1 s vs = Jac < ‘ ~ ae Y aed ap fa ss bs + I ann APS 4 Pat, mY. {Y x } a Acca = N 2 f va a, Z| y ae Bye j =i ' / i P A AA ETA Ar '2 A fof j a v PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD NATURALISTS’ FLELD CLUB VOLUME IX PRINTED BY JOHN BELLOWS, GLOUCESTER 1890 y CONTENTS THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS at the Annual Meeting at Gloucester, 1886. On the Genus Nerinea, and its Stratigraphical Distribution in the Cotteswolds. By E. WiTcHELL, F.G.S. Some New Species of Brachiopoda, from the Inferior Oolite of the Cottewolds. By S. S. Bucxmay, F.G.S. On the Mode of Propagation of the Common Eel. By Francis Day, C.LE., F.L.8., etc. Some Notes on the Hydrology of the Cotteswolds and the District around Swindon. By Joun H. Taunton, M. Inst. C.E., F.G.S. A Visit to the Boxwell Springs, ape 1886. By J. H. Taunton, M. Inst. C.E., F.G.S. On the Probable Early Extinction of a Cotteswold ee By ALLEN Harker, F.L.S. On the Mitcheldeania Nicholsoni, a new Genus, from the Lower Carbon- _ iferous Shales of the Forest of Dean. ia EpWarD WETHERED, - FGS., F.C.S., F.R.MS. The PresIpDENT’s ADDRESS at the Annual Meeting at Gloucester, 1887 On a Section of Selsley Hill. By E. WitcHELt, F.G.S. The Inferior Oolite between Andoversford and Bourton-on-the- Water. By S. 8. Buckmay, F.G.S. Notes upon the breeding of Salmonide. By Francis Day, C.LE., F.L.S., ete. Voleanic Eruptions and Earthquakes. By E. Werueren, F.G.S., F.C.S., F.R.M.S. The PRESIDENT’s ADDRESS at the Annual Meeting at Gloucester, 1888 Notes on the Polyzoa with reference to Lepralia foliacea, in 24 fathoms of water. Found 30 miles west of Lundy Island, and now in the Gloucester Museum. By R. ETHERIDGE, F.R.S. PAGE 1 21 38 44 52 70 73 77 81 96 108 136 159 171 192 iv The Battle of Tewkesbury, A.D., 1471. By the Rev. W. BazeLey, M.A. Notes on the Fish and Fisheries of the Severn. By Francis Day, C.LE. and F.L.S. On the Gall-Midges (Cecidomyide). By Professor ALLEN HARKER, F.L.S., Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester 3 On the behaviour of Granities when exposed to High Temperatures. By FrepERIcK SMITHE, L.L.D., F.G.S. Observations upon the Reptilia and Batrachia of Gloucestershire. By C. A. WITCHELL A Lecture on Coins. By Rev. A. WINNINGTON-INGRAM Notes on A Difficulty in Evolution. By J. Drew, M.B., Lond., F.G:S8., &c. : ‘ : P : Notes on the Jurassic Rocks at Crickley Hill. By W. C. Lucy, F.G.S. Notes on An Amended List of Madreporaria of Crickley Hill. A supplement to W. C. Lucy’s Paper. By Roserr F. Tomes, F.G.S. The PRESIDENT’s ADDRESS at the Annual Meeting at Gloucester, 1889 Notes on a Geological Section between Tytherington and Thornbury. By the Rev. H. H. Winwoon, M.A., F.G.S. Notes on Hybridization. By Francis Day, C.LE., and F.L.S. The relations of Dundry with the Dorset-Somerset and Cotteswold areas during part of the Jurassic period. By 8S. 8. Buckman, F.G.S. Remarks on the Dapple Bed of the Inferior Oolite at the Horsepools, and on some Pebbles from the Great Oolite at Minchinhampton. By W. C. Lucy, F.G.S. On a remarkable occurrence at Sharpness of the eggs of Tetranychus lapidus, observed by W. B. Clegram, Esq. By ALLEN HARKER, F.L.S., Professor of Natural History, R. A. College, Cirencester . PAGE 195 202 220 229 260 277 285 289 300 309 325 334 374 388 396 PROCEEDINGS OF THE Cotteswold Uaturalists’ FIELD CLUB For 1885—1886 President Sir WILLIAM V. GUISE, Barrt., FciS) BGs, Vice-President WILLIAM:-C. LUCY, PGs: Honorarp Aeccretarp bg i: PAINE,“ M. D., F.G.S., F.R., Mer. Soc. Ss -— => Honorary Creasurer EDWIN WITCHELL, F.G.S. Tage cased Fisit to the Boxwell Springs, oe 1886. By J. H. Taunton, M. Inst. C.E.. F.G.S. the Probable Early Extinction of a Cotteswold Butterfly. By ALLEN HARKER, F.L.S. the Mitcheldeania Nicholsoni, a new Genus, from the Lower Carboniferous Shales of the rest of Dean. By EDWARD WETHERED, F. G. Ss F. C.S., F.R.M.S. JOHN BELLOWS, GLOUCESTER 141093 4‘ hw ee Annual Address to the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club, read at Gloucester, on Tuesday, the 4th of May, 1886, by the President, Sir Witt1am Vernon Guise, Bart., F.L.S., F.G.S. GENTLEMEN, After a duration of forty years the Cotteswold Field Club continues its useful and vigorous existence, and shows no falling off in the number and value of its scientific transactions. Our complement of members, too, is well maintained, though year by year we have to mourn the loss of friends and comrades, whom the hand of death removes. Of these we have this year to lament the death of four, whose presence will be much missed. These were J. H. Cooxz, F.S.A., K. H. Fryer, Henry Wittmort, and Major W. E. Pricz, F.G.S. Besides these, four members have resigned, and five have been elected. The present strength of the Club is— Officers abe abe a we eae Hon. Members... ms eG Ordinary Members ion WN retid: | Dotal-\.::. ave Joanie De The financial condition of the Club, as reported by your Treasurer, is, I regret to say, not so satisfactory as usual. Our expenses have been somewhat more, and our receipts less than last year. The total expenditure is £82 19s. 8d., and receipts up to date £68 10s. 0d., showing a deficiency of £14 9s. 8d.: this will reduce the last year’s balance of £71 7s. 5d. to £56 17s. 9d. It is stated by the publisher that the expenditure is much increased by reason of the way in which author’s copies of papers are printed; and that if they would be content to have their copies paged as in the Transactions a good deal B 2 of labour would be saved. At all events the Club must practice economy, as the balance in hand is steadily diminishing. With these preliminary remarks, I will proceed to read a record of the proceedings of the Club during the past season. THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE CLUB was held at the Bell Hotel, Gloucester, on Wednesday, the 22nd of April, 1885, when the President read his Address, and the usual business, including the election of officers, was proceeded with,‘and resulted in the re-election of all to the offices which they had previously held. The members then adjourned to the Lecture Theatre of the School of Science, where a paper was read by R. Erneriper, F.R.S., upon “The occurrence of a new Fossil Annelide, obtained from the Stonesfield Slate of Eyford, on the Cotteswolds, upon the occasion of a meeting of the Club at that locality in the month of August, 1883.” Besides the special reference to and description of this unique form, Mr ErueripeE entered at some length into the general structure of the two chief divisions of the Annelida, namely, the Errantia and the Tubicola, and their history through time. The specimen obtained belongs to the first- named section, or Hrrantia, and is believed to be the first well- defined Nereid ever obtained from the Jurassic rocks in Britain or on the Continent; hence the interest attaching to the new fossil. Mr Erurripesr provisionally names this Annelide Pachy- nereis corrugatus. Through all paleozoic time members or genera of the group Hrrantia played an important part in the history and structure of the slates and sandstones of the Cambrian, Silurian, and Carboniferous rocks, being everywhere present in the shallow argillaceous and sandy deposits where estuarine conditions prevailed and favored their development. It would almost appear that these Annelides were the dominant forms of life during the early history of the earth, so prolific are they in certain strata, especially of the older rocks. Our Forest Marble, Stonesfield Slate, and other estuarine accumu- lations, exhibit everywhere the trails, casts, and burrows of 3 Annelida, Mollusca and Crustacea; the former through their vertical and horizontal burrows, the latter through the numerous impressions left on the littoral or exposed portion of the shore between tide-marks in all ages. Many recent Annelids live buried in the sand or mud of our modern sea-shores or in shallow water, communicating with the surface by means of perpendicular burrows; such may be termed “burrows of habitation.” In the oldest strata those errant genera which have been founded on remains of this kind are Scolithus, Histioderma, and Arenicolites, all of which are in rocks of Cambrian and Silurian age. Other genera construct or form long wandering, irregular and tortuous burrows a little below the surface, chiefly in a horizontal direction, which may be termed “ wandering burrows.’ Many of these in the Paleozoic rocks have been referred to fucoids or the melanosperm sea- weeds, under the generic titles of Palwochorda, Paleophycus, &c. The modern lobworm or Arenicola piscatorum of our own shores is referred to this class of burrows. Such worm-cases are familiar to all as one of the common objects of the sea-shore, in the form of coiled and tortuous heaps, and occurring in millions; such trails, tracks, or burrows are known to be due to the Errant Annelida. The order Tubicole, or second division, are for the most part inhabitants of calcareous or chitinous tubes, and are the Serpule, Sabelle, Terebelle, &c. The tubicolar Annelids are known to occur in and range from the lower Silurian rocks upwards, and such have received the names of Pyritsonema, Serpulites, Tentaculites, Tachyderma, Sabella, &e. Mr Erneripce entered into the more minute and structural particulars of this class, especially of the Hrrantia, or Dorsi- branchiata, to which division the newly found fossil form belongs. This unique form may not inappropriately be called Pachynereis, in reference to its large, long and robust structure, and to its affinities with the existing Nereis. Many diagrams and specimens of other genera were exhibited, together with a photographed representation of the new genus, which will appear in the published Transactions of the Club. The Club dined together at the Bell Hotel. B2 4 THE FIRST FIELD MEETING of the Club for the season was held on Tuesday, the 26th of May, at AWRE, ON THE SEVERN. The day was favorable, and about twenty members mustered at the Awre Station by the train which arrived there at about 11.38 a.m. The objects of interest were the Church, and the Section of the Lower Lias on the banks of the Severn. At the Church the party was received by the Rev. Mr Savaan, the Incumbent, with the ladies of his family. The Rev. W. BazeLey read some notes, of which the following is a brief abstract :— The Church of Awre, which is dedicated to St. ANDREW, is a good example of Early English architecture, with Perpendicular insertions. In the year 1200 A.D. Watrer DE Awne had a grant for life of the Manor and Advowson. Awre was a Royal Manor in the time of Epwarp THE Conressor, and continued to be so till 1220. In 1156 Roesr, Earl of Hereford, son of the great Mito, held it in fee farm of Henry Il. In 1120 Witt1am Marsnarz, son of the Protector, obtained a grant of the Manor and Advowson in fee, in exchange for the Manor of Basingbourne, Wilts; and in 1125 he granted the Advowson to Henry pve Awez for his life. After the decease of Wirtr1am Marsuaty and his four brothers, who succeeded him without issue, the Manor and Advowson passed in moieties to the Dr Vatences and De Mortmers, who inherited them from Sonna, the wife of Warin pe Mouncuesry, and Eva, wife of Wiriiam pE Braoss, daughters of the Protector. Smytue, in his ‘Lives of the Berxeteys,’ tells us that Tomas Lord Brrxeey, the third of that name, married Marearer, daughter of Roger pE Mortimer, and purchased both moieties. In 1352 Tuomas Lord Berxetzy gave the Advowson of Awre to Llanthony Priory, in exchange for Coaley, and the monks of that house appropriated the tithes to their own use. After the _ dissolution the reigning sovereigns presented to the living till 1608, when the Advowson was granted by James I to Tuomas James, of Lydney. Arxyns says that at his time (1712) the. Advowson belonged to the Haberdashers’ Company; and they are still the patrons,” 5 Judging from the style of the Church, and especially from the east windows, with their detached shafts, it would seem to have been built about the time of the Marsuatts, 1220—1245. The family of Dz Awre, who held lands here from the time of the Conquest, and were tenants of the Manor and Advowson in 1200 and 1225, were probably the founders and patrons. The tower screen and font and most of the side windows may be assigned to the latter part of the period, when the monks were patrons of the Church. From the Church the party proceeded to the bank of the Severn, where Mr Lucy read some notes on the Geology of the district. The Severn is at this point bounded by a low cliff of Lower Lias, on which rests a bed of drift of varying thickness, composed of pebbles and rolled stones, cemented together by ferric oxide into a hard mass; the line of junction between the Lias and the overlying drift shows extraordinary erosion and furrowing of the underlying beds, due probably to the ploughing force of shore ice. The pebbles are derived from various remote sources, and consist of chalk flints, quartzites, greenstones, &c., all rounded in a manner that indicates the long continued action of running water. Mr Lucy referred to the sunken forests which are found wherever deep excavations are made in the bed of the river, which renders it probable that a narrow Severn at one time flowed through a wooded district, through which herds of the woolly elephant (Hlephas primigenius) wandered and crossed at will from one side to the other. Associated with this ancient forest were extensive peat-mosses, from whence have been taken the horns of the great ox (Bos Prum- genius) and those of the stag (Cervus elaphus), these latter of great size and in very perfect preservation. Mr Lucy drew attention to the existence on the opposite side of the Severn at Purton, of a bed of drift in all respects similar to that at Awre, which is likewise extensively developed at Sharpness. Mr Lucy led his hearers for some distance along the pleasant margin of the river, discoursing at various points on the Geology of the district, until it was necessary that all should direct their steps to the “ Red Hart,” at Awre, where dinner awaited them. 6 THE SECOND FIELD MEETING of the Club took place on June 23rd, at NAILSWORTH, when the weather, which for the most part has favoured the excursions of the Club, proved on the present occasion extremely adverse. The programme was varied and interesting, and would have been enjoyable as well as instructive had the day been fine. A covered char-a-banc was provided, which sheltered those who were fortunate enough to secure seats inside. The first visit of the Club was to “High Beeches,” in Nailsworth, the residence of Mr Smiru, where were displayed a collection of fossils from the base of the Sands, Roman pottery from Woodchester, and a herbarium of local plants formed by Miss Smiru. The catalogue of these was very ample, and contained many rarities. Mr Smrru’s residence is placed at the junction of the Sands and Upper Lias, and openings had been made to show the junction of these beds. The lower part of the Sands is highly fossiliferous, and has yielded many interesting and well preserved forms to the investigations of Mr Smith. The carriage now proceeded to mount the hill which led to the Great Oolite plateau on the summit, which the party followed in the direction of Dursley, examining by the way quarries which have been described by Mr Wircuett, and have yielded to him many interesting fossil forms from the junction of the Great Oolite with the Forest Marble. . ons 31 rounded obtuse character of the folds, as shown in the figure. Having made sections of several specimens, I have come to the conclusion that the interior of this species is represented by fig. 8a, Pl.I. This figure occurs, with slight variation, in four Inf. Oolite species and one in the Great Oolite, (vide list, p. 25.) These species are therefore to be determined chiefly by their external appearance, in which there is considerable diversity. Nerinza Hupuzsroniana, Witc. PI. I, fig. 4, 4a. Nerinea, sp. HuDLESTON. <<(Yontributions to the Paleontology of the Yorkshire Oolites,” Geol. Mag. N.8., Dec. 3, Vol. L., Pl. IV, fig. 7. Shell sub-conical, whorls about 15, concave, their height equal to three-fourths of the diameter, suture prominent, aperture unknown, columella with one fold anterior to the middle of the volution; there is a strong fold on the wall, and a, smaller fold on the posterior wall, spiral angle 15°, height 24 inches. ; This specimen closely resembles the one figured by Mr Hupizsron from the Millepore bed of the Inferior Oolite of Yorkshire, but not named or described. The only observable difference is that this is more conical than the Yorkshire shell, but the unusual concavity of the whorls in each specimen, and the circumstance of their being from the same zone, point to their being the same species. ; N. Eudesii, M. & L., is a much more conical species, and has fewer whorls, but is similar in other respects. Locality——Longridge, near Stroud, in the marly limestone bed. Nerinmza parva, Witc.,n.sp. Pl. I, fig. 5, 5a, 5b. Shell conico-cylindrical, whorls rather broad, their height equal to about half of their diameter, much thickened poste- riorly, giving a concave appearance to the lower part of the yolution, apex acute, aperture rather short, outer lip rounded, columella solid, with one fold below the middle of the volution, 32 one large fold on the outer wall, and a smaller one on the posterior wall, height about 2 inches, diameter of the last whorl 4 lines, spiral angle 13°. This shell, in its internal structure, resembles that of N. oolitica, but the whorls are more tumid, and not so high, in comparison with the diameter, as in that shell. In the better preserved examples the upper end of the two last whorls are angulated, as shown in fig. 5b. Locality. Swift’s Hill, near Stroud, in the marly limestone bed. Nerina pisouitica, Witc.,n. sp. PI. I, fig. 6, 6a, 6D, Shell elongated, cylindrical, whorls smooth, regular, their height a little less than the diameter, suture faintly shown, aperture short, outer lip with an obtuse angle near the middle, columella with three folds, the posterior fold bifurcated, the middle fold simple, the anterior fold expanded and angulated, having three angles; the outer wall has a simple posterior fold, and a large fold near the middle, extending over one-third of the height of the volution; there is an obtuse fold on the posterior wall, and a smaller obtuse fold at the base of the figure. The internal structure of this species differs from that of N. Oppelensis, Lyc., in the anterior fold on the outer wall, which in the latter is represented by two folds, but the figure externally is different, the whorls not being concave, as in Lycrrt’s species. Locality—The pisolitic beds near Stroud, and at Longfords, near Nailsworth ; abundant. NeERIN@zA aTTENvaTA, Witc.,n. sp. Pl. I, fig. 7, 8, 8a., and Pl. II, fig. 6. Shell attenuated, whorls numerous, about 15, their height slightly less than the diameter, somewhat depressed at the middle, but more tumid at the suture; in the earlier stages at the junction of the whorls there are prominent ridges, which 33 suddenly disappear, and the suture line becomes grooved, aperture large, outer lip angulated, channel lengthened. The internal characters are indistinct, but there is an obtuse fold on the outer wall, and indications of one on the columella, and one on the posterior wall; height 3 inches, spiral angle 10°. Locality.—Longfords, in the Pisolite, and at Swift’s Hill, near Stroud, in the marly limestone bed. Neriwwza Srrovpiensis, Witc., n. sp. PI. I, fig. 9. Shell conico-cylindrical, semi-turrited, whorls numerous (about 25 in an entire specimen,) their height equal to three- fourths of the diameter, each whorl projecting slightly at the suture, and angulated, apex acute; internal character unknown; spiral angle 8°. This shell is highly crystalline, its internal structure cannot therefore be ascertained. It has some affinity with N. conica, (fig. 2) but is more slender and cylindrical. Locality.—Swift’s Hill, in the marly limestone bed. Nerinma consoBRina, Witce.,n. sp. Pl. I, fig. 10, 10a. Shell conico-cylindrical, apex acute, whorls numerous, their height about four-fifths of their diameter, thickened at the suture in the earlier stages, but become nearly plain as the shell enlarges, the suture being slightly open at the junction of the two last whorls, aperture short, columella solid, with three folds, outer wall with three folds, and one small fold in the posterior wall, and an obtuse fold at the base of the figure, as in N. Oppelensis, (fig. 3a) height 4 inches, spiral angle 9°. This species differs very little in its internal structure from N. Oppelensis, but it has a more conical figure, and the whorls are higher, in proportion to their diameter, than in that species. Locality.—Longfords, near Nailsworth, in the Pisolite. Nerinza attivotuta, Witc.,n.sp. Pl. I, fig. 11, 12. Shell cylindrical, whorls very numerous, smooth, regular, their diameter equai to four-fifths of their height, suture “ . : 34 slightly depressed, aperture sub-ovate, terminating in a small channel, rather pointed, columella large, with an acute fold on the anterior part of the volution, outer wall with one large obtuse fold near the middle, there is also a prominent fold at the junction of the columella with the posterior wall. This species, in its internal structure, has an affinity with N. pseudo-cylindrica, D’Ors., but differs externally in the unusual height of the whorls, which will readily distinguish it from contemporaneous species; it is also more cylindrical than D’Orzieny’s species. Locality.x—The Pea Grit, near Stroud, and at Longfords, Nailsworth. Nerinza Propucta, Witc.,n. sp. Pl. I, fig. 13, 13a. Shell sub-cylindrical, elongated, whorls smooth, regular, their height and diameter equal, suture faintly shown, aperture lengthened, narrow, anterior channel produced, slightly curved downwards, columella with three folds, the anterior fold very broad at the base, angulated with three angles, the middle fold slightly pointed downwards, the posterior fold bifurcated; there are three folds on the outer wall, the anterior of which is angulated, having three angles, the middle fold curved, the posterior fold truncated; there is a small fold on the posterior wall. This species is one of the group distinguished by a compli- cated internal structure, of which N. Oppelensis, Lyc., is a good example. It differs principally from the allied species in the increased height of the whorls in comparison with their diameter, in the narrow lengthened aperture, and in its great length, which, judging from the fragments obtained, cannot be less than six inches, and may be longer. Locality.x—Longfords, near Nailsworth, in the Pisolite. Nerinza vELOXx, Witc.,n. sp. Pl. II, fig. 3, 3a. Shell sub-conical, apex acute, whorls low, their height equal to about two-thirds of the diameter, much thickened at the 35 suture during the earlier stages of growth, but become quite plain during the later period, suture line faintly shown, aperture rather short, columella solid, with three folds, the anterior fold angulated, having three angles, the middle one simple and rather obtuse, the posterior fold bifurcated. On the wall are three folds, the anterior and middle of which are slightly bifurcated, the posterior one truncated; there is also a minute fold on the posterior wall. Spiral angle 10°. The suture of this shell shows under a magnifier a very narrow open furrow, the edges of which are sharply defined. The internal structure differs little if anything from that of N. Oppelensis, Pl. I, fig. 8a, and N. consobrina, Pl. I, fig. 10. Externally it differs in its more conical and shorter figure and longer aperture. Locality.—Swift’s Hill, Stroud, in the marly limestone. Coll. W. H. Huptzston, Hsq., F.R.S. Nerin@/a ciypeata, Wite.,n. sp. Pl. II, fig. 5, 5a. Shell small, whorls numerous, their height equal to three- fifths of their diameter, convex in the upper or posterior portion, thickened beneath the suture in the middle and anterior por- tions, encircled with several faint lines, which disappear with growth, apex acute, the whorls contracting rapidly towards the apex, the first whorls very small, aperture rather elongated, internal structure unknown. This shell is in a crystalline condition, which prevents the internal character from being ascertained. It is distinguished from other species by the large number of whorls, in proportion to the length of the shell, and their convex appearance. Locality.—Rodborough Hill, in the Clypeus Grit. d2 36 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. PLATE I. 1. Nerinea oolitica, Wirc., n. sp. Swift’s Hill, Stroud. My collection. la. As i, Section of interior. 1b. Pe 35 View of aperture, slightly enlarged. 2. Nerinea conica, Witc. Swift’s Hill, Stroud. My col. 3. Nerincea Oppelensis, Lyc. Selsley. My collection. oa. Pe 5 Section ofinteriorof anotherexample, enlarged. 4, Nerinea Hudlestoniana, Wirc., n. sp. Longridge. My collection. 4a. Zs a Section of same, showing inte- rior. 5. Nerinea parva, Witc.,n.sp. Swift’s Hill. My collection. da. bs » Section showing interior. db. - » Another example, showing the aperture. de. 53 » Whorls enlarged. 6. Nerinea pisolitica, Wrrc., n. sp. Longfords, Nailsworth, My collection. 6a. 55 a Section of same, enlarged. 7. Nerinea attenuata, Wirc. Swift’s Hill. My collection. 8. oe Be Another example 8a. > # Aperture slightly enlarged. 9. Nerinea Stroudiensis, Wirc.,n.sp. Swift’s Hill. My col. 10. Nerinea consobrina. Pisolite, Stroud. My collection. 10a. kas Be Section of interior, enlarged. 11. Nerinea altivoluta, Wire. Pisolite, Longfords, Nails- worth. My collection. 12. “ 4 Anotherexample. Pea Grit, Stroud. My collection. 13. Nerinea producta, Wirc., n. sp. _ Pisolite, Longfords. My collection. PLATE I. ‘ 3 WITChECL PRATEM: J. BELLOWS, GLOUCESTER as s Le = WITCHEL! la. 6a. 37 PLATE II. Nerinea gracilis, Lyc. Swift’s Hill, Stroud. A more conical figure than usual. My collection. a fe Section of the interior, slightly enlarged. a B Swift’s Hill. The usual form. My collection. Nerinea velox, Wirc., n. sp. Swift’s Hill. Collection of W. H. Hwpuxzston, Esq. i a Section of interior, enlarged. Nerinea pisolitica, and see Pl. I, fig. 6, ga. . Nerinea clypeata, Wirc., n. sp. Rodborough Hill. My collection. Nerinea attenuata, and see Pl. I, fig. 7, 8. * Br rs Section of interior. Some New Species of Brachiopoda, from the Inferior Oolite of the Cotteswolds. By S. 8. Buckman, F.G.S. That portion of the Banbury and Cheltenham Railway which has recently been constructed between Cheltenham and Bourton-on-the-Water has cut somewhat deeply into and through the Cotteswold Hills, giving us some extremely fine sections. Chief among these, from a Palzontological point of view, is the prolific section at Notgrove Station, where the line attains its highest point, some 750 to 800 feet above sea level. This cutting is not of great depth nor length. It exposes the Oolite Marl, and by a fault at the east end the upper beds of the Inferior Oolite are brought down at a steep angle, and then by another the Fuller’s Earth is brought down to the same level. It is from the Oolite Marl section that I have obtained certain species of Brachiopoda which I propose to bring to the notice of the Club, and which, as I have been unable to find them figured in either English or Continental authors, I believe to be new. T also take this opportunity to describe and figure two other species, (ZT. pisolithica and Rh Hampenensis) about which a good deal of confusion has existed for some time. I think I shall be able to show that they differ in certain definite respects from any species at present known. DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES FIGURED. TEREBRATULA NoTGRoviENsSIS, S. Buck. Plate ITI, fig. 5a, b, c. A strongly biplicated species, longer than wide, somewhat tumid, the smaller valve more particularly so at the umbo; beak extremely short, obliquely truncated, and pierced by a large, almost circular, foramen; marginal line much recurved at the side biplications close together, small and somewhat —_ =. i al he 39 deep; the furrows extending about one half up the larger valve, not quite so much up the smaller, and giving the posterior part of the shell a somewhat elongated pinched appearance; central fold in the smaller valve narrow, but prominent. The young of this species, as is usual, are flatter, with the biplications proportionally wider apart and less conspicuous. This ab present rare species has probably been considered identical with, or a variety of, Terebratula Eudesi, Oppet. In fact Mr J. F. Watxer, F.G.8., told me that he had procured Tereb. Hudesi from the Oolite Marl of the Cotteswolds, and the first specimen that I found I considered merely a variety of that species. This species differs however from Tereb. Eudesi in the following respects:—It is proportionally longer, the folds closer together, furrows more marked in the larger valve, pinched appearance posteriorly and the beak short, with large foramen; while the beak of T. Eudesi is longer, is much incurved, and has a smaller foramen. The beak is the best distinguishing point between the two species. I have only found Terebratula notgroviensis in the Oolite Marl at Notgrove Station, Gloucestershire. It is very rare. P.8.— Since the above was first written I have found this species at Ravensgate hill, in the Oolite Marl, rather more frequent than at Notgrove, but the specimens are generally very poor. Waxpuermia (ZErLER1A) WITCHELLI, S. Buck. Plate IIT, fig. 4a, b, ¢. Shell longer than broad, more or less regularly oval; valves convex, the larger more prominently so; no biplications; valves almost entirely smooth ; beak long, much produced, incurved ; small foramen; beak hanging over, but well separated from the umbo, showing the deltidial plates. This species, being found in the same bed as Waldheimia Leckenbyi, Waker, might at first be mistaken for it. It is however of totally different structure and proportions. It possesses no ridges of growth; it is not sub-angular, like W. Leckenbyi, but of an oval shape, more elongated, especially the 40 anterior portion. Its beak is also peculiarly long, overhanging and incurved, and its beak ridges are not sharply defined. Its base is not thickened, but is acute. It is narrower and longer, and altogether of slighter build. Waldheimia Witchelli occurs in the Oolite Marl at Notgrove Station, and is at present very rare. (I name this species in compliment to my friend, Mr E. Wircnett, F.G.8., of Stroud, to whom I am indebted for much kindness and assistance.) Dovvittt, in a paper on “Certain Genera of Brachiopoda,” in the Bulletin de la Société géologique, Vol. VII, 1878-1879, pp. 251—277, considers that the generic name Waldheimia should be restricted to that group of which Waldheimia flavescens, Lamarck, sp., is the type, and he divides the rest of the Waldheimie into several genera. I have previously seen the discrepancies which existed between certain Waldheimie of the Oolite rocks and the type Waldheimia flavescens, and I certainly agree in their being separated. Dovvitii* proposed the name Aulacothyris for those Waldhei- mic with a furrow in the dorsal valve, and selected, as his type, Aulacothyris resupinata, Sow. Bayxe,t on the other hand, had proposed the name Zeilleria for those with more or less indented bases, his type being Zeilleria cornuta, Sow. Dovvin1e includes in Zeilleria such species as the one before us, and W. Leckenbyi, Wanker, would naturally belong to the genus; but at the same time certain specimens which I have not yet seen my way to separate from Wald. Leckenbyi occur with it, having a slight median furrow. There occur also varieties of Wald. Anglica, Opren., and Wald. Dorsetensis, Watxer, with this median furrow, of which I possess specimens in my collection; see also Davipson Brachiopoda, sup., Plate XXIV, fig. 8, (but Ap. to sup. Plate XX, fig. 159) Derstonescuames, Brachiopodes, Plate LXII, fig. 8, gives a drawing of a specimen of (he says) Wald. carinata, without a median furrow; and I have specimens in my collection very much resembling Wald. carinata, but * “ Douvillé, Brachiopodes, Bulletin Soc. géol. de France,” 3rd series, t. VII, p. 251. + “Bayle, Explication de la Carte géol. d. 1. France,” Plate IX. 41 which have really no median furrow. Therefore the subject requires considerable study, and the division between certain forms of Aulacothyris and Zeilleria will have to be clearly defined. TEREBRATULA PisoLiTHica, S. Buck. Plate ITI, fig. la, b, ¢. Shell nearly circular, biplicated, the furrows not extending one-third up the valves; furrows rather shallow, somewhat close together, and projected forward beyond the regular curve of the dorsal valve; middle furrow in dorsal valve shallower than the laterals, slightly larger than the furrows in the ventral valve; valves moderately and almost equally convex; beak fairly well developed, incurved, slightly overhanging the dorsal valve, separated from it by a rather small space, and almost concealing the deltidial plates; foramen* circular, but with an outer area, of which the outer rim has its lower portion flattened, and its two lower corners projecting more or less. This is a biplicated species, which has for a long time been observed in the Cotteswolds, though it has not been figured or described, so far as Iam aware, but has generally been con- sidered a variety of first one species and then another. The species to which it is nearest allied are Terebratula ifra-ooli- thica, Desu., which occurs in the opalium zone in Dorset and Somerset, Terebratula. ewides, S. Bucx., Murchisone zone, Dorset,t and Terebratula Stephani, Dav., Parkinsoni zone, Dorset and Somerset. T. infra-oolithica however has the length of its two valves nearly equal, the beak obliquely truncated, not incurved, and with longer beak ridges.t Terebratula ewides differs by its laterally pinched beak, prominent beak ridges,§ and conspicuous carina down the larger valve. Terebratula Stephani, (in its typical form,) is best distinguished from our * This kind of foramen is possessed by Terebratula simplex, BucK., and is well shown in Davinson’s Brachiopoda, Plate VIII, figs. 1 and 2. + L lately described this species in the “ Geological Magazine,” May, 1886, page 218. See Dav. Brach. Ap. to Sup. pl. 19, fig. 4, T. Flerscheri (non Oppel). { Vide. fig. 3. § Vide. fig. 2. 