. Of the specimens before you, those from France were received at the Museum in the famous Mortillet collection and are from the gravel of the valley of the Somme, at Abbeville, where palzeolithic implements were first discovered by M. Boucher de Perthes be- tween the years 1840 and 1847, and at St. Acheul, where Dr. Rigol- lot next found them in 1856. The single English specimen, brought in for comparison with American forms, was given to the Museum by Mr. John Evans of London, the author of the most thorough and important work ever written upon stone implements. . This rude implement he obtained from Milford Hill, between the Avon and the Bourne, where many palzolithic implements have been found in the gravel, and were first described by Dr. Blackmore in 1865. A large part of the American specimens on the table are from the gravels at Trenton, New Jersey, in the Delaware valley, where, in 1875, Dr. Abbott made the discovery of palzolithic implements in America. This place is of the same importance to American archeology that Abbeville is to European. The several quartz implements from Little Falls, Minnesota, were collected by Miss Babbitt, the discoverer of palzeolithic im- plements in the Upper Mississippi valley in 1879. The two specimens found in the gravels of the Little Miami val- ley in Ohio, by Dr. Metz, the discoverer of palzeolithic implements in Ohio, in 1885, are also on the table. Thus there is now spread before you a remarkable group of au- thentic specimens of these implements of early man. As they are passed about for examination, I will call your atten- tion to a few matters of particular interest in connection with the forms which they present and the rocks of which they are made. As you probably know, the large proportion of palzolithic imple- Putnam.] \ 4929 [Dec. 21 ments from France and England are made of nodules of flint, and that is the material of those before us from those countries. You will notice that while slight, if any, signs of use can be traced, they have a remarkable gloss over their chipped portions, which is analogous to the patina upon old bronze, and is an unquestionable sign of great age. Implements of the same character, but made of chert, quartzite, or other stones, have been found in the gravel deposits of England, and, I believe, on the continent also, but they are extremely rare. In this country the term ‘‘flints” is applied generally to chipped implements made of chert, jasper, chalcedony, obsidian, quartz and other stones, but it is remarkable that with four exceptions all the implements known from the Trenton gravels are made of argillite, and that those from Little Falls are, without exception, made of quartz. The exceptions from Trenton are two of quartz, one of quartzite and one made frem a black-chert pebble. The first specimen found in Ohio is made from a pebble of black chert and is not only identical with the New Jersey specimen as to mineral but nearly so as to size and shape, and character of the chipping. The other specimen from Ohio is made from a hard dark pebble which has not yet been identified. We have thus to compare implements made of several distinct minerals, which would from natural causes splinter and flake in different ways. Yet here before you, made of these several dif- ferent kinds of rocks, are implements identical in shape, often agreeing in size and in minute points of structure, from both sides of the Atlantic and from distant points in America. If there are any persons present who may doubt the artificial character of the specimens, I can only say open your eyes and be convinced. The rudest implement in the lot is the dark pebble found by Dr. Metz, twenty-five feet from the surface, in the gravel at Loveland, in the Little Miami valley, in 1886. That pieces or chips had been struck from this stone we must all admit, but that they were struck off by the hand of man we might well question had we not such a series as this now before us; where, with this rude specimen from the gravels of Ohio, we can make a close comparison with this one, of a different stone, from Le Moustier, an unquestionable im- plement of the early cave-men of France. A comparison of the two with this implement of argillite from Trenton (figure 418 of Dr. Abbott’s Primitive Industry) and with this one of flint from the gravels of Milford Hill in England, shows how, in each succes- 1887.] 433 [Putnam. sively, a few more chips have been struck from the stone until in this last, as rude as it is, there is none of the original surface of the flint remaining ; while in the first from Ohio, only a portion of the surface of the pebble has been chipped or broken away, some- what as in the specimen from St. Acheul represented by Mr. Evans on his plate m1, fig. 15. The two specimens to which I shall next call your attention were evidently designed as rude cutting implements to be held in the hand. They are remarkable for their close agreement in size and form, and outline of their slightly abraded cutting edges, yet one is of argillite from Trenton, and the other is of quartz from Little Falls. As remarkable instances of identity in form and material, and close agreement in size, of implements from distant places, are the two well chipped pebbles of black chert; one from the gravel of Ohio and the other from that of New Jersey. The latter is fig- ured in Dr. Abbott’s volume (Primitive Industry, fig. 423). These closely resemble the ovato-lanceolate implement of flint from St. Acheul, figured by Mr. Evans (plate 1, fig. 12). Of similar interest are the two small ovate implements of white quartz, one from Trenton and the other from Little Falls. These again have their representatives among the flint implements of Great Britain, both as to size and shape, as shown by Mr. Evans’ figure 452. The shoe-shaped implements (similar to fig. 429 of Mr. Evans’ volume), flat upon one surface, and high at one end and chipped to the ‘‘ toe” or point and over the front of the ‘‘ foot,” are found in Trenton chipped out of pieces of argillite. The specimen from Trenton, and the one of flint placed with it from St. Acheul, are interesting for their close resemblance in size and shape and uniformity of chipping. Of the irregular ovate implements, like those called by Dr. Ab- bott ‘‘ turtle backs ” (fig. 444 of Primitive Industry), there are be- fore you a specimen of argillite from Trenton (the original of Dr. Abbott’s figure), and one of the same size and shape, but of flint, from St. Acheul. These two specimens, although of different size, are interesting from the fact that while they each have heavy buts, the opposite end of each is chipped to a rounded cutting edge, and they are nearly identical in form. Of a similar form is the British implement represented by Mr. Evans in his figure 418. Abbott.] 494 [Dec. 21, I will close my comparison of these implements, although it could be carried much farther with the specimens in the Peabody Museum, by calling your attention to these two large pointed im- plements, one of flint from the gravel of the Somme valley at St. Acheul, and the other of argillite from the gravel of the Delaware valley at Trenton. This is a form of paleolithic implement which is common to the gravels of France and England and they are gen- erally of large size, like those before you. In both these speci- mens the original surface of the stone is left untouched at the large | end and forms a smooth rounded portion which is perfectly adapt- ed to be grasped and held by the hand. From this thick end the stone is regularly chipped on all sides until a long slender point is produced. In the several instances to which I have called your attention, you can but perceive that man in this early period of his existence had learned to fashion the best available material, be it flint, ar- gillite, quartz, chert or other rocks, into implements and weapons suitable to his requirements. You will also have noticed, during this comparison of the forms of the implements, that his require- ments were about the same on both sides of the Atlantic, when he was living under conditions of climate and environment which must have been very near alike on both continents, and when such ani- mals as the mammoth and the mastodon, with others now extinct, were his contemporaries. Was he of one race on the two continents? Has he left de- scendants or has he passed out of existence with the mammoth and the mastodon? ‘These are questions we hope may be answered in the near future. Papers were then read by Dr. Abbott, Professor Wright and Mr. Upham. ON THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN IN THE VALLEY OF THE DELAWARE. BY DR. CHARLES C. ABBOTT. Dr. AssoTtt began his remarks on the evidences of the Antiq- uity of Man in the Valley of the Delaware, and of his own more recent discoveries, by reading an abstract of a communication read, 1887.] 425 [ Abbott. November last, by W J McGee before the Anthropological Society of Washington. In this paper the author gives the results of his examination of the surface geology of the locality in question. He states that there are two deposits of gravel covering the pres- ent valley, which are very distinct in origin, age and general character. The older and more extensive one is composed of usu- ally small quartzite pebbles, or of fine quartzite sand, the latter frequently colored a deep reddish-brown from the abundant pres- ence of oxide of iron. ‘This deposit has been designated by Dr. Cook as the ‘southern drift,” and-by Professor Lewis as the ‘‘vellow gravel.” Mr. McGee has proposed the name of ‘‘Colum- bian gravel.” Overlying this, for a limited area, so that it forms the bed of the stream and lines its banks for some distance, both above and below tide-water limits, is another deposit of gravel, wholly different from the preceding, or ‘‘Columbian,” in that it consists of pebbles and large boulders, with some sand. This is now well known as the Trenton gravel, being called so from the fact that its greatest deposit is at the site of the city of that name. It is an accumulation derived by water and ice-action from the terminal moraine of the second or last glacial period— the result of the floods that occurred during the melting and re- cession of the ice-sheet. At this time the region was so far de- pressed as to permit the tide to reach northward quite to the terminal moraine, some sixty miles beyond the present tide limit. This later deposit, then, is the most recent distinctly traceable phenomenon of the last glacial epoch. It is in this accumulation of redistributed morainic material that the rudely chipped implements are found; and Mr. McGee points out that the conditions of the country, bounding the sub- merged area, were in all respects favorable for man’s occupancy at that time. Since the last occasion upon which the discoveries of rude or pa- leeolithic implements from the Trenton gravel were announced to this society (1883), the various exposed sections of the deposit have been carefully examined by Dr. Abbott and several specimens of much interest have been obtained; and with these were two fragments of human crania, found at different, and both at very significant depths. No further evidence, it would now seem, was required to prove the occurrence of man on the Atlantic seaboard Abbott.] 