42 species by longer, more oval shape, and carina down its larger valve, and its beak, though overhanging the dorsal valve, is separated further from it, and shows the deltidial plates. Our species has generally been classed as variety of Tereb. perovalis and also of T. globata, but is really more distinct from these than from the other species I have mentioned. From the first by its circular shape, conspicuous elevated biplications and incurved beak; while T’. globata is best known from it by having its beak so distinctly separated from the umbo, and showing the deltidial plates so clearly. Terebratula pisolithica, as its name implies, occurs in the Pea Grit or Pisolite, (Murchisone zone) and I have it from Leck- hampton, Crickley and Birdlip hills, also Selsley hill, near Stroud. Really good specimens are scarce, for, though not uncommon, it is frequently somewhat crushed. RAYNCHONELLA HAMPENENSIS, S. Buck. Plate ITI, fig. 6a, b, c. Rather wider than long; beak acute, incurved; foramen sepa- rated from the umbo by a slight portion of the deltidial plates ; valves unequal, the dorsal being larger and more tumid than the other ; seven to eight plaits each side of the fold, six to seven on the fold, which is slightly elevated, and leaves a certain well defined but not deep sinus in the larger valve; sinus extends only about half way up the valve; beak ridges fairly well defined, with a shallow false area. This species is most nearly allied to Rhynchonella concinna, Sowrrsy, from the Great Oolite and Cornbrash. It is dis- tinguished however by having fewer plaits, which are consequently larger. It is also less tumid, rather broader, the two valves are more nearly of a similar convexity, and the beak is more produced and incurved, and generally, if not always, has the foramen, which is small, surrounded by the deltidial plates. From Rhynch. subtetrahedra* it is distinguished by greater depth, a regularly distinctive raised fold, instead of a gradual slope. * The type form figured by Davipson, Brachiopoda, Plate XVI, fig. 9. Several other forms occurring in the Inf. Oolite are frequently confounded with this, and hence error in discrimination might arise. PLATE |II. 43 This species varies somewhat. It has a thicker, more convex form, which is however to be distinguished by its very coarse ribs from any form of Rh. concinna, This species characterises the upper beds of the Inferior Oolite, occurring along with Tereb. globata. I have it from Hampen, rather abundant, near Notgrove Station, Naunton, and other places, also Selsley and Rodborough hills, near Stroud. I have obtained it also from Blackford and Cadbury, in Somersetshire, but do not know of its occurrence in Dorset- shire. Jt therefore occurs in the zone of Parkinsoni in the Cotteswolds and south of the Mendips. EXPLANATION OF PLATE. Fig. la, b,c. Terebratula pisolithica, S. Buck. Pea Grit, Crickley Hill. My collection. Fig. 2. Beak of Terebratula ewides, S. Buck. To compare with Terebratula pisolithica, showing prominent beak ridges, and lateral compression of beak. Type specimen in my collection. This is the specimen figured by Davipson, Appendix to Sup., Plate XIX, fig. 4, but the character of the beak is not brought out. Fig. 3. Terebratula infraoolithica, EH. Desu. Copied from his Brachiopodes, Plate LVIII, fig. 7d, to compare with side view of Tereb. pisolithica as to beak and margin. Fig. 4a, b,c. Waldheimia Witchelli, S. Buck. Oolite Marl, Notgrove Station. My collection. Fig. 5a, b,c. Terebratula Notgroviensis, 8. Bucx. Oolite ; Marl, Notgrove Station. My collection. ' Fig. 6a, b.c. BRhynchonella hampenensis, S. Buck. Inf. Oolite, Naunton. My collection. On the Mode of Propagation of the Common Eel, read at the Annual Meeting of the Cotteswold Club, on Tuesday, May 4th, 1886. By Francis Day, C.I.E., F.L.S., ete. Among the many forms of fishes which are resident in fresh water, there is scarcely one that has been the origin of so much controversy as the common Hel, Anguilla vulgaris. Subdivided into three (1) species, in accordance with the sharpness or blunt- ness of its snout, or the amount of.development occurring in its lips, it is not surprising that some systematists have been slow to accept the correctness of the opinions of Field Natural- ists and Fish Culturists, that these different peculiarities are merely evidences of sex, or the result of accidental causes. I shall, without further discussion on this point, consider that it has been abundantly proved that in this country we merely possess a single species of Hel pertaining to the genus Anguilla, and that it is a catadromous form, or one which migrates to the mouths of rivers and the sea when desirous of continuing its kind. If, however, the many varieties of this fish have been the cause of countless disputes among systematists, still greater have been the differences of opinion respecting its mode of propagation, and this even from the earliest times. ARISTOTLE imagined that they were spontaneously generated, unless they spring from mud or slime, adducing as a reason that no adult Kel had ever been seen which contained either hard or soft roe. This gave occasion to one of the Grecian poets to observe that, since all children whose paternity was doubtful were popularly ascribed to Juprrer, possibly he ought likewise to be looked upon as the progenitor of the Hels. Privy had an idea that the fragments of the skin of the parent, which had been rubbed 45 off against rocks or other hard substances, developed into the young fish. While Hretmonr gave the following recipe for their propagation :—Cut up two turfs covered with May dew, lay one against the other, with their grassy sides turned inwards, subsequently expose them to the heat of the sun, and, after a few hours, the observer ought to find an infinity of Eels. Horsehair, taken from the tail of a stallion, has been looked upon as a never-failing source from which Elvers (as young Eels are termed) could be procured. While parasitic worms, as Ascaris, have been repeatedly exhibited, after they have been removed from the intestines of these fish, as the developing young. It has also been asserted that Hels may be produced from some fish belonging to a totally distinct family of the finny tribes; and Dr Eversarp, of Rostock, having found some elongated tiny young inside the viviparous blenny, imagined that he at last had solved the enigma, and discovered immature Eels; in fact, at Commachio this slimy blenny goes by a name which, being interpreted, means “el’s mother,” as it is also termed in many parts of Germany. Still more common was an old opinion, and which idea is said to be still prevalent in some localities, that the Eel inter-breeds with the water-snake, while in Sardinia a notion exists that a beetle, Dytiscus roeselii, is the procreator of the Hels. Along our own coasts fishermen may be found who believe that after the Eels have once bred they change into congers; for, as they ask, who ever saw an adult Eel re-ascending rivers from the ocean? While in some parts of Ireland the superstition still appears to hold good that they are the descendants of the serpents on which St. Parrick served a writ of ejectment, depriving them of any local habita- tion on dry land. Even in Cambridgeshire a tradition exists that when the clergy refused to accede to the Pope’s order to put away their wives, the latter, as well as their offspring, were turned into Eels, whence originated the name of the town of Ely! In the seventeenth century both Repr and Pavxint expressed their opinions that hard and soft roes must exist in these fishes, although they had been unable to discover such. 46 Monpin1, at Bologna, in 1775, gave a very accurate description, accompanied by some excellent illustrations of the ovaries of this fish, as observed by himself, and which were published in 1783. Almost simultaneously, or in 1780, O. F. Mtiuer printed a description of the ovaries of this fish, which, as he observed, are in the form of a frill-shaped band, extending along either side of the abdomen, reaching anteriorily to the fore part of the liver, and posteriorily to the vent, while imbedded in this frill-shaped band are numerous eggs. He likewise pointed out that there is no duct from these ovaries; consequently the ova must fall into the abdominal cavity before they are extruded. The following are the three forms which have been described as species:—(1) The “Grig” or “Glut-Hel,” Anguilla latirostris, of a light colour, having a broad head and snout, the dorsal fin commencing further back than in the next variety, the distance between its origin and that of the anal fin being less than the length of the head, while its dorsal fin is higher and its eyes - smaller than in the sharp-snouted form. (2) The “sharp- snouted Hel,” A. acutirostris, of a dark, even bronze colour. Its snout is sharp, its dorsal fin lower, and its eye larger than in the broad-snouted form. (3) There is also a well-marked, non-migratory, fierce and voracious form, generally very broad- snouted when large, which is not choice in its food, and the flavour, when in inland waters, is anything but satisfactory. These appear to be sterile females, which have taken up their abode in fresh waters, but as some have been observed migrating seawards at the annual breeding season, their sterility may only be temporary. Itis rather remarkable that so long ago. as 1740 Wixuiamson (“British Angler”) observed “he and she Kels may be distinguished by their fins.” But shortly afterwards a new difficulty occurred; the cele- brated naturalist the Abbé Spatuanzani, Royal Professor of Natural History in the University of Pavia, studied this question during the autumn of 1792, on Hels taken from the lagoons of the Po, near Commachio. He came to the conclusion that the ovaries which had been discovered and described by Monprn1 were nothing more nor less than fatty folds. The erroneous e 47 opinion of this eminent physiologist had a most unfortunate result in discouraging inquiries, and it was not until about thirty years subsequently that Professor Raruxe, of Kénigsberg, re-investigated the subject, and re-discovered what Monprn1 had elucidated more than half a_century previously. But although this last naturalist, at least in Germany, has been regarded as the discoverer of the female generative organs of the Hel, he really merely confirmed Monprn1’s observations. Naturalists having conclusively arrived at the point that female Hels had been found, became rather mystified, as they could not understand where they had to look for the male element, so the idea took root that these fishes might be hermaphrodites, and this raised the anatomist’s curiosity as to how such could be proved. It was now observed that, in addition to the frill-shaped band, the undoubted ovaries which contained eggs, there was a second fatty band running along one side of the intestines, and here spermatozoids or milt were said to have been discovered. This, it was supposed, solved the difficulty ; but, unfortunately for this theory, it was ascertained that the microscopists had been in error. What had been mistaken for spermatozoids were, in fact, fatty cells or crystalline bodies, which latter substances are not infrequently present in fat. This left the question still unsettled; the female was known, but so far the male had been entirely overlooked. It was not until November 29, 1873, that Syrsx1, at Trieste, obtained an Hel nearly sixteen inches in length, and in which he observed that, besides. being deficient in ovaries, it was possessed of an undescribed organ, which he correctly concluded must be those of the male, thus disposing of the hermaphrodite theory. Since that period many have been discovered, and it has been remarked that they are generally of a smaller size than the females.* * On the other hand, Dr Gtnrurr, in his “ Introduction to the Study of Fishes,” (1880,) disposed. of the investigations on the breeding of Eels, made up to that period, remarking :—‘‘ Their mode of propagation is still unknown. So much only is certain, that they do not spawn in fresh water, that many full- grown individuals, but not all, descend rivers during the winter months, and that some of them spawn in brackish water, or in deep water in the sea.” Likewise, in opposition to most observers, he stated that “‘ The majority of the 48 For the generation of Hels it would seem, so far as we at present are aware, that the presence of salt water is a necessity, for it has been observed that when these fish leave rivers and brackish waters for the sea, their reproductive organs have scarcely begun to develop. But their maturing in the sea must be rapid, because in five or six weeks they have arrived at a breeding condition. This rapidity of maturing in the breeding organs would seem to be a cause of extreme exhaustion. Consequently, after the breeding season is over they die, simi- larly to lampreys and several other piscine forms; and this furnishes the explanation why subsequent to this period old Eels are not observed re-ascending rivers. The appearance of the generative organs in Hels at the breeding season may be shortly described as follows :—On opening a female, besides the liver, intestinal canal, and’ an elongated air bladder, which is pointed at both ends, one sees on either side a white or yellowish band extending from the liver backwards, as far as the vent. This band is rather broad, and shaped like a frill, while its inner edge is attached by a narrow slip of membrane to the air bladder. These frill-like bands contain a large amount of fat, in which. . numerous eggs may be found to be embedded. Should a piece be torn off with a pin, and the drops of fat carefully removed by wiping, the ova may be seen in the form of small white dots, and, placed under the microscope, all doubts as to what they are will be at once solved. But large eggs, or those on the point of becoming detached from the ovary, in order to be deposited, fecundated, and subsequently hatched into young Eels, have yet to be discovered, and such will probably only be found in fish captured at some distance out at sea, or else in such as have been detained in an aquarium. The generative organs of the male Kel, as I have already remarked, show no frill-like bands, but the observer must not Eels which migrate tothe sea appear to return to fresh water, but not ina body, but irregularly, and throughout the warmer part ,of the year,” (page 672.) Buckianp having remarked that it is disputed whether the parent Fels ever return into rivers, continued ‘‘my own opinion is that they do so,” and the “ up-parent Eels,” he fancied, went singly. \ ~ t ¥ , : 4 49 mistake the two fatty folds for these frill-like ones. Syrsxr discovered these male organs by turning to one side and laying back the fatty folds, when they appeared as a very narrow light band, connected on either side to the vertebral column, often so narrow, and with an appearance so glass-like and transparent, that they could only be recognised by the naked eye when held in an oblique direction towards the sun. But the presence of spermatozoids in these male organs still remained undetected, their form and undisputable living movements not having been seen; consequently it would seem to be necessary that males, as well as females, must have first entered salt water before this development can take place. In 1881 Dr Hermes, when examining a conger that had died in the Havre Aquarium, found in it the same Syrsx1an or male organs as had been discovered in the common freshwater Eel, but much more largely developed. On its being cut into a milky fluid exuded, which, under the microscope, with a power of 450 diameters, showed a large number of spermatozoa, all in the liveliest state of motion, and in which their heads and tails were distinctly visible, thus conclusively setting at rest all discussion on the true character of these organs. Sterile female Hels, which may be permanently or merely temporarily in this condition, have their ovaries in a very anomalous condition. Instead of the fatty and yellowish-white frilled band will be seen a thin frothy-looking band, destitute of fat, and having very few folds—it is often as transparent as glass, but otherwise of the same length and breadth as the normal frill-like bands. In its substance eggs may be detected with the aid of the microscope; but they are transparent. These Hels have generally, not invariably, been found to be very broad-headed ones, mostly possessing very small eyes, while in those present in brackish water marshes their flavour is stated to be delicious, and they are much sought after by epicures. Having thus briefly described the anatomical appearances observed in the sexual organs of Hels of both sexes, as well as of sterile ones, it becomes necessary to allude to the localities in which each of these forms may be normally found. Here, E 50 again, imagination seems to have mixed up facts with fiction, and it has been maintained that should very young ones be introduced from the mouths of rivers into inland pieces of water, they invariably develop into fish of the female sex, as it was supposed males were never to be seen in fresh water. Whether these waters are really conducive to the destruction of young male Hels appears to be a subject requiring further elucidation. The female Hels are those which are usually captured when descending towards the mouths of rivers during the autumn months, while such as are developing towards a breeding con- dition do not seem to feed at these periods. Males have been usually obtained from the mouths of rivers or in brackish waters; and Dr Pav, having discovered that among elvers captured from near this locality a considerable percentage were males, ascertained (at least so he asserts) that, when transported to fresh waters, they there retained their masculine character, developing into adults. Some have been captured ten or twelve miles up rivers, and, although male Hels undoubtedly ascend rivers, their proportionate numbers to that of females decreases in accordance to distance from the sea. Sterile Hels are found in fresh waters, and likewise in those which are brackish, where they may often be captured feeding. But these fish of course cannot increase in numbers unless they have access to the sea, consequently above impassable barriers they die out, should no young be introduced.* The migrations of these fishes may be said to be two annu- ally, adults descending seawards to breed, as they do in the Severn, about the month of September, but which migration in Norfolk is asserted to begin as early as July. There is likewise an up-stream migration of young Hels or Elvers+ in the earlier * The reader is referred to a most interesting paper upon Eels, which has been published in the Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission for 1881. + Mr Wixt1s-Bunp, Chairman ef the Severn Fishery Board, writes as follows of the migrations of these fishes in the lower Teme and Severn Fisheries above Worcester :—‘‘ The first that ascend the river are called Elvers, they come in March and April ; then come a larger and darker form, - 51 months of the year up to May or June, or even later; during this period the banks of the river being in places black with these migrating little fishes. * These young Eels have been observed to ascend flood gates of locks, to creep up water pipes or drains; in short, mechanical difficulties scarcely obstruct them; they will even make a circuit over a wet piece of ground in order to attain a desirable spot. But these Hel-fares have been so fully described that further remarks upon them seem to be unnecessary ; neither do I propose giving an account of the life history of Hels or the laws which have been enacted for their preservation or destruction, as the case may be. from six inches in length, called Elver-boults, (still ascending on September 4th, 1886.) The next variety, from six to ten inches, are termed Snigs ; when still larger they are called Putcheon Eels. Eels four or five to the pound go by the name of Stick-Eels ; and if of half a pound as Shutlings ; all upwards of this weight as Eels. The first Eels that descend in June are ‘ Stick-Eels ;’ the smaller forms only migrate up-stream. In August and September the ‘Stick Eels’ and ‘Shutlings’ arrive ; and during September and October the large Hels descend seawards. The foregoing are irrespective of forms which always remain in the river, and are called Glut-Eels; their heads are very large, they are of a dark colour.” * A member present/at the meeting observed that three tons weight of elvers had been sent from the Gloucester district inland in one day in May, 1886, and that these are made into elver cakes. As Mr Sxaty, of Bridge- water, (April, 1869) proved that it took 14,087 of these fishes to make a lb., or upwards of three millions to the ton, the injury thus inflicted on these fisheries must be serious. While we are told by the “ Inspector of Fisheries,” 1885, that “‘ the present consumption of Hels in London may be considered to be at least 1650 tons a year, witha value of £130,000; of these about 1000 tons are imported from Holland, and worth rather more than £80,000, that 450 tons, annually, with a value of £58,500 were from Ireland, 50 tons, valued at £6,500 from Scotland, and 20,000 lb. every week or ten days from Germany. E2 Some Notes on the Hydrology of the Cotteswolds and the District around Swindon. By Joun H. Taunton, M. Inst. C.E., F.G.S. A lengthened residence in the neighbourhood of the Cottes- wolds, associated with professional pursuits in the district, as well as in North Wilts, has led to the collection of various Hydrological facts and many observations that may be of interest to the Cotteswold Club, and which may possibly be usefully placed among its archives. Accordingly in this paper I propose generally to consider those streams which, rising in the Cotteswolds and flowing south-east and eastwards, constitute, in conjunction with the tributaries rising in the hills south of Swindon that flow almost due north, the Early Thames at Lechlade; then I will make some remarks on the two streams the Chelt and the Frome that break through the escarpment of the Cotteswold chain, flowing westwards towards the Severn. T shall not weary you with any long statements of rainfall in the districts referred to, my observations having rather reference to the Ontology, or actual flow of the streams as I have found them, than to the Deontology, as deducible from rainfall; still as the amount of rain falling constitutes an important element in the general subject, and its record may be advantageously placed among our papers, I annex rainfall observations made at or in the neighbourhood of Thames Head between 1845 and 1886, (Tables Nos. 1 and 2.) Similar ones at Brimscombe Port between 1861 and 1886, (Table No. 3.) Average 1878-79 | 1879-80 | 1880-81 | 1881-82 | 1882-83 | 1883-84 | 1884-85 | 1885-86 | of 25 yeais ins. ins.| ins. ins.| ins. ins. | ins. ins.| ins. ins. | ins. ins. | ins. ins. | ins. ins. inches 4°65 2°96 0°65 158 1°69 1:39 0°85 2:07 1:92 3-14 531 1:19 2-40 3°36 4-66 Deine 1-72 2°33 181 2°49 6°29 2°16 5°13 3°95 3°19 0°42 2°58 4°42 4°77 0°73 5:09 3°03 0°97 1°51 2°22 2 63 2°75 3:17 4°67 1°45 3°90 4:69 1:40 3°50 3°39 3°41 0°55 618 2°00 6°52 2°63 1:00 2°84 313 20-18 1925 1911 463 (2363 1829 (10-72 [1277 | 1598 321 |0-49 3°51 4:09 542 1 1°78 4:99] 0°91 1-40] 3°31 6°82] 3°09 7°18] 3°56 4°24] 3: 343 0°55 0.73 1°89 3°64 67 8-98] 0°57 5:58 3:97 2°84 364 5:28 3°92 2:36 4:40 1-45 3°62 0°70 2°30 1:39 1:20 ; : 0°79 1:98 3 0- 0°96 2:03 2-08 1:90 2°59 7 2°47 2:08 0-49 3°41 1°31 = SS ee EE EEE 15°49 1134 [1404 Ho74 [1958 [13-23 [1522 [5-40 | 14-95 aa | 3050 | 33°75 | 31°42 | 43°16 | 31°52 | 25°94. | | 98.17 | 30°93 No. 1 RAINFALL OBSERVATIONS MADE BY MR THOS. C. BROWN, AT FURTHER BARTON, TWO MILES FROM THAMES HEAD GAUGE 400 rt, ABOVE SEA LEVEL SS ir pp ype ee Average 1856-57 | 1857-58 | 1858-59 | of 14 years | | | 1845-46 | 1846-47 | 1847-48 | 1848-49 | 1849-50 | 1850-51 | 1851-52 | 1852-53 | 1853-54 | 1854-55 ins. ins, | ins. ins.| ins. ine,| ins. ins. ins. ins.| ins. ins.! ins. ins.| ins. ing. | ins. ins, 5 ingina! | taaeine | ias eines inches May 350 145 j June 1 2 July i August 1 September 270 | October 147 | [is87 1189 ©2700. 2098 21 SUMMER RAINFALL November 20 | 1.70 164 | 8°95 December .. 830.630) LOO B63 5 4°30 13°25) 1-00 148 3:00) January £65 3 L 110, or February .. 1:40) 40) 4:05) 1 ] 1:05 March i | 1:87, 1:80) 3:20) 0-90) 0°50) 1:00 April 3°65 1°58 3°50) 3°10) 4:33 3 0-70) 2°56) 0: 060) | | — Winter Rainvatn 17.67 [1125 118.36 = (1294/1408 «1665 = [10°89 (21-96 802. | 13.33 | | | | | | RAINFALL FOR YEAR | 34:39 28°86 | 34:34 | 33°74 | 2752 | 3252 | 22-78 | 48:96 | 29-00 | 20°03 | 31°54 | 3117 | 23°66 | 2611 30°33 No. 2 RAINFALL OBSERVATIONS MADE BY MR J. H. TAUNTON, AT THE PUMPING ESTABLISHMENT OF THE THAMES AND SEVERN CANAL COMPANY, AT THAMES HEAD GAUGE 350 rt. ABOVE SEA LEVEL | | | | | ] | | | | | Average | 1859-60 | 1860-61 | 1861-62 | 1862-63 | 1863-64 | 1S8li4-65 | 1865-66 | 1866-67 | 1867-68 | 1 1869-70 | 1870-71 | 1871-72 | 1872-73 1874-75 1875-76 | 1876-77 | 1877-78 | 1878-79 | 1879-80 | 1880-81 | 1881-82 | 1882-83 | 1883-84 | 1884-85 | 1885-86 | of 27 Years | set | : : me I eal oe) pee od iris li | _| ins, ine,| ins. ina.| ins. ins. | ins. ins.| ins, ins. | ins. ins.| ins. ins.| ins. ins.| ins. ins. | i ins, ins.| ins, ins, | ins, ins.| ins, ins. ins. ins,| ins, ina,| ins. ins, | ins, ins,| ins, ins,| ins, ins, ins. ins.) jns, ins,| ins. ins.| ins, ins. | ins. ins. | ins, ins. inches May 116 399 151 | 189 | 0:81 241 Oe 199 June 148 0-72 | 3:47 166 2°49 July | | 053 j118 = | 395 6:00 278 August | \4 } 1-48 \9-49 | O79 2°80 September : | 4-26 |1-04 | | | £10 3:08 October | | 1:99) 321 |4st | 1:81 210 | 5:72 316 z eee | | — | | | = SUMMER RAINFALL vf14e51 (20°39 1087/1749) [L452 | {13°62 11-63 [14-95 [1128 20-09 18:25 |1R84 [1439 22°60 ‘1919 24-91 1630 November : Lowa lo | b08 loss | 3°72 410 é | f : 497 2:84. December | O1) 1-65 5) 16 3:06 5 90 7-16 10°88} 201 6°11) 1- rO1 13 i "28 8:78) 0-64 4-45) 3° 1-27 6-24 2°66 January 70, | 2-41) B45 +70) Y 421) 3°02 February 2 2 O46 1-60) 2:17| 1-78] 2 O81 237 March +80 3:00) lll 100 244 201 April 2-47] 1-08 | 1-09 2-09} 1:72} =1:92 Winter RATNPALL 1374 18:07 1644 [9-04 [1102 Ha 85 |1518 [13-76 | Ti4d [1625 [1908 11-65 {16-22 119 9°65 1530 15-42 1482 | | | | | : ] ] / | § - F ' RAINFALL FOR YEAR | 28°25 | 3346 | 2831 | 2553 | 92554 | 21:31 | 3208 | 3214 | 2587 | 2240 | 28°55 | 22°69 | 36°34 | 3733 | 2549 | 3061 | 4203 | 2647 3148 | 3710 | 33°22 | 3442 | $344 | 4301 | 3060 | 2712 | 2947 3112 No. 3 RAINFALL OBSERVATIONS MADE BY MR J. H. TAUNTON, AT BRIMSCOMBE PORT GAUGE 200 rr. ABOVE SEA LEVEL . -_—_O OOOO C .00_____O .0SS90 99 5 900 I aan—0 oe Sw OO —ee_———e—— | | | | | Average 1861-62 | 1862-63 | 1° (3-64 | 1864-65 | 1865-66 | 1866-67 | 1807-68 | 1868-69 | 1869-70 | 1870-71 | 1871-72 1878-74 | 1874-75 1876-77 | 1877-78 | 1878-79 | 1879-80 | 1880-31 | 1881-82 | 1882-83 | 1883-84) 1884-85 | 1885-86 | of 25 years Ae | i fe belle ar yeaa lee ee | - - ee = = ins. ins. | ing. ins,| ins, ins, | ins. ins.| ins. ins.| ins. ins.| ins. ins.| ins. ins. | ins. ins.| ins. ms.| ins, ins, ins, ins.| ins ins. | ins, ins ins. ins, | ins. ins.| ins. ins.| ins, ins,| ins, ins.| ins. ins. ins, ins. | ins. ins. inches May 211 ro 216 O57 | 269 65 169 O;8B ae June 043 (57 405 eult July 14-31 118 455 ut) August 419 319 0-98 1by September R i % 7 3°30 317 140 October... 153 | 416 215 © | 452 3°85 7-26 0-55 200, =k Si el | : a -— — 79 0-77 SUMMER RAINFALL 14:10 2056 1584 1034 [1556 [18-96 {11°33 12-62 22°83 13°89 16-60 2018 19°25 1072 [1277 «i . “49 4:00 November 065 |234 |a12 | 252 407 049 bee 065 5:06 December 22} 191 5:68 8:02| 4-08 6:20) 2-00 + 5 1°91 5:98 -99) 0°91 1-40) 356 8:98 Aone January 44 ( 3:97 nr February 87 4:40 0°70 March 63 0:96 1-39 April 096 0-72 33 EE : 247 og = Winter Rarwract | 870 969 243 \aao 4-40 12°80 [934 (2230 1368 1549 1134 [1404 16-74 [1953 H8Bs 15-22 | | | | | | | RAINFALL FoR vEAR| 3119 | 2996 | 25:53 | 2247 | 306 | 3345 | o0¢ | a0-77 | 28-7@ | 252 | 33m | 3711 | 2406 | e766 | 4217 35:67 | 3059 | 33-75 | 3142 | 4316 | 3152 | 2594 | 2817 | 3093 53 Those three Tables being arranged according to the system of M. Bexeranp, dividing the year into two equal portions, namely, the hot or Summer season, extending from 1st May to the end of October, and the cold (Winter) season, comprising the other six months. Also extracts from the Rev. T. A. Preston’s returns, being the annual rainfall at New Swindon between 1874 and 1884 inclusive, (Table No. 4, see page 61.) The drainage area of the various streams is exhibited on the _ Map, (Drawing No. 1) and may be stated as follows :— TRIBUTARIES OF THE RIVER THAMES ABOVE LECHLADE, WITH THEIR RESPECTIVE DRAINAGE AREAS. hd partially | Im ble} Drai an aria. permeabie rainage NAME Ueeeeagie, Ground ene Ground River Churn tos it fee ...| 40 sq. miles | 15 sq. miles | 55 sq. miles un Coln we ..| 47 do. 16 do. 63. do. Ampney and Mar ston Brooks ... 28 = do. 10 do. 38 ~— do. Thames Proper. Streams flowing S. E. ) & E., being the Ewen, &c., ;| 30 do. 27.25 do. 57.25 do. and the Swill Brook ' " Streams flowing N.&N.E,, being the rivers Ray, Shire Ditch, Bide Mill Brook & (| 39-75 do. 70 do. {109.75 do. Cole.. Ais Total ... ...|184.75 do. 138.25 do. 323 ~— do. River Frome, to Downton and Stone- house Mills es Or Feat 65 do. 14 do, 79 do. un Chelt ree ade bate Sas ido: 2 do. 3 = do. _ First, as regards the flow of the Thames at Lechlade, resulting from the gathering ground, of which the area as stated is 323 square miles, it will be convenient to take some _ known standard, with the view to comparison, say so many cubic feet flow per minute for each square mile of drainage area. I do notthink that I can take a better than one from the river Thames itself above tidal influence, as flowing over Teddington weir. The drainage area above this has been _ definitely ascertained to be 3,676 sq. miles, and the dry weather flow 12 cubic feet, or 75 gallons per minute for each sq. mile, whilst the maximum flow in periods of excessive flood may be approximately stated at thirty times as much. The Thames at Lechlade is not an easy river t the want period in fixing stop planks across 54 the result :— o gauge, from of a suitable overfall, but in 1867, at a short water October and November, I had the opportunity of the St. John’s lock, and taking a number of gaugings with much care there. The following was (or meet bee Bee ole Time of Depth of | Cubic feet Gallons Gauging Overfall | per minute per Diem ——— Date 1867 October Inches y 1.30 p.m. 113° 10.30a.m. | 11 2,900 26,024,832 430pm. | 114 Morning 123 ; Evening 12 31,822,081 Morning 1435 Evening 143 46,799,826 Morning 123 Evening 122 33, 204,096 Morning 112 ’ Evening 114 2,930 26,294,052 Morning 11¢ Byening 111 3,040 27,281,200 Morning 111 PA Evening 104 2,870 25,755, 604 Evening 104 2,790 25,037,676 Morning 103 Evening 103 Morning gs Morning 92 Evening 98 Morning 12% Evening 14 2,645 23,736,438 2,295 20,595,506 2,456 -| 22,040,336 } Morni 114 | orning a \ j j 40,517,970 Inches 19 Rainfall 55 Dato se | Zimg.ct | Bont at [cutie oet] Gatignsper | ainta ‘November Inches Tahoe ; -10 2 3 + 5 6 7 8 9 10 i1 12 13 . -26 “ <24 16 17 18 19 20 21 + Evening 8 1,800 | 12,153,344* Morning 91) Ze Evening 8 ( 1,935 17,364,842 Morning gl ! : oi Evening 9° } 2,167 19,446,826 Morning 20 | as Evening | 7e¢ | 1470. | 18,191,8924 : Morning 8 ) 26 Hyenine 7 1,650 | 14,807,228 Morning gs af Evening 9° } 2,032 18,235,328+ i 1 4 ee o 2,032 | 18,235,328 Evening 81 . Morning 8 "s , a Evening ait 1,785 16,018,726 Morning 8h 30 Rivaniue ai 2,083 | 11,693,002 05 December : ‘i spaeierl 123 3,402 | 30,529,820 2 Total .65 Averages. . 2,035 18,267, 633 897,408 sured and included in October Estimated leakage at St. Weir, mea- 100 Gaugings Seo ee er 2,135 19,165.04 4 /- Showing a minimum flow of about 20 millions of gallons per diem froma drainage area of 323 sq. miles, which would give nearly seven cubic feet per sq. mile per minute. * The stop planks having been removed were re-fixed this day. + Mills on the Colne above, not at work. t¢ Sunday, and heavy rain commences. 56 The ordinary summer flow may exceed this probably to the extent of 50 to 100 per cent., making it say 30 or 40 millions of gallons per diem ordinary summer flow; 323 sq. miles, at 12 cubic feet per sq.' mile per minute, would give 34,884,000 “gallons per diem, and about 1,046 millions of gallons per diem e excessive flood flow, if taken to be 30 times as much, a volume of water that it would seem there should be no great difficulty in carrying off by the simple removal of obstructions and a better regulated passage for the flood waters. As to the flood flow of the Thames, and indeed of all rivers, that materially depends upon the proportion of rainfall which finds its way into the river, which varies with the nature of the strata of the basin and the season of the year. The height of a river is also influenced by the period occupied by the rainfall in reaching the river. Mr Vernon Harcourt, in an admirable paper lately read by him to the Institution of Civil Engineers on the Seine, the drainage area of which, with its tributaries, is about six times that of the Thames, but which river bears much resem- blance to the Thames and its tributaries in Geological character through a large portion of the districts which they respectively traverse, points out that although the rainfall over the Seine basin above Paris is greater in summer than in winter in the proportion of 21 to 17 about, yet the flow of the river at Paris is nearly double through the winter months what it is through the summer months, or adopting the carefully elabo- rated returns of the French Engineers, “the winter months discharge through the river 43 per cent. of the rainfall, whilst the summer months discharge but 17 per cent. of the larger rainfall.” This is due to percolation, or rather infiltration and evapo- - ration, being so much more operative in summer than in winter. All the floods in the Seine between May Ist, 1872, and April 30th, 1884, Mr Harcourr finds to have occurred during the cold season. I have examined the valuable returns of the daily volume of water flowing down the Thames at Thames Ditton, a mile and 57 a half above Kingston, from 1853 to 1873, both inclusive, by Mr Joun Tayrtor, M. Inst. C.E., published in the Appendix to the sixth Report of the Commissioners for preventing the Pollution of Rivers, and there is no flood of any serious magni- tude during the summer months approaching 10 times the normal dry weather flow of the river. The months being taken to correspond with those adopted by the French Hydrologists, i.e., from 1st May to end of October, except in three instances, viz.: from October 20th to 22nd, 1853; from October, 23rd to 26th, 1857; from Sept. 26th to October 1st, 1860; and these bordered on the winter season. The record does not, unfor- tunately, reach the year 1875, in July of which year there were heavy floods in many districts described by Mr G. J. Symons in the Minutes of Proceedings of the Inst. of Civil Enginoers for 1876. They would not appear to have raised materially the water level at Thames Ditton, for in 1872 the rainfall for May, June, and July being 10.78 inches, (at the Thames Head gauge) hardly trebled the normal dry weather flow there, as shown by Mr Taytor’s gaugings, and in 1875 the rainfall for the before mentioned three summer months was but little more than in 1872, being 11.44 as against 10.78 inches. In the streams flowing from the Cotteswolds above the Mid- ford sands it may be said there is no flooding at any time. Taking the French division of summer and winter months enunciated by Mr Breteranp it will be noted that, according to the Rainfall Table No. 1, the average summer rain at Further Barton (two miles from Thames Head). between 1845 and 1859 (14 years) was 16.99 inches; the winter rain, 13.33 inches. Again, according to the Table No. 2, the average summer rain at Thames Head between 1859 and 1886 (27 years) was 16.30 inches; the average winter rain 14.82. Mean result being—Summer rain 16.645 inches; winter rain 14.075 inches. Total 30.720 inches. In the Stroud vale, at Brimscombe Port, the average of 25 years, between 1861 and 1886, gives the summer rain 15.98 inches; the winter rain 14.95 inches. Annual average 30.93 inches. 58 A reference to the sections accompanying this paper, Draw- ings Nos. 3 and 3a, indicating the flow of the river Frome at Brimscombe and Chalford, in connection with the rainfall, shows that the rain of Feb., 1880 (viz., 5.28 inches) produced a flow in the stream at Brimscombe of nearly 12,000 cubic ft. per minute, whilst the previous somewhat heavier summer rain in June, 1879, (viz., 5.31 inches) produced but 8,700 cubic feet per minute in the stream; and in the same year 3.64 inches in February (suc- ceeding 3.43 inches in January) produced 10,800 cubic feet per minute in the stream. Thus it is abundantly evident that floods are as much or rather more dependant on the capacity for infiltration through the soil traversed by rain and surface waters and ground evapo- ration inversely as on the amount of rainfall directly. The conclusions resulting from the long continued experi- ments made by the late Mr Cuarues Greaves at Lea, on evaporation and percolation, communicated in his valuable. paper to the Inst. C.E., Feb. 1876, whilst they show, as do those also of Mr Joun Hvans, F.R.S., at Hemel Hempstead, Herts, and other observers, increased percolation through ordinary soil in the winter as compared with the summer months indicate distinctly — The magnitude of percolation through sand at all times. The smallness of percolation through earth on the whole, ’ and consequent magnitude of ground evaporation. The excess of evaporation from ground over evaporation from a surface of water in winter, and from a surface — of water over evaporation from ground in summer. To some extent they would appear at variance with the conclusions of the French Hydrologists, arising probably from difference of physical conditions and of latitude. I must now pass to the streams flowing from the Cotteswold range over the ground, chiefly permeable, that lies between the Upper Lias and the Oxford Clay; and I will take the Churn as a typical stream fairly illustrating the others. IT annex section through the valley of the Churn, between Cheltenham, the Seven Springs at Cubberley, and New Swindon, NEW SWINDON 6DUMI-LI VHS Ontrance Dain wy Mid Tide Sea Level Lm apis tan dae lke chine Sat me hn nn OTS 8% ] E- DRAWING N°2 ous : | 3 P : ‘ - SECTION vid SEVEN SPRINGS Awo CHUBN VALLEY serween CHELTENHAM sno NEW SWINDON . } ; . , . p . ; a CIRENCESTER : a a NEW SWINDON P N g a | : x . . in 33 x= : : | 2 fs : fog ; : : : g : 7 ; : Se : : s S 3 ~ § i 8 : : < & § 8 P, _ ; : | g = ‘j “gue ™ iS 3 w 4 by Orda DE Ditiins bein; Wid Lide Sealevel " 76 ee SEVEN SPRINGS COBERLEY CHELTENHAM COLESBORNE MARISDEN RENDCOMBE WORTH CERNEY + PERROTS BROOK CHARLTON KINGS & 3 : : oh — Ordnance Datu. being ‘Mid. Tide SceaLerel i ; a HORIZONTAL SCALE or MILES : VERTICAL SCALE or FEET F ‘ H ; 1 ° ' 2 0 yy ' 2 > . . . 7 . . - [le wm = lawl, 59 (drawing No. 2) from which it will be seen that the stream traverses for a distance of about four miles the Inferior Oolite, and for about one mile the Great Oolite. In both of these, especially in the loose rocks of the Inferior Oolite, there is considerable loss of water from the stream hereinafter more particularly described. 4 Taking the basin of the river) at 55 sq. miles, and the standard flow of 12 cu. feet per sq. mile, we should obtain a daily flow of the Churn, at the junction with the Thames, near Cricklade, of 5,940,000 gallons, taking 7 cu. feet per sq. mile, the ascertained minimum flow of the Thames at Lechlade, we should obtain 3,465,000 gallons per diem ; but it does not, I think, attain this volume even, or probably much over ‘two millions of gallons per diem in a very dry season. I have carefully gauged the Boxwell springs at such times where the waters lost from the river in the upper levels, or some of them, again re-appear and re-establish something of a river, and found them yielding at one time, on August 5th and 6th, 1864, an average of 1,108,800 gallons per diem, and on Oct. 10th of the same year 1,121,758 gallons per diem. These springs are of a very interesting character; they boil up ata number of places in a withy bed, and uniting, form a strong tributary, quickly joining the Churn, three miles from its junction with the Thames. Their artesian rise is on a line of fault, shown on the Ordnance Geological Map, running a little north of South Cerney, nearly east and west, apparently from a con- siderable depth. The waters lost from the Churn, in traversing the Inferior Oolite between Colesbourne and North Cerney, a distance of four miles, as ascertained by gaugings made by the late Mr Suueson, President Inst. C.E., and myself, in October, 1859, amounted to 267 cu. feet per minute, equal to 2,403,000 gallons per diem. Such waters, as they pursue a subterranean course down the valley, are imprisoned between the clays of the Fuller’s Earth and the Upper Lias beds. Again, in traversing the Great Oolite, near Baunton, water is also lost, from the stream similarly becoming subterranean and imprisoned between 60 the tenacious clays and rocks of the Forest Marble formation and the Fuller’s Earth, which thus separates two distinctive subterranean waters, unless and until they are brought into communication by the numerous faults that intersect the valley, which is most probably the case. The artesian character assumed by these waters is due to the imprisonment described. It was at first suggested to me by the strong up-rise visible in the springs at Boxwell withy bed, and by the large volume of water always encountered in excavations made in the Ciren- cester gravel bed, which indicated a continuous ‘‘ feed”? from springs passing into it upwards, through the faults to which I have referred. The feasibility of obtaining an artesian supply at Cirencester was tested by the late Earl Baruurst, in 1871-72, at whose cost a boring was sunk, under my direction, at the Barton, a section of which, showing particulars of the ground pierced, is given. (Drawing No. 4.) This boring, although but little more than experimental, was completely successful in developing a supply of pure water, suitable for drinking, culinary, and domestic purposes; for on January 6th, 1872, at 91 ft. 6 ins. below the’ surface of the meadow, such water was reached in soft white rock in the Great Oolite, it immediately ascended the bore with much force, overflowing above the surface with a discharge of 18 gallons per minute. Subsequently the Cirencester Water Works Company have obtained an abundant supply of the best and purest water from a similar source at a greater depth. The section of a boring recently made by them at their works at Lewis Lane is given. (Drawing No. 4.) The drainage area to Colesbourne is about 16 miles, pro- ducing a flow of 312 cu. ft. per minute, nearly 20cu. ft. flow per sq. mile, being much in excess of the Thames standard, 12 cu. ft. per sq. mile. Before proceeding to Swindon, and the interesting sinking now being made by the Great Western Railway Company, I will say but a few words about the rivers Ray and Cole, the Shire Ditch and Bide Mill Brook, with their respective tribu- taries, the collective drainage area of which streams amounts to HON NF OL LAIHA 8 AT FOS” ay). Sree . eS Ne Hr x Lae b+ ny DR AY hy ) 3 > ¥. .s) , ’ | , . i wen eecac re rnen *!2-------—— a ee me mr en ee ca Joa PP 20fLNS M0729 PPD GOT ORL FLY - - — ‘)\ WON NV OL LIMA 8 AT EOS” a A ie cil Peas Fe eae ie past 2201S NOPD < POUL GO} PISTL PY (oo avi2 nr wxION | one PML) JO oITRaG sKogD INOLS LZ PTO ouvw ) 4 S| exer ans nim POO LOT qos | di = = Ture MOTTA Arka vbnele 3 our shuns jeg eT ucyeyy weros Lyi? [PROT PAT MOY) — Mey Cure =H | | (rn (wo702 1w2/3) Avra mere : POT PRO MIPIM IOS =) een tee | PRET UG AWD POOL > ~ ab —! F FHOLES ONUN | | % eS eS ® : 5 | wos | GINO MODING?, _ ee | | WIOY Tpit E20, } [PPE ROT) ORY TIER IVY) — | H a Alice i — ae i} poyguoens yoru zy rn ¢ PUA ROT RYT VATE] avers ate OOCEE UTM | WAY SPE* PION] BIOCT OF bunny. 4 any epee sory ang a Gowrp:/ THAW HIOON | YT ade) | ¥ | PP Uy PUY PAG? OO19S 779-1 7? PACT INVT SIMZ7 IN/IYOG NOLYVG ONIYOU SHYOM YRLYM AALS FONTY/ I SONI WO WATER FROM NEW WELL, SWINDON WORKS. Specific gravity, at 153°C. ... ... 1:0216 Total solids in solution (2nd sample) ... 2,210 grains per gall. a5) dried at 130°C. ... ... 8°158 per cent. Alkalinity ... 10°5 (equiv. to 10°5 grs. Cy Co, per gall.) Chlorine—list sample ... .... 1,267 grains per gall. approx. Serene 2, |) eae m s a ards °;, ae pid Seed thas 4s is Sodie Chloride,» lst sample... 2,088 — ,, 2 corresponding -2nd_ ,,... 2,134 ,, ee o to Chlorine ... i > haa epee 9) «| | ee - 3 Hardness (total)—2nd sample... _ 148° Clark _ Approximate qualitative test showed about 60 grains per gall. of Lime (C,0) " i" mid . lgrain SO, 33 = A -,, 14 grains M,O Suspended matter rather large, composed clriefly of Oxide of Iron. Water has strong corrosive action on iron. SECTION or NEW WELL- SWINDON WORKS CF, ot Level 29.0707 Se (OVID yy, CF Gd Blue Clay. hi ] Mower haf le oe Zi, wv vA eres. Se) pea ey Remar _Lomeslone- COR At? BO se Trt pail ae ae Jato Vif HOWE: “nail ptt ee ng ab Migiaintsall) Vbsiastig acco WO C ee broncton, Kb Blew le bertop sevcral Tandy Z fh. ecm Je Z gi I is) LOE raf uuateride few be ta CLG Laviglaubitliest ole fermatan; EE, OTHE CO ceettalt Le ine ee AAG LEE od ; . a De sisal aa . | e. J | rs toconcorteh Z | a : Ve - | oe - v |e - Ps a WAR ty j 2 6 a BLU, ‘3 f £ : | r 1} 685. oO - Sevcittrada’ of ety’ Hard bhue Lame Con buash: veccrdled ty Paap. epee oe I / ‘Vo pee oy yom i y \nse. a” SOAS: TIO ca he. mot tlle tralerdinsheb haa A 68. éatertrcke , iy Bigsicirnas Day 25 5,357 u“ " 9,159 u “ December 26 5,357 u ” 9,393 “ “ u 27 5,697 " " F 66 The Downton Mill average gauging during December 1880 was 4,766 cu. ft. per min. The Hogg’s Weir ditto 8,010 cu. ft. per min. 4,766 cu. ft. per min. : 8,010 cu. ft. per min. : : 1: 1°68. On Christmas Day and the following day, Sunday, when no mills were at work, and the gaugings taken under the most favourable conditions, the ratio stands thus :— 5,957 +9276: 2:1: 1.78. Mean say 1: 1.705, or approximately as 7 to 12. The average flow at Brimscombe Port during December, 1880, was 4,951 cu. ft. per min., the full winter flow there being, as stated, 6,000 cu. ft. per minute. Taking this as a basis, the full water flow at Downton mill would be obtained thus :— 4,951 : 6,000: : 4776: 5,775 cub. ft. per minute. Similarly the full winter flow of the Ryford stream would be 9,707 cu. ft. per minute; making 15,482 cu. ft. per minute for the joint streams. Their dry weather flow should be 1th = 2,580 cu. ft. per min. Ordinary summer do. = 6,540 ditto. Spasmodic flood do. at least = 43,860 ditto. But it must be remembered that these results are obtained by computation, based however on the December gauging at Stonehouse, in connexion with experience of the river above, at Brimscombe Port. The drainage area to Stonehouse, as shown on Drawing No. 1, being 79 sq. miles, we have the following tabulated results:— O30|qa BOs |] nog Aas zee cu. ft.| FHA | 28 per | SH] 2 REMARKS in. | 388 | Se as) bas, Bde | 2a Ros | REA Dry weather flow— Stanley mill stream 962 cu. ft. per min. Ryeford ditto 1618 1 a 2580) 32.66 | 7.39 Ordinary summer flow— Stanley mill stream 2438 cu. ft. per min, Ryeford ditto 4102 " u 6540! 82.78 | 18.74 Full winter flow— Stanley mill stream 5775 cu. ft. per min. Ryeford ditto S707 ir u 15,482] 195.96] 44.37 Joint flood flow of streams ... ed .»-| 43,860] 555.19} 12! The ratios the same as at Brimscombe Port 67 As a practical conclusion that may prove useful to the manufacturing interest in the Stroud valley, the ordinary power of the river Frome, computed from the average of the summer and winter flow per foot of fall at the wheel, is indicated in the following table :— River Frome . River’ Frome at scr gaa at Ebley River Frome at Chalford Les’ Mill River Frome at Stanley and Downton Mills River Frome at Ryeford Theoretic | Effective | Theoretic | Effective | Theoretic | Effective | Theoretic | Effective Theoretic | Effective H.P. HP. H.P. H.P.; HP. H.P.. H.P. EP, H.P. H.P. 4°84 20°82 | 12°49 13°15 7°67 4°60 8-07 7°89 I have referred to the river Chelt, which I have had occasion to gauge periodically a great number of times, for the purpose of giving you the character of a stream traversing a clay dis- trict (the Upper Lias.) The gaugings show a variation between minimum and maximum flow of 1 to 39. They were taken at the site of the former Dowdeswell mill, the drainage area above being 3 sq. miles nearly. The applicability of Jounn’s law, as bearing on the “tempe- rature of springs and Hydrogeological enquiry generally,” is a subject of much interest. The fact that friction produces heat has been known from the earliest times, but it rested with Jouts to prove, in 1843, by an agitator working in water and actuated by a falling weight, that to produce a unit of heat, that is, the amount required to raise the temperature of a pound of water (at 32°) one degree Fahrenheit, was 772 pounds falling one foot. ‘No language,” says Professor OsBorNE Rrynotps, “can be too strong in which to express the impor- tance of this discovery ;” admitted at once as a proof that the transformation of heat into mechanical energy, or of mechanical energy into heat always takes place in a definite numerical ratio. Let me shortly ask your attention to two experiments lately made by me. First experiment Feb. 16th, 1886, at Cirencester: Took temperature of spring water issuing from the bore pipe (about 50 gallons per minute) at the bottom of the Water Works F2 68 Company’s well in Lewis Lane, after emptying the well by continued pumping, and found it 50° Fahrenheit. This water was taken at 331.00 ft. on Ordnance datum, and quickly rose in the well to 351.20 on Ordnance datum, at which it stood. Then took the temperature of the water in an old Roman well, at Messrs Crippr’s Brewery adjoining, (in Cricklade Street) 17 ft. to 20 ft. deep, at 343.00 on Ordnance datum, and found it to be 46° Faht. Difference 4° Faht. Second experiment at Chalford, 27th March, 1886, 4.50 p.m.: air temperature 55° Faht. Spring issuing out of pipe into stone trough, near Chalford silk mills, 243.00 ft. on Ordnance datum, 512° Faht.: springs on opposite side of valley, issuing from under Penny Hill wood, taken inside face of tunnel adjoining Great Western Railway, 53° Faht.: spring issuing from small pipe near Hyde farm, thrown out by the Fuller’s Earth, about 520.00 ft. on Ordnance datum,-—46° Faht. Air temperature at 6 p.m. here was 52° Faht. Difference of temperature of the springs thrown out by the Upper Lias and by the Fuller’s Earth 53° to 7° Faht. Difference of level 277 ft. Mr J. G. Symons, Iam informed, has made an admirable series of observations on the increase of temperature at various depths, and it has been ascertained that for every 50 or 55 feet in depth the water increases in temperature 1° Fahrenheit. At the Rosebridge Colliery, at Ince, near Wigan, the deepest mine in this country, having reached a depth of 2,445 feet, experiments on temperature, whilst sinking the pit, showed an average increase of about 1° Faht. for every 54 ft., whilst the Royal Coal Commission, in their calculations, adopted 60 ft. for every degree Faht. This would not alone explain the dif- ferences of temperature, as my observations were made at Chalford at the spring outfalls, and not underground, but, if taken in conjunction with the increase of heat due to hydro- static pressure, they will help to do so. We have now traversed some 300 sq. miles of our Cotteswold district, with about 100 sq. miles of the hill-side around Old Swindon, and have noted some of the circumstances and facts 69 associated with the Hydrology of the localities. Although the enquiries and observations made will perhaps be thought by some over minute, yet knowledge and experience resulting from them cannot be held to be of less value on that account. An apple talling to the ground suggested, it is said, to the mind of Newton the operation of the laws which regulate the universe. A very poor telescope of Mrrtus or the spectacle maker Jansen suggested to GatitEo the more powerful instrument through which he viewed innumerable and immeasurable masses moving in boundless space. A few weights and pulleys, working a model wheel in a little vessel of water in Joutn’s study, established his famous law. So small things lead to great. What is learnt in a district of this small insular land may possibly be expanded and applied to larger areas, such as that of the basin of the Volga, containing upwards of half a million of square miles, or to the Danube, (as regards volume of dis-— charge) the largest river in Europe, indeed to the study of Hydrology on a larger scale, and in Continental lands. SV ly The following short paper was written and read by J. H. Taunton at the request of the Club, on the occasion of their visit to the Bozwell Springs, near South Cerney, on 20th July, 1886. Whether North Cerney and South Cerney take their names from an old idea that the waters lost from the river Churn at or near the first-named place (assuming an underground channel for a distance of about eight miles, with a fall of 150 ft.) largely re-appear in the stream at the last-named place, I cannot say, but undoubtedly such is the fact. In the paper that I have recently had the pleasure of reading to the Cotteswold Club, being Notes on Cotteswold Hydrology, &c., I stated that the water referred to as lost from this stream in summer was ordinarily 276 cu. ft. per minute, equal to 2,403,000 gallons per diem, and that in a time of drought, in 1864, from a number of gaugings then made, I found these Boxwell Springs, in the withey bed alone, yielding an average of 1,115,280 gallons per diem, being 124 cubic ft. per minute nearly. To-day we find their flow to be 115 cubic ft. per minute, or 1,035,000 gallons per diem, with some leakage at the Gauge- Board. Fortunately we have analyses of many springs in the Churn valley given in the sixth Report of the Commissioners for Preventing the Pollution of Rivers, from which I extract the following particulars :— Total P Temp. . Organic Faht. |; age 21 so eats\Hardness| REMARKS Seven Springs above Cubberley| 50°36 | 22°60 | 021 16°9 pile Cowley Springs... eee ...| 50°00 | 24:32 032 19°4 ditto Boxwell Springs eG ...| 51°44 33°86 068 26°7 ditto Springs at Chalford ... ...| 53°00 | 28°86 102 24°5 ditto ese SE PC TT SEE a i) ly . ee r, 7 y v ‘ fe ¢ i +4 % 5 Je 7+. ee : ms 9 = Biro TWN VD NYINIS ¥ SINVHL g: 98 ATHLIM at HLYON O72 AZHLIM TVNVD MUIAIS F EINVHL { ONS 2IMKOF TIAIFT VIS Fay ra 4WOOPNIFE #LNOS WOILDTS HOLIKS WENHD UIALE 71 At Boxwell withy bed on the 15th July the air temperature was 67° Faht., the spring temperature was 52° Faht., and the temperature of the water at the Hatch 55° Faht. A trace of the long underground passage of these springs, as compared with the Seven Springs (at the source of the Churn) being indicated by 50 per cent. increased dissolved solid impurity, and similar increased hardness. The Plan and Section that accompany these remarks are based on the published Ordnance Geological Maps, which appear to be correct as regards stratigraphic representation, &c., in the neighbourhood of the springs. No doubt they are developed by the fault, the line of which is indicated. The efflux level in the withy bed is 284 ft. on Ordnance datum. At the canal above, into which some less copious springs languidly flow, it is 10 ft. higher. Formerly the canal pond was larger than at present, as indicated by the faint blue colouring, and the water level in the canal was two feet higher, but it was found advantageous to lower it, which was done by: the establishment of the “little lock.” The land overflowed by. the Springs was reclaimed, and beyond the limits of the existing pound sold. The mean efflux level of the Boxwell springs is 40 ft. above that of the Chalford springs, and about the same depth below that of the Kemble and Thames Head springs. The former are 103 miles off west by north, and the latter 4} miles off west by north in a direct, or, as Americanized, “qr” line. dank fn! wisi a Theat ae Teste 2 hike, ’ ay HAR Rola AAS eet with bo Actes ( if pesca hahe aT ere h a . eee Gy ha ae aaa Wine’ io Wig 3 Rpeniigar die ei" “ait Pidepebieiet gti +a ‘ ai ee a ee ed i Fra faa ae E Baie hte ioe, at , ‘eds ae Bebe i gratin ivi tuihie i eg . oath alae woo een arr ; oe aa od} T-*eand yeu a “ft Bait Le als add : Boe Sa ee Se jeowe y ee. hepidel. Vice dla : Anlst, 5 Ui ae MRA tre . ~ ar Proren on ‘gad cheghet ash yicett ah, ee | at 3 a, Ss te pele. tape Artes . . Me. = ey pee oie aki best at fi pet 2 apd es ape om of wl) \e Wiese Pa Tie is at | sick Sa ana ia sei =e pasts ] Piety or: 4 oe os = GURU beara er sale: ha “ical ue ; Sis i " v ve f al tnd ae Agu Tie a ‘ ie “oe 4 oi LL i . y ni ed y he is Oe ry ‘ ma 4 vx y I an f iPr i 7 é < j Vs; sis a a re ee hy Ne " iL * ne Yr" wha rAd ’ , PROCEEDINGS OF COITESWOLD CLUB. 1885-6. Lyceena Arion,L. ,¢ kus. | Allen Harker del et prroat Mintern Bros hth ‘“ On the probable early Extinction of a Cotteswold Butterfly. By Auten Harker, F.L.S., Professor of Natural History in the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. Read 16th February, 1886. (WirH «a Purate.) It has occasionally been the useful practice of the Club to record in its Proceedings a short account of any rare animal or plant native to our hills, whose increasing rarity has given rise to fears for its ultimate disappearance. Such fears are now largely entertained by competent Entomologists with regard to a small Butterfly which has long been one of the gems of our local fauna, the “ Large Blue” (Lycena Arion, L.) The genus Lycena includes all those Butterflies which are familiarly known as “Blues,” though their colour is often brown or reddish brown. There are in Europe some 48 or 50 species of the genus, but of these only eight are regular inhabitants of our islands, while two or three species are occasional visitors. Of the indigenous species the largest and most handsome, though not the most brilliantly coloured, is the subject of this paper—Lycena Arion. The female measures as much as 1°75 inches in expanse of wing; the colour is a deep dull blue, inclining to purple in the female, with a wide outer dark margin, and white fringes. Spots, lunules and dashes of black are distributed in the blue, these being larger in the female. The outer margins are shot with a rich golden brown, difficult to render faithfully, even in a carefully hand coloured sketch. In the higher valleys of the Alps the insect is much darker, a variety, obscura, being nearly black. Within the recollection of some of us this Butterfly was very common over a large area of the Cotteswold hills. Those who have been in the habit of visiting its haunts from year to year have remarked its increasing rarity, until at length periods 74 of years have elapsed during which only a few straggling individuals have been seen, or, as in some years, none at all. Several important papers on this subject by students of our native Butterflies have recently appeared in the Entomo- logists Monthly Magazine. The first was a note in the September No., 1884, by a correspondent, Mr Broprx1, who writes that in its Devonshire locality it might be looked upon as a thing of the past. This was followed by an article in the October No., 1884, “On the probable Extinction of Lycena Arion in Britain,” by Mr Herzert Goss, F.L.S. After stating that it is cer- tainly extinct in its Northamptonshire locality, he proceeds to give his experience of the insect on our Cotteswold hills during the years 1876—8, and 1883, which impressed him with its undoubtedly increasing rarity in that short period. In the January No., 1885, of the same Magazine, an exhaustive paper may be found by my friend Mr Marspen, his observations extending from 1866 to the present time. In 1870 he found it in enormous numbers, but since that year it has never occurred to him in anything like such abundance. During four of these years, 1881—4, none were seen by him. Other writers familiar with the Butterfly in its Devonshire locality, express a general concurrence in the opinions of Messrs Goss and MarspeEn. My friend Mr Merrry, well known for his writings on Lepidoptera, has obligingly given me some notes on his earliest acquaintance with this Butterfly. He was the first to discover it in its favorite habitat on our Cotteswolds, as early as 1858, and at that time it had an extensive range, stretching from near Cheltenham on the north, to the neighbourhood of Dursley. Mr Merriy remarks on its occasional disappearance for a few years, and on its extraordinary abundance in 1870, when he was so fortunate as to discover the eggs on the wild thyme, and to partially rear the larve. Neither Mr Merrin nor any of the specialists in rearing larve, to whom he sent eggs, succeeded in bringing them through the winter. He notes that after 1870 it appeared irregularly, and in decreasing numbers. 75 My own observations, which extend over a large area of the Stroud district, support those of the observers already named. From 1881 to 1884 not a single one was found by myself or my students; in 1885 only one was obtained, though I gather from some kind correspondents that a few, perhaps less than a dozen in all, were seen or captured. Wherever the “ Large Blue” is found in Europe it is every- where exceedingly local; and when we find an insect of strictly local habits gradually becoming less abundant, there is a strong presumption that it is on its way to early extinction. The lover of butterfles is naturally reminded of the fate of the Large Copper Butterfly Polyommatus dispar, once common in our Cambridgeshire fens, but now no longer to be found there or elsewhere. Another of the ‘“ Coppers,” P. Hippothée, which Mr Kirsy considers was once doubtless living in England, has not been found recently, nor does any authentic record of its occurrence exist. While there appears to be a general consensus of opinion that the ‘‘ Large Blue” is slowly but surely dying out, there is by no means so much agreement as to the causes of this disap- pearance. In the case of the Devonshire locality, the annual burning of the furze and breaking up of the ground, which we know to have taken place, are, without doubt, a sufficient cause. Mild and wet winters, followed by cold springs, are no doubt inimical to insects of all kinds, especially to those which hybernate in their larval state; and many are of opinion that the long spell of bad seasons which has followed 1870—1 sufficiently explains the gradual diminution of the “Large Blue.” The rapacity of collectors has been put forward as another cause, but with such a wide range as is afforded the insect by the numerous hills and valleys of the Cotteswolds from Cleeve to Dursley I can hardly think that this proposition is worthy of consideration. Although a long series of unfavourable seasons undoubtedly diminishes the numbers of any species, we must remember that - 76 this Butterfly has probably existed on the Cotteswolds since the close of the last Glacial period, and has survived vicissitudes of weather quite as remarkable as any with which we have acquaintance. Iam more disposed to attribute its increasing rarity to the breaking up (either for the purposes of planting trees or reclaiming waste land) and consequent diminution of those unbroken stretches of food plant so necessary to the life of an insect which only ranges over very limited areas. Long continued unfavourable weather prevalent at the time during which these causes were operating would certainly hasten the end. Should our forebodings of such a result happily prove unfounded, it would be a matter for rejoicing, but should they | as seems probable, turn out well grounded, this brief account, together with the accompanying sketch of Lycenw Arion, would, I hope, be an interesting memento in our Transactions. Note.—Since writing the foregoing, the summer of 1886 has passed, and I had the pleasure of seeing about half a dozen of the Butterflies. Correspondents report altogether about a dozen more seen during the season. Mitcheldeania Nicholsoni. A new Genus, from the Lower Carboni- ferous Shales of the Forest of Dean. By Epwarp WrrTHERED, F.G.S., F.C.S., F.R.M.S. In the Geological Magazine for December, 1886,* I described a fossil under the name of Mitcheldeania Nicholsoni. The figure, however, did not do justice to it; and as I have now obtained some other specimens of the fossil, I have the kind permission of the Hon. Secretary of the Cotteswold Club, Dr Pains, to re-figure the organism in the Proceedings now about to be issued. Mitcheldeania Nicholsoni is abundant in some beds of the Carboniferous Limestone Shales in the Forest of Dean between Drybrook and Mitcheldean. I have not as yet found it in any other locality, but I see no reason why it should not occur elsewhere, and probably if looked for will be found. In some sections of the Limestone M. Nicholsoni contri- butes largely to the structure of the rock, associated with the remains of Ostracoda in considerable numbers, a shell allied to Murchisonia angulata, and a few Polyzoa. On discovering the fossil I sent specimens to Dr Hinpr, Mr Joun Youne, of Glasgow, Mr R. Erueriper, Jun., and to Professor Nicnoxson, of Aberdeen, all of whom kindly examined them, but were unable to recognize the organism as identical with any known form. I have, therefore, determined to describe and figure it as a new provisional genus, under the name of Mitcheldeania, after the locality (Mitcheldean) near which I found it. To Professor Nicnonson I am especially indebted for assistance in examining the fossil; but he is in no way committed to my remarks in reference to it. As a slight acknowledgment of Professor NicHonson’s assistance and appreciation of his work generally, I propose to name the first species of the genus Nicholsoni. In working out the organism * Decade 3, Vol. III, p. 535. 78 I have been placed at a disadvantage, in not being able to separate reliable specimens from the matrix; the determina- tion, therefore, has been chiefly arrived at from microscopic slides. Mitcheldeania Nicholsoni (Fig. 2) consists of a series of con- centrically arranged layers, or laminz, penetrated by systems of tubuli, which become more minute and numerous in the centre. The tubuli are separated by the skeleton fibre, which is itself penetrated by a minute canal system (Fig. 6.) The larger of the series of tubuli are not seen in the inner lamine, they appear to commence in the second or third, and become more numerous outwards. In the larger specimens I have observed, in places, centres of growth, made up of concentri- cally arranged minute tubuli, resembling the series which constitute the nucleus of the entire organism. Of the tubuli the larger series, Figs. 5, 7, 8, measure about "003, and the smaller, Fig. 4, about :001 of an inch in diameter. The latter were probably filled with living matter, and the former I regard as zodidal tubes. The canals which traverse the skeleton fibre (Fig. 6) are branching, and very minute. The tubuli are generally filled with crystalline calcite, in which cases they stand out clearly against the dark skeleton fibre. They appear, however, to have been easily destroyed, and hence it is difficult to trace them over so large a space as could be desired. In some cases, too, they have been filled with a mixture of calcite and fine mud, which also renders examination difficult. I would refer Mitcheldeania Nicholsoni to the Hydractiniude, and as allied to the Stromatoporoids. Professor NicHonson is himself struck with the similarity of the structure to certain Stromatoporoids, but remarks that he is not aware of any which have so minute a canal system of precisely the same nature; and that if the organism be referred to the Stromatoporoids, it would probably have to be placed as a new genus. In referring Mitcheldeania Nicholsoni to the Stromatoporoids, I do not wish to ignore certain features which this fossil possesses in common with some other Hydrozoa. Professor PLATE 5: EW. delet nat 79 Nicnoxtson called my attention to Parkeria, Carp., which no doubt shows structure which is also seen in M. Nicholsoni, but in the former there is a nucleus constituted of chambers which are laid end to end in a rectilineal direction, and sepa- rated by septa. Ihave not detected a nucleus of this nature in M. Nicholsoni. Another organism which especially struck Dr Hinper as similar to my new genus is Girvanella problematica, Nicu. and Eruer., jun. Professor Nicnouson has kindly sent me rock specimens containing that fossil, from which I have been enabled to get some good sections. As regards mode of occur- rence, there is a great resemblance with M. Nicholsoni, and also in the concentric lamination, but the minute structure is quite different. EXPLANATION OF PLATE ILLUSTRATING Mr WETHERED’S PAPER ON MITCHELDEANIA NICHOLSONI Fig. 1. Vertical section of a portion of the organism, showing large and small tubuli. x 45 diam. Fig. 2. Section of a small specimen of Mitcheldeania Nicholson above the surface of attachment. x 20 diam. Fig. 3. Portion of the upper part of Fig. 1. x 155 diam. Fig. 4. Tangential section, showing the smaller tubuli. x 155 diam. Fig. 5. Section of a Zodidal tube. x 155 diam. Fig. 6. The minute canals which penetrate the skeleton fibre. x 155 diam. Tangential section, showing the larger, or zodidal, tubuli. x 45 diam. Fig. 8. Horizontal sections of the zodidal tubes. x 155 diam. = vi I HW ovu: 1887 Nai. Vee =— a ae PROCEEDINGS OF THE ‘Cotteswold Uaturalists’ FIELD CLUB For 1886—1887 President WILLIAM C. LUCY, F.G:S. . Vicez Presidents Ae. Sir WILLIAM V. GUISE, Barr., F.L.S., F.GS. 5 ’ W. H. PAINE, M.D., F.G.S., F.R.Mer. Soc. Rev. FRED. SMITHE,_M.A., L.L.D., F.GS. Peels: DAC LE... PLS. .FgeS. < EDWIN WITCHELL, F.G.S. > oS. * = a ro a = el ~ ‘* ‘ ‘ ae Honorary Dccretarp EDWARD WETHERED, F.G.S., F.C.S., F.R.M.S. Ao a ee % ef Honorarp Creasurer BMWIN WIiTCHELL, F-G,S. Contents | The PREsIDENT’s ADDRESS at the Annual Meeting at Gloucester, 1887 a section of Selsley Hill. By E. WircHELL, F.G.S. _ By S. S. Buckman, F.G.S. tes upon the breeding of Salmonidez. By FRANcis Day, C.I.E., F.L.S., ete. Tt Volcanic Eruptions and Earthquakes. By E. WETHERED, F.G.S., F.C.S., F.R.M.S. PUBLISHED BY JOHN BELLOWS, GLOUCESTER S 150843 Address to the Ootteswold Naturalists’ Club, by the President, Str W. V. Guisr, Barr., read on Tuesday, 10th May, 1887. GentLtemen,—After having presided over the destinies of your Club for a period of twenty-eight years, I am warned by growing infirmities that the time has come for me to lay down what has been to me a source of unvarying pleasure. When I look back upon the years that have passed, I do so with pride and pleasure, and [ call to mind the noble band of workers who have enabled me to carry the Club to its present renown and high character among similar bodies. The names occur to me of Etheridge, Wright, Symonds, Jones, Moore, Lucy, Witchell, and many others, whose pens have been busy in our service, some of whom are still left, while others have been removed from among us. I received the Club from Barwick Baker, our first President, but lately removed from us by death, and now my failing powers remind me that I too must lay down the reins which my hands can no longer sustain; but I feel that in doing so I resign them into hands fully capable of all the duties connected therewith. I indulge a hope that I may yet participate in your evening meetings ; but to share in your excursions is a physical impossibility. In bidding you farewell I congratulate myself and you upon the favorable condition of the Club, the numbers of which are fully maintained, and the papers of the usual average interest and importance. In conclusion, in bidding you adieu, let me add my fervent hope for the future success of the Cotteswold Club. The First Freup Mesrrine for the season was held on Tuesday, 25th of May. The march of the Club lay over ground sections of which are included in the paper by Mr Lucy, on the G 82 7th April, 1869, which will be found in the Fifth Volume of the Transactions of the Cotteswold Club. The first visit was made to the gravel-pit at Highnam, which is described and figured in the above-named paper, the correctness of which was verified. From thence the party proceeded to examine the exposure of the Rheetic bed in the railway cutting at Lassington. At this point there is a band of Lower Lias stone, in which is found Ammonites planorbis, and resting upon it are the Rhetic beds, com- pressed into a few feet, in which the Monotis occurs, the black shales being absent. The Rhetic beds are forced up at an acute angle, and repose on the New Red Marls. The Rhetics show a thickness at Wainlode, between the Tea-green Marls and the Ostrea bed of 33 feet, and at Westbury of 35 feet. The great line of disturbance, extending a distance of 120 miles, from Flintshire to Somersetshire, is felt in this area, and the formations are considerably displaced in consequence. At the “Island” at Gloucester the recent boring for water showed that a depth of 350 feet was passed through without reaching the base of the Lias, whilst at Highnam, at a distance not exceeding a mile and a half, the Rhetics were found at 20 feet below the surface. From Lassington the party drove to Limbury hill, near Hartpury, the summit of which is crowned by a remarkable deposit of gravel, which will be found described by Mr Lucy, in his paper already referred to, on the “ Gravels of the Severn, Avon and Evenlode.” The plateau of Limbury commands a grand panoramic prospect of hills and dales, from many remote parts whereof the vast accumulation of gravel has been brought together by the action of ice and water on that old shoal of the Pleistocene sea. And this is only a part of the story, for the vales below have been hollowed out by denuding agencies since these gravels were deposited. What a tale of time and change does not this reveal to us! So much time was spent in examining these interesting gravels that it was late when they arrived at the great barn at Hartpury—100 feet in length— which was doubtless the tithe-barn of the Abbots of Gloucester, who, until the Dissolution, were mesne lords of Hartpury. 83 The barn and the adjoining remains of the Columbarium, or dovecote, did not detain the party long; for luncheon, by the courteous invitation of Mr and Mrs Gordon Canning, had been long awaiting them at the Court, and thither with appetites considerably sharpened by air and exercise, they resorted, and were received with that gracious urbanity which makes hospi- tality doubly welcome. The party then returned to Gloucester in time for the trains to Cheltenham, Stroud and Bristol ; and thus terminated a very delightful and enjoyable day. The Sreconp Fienp Meerrine for the season was held on Tuesday, 22nd June, when the members assembled at the Charfield Station, from whence they proceeded, in carriages which were awaiting them, to the brewery of Messrs Perrott, near Wotton-under-Edge, where an excavation was in progress in the Spinatus bed of the Middle Lias. This proved to be an extremely interesting section. The Marlstone was about six feet thick, rubbly at the top, but forming a solid and hard bed below. It was exceedingly fossiliferous, Ammonites spinatus and Terebratula punctata being especially abundant. The fol- lowing fossils were obtained: Ammonites spinatus, A. Margart- tatus, A. Engelhardti, Belemnites pazillosus, Nautilus sp. Spurifer Walcottii, Terebratula punctata, Waldheimia resapimata, Rhyn- chonella tetrahedra, R. amalthei, Pecten lemularis, P. calvus, Lima sp., Protocardiwm truncatum, Gresslya intermedia, Pholo- domya ambigua, Cardinia crassissima, C. crassiuscula, &e. A long delay was made here, for the fossils were abundant and easily procured, and the click of the hammer was incessant. Before moving off the proprietors of the brewery invited the members to partake of their old ale, an offer of which most availed themselves, and pronounced the extract of malt to be superlatively good. The party proceeded now to Wotton-under- Edge, where lunch was partaken of at the Swan Hotel. Leaving Wotton, the party proceeded to mount the hill in the direction of Symond’s Hall, passing by the old road, and examining by the way the Cephalopoda beds, which are there about 12 feet thick, and yield several species of Cephalopoda, among which may be named Ammowites radians, A. dispansus, G2 84. A. jurensis, two species of Belemnites, Rhynchonella cynocephala, and examples of Gresslya, Gervillia, Myacites, &c. In passing from Wotton-under-Edge to Symond’s Hall hill the whole series of beds are passed over, from the Lower Lias of the vale of the Severn to the Great Oolite, which forms the summit of Symond’s Hall hill, and the plateau of the Cotteswolds in that direction. A section of this area is given by Dr Wright in his “Lias Ammonites,” Part II, in the volume of the Palzonto- graphical Society, for the year 1879. A pleasant drive, commanding in many points splendid prospects over the vale of the Severn, brought the Club to Dursley, where, at the Old Bell, they found dinner awaiting them. The Tuirp Firtp Meertine of the Club for the present season was held at Crrencester, on Tuesday, 20th July. On arriving at the Station they found carriages awaiting them, and, under the guidance of Professor Harker, they proceeded to examine a section on the unfinished portion of the Swindon and Marlborough Railway, which is displayed in a cutting of about a quarter of a mile in length through the Forest Marble. The special interest attaching to this cutting is that it exposes the typical marble beds which give the name to this subdivision of the Oolite. There is a stratum of from six to seven feet of very hard shelly Limestone or Marble, composed almost entirely of shells of Ostrea Sowerbvi and other oysters, with Pectens and Limas, and occasional bits of wood, varying in size from minute splinters to pieces as much as a foot in length and some inches in thickness. Professor Harker brought a small box of fossils, collected by himself and his students of the Royal Agricultural College from the cutting, and showed some slabs of the polished marble itself, which, were it not for its irregularity and for the occasional occurrence of small pockets of sand, might serve for economic purposes, as it takes a high polish, and is of con- siderable beauty. The members of the Club spent an hour here in collecting fossils from the broken material with which the railway line is ballasted. There is no such exposure of the 85 marble in the district, and it is not alluded to by Professor Buckman in his paper on the rocks of the neighbourhood. Regaining the carriages, a halt was made near the Gas Works on the Siddington road, to examine the junction at that spot of the Cornbrash and Forest Marble, where an abundant supply of Cornbrash fossils is always to be obtained. From hence the party proceeded to Siddington, where Mr and Mrs C. Bowly had provided luncheon, which, under the shade of trees, was thoroughly appreciated by the wayfarers, many of whom had started from home at an early hour. Some little time was spent here, for the sun was hot, and there was much to engage attention. It was thought well that Mr Taunton should here read his paper on the Boxwell Springs, which was the next point in the programme. This paper was in continua- tion of one read by Mr Taunton to the Club in March last, in which special reference was made to these Boxwell Springs. - A short drive from Siddington brought the party to the locality, which is situated at South Cerney, in a withy-bed close to the canal. This withy-bed, which is a perfect quagmire, is full of these springs, which are presently poured forth in a copious stream of water, the flow of which is found to be 115 feet per minute—1,035,000 gallons per diem. There is acurious history attaching to these springs. A loss of water from the river . Churn amounting to 2,403,000 gallons per diem is stated to occur between Colesborne and North Cerney, in traversing the loose rocks of the Inferior Oolite, which it does not appear is ever restored to it; but here, at these Boxwell Springs, after passing over a distance of nine or ten miles, a portion of this lost water is thrown to the surface by the impermeable clays of the Fuller’s Earth. The idea has been entertained of con- veying the water of these springs to Cheltenham, and even to more distant localities, but the difficulties, local and pecuniary, have proved insurmountable. On the return from South Cerney a visit was paid to the cutting through the Kelloway Rock, figured and described in the Transactions of the Club. Several members, who had not previously visited this cutting, were much surprised by such 86 of its features as were still to be seen, though it had under- gone much alteration by vegetation and by levelling to complete the line. It was now time to return to Cirencester, where dinner awaited them at the King’s Head Hotel. The Fourts and last Fretp Menrrtine of the Club for the present season took place on Tuesday, the 17th August, at Aust. The party met at the New Passage, at 1.30, and pro- ceeded to the Cliff, a distance of about two miles. Owing to the low tide an examination was made under favorable circum- stances, and a rich find occurred in the Rhetic bone-bed of the teeth of Nemacanthus monilifer, several Saurichthys, Ceratodus altus, &c. A very fine specimen of Avicula contorta was found, and Pecten valoniensis and Ostrea liassica were in great abun- dance. There are two remarkable faults in the cliff, in which are seen the same beds at a different height from each other of ten feet, and at the top of one is a band of stone, which, from lateral pressure, shows a folding resembling the figure eight cut in half. Two-thirds of the way along the shore the beds are raised, forming an arch, and this occurs immediately opposite the commencement of the Beachley Cliff, on the other side of the river; and it would appear that the same cause that pro- duced the dome at Aust raised the Beachley Cliff. There is no part of England where the Rhetic series are so finely developed as in the counties of Gloucester and Glamorgan. It is only within the last forty years that these beds have been recognised as belonging to and forming part of the Upper St. Cassian and Késen beds of Escher, where they are several hundred feet thick, whilst in our own country they rarely average more than 35 feet. The term Rheetic was first applied to these beds by Mr Charles Moore, and to him belongs the honor of having correlated them with those of the Rheetic Alps. At Aust are found the teeth of the Ceratodus, and it is remark- able that they have not been met with in any other section in this