496 [Dec. 21, of North America in strictly glacial times, and yet many objec- tions are still urged against this view. One of these is that the so-called ‘‘implements” are too rude and indefinite in design to have been available for all of even primitive man’s few wants, and yet nothing more elaborate of a different pat- tern is referred to the same age and origin. May not, it is asked, these ‘‘broken stones” be natural objects? The character of the fractures clearly proves that they are not. It is inconceivable that, in every case, the detached portions of a naturally broken stone should bear such relations to each other, that an effective cutting edge or penetrating point should result. As Mr. McGee has pointed out, there was a wide tract of habit- able land adjoining the area now covered by the Trenton gravels ; and certainly there is no inherent improbability in the suggestion that a proportion of the ruder forms of stone implements found up- on the surface of the Columbia gravel may not be properly referri- ble to the paleolithic folk rather than to the Indians that succeeded them. Itis clearly evident that the typical paleolithic implements were weapons used in hunting, and as such would be used about the river where the greater portion of the game would be. Hunting implements would be liable to be lost; while the simple domestic implements, mostly used by the women in the preparation of food and clothing, would seldom, if ever, be carried to tbe river. As at present, we find a large range of objects of Indian manufacture confined to spots that give not only by their presence, but by other evidence, proof that such localities were village sites; while arrowheads and spearpoints are distributed over the whole coun- try. So we find the single weapon of the older people in the gravels that once formed the river’s bed, and very sparingly else- where ; while equally rude objects—ordinarily classed as Indian relics —are sometimes found under conditions which strongly sug- gest that they were used by another and an earlier people ; in other words, are contemporaneous with the objects found buried in the gravel. There is unquestionably much to be done before every objection, that may fairly be urged, is met and answered; but the results so far obtained all point in the one direction, that of the existence of man in the Delaware Valley, when the ‘“Trenton gravels” were being deposited. 1887.] Lat | [Wright. ON THE AGE OF THE OHIO GRAVEL-BEDS. BY REV. G. FREDERICK WRIGHT. In November, 1880, I visited Trenton, New Jersey, in company with Professor Boyd Dawkins, Professor Henry W. Haynes, and Professor H. Carvill Lewis. Under the guidance of Dr. Abbott we visited all the sections of the Trenton gravel that were then exposed in fresh railroad cuttings and in embankments which had been recently undermined. Though not finding any paleolithic implements myself, several were found by Professors Haynes and Dawkins in piles of gravel where my inexperienced eye had only retained impressions of glaciated pebbles. One of the paleeoliths found at that time is exhibited this evening by Professor Haynes ; and both he and Professor Dawkins were satisfied that some of the implements they found must have lain in undisturbed deposits of the gravel, though they were actually found in the talus which had recently accumulated at the foot of the various cuttings of the bank. I have subsequently revisited the locality two or three times so as to increase my familiarity with the situation and char- acter of the gravel deposits. Shortly before our visit to Trenton the true glacial character of the gravel in which Dr. Abbott had found the palseolithic imple- ments had been pointed out by Professor Cook, of the New Jersey Geological Survey. (See his report for 1878, p. 22, and Clay Report, 1878, p. 17.) Itwas at this time, and with these facts before us, that Professor Lewis and myself laid the extensive plans for the exploration of the southern boundary of the glaciated region to which I have since given unremitting attention during the leisure afforded from my regular duties.! 1Petailed results of my own work may be found in the joint report of Professor Lewis and myself in 1884 upon the Terminal Moraine of Pennsylvania (constituting volume Z in the Reports of the Second Geological Survey) and in my report upon The Glacial Boundary in Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky (made to the Western Reserve Historical Society, Cleveland, Ohio, in 1884). My report upon the glacial boundary in Illinois, and of subsequent investigations in the Ohio valley, has not yet appeared, but will be published soon in a monograph on the whole subject prepared for the United States.Geological Survey. Some additional facts may also be found in my chapter on the Glacial Boundary in Ohio, in volume V, of the Ohio Geological Survey, pp. 750-772, and in articles in the American Journal of Science, vol. XXVI (July, 1882), in the Amer: ican Naturalist for August, 1884, in the Bibliotheca Sacra for April, 1884, and in the Ohio Archeological and Historical Quarterly for September and December, 1887; also in the report of the Meeting of this Society for Jan. 19, 1881 (vol. XXI, pp. 137-145); while a general discussion of the whole situation may be found in Chapter VI, of my volume entitled ‘‘Studies in Science and Religion.” Wright.] 428 [Dec. 21, The accompanying cut (Fig. 1) shows the relation of the palzo- lithic-bearing gravel at Trenton to the glacial period. The ice surmounted the Catskills, and extended down the valley of the Hi 1 fl ae nl Hl Fic. 1 (taken from Studies in Science and Religion). Shows, in addition to the glaci- ated area of New Jersey, the glacial terraces of gravel along the Lehigh and Delaware rivers, and also the delta-terrace at Trenton, from which Dr. C. C. Abbott has taken palzxolithic implements. Delaware River to Belvidere, a few miles above Easton. Here, as elsewhere, on all the streams which rise within the glaciated area 1887.] 499 (Wright. and flow southward, extensive terraces of what are now called overwash gravels line the valley on either side down to tide- ae p).o18 O18) 6” DPA DOO cioh pide ‘ i “eepeeccesces Os ’ ne Seee a, SS The broad black line shows the southern boundary of the glaciated area of Pennsylvania and its relation to the drainage systems of the region. FIG. 2. water, which is reached at Trenton. ‘These terraces in the upper part of the valley are from twenty to forty feet above the present high-water mark. The valley descends through the most of its Wright.] 430 [Dec. 21, course at the rate of two or three feet a mile, and is narrow. But at Trenton it suddenly enlarges, and comes down to the level of the tide. Here a wide and extensive delta-terrace is deposited, being about three miles in diameter. The surface of this delta- deposit is about fifty feet above tide and has a clearly defined mar- gin all around, being composed of material derived from the valley above, and such as characterizes the glacial terraces lining the valley up to and beyond the terminal moraine; in short, it is a deposit of the overwash gravels laid down during the periodical floods incident to the presence of glacial ice in the upper portions of the drainage basin of the river. Since my first visit to Trenton I have studied attentively all the streams situated like the Delaware with reference to the glaciated area between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mississippi River, and can state from personal observation, as partially recorded in the pub- lications referred to, that a common cause, which cannot be any- thing else than glacial floods operating while the ice remained over the headwaters of these streams, has been at work making gravel deposits similar to those described along the Delaware. The ac- companying cuts (see Figs. 2 and 3) show the relation of the various streams in Pennsylvania and Ohio to the continental ice-sheet while its front continued on the southern watershed of the conti- nent. Without exception, those southerly flowing streams, whose drainage area lies to any considerable extent within the glaciated regions, are lined by extensive terraces of the overwash gravel of the glacial period. On obtaining definite information as to these facts, I at once pointed out in my article in the American Journal of Science, vol. XXVI, pp. 7-14, as well as in my report to the Western Reserve Historical Society, pp. 26-27, and in the Ohio Archeological and Historical Quarterly, vol. 1, pp. 176-177, the importance of having local observers turn their attention to the discovery of paleeoliths at various points in Ohio, where the glacial conditions were similar to those in the valley of the Delaware at Trenton, N. J. The lan- guage in my report to the Western Historical Society (p.26) is as follows: ‘The gravel in which they [ Dr. Abbott’s implements | are found is glacial gravel deposited upon the banks of the Delaware when, during the last stages of the glacial period, the river was swollen with vast floods of water from the melting ice. Man was on this continent at that period when the climate and ice of Green- 1887.] 431 [Wright, land extended to the mouth of New York harbor. The probability is that if he was in New Jersey at that time he was also upon the banks of the Ohio, and the extensive terrace and gravel deposits in the southern part of our state should be closely scanned by ar- cheologists. When observers become familiar with the rude form of these paleolithic implements they will doubtless find them in abundance. But whether we find them or not in this state [Ohio], A je GD Winey. - Fig. 3. The dotted surface shows the Glaciated area of Ohio. Hamilton county, bounded on the east by the Little Miami River, where Dr. Metz has found Paleolithic implements, is indicated by the figure, 9. if you admit, as I am compelled to do, the genuineness of those found by Dr. Abbott, our investigations into the glacial phenomena of Ohio must have an important archeological significance, for they bear upon the question of the chronology of the glacial period, and so upon that of man’s appearance in New Jersey.” Wright.] 432 | [Dec. 21, The substance of these remarks had been previously made by me in a meeting of this Society for March 7, 1883, and reported in Science, vol. 1, pp. 269-271. Commenting upon this report, Dr. Abbott sent a communication to Science from which the following extracts are very significant and interesting as connected with our discussion this evening (see Science, vol. 1, p. 359) :— ‘‘In Science of April 138, p. 271, Professor Wright remarks that ‘no palzeolithic implements have as yet been found [in Ohio], but they may be confidently looked for.’ It has seemed to me possible, from my own studies of the remains of palseolithic man in the valley of the Delaware River, that traces of his presence may only be found in those river-valleys which lead directly to the Atlantic coast, and that palseolithic man was essentially a coast-ranger, and not a dweller in the interior of the continent. If we associate these early people with the seal and walrus rather than with the reindeer, and consider them essentially hunters of these amphibious mammals rather than of the latter, it is not incredible, I submit, that they did not wander so far inland as Ohio, nor even so far as the eastern slope of the Alleghanies; and we need not be sur- prised if palzeolithic implements, concerning which there can be no doubt whatever,—for recent Indians made and used stone imple- ments that are ‘paleolithic’ in character,—are not found in Ohio, nor even in Pennsylvania west of the valley of the Susquehanna River.” ‘On the other hand, if the relationship of paleeolithic man and the Eskimo is not problematical, and the latter is of American origin, then I submit that man was preglacial in America, was driven southward by the extension of the ice-sheet, and probably voluntarily retreated with it to more northern regions; and, if so, then in Ohio true paleeolithic implements will surely be found, and evidences of man’s preglacial age will ultimately be found in the once glaciated areas of our continent.” The expectation of finding evidence of preglacial man in Ohio has at length been met. At the meeting of this Society! for November 4, 1885, ‘‘Mr. Put- nam showed an implement chipped from a pebble of black flint, found by Dr. C. L. Metz in gravel, eight feet below the surface, in Madisonville, Ohio. ‘This rude implement is about the same size 1See Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. XXIII, p. 242. 1887.] 433 [Wright. and shape of one made of the same material, found by Dr. Abbott in the Trenton, N. J., gravel, and is of special interest as the first one known from the gravels of Ohio.” Professor Putnam’s an- nouncement, followed by a letter from Dr. Metz, saying that he had since found another implement in the gravel at Loveland, led me, on the 11th and 12th of November, to visit the localities and beady ee elie ree lt Uy Wy iS Fic. 4. Map of the eastern portion of Hamilton county, Ohio. The space covered by horizontal lines is occupied by preglacial valleys, filled to a height of 100 to200 feet above the Ohio River with modified drift. The unlined portion consists of the table- land from 200 to 500 feet above the river. see their relation to the glacial deposits of the region. The results I here detail. Madisonville is situated eleven miles northeast of Cincinnati, in a singular depression connecting the Little Miami River with Mill Creek, about five miles back from the Ohio (see Fig. 4). The Little PROCEEDINGS B. S. N. H. VOL. XXIII 28 APRIL, 1888. Wright.] 434 [Dec.21, Miami joins the Ohio some miles above Cincinnati, while Mill Creek joins it just below the city. The general height of the hillsin that vicinity above the river is from 400 to 500 feet. But the hills just north of Cincinnati are separated from the general elevation farther back by the depression referred to, in which Madisonville is situ- ‘ated. The depression is from one to two miles wide, and about five miles long, from one stream to the other, and is occupied by a de- posit of gravel, sand and loam, clearly enough belonging to the elacial-terrace epoch. The surface of this is generally level, and is about 200 feet above the low-water mark in the Ohio. On the east side, on the Little Miami River, at Red Bank, the gravel is rather coarse, ranging from one to three or four inches, interstrat- ified with sand, and underlain, near the river-level, with fine clay. There is here a thin covering of loess, or fine loam. On going westward this loess deposit increases in thickness, being at Madi- sonville, one mile west, about eight feet thick. Farther west it is much deeper, and seems to take the place of the gravel entirely. At several railroad cuttings, the compact glacial clay, technically called ‘‘till,” with scratched stones, appears underneath all. From this description it appears that this cross-valley, connect- ing Mill Creek with the Little Miami back of Avondale, Walnut Hills and the observatory, was once much deeper than now, and has been filled in with deposits made when immense glacial floods were pouring down these two streams from the north. The Little Miami was a very important line of glacial drainage, as is shown by the extensive gravel terraces all along its course, to which the railroads resort for ballast. The coarser material was deposited near the direct line of drainage, where the current was strong, while back from the river towards Madisonville, there is an increase of the fine deposit, or loess, which is practically a still-water forma- tion. In making an excavation for a cistern, Dr. Metz penetrated the loess just described eight feet before reaching the gravel, and there, just below the surface of the gravel, the implement referred to was found. There is no chance for it to have been covered by any slide, for the plain is extensive and level topped, and there had evidently been no previous disturbance of the gravel. Subsequently, in the spring of the present year (1887), Dr. Metz found another paleolith in an excavation in asimilar deposit in the 1887.] 435° [Wright, northeast corner of the county, on the Little Miami across from Loveland. The river makes something of an elbow here, open to the west. This space is occupied by a gravel terrace about fifty feet above the stream. The terrace is composed in places of very coarse material, resembling very much that of Trenton, N. J., where Dr. Abbott has foundimplements. The excavation is about one-quarter of a mile back from the river, near the residence of Judge Johnson. The section shows much coarser material near the surface than at the bottom. The material is largely of the lime- stones of the region, with perhaps ten per cent of granitic pebbles. The limestone pebbles are partially rounded, but are largely ob- long. Some of them are from one to three feet in length. These abound for the upper twenty feet of the section on the east side toward the river. One granitic boulder was about two feet in di- ameter. On the west side of the cut, away from the river, mastodon bones were found, a year or two ago, in a deposit of sand underly- ing the coarser gravel and pebbles. It was here, about thirty feet below the surface, that Dr. Metz found the palezolithic implement referred to. In the light of the exposition just given, these implements will at once be recognized as among the most important archeological discoveries yet made in America, ranking on a par with those of Dr. Abbott, at Trenton, N. J. They show that in Ohio, as well as on the Atlantic coast, man was an inhabitant before the close of the glacial period. We can henceforth speak with confidence of inter- glacial man in Ohio. It is facts like these which give archzologi- cal significance to the present fruitful inquiries concerning the date of the glacial epoch in North America. When the age of the mound builders of Ohio is reckoned by centuries, that of the glacial man who chipped these palzolithic implements must be reckoned by thousands of years. A word may properly be said with reference to the bearing of these facts upon the date of man’s appearance in America. In the first place, it should be observed that, to say man was here be- fore the close of the glacial period only fixes a minimum point as to his antiquity. How long he may have been here previous to that time must be determined by other considerations. Secondly, with our present knowledge of glacial phenomena, the date of the close of the glacial period is regarded as much more modern than it was a few years ago. Sir Charles Lyell’s estimate of 35,000 years as the age Upham.] ' 436 [Dec. 21, of the Niagara gorge, which is one of the best measures of post- glacial time which has yet been studied, is greatly reduced by what we now know of the rate at which erosion is proceeding at the falls. Ten thousand years.is now regarded as a liberal allowance for the age of that gorge. But, finally, the term ‘‘close of the glacial pe- riod” is itself a very indefinite expression. The glacial period was along time in closing. The erosion of the Niagara gorge began at a time long subsequent to the deposit of the gravel at Trenton and at Madisonville. Between those two events time enough must have elapsed for the ice-front to have receded a hundred miles or more, or all the distance from New York to Albany ; since only at that stage of retreat would the valley of the Mohawk have been freed from ice so as to allow the Niagara River to begin its work. The deposits at Trenton and Madisonville took place while the ice- sheet still lingered in the southern watershed of New York, Penn- sylvania and Ohio. THE RECESSION OF THE ICE-SHEET IN MINNESOTA IN ITS RELATION TO THE GRAVEL DEPOSITS | OVERLYING THE QUARTZ IMPLEMENTS FOUND BY MISS BABBITT AT LITTLE FALLS, MINN. BY WARREN UPHAM. How far back in geologic time can the existence of man be traced? Answers to this inquiry come from various parts of Europe and North America, bearing testimony of man’s great antiquity as measured by years, though recent in contrast with the long record of geology. The observations on this subject gathered in Great Britain, France, Germany and other countries of Europe, extend the human period with certainty back to the time when confluent ice-sheets covered Ireland, Scotland, and the northern borders of England, the whole of Scandinavia, northern Germany and north- western Russia. Within this Ice Age, the latest in the series of geologic ages preceding the present, are found evidences of man’s appearance in Europe. His rudely chipped stone implements occur there in caverns and in beds of fluvial gravel and sand high 1887.] 