country, although occurring abundantly abroad. It is true that in some Geological books Ceratodus is mentioned as having been found at Westbury, but we have been unable to trace a specimen, and believe it to be a mistake, 87 The First Winter Meetine of the Club for the present season was held in the Lecture Theatre of the School of Science at Gloucester, on Tuesday, 14th December. The President made some feeling and appropriate remarks in reference to the death of the late Mr T. B. Lloyd Baker, who assisted in establishing the Club, exactly 40 years ago, and was its first President. He bore testimony to the worth of Mr Baker, and to the loss the county had sustained by his death. . The first paper read was by Mr E. Witchell, F.G.S., on a Section of Selsley Hill. It was well known to Geologists that the Inferior Oolite attained its greatest development in the Cheltenham area, and gradually became thinner as it was traced in a south-westerly direction along the Cotteswold escarpment. Sections of the formation had been given in the proceedings of the Club, but they were chiefly confined to the Cheltenham area. Mr Witchell referred to the late Dr Wright’s ’ Section of Cleeve Hill, to the Leckhampton Section adopted by him, and to a Section of Birdlip Hill, by Mr W. C. Lucy. These, he thought, required to be supplemented by a Section of one of the hills in the middle division of the Cotteswolds, so that the beds might be correlated with those of Leckhampton. He considered Selsley Hill to be the most suitable, as it had suffered less from denudation than the adjacent hills, and was capped by the same beds as those on Leckhampton Hill. He then proceeded to describe the several strata of which the hill is composed. The base is Middle Lias, of which there are exposures in the railway cuttings of the Nailsworth valley and a good section at Dudbridge. The Upper Lias exposures are all on the opposite side of the stream, so that it is difficult to ascertain the thickness of the beds; but as the bed of the Frome at Dudbridge is about 110 feet above the sea level, and the highest spring at Selsley is 420 feet, the difference, 310 feet, represents the thickness of the Liassic beds above the Frome. The Sands are about 130 feet, but are not exposed on the hill, but there is a small section in the adjacent Penwood, at the height of 560 feet, in which the Cephalopoda bed is exposed. It is about four feet thick, and contains fossils 88 similar to those in the same bed at Frocester Hill, but not so well preserved. The total thickness of the Inferior Oolite is about 130 feet. The sections are chiefly on the north-east angle of the hill, where there are quarries that open up more or less completely the whole of the beds. The lower quarries are in the Lower Limestone, and near the base Mr Witchell recently observed some very interesting examples of stratifi- cation, one of the beds being composed of thin layers of dark brown sandy grit, interstratified with White Oolite, but the layers were so thin that he counted thirty in a thickness of three inches. In one of the quarries, on nearly the same level, he discovered a pebble-bed—the pebbles were Oolitic, and imbedded in a dark brown sandy grit; the bed is three feet thick. Rock specimens of this bed, and of a similar bed in the Lower Limestone of Randwick Hill, were exhibited. The bed of Pea-grit was next described, and its approaching termi- nation in the direction of Frocester Hill explained. Quoting from Dr Lycett’s “ Cotteswold Hills,” Mr Witchell pointed out that the Pea-grit had been treated as a band of Marl, and the Lower Limestone considered as part of the Freestone, which ' had led to confusion. The thinning out of the Oolite Marl was next shown, the bed being only four inches thick at the south-west end of the hill. The Flagstone and Clypeus beds were described, and sections given. The Fuller’s Earth was not seen on the top of the hill, but the adjacent hill, known as Bown Hill, was Fuller’s Earth, capped by Great Oolite. Mr Witchell said that he had no doubt of the former extension of the Fuller’s Earth and Great Oolite over Selsley Hill, but denuding forces had swept it away, so that not a trace remained. The thinning out of the Inferior Oolite was shown by comparison with the corresponding beds at Leckhampton Hill, the diminished amount of deposition in the Selsley area Mr Witchell attributed to the circumstance that the underlying sands at Frocester Hill are at a higher level than in the vicinity of Stroud. A paper by Mr S. S. Buckman, F.G.S., was read, in his absence on Ammonites accipitris, Buck., a small Ammonite 89 described by the late Professor Buckman from the Lias shales from the neighbourhood of Cheltenham. A description of the Ammonite was given, and Mr Buckman stated that he had not found the species alluded to in the works of D’Orbigny, Quenstedt, Oppel, Tate and Blake, nor by the late Dr Wright, and he called attention to it for the purpose of obtaining more information respecting the species. On ‘the table was shown a remarkable mass of Fleastra foliacea, large enough to fill a wheelbarrow, which had been presented to the Museum by Mr J. W. Davis, of Gloucester, found 30 miles west of Lundy, in 42 fathoms of water. The Seconp Winter Meerine for the season was held in the Lecture Theatre of the Science School, in Gloucester, on Tuesday, December 14th, when a paper was read by S. 8. Buckman, F.G.S., on “The Sections of the Inferior Oolite between Andoversford and Bourton-on-the-Water.” The object of Mr Buckman’s paper was to introduce a series of Sections made along the newly constructed railway from Andoversford to Bourton-on-the-Water, chiefly in relation to the Inferior Oolite; to compare with Sections at Stroud Hill, Leckhampton, &c., in published works; to show the existence of a peculiar bed of yellow sand above the Upper Freestone, mistaken by the Geological Survey in one place for Supraliassic Sands, and so marked in the Ordnance Map; to show the existence of a bed of Freestone above the Gryphza Grit, and below the Upper Trigonia Grit, hitherto mistaken for the Upper Freestone; to show the existence of a peculiar Bored- bed on the top of this Freestone, traced for upwards of seven miles; to show the separate existence of Upper Freestones and another Bored-bed; to remark on the junction of the Inferior Oolite and the Fuller’s Harth, by aid of an enlarged copy of the Ordnance Survey Map, and a Section of the cutting to fully demonstrate the error of the Survey; and finally, to make a few remarks on the arrangement of zones in the Cotteswolds; and to show that Dr Wright did not figure the true Am. Jurensis, and that the Humphriesianus zone is probobly non- existent. 90 The Tarrp Winter Meerrne for the present season was held in the Lecture Theatre of the Science School in Gloucester, on Tuesday, the 22nd of March, when a paper was read by Mr Francis Day, C.I.E., F.L.S., on “‘ Experiments on the Eggs of Salmonide,” which, he observed, were a continuation of experi- ments made in previous years. The first deleterious agent to which he referred was the action of cold, for although, in a modified form, it is beneficial to the incubation of Salmonoid eggs, still, when in an intense degree, it may prove fatal. Those fishes, it is known, normally reside in cold and temperate regions, while they breed during the coldest months of the year; consequently some authors have concluded that their eggs may be frozen and the embryo still survive, but very strong evidence has been adduced that freezing destroys the vitality of these eggs, and now an oppor- tunity offered of testing this assertion on a large scale. The author described a series of searching tests to which the eggs were subjected, with the result in all cases of their vitality being destroyed. Then the character of the water used had to be considered; the ova may be poisoned by refuse, suffocated by sediment, or die if distilled water be used,—the two last being due to inability to respire. But pump water or rain water will suffice to incubate eggs, but not to rear the young, because they possess no food, consequently the latter has to be added. A form of pollution examined was that of paraffin. The experiment seemed to show that no injury from paraffin, unless it is very impure, need be anticipated to be immediately fatal to the embryos in the egg; but this does not prove that the young will hatch, or if they do, that the alevins will be strong or healthy. Circumstances induced the author to investigate whether the presence of a considerable amount of peat in solution would prove destructive to the eggs. During the course of these experiments the eggs had to be frequently washed, in order to prevent the suffocation of the embryos. The length of the head was proportionately longer in the embryos which had been in the peat solution than in those which had continued 91 in clear water, but the eyes of the former were much smaller than those of the latter. The question of the depth of water in which eggs will hatch is not an unimportant one, because it is asserted that in Salmon rivers fish which ascend late to deposit their spawn, root up the nests of the first comers. The experiments instituted by the author go to prove conclusively that a depth of at least 26 inches does not injuriously affect the hatching of the fry. It has always been a disputed point as to the amount of water which is necessary for incubating these eggs in. In such as are conveyed to Australasia it is done in a chamber cooled by ice, the eggs themselves being in boxes packed in layers of moss, where it is evidently impossible they could be immersed in water, yet the embryos live and develop, providing the recep- ticle is sufficiently damp, cold and dark. The last subject experimented upon was concussion, first as to the effect of slight shocks, next as to severe ones, and lastly to the age of the embryo at which they had been tried, and with this result, that although it was evident that in their earliest stage, or during the first 24 hours, the impregnated ovum would stand movement, this capability became subse- quently less, and did not return until at least one-third of the period of incubation had passed. But although eggs may be hatched under very adverse circumstances, this does not show that the young will be of a strong constitution, while, after hatching, an increased depth of water is necessary to rear them in. This requirement for space is one of the reasons for con- sidering it to be of very doubtful benefit in incubating eggs in trays placed one above another, for, even should the young hatch, the amount of tray-room would subsequently be insuf- ficient to accommodate all the progeny without crushing, which would probably dwarf the offspring. It does seem rash to turn all the young so soon as they have absorbed their yolk-sacs into a main stream, whereby all trace of them becomes lost, and where the majority will die or be devoured by their enemies. It would, with few exceptions, appear best to retain these fish until at least a 92 twelvemonth old, when those turned into the water will be better fitted to engage in the battle of life, in which only some of the strongest will survive. The Fourtsa Winter Mersrtine of the Club for the present season was held in the Lecture Theatre of the Science School in Gloucester, on Wednesday, the 6th of April, when a paper was read by Edward Wethered, F.L.S., F.G.8., on ‘ Volcanic Eruptions and Earthquakes.” Mr Wethered began by saying that the Malvern Hills would show that seismic disturbances were active at early periods of the earth’s history, and old chronicles told of violent volcanic outbursts which filled with terror and awakened superstition in the minds of the ancients. The earliest records of volcanoes were those of the Lipari Islands. The chief of these was called Vulcano, as it was looked upon as the abode of Vulcan, and hence the word volcano. Desiring to direct their attention to typical volcanoes, the lecturer first selected Stromboli, the only remaining active volcano of the Lipari group. It had been active for 1000 years, and emitted steam. Volcanoes did not emit flame, and the apparent flame was probably due to reflection from the molten -lava. The volcanoes in the Hawaeian Islands were then con- sidered. Mauna Loa had been active in January, and previously to January 15th there had been 36 hours of continuous earth- quake, and he should show that eruptions were always preceded by earthquakes. The best known volcanic district was that of the Bay of Naples, which was also the most remarkable; and after a description of the chief active volcanoes, Mr Wethered gave a history of Vesuvius. It frequently assumed the appear- ance of an extinct volcano, and had repeatedly shown that its forces were not exhausted. The recent New Zealand eruption was similar to the first outbreak of Vesuvius. These eruptions were preceded by earthquakes, which increased in intensity as the time of the outbreak approached. Mr Wethered then passed from the history of volcanoes to some of the theories advanced to account for volcanic eruptions, They were due to molten lava, or mineral matter in a state of fusion, which exists below the surface; and the question is, ee E 5 93 “* What is the cause of the disturbance?” They had seen that vast volumes of steam accompanied eruptions, and they might therefore look to water as a factor in the problem. Lava might be compared to the molten slag which issues from furnaces ; if they poured water upon it explosions resulted. Lava was mineral substances in a state of fusion, and if large volumes of water could get access to the depth of fusion then they could imagine the explosions which would take place and the volumes of steam and water-vapour which would be generated. Mr Wethered then explained the objections which had to be met in accounting for volcanic action as caused by water coming in contact with hot lava in the interior of the earth. He did not think that water found access by percolation. The most probable explanation was that it entered through fissures and faults which were formed by shrinkage of the earth’s crust. A possible cause of the New Zealand eruption was a movement along the great fault-line that traversed the north and south islands in a north-easterly direction, which may have allowed sea-water to enter to the depths of fusion. Earthquakes were next dealt with. He hadalready pointed out that earthquakes preceded volcanic eruptions. It would appear as though the volcanic forces were trying to break loose, and that their efforts caused an earthquake. Doubtless earth- quakes occurred without volcanic eruptions, that was, so far as they knew, but seeing that in the great majority of instances the shocks came from under the sea, it was impossible to say whether earthquakes had resulted ina submarine volcano or not. The shocks were propagated through the strata of the earth in a series of waves, which radiated from the centre of disturbance. The vibrations were in two directions: those usually first felt were in the direction in which the waves were travelling, and then a motion was felt at right angles to the former. These two movements were termed waves of compres- sion and distortion. Now what could produce these vibrations and oscillations which were termed earthquakes? It had been shown by Professor Milne that the majority of earthquakes are due to explosive effects at volcanic foci. It had been shown 94 that artificial earthquakes could be produced by exploding dynamite in holes inthe earth. When a miner fired a blasting | charge in a mine he produced an earthquake on a small scale. The greater number of these explosions, said Professor Milne, “take place beneath the sea, and are probably due to the admission of water through fissures to the heated rocks beneath.” Comparatively recently it has been discovered that the earth’s crust is in a constant state of tremor. These vibra- tions could only be detected with instruments of great delicacy and to those instruments the microphone had now been added. The first person to adopt the microphone for seismic obser- vation was an Italian professor, by the name of Rossie. He found that the tremor at times increased in violence, and sometimes their maximum resulted ina sensible earthquake. It was suggested that the sounds heard by means of the microphone were the explosions which produced the tremors, and, when in sufficient force, an earthquake. One important matter in connection with these tremors was that they appear to be influenced by a falling barometer in a marked manner. It had been contended by some writers that volcanic eruptions and earthquakes were influenced by the weather, and likewise by the moon. It could not be disputed that the weight on the crust of the earth was increased or lessened according as the barometer rose and fell. He could not however regard the weather influence as more than secondary, and not as the primary cause. If there happened to be a great stress below a portion of the crust due to those agencies which produce seismic disturbance, then a fall of the barometer might bring matters to a crisis. On this point however more information was required. It was true that the New Zealand eruption was preceded by a fall of the barometer. He had not seen any reliable reports of the position of the barometer along the Mediterranean previous to the recent earthquake there, but they had the fact that very extraordinary weather had prevailed over Europe of late. The causes which regulated the seasons were little understood, and possibly it may be discovered that these causes may have also an influence on seismic phenomena. 95 The great power which the moon exercised over tides was well ‘known, and there were some observers who looked upon the moon as being associated with seismic disturbances. He thought their present information was against the possibility of tides within the earth, but as with weather influences so with lunar, they required more information. The interest and value of the paper were much increased by the valuable and exhaustive collection of slides with which __-Mr Embrey, by the aid of the lime light, illustrated it. j This was the last meeting for the season of the Cotteswold Club. On a Section of Selsley Hill, by EK. Wircuety, F.G.S. It is well known to most Geologists that the Inferior Oolite, which forms so conspicuous a feature in the long escarpment of the Cotteswolds, attains its maximum development in the neighbourhood of Cheltenham, and gradually becomes thinner as it is traced along the escarpment in a south-westerly direction. Some of the beds however form exceptions to this arrangement. For instance, the Lower Limestone is nearly of the same thickness throughout the Cheltenham and Stroud areas, and the White Oolitic Limestone near the top of the formation gradually developes in thickness towards the south- west and is considerably thicker near Bath than in the north- eastern Cotteswolds. The proceedings of the Club contain several Sections of Inferior Oolite, but they are for the most part confined to the Cheltenham area. I may mention Dr Wright’s Section of Cleeve hill, in the 4th Volume, repeated with that of Leck- hampton, in his paper on the Correlation of the Jurassic Rocks of the Céte D’or with those of Gloucestershire, in the 5th Volume, my Section of Stroud hill, in the 7th Volume, and Mr Lucy’s Section of Birdlip, in the last Volume. These appear to me to require supplementing by a Section of one of the hills which form the escarpment in the Stroud area. Stroud hill is several miles to the south-east, and the beds there do not present so much attenuation as at Selsley, and are not therefore so available for correlation with those in the Cheltenham area, but Selsley is peculiarly suitable for the purpose. It has suffered less from denudation than any of the 97 hills along the escarpment in the vicinity of Stroud, and con- tains all the beds seen in the Cleeve and Leckhampton Sections except the Lower Trigonia Grit and some other minor beds which Dr Wright has placed in the Humphriesianus zone. I have therefore selected this hill to continue the sequence, and to show in our proceedings the changes which occur in the beds of the Inferior Oolite in their south-west extension. Selsley hill is almost isolated from the mainland of the Cotteswolds. A narrow neck of land at the south-west end alone connects it with the ridge which we know as Longwood, Frocester hill and Uleybury. Excavations have been made in numerous places on its slopes, so that a fairly complete general Section can be constructed. The base of the hill consists of shaley clay of the Middle Lias, with the Marlstone above it. There are exposures of these beds in the Railway cuttings in the Nailsworth valley, at Woodchester, Lightpill and Dudbridge, but a better expo- sure is on the Rodborough side of the stream at Dudbridge, where the beds are extensively worked for brick-earth. The Marlstone differs from the beds near Dursley, at Churchdown, and in the northern Cotteswolds. It consists of several feet of rather soft Sandstone, and one or two beds formed of hard concretionary blocks, brown and soft on the surface, blue and hard internally, and occasionally fossiliferous. The fossils are of the genera and species usually found in the Marlstone ; Ammonites Margaritatus is rather common, but not ~ well preserved. The spinatus beds are not exposed on the Selsley side of the valley, but are seen in one of the Dudbridge brick-pits. The same remark applies to the Upper Lias, for although there are brick-pits at Dudbridge, Cainscross, and near Ebley, they are all on the opposite side of the stream, and there are none on the Selsley side; in consequence the thickness of these beds can only be approximately stated, but as the spring in the highest well in the slope of the hill at Selsley is 400 feet above sea level, the Upper and Middle Lias together must be nearly 300 feet thick above the bed of the Frome at Dud- bridge, which is about 100 feet above sea level. H 98 The Cotteswold sands are not exposed except in some of the lanes on the King Stanley side of the hill and the adjacent Pen wood, but there is a small Section of the Cephalopoda bed in the wood, at an elevation of about 550 feet, which will give about 150 feet for the thickness of the sands. This agrees with the estimated thickness at Frocester hill. The Cephalopoda bed is about four feet thick, and contains the common Ammo- nites found at Frocester hill, but they are not so well preserved. T obtained a single example of A. serrodens, Quen., one of the rare species at Frocester hill. Lycett found one specimen, but it appears to have escaped the notice of Dr Wright, and is not described in his monograph of the Lias Ammonites. The beds of the Inferior Oolite are all more or less exposed in one or other of the quarries on the slope or on the top of the hill, but the lower part of the building Freestone has not been quarried. The quarries on the northern slope and the escarpment above are six in number, and, for convenience of reference, I have numbered them in descending order. No. 1 is the Ragstone quarry, on the top of the hill, near the tumulus ; No. 2 is a little below, but almost adjoining; No. 3 is close to the enclosed land, and 150 yards down the slope ; Nos. 4,5 and 6 are a short distance above Selsley Church, and are very near together, No. 4 being on the north side, No. 5 adjoins it; this quarry has been worked farther into the hill than the others; No. 6 is south of No. 5, it may be called the limekiln quarry, as there is a limekiln in it. The whole are on the north angle of the hill above Dudbridge. Above the sands are the basement beds of the Inferior Oolite, commencing with the brown sandy Limestone beds, usually about seven feet thick, but only partially exposed at Selsley. In recently working these beds at Haresfield hill with my friend Mr S. S. Buckman, F.G.S., we found that about a foot of the lower part of the bottom bed contained Ammonites opalinus in abundance, associated with the usual conchifera of the Cephalopoda bed beneath. Above the Sandy Limestone beds the Lower Limestone pre- sents nearly the same uniformity in character as in other MELEICHS QUARRY UARRY Q N22 QUARRY - WS PEN Woop PLATE 6. GENERAL SECTION of SELSLEY HILL 10\/50.0 (aourT M\150.0 FREESTONE PEA GRIT LowER LIMESTONE SANOY LIMESTONE CEPHALOPODA BEDS CorrEswoLo SANDS OprerR LIAS Mioote LIAS J BELLOWS, 150845. 7 7 - v v-"> j a i Vo ! J ‘ te a ox tee # = 7 . : . . a ’ . 7 . é : q ? ‘4 ras ' eet i : ee ae Ce eae , a, tee -F 14 y = % el a i Ae A he ee Se a 8 hee . ~ ” o ¢ 7 ‘' ié * ve es = ria i. a a ee Tepes a ” 2 a oy ee or ‘ ae > 1) "Fa a a al ae as) ER eee) en = > ae ie ee 2 ea eetera ee in es ae 3 eer he re 4 be es , r ri] Sem y ud e %; ’ . : ‘ hale ; f nm ‘* q ae S . g wl 4 See aS a bs oT ne hy A t-S1 S ‘ ve ° ta ta? @e ~*~ > oh 7 f : ml cad - De a fs) 99 Sections, namely, a white Oolitic Limestone, except the upper ten feet, which become more ferruginous. Sections of these beds may be seen in the quarries 4,5 and 6. These quarries have been worked for many years, and Lycett minutely describes one of them (now numbers 4 and 5) in the “Geology of the Cotteswold Hills.” He says, (p. 41)— “ The lower quarry exhibits the lower portion of the Freestone group, to the thickness of about 45 feet, the summit of the Section exposing a band of Marl. The whole face of the quarry beneath the Marl band exhibits a series of beds of stone, without any division lines of softer material, thick bedded towards the lower part with fine shelly detritus and imperfect shells, mingled with spines of Echinoderms, crystalline carbonate of lime, and sandy drift, constituting a coarse hard rock, variable in its mineral character, and conse- quently of little commercial value. The Marly band at the summit of the Section has produced a large number of fine Terebratula plicata, which is its sole fossil.” It will be noticed that Lycett regarded these beds as part of the Freestone series, capped by a band of Marl; but as this Marl and three feet of Pisolitic Limestone beneath it are now known to be “ Pea Grit,” it follows that the underlying beds are the Lower Limestones. The lithological description of the beds by Lycett is accurate, but their thickness can only be approximately ascertained. The sands are covered up, and the only exposure of the brown sandy Limestone which rests upon the Cephalopoda bed is in an old working at the bottom of the unenclosed part of the hill; but the beds have evidently slipped from their original position, so that they are useless for pur- poses of measurement. The thickness of the whole of the Inferior Oolite has however been ascertained, by taking the altitude of the hill above the Cephalopoda bed, which is exposed in the adjacent Pen wood, south-west of the hill. This gives about 120 feet, but as the beds thin out in that direction, the thickness at the north end is probably about 150 feet. There is much tumbled Oolite on the slope of the hill, and it is difficult to ascertain the thickness of the beds, or even to be quite certain of their position unless caution is exercised. Thus in the old disused quarry, (No. 3) near the enclosed land, the whole of the upper beds, viz., the Ragstones, Upper H 2 100 Freestone, and Oolite Marl are seen almost on the same level, 150 yards below the escarpment, where the Ragstones are in situ, and 50 vertically below their proper position. The road from Selsley Church to Stanley End passes along the foot of the common, and there are several small quarries on the side of the road. In one of them there was recently some Lower Lime- stone, which had slipped down from its proper position, and the the appearance of one of the beds was rather striking. It consisted of a number of thin layers of fine white sediment, alternating with layers of coarse brown grit. In a thickness of three inches I counted 30 of these layers. They converged towards a point like a wedge, and just below, in the same bed, was another series of similar layers, converging towards a point in the opposite direction, but separated from the other series by a thin stratum, on which were several small brown ridges, with white Oolite filling the spaces between them. These de- posits appear to indicate variable currents in very shallow water, with occasional denudation, as shown by the small brown ridges. In the Lower Limestone quarry, a short distance above the road, (No. 5 in the Section) the same peculiar structure may be observed in the lowest bed, although the layers are much thicker, and their colour does not offer so strong a contrast. In this quarry, and in No. 4 adjoining, the Lower Limestone is exposed to the thickness of 20 feet, but there is a marked difference between the upper 10 feet and the lower part, the upper beds being more ferruginous and rubbly; the junction between the upper and lower divisions is clearly shown. The ferruginous appearance of these beds in the lower Limestone is exceptional, as the beds are usually white. The small Lime- stone quarry, No. 6 (the lime-kiln quarry) is interesting from the circumstance that it contains a pebble bed, or rather two beds, three feet thick. They are seen near the top of the Section. The pebbles are usually flat, with rounded edges; they are formed of small white Oolitic granules, and are embedded in a brown coarse paste, not Oolitic. There is no doubt as to their being true pebble beds; the pebbles are in shape exactly like those we see upon the sea-beach. The 101 beds may be traced in the next quarry, (5) where they are seen near the bottom of the Section. They are about 15 feet below the Pea-grit, so that they are near the middle of the white portion of the Lower Limestone. Mr 8. S. Buckman has recently discovered and pointed out to me a similar bed at Randwick hill, in the Lower Limestone, about six feet below the Pea-grit, and therefore somewhat higher than at Selsley. The beds are thicker, and the pebbles appear to be more sparingly distributed at the base, and more angular than those above. At the junction of the upper or ferruginous portion of the Lower Limestone with the lower I have discovered a small fragment of a Nerinea, much worn, as if it had been brought some distance, but its internal structure is sufficiently pre- served to enable me to assign it to WN. pisolitica, found in the Pea-grit, or an allied species, having a similar internal structure. As the bed in which it was found is 10 feet below the Pea-grit, this Nerinea must be one of the earliest of its race at present known. In the bed next above, and not many inches higher, I discovered a fragment of another species of Nerinea, and in the adjoining quarry, at about the same level, I discovered another fragment belonging to the first-mentioned species. These fossils confirm the suggestion which I made in a recent paper on the Nerinea that there might be other rocks anterior in time to the Pea-grit in which it would be found. In addition to the Nerineas I have obtained a few fragments of shells and one example of Trigonia costata, but all are much worn. In fact the Lower Limestone beds are largely composed of detritus of Encrinites, broken spines of Hchini and worn shells, with small fragments of Coral and Quartz pebbles sparingly distributed, the whole intermixed with small white Oolite granules. In the quarry (No. 5) the upper beds of the Lower Limestone have the Pea-grit overlying them. It consists of a bed of Pisolitic Limestone, three feet thick, with a band of Marl and loose Pisolites above, about two feet thick. The Pisolites are much smaller than at Birdlip. I have found the following fossils in these beds, which are common to the Pea-grit :— 102 Terebratula plicata; T. simplea; T. pisolithica ; Rhynchonella sub-angulata; Lima sp.; Nerinea pisolitica ; Stomechinus ger- minans ; Pygaster semisulcatus. The Pea-grit is not exposed in the south-west end of the hill, and there is no other Section of Inferior Oolite in that direction nearer than the Buckholt quarry, at the top of the old Frocester hill, two miles distant, but there the Pea-grit has disappeared. I have traced it south of Selsley as far as Horsley, where it appears as a brown coarse rock, with small Pisolites, rather sparingly distributed, but it is probable that its limit in that direction is not far distant. A trace of it also occurs at Uleybury, but it has lost much of its ferruginous character. The next quarry higher up the hill (No. 2) exposes the building Freestone, but a talus has formed at the foot of the quarry, which conceals some of the beds, but when worked there were not more than 14 feet exposed. It is rather singular that so little of the Freestone should have been worked in this hill, as the beds must be 70 feet thick. In this quarry the Oolite Marl is reduced to a bed of about a foot and in some places to six inches, charged with Terebratula fimbria, Rhyncho- nella subobsoleta, and other fossils of the Marl. In the upper end of the quarry the Marly Limestone, which contains several species of Nerinea, is represented by a single patch about 18 inches thick and only three or four feet in length. This Marly Limestone is referred to by Lycett as extending along the side of the Nailsworth valley, and as appearing at Selsley in diminishing importance. In fact the whole of the Marl beds are on the point of disappearing altogether; and if we examine | the Section in Mr Leigh’s quarry, on the south-western end of the hill, we find that the Marly Limestone is lost, and the Marl bed is reduced to four inches of sandy grit, containing Terebra- tula fimbria. At the distance of a mile towards the south-west it has probably thinned out entirely. In the quarry at Selsley as well as at Stroud hill and some other places the Oolite Marl appears to pass into the Upper Freestone. At Selsley, in one part of the Section, it is difficult y 108 to say where the Marl ends and the Upper Freestone begins. and Terebratula fimbria occurs in both beds. It is worthy of notice that both the Pea-grit and Oolite Marl thin out at almost the same place. Both have their maximum development at Cleeve, and both gradually diminish in importance as they extend in a south-westerly direction, until at Selsley they both show indications of thinning out altogether, but the fossiliferous character of each is maintained throughout, and the characteristic fossils of the Pea-grit, Tere- bratula plicata and Rhynchonella subangulata, and those of the Oolite Marl, T. fimbria and R. subobsoleta, are as numerous at Selsley, in proportion to the thickness of the beds, as elsewhere, but the abundance of the genus Nerinea in the Stroud area points to shallow water deposits; and it may be that to the increasing shallowness of the sea the cessation of the deposits of Pea-grit and Mar] is due. The Upper Freestone is of no great importance; it is about 15 feet thick. The upper bed is the well known fine-grained Limestone, full of annelid borings, which is found in so many places on the Cotteswolds, and is covered by the Ragstone beds, the Gryphite and Upper Trigonia Grits, the Lower Trigonia beds being absent. The Gryphite Grit of Selsley is without the characteristic fossil Gryphea sublobata. This is another peculiar feature of the Selsley beds. At Rodborough and Stroud hills the fossil is abundant; at Selsley, three miles distant, it has disappeared, and, according to Lycett, is not met with again in the south- western Cotteswolds. The Trigonia Grit caps the hill along the northern escarpment. It is a hard rubbly rock, full of fossils, but the Trigonie are not so abundant as at Rodborough The Brachiopoda are fairly abundant. There is a good Section of these beds in the quarry No. 1, on the top of the hill, near the tumulus. It is as follows :— ft. ins. 4 0—Broken-up beds of Clypeus Grit, containing casts of Trigonia costata, Terebratula globata, Rhynchonella subtetraédra, Myacites, Pedina rotata, &c. 104 ft. ins, 4 Q—Upper Trigonia Grit, containing numerous casts of fossils peculiar to the bed. 1 0—Gryphite Grit. 2 0—Upper Freestone (about two feet exposed at the western end of the quarry.) The Gryphite Grit appears to be changing from its usual ferruginous aspect to that of the Trigonia bed, and frum the absence of most of its characteristic fossils, it is difficult to identify it. Along the side of the road leading over the hill there are several shallow pits. In those near the top of the slope, on the Stanley End side, the Clypeus beds are seen, with Terebratula globata in considerable numbers and varieties, and frequently of large size. One of these pits has been excavated to the depth of 10 feet, and contains the following beds :— ins. 0—White Oolitic Limestone, broken up. 0—Globata bed, with Terebratula globata in large numbers. 0—Hard brown bed, nodular at the base. 0—Brown beds, mostly concealed by detritus. In Mr Leigh’s quarry, at the south-west end of the hills close to Pen wood, the Clypeus beds are well shown. The following is the section :— wwe woe ft. ins. 4 0Q—Surface rubble, derived from the White Oolite, which generally underlies the Fuller’s Earth. 0 rubbly. The middle bed is very hard. 6—Upper Trigonia Grit. 0—Gryphite Grit. 6 0—Upper Freestone. 0 4—Oolite Marl, reduced to a sandy layer. 