437 [Upham. above the present river-courses, associated with bones of the rein- deer and other Arctic animals, which the ice-fields had driven far southward of their present geographic limits. Both in Europe and _ America the great Ice Age appears to have comprised two princi- pal glacial epochs when severe cold and plentiful snowfall caused vast ice-sheets to be accumulated upon the land, separated by a warmer interglacial epoch when the ice retreated, or was perhaps wholly melted away. These early vestiges of man in Europe are therefore referable to the interglacial epoch and to the second time of glaciation. In the United States similar stone implements of early man are found near Trenton in New Jersey, in southern Ohio, and in cen- tral Minnesota, occurring in beds of gravel and sand, which are evidently modified drift derived from the receding ice-sheet of the last epoch of glaciation and deposited by the rivers that were pro- duced in its final melting. During the last great rise of the qua- ternary lake Lahontan, in western Nevada, referable to the same late part of the glacial period, man hunted on its shores and was provided with spearheads of chipped obsidian!. Relics of man are also described from various placer gravels of California, showing at least that he existed there contemporaneously with the foregoing, and probably even in a much earlier portion of the glacial period, near its beginning.? The purpose of this paper is to describe the geologic situation and relationship of the gravel and sand deposits at Little Falls, Minnesota, in which Miss Franc E. Babbitt, several years ago, found implements and fragments of chipped quartz. After noting the character of the stratum where these remains of man’s work occur, and of the underlying and overlying beds, their probable method of deposition will be indicated, and their place in the se- quence of events constituting the history of the Ice Age will be 1 See figure of implement in Monograph XI, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 247. Pages 261, 263 and 269-270 of this volume show that this spearhead was lost in the lake sediments, during the second epoch of glaciation, to which also the implements in New Jersey, Ohio and Minnesota, are referable. 2 The many occurrences of man’s implements, stone mortars, etc., in the placers of California, as stated in Professor Whitney’s report on the Auriferous Gravels, substan- tiate the history of the famous Calaveras skull, which is also there discussed. The great amount of erosion in California since the lava-flows indicates a very early time for that gravel of the old river-beds covered by lava. 3 Professor Le Conte says, ‘‘These Drift-gravels probably represent the beginning of the Glacial epoch, though Whitney thinks an earlier or Pliocene epoch.” Elements of Geology, revised edition, p. 555. Upham.] 438 [Dec. 21, shown. The recession of the ice-sheet of the last glacial epoch in Minnesota, to which this will direct our attention, seems to be clearly marked by as many as ten stages of halt or re-advance, in which distinct marginal moraines were accumulated, besides the moraine on the limits of its farthest extent. Six summers of geo- logic field-work in that state have been spent by the writer chiefly in the examination of its glacial and modified drift, of these mo- raines, and of the beaches-and deltas of the glacial lake Agas- siz, which was formed in the valley of the Red river of the north and of lake Winnipeg by the barrier of the departing ice-sheet. In their bearings upon this subject, my observation and study of that region convince me that the rude implements and fragments of quartz discovered at Little Falls were overspread by the glacial flood-plain of the Mississippi river, while most of the northern half of Minnesota was still covered by the ice, contemporaneously with its formation of the massive moraines of the Leaf hills and with the expansion of lake Agassiz on their west side, respectively 60 and 85 miles west of Little Falls. This was during the highest stage of lake Agassiz, and previous to its extension beyond the north line of Minnesota and Dakota. More than twenty lower beaches of this glacial lake have been traced, belonging to later stages in the recession of the ice-sheet, before it was melted so far as to reduce lake Agassiz to its present representative, lake Winnipeg. Estimated by comparison with the series of moraines and beaches formed during the glacial recession, the date of the gravel plain at Little Falls appears to be about midway between the time of maximum extent of the last ice-sheet and the time of its melting on the district across which the Nelson river flows to Hudson bay. The town of Little Falls is on the east bank of the Mississippi river, in Morrison county, near the geographic centre of Minne- sota. It is about a hundred miles northwest from Saint Paul and Minneapolis, and nearly an equal distance southeast from Itasca lake. The elevation of Itasca lake is about 1450 feet above the sea; of the Mississippi, at the head of the rapids, or Little Falls, from which the town derives its name, 1090 feet; and at the head of Saint Anthony’s Falls in Minneapolis, 796 feet. Following the general course of the river, without regarding its minor bends, its descent from lake Itasca by Little Falls to Minneapolis averages about two feet per mile, and is approximately uniform along the 1887.] 439 [Upham. entire distance. Considered in a broad view, this central part of the state may be described as a low plateau, elevated a few hun- dred feet above lake Superior on the east and the Red river valley on the west. In most portions it is only slightly undulating or rolling, but these smooth tracts alternate with belts of knolly and hilly drift, the recessional moraines of the ice-sheet, which com- monly rise 50 to 100 feet, and in the Leaf Hills 100 to 350 feet, above the adjoining country. ‘The bed-rocks are nearly every- where concealed by the drift-deposits, into which the streams have not eroded deep valleys, their work of this kind being mostly lim- ited to the removal of .part of their glacial flood-plains. ‘The up- per portions of the Mississippi and of its chief tributaries, and all the smaller streams throughout this region, flow in many places through lakes which they have not yet filled with silt nor drained by cutting down their outlets. At Little Falls the glacial flood- plain of the Mississippi is about three miles wide, reaching two miles east, and one mile west from the river. Jts elevation is 25 to 30 feet above the river at the head of the rapids, which have a descent of seven feet. The Mississippi here flows over an outcrop of Huronian slate, and the same formation is also exposed by the Little Elk river near its mouth, on the west side of the Mississippi three miles north of Little Falls. Veins of white quartz occur in the slate at both these localities, and were doubtless the source of that used by man here in the glacial period for the manufacture of his quartz implements. The locality and section of the modified drift, where these worked fragments of quartz were found by Miss Babbitt, and the account of their discovery, are best told in her own words from her paper read before the anthropological section of the American Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science at its Minneapolis meeting in 1883. I quote as follows: ‘*Rudely worked quartzes had previously been discovered here by the state geologist of Minnesota, Prof. N. H. Winchell, by whom they had been described and figured in the state geological report for 1877. The tind reported by Prof. Winchell consists of chipped objects of a class generally ascribed to what is called the rude stone age. Of these many appear to be mere refuse, while others are regarded as finished and unfinished implements. The Winchell specimens have been assigned, upon geological ground, to a prehistoric era antedating that of the mound- building races, and reaching back to a time when the drift material of the terrace-plain was just receiving its final superficial deposit. It is Upham. ] 440 [Dec. 21, found that, at intervals, the surface soil of the terrace contains these quartzes to a depth of, not unfrequently, three or four feet. “The lowest and newest formation at this place is the present flood-plain of the river. It is still in process of deposition, being yet subject to par- tial overflows at periods of exceptionally high water. In that portion of the town of Little Falls situated east of the Mississippi, this bottom- land is limited on the east by a high ancient river-terrace, which has here an average elevation of about 25 feet above the river. .... . This older terrace, like the present flood-plain, has been spread out by the immediate action of water. . . . . While occupied in examining the river bank at Little Falls in quest of wrought quartzes, one day dur- ing the season of 1879, I had occasion to ascend a slope lying between the new flood-plain and the older terrace, by a pathdeading through a sort of gap or notch in the latter (810 rods, very nearly, or almost one mile north of the east-west road by Vasaly’s hotel; 10 rods west of the road to Belle Prairie; and 38 rods from the river). . . . . It seemed that at some past period a cut had been effected here by drainage, and that the washout thus formed had afterward been deepened by being used now and then as a wagon track. In this notch I discovered the soil to be thickly strewn with pieces of sharp, opaque quartz. These were com- monly of a white color, and ranged in size from minute fragments to bits as large as a man’s hand, and in some instances even larger. There were many hundreds of these chips visible, scattered over an area the width of the wagon road, and ten or fifteen yards in length. They were con- spicuously unwaterworn, and likewise mostly unweathered, though occa- sionally a bit was picked up having some one of its surfaces weathered, while fractured or wrought faces, appearing upon other parts of it, looked as fresh as if the work of yesterday. On the other hand, the mass of stone rubbish upon and among which the quartzes were strewn is much waterworn, many of the pieces being well rounded, while none of them are wholly angular. ‘“‘By continued observations at this locality, I found that many of these quartz chips were brought to light at every succeeding freshet of the sea- son, being washed out of the sand by descending drainage. Their im- mense and continually increasing numbers seemed to warrant the belief that they had resulted from systematic operations of some sort, once con- ducted, for unknown purposes, upon this particular spot. A portion of the studied specimens subsequently yielded evidence of having received shape from human hands, and therefore it was.assumed provisionally that the site of exposure represented a prehistoric workshop. ‘‘Prolonged investigation ensued; and investigation established the hith- erto unsuspected fact that no quartz chips nor fragments were enclosed in the upper part of the gravel and sand terrace at the notch, nor within a considerable distance at either hand, though they were sought with careful scrutiny. . . . Ultimately it was ascertained that the notch quartzes had dropped to the level at which they were seen from a thin layer of them once lying from ten inches to two feet above it, and subse- 1887.] 441 [Upham, quently broken up through the wearing away of the sand underneath by drainage. This layer or stratum was still intact on the north and south and partially so on the east, in which direction it had, however, at certain points, suffered some displacement by wagoning. It extended in a nearly horizontal plane into the terrace, in the sloping edge of which the notch, opening into its west bank and truncated at its edge, is cut. The quartz-bearing layer averaged a few inches only in thickness, varying a little as the included pieces happened to be of smaller or larger size. The contents were commonly closely compacted, so much so that one might sometimes extract hundreds of fragments, many of them very small ones, of course, from an area of considerably less than a square yard. ‘¢The quartz bed, so far as examined, rested upon a few inches of sandy soil, which passed downward into a coarse waterworn gravel, immedi- ately overlying till. Above the quartz chips, stratified gravel and sand extended up to the surface of the terrace. The pebbles of the gravel lying directly on the quartz- bearing stratum were small and well rounded, and were noticeably less angular than those of the gravel below. The stratum of quartz chips lay at a level some twelve or fifteen feet lower than the plane of the terrace-top. ‘* These observations show that the quartz chips were spread originally upon an ancient surface that has been since covered deeply by the modi- fied drift which forms the terrace. It will be remembered that the quartz chips and implements discovered by Prof. Winchell in this vicinity are con- tained in the upper stratum of the terrace-plain; but the notch quartzes do not occur at the terrace-top, and cannot have been derived from it, but are confined strictly to a single stratum of the lower gravels closely overlying the till. Hence the two sets of objects cannot be synchronous, though they may have been produced by the same race at different stages of its existence. The notch quartzes must, of course, be older than those described by Prof. Winchell, by at least the lapse of time required for the deposition of the twelve or fifteen feet of modified drift forming the up- per part of the terrace-plain, above the quartz-bearing stratum.” This description by Miss Babbitt shows that these implements and fragments of chipped quartz occurred in a well defined thin layer in the modified drift forming the glacial flood-plain of the Mississippi river, as shown in the section which I have drawn (see the following figure). I have examined the terraces and plains of this valley drift from St. Paul and Minneapolis to Brainerd, some twenty-five miles north of Little Falls, and find them similar in ma- terial and origin with the modified drift terraces in the valleys of the Merrimac, Connecticut and other rivers in New England. These water-courses extending southward from the region that was covered by the ice-sheet became the avenues of drainage from it during its retreat. 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Vice President, Grorce L. Goopats, in the chair. Professor Goodale read for the author, the following obituary. SKETCH OF THE LIFE AND SERVICES TO SCIENCE OF PROF. SPENCER F. BAIRD. BY ALPHEUS HYATT. Ir would not be possible for me to have complied with the re- quest of the President of this Society to prepare a short notice of a life so full of solid results as that of Professor Baird, or to have written anything approximating to what I considered to be really due to his memory, if I had not been assisted by several obituary notices, and by the admirable biographical sketch and complete bibliography of all his works published by Prof. G. Brown Goode during his lifetime. He was born at Reading, Pennsylvania, in 1823, and graduated at Dickinson College in 1840, at the early age of seventeen. He studied medicine for a time, but never practised. His natural his- tory studies were begun in earnest soon after he had left college and were thenceforth the principal occupation of his existence. He became an active and zealous student of plants and animals and acquired, by his unwearying efforts during these early years, not only a large collection and great familiarity with characters and habits of organisms, but a store of health and strength, which en- abled him to stand the strain of the intense intellectual labors of his mature life. His first paper was published in 1843 ; in 1845 he was appointed Professor of Natural History in Dickinson college, and in 1848 re- ceived from Professor Henry the first grant made by the Smithso- nian Institution in aid of scientific exploration and field research. This was given to assist him in the exploration of the bone caves and local natural history of southeastern Pennsylvania. In 1850 he was appointed, by Professor Henry, assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and entered upon those public duties, which led to greater results, so far as the material foundations of science in this country are concerned, than have been so far actually accom- plished by any other man. 1888.] | 559 (Hyatt. The life of investigation hegun with such energy was not discon- tinued when he entered upon the harassing and absorbing duties of his public post. These duties would have entirely filled the time of a man less endowed with physical power and less gifted with the divine thirst for knowledge drawn from the untrodden fields of orig- inal research. The list of his publications, prepared by Professor Goode, shows unremitting devotion to systematic zoology until the year 1869, a period of nineteen years. He was placed by Professor Henry in charge of the organization and superintendence of the Smithsonian department of exchanges, and built up and developed that vast system of communication be- tween scientific societies and individuals, which has been and is now one of the most effective instruments of scientific progress ever devised. He was also placed by Professor Henry in charge of the department of Scientific Exploration which taxed to the utmost all his powers as a man of science and a manager of men, and must have occupied a large proportion of his time. In the performance of these duties it was essential not only to select suitable persons to accompany surveys and do the work in the field, but to persuade the leaders of expeditions that such persons were essential, and then to secure favorable legislation from congressmen. He also had charge of the natural history collections of the Smithsonian, which had been started by the deposit of his own col- lections, and which daily grew under his fostering care, and by ac- cessions flowing in from the various government explorations. His official occupations would have been ample excuse for not taking part in making known the results of explorations, but this was not his own view of duty. It is not, in our opinion, his least service to science, that he has set before future generations the example of a man, who not only carried on the duties of several bureaus faithfully, but, for nineteen years of this time, steadily pursued his investigations, and actually published works, which have made his name an essential part of the history of original re- search in North America. His publications upon vertebrata are standard books and will probably remain such for many years to come. They have gained from such men as Stejneger, Allen and Ridgway the most unquali- fied praise for method and accuracy. Stejneger goes so far as to say, that Baird’s methods really began and established an era in the history of vertebrate zoology in North America, and that he Hyatt.] 560 | April 18, led in respect to systematic work both in this country and in Eu- rope, founding, what he has called, the Bairdian school of syste- matists. When he entered the vortex of national life at Washington the minds of leading men were filled with plans for making the vast western possessions of the United States available for settlement. Exploration and the publication of the resources of the different parts of the country and the building of railroads were the obvi- ous means for the attainment of-this object. Professor Baird had the penetration to see that the opportunity of science lay in estab- lishing a claim to usefulness in connection with these efforts for the enlargement of the nation. It was in large measure due to his delicate management and untiring zeal, that collectors were em- ployed upon every expedition sent out by the government, whether to the west or to foreign countries. After the return of these ex- peditions the publication of the results was urged and secured, and at last it came to be recognized, that researches in geology, palee- ontology, botany and zoology and their publication were necessary adjuncts of a complete exploration or survey. To these expeditions, and to his unwearying sympathy, constant helpfulness and advice, we can trace the education of an army of collectors and scientific men who have since done noble service for science. He gave his influence and the benefit of his greater ex- perience to the men who founded the different geological surveys, and was thus more or less intimately connected with their early history. In 1879 Congress was induced to recognize the need of collecting and publishing descriptions of the aboriginal monuments and re- mains of the United States, and made the first annual appropria- tion of $20,000 for that purpose. This grant was given directly to the Smithsonian, and Professor Baird, who was then Secretary, appointed Major Powell to be director of the new department. Thus the Ethnological Bureau was founded and its first four re- ports by Major Powell, volumes of hundreds of pages, pro illustrated, have already appeared. After his appointment to the Smithsonian, that institution began to support a Museum, and his collections and those gathered under his superintendence were all it possessed until 1857, when the re- gents finally agreed to receive the collections of the Wilkes’ expe- dition then stored in the patent office. Congress granted a small 1888.] 