12 0—Freestone beds, about 12 feet exposed. dees Grit. The upper and lower beds are brown in colour and wewpnwwe There is no appearance of Fuller’s Earth overlying the Clypeus beds, but in the adjacent fields on the south side the ground rises to a considerable eminence, known as Bown hill, in which the Fuller’s Earth comes in, and upon the hill is a sal iy Ni nalieatl Ba 105 capping of Great Oolite. The hill is denuded on all sides, and forms an outlier. There cannot be any doubt that Selsley was once capped by these beds, but the denuding forces have completely carried them away, leaving no trace of their former presence. In considering the physical conditions which prevailed during the deposition of the Selsley beds of Inferior Oolite it becomes apparent that certain changes took place in some parts of the Cotteswold area which did not materially affect the others. The Lower Limestone beds were however deposited over the whole area without much change, as the same description of them applies generally to all the Sections (except the pebble beds at Selsley and Randwick). They consist chiefly of drifted materials which were deposited in a sea of no great depth, probably near a sea-shore, but the source from whence they came is not easily determined. The small Quartz pebbles and encrinal detritus indicate the wearing away of some ancient strata, either in the direction of the Malverns, May hill, and the Forest of Dean to the north, or Dartmoor to the south-west; and we may venture to suppose that when the liassic strata and the overlying Cotteswold sands lay undenuded along the flanks of the hills to the north, and the deposition of the Oolites _commenced, there was a shore line in the direction indicated by the pebble beds, with dry land on the north and open sea on the south. These conditions would account for the origin of all the materials which constitute the Lower Limestone. The Quartz pebbles would come from the distant paleozoic strata before - mentioned; the encrinal detritus from May hill and the car- boniferous rocks of the Forest of. Dean, and the south-western parts of Gloucestershire; and the ferruginous sandy grit which Ihave mentioned as alternating with the white Oolitic Lime- stone and enclosing the Oolitic pebbles, might be attributed to the denudation of the same rocks and the transport to the sea by river action of the eroded materials. If we admit the probability of the pebble beds at Selsley and Randwick having been once a sea beach, the foregoing supposition becomes a probability. The Oolitic pebbles, which constitute a large 106 portion of the pebble bed, had probably a more local derivation; they are undoubtedly Oolitic, and differ from the matrix in which they are imbedded. They may therefore have been due to the breaking up of some of the previously consolidated Oolite, the debris of which was rolled along an Oolitic shore until it was deposited, in the form of pebbles with ferruginous sand and other detritus, derived from other disintegrated strata. At the close of the Limestone period a change took place, which led to the deposition of the Pea-grit. This deposit, as I have said, did not extend far beyond Selsley. The Freestone period followed, and the beds were formed apparently under similar conditions throughout the Cotteswold area; but the change which brought in the Oolitic Marl was limited in its operation to the north-east of Selsley, and the same remark applies to the conditions which induced the heaping up of shells which make the Gryphite Grit so fossiliferous at Stroud and Rodborough, and so sterile at Selsley. These variations of deposition support the probability that, after the deposit of the sands and part of the Lower Limestones, there was an elevation of the sea bottom, which led to the formation of the pebble beds; and this inequality of elevation, as com- pared with the northern Cotteswolds, was partially maintained during a considerable period, so that the Pea-grit and Oolite Marl deposits were restricted to the northern and middle divisions of the Cotteswolds, and the Gryphite was confined to the same area. These conditions become still more probable if we compare the Section of Leckhampton hill with Selsley, as in the following table :— TLeckbemnton Fee 2 t. ins. . ans, Ragstone series, including the Clypeus, Trigonia and Gryphite’ Grits ae oa sce ee woe OO. 10) 0 Lome Upper Freestone “a oe ae nee 2. (28 O 15 0 Oolite Marl mee of ace a Sus es Oa 1 6 Freestone on wee ae i See woe L270" ee ae Pisolite beds om 38 0° 4 6 Lower Limestone = 45 0 The measurements of the Leckhampton Section are taken from the text of Professor Hull’s “Memoir of the Geological 107 Survey.” The Section at the end of the Memoir differs con- siderably from the above figures. The measurements of the Selsley Section below the Ragstones, are taken at the north end of the hill: at the south-west end the Upper Freestone is reduced to six feet and the Oolite Marl to four inches. The diminishing importance of the Inferior Oolite in the lower Cotteswolds may be the subject of further investigation, in which case the Selsley Section will perhaps be found useful for correlation. Iam indebted to the Rev. A. S. Page, and offer him my thanks for taking the heights of the several quarries and exposures, which have been of material assistance to me in determining the thickness of the more important beds. The Inferior Oolite between Andoversford and Bourton-on-the- Water. By 8.8. Bucxmay, F.G.S. During last summer (1886) I have had the opportunity to study the rocks exposed in the cuttings of that portion of the Banbury and Cheltenham Railway which runs between Ando- versford and Bourton-on-the-Water, a distance of about nine miles through the North Cotteswolds. My attention has chiefly been directed to those which show the Inferior Oolite, and which present to us a series of sections affording a great insight into the stratigraphical arrangement of a large portion of that formation. As every year the faces of these cuttings will become more and more indistinct, on account of the fall of rubble from the upper portion obscuring the lower, a record of the facts which they now present to our view can scarcely be out of place. I also do not know that any systematic series of notes* has been published concerning them, while they bring to our notice at least two very important series of beds which are nowhere else so well developed, of which one is probably quite peculiar to this district. Besides this they present us with some extremely fine sections of the Oolite Marl and the Clypeus Grits, not to mention other well known intermediate deposits. Starting at Andoversford on a slight embankment over the Upper Lias, we end at Bourton-on-the-Water on the Lower Lias, having passed through Sections of the Inferior Oolite, Fuller’s Earth, Stonesfield Slate, and Great Oolite, but not at all in this order. * I must however call attention to some notice of these cuttings by Mr E. A. Walford in the following papers:—“‘On the Northampton Sand,” Quarterly Journal Geolog. Soc., 1883, page 225, etc.; “ Crinoidal and other beds in the Great Oolite.” ee ee 109 The chief points that we notice in this rapid glance are, Ist, the finest cutting of all, as we pass through Hampen hill, and which gives us the Fuller’s Earth, and particularly a very deep exposure of the Great Oolite, which is brought down by a fault, very well shown just above the first bridge; 2nd, the large section of Clypeus Grit exposed near Notgrove Station ; 3rd, at the highest point of the line the lowest beds, viz., the Oolite Marl, shown at Notgrove Station; and lastly, the extremely tumbled character of the Inferior Oolite as we approach Bourton, some of the beds of which are tilted at an angle of 55 degrees. (Cuttings I and II west of Bourton.) Coming to a more particular examination of the Inferior Oolite, we find that in the various cuttings where this formation is exposed we are very frequently shown entirely different series of beds, and to enable us to trace out their sequence in detail it becomes necessary to examine all the sections, because in no one section or series of sections is it properly shown. In fact we find that we have to travel several miles along the line in order to get the connecting links between the two sections which occur, one on the east and the other on the west side of Notgrove Station. It is however an extremely fortunate thing that the whole of the links are present from the lower portion of the Oolite Marl up to the Ful- ler’s Earth, and very probably further, had we wished to explore it, and that the beds of a section so far overlap the beds of the one geologically below it that we always have complete evidence of their connection. In my explanation I intend to so arrange the sections I have made that they shall fully demonstrate the manner in which I have been able to arrive at my conclusions. The first table which I append isa generalised profile of the whole of these cuttings, with the localities at which the beds are best exhibited, and giving references to other parts of the Cotteswolds, with the zonal arrangements, according to my view, and also according to the view taken by Dr Wright in treating the same beds in other parts of the Hills. 110 Zone as Deposit “observed | inmyopinion | Sge0rding to A |Fullers Earth Clay Sth cutting 7 ) t of ? Junction of Ool.and|B |Mostly dark brown sandy oe F. E. in Stroud dis- beds ... 10 ft. 0 ins. Station trict. (Witchell) Parkinsoni Beds of the same namel© |Clypeus Grits, 36ft. 0ins./) 1st Bu in other areas eee irae oa oe rl D|Trigonia Grit,4ft.6ins.|| Notgrove : ee > Parkinsoni E |Bored bed and the White : Freestone, 12 ft, 0 ins. Ditto ) Gryphza Grit of Leck-|F |Ragstone beds, the lower ‘ hampton, etc. ones containing the Ditto Gryphea sublobata abundantly,10ft. 10ins. J Sonerbyi Lower Trigonia Grit,|G |Ragstones and masses of} 3rd cutting Leckhampton and Limestone, with fos- west of . Ravensgate siliferous marly part- Bourton ings ... 9ft. 4ins Station Dr Wricht’s section,|H|Iwo bands yellow Mica-| 2nd cutting ‘Glee Hill, in Mo. ceous Sands, with two west of ? nograph “ TLias Am- bands of sandy rock Bourton monites,” Pal, Soc. 4ft. 9 ins. Humphriesianun Upper Freestone of|1|Marly debris and rock, Cutting at } Cotteswolds passing into Freestone, Notgrove Terebratula fimbria Station 13 ft. 2 ins. | : Alternating Stone and | | Oolite Marl, Leck- |J eM : Marl, with Zereb. fim- : : . eae Stroud ete. Wald. Leche byé, Ditto Murchisone | ¢ Murchisone si ac Up Rh. subobsoleta, &c., &e.... ... 22ft. Oins. | J ) i ——— 111 From this profile we notice that we have the following pecu- liar and perhaps more or less local deposits to deal with :— 1st, B. Dark brown sandy beds. 2nd, E. Bored bed and White Freestone. 3rd, G. Ragstones and Limestones, with fossiliferous partings. 4th, H. Yellow Micaceous Sands. and one of my objects in this paper is to prove that I have correctly determined the position of these deposits, and to point out the striking difference that exists between the strata here and those of the Stroud area, notably in the position of what is generally called the “ Bored Bed.” Of the four series of rocks which I have mentioned above, E and H are probably the most ‘peculiar, and therefore the most important. It was on account of a question which arose as to the position of the “Bored Bed and Freestone,” or E, that my attention was first called to these cuttings, and I was induced to make a thorough examination of them, and it is this Freestone which I wish to call, for better distinction, the Notgrove Freestone (it being best developed near Notgrove Station.) The top of it is sometimes separated into a distinct bed, but whether separated or not it is always very much bored by Annelids, whilst the upper surface, but no other part, is almost entirely covered by a thin flat oyster, probably indicating the occurrence of a considerable cessation of actual deposition after this Freestone had been formed, and before the next strata succeeded. Considering too the distance over which we have noticed this Bored bed and its oysters, the Same conditions must have prevailed over a wide area, viz., from near Bourton-on-the-Water almost to Syreford; and I have little doubt that this area must have been a large Oyster bank, existing much under the same conditions that _ obtain in the present day—probably in shallow water, not too far from the shore. Besides this, I think, from the appearance of the rock, its upper surface being pitted and scooped out, we must suppose that this deposit remained in this condition for a considerable period, and underwent a process of hardening, during which time strata were being deposited in other locali- ties. This again leads us to ask what other strata were being 112 deposited during such a period? Whether we have any reason’ to suppose that in other parts of the Cotteswolds or in other parts of England we can find any beds which we could imagine to have been deposited between the time of the deposition of this Freestone and the deposition of the Upper Trigonia Grit, and probably contemporaneous with the deposition of the thin stratum of mud which immediately covers it. Before we can settle this point we must see whether we can determine the actual position of the Freestone, whether it possesses any equivalents in other parts of the Cotteswolds, and what those equivalents are ? When Mr Witchell and myself inspected the Notgrove cutting, and I called his attention to the Gryphea bed, he said that undoubtedly the members of the Cotteswold Field Club, when they visited this part of the line, had considered this Freestone to be the well known Upper Freestone, which also possesses a Bored bed. They then supposed the absence of the Gryphea Grit, and that the Upper Trigonia Grit there shown was deposited directly upon the Upper Freestone (excluding in that case beds E, F, G, H,)* and producing only another illustration of the alleged thinner condition of the Inferior Oolite towards the east. But when I was able to show the existence in this cutting of a Gryphea underneath this Free- stone, then it was of course necessary for me to prove that what I had found was the Gryphea sublobata of the Gryphite Grit,+ and not another species, since by ‘alleging that I had found the Gryphza Grit below the Freestone, I at once altered the position of the Freestone. Nowhere else in the Cottes- wolds had the existence of a Freestone 12 feet thick above the Gryphite Grit, and below the Trigonia Grit, been recognised ; and if this were really the Gryphite Grit below, it naturally at * In the Stroud area the Gryphza Grit comes in between the Upper Trigonia Grit and the Upper Freestone. Southwards below Stroud the Upper Trigonia Grit rests directly on Freestone, so that this supposition was a most natural one ; while the state of things that actually exists has proba- bly no parallel in the Cotteswolds. + Specimens produced at the meeting of the Cotteswold Club, March, 1887, were at once identified. v a SE 115 once destroyed the correlation of the Bored bed on the top of this Freestone with the one which exists on the top of the Upper Freestone in the Stroud area. Now an important link in our chain of evidence would be to show the separate existence of the Upper Freestone in the North Cotteswolds as distinct from the Notgrove Freestone, and to do this requires the introduction of our second series of strata, namely the sands, H. , These I wish to call the Harford Sands, because they seem to be best developed in the fine cutting between Harford and Over Harford, some two miles west of Bourton Station. It strikes me very forcibly that these sands have not improbably been confounded with the sands at the base of the Inferior Oolite—those sands which, in other parts of the Cotteswolds, are just above the Upper Lias and below the Cephalopoda bed. If so, we again have another reason for the alleged thinning out of the Inferior Oolite, as this stroke would deprive us of all the lower members of that formation. I shall further on have more to say in reference to the supposed identification of these sands in this manner, but at present it is most important that I should show the true position of the Harford Sands, because they are an easily recognised and very persistent horizon, and it is from their position, when once established, that we shall be able to work out the remainder of our deposits. It is most necessary to take as a starting point a bed or series of beds about the position of which there can be least argument, and I think that the Oolite Marl probably supplies us with such, and since it occurs in a very developed state at Notgrove Station, I append the following section of that cutting :— SECTION I. First Cutting, East of Notgrove Station, North side. (Harford Sands to Oolite Mari.) ft. ins. H_ 1—Soil and Rubble, lower part light coloured unfossiliferous soft stone, in small slabs. ... 2 6 2—Bright Yellow Micaceous Sands, very en =e ie eco Rigas 3—Sandy Stone... aE £2 oe se sie oe Tis I 114 ft. ins. I 4-Soft pasty Oolitic Marly debris, small Rhynchonelle (scarce) Zee 5—Sandy stone wes one “ng Oa 6—Soft Marly parting oe x 0 6 7—Sandy stone, (two bands) with “Marl ‘saat ae ae Neal 8—Loose, soft, white, blue, or yellow Marl 2H AS, 9—Sandy stone Onna 10—Marly parting ... a 0 3 11—Loose shattered sort of eccaienis, mmiige fede a the es 5. (0 12—Band of hard stone... oa ae ae oes ee 0 4 J 13—Blue clayey Marl aS nae ams aa “O fet 3 10 14—Band hard stone 0 56 15—Yellow clay 0 8 16—Yellow clay, often fake ing like ‘Upper sae Ryneh subobsoleta bed. Tereb. fimbri (Whe oe 1 8 17—Coral bed, according to Mr Witchell, with Lima Pontos Trigonice, Corals, &c. fi 3182 18—Hard white rock, (variable) abana eink of a Pebatans sate of bedding. Rhynch. sp. Rh. Lycetti, scarce... 3 29 19—Shaly pasty rock, 7. curvifions abundant. W. Leckey scarce. Rhynchonellee yak aoe 2m Same Cutting, South side. 20—Hard stone, Tereb. submazillata abundant . Sis 2 O 21—Whitish pasty rock, becoming clayey on exposure, very fossiliferous. Wald. Leckenbyi, Rh. Lycetti, Wald. Witchelli, Tereb. posgromenaie, Tereb. Lees ae Whitakeri ... 1 10 22—Hardish Oolitic ee: pale pink tinge, esr flat on the top. Visible... 0.5 08 This cutting is extremely interesting, not only on account of the rich fauna that it contains, but for many other matters. Just beyond the bridge a fault, which crosses the line obliquely, (N. W. to 8. E.) brings down the upper beds of the Inferior Oolite, viz., the Clypeus Grit, Trigonia Grit, and Notgrove Freestone level with the Oolite Marl. A few yards further on eastwards these beds are all bent downwards at about 45 degrees, and another fault brings the Fullers Earth down to the same level. The Oolite Marl which is shown in this cutting attains a very great degree of development. The bottom bed, No. 22, may very probably be the top of the Lower Freestone, which can be observed on either side of the Station in the fields. 115 No. 21 is most interesting for the fauna that it contains, (I have found that the fauna of each bed is more or less different to the others) which is more varied and abundant than that of any other beds. No 20 contains only T. submazillata, and being soft and decomposed in places, allows of its extraction. I have not found Tereb. curvifrons lower than No. 19, where it is fairly abundant. No.17 was identified by Mr Witchell as the equiva- lent of the Coral bed of the Stroud area. No. 16 is interesting for the great quantity of Rhynchonella subobsoleta which it contains. I have not found this shell at all lower, and the same remark applies to Tereb. fimbria, a fossil usually (but perhaps not correctly) supposed to characterise the whole of the Oolite Marl. The other beds are not particularly notice- ‘able, except that I have observed 7. fimbria in bed 11, and that in No. 41 found a few small Rhynchonelle of the Rh. subangu- lata type. These shells are not yet named, but seem to mark a definite horizon some little way above the bed with Rhynchonella subobsoleta, for I have found them in the Stroud district in the same position. They usually go under the name of Rhynchonella cynocephola var., are of two or three Geis and could probably be well separated from that species. The height of this exposure of Oolite Marl above the level of the sea is remarkable. I have no exact datum, but it is probably between 750 and 800 feet; and I imagine that this is about level with the same bed on the escarpments of Cleeve and Leckhampton hills showing that during the universal drop of all the surrounding strata, making their general dip some degrees to the S.H., this bed retained its old position. Tf from the escarpment we had a uniform dip of less than two degrees, these beds should be at sea level. On the other hand if we are to suppose that the remaining beds of the Inferior Oolite with the Fullers Earth and Great Oolite capped this cutting, what an amount of denudation must have taken place. Does not the position of this bed seem to indicate that when the secondary strata were raised they were at first level, and that the depression which has caused them to dip 8. E. was of a somewhat later period ? 12 116 We perceive that the section is made up to a great extent of the Oolite Marl and Upper Freestone, or what Lycett called the Fimbria stage. The termination of this stage is perhaps not very distinct, but bed 2 shows us a stratum of fine yellow sand occurring just under some light coloured soft stone, and only two feet six inches from the top of the soil. This section then is capped by a deposit of yellow sand, occurring above the Oolite Marl, and above what must undoubtedly be considered as the Upper Freestone; and the occurrence of sand in this position is certainly most unusual. For a further explanation of this deposit of sand we must travel eastwards along the line about four miles until we reach the second cutting west of Bourton-on-the-Water Station, when we not only have displayed to us a similar section, but we are enabled to obtain an idea of what occurs above this deposit, as the following will show us :— SECTION II. Section of the Second Cutting, West of Bourton-on-the-Water Station. (Clypeus Grit to Upper Freestone.) ft. ins. C&D 1—Rubble, T. globata, &e. ... nae 5 60 E 2—Bored bed, with casts of ae ne (Clavettat form) on under side... 0 7 F&G 3—Sandy bed, with small cieas ate oe Bae fcc 0 4 4—Marly bed, with Belemnites 0 3 5—Band of stone 0 8 6 —Marly parting 0 4 7—Band of stone “et 0 11 8—Band with Marly rubbly hers = Oe es: ‘9—Two bands whitish Limestone ... 2° <2 H 10—Yellow Micaceous sands ... 0 4 11—Sandy rock... 2 0 12—Yellow sand hy goed 13—Sandy rock ... 1) al I 14—Marly debris 28 15—Band of rock je 16—Marly debris, with 7. jimbri ia = Dr Sey, 17—Freestone, with upper portion bored. Visible ee) 117 Same cutting, further West, where the beds are elevated, but South side. ft. ins 18—Freestone fully exposed ... xe Are Sa 9 0 19—Hard stone.. ie as 0 10 20—Marly fait with Sehinea “Tereb. fini small crushed Rhynch... ne! af 0 2 21—Light-coloured Oolitic stone, wate Bhaji 1 0 22—Brown clayey Marl ag or Ly 23—Very hard whitey-brown stone ... See: One of the chief points about Section II was the fact of finding that bed 17 had its upper portion slightly bored. Weare enabled too to see the exact position occupied by the Harford Sands, and we are able to correlate distinctly beds 11, 12, 18, 14 of this section, with beds 1, 2, 3, 4 of Section I, so that the relative position of the other beds with regard to the beds exhibited at Notgrove Station can be easily explained. We see in this section that there are two distinct layers of yellow sands, 10 and 12, and two of sandy rock, 11 and 13. Below these we have 14, which is a yellow marly debris, or a kind of paste, which seems to be partly a mixture of sands and partly of detritus, probably derived from the wasting of bed 17. In fact its appearance is that of bed 17 (Freestone) in a rotten condition. I should imagine that bed 14 is in reality the uppermost bed of what is called the Upper Freestone in other places, although it is bed 17 that has its upper portion bored. But the mere fact of a bed being more or less bored can in reality by itself be no evidence of identity of horizon. The sands however are a very well marked line in this part of the county, but as they do not occur in the Stroud area, the deter- mination of the actual top of the Upper Freestone deposit, or Fimbria stage, in this district would be a matter of uncertainty. It is noticeable that the thickness of the sandy partings varies very considerably, even in-a few yards, in the same cutting. Two more sections which I now append, No. III, taken at the East end of the third cutting, West of Bourton-on-the- Water, and No. IV, at the West end, will more fully explain the relation of the sands to the beds above, and will also show their variation in thickness. 118 SECTION III. Third Cutting, West of Bourton, South side. East end. (Clypeus Grit to Harford Sands.) ft. ins. C&D _ 1 —Rubble, part Clypeus, part Trigonia Grits, indistinct... 7 #O E 2—BoRED BED, with oysters on top 1 0 F 3—Three bands of hard stone 2 0 4—Bed with Gryphea sublobata 3. 6 5—Marly parting 0 8 G 6—Stone 0 9 7—Mar] parting é aa 0 6 8—Very hard He per ane ae 1 0 9—Marl QMe2 10—Stone, with Bilesnsitths 1 10 11—Marl, fossiliferous... 0 8 12—Two bands very hard stone 1 8 13—Marl 0 2 14—Two bands very ae Th 5. (OO H 15—Fine yellow sands... 3 «6 16—Brown Sandstone... : 2 0 17—Close yellow sticky sand... 0 9 SECTION IV. Third Cutting, West of Bourton, South side. West end. (Clypeus Grit to Harford Sands.) 1—C.ypeus GRIT. Oolitic Ragstone, upper part sat lower part more regular rock, irregular cleavage... 12 0 D 2—Triconia Grit. Hard light-coloured ene: three hes Rh. hampenensis in clusters .. 3° 2 3—BoreD BED. Unfossiliferous, a paver on ip with flat oysters ; thickness Mgrs cay. not separated from beds below 5 “ee ae Ae sales 4—Hard unfossiliferous White rer in) F 5—Yellow stone, Echinodermata, casts of Cucullea S1eetG 6—Bed, with Gryphea sublobata abundant Li pg6 G 7—Hard Ragstone ... 0 10 8—Mar! bed, with cee 0 6 9—Sandy stone, with Gervillia ... 1 8 10—Band of hard stone 10 11—Mar! parting 0 6 12—Band of hard stone Te\ayt 138—Rubbly stone 0 10 1/—Hard band of Tisai Ph ts! H 15—Yellow sands 1 0 16—Band of stone ... 1 10 17—Floor of cutting, fine mallee aa ON tie len a oe 119 A comparison of sections II. and III. will shew us that we can correlate exactly beds 10, 11, 12 of section II. with beds 15, 16, 17 of section III., observing, however, the much greater thickness of bed III., 15 compared with II., 10. Again above these we can identify the beds 1 and 2 of each section, especially the Bored bed No. 2. Comparing sections III. and IV. we trace the beds III., 15, 16, 17, in the same numbers of section IV., observing that bed 15 has again decreased in thickness. Further up we see that the position of the Gryphea sublolata in relation to the Bored bed is different in the two sections, being about three feet in section III., and ten feet in section IV., below that horizon, and we notice a considerable difference in the beds between that and the sands, which beds we are not able to exactly correlate, although their general identity is apparent. For the present these sections shew us the position and extent of these beds of sands, which in colour and general texture have a most remarkable resemblance to the Supra- Liassic Sands of Dorset and Somerset, so much so that with the naked eye I could discern no difference between them. Taken in conjunction with Nos. I. and II. these sections suffi- ciently explain the position occupied by the Harford Sands,* as above the Oolite Marl and Upper Freestone representatives, and taken by themselves they shew that they are a considerable distance beneath the beds with Gryphea sublolata. The sections also give us an insight into the Inferior Oolite in this locality, to which I shall draw attention later on. I have previously mentioned my idea that it is possible that these sands may have been mistaken for the Supra-Liassic Sands of other parts, and in connection with this I want to draw particular attention to a section exhibited by the first cutting east of Andoversford Station. Leaving the station on * In regard to the position of these sands I would refer to the section of Cleeve Hill, given by Dr Wright, Lias Ammonites, Pal. Soc., 1879, vol. 33, page 155. No. 7 of that section is yellow and brown sands, and the Doctor states that this peculiar deposit “constitutes the subsoil over a considerable area of this part of the hill,” and that “he knows of no other bed in the district which presents lithological characters similar to those of this sandy stratum. 120 an embankment over the Upper Lias we enter rather suddenly into this cutting, which is situated at Syreford. The beds dip somewhat towards the east, and in this way the following series of strata are presented to our view, the Freestone at the west end, and the Sandy beds at the east. SECTION VII. First Cutting East of Andoversford Station, by Syreford Farm, North side, Beds dipping East and South. Marked on the Ordnance Map as G. 4, Midford Sands. (Harford Sands and Upper Freestone.) ft. ins. 1—Several bands of Sandy Rock with Sandy partings : Se 8 2 —Yellowish sandy debris, occasionally hardening into coarse stone 2 3—Band of Rock ‘ge Bae Fi ne 1 4—Sticky, Yellowish Brown nnd acti es Pe is 3 5—Bands of a rough decomposed Limestone, with Aa aac 3 oo CO f SO 6—-Coarse fissile kind of White Freestone, with White Oolite Grains. Lamellibranchiata, small Gasteropoda, etc., visible 10 0 We are unable to trace the beds below the cutting, because they are hidden from view, but it would be interesting to know how they are connected with the Upper Lias just below, unless, as is most probable, there is here a considerable fault. By a bridge across the cutting runs the road from Shipton to Syreford, and a little below, the line crosses the road from Ando- versford to Rowel Gate, and with the Stow road on the south, and the Syreford farmhouse on the north, it is impossible to mistake the place where the railway cuts through. We observe that this is coloured in the map G. 4, or the same as the Supra-Liassic or Cotteswold Sands in other places, but the cutting shews nothing of the nature of these sands, and the presence of the rough Freestone bed at the bottom shews that this is a mistake, and that the most probable thing is that these sandy beds are the equivalent in time to the sandy beds which we have been examining by Notgrove Station and at Harford, and which Dr Wright has met with at Cleeve Hill. In that case the colouring of a certain portion of this part of the country should be altered from G. 4 Midford Sands, to G. 5 Inferior Oolite. Of course the officers of the Geological Survey had not the tha a 121 advantage of such an exposure as the railway now presents, but the occurrence of a quarry of Gryphite Grit about twenty feet above what is marked by them as Midford Sands, indicates something unusual. These beds of sand in this cutting are not lithologically similar to the sands at Harford. In fact, they are not of that fine yellow colour, nor very micaceous, but are rather brown- ish debris, mixed with shelly detritus in places, and with a certain admixture of mica. From this, however, we must except bed No. 2, especially the upper part, which has a much more sandy appearance, and is almost free from debris. Bed 4 has much more resemblance to the marly debris mixed with a little mica, which I have classed at the top of the Upper Freestone series (sections II., 14), but is coarser and less sticky. Before finally leaving these beds of sand I quote the follow- ing remarks of Dr Hull,* which shews that a change in the nature of these sands occurs elsewhere, “at Cleeve Cloud the Ragstone contains a bed of siliceous sand at or near the base, which may also be observed on Broadway Hill, near the Tower, in a quarry. This bed of sand appears in some localities to give place to clay, sha e, etc.” We thus see that we have this bed of sand extending from Andoversford eastwards nearly to Bourton-on-the-Water, and northwards past Cleeve Hill to Broadway Hill, and that it seems to form a very definite horizon, which Dr Wright has at Cleeve Hill considered to be in the zone of Am. Humphriesianus, in which he also includes the Upper Freestone. It seems to me, however, that this sand is an extremely good dividing line ‘between the end of Lycett’s Fimbria Stage and the beds which we are now going to consider, viz., the Ragstones and Lime- ‘stones exhibited near Bourton, which lie between the sands below and the beds with Gryphea sublolata above. In the Stroud area we find that the beds containing Gryphea ‘sublolata rest directly upon the Upper Freestone. We also find that the top of the Upper Freestone is considerably bored by * Memoirs of the Geological Survey. The Geclogy of the Country ‘around Cheltenham, by Dr E. Hull, F.G:S., 1857, page 45. 122 Annelids. If we further consider this point we naturally come to the conclusion that there is a hiatus, and that beds were being deposited in other localities which are not represented in the Stroud area.. And so, in fact, is the case, as we can observe from a section of Leckhampton Hill,* where a bed which is absent at Stroud is called The Lower Trigonia Grit. In the section of Cleeve Hill, between the Upper Freestone and the bed with Gryphea sublobata, we have sands and a whole series of beds, absent at Stroud, most of which Dr Wright considers to be the equivalent of the Upper Flaggy Bastard Freestone, No. 4 of his section of Leckhampton Hill. There can be little doubt, I think, that the greater part of the beds shewn in the sections of the third cutting west of Bourton Station are the equivalents of the Lower Trigonia Grit of Leckhampton, and I should also imagine them to be the equiva- lents of the beds at Cleeve Hill, which occur between the sands and the Gryphza bed. These beds in the second cutting from Bourton are very much thinned out, and as we do not find the Gryphea in them, their upper boundary cannot well be detected. In the sections III. and IV. they consist of beds of Limestone in large masses, alternating with thin partings of Marl. These Limestone beds are extremely compact, stand out as large ledges along the sides of the cutting, and look as if they would make a fair though coarse building stone. One thing is especially noticeable in these sections, and that is the persistence of the two bands of Limestone above the sands; in section IL., they are two feet two inches thick, in section IIL., five feet, and in section IV. two feet eight inches. The other beds in these cuttings do not seem quite so easy to correlate. The Marly partings seem to be rather fossiliferous, and the Lime- stone somewhat so. The beds here yielded me some Ammonites in poor preservation, and I observed Cucullea, Ceromya, Belem- nites, Astarte, etc. They would probably well repay a more extended search than from the time at my disposal I was able to make. In bands of Limestone above, very similar to these, we find the Gryphea sublobata. It is merely the presence of * Dr Wright loc. cit., page 151. 123 this shell which indicates any difference in horizon, as the lithological characters seem similar. Therefore it is very probable that any distinction between the Gryphza beds and those below must be more or less artificial. Before proceeding to describe the higher beds I must introduce other sections to shew how we connect our series, and continue to the Fullers Earth Clay. SECTION VI. First Cutting West of Notgrove Station, North side. (Clypeus to Gryphea Grits. ) ft. ins. B? 1—Fossiliferous stone, with horizontal fracture in layers... 4 0 C 2—Stone like lower portion eae erit, but tiie Ch jane Plottii abundant er 3. (0 3—Rotten stone, in fact a paste of oolitic arene, clayey, with crushed variety of T. globata a 2 0 4—Yellow stone, upper part of a more Biecntes poe iisieen rubbly, with irregular cleavage. T. globata abundant . 31 (0 D 5—Trigonia grit, 3 beds separated by marly partings, bidet lighter and much harder. Rh. hampenensis in clusters, Wald. Hughesi, Am. Parkinsoni, eaauenl of Tri mines abundant ae 4 6 E 6—BoreD BED. Thickness aaahis ond not always separated from Freestone below ree P oN 0 8 7—White Freestone, rather soft and tainly os no oh MOOS ee nee Me 1220 F 8—Five or six beds of thinnish, Sa ans oe el white coloured, softer partings ae 4. a nck ee 0 9—Two beds with occasional Giryphaea sublobata =e oes 2 4 10—Bed with Gryphea sublobata abundant, visible... ae 1 6 SECTION VII. Section of the Fifth Cutting West of Bourton-on-the-Water Station. Junction of the Inferior Oolite and Fullers Earth. A 1—Depth of Fuller’s Earth pe ee and blue (ave about five feet of rock) ~. 14 0 B 2—Band of waterworn nodules of a pink non- ipalitie SS aviet when broken, Serpulae and oysters on the outside 0 3—Rough oolitic debris, with somewhat rubbly oolitic stone 0 4—Reddish sandy oolitic debris ... 43 se aac der 0 4 5—Same, but rather harder and more compacted, like stone.. 0 6—Light brown Limestone, with darker i ili Waldheimia ornithocephala 2 crushed... 0 3 7—Rubbly marl... a “ee aaa ao wie soa 0 6 8—Light brown sandy stone... ame ae aa aes 0 10 ft. ins 9—Brown oolitic paste, decomposed _... ae a ot? Onnee 10—Bands of brown, sandy Limestones, with softer partings od 11—Bluish brown clay at the bottom, with quantities of broken shells, A viculae? changing into a browner mar] at the top LONG 12—Hard light brown, slightly oolitic, stone... He a: Ope) 13— Yellow rubbly rock Be 3. 66 14—Harder ditto, Terebratula globata, Cain Plottit 1. 6 Lying on the bank, and evidently out of the Fullers Earth, because at this point there was no capping of Great Oolite, was a specimen of Wald- heimia (Eudesia) cardium, Lamarck sp. of a blue colour. SECTION VIII. Fourth Cutting West of Bourton, South side. C 1—Clypeus grit, upper portion more or less of a Freestone nature not so fossiliferous ... ; ee .. about 6. <0 2—Clypeus grit, lower portion buoy atragnide cleavage. Am. Parkinsoni. Large Nautilus, 14 ins. across, 5 ins. broad about ae 0 D 3—Trigonia grit, hard ee with Rh. hampenensis, small TR Globgigi ene. os a ace a3 E 4—Freestone, capped by the ee Bap, 5.4 SECTION IX. Railway Cutting, first below Hampen Hill (West), Beds dipping S. (North side). D_ 1—Loose rubbly stone, Triconia Grit, Rh. PO Wald. Hughesi, T. globata, Trigoniae casts Aye 4 E 2—Uniform light coloured i a sees by m4 Bored bed with its oysters ... 14 0 A few yards further West a fault brings down the Bored bed some three feet, and on the south side of the cutting, where the beds are lower, the Trigonia grit is more exposed, shewing marly partings with Brachiopoda, especially Wald. Hughesi, which is common here but scarce at Hampen Hill, 300 yards off. SECTION X. Quarry about a quarter of a mile from Notgrove Station on right hand of road to Bourton-on-the- Water. D 1-—Hard stone, crushed oe 1B heen etc., ahaa of Trigonia dpe 2 0 2—Marly rubble, 7. nee Rh. Bh Bese vee Par nko three inches from bottom ... Pa rn ar ie 1 0 EK 3—BoreED BED, fairly well separated... 3 ai nee 0 6 4—Freestone, visible oes ap 0 fe she ‘ee 4 0 Another small quarry, about 200 yards from Notgrove Station, 8.W., on the other side of the lane to Salperton, shews Freestone capped by Bored bed and the Trigonia grit. 125 SECTION XI. Section at Stroud Hill from Mr E. Witchell’s “ Geology of Stroud,” facing page 5. ft. ins A 1—Blue marly clay, Fuller’s Earth one He Soc eta abes A, B? 2—Upper bed of Inferior Oolite, White Freestone ... ae 3 (OO C 38—Clypeus grit, Terebratula globata, Clypeus Plottii ... 8 0 4— Three beds hard brown grit ... 