561 ; [Hyatt, sum for their maintenance, $4000 a year, until 1870, and then, after | having been continually solicited by Henry and Baird, they at last eranted the sum of $20,000 per annum. It was not, however, until 1876, that Congress really recognized the Mational Museum by making an annual appropriation for its support, and in 1879 Con- gress was induced to grant $250,000 for the erection of a separate building for its use. This was the most important step in the his- tory of the Museum and was the direct result of the Smithsonian Exhibit at the Centennial Fair. The main argument for the erec- tion of this building, and that which was used with greatest effect in procuring the necessary appropriation, was the obvious need of preserving and displaying the enormous collections accumulated mainly through Professor Baird’s management in Philadelphia. Though established by Congress in connection with the collec- tions of the Wilkes’ expedition under the title of the National Col- lection of Curiosities, the National Museum had had no life, and no existence as a Museum, until taken into the much larger collec- tions of the Smithsonian. This institution had supported collec- tions for seven years; and, after the reception of the Wilkes’ ex- pedition collections it still continued, for thirteen years more, to supplement the inadequate annual appropriations made by Con- gress. ‘Thus the existence of the National Museum was preserved for twenty years at the expense of the Smithsonian. The credit of founding the National Museum must, therefore, be accorded to Baird, and to the institution of which he was an officer. This statement of events indicates a long term of struggles with harassing difficulties and arduous labors, which can never be re- corded. ‘There was, as there always is in front of all great efforts, abundance of criticism and opposition of a more or less reasonable or unreasonable kind from scientific men, which had to be met and overcome. ‘Though possessing the sympathy of a few congressmen the mass of legislators were at first indifferent or inimical, and be- hind them lay a sovereign population disposed to applaud opposi- tion to the expenditure of money for the support of the apparently useless aims of science. The resources of the Smithsonian were employed unremittingly in every way to overcome these difficulties, and Henry and Baird virtually kept school for the nation. They distributed scientific documents and what we might call scientific tracts, and constantly worked for the education of Congress and the people, until the PROCEEDINGS B. S. N. H. VOL. XXIII. 36 JANUARY, 1889. Hyatt.] 562 [April 18, name of the Smithsonian penetrated into every corner of our vast territory, and won respect for its agents and objects, and finally became intimately associated with our national reputation both at home and in foreign lands. The United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries, which has attained such a high reputation for its efficiency as an economical and scientific undertaking, stands in the same category with the ‘National Museum, and owed its origin, character and success to Professor Baird. As an illustration of the motives which influ- enced him, the author of this sketch has treasured the memory of an interview at Wood’s Holl, in which he expressed himself with- out reserve as devoted to the scientific side of the Commission, to © the encouragement of researches upon the marine flora and fauna, and to the laboratory work of the Woods Holl station. It must be remembered, that he never derived any benefit from this posi- tion, getting neither increase of salary nor opportunities to follow out researches of his own. Additional labor in the bureau was his share and this at a time, when he was, as is well known to many persons, carrying on by the aid of his helpful daughter the scien- tific editorship of the Harpers’ Brothers’ periodicals, and of their ‘¢ Annual Record of Science and Industry” in order to add to his income. In connection with the Commission, and by means of its vessels and laboratories, many of our ablest naturalists have carried on in- vestigations upon the marine flora and fauna along the whole coast of New England, collecting and describing the animals and plants until they have become fairly well known. With regard to the economic triumphs and results, we cannot do better than to quote the closing words of Dall’s interesting address at the Baird Memo- rial meeting held in Washington, Jan. 11, 1888. ‘Whether germane to the subject of scientific research or not, the most narrow specialist can hardly grudge an allusion to the grandeur of the methods by which the food supply of a nation was provided, hundreds of rivers stocked with fish and the very depths of ocean were repopulated. Typically American, we may call them, in their audacity and their success. The fishery boards of foreign countries, first quietly indifferent, then loudly incredulous, in due time became interested inquirers and enthusiastic followers. Ina few years we may fairly expect to see the food supply of the entire civilized world materially increased, with all the benefits which 1888.] 563 [Hyatt. that implies, and this result will, in the main, be owing to the un- remunerated and devoted exertions of Spencer F. Baird.” Professor Baird succeeded Professor Henry in 1878 as secretary of the Smithsonian and for a few years he carried on successfully this institution, the National Museum and the Fish Commission, any one of which would have been sufficient to fill his time and his mind. All his biographers unite in representing this increased tax upon his energies to have been the immediate cause of the sickness which ultimately resulted in his death. Professor Baird was always more or less in correspondence with the officers of this Society, and at his solicitation, during Mr. Scud- der’s time as secretary, the Society joined the Smithsonian in send- ing out several expeditions for the collection of birds. He exercised during Dr. Brewer’s life a direct influence upon the administration of the Society, so far as the extensive collections of birds and eggs were concerned, and these collections owe many specimens to his liberality. During his visits to this city, he usually spent part of a - day with us and walked through the Museum. He invariably showed on these occasions that he had kept in mind the former condition of the collections, and almost always had some suggestions or friendly criticisms to make, which exhibited an active interest in what was being done. . Professor Baird was also much interested in the Annisquam ma- rine laboratory, and every year during the last four or five years of his life urged me, by personal interviews and by letters, to use my influence to have the laboratory transferred to Wood’s Holl and brought into more intimate association with the Fish Commission. A friend of his had bought land near the Fish Commission build- ings, and held it for the benefit of any educational institutions which might be induced to build laboratories there for the use of students. This scheme deserved to succeed, but the times and the impecunious condition of our educational institutions made it im- practicable. These institutions either did not have students of zo- ology or were too poor to respond to the generous offers made by the Commissioner of Fisheries and his friends ; and the Annisquam Laboratory, though it would have gained greatly by association with the Fish Commission, was also hampered by pecuniary disa- bilities. It is greatly to be regretted, that the plan could not have been held open indefinitely until opportunities for seaside work would have been required by the Colleges. This event is not far Hyatt.] 564 [April 18, distant, and it would be as greatly to the advantage of the govern- ment, as to the associated institutions themselves, if Woods Holl should ever become a centre of research. The Fish Commission has been a direct aid to the collections of the Society. Opportunities for procuring New England fishes, and also New England Invertebrata, especially Porifera, were freely given to the curator by the officers of the commission, and the collections then made are in our Museum. The first efforts of the Teachers’ School of Science were much facilitated by the kindness of Professor Baird, who allowed the cu- rator to take away all the waste materials of the shallow water - dredging expeditions of the Fish Commission and thus hundreds of specimens were provided in 1871, for the large classes of the school and afterwards given away to teachers. The curator also received in common with many other scientific men opportunities for study and research at Woods Holl, which were of great value to him personally. In fact, the work of the Fish Commission, like that of all other departments conducted by this remarkable man, helped the interests of science and of scientific men in every pos- sible way. Professor Baird, though not a genius in the sense of having made great discoveries, was nevertheless a leader among the systema- tists of his time, and founded what has been called by eminent au- thorities, the Bairdian school of systematic zoology; though not a professional teacher, he really taught successfully in the greatest of schools, that in which the legislators of a nation and their con- stituents were the students; though not brilliant in conversation or eloquent as a speaker, he yet induced Congress to follow his lead and adopt his suggestions for upwards of thirty years and steadily gained in power and influence during that time ; though not the or- ganizer of the Smithsonian, he loyally seconded his principal, and made that institution far more powerful for good than it could have otherwise become; though not a geologist, his work, care, and ad- vice greatly assisted the men who laid the foundations of the geo- logical, surveys ; though only a student well versed in Ethnology, it was largely his work which opened the way and finally led to the establishment of the Ethnological Bureau. Upon this already magnificent pedestal stand the giant figures of the two institu- tions we owe to him, the National Museum, and the Commission of Fish and Fisheries, backed by their collections, buildings and pub- as 1888.] 565 [Hagen, lications. The grandeur of these results, accomplished by a man whose modesty and want of self-assertion marked every thought and deed, will not fail to fill a large space in history, and attract greater reverence as time increases the perspective ; and future gen- erations will accord to Baird’s memory, fame and honors commen- surate with their national importance and usefulness. Prof. Charles S. Minot gave an account of a new apparatus for cutting microscopical sections automatically. He accompanied his paper by demonstrations. The following paper was read by title: On the Entomophthorez of the United States. By Roland Thaxter. (See Memoirs, Vol. Iv, No. 6.) SECTION OF ENTOMOLOGY, APRIL 25, 1888. Mr. S. H. Scuppksr, in the chair. The following paper was presented : THREE SPECIES OF HEMEROBIUS FROM CHILI. BY H. A. HAGEN. 1. Hemerobius signatus. Hemerobius signatus Hag., Syn. N. Am. Neur., p. 322. Long. c. al. 7mm. ; exp. al. 15mm. | Head yellow; four black shining round spots in a transversal series between the eyes, and one on each side near the epistoma ; four similar spots on the epistoma forming a quadrangle ; one black line between the antennze; two black spots on the labium ; anten- nz (incomplete) yellow, basal joint larger on each side with a black stripe ; second joint small, faintly annulated with black ; ver- tex globose with two transversal series of six black spots; palpi short, thick, blackish, last joint pointed ; last joint of labial palpi thicker ending in a long thin thread ; prothorax yellow, with two longitudinal series of four black spots and some near the front bor- der; thorax’ yellowish; legs pale yellow, tibiz of front legs with two indistinct brown spots; tibize of hind legs, much enlarged be- fore the apex ; front wings less than three times longer than broad with elliptical apex, hyaline, with some indistinct nebulose bands in the apical half; veins pale, alternating with black elevated tu- ‘Hagen.] 566 [April 25, 1888. bercles ; two sectors ; external series of gradate veins four, begin- ning at the pterostigma, the last two nearer to the base; besides two near to the hind margin ; internal series with four, the first one opposite the fourth of the external series ; a third more basal series of four begins on the base of the second sector ; the marginal space larger at base, all transversals forked, the first recurrent ; a darker spot at pterostigma, and some along the margins in the apical half; hind wings little shorter, same shape, hyaline veins pale, a small black spot in the centre; only two gradate; veins on both wings pilose; abdomen long, narrow, brown, extreme apex black. Hab. Chili, presented by C. A. Dohrn; the only specimen is perhaps a female. 2. Hemerobius psychodoides. Megalomus psychodoides Gay, Chili, vi, p.. 127, no. 4. M. fuscescens; capite levi, fusco, nitido; antennis testaceis ; alis anticis hyalinis, fusco-marmoratis, nervulis marginibusque dense fuscopunctatis ; punctis omnino fere equalibus; alis pos- - ticis hyalinis iridescentibus ; pedibus pallide testaceis. Long. 14 lin. ; exp. al. 3 lin. Hab. Chili, Cordilleras de Elqui. 3. Hemerobius marmoratipennis. Megalomus marmoratipennis Gay, Chili, v1, p. 127, no. 5. M. fuscescens, capite levi, satnitido ; antennis fusco-testaceis ; alis testaceis ovatis, hyalinis, pallide fusco-marmoratis, nervulis concol- oribus, haud punctatis; alis posticis hyalinis, vix coloratis ; pedi- bus pallide testaceis. Long. 14 lin; exp. al. 4 lin. Hab. Chili. Both species are different from H. signatus, though probably of the same genus, and not belonging to Megalomus. INDEX TO VOL. XXIII. The names of genera and species described as new are italieized. ABBOTT, C. C. Antiquity of man in the valley of the Delaware, 424; notes on Hesperomys leucopus, 305. Abraxes grossularia, 284. Aconitum, 296. Acraspeda, 124. Actinaria, 110. Actinoceras, 317. Actinophrys, 47. Actinozoa, 49. Aetheria, 540. Aleyonaria, 110. Amblystoma mavortium, 338. Ammonites, 163. Amphioxus, 109, 398. models ete develon: ment of, 306. Anarcestes, 403. Anemone, 296. Anemonella, 293. ANNUAL MEETING, May 7, 1884, 180; May, -6, 1885. 225; May 5, 1886, 8307; May 4, 18387. 360. meee? REPORT of Curator, 180, 226, 307, 60 gee REPORT of Secretary, 190, 235, 9, 372 CHES PEPORE of Treasurer, 193, 238, 93. : Anodonta, 5Bet Anomia, 539. Anthropology, 197, 213, 215, 223, 240, 242, yah 305, 324, 333, 341, 356, 421, 424, 436 ‘Aplysia, 112. Aplysilla sulfurea, 60. violacea, 99. Aplysina verongia, 73. Ar cheoeyathus. 317. Archispongia, 86. Arion, 62. Arthropoda. 56. Asaphus, 317. Ascetta clathrus, 92. primordialis, 93. Ascidia, 113. Ascoceras indianensis, 484. newberryi, 484. Ascones, 61. ‘Ascortis ‘fragilis, 130. Asculmis armata, 92. Asterias, 55. Atlintosaurus, 337. Atragene, 296. ATWOOD, N. E. Account of thelife of, 337. Atypus riversi, 337. Aulacoceras, 112. Avicula, 539. wah Baculites, 407. BAIRD, SPENCER F. Sketch of the life of, 558. BARTON, G. H. See Crosby, W.O., and Barton, G. H. Basilarchia, 408. Beatricea, 213. Belemnites, 112. Belostoma, 336. Bermudas, origin of the present form of the, 518. BINNEY, AMOS. Gift of his library from his son, 224. Birds, epidermal system of, 358. Black Hills of Dakota, geology of, 488. Blattina-insignis, 336. Boltenia, 390. Boston basin, geology of, 7, 29, 228. Boston harbor, geology of outer islands of, 450. Boston Society of Natural History, col- lection of lichens of, 274. Botany, 274, 293. Bouvet, T. T. Genesis of the Boston basin and its rock formation, 29; notes on gems, 2; remarks onthe geology of Boston basin, 232. Bow and arrow unknown to paleolithic man. 269. Brachystoma, 269. BROOKS, HENRY. Preliminary remarks on the structure of the siphon and funnel of Nautilus pompilius, 380. Calathium, 317. Calcispongia, 78. Caltha, 296. Cameraphysema, 92. Campanularide, 116. CAMPBELL, D. H., award to, of Walker Prize for 1886, 321. Campylorhyncus balteatus, 384. bicolor, 383. brevirostris. 384. brunneicapillus, 383. curvirostris, 385. megalopterus, 385. minor, 386. nuchalis, 386. pallescens, 384. palliceps,. 384. pardus, 386. unicoloroides, 383. - Zonatoides, 384. Carchesium, 136. Cardium, 535. Carneospongiz, (567) 568 Cassiopea, 118. Cellular i tg larval theory of origin of, 45. Cephalochorda, 123. Cerianthus, 124. membranaceus, 124. Chalina oculata, 78. Chalinula arbuscula, 69, 214, tertilis, 73. limbata, 60. oculata, 71. Chinook winds, 249. Chlamydoselachus, 214. anguineus, 29. Chrysaora, 116. Ciniflonidz, 337. Cirripedia, 122. Clepsine, 57. Cwlenterata, 104. Conglomerate of Boston basin, 7. Connecticut valley, mechanical origin of the Triassic monoclinal in, 339. Copper-bearing rocks of Lake Superior, fossil from, 208. Corydalis, 263. Coryne, 393. Croce, 267. CROCKER, LUCRETIA, notice of the life of, 330. CrosBy, W. O. Colors of soils, 219; ge- ology of the Black Hills of Dakota, 488; geology of the outer islands of Boston Harbor, 450; notes on joint structure, 243; relations of the con- Beerate and slate in Boston basin, Crossy, W. O., and BARTON, G. H. The great dikes at Paradise, near New- port, 325. Crytocerina, 401. Ctenophorze, 106. Cucullanus, 150. Cunina, 390. Cyaniris admetus, 358. ze z0n, 358. argiolus, 358. betica, 358. comyntas, 358. corydon, 358. Icarus, 358. idlas, 358. minima, 358, pseudargiolus, 357. Cynocephalus porcarius, 336. Cyrtoceras, 211. DAVIS, W. M. Geographic evolution, 223; mechanical origin of the Triassic monoclinal in the Connecticut val- ley, 359; remarks on the Chinook winds of the northwest, 249. Deaths of members, 214, 225, 240, 242, 248, 324, 330, 337, 383, 419, 486. Delaware, antiquity of man in the valley of the, 424. Delphinium, 296. Dendrocvela, 102. Dentalium, 400. Desmarella, 149. moniliforme, 136. DICKERMAN, Q. E., and WADSWORTH. M.E. Olivine, bearing diabase, from St. George, Me., 28. Dinoceras mirabile, restoration of the skeleton of, 342. Earthquakes, subsidence theory of, 6. Echinodermata, 87. Hehinus, 55. Edwardsia, 114. EMERTON, J. H. Changes of the internal organs in the pupa of the milkweed butterfly, 457, restoration of the skeleton of Dinoceras mirabile, 342. Endoceras, 210, 317, 402. Entomology, 219, 223, 242, 250, 276, 336, 337, 356, 457, 465. Eozoon canadense, 212. Epidermal system of birds, 358. Esperia lorenzii, 77. Eucope polystyla, 116. Eudorina, 50, 397. Euryzona eurizonoides, type specimen ~ of, 461. Euryzona sepiaria, 461. Eutima, 125, 152. Evolution, geographic, 223. Exogyra costata, 546. Extensile organs of larvz of butterflies, 357. FARLOW, W.G. Remarks on the collec- tion of lichens belonging to the So- ciety, 274. Feniseca tarquinius, 358. FEWKES, J. W. A new mode of life among ' Meduse, 389; the origin of the pres- ent form of the Bermudas, 518. : Flint implement from Ohio, 242. Fossil insect from the middle Silurian, 223. Fossil scorpion from upper Silurian beds, 219. Gallinula eurizonoides, 461. GARMAN, S. Remarks on Indian burial places, 213; use of polynomials as names in zoology, 164. Garnets, 2. Gems, 2. Geology, 6, 7, 29, 36, 44, 172, 208, 214, 219, 223, 225, 243, 325, 339, 342, 343, 408, 427, 436, 450, 488. Gerablattina germari, 357. Geryonea, 125. Geryonia, 390. : Gifts to the Society. 44, 224, 249, 276, 305, 306, 336, 337, 376, 517. Gomphoceras angustum, 475. ellipticum, 475 imbricatum, 475. labiatum, 473. labiosum, 476. linearis, 473. nestor, 476. parvum, 476. projectum. 476. rectum, 470. scrinium, 470. wabashensis, 470. Gonioceras, 318. Grantia, 130. compressa, 79. GRAY, ASA, announcement of his death, 486; resolutions in honor of, 487. GREENLEAF, R. C. Gift of models illus- trating the development of Amphi- oxus, 306; notice of the life of, 529. Growth and decline, values in classifica- tion of the stages of, 096. Gryphea arcuata, 546. 9) Gry phea vesicularis, 546. Gummina minosa, 93. HAGEN, H. A. Monograph of the Hem- erobidae, 250, 276. Halichondria, 69. dickiei, 81. distorta, 70. incrustans, 69, panicea ?, 75. Haliphysema, 91. Halisarca dujardinii, 74. lobularis, 60. HALL, JAMES, award to, of Grand Walker Prize, 194; letter acknowledging award of Grand Walker Prize, 212. Halter, 269. HAYNES, H.W. The bow and arrow un- known to palezolithic man, 269; localities of quarries worked by the Indians for material for their stone implements, 333. F Helix, 62. Hemerobidae, monograph of, 250, 276. Hemerobius variegatus, 283. Heodes hypophlezas, 358. Heodes phloeas, 358. Hepatica, 296. Hermatoblattina, 357. Hesperomys leucopus, 305. Heteromitus, 48. Hexameroceras cacabiformis, 481. callistoma, 479. delphicolum, 479. hertzeri, 479. Hiddenite, 3. Himantopterus, 268. HINKLEY, HOLMES. Gift of Cynocepha- lus porearius from Sierra Leone, 336, Hircinia campana, 102. spinulosa, 60. Hirudo, 62. HOLMES, JABEZ S. Gift of spidex-crab from California, 44. Huronia, 209. HYATT, A. Larval theory of the origin of cellular tissues, 45; remarks on the life of Miss. Lucretia Crocker, 330; remarks on the statoblasts of Chal- inula- arbuscula, 214; sketch of the life and services to science of Spencer F. Baird, 558; values in classification ofthe stages of growth and decline, with propositions for a new nomenclature, 396. Hydra, 47. Hydractinia, 390. Aydrichthys mirus, 392. HAydrophidae, 164. Hydrozoa, 62. Hymeniacidon caruncula, 69. sulphurea ?, 72. Ice-sheet, recession of, in Minnesota, 436, Indians, quarries worked by. 333. Infusoria, 46. Intaeniolata, 116. Isodictya, 69. Isotelus, 317. JACKSON, ROBERT T. The development of the oyster with remarks on allied genera, 531. PROCEEDINGS B.S. N. H. VOL, XXIII. 