4 6 5—Upper Coral bed Nee ‘ia ae ne vhs 3 0 D 6—Upper Trigonia grit... ae ee 5 Sad By, 6 0 ‘F 7—Gryphite grit ... sa ae see ae Bie caoekan nO I 8—Upper Freestone soc “ck nor Re a cone eae) J 9—Oolite Marl 6 0 By these sections we can see that we are connected with sections III. IV. by the presence of the Gryphewa sublobata in section VI., and again by the presence of the Bored Bed underneath the Trigonia grit. The beds containing the Gryphza are in sections 3, somewhat compact masses of Limestone containing few fossils. I have obtained specimens of the Gryphea from all the localities at which it is men- tioned, and some of these specimens were exhibited at the Cotteswold Club Meeting, and identified as the same shell which marks the horizon at Leckhampton Hill, and many other places. In that case there can be no doubt that the Freestone which we see above the bed with the Gryphea in section VL, which is there 12 feet thick, and in section TX, is exposed to _ the depth of 14 feet, is a Freestone that cannot be identified with the Upper Freestone of Leckhampton, or with any other Freestone of the Cotteswold area. I therefore propose to call it the Notgrove Freestone to distinguish it. The representatives of this Freestone we find in section IV. bed 4, as 7 feet of a hard kind of limestone. In section III. we find it represented by three bands of stone two feet thick, and in section II. we cannot exactly trace any representative, so that it evidently undergoes considerable alteration eastwards, while to the west - we find an increase in the section IX. On the top of this Freestone we have a more or less separated bed, bored in all directions, generally very hard, with its top covered with numerous flat oysters, and much pitted and scooped out. As 126 will be seen by the sections this is a much more persistent feature, and it is present from near Bourton-on-the-Water to the cutting on the railway, about 14 miles east of Andovers- ford, a distance of 7 miles. Its position, if I have satisfactorily proved the position of the Notgrove Freestone below, is of course much above the Bored bed on the top of the so-called Upper Freestone of the Stroud area, of which I have endea- voured to shew there occurs a feeble representative in section II. bed 17, whilst No. 2 of the same section contains this Bored bed. We have, therefore, the two horizons shewn in a cutting one above the other, although we must examine the other sections to see what a much greater amount of deposits really occur between them. Above this Bored bed comes a very thin layer of mud, or debris, and during one of my later visits to cutting ITI., at a point to the east of where section IV. was taken, I observed a bed, 1 foot 3 inches in thickness, on the top of the Bored bed, containing flat oysters, Trigonie, etc. This bed is irregularly deposited in kind of pockets, and it did not extend any great distance from the point where I observed it, but thinned out to a thickness of an inch or so rather suddenly. It is evidently usually represented by the layer of mud which occurs on the top of the Bored bed in other places. Above this we find the Upper Trigonia Grit, a division of the Inferior Oolite, which is so well known that it does not need any lengthened notice from me. In this district it usually con- sists of three very hard beds, of a somewhat dark colour, and separated by partings of marl. The beds contain numerous impressions of Trigonie; Rhynchonella hampenenis, 8. Buck. occurs in clusters, Rhynch. spinosa, Schloth. Waldheimia Hughesi, Dav., Wald. carinata, Lam. and other brachiopods occur, as well as Am. Parkinsoni. The top bed is generally the hardest of any, and contains numerous fragments of shells. This Grit is probably one of the most persistent and recognisable horizons over the entire Cotteswolds, and I have no doubt that it is the exact equivalent of this bed which I have met with at Gall- hampton, Blackford, and other places near Sparkford, in 127 Somerset, and from which I have obtained an almost identical series of species, with Terebratula sphaeroidalis. Its litholo- gical character is somewhat different, but otherwise in its fauna it is the bed south of the Mendips, which has more resemblance to its Cotteswold equivalent of the same age than any other Inferior Oolite bed which I know, except, perhaps, those with Am. opalinus. Mr Witchell gives the thickness of the Upper Trigonia grit at Stroud Hill at 6 feet, and at Rod- borough 4 feet. Above he mentions a Coral bed, 4 feet at the former and 38 feet thick at the latter place. I cannot say if the upper of the beds which I have placed in the Trigonia grit be the equivalent or no, but I have not noticed any evidence to cause me to think so. Above the Trigonia Grit we meet with what is known as the Clypeus grit, which, in the first cutting west of Notgrove Station, exhibits a depth of 36 feet, probably the greatest development known. The beds, too, are fairly uniform in com- position, and in this as well as in thickness offer a remarkable contrast to Rodborough, which, according to Mr Witchell,* con- tains two beds of Clypeus Grit, 5 feet 6 inches, hard brown Limestone, two feet, and brown sandy Grit, two feet, above the Coral bed, which overlies the Upper Trigonia Grit. In the district we are treating of, the Clypeus Grit is generally of a rather rich yellow colour, and of the character of a loose dis- connected sort of Ragstone, with an occasional resemblance to soft Freestone. In some places blue marly seams occur, but of no great extent. Terebratula globata and its numerous varieties are to be frequently met with throughout the whole series. In section VII. there occurs a peculiar bed of a kind _ of decomposed paste, and in this occurs a peculiar variety (?) of Tereb. globata, with its valves much thickened at the margin, and with very small folds. Clypeus Plottii occurs more or less throughout this grit, but it is usually more abundant in the upper part, and when the line was first made and ballasted, any quantity of large specimens could be seen lying loose, though generally with more or less shell detached. The presence of ® Geology of Stroud, p. 55. 128 large Pholodamye explains the reason for Lycett’s term for these beds, viz., Pholodamya grit. In section VIII. I have noted the occurrence of Am. Parkinsoni, and a large Nautilus, in the lower portion of this grit. | The last series of beds which I have to mention are mostl brown somewhat sandy strata, lying between the Clypeus Grit proper and the Fullers Earth Clay. In the Stroud area the only bed that seems to be in this position is what Mr Witchell calls (loc. cit.) upper bed of the Inferior Oolite, a fine white grained Freestone, three feet thick at Stroud Hill and five feet at Rodborough, but this seems to be of a totally different character to the beds which we have met with in the Notgrove district, and I should rather be inclined to correlate it with the upper portion of what I have placed as Clypeus Grit, which has sometimes a more compacted Freestone nature. In that case these Sandy beds are not represented in the Stroud area. Mr Walford* has referred to these beds, and given a section of them, and he further tells me that he has found several Trigonie in bed No. 4 of his section, so that their true position ought soon to be decided. Referring to the section I have given (VII.) I have a very strong suspicion that the Inferior Oolite proper ends with my bed No. 12. It would require, however, much more work to decide the question, but the bed 11, blue clay with crushed shells, seems to be unlike anything of the Inferior Oolite. But again the Sandy Limestones above are peculiar, and I believe quite unusual in the Fullers Earth, the only thing that I know of with which they might be in a remote degree compared being the Fullers Earth Rock of Dorset and Somerset. On account of the unusual sequence of strata here shown this cutting is one of the most interesting of any, and one to which more attention should be directed. Similar beds to those which we have reviewed, viz., the Oolite Marl to the Fullers Earth Clay, are divided by Dr Lycett + * The so-called Northampton Sand, Quarterly Journal Greological Society, 1883, p. 225. + Cotteswold Hills, pp. 44-70. 129 into two large divisions, and into five smaller ones, and his remarks upon them are extremely interesting, especially in comparison with what we have observed in the Notgrove dis- trict. He divides these beds as follows: — A. Pholodamya Grit. c B. Trigonia Grit. Spinosa Stage C. Gryphite Grit. D. Rubbly Ragstone. Fimbria Stage : Oolite Marl Series Bree oo The corresponding beds in the Notgrove District can easily be seen, but it is curious to note that he observes that series A is of inconsiderable thickness in the Northern Cotteswolds, a statement which these new cuttings do not bear out. In fact, from the bottom of the Oolite Marl upwards we have a far greater extent of beds in every way than any other district in the Cotteswolds exhibits. Dr Lycett’s arrangement of these beds in the manner shewn above seems somewhat arbitrary. It was certainly tempting to arrange in one series the large mass of Freestones and bastard Freestones, and in the other the Ragstones, because the line seemed so easy to draw. But in our district we meet with other conditions, and we have a Freestone in the middle of the Ragstones. In the Stroud area we have a marked division between the Freestones and the Ragstones, so much so that the former have been classed as the Lower Division of the Inferior Oolite, and the latter the Upper. In the Notgrove district our division seems to be at the Bored bed at the base of the upper Trigonia Grit. In Dorsetshire the division between upper and lower portions of the Inferior Oolite is drawn at the base of the Humphriesianum zone, and when this is absent naturally at the base of the Parkinson. During the course of these investigations the question of the zones to which the different beds belong, or in other words, their true correlation with the beds of the Inferior Oolite, which occur in Dorset and Somerset, has naturally occupied my thoughts. It was among the Dorset and Somerset beds that I first made acquaintance with Geology, and I have K 130 travelled that district, visiting nearly all the quarries from Burton Bradstock, and Bridport, in the south, to the hills beyond Sparkford, in the north, and from East Coker in the west, to Milborne Wick, in the east, and the result of part of this work was the arrangement of the beds into zones entirely on my own investigations, which differed in many points from the opinions previously expressed about those deposits, and one of the chief of these points was that the Humphriesianum zone was most partial in its development, and that most of the beds which had been placed in it belonged in reality to the Sowerbyi and also partly to the Murchisone zones. Taking the zonal arrangement which Dr Wright has given for Cleeve Hill, and applying it to the beds which we are now discussing, we see that according to him the Parkinsoni zone would extend down to the bottom of the beds with Gryphea sublobata, or even lower. Then below this down to the top of the Oolite Marl he includes in the Humphriesianum zone. Now the Ammonites which I have obtained from the beds between the Gryphea Grit and the Harford Sands are species with which I am well acquainted, and of which I pos- sess numerous examples from the Sowerbyi zone of Bradford Abbas and its vicinity. Furthermore from the Gryphea Grit of the Stroud district Mr Witchell has shewn me a fine series of Ammonites, all of which I recognise as belonging to the Sowerbyi zone, ‘‘the fossil bed” of Bradford Abbas, and therefore I cannot agree with placing the Gryphea Grit in the Parkinsoni zone, nor with placing the beds below in the Hum- phriesanum zone. I would rather divide the beds in the fol- lowing manner:—Beds C. D., that is to the bottom of the Upper Trigonia Grit, I would place in the zone of Am. Parkin- soni. Beds E. F. G., that is down to the top of the Harford Sands, I would place in the zone of Am. Sowerbyi, and there- fore it is my opinion that the zones of Am. Humphriesianum and Am. Sauzei, which we find so well represented in the neighbourhood of Sherborne, Dorset, are totally unrepresented in the Cotteswolds, so far as our present knowledge extends, just in the same way as they are in Dorset and Somerset 181 generally. The position of the Harford Sands is certainly doubtful as they are unfossiliferous, and the same remark partly applies to the Upper Freestone, but considering the occurrence of Terebratula fimbria right at the top of the Upper Freestone, and therefore the evident relationship of this deposit to the Oolite Marl, I would rather place these together in the zone of Murchisone than, as Dr Wright proposed, place the Upper Freestone in one zone and the Oolite Marl in another. I have mentioned the hiatus which occurs in the Stroud area between the top of the Upper Freestone and the Gryphza Grit above it, which is indicated by the Bored bed on the top of the Upper Freestone. It seems to me that there can be little doubt that the beds G. and H. of our sections are the beds which are missing in the Stroud area. But it becomes a more difficult question, however, to say what beds are to be considered as missing between the top of the Notgrove Free- stone and the Upper Trigonia Grit. The Bored bed that we find on the top of the Notgrove Freestone evidently shews us that there was a cessation of deposit in the district between these beds. But if we turn to the Stroud area we find that the Upper Trigonia Grit rests directly upon the Gryphea Grit, without even any representative of the Notgrove Freestone being present. My theory however is that this cessation of deposit took place while the Humphriesianwm and Sauzei zones were being deposited in the neighbourhood of Sherborne, in Dorset, and some other places on the continent. I cannot do better than place here some remarks made by Dr Waagen* on the deposits in the neighbourhood of Chelten- ham. On page 577 (71) he says—‘‘ Pea grit and Freestone appear with tolerable certainty to belong to the zone of Am. Murchisone. To what place one should assign the Oolite Marl is doubtful, and the location of the Upper Freestone is also uncertain; but that the Lower Trigonia Grit represents the zone of Am. Sowerbyi is evident from the list of fossils from that deposit here given.” Dr Waagen then quotes a long list © Ueber die Zone des Ammonites Sowerbyi, Miinchen, 1867. K 2 132 obtained from Ravensgate Hill according to Dr Wright. On page 579 (73) Dr Waagen says—“‘The Gryphea Grit cannot be exactly correlated by the species of fossils which have up till the present been obtained from it, although it most likely also belongs to the zone of Am. Sowerbyi, while the Upper Trigonia Grit represents the zone of Am. Parkinsoni, and probably also the zones of Am. Humphriesianus and Am. Sauzei. The beds of | Rolling Bank Quarry, Cave Hill, North End, from which Wright quotes Am. Humphriesianus, Gervillii, Brocchui, Braikenridgu, appear to me to be rather the representatives of a portion of the Upper Trigonia Grit than as Wright thinks of the Upper Freestone, as otherwise Am. Sowerbyi must in the Cheltenham district occur higher than Am. Humphriesianus and Am. Gervillii.” In the Notgrove district and in Dorset the division between the Upper and Lower portions of the Inferior Oolite would be in this way similar, viz., at the base of the Parkinsoni zone, or of the Humphriesianuwm, when present. When the latter is absent, the division is very marked in both places, but if we draw the line at the similar division (Bored Bed) in the Stroud area we draw it below the Gryphza Grit, and consequently below, as I say, the Sowerbyi zone. My contention is that to draw the division in the Stroud district below the Gryphea Grit is to draw it at a totally different place to what it is drawn in Dorset, and causes the inclusion of the Sowerby: zone of the Cotteswolds, in the Upper Division. There- fore, although we have scarcely any break of a marked character between the Upper Trigonia Grit and the Grypheza Grit in the Stroud district, yet having regard to other localities, and to the fauna that the beds exhibit, we must, to place them on the same horizon as the beds in Dorset, draw our line of demarcation between these two deposits. In that case we draw a most marked line of division in the middle of Lycett’s Spinosa Stage, and if my idea be correct that the Gryphza Grit belongs to the Sowerby: zone, and the Trigonia Grit to the Parkinsoni, and the zones of Am. Sauzei and Am. Humphries- ianus are absent, it follows that the division of Spinosa Stage 133 as constituted is quite unnatural. As far, too, as the occurrence of Rhynchonella spinosa is concerned I must doubt its being found in the Gryphea Grit. If we take Dr Wright’s zonal division we should have to draw the line between the Upper and Lower Division between the Oolite Marl and the Upper or Bastard Freestone. Not only does this seem a totally unnatural place, but I do not see that there are any sufficient reasons to support it. It would seem, however, that there is yet plenty of work to be done in order to correctly correlate the Inferior Oolite of the Cotteswolds with what is found in other places. Since the above was written I have been able during a recent visit to gain some information about one cutting of which I have made no mention in the previous part of this paper, and this is the cutting nearest to Bourton-on-the-Water Station, about one mile to the west of it. It consists of a fine yellow Micaceous Sand, very similar in appearance to what is known as the Cotteswold Sands, in which are embedded at all conceivable angles a large number of massive, pale-coloured blocks of Limestone, with some coarse ferruginous oolitic grains. The part of the cutting nearest to Bourton seems to be in a hopeless confusion, but as we get above the bridge we find that the beds seem to be more regular, and we are able to make out the following section :— SECTION XII. First Cutting West of Bourton-on-the-Water Station, above the Bridge, North side. i ft. ins. 1.—Rubbly pale Limestone, in small slabs... see ... about 7 0 2.—Large irregular blocks of pale brownish Limestone, ae north at an angle of about 40 degrees... aa 2-5 0 3.—Fine Yellow Micaceous Sands, with slight irregular eoubtbtibe ary nodules, visible ... Sc ae ee se es 8 0 Working further up the cutting we come toa further exposure of the bed No. 1, consisting of small, irregular slabs embedded in a much disturbed manner in a kind of debris, looking like the decay of the stone. No fossils could be found. Just before reaching the bridge over the river, a quarry on the north side of the line seems to exhibit more of a similar deposit. We 134 cross the river Windrush by the railway bridge, and a few yards more bring us opposite a mill, marked on the Ordnance Survey Map, and we next come to a road nearly opposite what “is marked as Aston Farm. The section exhibited by this road is some irregular rubbly rock, with a fine grained Marly debris above, in which I found Terebratula fimbria. Altogether about five feet is here exposed. The positions on the Ordnance Map are important, because this road is marked on the map as G. 4 Sands, and the positicn can be easily recognised, because it branches just at this point; but instead of being Sands it seems that it is Inferior Oolite, with Terebratula fimbria, and the cutting which we have just passed through is in reality a tongue of sands extending towards the river, but which is not shewn on the map, this portion being coloured Upper Lias. It appears to me that these beds which belong to the bottom of the Inferior Oolite, and these Sands, which I take it, are the equivalent of the Cotteswold Sands of other places, can be more or less approxi- mately traced and joined on to the second cutting West of Bourton (Section II. and IIa.) We do not see the junction at any point, but we can easily surmise that the marl with Terebratula fimbria underlies at a greater or lesser distance those rocks in that section, which by other evidence we know to belong to the Upper Freestone Series. The following would be somewhat what we should expect to find:— Upper Freestone, etc., in Section IIa. ft. Mahlon Unseen perhaps about .. nde sie iad 10 Tisnis Mar! with Tereb. fimbria Lae yy 2. Broken Irregular Rock, perhaps te ae 20 ~ Massive Blocks of Limestone aon we 2-5 Jurense Zone *? —Yellow Micaceous Sands. © T have always imagined that the Cotteswold Sands were the zone of Am jurensis, but Dr Wright in his section of Frocester Hill, “Lias Am., p. 138,” places them in the zone of Am. bifrons. It is curious to note in dis- cussing these zones, that even this point is doubtful, because I have never yet ascertained that Am jurensis occurs in England. Several species have been recorded by that name but all incorrectly. The species figured by Dr Wright in his Monograph is not Am. jurensis, Zieten, but_a very different shell as I was able to convince myself when examining it in the Jermyn Street Museum. This species, too, occurs in the zone of Am. opalinus at Haresfield and Frocester Hills. ————— oe ee = ae -~ ae 135 It would seem that the lower beds of the Inferior Oolite had now become very much attenuated, and this we can scarcely wonder at when we remember that on the other side of the valley, in the hills beyond Bourton, about four miles from this point, they are said to be quite absent. The occurrence of the Cotteswold Sands in this part of the county is most certainly interesting, though the thickness is probably not very considerable, whilst on the other hand I have not been able to find the sands at the other end of this portion of the line, viz.,’ by Andoversford—although they are marked in the Survey Map. —— The spring which supplies the mill at Syreford, close to Andovers- ford, gushes out directly from a hard brown somewhat ferrugin- ous rock, evidently the lower portion of the Inferior Oolite, and, as remarked by Mr E. Wethered, who examined the locality with me, “ without the slightest approach to any sandy nature,” and we must naturally conclude that the pond which is formed is on the Upper Lias, as it could scarcely be on sands. In fact, the position and occurrence of Cotteswold Sands seems to be involved in some obscurity. I cannot find them where marked at Syreford Mill where the spring issues, what is marked Sands in the cutting at Syreford I take to be the Inferior Oolite, in what is marked Sands in the road cutting by Aston Farm I find Terebratula fimbria, and I take it to be Oolite Marl, while where the Sands do occur in the first cutting west of Bourton does not seem to be marked. P.S.—The proof sheets of this paper Mr Witchell very kindly looked over. It issad to think thata very few days afterwards we had to deplore his loss. To him Iam indebted for much kind and generous assistance, and I cannot allow the opportunity to pass without adding this small tribute of respect to his memory. Notes upon the Breeding of Salmonide, read at a Meeting of the Ootteswold Club, March 22nd, 1887. By Francis Day, C.I.E., F.L.S., etc. The following observations on the “Breeding of Salmonide”’ are a continuation of some which I laid before this Society on two previous occasions. Having been furnished by Sir James Maitland, F.L.S., from Howietoun, in December, 1885, and February, 1886, with a plentiful supply of eggs from his Lochleven trout, I have been enabled to investigate several questions, in addition to those which I have previously treated of. For fish-culture is a subject wide in its scope, and in it many statements have obtained unlimited credence, the cor- rectness of which I have considered it might not be amiss to test, and while the results have in most cases corroborated received opinions, in others they have yielded doubtful or even adverse conclusions. In my notes I have briefly considered the adaptability or the reverse of fresh waters to fish-culture, some of the pollu- tions which are commonly perceived, the effects of temperature, the amount of moisture or depth of water in which these eggs may be incubated, and what is probably necessary in order to obtain strong and healthy young, also the employment of salt water or the results of concussion on the ova. I have likewise touched upon some of the injurious forces which may affect the embryo when within the egg, and what influences may tend towards the survival of the strongest. The first deleterious agent which I propose remarking upon is cold, for although it is evident that in a modified form it is beneficial when present during the incubation of the eggs of these fishes, still in an intense degree it may be highly injurious to them, and even occasion their deaths. If we examine the geographical distribution of the Salmonide we see that with ” 137 but few exceptions it is normally restricted to cold and tem- perate climates, while the time of breeding in fresh waters is during the coldest season of the year. And opinions have been expressed that these eggs may be frozen and the embryo still survive. On the other hand exceedingly strong evidence has been adduced tending to prove that freezing these eggs destroys their vitality, and I have for some seasons been desirous of testing this question, and in a similar manner to what might be expected were natural redds to become frozen during periods of intense and long continued frosts. For at such times rivers near their sources, and even lower down, diminish in size con- sequent upon their affluents becoming more or less frozen up, and by which redds may be laid bare. The principal subject of enquiry being whether freezing would be likely to prove fatal to the entire lot of eggs, or merely to some.: Also if the duration and intensity of the frost are likewise factors that have to be taken into consideration ? Circumstances occurred which quite accidentally gave me the opportunity which I had desired of testing this question on a large scale, for purposely sacrificing such a supply of eggs as were sent me would be a proceeding that could hardly be expected. Weare all aware the winter of 1885 was a severe one, and that during the month of December frost was intense, consequently transmitting eggs by rail in water would assuredly entail some being frozen. However, I asked Sir James Maitland to be so good as to send me a few to experiment upon, and as a result I was furnished with the following abundant supply. At mid-day on December 11th, 1885, I received at Chelten- ham a tin swing-can and stand from Howietoun, containing about 10,000 eggs, taken at an early hour and despatched at 1.10 p.m. the previous day, and which, consequently, had not been above 29 hours from the parent fish. The lid was tightly frozen down, the air holes were stopped by ice, but after the » ean had stood 1} hours in the fish house, the top had become sufficiently thawed to enable it to be opened. No ice was 138 floating on the surface of the water, which with the eggs that were free (7,500 in number) were carefully transferred into three incubating trays, marked No.1, 2 and 3, and in which the water stood at 31° Fahr. But after this had been done, a coating of ice could be distinctly seen lining the entire internal surface of the can, there forming a solid incrustation, and in which were imbedded numerous eggs. The next morning, December 12th, at 8 a.m., this solid block of ice lining the tin can still remained unthawed, but the temperature of the water in the trays had risen from 31° to 33° Fahr., and of the air to 30°, and it was not until 6.30 p.m. that the ice could be extracted along with the eggs, or at about 544 hours after having left Stirling by train. They were at once placed in a separate incubating tray, some being still embedded in solid ice, and many appeared to be white and opaque. In fact, this probably gave a good idea of the con- dition eggs would be in when frozen in redds on the subsidence of streams during severe frosts, and which, as I shall show, must be directly fatal to many of the ova. At 7.30 p.m., several blocks of ice were still floating about with eggs im- bedded in them.* December 13th, water in the trays at 9 a.m. was 86°; one piece of solid ice in which 14 eggs were yesterday seen to be embedded had now thawed; 7 of the ova were dead and opaque, but 5 were still living. About 1 in 8 or 10 of the entire lot of the eggs which had been frozen were now dead. December 14th, water in the trays 40°, completed picking the frozen eggs, and found that up to this time 966 were dead out of 2,513, or close upon 1 in 24; on the 19th, examined a num- ber of these eggs in tray No. 4 (the frozen lot), and it appeared that the general course which they took was, that a small white spot first commenced, which after a longer or shorter space of time, formed a white ring round the egg, or else a white semi-circle first showed itself, subsequently the entire egg became white. As will be seen by the figures in the table, * The daily register of deaths and the numbers hatched is given in a tabular form in order to save repetition. 139 some dragged on an existence longer than others, in fact, until the embryo was sufficiently grown to be examined under the microscope, but even in these, small black eyes were present, which are so distinctive of young deficient in vitality.* The heads also were found to be but indifferently developed, and it is reasonable to conclude that this must have been occasioned by the shock which their systems had received from cold. It has been observed by Dr J. Davy that salmon eggs will resist a great degree of cold, and such as is sufficient to freeze the water and imbed them in ice; but if so, this can only be when such is continued for a short time, as it has been demonstrated by M. Pouchet, that whenever a vertebrate animal is completely frozen, it cannot be resusitated, for its blood becomes disor- ganised. Exrrrmment No. 1.—To still further elucidate this question respecting the effect of cold on the embryo within the egg, on January 19th, 13 trout eggs were transferred from tray No. 1 toan unglazed flower-pot saucer, some water having been added they were placed out of doors to freeze. 20th, 9.30 a.m., the upper surface of the water was frozen, but there was still some fluid below the ice, so it was left out of doors until 8 p.m., when the eggs were enveloped in a solid block of ice. It now snowed but was still left out. 22nd, 5 p.m., looks the same. 23rd, again covered with snow. 26th, 9.30 a.m.,a thaw has set in, and all but three eggs still remain in a solid block of ice, but they look opaque and white, but were left to thaw out gradually; at 1.380 p.m., 9 were thawed out and still living, and by the evening 8 more, so 12 were transferred to tray No. 7, one being found dead. Here 2 died on February 24th; 1 on March Ist; 3 on the 2nd; 2 on the 8rd; 1 on the 5th; and 2 on the 7th. Thus all died within 47 days of their having been first placed in the saucer to freeze. ® It has been remarked at Howietoun that insufficiently fertilised’ eggs may be primarily divided into (a) those wherein the embryo develop small and very black eyes, and (b) into such as have eyes of the ordinary size, but of a pink colour. The first of those classes being deficient in vitality was that which almost invariably showed itself in the embryos in those ova that survived sufficiently long for such to be apparent. © ec en mbar oben: st tt o betes OOD: * (OSB 5 140 Tray 4 rozen oun in e Or AWC EWAN MOM AD=I Norby re Oro a ae of ee: ons : Tray 2 s DNWOP: : es 6 CON: 4 as . er idee OMe S, Cvs Tray 3 | Tray 4 1 ee SOR SC r Me ol Frozen 141 Deaths, Tray 1 Tray 2 Tray 3 koh eae lgaloey March 24th............ 3 8 Ly 34 hatched hatched hatched BA DOES. dis ce ry 1 6 140 ae ae 4 93 81 68 PACU s.cceecaees: 41 129 135 all dead PP AOU fovesaceacss 52 233 77 We eeOUD. .. segs ccaave Unable to keep count any more. It will be seen from the foregoing, that the number of days these eggs were incubating in 1885-6 was more than in 1884-5 (see On the Breeding of Salmonide, 1885), when they commenced hatching on the 82nd day, but not in large numbers until the 87th. Inthe winter of 1885-6 (as will be observed in the table), the first young emerged on the 108rd day, but the main body did not begin to show themselves until the 106th day. In these two years the eggs came from Howietoun, were laid down to incubate in the same locality, and the identical hatching trays were employed, so doubtless variations in temperature may have been one of the causes. Mr Tyrer, F.M.S., has been good enough to furnish me with the following comparative statement for the two seasons, the thermometer standing in the open air. Season 1884-85 Season 1885-86 Blecomburteae yt te he agry se 8) ee eie camropry ean oe. sae 36°6° Re 35°0° Bepruary” "9.075584 431° ape 33°6° LLG, AR A AMR 40-1° nite 39°6° Mean monthly temperature 39-9° ee 36°5° Although the mean temperature of the four months was in 1885-6 3°4° below that of 1884-5, February, 1886, was nearly 10° below that of 1885. It has been computed that the dif- ference in the time of incubation as related to temperature is _5 days to every degree, and this should have made the period in 1885-6 174 days longer whereas it was something over, or 19 days. But another factor may here have had an influence, and that is the flow of the water. From the amount used it 142 appeared that merely sufficient to go 30 or 40 times a day over the eggs was employed during the whole of the time of incu- bation. On December 21st, I gave Mr Ogden about 200 of these eggs, which he took to Matlock, where they were placed in trays supplied with a good stream of water, and here they hatched more than a month prior to the remainder which had been kept at Cheltenham. It would here seem most probable that a slow stream is equivalent to diminished supply of oxygen to the embryo, and which may be one reason of lengthened incubation. The character of the water employed may be inimical to the embryo during incubation, or to the young when hatched ; while impurities may be natural or acquired, and can be thus summarised. Poisoning due to the character of the water itself, either directly by vegetable substances as by their decomposi- tion—or chemical ingredients as from the refuse of mines or factories—or by mechanical causes as occasioning suffocation by mud or sediment present in the water. In fact ova may be deleteriously affected by water which is not obtained from a clear and wholesome running stream; while on the contrary should it be distilled they become suffocated, owing to the absence of air in solution. If it is muddy they are likewise suffocated from the sediment covering the porous egg-shells, whereas water taken from pumps, or wells, or collected from rain will answer, provided no other deleterious ingredients are present. But for young fish the two first descriptions (bad or distilled) of water will be equally fatal, as they are to the eggs, and so also will that taken from pumps, wells, or rain unless suitable food be added. One of the forms of pollution to which I turned my atten- tion was the action of paraffin, for in a former paper I sug- gested that I had traced it as having injuriously affected some grayling eggs* consequent upon my having employed an insufficiently deodorised cask as a reservoir for water. This product of wood-oil when chemically pure is doubtless insoluble * Grayling eggs and young require purer water than such as will succeed with trout. 143 in water, as well as devoid of smell and taste; but in its com- mercial condition, and as used in lamps, its odour is strong and the reverse of pleasant. Experiment No. 2.—January 13th, 1886, I had an American bucket fitted with a wooden tap, it was then filled with pump water, in which were put 12 drops of paraffin to each quart. A miniature hatching tray was placed beneath this tap, and into which a constant dripping from the bucket was kept up. Fifteen trout eggs were deposited in the tray; the supply of water similarly mixed with paraffin was kept up until the 16th, when the eggs were removed to clean water. On March 3rd one died, while none lived to be hatched. ExprrimMent No. 3.—January 16th, fifteen more eggs were transferred into this miniature hatching tray; on the 17th 50 minims of paraffin and 8 quarts of fresh water were put into the bucket; on the 18th, at 5.30 p.m., filled up the bucket with clear water; on the 19th, added 8 quarts of water and 100 minims of paraffin; this was continued until the 23rd, when the eggs were transferred to tray No. 7, apparently all well. On February 6th one died, seven on March 38rd, one on the 4th, one on the 7th, and none hatched. Experiment No. 4.—January 26th, 10 eggs were transferred into this small hatching tray, and 8 quarts of water with 150 minims of paraffin were put into the bucket; 28th, filled up with clean water; 29th, added 8 quarts of water and 150 minims of paraffin; 31st, fresh water; February Ist, 8 quarts of water and 200 minims of paraffin; 2nd, fresh water; 3rd, transferred to tray 7, apparently all well. On March 8rd, one died, one on the 23rd, one on the 24th, one on the 25th, one hatched on the 28th, but none of the remainder. Experiment No. 5.—February 3rd, 10 eggs placed in the small tray, and 8 quarts of water and 200 minims of paraffin in the bucket; 5th, filled up with clean water; 6th, ditto; 7th, put 200 minims of paraffin and 8 quarts of water in the bucket; 9th, added 150 minims; 10th, ditto; 11th, clean water; 12th, ditto; 13th, 150 minims of paraffin to 8 quarts of water, con- tinued to the 19th, when 200 minims of paraffin were used, 144. this was repeated until the 28th, when they were removed to tray No. 9. All died unhatched except one on the 27th, which died while hatching, and one hatched out on the 28th. The foregoing would seem to show that should a strong and rapid flow of water be present, injury from the paraffin need scarcely be anticipated to be immediately fatal to the embryos in the egg; but it does not tend to prove that the young will hatch, or if they do that the alevins will be strong or healthy, Although it has been abundantly proved that the eggs of Salmonide may be suffocated by the presence of mud or other such substances in the water used for their incubation, still we have the fact that we see numerous trout in peaty burns, some- times, it is true, small and dwarfed, but at other times even of good size. Certain circumstances induced me to try what would be the effect of a peaty solution on the eggs. I had some peat from the vicinity of Earls Burn, a few miles from Howietoun, and on December 15th, 1885, placed 74 Ibs. of this moist peat or turf in an upper reservoir (23 inches long, 184 wide, and 13 deep,) and then added 18 gallons of water from the pump. The water from this reservoir, or tub, passed through a tap into two trays (22 inches each in length) which were placed in a stair-like sequence below it, having perforated zine screens in both about half-an-inch above the floor of each, and over which the water ran, the outlet from these trays dis- charged itself into two smaller ones situated below them, each of which had 115 trout eggs placed in them. In one, No. 6, the tray containing the eggs was simply charred inside, while the other, No. 5, had in addition a screen of perforated zinc resting on a ledge, so that it was raised half-an-inch above the floor of the tray, and permitting water to go under as well as over the eggs. Experiment No. 6, or of 115 eggs in tray No. 5, placed there December 15th; it will be sufficient to record that it became necessary every few days to wash off the accumulated peaty sediment from the eggs, and that more frequently than in tray 6. Deaths—4 in December, and 3 in January, and 1 in 145 February; 72 were removed or expended in other ways; 35 were transferred on February 22nd to clean water, out of which 17 hatched and 18 died. Experiment No. 7, on 115 eggs in tray No. 6, treated similarly to the foregoing, except being less frequently washed. Deaths—4 in December, 3 in January; 71 were removed or expended in different ways; 37 were transferred on February 22nd to clean water, out of which 18 hatched and 19 died. It will thus be seen that over and above those which had been removed for other experiments 35 hatched and 87 died. Hatching commenced on March 27th, 1886. Experiment No. 8 (a).—January 14th, 1886, or after 30 days in the peaty water, 17 eggs were taken from tray No. 5 and transferred to fresh water. The deaths were 1 in January, 8 in February, and 3 in March. One hatched March 28th, but none of the remaining 5. . Exrrertuent No. 9 (b).