69 JEFFRIES, J. AMORY. Notes on the epi- dermal system of birds, 358. Joint structure, 243. Kames, origin of, 36. Keratosa, 49. Keweenawan series, relation of, to the eastern sandstone of Torch Lake, Mich., 172. Kionoceras angulatum, 470. columnare, 469. strix, 469. KNEELAND, S. Metallic tubes in a Fall River grave, 305; notes on earth- quakes, 6; remarks on a family of Norwegian Lapps, 240; remarks on habits of water snakes, 163. Lake Superior, fossil from the copper- bearing rocks of, 208. Lapps, Norwegian, 240. LEARNED, Miss R. L. Gift of two stuffed African monkeys, 44. Leptoblattina, 357. Leucandra aspera, 98. Leucilla uter, 61. Leucones, 88. Leucosolenia, 68. botryoides, 130. poterium, 61. Leuculmis echinus, 92. Limax campestris, 58. Limenitis populi, 268. Limnocodium, 134. Lingule, 317. Lithology, 2, 28. Lithomylacris, 357. Lituites, 371. bickmoreanus, 485, graftonensis, 485. multicostatus (?), 486. Lumbricus, 62, 152. Maclurea, 317. Magosphera, 66. Man, antiquity of, in the valley of the Del- aware, 424; early, in North America, 447; palzolithic, bow and arrow, unknown to, 269. MARCOU, JULES. On the use of the name Taconic, 343. Marine Biological Laboratory, resolution with regard to, 378. MARSH, O. C. Gift of a cast of a femur of Atlantosaurus, 337. Meduse, 106. new mode of life among, 389. Meetings, see Table of Contents. MEMBERS, ASSOCIATE, elected: Barton, Geo. H., 1. Boyd, Mrs. HllaF., 341. _ Boyden, Arthur C., 249. Branner, J. C., 196. Brooks, Henry, 276. Burlingham, C. L., 196. Chadbourne, A. P., 336. Chandler, G. L., 196. Child, Francis S., 324. Conn, H. W.., 336. Cushman, Edith W., 336. Day, Mrs. Sarah F., 242. Doe, Chas.C,, 341. Emerson, B. K., 1. Gray, John C., 336. 37 JANUARY, 1889. MEMBERS, pera Glace: Hazelwood, F.T.. Hodges, W. D., oe Hopkins, Ss. ‘A, 450. Hubbard, L L., 450. Jenks, C. W., 276. Johnson, Miss I. L., 450. Jones, D. W.., 450. Lane, Alfred C., 450. Means, J ames, BAL. Miller, GS. jr-, i: Moses, L. Tecra aun: Nash, L. P.., 342. Newman, W.H. H., 450. Nolen, W. W., 450. Norcross, Grenville H., 450. Palmer, Mary T., 1. Parmelee, G. H., 341. Pigeon, Mrs. E. A., 341. Pike, Clara, 215. Puffer, Loring W.., 341. Quimby, George T , 450. Ruggles, Mrs. BE. M., nh Russell, Samuel H., 276 Safford, Wm. E., 249. Sargent, F. Le R., 450. Saunders, R. T., 450. Sedgwick, W. T., 1. Smith, Clifford W. , 240. Soule, Caroline reike 196. Street, Chas. S., 430. Sullivan, E. Norris, 450, Weeks, A.G. -» jv., 450. Whittle, C. NY: 450, Whitwell, W.S., 45. Williams, R. P. ie Wilson, B. B., 215. Winslow, R. C., 276. Woodworth, J. B., 450. MEMBERS, CORPORATE, elected: Boardman, Mrs. A. I., 249. Clarke, Cora H., 1. Davidson, H. E., 1. Hayward, Roland, : ae Hinckley, Mary | H. Jackson, R. T.., Kidder, N. T., Bria Kingsley, J. S., 1. Richards, Mrs. R. H., 1. Thaxter, R., 249. Whitman, Mrs. C. O., 1. Willcox, Mary A., 249. MEMBERS, CORRESPONDING, elected: Bailey, L. W., 324. Cohn, Ferd., 1. ' Fouqué, F., 1 Howitt, Alfred W., 324. Lendenfeld, R. von, 249. évy, An Mee ie Marey, E. J., 1. Mayer, Paul, 1. Metz, C. L., 249. Miiller, Ferd. von, 249. Selwyn, A. R. C., 1. Semper, Carl, 225. Weismann, Aug. Le Wilkinson, C. S., MEMBERS, SEGRE, elected: Bastian, Adolph, 225. Carpenter, W. B., 1. Tylor, E. B., 225. Metazoa, 46. Microciona, 99. prolifera, 121. Microhydra, 392. Micromus angulatus, 280. angustus, 287. lors (0 Micromus australis, 289. calidus, 288. costulatus, 290. cubanus, 286. insipidus, 285. insularis, 292. linearis, 289. meridionalis, 281. montanus, 279. navigatorum, 282. paganus, 278. pumilis, 290. tasmanie, 291. timidus, 282. variegatus, 282. variolosus, 284. Milkweed butterfly, internal organs of the pupa of, 457. Mineralogy, 197. Minnesota, recession of the ice-sheet in, 436. Mnestra parasita, 351. Modiola plicatula, 539. Modiolaria, 535. Monera, 66. Monosiga gracilis, 180. Montacuta, 535. Mounds of Ohio, explorations of, 215. Miilleria lobata, 539. Murchisonia, 317. Mus, 62. Mya arenaria, 539. Mytilus edulis, 535. latus, 539. magellanicus, 539. Myxameebe, 66. Myxomycetes, 66. Nautilus, 211, 371, 401. pompilus, structure of the si- phon and funnel of, 380. Nemoptera e2gyptiaca, 252. africana, 262. alba, 269. albistigma, 257. algirica, 259. angulata, 259. aristata, 269. barbara, 255. . bidens, 269. bipennis, 253. capillaris, 267. coa, 258. costata, 258. dilatata, 269. extensa, 269. filipennis, 267. gracilis, 255. halterata, 257. hebraica, 252. huttii, 265. imperatrix, 269. ledereri, 254. pallida, 269. pusilla, 268. remifera, 265. setacea, 269. sinuata, 250. tipularia, 257. walkeri, 269. NEWELL, F. H. Niagara cephalopods from northern Indiana, 466. Obelia, 390. Officers for 1884-85, 196; 1885-86, 239; 1886-87, 323; 1887~88, 377. Ohio gravel-beds, age of, 427. Olivine from St. George, Me., 28. Oozoa, 46. Ore deposits, theories of, 197. Orthoceras crebescens, 466. crebistriatum, 467, obstructum, 467. rectum, 467. rigidum, 467. unionensis, 467. vertebrale, 317. Orthoceratites, 209, 401. Ostrea, 55, 535. compressirostris, 547. larva, 547. marshii, 547. virginica, 543. Oyster, development of the, 551. Peonia, 296. Palaedictyoptera, 224. Palzolithic implements from America and Europe, 421. Paludina, 62, 107. Paradise, great dikes af, 325. Paramecium, 339. bursaria., 51. PARKMAN, FRANCIS. Gift of portrait of Alex. Agassiz, 276. Parypha crocea, 116. Pecten, 539. Pentameroceras mirum, 483. Perigonimus, 394. Peripatus, 107. capensis, 108. edwardsii, 108. torquatus, 108. Perna ephippium, 539. Petromyzon, 109. Phalansterium, 136. Phyllirhoe, 391. Physemaria, 91. Pieris rape, 337. Piloceras, 317, 371, 402. Pisidium, 535. Plakina, 98. Planorbidaz, 116. Pleurotomaria, 317. cee use of, as names in zoology, 6 Polypodium, 391. POPE, W.C., and Co. Gift of a male and female Kiwi, 517. Porifera, 49. Proterospongia haeckelii, 135. Protohydra, 118, 392. Protomyxa aurantiaca, 66. Protozoa, 45. Ptinus fur, 337. Pulsatilla, 296. PUTNAM, F.W. The exploration of the peat deposit at Shrewsbury, 242; account of recent explorations of mounds in Ohio, 215; notes on a collection of perforated stones from California, 356; notes on Belostoma in carp ponds, 336; notes on bone fish-hooks, 240; on a black flint im- plement from Ohio, 242; on palzxo- lithic implements from America and Europe, 421; on the manufacture of stone implements by primitive man, 324; on two species of wasps ob- served i in Ohio, 465; primitive man in North America, 447; remarks on bronzes from Peru, 240: remarks =~] on the life of-Capt. N. E. Atwood, 337; remarks on the life of Cordelia A. Studley, 419; the serpent mound in Adams Co., Ohio, 518. Rana, 62. Ranunculus, 296. secialis, 71. Reniera filigrana, 84. Rhabdomena, 150. Rhachitomi, 121. RIDGWAY, ROBERT. Notes on some type-specimens of American Trog- lodytide in the Lafresnaye collec- tion, 383. Rotifera, 56. Sagitta, 107. Salamandra, 62. Sannionites, 402. Saprolegnia, 391. Sarsia, 393 Scolithus, 319. SCUDDER, S.H. Remarks on the glands and extensile organs of the laryze of blue butterflies, 357; report of the committee of the Council on a zoological garden in Boston, 523. Sepioidea, 112. Seriola zonata, 391. Serpent mound in Ohio, 518. Sertularide, 116. SHALER, N. S. Theorigin of kames, 36; origin of the divisions between the layers of stratified rocks, 408. Silicea, 49. Snakes, habits of, 168. Soils, colors of, 219. Spirogyra, 67. Spondylus, 535. Spongelia pallescens, 60. Spongia, 99. graminea, 69. Spongilla, 70, 214. Spongomonas, 136. Sporangites, 45. SPRAGUE, C.J. Gift of his collection of N. A. lichens, 249. STEJNEGER, LEONHARD. On the type specimen of Euryzona eurizonoides (Lafr.), 461. Stenotznia walkeri, 257. Stereotaeceras, 214. Stone implements, manufacture of, by primitive man, 324; quarries worked by the Indians for material for, 333. Stratified rocks, origin of divisions be- tween layers of, 408. STUDLEY, CORDELIA A., death of, 419. Suberites, 61. suberea, 71. Sycaltis conifera, 100. ovipara, 84. testipara, 83. Sycandra raphanus, 69. Sycetta primitiva, 100. Sycones, 61. Sycyssa huxleyi, 92. notice of the Taconic, use of the name, 343. Teeniolata, 116. Telephonus, 214. Tethya hispida, 69. 972 Thalassema, 55. Thalictrum, N. A., species of, 293. Thalictrum alpinum, 299. anemonoides, 293. clavatum, 298. debile, 302. dioicum, 302. fendleri, 303. galeottii, 304. gibbosum, 304. hernandezii, 304. lanatum, 304. minus, 300. occidentale, 303. peltatum, 304. polycarpum, 304. polygamum, 301. pubigerum, 304. purpurascens, 300. sparsifiorum, 299. venulosum, 302. THAYER, MRS. NATHANIEL. Gift of a bust of Louis Agassiz, 305. Thecla betuli, 358. ilicis, 357. quercus, 357. roboris, 357. rubi, 357. spini, 357. strigosa, 357. Thestor ballus, 357. Thryothorus fasciato-ventris, 387. maculipectus, 386. rufalbus, 386. ruficeps, 387. TRELEASE, W. N. A. species of Thalic- trum, 293. Triassic monoclina] in the Connecticut valley, origin of, 339. Trichiulus, 306 Trichoplax adherens, 150. Trilobites, 317. Trochoceras desplainense, 486, Troglodytes tecellata, 388. Troglodytidz, type-specimens of, 383. Tubifex, 62. Tubularia, 151. mesembryanthema, 117. TUTTLE, ALBERT H., award to, of Walker Prize for 1884, 195. Unio, 535. UPHAM, WARREN. The recession of the ice-sheetin Minnesota in its relation to the gravel deposits overlying the quartz implements found at Little Falls, 436. Velella, 394. Volvox, 397. globator, 50. Vorticella, 48. WADSWORTH, M.E. The relation of the Keweenawan series to the eastern sandstone in the vicinity of Torch Lake, Mich., 172; a supposed fossil from the copper-bearing rocks of Lake Superior, 208; theories of ore deposits, 197. See ’also Dickerman, Q. E. and Wadsworth, M. EH. Walker prize, grand, awarded to James Hall, 194. Walker prizes for 1884, awarded to A. H. Tuttle, 195; for 1886, awarded to D. H. Campbell, 321. WATERSTON, R.C. Gift of $200, 378. WELLS, SAMUEL. A notice of the life of the late Richard C. Greenleaf, 529. WriGHtT, G. F. On the age of the Ohio gravel-beds, 427. Zoological garden in Boston, report of the committee on, 523. POOIOEN. ne 163, 164, 214, 305, 338, 342, 358, 0, 383, 389, "396, 461, ‘466, "518, 53l5 use of ‘polynomials as names in, 164, ; Zoothamnium, 136. EC aa { Mw & ; t ri Fy te ’ 6 , ee wi Le” , S y- IN $ . % “a i ‘ AU if 4 * = ; = pam = - L i AE: @ ck cage