—December 30th, 1885, or after 15 days in the peaty water, 34 eggs were removed from tray 5 to fresh water. Deaths—5 in December, 4 in January, 6 in February, and 2 in March. Twelve were taken for experi- ments, 1 hatched on March 27th, but none of the remaining 5. Exrreriment No. 10 (a).—December 24th, 1885, or after 9 days in the peaty water, 20 eggs were removed from tray 6 to fresh water. Deaths—1l during February, 12 during March, 2 were taken for experiments, and 1 hatched March 29th; the remainder did not hatch. Experiment No. 11 (b).—December 28th, or after 13 days in the peaty water, 20 eggs were removed from tray No. 6 to fresh water. Deaths—4 during February, 4 in March, 6 expended, but none of the remaining 6; 3 hatched. Exrermment No. 12 (c).—December 30th, or after 15 days in the peaty water, 26 eggs were removed from tray No. 6 to fresh water. Deaths—3 in December, 3 in January, 6 in February, 9 in March, but none of the rest hatched. Exrerment No. 13.—January 20th, 1886, took 26 eggs from tray No. 1, and placed them in peat tray No. 6. (Experi- ment No. 2.) On February 22nd, after having been 33 days in L 146 the solution of peat, they were retransferred to fresh water, 5 died during March, 1 hatched March 27th, 3 on the 28th but 2 of these died the same day, and 2 on the 29th; none of the remainder came out. In these experiments I have observed that 74 lbs. of moist peat were employed, and on weighing the residue in February, 1} lbs., irrespective of } Ib. of thick sediment, remained in the reservoir. Of course a good deal of this weight was from the fluid contained, but supposing it to have been dry, such would have been equivalent to the loss of 53 Ibs. of peat carried over the eggs during 69 days. This quantity would be as much as would probably occur during floods, but it must be remarked that when the amount on the eggs appeared excessive, they were washed, and a quantity of sediment thus removed. But in spite of this none regained the clearness of ova which had not been subjected to this solution, even after they had been upwards of a month in a stream of clean water, for a con- siderable portion of their surface continued brown from adhering grains. Attempts were made to investigate the state of these em- bryos, both prior and subsequent to hatching, in order to ascertain what had been the effect of the peat in solution. For it must be clear that moss or sphagnum in this condition could hardly be deleterious, except mechanically, by impeding or stopping the imbibition of gases, and thus acting on the respiration of the embryo. Several specimens of trout obtained from this peaty locality were sent to me, they were rather undersized, which may have been the result of poverty of food, while their heads were disproportionately long to that of their bodies when compared with Howietoun raised fish—their eyes likewise were somewhat large. However, everyone who has fished in Scotland must be aware that some splendid trout are obtainable from streams flowing through peaty localities, even when it is of sufficient amount to stain the general colour of the fish of a dark hue. The observations made on the embryos, and in which I was assisted by Mr E. Wethered, who most kindly photographed some 147 under the microscope, gave the following results:—On January 21st, an egg was removed from experiment No. 9, and another egg for comparison from tray No. 1.. They were photographed under the microscope, and it will be seen that the first was badly developed, whereas the second was normal in appearance. (1 and la, Photographs exhibited.) On March 18th, 1886, another examination and successful photographs were obtained from eggs from the same trays. That from experiment No. 138 was 0°24 inch in diameter, and had been in the peaty solution 33 days, when it was removed to clean water: the embryo was 0°50 inch in length, the eyes were very large, and more than twice the width of the inter- orbital space: whereas in the second specimen from tray No. 1, the width of the interorbital space nearly eqalled the diameter of the eye, and the embryo was 0°58 inch in length, while the two eggs were of the same size. The length of the head was proportionately more in the embryo which had been in the solution of peat than in the other, which had all along been in fresh water.* (2 and 2a, Photographs exhibited.) There exists a remarkable pathological condition among some fishes, both in the sea and fresh waters, being in short spinal disease. Several vertebrae may be consolidated into one, or their centras or bodies may be so affected as to shorten or alter the natural shape of the fish. As long ago as 1767, Barrington remarked upon some of these “hog-backed trout of Plinlimmon,” in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, and observed that they were only found “in a small basin, 8 or 9 feet deep, which the river forms after a fall from the rocks.” He evidently considered that the locality had something to do with this condition of the fish (see also Cambridge Quarterly Magazine, 1833, p. 391, and Cobbold, Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, ii., 1855, pl. vi.) Among some young Salmonide hatched in Australasia from eggs sent * Embryos which have to contend with difficult respiration, consequent upon a peaty solution, appear to possess a badly developed brain and large eyes. Embryos suffering from frost or shocks to the nervous system also have an undeveloped brain but small eyes; while young parents give weak and often dropsical offspring. L2 148 from this country, I was informed that many were bent into a horse-shoe shape, and could merely go round and round as if the spine were diseased. Curiously the experiments here described seem to elucidate the cause of this pathological state, as four alevins in succession from peat tray No. 6 (and which have been already referred to,).were hatched in this condition. The first question was, whether the presence of peat exercised any influence directly or indirectly on these results? But that it had any direct influence may be at once negatived, because similar conditions were present in young which had not been exposed to peat in any way. But that it indirectly was the cause seemed to be probable, for it had been necessary to constantly wash these eggs in order to prevent the embryos being suffocated, consequent upon the peaty deposit. In fact, it was doubtless due to concussion in its somewhat lesser degree, possibly first occasioning spinal irritation which de- veloped into disease. On placing one under the microscope on March 19th, it was evident that the bodies of some of the vertebree were affected as seen in hog-backed trout. Mr Wethered has been good enough to photograph one of these fishes under the microscope, and the figure gives an excellent idea of the appearances observed. In one of those hatched, the body formed a complete circle, and it appeared to spin round and round when attempting to swim; the others were more of a horse-shoe shape. Such fish, as a rule, never survive the alevin stage, but exceptions occur, as has been observed in an example at Delaford last year. (3 photographs exhibited.) The question of the depth of water in which Salmonoid eggs can be incubated is by no means an unimportant one. It is said that in salmon rivers fish which ascend late to deposit their spawn root up the nests of the first comers, and as a con- sequence the eggs are carried away down stream to be eaten by their enemies or perish in the deep water below the ford. I admit that more complete experiments are required, for I merely had sufficient depth to try the effects at 26 inches. Experiment No. 14.—December 14th, 1885, at 1 p.m., took a paraffin cask (which had been well charred inside and kept 149 immersed in water for a month), and placed it in the hatchery. A blacksmith made an iron rod 344 inches long, and half an inch in diameter, having-a ring at the top for the purpose of securely fixing it. At every six inches, (commencing at 3 inches from the bottom) were cross bars projecting three inches on either side, and slightly curved at their outer ends. Three small trays of perforated zinc were then secured by means of silver wire to the cross bars, the superior being about two inches below the surface of the water; the succeeding one 14 inches, and the lowest 26 inches. The rod and zinc were painted with Brunswick black. The water was changed daily until February 22nd, or about 70 days, when the eggs were transferred to the hatching trays, for as they had been taken three days prior to the experiments being commenced they had been a sufficient time under the new conditions. Experiment No. 15.—Two inches under water the first egg hatched March 24th, 2 on the 25th, 2 on the 26th, 1 died, and 1 remained. Exrrrment No. 16.—Fourteen inches under water, the first hatched March 23rd, 1 on the 24th, the two others died. Experiment No. 17.—T'wenty-six inches under water, 1 hatched March 24th, 3 on the 25th, 1 on the 26th, 1 died, 1 remained. The foregoing, so far as they go, are conclusive that in almost still water, or merely changed once a day, trout eggs may be successfully incubated at at least 26 inches in depth. It would be, however, worth while to investigate the results obtainable at still greater depths (which I have not the facilities for doing), and also trying the various currents of water and quantities supplied every 24 hours before being quite confident that the disturbance of the redds and carrying of the eggs into deeper and stiller water is not necessarily fatal to the embryo. In 1883, I gave the result of some experiments which I had made of submitting the eggs of the Salmonide to the influence of sea water, and it may not be amiss to point out that the appearance of such as die in a saline infusion is very different from what is seen should they do so in fresh water. Unim- 150 pregnated eggs in fresh water, when left undisturbed, often remain clear throughout the period of incubation, unless con- cussion or moving occurs when they may turn opaque and white. But in salt water fertile eggs which die become clear in the shell, and the embryo, contracted in size, is visible within. An egg in this condition, transferred to fresh water, becomes white and opaque, but again placed in salt water returns to its former transparency, and this alteration upon changing the fluid may be seen several successive times, Experiment No. 18.—December 15th, 1885, ten of the foregoing trout eggs were placed in a tumbler of sea water, specific gravity 10199, this was changed daily. December 17th, all were dead. Experment No. 19.—December 15th, 1885, ten similar eggs were placed in a tumbler of fresh water, and treated similarly to the last, they remained unaffected. Expermment No. 20.—December 19th, 11.55 a.m., dropped two live trout eggs from 4 feet height, and placed one in a tumbler of salt water, the other in one of fresh. 12.13 p.m., egg in salt water became clear at 1 p.m. 12.13 p.m., egg in fresh water became opaque by 1 o’clock. 7 p.m., the eggs were now reversed, by 8 p.m. the opaque one was clear, and the one previously clear was opaque. 9 p.m., the eggs were again reversed, and by 10 p.m. the clear one was again opaque, and the opaque one clear. In the foregoing it was seen that the opaqueness or clear- ness of the shell was entirely owing to the character of the water (as saline or fresh) in which it was immersed. Experiment No. 21.—December 20th, took an opaque and dead egg from a hatching tray, and then placed it in salt water; it became clear within an hour. Closely related to the question of suitability of the water for the incubation of the eggs of Salmonide is another as to what amount of water can these ova be successfully incubated in? or even whether they could be developed without being placed in water at all? Here the consequences to the offspring (should such be hatched) are not referred to. 151 Should these eggs be kept in a damp, cold, and dark place, still the embryo may continue to develop, even without their being immersed in water, as has been proved by transmitting them thus packed in safety to the Antipodes. I was shown at Howietoun on February 27th, 1886, a number of Lochleven trout eggs taken on December 19th, when they had been placed in an incubating tray, from whence they were removed on January 22nd to a box in damp moss, on which a little ice was placed, and they had been thus kept in a room where a tem- perature was maintained of between 40° and 44° Fahr. The embryos to all appearances were doing well. I took this box of eggs with me on March 2nd to Cheltenham, and the next morning placed some of the ova in water in an incubating tray, but the majority were left in the moss. The eggs in the tray commenced hatching on March 26th, when ten young came out, two days subsequently on looking at the eggs which had been left in the moss, several were found to have hatched, and some live alevins were present, which Mr Wethered and I removed along with the remainder of the eggs to a hatching tray, where they did well. Experiment No. 22. damp moss where they had been 34 days, and placed them in a tumbler of water indoors, in a room where a fire was kept during the day. On March 12th I added twelve more eggs from the moss to those in the tumbler, and all were transferred to the conservatory, where only a moderate amount of heat was maintained. The water was changed once daily, some being kept for this purpose in a jug alongside the tumbler in order that the temperature of the two should be the same. On March 16th, at 8 a.m., two eggs were found to have hatched, the young were pretty lively, but the yelk-sac seemed to be of the normal shape, only a little large; on the 17th, two more emerged, three on the 18th, and the last eight on the 19th. In this experiment the eggs had been removed from the water (where they had been 34 days), and subsequently kept in cold and damp moss from a period varying from 47 to 50 days, and then placed in water kept moderately warm, — where they hatched within a week. 152 Experiment No. 23.—March 13th, at 3 p.m., took an egg from tray No. 1, where it had been 91 days, and perceived that the young was very vigorous. It was placed in a dry tube and forgotten until 7.10 p.m., when the ovum was found with its upper surface dried, and a saucer-shaped depression which had contracted it to about 3 of its normal size. On examining it with a magnifying glass the heart of the embryo could be seen rapidly but very feebly pulsating. It was at once transferred to a wine-glass full of clean water, but it was upwards of half- an-hour before the egg had again regained its original shape. Next morning it was found to be alive, so fresh water was again supplied, and this was continued daily until March 20th, when it hatched at 3 p.m., the emtryo emerging in a lively con- dition. These experiments gave rise to the question, Is it true, as generally asserted, that water obtains access to the embryo through the porous egg-shell? Or can it be that gases are merely transferred from the surrounding water to it through the shell? It is perfectly evident that if the egg can live, and the young develop in damp moss, that the presence of water is not an absolute necessity. Dampness, however, would assist in this transfusion, and it is much more easy to suppose that in some of the foregoing experiments (where growth has continued weeks without water) that gases are simply supplied through the egg-shell: and that this absorption does not necessarily occur through the micropyle I was also able to assure myself of. I removed one egg from an incubating tray, and kept it in the air until it was dry and clear. Having divided the shell into two halves, and placed a solution of picrocarmine in the half that did not possess a micropyle, I found that the colouring matter obtained access to the surrounding water through the egg-shell. In short respiration is carried on by a simple physical law, the shell-membrane permits the transfusion of gases and an interchange takes place between the gaseous matter on the two sides of the egg shell. In investigating, on a small scale, the effects of motion and concussion upon the ova of Salmonide, such must be considered 153 with reference to the period of incubation, as well as under the conditions of (1) slight shocks, occasioned by moving the eggs in the water, as might take place when the redds or nests are disturbed by floods, or other causes, and their contents washed away to a short distance, but not over great obstacles: and (2) direct and somewhat severe shocks, as might be anticipated were eggs carried over rapids or steep inclines. Eggs quite freshly taken will, it is known, bear travelling, thus some were spawned from trout at Howietoun on the morning of November 27th, 1884, packed in a cigar box between layers of muslin in damp moss, and sent by train to Cheltenham, where they arrived the next afternoon, after experiencing rather rough usage en route, but they did well. On November 26th, 1885, some salmon eggs were obtained from the Teith, and some trout eggs from the Howietoun fishery, but were not packed soon enough to catch me before starting for the train early on the 27th. They were despatched the next day, arriv- ing at Cheltenham mid-day on the 29th, or about three days after having been obtained, but all died, evidently owing to the shaking or concussions sustained at this age, when cleavage was taking place. I have already remarked on the eggs em- ployed in this series of investigations having been sent in a swing-can the day they were taken, arriving in about 29 hours, consequently the only ill effects they experienced were owing to frost. But slight shocks, as might reasonably be expected to fish eggs (even when deposited under favourable conditions), would be such as occur in artificial fish-culture when it becomes necessary to remove them from one box to another, or wash them owing to a deposit of mud or dirt which would interfere with respiration. On January 5th, finding the eggs in tray No. 2, containing about 2,500, were covered with a deposit of sediment from the water, they were removed to another tray, the temperature of the water when the change was made at 9.30 a.m. being 43°, and by 8 p.m. 24 were dead. Up to this period of incubation or 23 days, there had only been 23 eggs picked out as dead, but now the daily pick rose to 31, 2, 7, 7, 2, but subsequently 154 reverted to its former condition. As trays No. 1 and 3, placed under the same conditions, showed no alteration in the daily average of deaths, this may be accepted as an instance of the effects of slight shocks in the earlier days of embryonic life, Thirteen days subsequently it became necessary to similarly change the eggs in tray No. 1, also containing about 2,500 eggs, but the deaths were not increased thereby, as merely 5 dead ones were picked out during the succeeding 14 days; whereas in the previous 37 days 26 eggs had been removed. February 5th, finding the deposit in peat trays No. 5 and 6 was great, washed both but no eggs died. February 21st, again washed the eggs in tray No. 2, and after 24 hours found five opaque ones, but no such mortality occurred in the other boxes, showing that although immediate injury took place no after effects occurred, possibly merely the weaker ones suffered. February 23rd, again washed the eggs in tray No. 1, where the total picks during the preceding ten days had merely been 2, and they augmented to the following numbers in the next ten days, 2, 5, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0,0, 0,0. Consequently one has to decide between permitting suffocation to occur owing to parti- cles of sediment held in solution in the water, filling up the pores of the shell of the egg, or occasioning immediate loss from cleansing the ova. In short, although it is very evident that in its earliest stage (as during the first 24 hours), the impregnated ovum will generally stand moving, still this capa- bility subsequently ceases, and does not return, until at least one-third of the period of incubation has been completed. In order to still further elucidate the effects of concussion on these eggs further experiments were made :— Experiment No. 24.—January 22nd, at 10.45 a.m., droppeda trout egg, taken from tray 1, from a height of 2 feet, into water at 45°, and at 12 noon it was found to be dead and opaque. Experiment No. 25.—Took another egg which was dropped from the same height on to a board, it was then placed in an incubating tray, but proved to be dead at 1 p.m. Experiment No. 26.—January 2nd, dropped 5 eggs from a height of 2 feet into water, and subsequently placed them in ———— se 155 an incubating tray; 1 died January 12th, 1 on the 27th, 1 on March 5th, and the last 2 on March 8th. Experiment No. 27.—December 30th, at 1.25 p.m., placed 10 eggs from tray No. 2 in a quart brandy bottle, which weighed a little over 13 lbs. but when full of water and corked 3 lbs. 3 ozs. I then dropped in from a height of 2 feet on to the grass, and placed the eggs in an incubating tray. December 31st 1 died, January 30th 1, February 28th, 1, March 8rd 2, March 4th 2, and March 38rd, the last 3. Experiment No. 28.—December 31st, dropped 12 eggs taken from tray No. 2, ina similar manner to the last experiment, from 3 feet height. January Ist 2 dead, 3rd 1, and 1 on each of the following days, February 12th, 14th and 17th, and 2 on the 22nd, 1 on March 5th, and 3 on the 7th. Experiment 29.—January 27th, 1886, dropped 10 eggs from a height of 44 feet in a similar manner to the foregoing, 1 died the same day, 1 on March 18th, 1 on the 15th (2 were lost when changing the boxes), 1 hatched on the 25th, 2 on the 26th, leaving 3, none of which hatched. In the first two lots experimented upon by concussion, within the first 22 days after having been obtained from the fish, none lived over 8 or 9 days. But in the eggs dropped from a greater height 47 days after having been taken, we see what a much larger amount of motion eyed-ova will bear than eggs in their earlier stage of incubation. Salmonoid eggs may even be incubated in water which is stagnant, as in a tumbler, when the fluid is occasionally changed, as daily, on alternate days, or even less frequently. Experiment No, 30.—Placed 10 trout eggs on December 15th, taken from tray No. 1, in a tumbler of water, which was changed daily, and on March 25th the first had hatched, one having died on January Ist, and one having been removed for microscopic purposes on January 20th; a second hatched on March 26th, one on the 27th, and one on the 28th. Experiment No. 31.—Placed a single egg on February 4th, in a tumbler of water which was changed every alternate day, it hatched March 26th, 1886. 156 Experiment No. 32.—February 12th, placed six eggs in a tumbler of water changed every third day, one hatched March 27th, one on the 29th, one on the 30th, and one on April 4th. It would appear from the foregoing that influences acting generally upon a batch of eggs, do not invariably affect each single egg in the entire lot to an equal extent, for some are observed succumbing at once, others after longer or shorter intervals, as from impurities or abnormal temperature of the water, or from the effect of concussions. Thus the presence of mud or peat may suffocate the embryo by directly stopping respiration, or it may not be of sufficient amount to occasion this, but by continuously keeping the water thick and deposit- ing a sediment on the eggs it may impede respiration where it does not entirely stop it, and thus injuriously affect the young. But the young as hatched are not all equally valuable, the little fish whose time of incubation has been shortened by means of raising the heat of the water, is not of that strong character as one reared at a lower temperature: the egg kept in damp moss, or a tumbler of water, is more likely to give an alevin with a rounded yolk-sac and a weak constitution than one which has had a full current and an abundant supply of oxygen. When raising the alevins, the water has to be deep- ened and a fair amount of space provided, or even should the progeny live they would most likely be dwarfed, and this great requirement for space is one of the reasons of the doubtful benefit of incubating eggs of Salmonide in trays placed one above another, for even if the young hatch, the amount of tray- room will subsequently be insufficient to accommodate all the progeny without cramping, and so probably dwarfing the off- spring. The experiments which I have adduced would seem to point to the conclusion that not only the quality and quantity of the water, and influences affecting such employed for incubating the eggs of Salmonide should be investigated by intending purchasers of eyed-ova, but likewise that of the race and age of the parents from which they had been obtained; and if this is necessary as regards eggs it is still more desirable in the 157 selection of fry, wherein rapid incubation may cause puny off- spring, and anything which tends to check their early growth may occasion their being subsequently dwarfed. Without referring to any country or district in particular it does seem rash to turn all the young so soon as they have absorbed their yolk-sac into a main stream whereby all trace becomes lost, and the enthusiastic equally with the lazy or dishonest fish- culturist (who save themselves trouble by rapidity of hatching) show a large number of fish planted, the majority of which will die or be devoured by their enemies. It is, with few exceptions, best to retain these fish until at least a twelvemonth old, when those turned into the waters will be most competent to engage in the battle of life, and in which only some of the strongest will survive. Now came the question of what to do with the young fish as they were absorbing their yolk-sacs, for although they con- tinued pretty well fed upon pounded liver, it occupied a con- siderable time. I was asked by Mr Ogden to plant some in the stream at Cowley, below where it emerges from the two stockponds, so on April 16th I turned in about 2,000. Some likely spots had been prepared by the keeper, by throwing small dams across the stream in different places. However, I was not very sanguine of success, as in the main stream below a large number of bull-heads, Cottus gobio, exist, while ‘moor hens abound. On searching the banks frogs were found to be plentiful, while in the water was an excellent supply of water shrimps, Gammarus pulex, and water snails, Limnea ovata var. peregra, and the caddis worm as well as the May-fly were very numerous. On returning to this stream four months subse- quently we searched it to see if any of these Lochlevens could be found, but we saw none, although we took several little local brook trout. As these 2,000 had not exhausted my stock, I was asked to turn the rest into the Windrush, which I did. Here I found a very likely spot, that had been formerly used for rearing trout and grayling. Fed by several streams coming out of the side of a hill, they converged into a rather broad sheet of shallow 158 water, which emptied itself lower down into the main stream. The bed was pebbly, while true water cresses, Nasturtium, officinale, and other water plants abounded, and which afforded excellent cover for quantities of water shrimps. Here I obtained numerous fresh water limpets, Ancylus, water-snails, Limnea peregra var. ovata, while leeches, Piscicola geometra were very common under the stones, as well as examples of Planaria lactea and P. torva. Glossiphonia secoculata* was by no means rare under large pebbles while in May eggs were present on their abdominal surfaces. On turning over the stones in the stream I found a nest of the bull-head, the eggs being in a large mass, and of a salmon colour, they merely touched one another at their sides, consequently a space was left for water to circulate. I netted the male alongside the nest. A berried cray fish Astacus fluviatilis was likewise cap- tured. What will be the fate of these little fry time only can show. ® Tam indebted to Professor G. Bell, of the British Museum, for kindly determining some of these invertebrate forms. Volcanic Eruptions and Earthquakes, by E. Wrruenren, F.G.S. F.C.S., F.R.M.S. The subject of this paper is no new one. A study of the crust of the earth shows that volcanoes were active at an early period of the history of the globe; and doubtless there were earthquakes too. Old chronicles and traditions tell of violent seismic disturbances which filled with terror the inhabitants of those parts where they are recorded, and awakened innumerable superstitions. The earliest accounts of volcanoes, of which we have record, refer to the Lipari Islands, situated between Naples and Sicily. They are 17 in number, and all volcanic, and were regarded by the ancients as indicating supernatural influences. Vulcano, one of the group, was believed to be the abode of the God Vulcan, who dwelt in the caverns of the Island, and hence the origin of the term volcano. Another of the group is Lipari, from which most of the pumice stone supplied to Europe is derived. Beyond hot springs and the emission of vapours this Island is not now ina state of volcanic activity, but the ancients speak of it as emitting a fiercer fire than Stromboli, the only now active volcano of the group. Daubeny tells* us that Lipari probably ceased to be an active voleano “about the sixth century, for it is recorded that St. Calogero, the patron of the Island, put to flight the devils, which, like the Typhon of old, inhabited the recesses of the island, and that the latter first took refuge under the mountain from whence the warm springs issue, but being driven from thence repaired to Vulcan- ello, and finally were chased into crater of Vulcano.” But though our subject is no new one, indeed, most ancient, our knowledge of the primary causes of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes is imperfect. This being so I propose to bring * Daubeny on Volcanoes. Second edition, 1848, p. 257, foot note. 160 before the Club certain volcanoes which may be typical, and then we shall be able to draw our own conclusions, and realize what volcanic action is. First, I will take Stromboli which, as I have stated, is the one remaining active volcano of the Lipari Islands. It is remarkable for the fact that it has been in a state of constant activity for at least 1,000 years. The activity, however, is not of that violent nature which distinguishes those volcanoes which relapse into a state of inactivity for a period and then burst into violent activity. The crater of Stromboli may, with proper precautions, be approached and the action which goes on studied. On looking into the crater the lava is seen cooled on the surface, and consequently a crust is formed which hides from view the fused lava underneath. The action consists of the bursting forth of steam which rises high into the atmos- phere and forms a cloud over the mountain. The steam is ejected through cracks in the crust, and when the lava is semi- liquid a “gigantic* bubble is formed which violently bursts, when a great rush of steam takes place, carrying fragments of the scum-like surface of the liquid high into the atmosphere.” At night, every time the bubble bursts, and exposes the hot lava, the vapour cloud, caused by the steam, is illuminated. We often read of volcanic eruptions being accompanied by flames which have been described in thrilling language. As a matter of fact volcanoes do not emit flames except, perhaps, by the ignition of sulphuretted hydrogen and other gases which possess low illuminating power. The apparent flashes of fire and burning have, most probably, been due to the glare of the fused lava in the crater. Now the point to be here noticed is that the action going on in the crater of Stromboli is due to the escape of water in the form of steam. This steam rises through the lava and finds escape through the crust on the surface. I will now pass to the Islands of Hawaii, formerly known as the Sandwich Islands. They are situated in the Pacific Ocean, about 2,000 miles distant from San Francisco. They * Judd’s Volcanoes, p. 16, 1881. 161 are twelve in number, and are the summits of gigantic volcanic mountains rising suddenly from the bottom of the Pacific. In the Island of Hawaii the volcanic forces are still in operation, the two chief volcanoes being Mauna Loa and Kilauea. Mauna Loa, “the Great Mountain,” rises from the bottom of the Pacific to a height of about 30,000 feet. Captain Dutton, of the American Geological Survey, thus describes this mighty volcano. “In the aggregate of its eruptions Mauna Loa is also unrivalled. Some of the volcanoes of Iceland have been known to disgorge at a single out- break masses of lava fully equal to them. But in that land such extravasa- tions are infrequent, and a century has elapsed since any of such magnitude have been emitted, though several of minor extent have been outpoured. The eruptions of Mauna Loa are all of great volume, and occur irregularly, with an average interval of about eight years. Taking the total quantity of material disgorged during the past century, no other volcano is at all com- parable to it. A moderate eruption of Mauna Loa represents more material than Vesuvius has emitted since the days of Pompeii. The great flow of 1855 would nearly have built Vesuvius, and those 1859 and 1881 are not greatly inferior.” * In 188] lava was poured out for a period of eleven months, and the flow reached a distance of 60 miles. The rate at which the lava stream advanced varied; some days its progress was at the rate of } to half-a-mile a day, and was described by the Bishop of Hilo as coming down the rocky bed of the ravine like the roar of a river in flood. Sometimes the sound was like that of distant thunder; the explosions and detona- tions were rapid and startling, sometimes as many as ten a minute could be counted. These sounds seem to have resulted from the rapid escape of steam and water vapour, a feature to be remembered in our further investigations. The volcano was again in eruption on January 15th of this year (1887), and previous to the outbreak there had been 36 hours of continuous earthquakes. The crater is from 2 to 3 miles across, and has the appearance of a lava lake, which becomes more agitated previous to an eruption, and is finally relieved by violent * United States Geol. Survey, Fourth Annual Report, p. 84, 1882-83. M 162 outbursts of lava from vents and fissures some thousands of feet below. After the eruption has ceased the lava in the crater reposes for a time into comparative quietude. The volcano of Kilauea does not appear to have any con- nection with Mauna Loa. The crater is about 34 miles in length and 600 feet deep. The greater part of this expanse is covered over with a thick crust of cooled and consequently solidified lava, but from numerous points clouds of steam issue forth.* Occasionally masses of the crust break away, and an area of molten lava is exposed. For a description of what goes on I cannot do better than again quote from the very able report of Captain Dutton.+ ‘* Gaining the summit, we find ourselves upon a brink of a pool of burn- ing lava. The pool is about 480 feet long, and a little over 300 feet wide. Its shape is uniform. It is surrounded by vertical walls 15 to 20 feet in height. When we first reach it the probabilities are that the surface of the lake is coated over with a black solidified crust, showing a rim of fire all round its edge. At numerous points at the edge of the crest jets of fire are seen spouting upwards, throwing up a spray of glowing lava drops and emitting a dull, simmering sound. The heat for the time being is not intense. Now and then a fountain breaks out in the middle of the lake, and boils feebly for a few minutes. It then becomes quiet, but only to renew the operation at some other point. Gradually the spurting and fretting at the edges augment. A belch of lava is thrown up here and there to the height of 5 or 6 feet, and falls back upon the crest. Presently, and near the edge, a cake of the crust cracks off, and one edge of it bending downwards descends beneath the lava, and the whole cake disappears, disclosing a naked surface of liquid fire. Again it coats over and turns black. This operation is repeated edgewise at some other part of the lake. Suddenly a network of cracks shoot through the entire crust. Piece after piece of it turns its edge downwards and sinks with a grand commotion, leaving the whole pool a single expanse of liquid lava. . . . . Gradually the surface darkens with the formation of a new crust, which grows blacker and blacker until the last ray of incandescence disappears.” Such then is the normal condition of this wonderful volcano; but beyond what I have described large quantities of steam are given off from the crater, and the lava is also charged with * United States Geol. Survey, Fourth Annual Report, p. 104, 1882-3. + United States Geol. Survey, Fourth Annual Report, 1882-83, p. 106. 163 it. As to the more violent eruptions of Kilauea, native tradi- tions speak of them as overflowing the country, and that the disturbances were “always accompanied by dreadful earth- quakes, loud claps of thunder, with vivid and quick succeeding lightning.”’* One of the most remarkable, and best known, volcanic districts is that of the Bay of Naples. The land surface around the Bay is covered with detached conical hills which are extinct voleanoes. Many of these have not been in action during the historical period, and consequently our knowledge of them is confined to what their structure teaches. Of one, however, Monte Nuevo, we have a complete history, and it serves as a good illustration of a rapidly formed volcano which has not been in activity since. For two years previous to the 28th of September, 1538, the district around Puzzuoli had been continuously visited by earthquakes. On the 27th of September, the shocks became much more severe, and cracks appeared in the earth, out of which water poured; at first cold and afterwards tepid. What followed is well related by Pietro Giacomo di Toledo. “ At last, on the 29th of the same month, about two o’clock in the night, the earth opened near the lake, and discovered a horrid mouth, from which were vomited furiously smoke, fire, stones and mud, composed of ashes, making at the time of its opening a noise like the loudest thunder. Now this eruption lasted two nights and two days without intermission, though, it is true, not always with the same force ; the third day the eruption ceased, and I went up with my people to the top of the new hill and saw into its mouth.” t The history of Monte Nuevo may be thus summarised :—The eruption was preceded by earthquakes, which were relieved in their intensity when the earth opened, and volcanic activity commenced. This quite ceased after a period of two days and two nights, leaving a hill 440 feet high and half-a-mile in diameter. The volcano has not been in action since. At the present time it is a hill covered with vegetation, having at the top a hollow depression which is the mouth of the crater. * United States Geol. Survey, Fourth Annual Report, p. 114, 1881-83. + Compi Phlegrei, p. 77. Also Lyell’s Principles of Geology, p. 368, ninth edition, 1853. 164 A very different voleano to the last is Vesuvius, a well known name, but probably its history may not be altogether familiar. It is a type of volcano which has several times assumed a state of quietude, and been regarded as a harm- less mountain, and has again burst into activity. It is im- possible to say when Vesuvius, or rather the original crater Monte Somma, first became active, as it was prior to the historic period. One of the earliest references to the mountain is by the ancient historian Strabo,* in which it is referred to as surrounded on all sides by fields, except on the summit, which was, in a great measure, flat but barren and desolate. This was probably the appearance of Monte Somma previous to the year 79 a.p. Im the year 63 a.p., the inhabitants of Pompeii, and other cities and towns situated in the neigh- bourhood of the mountain, experienced earthquake shocks which did considerable damage, and finally culminated in the historic bursting forth of the apparently harmless and fertile mountain into an active voleano in the year 79 a.p. On this occasion a new crater formed inside that of Monte Somma, and it is this new crater which takes the name of Vesuvius. Upon the history of that great eruption I need not enter, it is familiar to most people. Nor can I relate the history of the subsequent eruptions, but the following table will illustrate the character of the volcano. DATES OF ERUPTIONS OF VESUVIUS AND INTERVALS OF REPOSE.Tt 79 993 1500 1697 203 1049 1631 1698 472 1138 1660 512 1139 1682 685 1306 1694 From the year 1698 to the present the intervals of repose have been less lasting. Highteen occurred in a little more than a century, several extending over a period of four and five years. * Strabo, ed. Falc., vol. i., p. 355. + Compiled from Daubeny’s “ Volcanoes.” =< LL—<‘i=iOSS eee a 165 As the eruptions of Vesuvius became more numerous they were less severe. Of recent outbursts that of 1872 is the most noted. On that occasion part of the town of Sebastiano was destroyed, and about 80 persons perished. Cinders fell at Naples, and so thick was the shower that the sky seemed hidden. Not unlike the first recorded eruption of Vesuvius was the sudden revelation of the nature of Mount Terawera, in New Zealand, in June of last year (1886). There was a range of mountains which, though known to geologists to show signs of past voleanic activity, were regarded as harmless. On the evening of June 9th earthquake shocks were felt, but it was not until half-an-hour after midnight that the shocks became alarming. At about ten minutes past 2 a.m. on the morning of 10th, a climax seems to have been reached; a most violent earthquake was experienced accompanied by a “loud roar,” caused by the outbreak of the voleano. This first earthquake, though severe around the centre of disturbance, was only slightly felt at 12 miles distant, and was, therefore, probably not deep seated. Shortly before 4 a.m. a second severe shock occurred, which was felt at a distance of between 60 and 70 miles from the centre of disturbance, and was probably deep seated. The shock was followed by loud reports, and the out- bursts of immense volumes of steam which issued from the site of Rotomahana Lake. Large geysers rose from the site of the celebrated terraces, the largest of which came from the position of the Pink Terraces. The geysers threw up boiling water, mud and stones to a height of 600 to 800 feet. The volcanoes which I have referred to are fairly typical, but my reference to them has of necessity been brief, and I must now proceed to say something as to the cause of their formation and action. Many theories have been put forward, but so far the mystery has not beenclearedup. In considering the matter for ourselves we may start with the fact that the disturbance is due to changes which take place within the interior of the earth, though possibly not at excessive depths from the surface. Another fact which we notice is that large 166 volumes of steam are a conspicuous feature in all volcanoes. A piece of lava which I have microscopically examined from the eruption of Vesuvius in 1872 was rendered porous by the passage of steam through it. Pumice is a further illustra- tion of the same thing; it is simply lava rendered porous by steam, and perhaps gases, but chiefly the former. During the eruption of Vesuvius in 1872 the escape of steam from the lava produced minature volcanoes on the lava stream, and im- mense volumes were shot high into the atmosphere direct from the crater. The steam cloud is a feature in all volcanic eruptions, and on condensations taking place descends as rain accompanied by thunder and lightning. Mr Scrope in his book on volcanoes, published in 1862, advocated a theory that volcanic outbursts are due to the accumulation of steam at volcanic centres. Professor Prestwich* has recently dis- cussed the agency of water in volcanic eruptions, and in doing so fully faces the difficulties which have to be met before Mr Scrope’s theory can be accepted. We know that as we descend into the interior of the earth the temperature increases. In the district around Bristol it increases at the rate of 1° F. for every 68 feet descent, but the rate would doubtless increase at great depths. In other localities the rate of increase is sometimes greater, and in some instances less. We need not, however, discuss that problem, it is enough for us to know that there is an increase of temperature as we descend into the earth. It is, then, clear that a depth would be reached at which water should be raised to the boiling point, and deeper still at which minerals would be in a state of fusion. In calculating these depths, however, we must allow for pressure; water in becoming steam requires to expand, and at the depth at which a temperature of 212° F. would be reached (the boiling point of water), the fluid would be subjected to immense pressure in the effort to pass into steam. The same with mineral substances, but of course their fusion temperatures vary. We must not now enter into a dis- cussion on the condition of the interior of the earth, suffice it * Proceedings Royal Society, No. 246, 1886. a 167 to say that at some depth or other we should expect to find mineral matter in a state of fusion; that is in the condition called lava. Now we know the effect of water coming in con- tact with ignited or red-hot substances; the result is a series of explosions. If we watch molten iron issuing from a furnace the fused mass is not explosive, but pour water upon it, and explosions follow. Suppose now that these explosions, due to pouring water on molten mineral matter, were to take place in a confined space, then there would be a violent effort of the steam and water vapour to escape. The enclosing surface would be subject to violent. shocks and pressure, and at last, probably, the force of the steam would overcome the strength of the enclosing surface and it would yield at some weak point. I think this is something similar to what takes place in the case of volcanic eruptions. But the question comes’ how can the water get to the depths of fusion? That the strata of the earth holds immense stores of water is well known, but whether it would be possible for it to percolate to the depths of fusion is a question for consideration. The difficulty is not so much in the mechanical percolation, but in the fact that as the liquid approached the lava it would be converted into steam, and probably water vapour, which would act as an elastic cushion, as it were, between the pressure of the descending water and the lava. I think the evidence is against the proposition of water finding access to the depths of fusion by percolation through the strata, but there are other ways by which such a result might be practicable, which I will now consider. * That the earth is undergoing a gradual cooling process is generally accepted. By that cooling the crust of the earth has undergone a certain amount of contraction and shrinkage, and the process is probably going on still. As a result strata has been faulted, and elevations and depressions have occurred all over the surface. Mr Mallet tried to account for the heated conditions of rocks at great depths as due to the friction and pressure produced by the crushing process resulting from the shrinkage. Though I am not prepared to accept that theory. I look upon the contraction of the crust of the earth as possibly 168 providing means by which large volumes of sea water might find access to the depths of the earth, through cracks and fissures which would naturally result. Dr Hector, of the New Zealand Geological Survey, in his preliminary report on the eruption of Terawera, says :— ‘“*T have been informed that at the whaling settlement of Tawaite on the east entrance of Tory Channel, from six p.m. up to about eight p.m., on the evening of the 9th, loud booming reports were heard through the earth. As these reports were previous to any symptoms of the disturbance at Terawera, this suggests that they may have resulted from a slight movement along the great fault-line that traverses the north and south Islands in a north-easterly direction ; and, in this case, the immediate cause of the Terawera outburst may be found in a local fracture resulting from such movement.” * I must now say something with regard to earthquakes. An earthquake shock is transmitted through the strata of the earth in a series of waves which radiate from the centre of disturb- ance. The waves may be, to some extent, compared to those set in motion by a stone thrown into water, but there is this difference. In the latter case the disturbance is propagated outward by the action of gravity; in the case of earthquake waves they are the result of the elasticity of the rocks of the earth. It has been shown by Professor Milne (well known for his observations on earthquakes in Japan), that artificial earthquakes can be produced by exploding dynamite in holes in the earth. That being so we may conclude that if explosions occur in the interior of the earth earthquake shocks would result. I think it reasonable to assume, that if water, in large volumes, found access to the depths of fusion that explosions would follow; and we thus arrive at one possible cause of earthquakes. Professor Milne supports that theory as the cause of the greater number. He says:— “The majority of earthquakes are due to explosive efforts at volcanic force. The greater number of these explosions take place beneath the sea, and are probably due to the admission of water through fissures to the heated rocks beneath.+ It is, however, probable that some earthquakes are = “Nature,” vol. 34, p. 393. + Earthquakes, pp. 295-6. Miwa 9 APR 1888 >* es ats «3c uw. “3 ae ib du. J) PROCEEDINGS OF THE Cotteswold Uaturalists FIELD CLUB For 1887—1888 | | President ; WILLIAM C. LUCY, F.GS. , Viee- Presidents i= WILLIAM H. PAINE, M.D., F.G.S. } Mee ERED. SMITHE, M1 Ac,.LE-D.;F.G.S. | PRANCIS DAY, C.1.E,. £1S., F.Z:S: a| JOHN BELLOWS ' Proressor HARKER, F.L.S. Honorarp Creasurer | | J. H. JONES | Honorary Sccretarp a EDWARD WETHERED, BGS. F6.Sh-F Raves: Contents a The PRESIDENT’s ADDRESS at the Annual Meeting at Gloucester, 1888 || .. Notes on the Polyzoa with reference to Lepralia foliacea, in 24 fathoms of water. Found 30 ik miles west of Lundy Island, and now in the Gloucester Museum. By R. ETHERIDGE, F.R.S. | he Battle of Tewkesbury, A.D., 1471. By the Rev. W. BazeLey, M.A. | Notes on the Fish and Fisheries of the Severn. By FrANcis Day, C.L.E., and F.L.S. | On the Gall-Midges (Cecidomyide). By Professor ALLEN Harker, F.L.S., Royal Agricul- | __ tural College, Cirencester. 4 On the behaviour of Granites when exposed to High Temperatures. By FREDERICK SMITHE, L.L.D., F.G.S Observations upon the Reptilia and Batrachia of Gloucestershire. By C. A. WITCHELL oA Lecture on Coins. By Rev. A. WINNINGTON-INGRAM. ; Notes on A Difficult in Evolution. By J. Drew, M.B., Lond., F.G.S., &e. J fotes on the Jurassic Rocks, at Crickley Hill. By W. C. Lucy, F.G.S. ¢ Notes on An Amended List of Madreporaria of Crickley Hill, a supplement to W. C.. Lucy’s _ Paper. By RogBerT F. Tomes, F.G.S. / PUBLISHED BY JOHN BELLOWS, GLOUCESTER S 154975 Annual Address to the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club, read at Gloucester, the 19th April, 1888, by the President, Mr W. C. Lucy, F.G.S8. Following the usual course adopted by your past Presidents, of referring first to the death of distinguished members during the year, it now becomes my duty to give a short obituary notice of three of our late colleagues, which is the more painful from their being endeared to me by the ties of long friendship, and whose place in the Club will be missed by us all for many years to come. Mr Edwin Witchell died on August 20th at the age of 64. He had left home in the afternoon to look at a quarry in the Slad valley, and after having been there sometime, as the driver of his carriage was handing to him his fossil bag, he exclaimed, ‘Oh dear!’ and fell to the ground, and the only words he uttered afterwards were, ‘Don’t leave me for a minute,’ and thus suddenly passed away, in scientific harness, hammer in hand, one of the most active members of the Cotteswold Club. Mr Witchell had suffered for the last three years from ‘Angina Pectoris,’ which was the cause of his sudden death. He was elected a member of the Club in May, 1860, and he contributed to the Transactions the following valuable papers :— ‘Sections of the Lias and Sands exposed in the Stroud Sewage Works.’ ‘A Deposit on Stroud Hill, containing Flint Implements, Land and Freshwater Shells.’ ‘On a Section of the Lias and recent Deposits in the valley of the River Frome at Stroud.’ ‘On the Denudation of the Cotteswolds.’ N 172 ‘On a Bed of Fuller’s Earth, at Whiteshill, near Stroud.’ ‘On the Angular Gravel of the Cotteswolds.’ ‘On a Section of Stroud Hill, and the Upper Ragstone Beds of the Cotteswolds.’ ‘On the Pisolite and the Basement Beds of the Inferior Oolite of the Cotteswolds.’ ‘On the Forest Marble and Upper Beds of the Great Oolite between Nailsworth and Wotton-under-Edge.’ ‘On the Genus Nerinea and its stratigraphical Distribution in the Cotteswolds.’ ‘On a Section at Selsley Hill.’ Mr Witchell was a most painstaking and careful observer, and it is not too much to add, that his knowledge of the Jurassic. formation in the Stroud area was not exceeded even by Members of the Geological Survey. To the Club he rendered invaluable service in the admir- able arrangements he made for the Field Meetings on the Cotteswolds, and which much contributed to their success. He was for many years our excellent Treasurer, and had only recently been appointed a Vice-President. Mr Witchell was elected in 1861 a Fellow of the Geological Society of London, to which he contributed several papers; and was the author of a book on the Geology of Stroud, which will always remain a standard work of great value to students. On the 15th of September, the Rev. W. S. Symonds died at Cheltenham, at the age of 68, and was buried in the church- yard of his old parish, at Pendock, on Sunday the 18th. Mr Symonds, whose family was long connected with the county, was born at Hereford. In 1842 he graduated at Christ’s College, Cambridge; three years afterwards was presented to the living of Pendock; and on the death of his mother he became the owner of the Pendock Court Estate. Before entering upon his rectory, he was curate at Offenham, near Evesham, in which parish Mr R. Gibbs resided, a gentleman who had made a good collection of local fossils, which much interested Mr Symonds. About the same time he became acquainted with Mr Hugh Strickland, with whom he made 173 many excursions in the neighbourhood, and it was, I believe, from these gentlemen that he first derived a taste for geologi- cal pursuits. Mr Symonds was elected a member of the Club in January 1853, and he contributed two papers to the Pro- ceedings :— (1.) The Drifts—Severn, Wye, Avon and Usk. (2.) Geology and Archzology of the South Malvern District. For many years he regularly attended our Annual Meetings, and always took a prominent part in the discussions, and we shall never forget how much we were indebted to him, for the numerous clear addresses he gave at the Field Meetings, and the instructions we derived from his eloquent expositions of difficult points of Physical Geology, in which he was a master. To one of these expositions I wish particularly to refer. In May 1874, ata Meeting of the Club at Newent, he gave a paper on the Newent Coal Fields, and shewed conclusively that the attempts which were then being made near there, to develop a coal industry would be a failure. He had warned the pro- moters that they would be disappointed, but his practical geological knowledge was disregarded, and the working was only abandoned after great loss had been sustained. He took @ warm interest in ‘ Field Clubs,’ was President of the Malvern in 1853, and for some. years afterwards, and was mainly instrumental in establishing the Woolhope Club, of which he became President in 1854. He was never happier than when accompanying young persons, of both sexes, to some favorite quarry or drift section, in his own Malvern area, and many of his friends date their first love of Natural History to his forcible and clear expositions, and to the enthusiasm he threw into his subject in those delightful excursions. Few geologists had made a wider range of observations, as there was hardly a district of interest in Great Britain that he had not investi- gated. With some old friends, he made several excursions abroad, and he wrote two papers on the ‘Extinct Volcanoes of Auvergne.’ To various Field Clubs and scientific periodicals he contributed about forty papers, besides having written several very interesting books; the last brochure was on ‘The nN 2 174 Severn Straits, or Notes on Glacial Drifts, Bone Caverns, and Old Glaciers,” giving the result of his matured judgment on a most complicated part of geology, which he had specially studied. He was an ardent and reverential lover of nature, and when an invalid, in several of his letters to-me, he enthusi- astically referred to his old wanderings amongst the hills “he loved so well.” A more unselfish or kinder-hearted man I have never met with, and few perhaps have realised so fully Shakspere’s lines: “ Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, Sermons in stones, and good in everything.” Sir William Vernon Guise died at Elmore Court, on September 24th, 1887, in the 71st year of his age, having only survived his old friend the Rev. W. 8. Symonds nine days. He became a Member of the Club in January 1850, and on the retirement of Mr Barwick Baker in 1859, he succeeded him as President, but in May last, owing to the state of his health, he declined to be re-elected, after having held the office for twenty-eight years. Sir William’s social position, with his very extensive knowledge in all branches of Natural History, eminently fitted him to be the successful leader of a Naturalist’s Field Club. How often have we witnessed his varied acquirements in geology, entomology, botany, archeology, and ecclesiology, and the happy way he would seize upon the salient points of a dis- cussion, and explain the different opinions held upon the subject under our consideration. At the evening Winter Meetings, his summary of the papers read, shewed great power in grasping the views of the authors, and placing the same in clear and logical order before the Members. His Annual Address was a model of well-arranged matter, put in a clear and lucid manner, giving a resumé of the excur- sions made, and papers read during the past year. He possessed the happy power of stimulating the members to work, and during his presidency six full-sized volumes were added to the Proceedings. 175 He was a born lover of Natural History, a diligent seeker after truth, and the mode and spirit in which scientific investi- gations should be carried on, he has admirably shewn in his first Annual Address given in 1860. After referring to the recent discoveries of Dr Falconer, in a cavern near Palermo, of extinct mammalian remains with flint implements, to the occurrence of similar remains in the gravels of Abbeville and St. Acheul in France, and in a cave at Brixham in Devonshire, he said, if man and the extinct mammals were contemporaneous, it would follow that the existence of man upon the earth must be ante-dated to a period far beyond the 6000 years to which the human epoch has been usually limited, and further re- marked: ‘‘ These are indeed startling facts, and the wonderful conclusions to which they seem to lead, may well make us hesitate before we adopt them in their full extent. Neverthe- less, howsoever our interpretation may be at fault, the facts of nature are incontrovertible. They are the acts of the Almighty Creator Himself, and have been written by Him “for man’s understanding ” in characters as imperishable as the rocks on which they are inscribed; and we may feel perfectly satisfied that if the facts be true, and they be truly interpreted, we must accept the conclusions, no matter how much they may appear to militate against pre-conceived opinions, or against the apparent meaning of written records.” The recollection of Sir William’s courtesy, his kind and genial manner, his brilliant conversational powers, shewing how well stored was his mind, not only in scientific, but in general knowledge, will always remain green in the memory of the Members of the Cotteswold Club. 176 The Annual Meeting was held at the Bell Hotel, Gloucester, on the 10th May, 1887, and in the absence of Sir Witt1am Guiss, the President, the Chair was taken by Mr Lucy, (Vice-Presi- dent) to whom Sir Witu1am had sent his address, and which he read. The following introductory remarks were heard with feelings of profound regret :— “« After having presided over the destinies of your Club for “a period of twenty-eight years, I am warned by growing “infirmities that the time has come for me to lay down what “has been to me a source of unvarying pleasure. When I look ‘back upon the years that have passed, I do so with pride and ‘pleasure, and I call to mind the noble band of workers who ‘““have enabled me to carry the Club to its present renown and “high character among similar bodies. The names occur to me “of Etheridge, Wright, Symonds, Jones, Moore, Lucy, Witchell, “and many others whose pens have been busy in our service— “some of whom are still left, while others have been removed “from among us. “T received the Club from Mr Barwick Baker, our first “President, but lately removed from us by death; and now my “failing powers remind me that I, too, must lay down the “reins which my hands can no longer sustain, but I feel that “in doing so, I resign them into hands fully capable of all the “duties connected therewith. I indulge a hope that I may yet “participate in your evening Meetings, but to share in your ‘excursions is a physical impossibility. “In bidding you farewell, I congratulate myself and you “upon the favorable condition of the Club, the Members of “‘which are fully maintained, and the papers of the usual “average interest and importance. “In conclusion, in bidding you adieu, let me add my fer- “vent hope in the future success of the Cotteswold Club.” Mr Lucy, after a few remarks, proposed the following resolution :— 177 “The Members of the Club desire to express their very “oreat regret at the announcement made in the address of “Sir William Guise, that declining health compels him to “resign the office of President, which he has so ably filled, for “a period of twenty-eight years. They are deeply conscious “how inadequately words can convey their sense of the loss “they have sustained by his retirement, while the many kind- “nesses they have received, and the many happy hours they “have passed under his presidency, will never be forgotten. “The Members reciprocate his hope that he may still be able to “attend their evening Meetings; and they venture further “to trust that he may be so far restored to health as again to “join the Field excursions of the summer.” Dr Paine seconded the resolution and referred, much moved, to the many acts of kindness he had received, as the Honorary Secretary of the Club for the last twenty-two years, from Sir William Guise. This was a sad day to him. Mr Lucy had expressed his own feelings so well, that he need only say a word more—he would only add ‘God bless Sir William in his declining years.” Mr Walter Stanton expressed his regret at the retirement of the President, and the resolution was carried unanimously, and Mr Lucy was requested to send it to Sir William. Mr Leigh, Woodchester Park, after a touching allusion to Sir William Guise, proposed that Mr Lucy be elected President of the Club, which was seconded by the Rev. Dr Smithe, who also referred to Sir William, dwelling on his high attainments and kindness to all the Members, and which was also carried unanimously. Mr Lucy having thanked the Members for the high position they had conferred upon him, Dr Paine, Rev. Dr Smithe, Mr Francis Day, F.L.S., and Mr E. Witchell were elected Vice- Presidents. Mr E. Wethered was elected Honorary Secretary in the room of Dr Paine, who had so ably filled the office for 22 years, and Mr HK. Witchell was re-elected Honorary Treasurer. With the view to facilitate the better working of the Club, the Executive Officers were formed into a Council to consider 178 all matters relating to its management, and it was resolved that the limit of 100 Members should be exclusive of the Honorary Members; also that the old rule of not admitting the press to the Meetings of the Club should be adhered to. The Treasurer read a statement of accounts which, after payment of some outstanding debts of about £20, shewed a balance to the credit of £49 19s 8d, and he strongly impressed upon the Club the necessity of strict economy, and the Council were requested to consider what could be done to limit the expenditure. The Field Meetings for the year were fixed. Chipping Sodbury, June 2nd; Huntley, June 30th; Edgeworth, July 28th; and Nailsworth, August 25th. Before giving a resumé of the work of the Club during the past year, permit me to express my heartfelt thanks for the loyal and generous support I have received. The Field Meetings have been largely attended, and there has been an evident desire on the part of the Members, to supply, as far as possible, the loss we all felt at the absence of our old President, Sir William Guise, and each has endeavoured to do his part to keep up the character of the Club. The first Meeting took place on June 2nd, at Chipping Sodbury, and the Members assembled at the Yate Station, where carriages were taken to the Eggshill Colliery, which, as Mr Stone, the Manager stated, had been worked by the early coal-miners. They had discovered in the shaft the remains of a very interesting old pump, made of hollowed-out oak timber, and which he exhibited to the Members. Mr Wethered said the part of the pump was the suction, and the adoption of it marked an epoch in the industry of the country. In the early days of coal-mining the difficulty in getting rid of the water was so great that in the year 1610, Sir George Selby informed Parliament that the mines at Newcastle would not last for the term of their leases of 21 years. Mr Wethered explained the various pumps which were afterwards introduced to lower the water in the pits; and in 1712 the first Newcomen Engine was erected which solved the difficulty, and the present pump must have been before that date. 179 After collecting specimens of the coal flora, Old Sodbury Church was visited. The Vicar, the Rev. Canon Nash, read a paper of which the following is an abstract :— “The parish Church of Old Sodbury, dedicated to St. John “the Baptist, consists of a Nave with North and South Aisles, “North and South Transepts, a tower at the West end, and a “porch at the South side. The Church, with the exception of “the tower, was re-built in the year 1858 on the same found- “ation and exactly the same as the old Church, with the “exception of the two Transept Arches, and the position of the “Chancel Arch, the same Columns, Arches, and Windows being “used. When first built, the Church only consisted of the “Norman Nave, and probably ended with an apse. The early English tower and the two Transepts were afterwards added, and later on the Chancel.” In the North Transept there are two effigies cross-legged, and the Rev. W. Bazeley pointed out that the heraldic bearings are obliterated, and no tradition remains as to the names of these heroes. Crusaders were so depicted, and indeed any founders or patrons of the Church, were permitted by custom to thus commemorate for themselves their piety. The date of the armour is about the reign of Henry II, or Richard I. After luncheon at the Cross Hands Inn, a section, close by, of the Upper Beds of the Inferior Oolite was examined, and about half a mile distant an underground quarry in the Great Oolite was shewn by the owner, Mr Isles, with the aid of lamps. Thence on to Horton quarry where the Trigonia bed is well developed with Trigonia Costata in great abundance. Mr Witchell, at the request of the President, explained the section which he correlated with that of Rodborough. The Clypeus beds at Horton were 18 ft. 6 in., and at Rodborough, 14 ft. 6 in., the difference being in the white limestones which are 5 feet thicker at Horton than at Rodborough. The Trigonia grit upon which the Clypeus beds rest, is about the same at both places, but the Gryphite grit at Rodborough is not met with at Horton, while the Freestone series which follow, occur at both places. Mr Witchell regarded the Upper Beds of the Inferior Oolite as the most persistent of all in the Cotteswold area. 180 From Horton the Club proceeded to the Camp at Little Sodbury, which was very clearly explained by Mr G. Witts, who remarked that although it was the finest Roman Camp in Gloucestershire, it was really not of Roman origin, but was originally a British Camp of far larger area, which the Romans had utilised and much strengthened. After giving full details of the shape and defences of the Camp, he said that at a dis- tance of 218 yards from the Roman earthworks, on the line of the British mound, were to be discovered the foundations of a circular building, or watch-tower, 22 feet in diameter, and precisely similar in character to those found in connection with the British Camp at Cleeve Hill, near Cheltenham. Following the line of the British earthworks for a distance of 258 yards from the first tower, they came to a second and larger one. These two circular buildings were probably watch-towers for those in charge of the flocks and herds which were collected at the exterior of the Camp. It might be asked how such an important position as Sodbury was connected with the great centres in British and Roman times. A reference to his Archeological Map of Gloucestershire would at once answer the question. Sodbury was situated within a few hundred yards of the ancient “ Port Way” that connected Glevam (Gloucester) with Aquz Solis (Bath). This road had long been neglected by their local antiquaries, but having carefully exam- ined it, he ventured to assert that it was one of the main roads of the district in Roman and probably pre-Roman times. The Rev. W. Bazeley shewed the relation of Sodbury Camp to Edward IV and Queen Margaret. Before the battle of Tewkesbury, May 3rd 1471, so fatal to the Lancastrian cause, Queen Margaret, having been re-inforced at Bristol, proposed to occupy the Camp, and give Edward battle. Edward, who then lay at Malmesbury, accepted the challenge and advanced to the attack. On his arrival, however, at Sodbury, he found the Queen had hurried up the Vale with a view to crossing the Severn at Gloucester, by the Westgate Bridge; or at Tewkes- bury, at the Lower Lode, and so joining her forces with Jasper Tudor’s before she gave battle. Thereupon Edward sent off 181 messages to the Citizen of Gloucester to bid them close their gates, and started himself early in the morning of the 2nd May, and arrived before evening within five miles of Tewkes- bury, having marched with the whole of his army along the brow of the Cotteswolds between sunrise and sunset. The next day he attacked Queen Margaret, who was still on this side of the Severn, and won the decisive battle of Tewkesbury. Old Sodbury Manor House was next visited, and the Rev. W. Bazeley read an able paper of its early history, of its owners the Walsh family, and of William Tyndale the trans- lator of the Bible into English, while a tutor in the family of Sir John Walsh. Before dining at Chipping Sodbury, the Vicar, the Rev. W. H. P. Harvey, explained at the Church the leading features of this not much known and very interesting building. The Second Field Meeting was held on Thursday, June 30th, and the Members left the Gloucester Station at 10.35 a.m. in a large brake for Huntley, where, after partaking of the kind hospitality of the Rev. H. and Mrs Miles, visited the beautiful Church, in which the marbles (all British) were much admired. Thence on to a quarry on the right hand side of the road, where the beds by lateral pressure are to be seen folded back to nearly a vertical position. The President having asked the Rev. Dr Smithe to describe the quarry and give an expla- nation of the causes which had produced the dislocation of the beds, said: Huntley Hill was simply a prolongation of May Hill to the South East. They were standing now, geologically, on the base line of the Upper Llandovery rocks (one of the sub-divisions of the Silurian system), the whole of the Lower Llandovery being absent, and these Upper Llandovery (or May Hill Sandstone group) were reposing unconformably upon the underlying strata. Consider the significancy of this fact; the unconformability implied great lapse of time, in fact, so many leaves missing from the geological record, and in addition to this loss of strata, there was a loss of the characters written in the record ; the characters being the fossils, or the paleonto- logy. So that technically speaking, they were surveying the 182 result of two breaks; a great paleontological break in time, and yet another break in space, a great dislocation and loss of strata by denudation, coinciding with it. Hence the keen interest attaching to this quarry. Here was an exhibition of the dynamics of geology of a very complicated character, for looking at May Hill, a little short of 1000 feet high, they had to find the chief element of that momentum which had resulted in faults, displacement, and contortions. The mass of the hill once consisted of the present core of Crystalline schists, together with the enormous mass of removed Llandovery and overlying beds, of which the flanking beds only remain in testimony of the entire anti-clinal, whilst the upward thrust of subterranean force and of shrinking, had their origin and source in the appellation, now out of date, of Caloric—formerly regarded as an imponderable body, but now recognized as heat, an agency or mode of energy spending itself in molecular force, producing altered rocks; again, as stored up and opposing itself to gravitation—producing, in the crust of our planet, strains and stresses folding, and thrusts in the strata, as on the North East of May Hill, coincident with those of the Malvern range. The mass that caused the results before them must have been the present beds of the Hill, as mapped in section (produced) and the direction of the flanking beds of the Ludlow and the Wenlock formations, brought together in dome-like arches from opposite directions. Most of these deposits had been denuded, but before the erosion and removal of the capping beds of May Hill what a mighty mass of rock this must have been, contri- buting as it did, with the existing core of rock and its flanking beds, to make a factor in the momentum of the dynamic force exemplified in this quarry. Some beds were bent round, and some raised vertically, and the concave surfaces facing the axis of the line of disturbance of the hill. Here and at Malvern the Upper and Lower Llandovery Sandstone rock was commonly known as the Pentamerus Sandstone. An examination by Mr Billings, an American Palzontologist, led to the discovery of a peculiar structural difference in certain of the species of this Silurian brachiopod. Some of the shells were now, in i 8 a 183 consequence, distinguished by the name of one who was an illustrious Member of the Cotteswold Club. The generic name of the species thus referred to is Stricklandinia Pentamerus obscwrius is the characteristic fossil of the Upper Llandovery beds at May Hill, whilst Stricklandinia leus and S. liratus are abun- dant in the Lower Llandovery, but found sparingly in the Upper Llandovery. - The nature of the crystalline structure of the rocks forming the core of the Hill was known to Sir Roderick Murchison as the quartzose schists; but since his time, they are generally known by geologists as crystalline schists, and their origin has been considered by the latést worker, viz: Dr Callaway, due to the metamorphosis of igneous rocks. This alleged conclusion as to their birth is deduced from his investigation of the crystalline schists of Galway, and also those of the Malverns— see Dr Callaway’s papers—that on the Malvern Hill schists being only an instalment in the Q. J. Geol. Soc: Vol. XLITI, pp- 517, 525. The brake was again taken, and as a considerable ascent was made up May Hill before the road turned off to Clifford’s Mesne, the view of the plain and the Cotteswold range was much enjoyed being new to most of the Members. The quarry at the Mesne was explained by the President as one of great interest to Geologists as the beds are of Downton Sandstone, similar to those over the tunnel at Ledbury, and represented , the close of the Silurians and the advent of the Devonian epoch. Some time was spent in examining this interesting quarry, and the searchers were rewarded by discovering the remains of carbonized vegetation which had probably drifted from the ancient shore into the stream and were covered up and fossilized in the sandy sediment, much in the same way that vegetable remains drift down the large rivers of the present period, and finally become buried in the delta. Thence on to Bowlsdon where there are three small isolated patches of coal, one of which a few years ago was worked, but not successfully, and was soon wisely abandoned. — 184 Drove afterwards on to The Green to see the beds of angular gravel referred to in a note in Mr Lucy’s paper on “The Gravels of the Severn, Avon and Evenlode, and their extension over the Cotteswold Hills,’—Volume V, page 105, of the Transactions—and which were further described to the Members by the Author. On arriving at Newent, Canon Wood was waiting at the Church where he gave an interesting paper, shewing that the .town was formerly of greater importance—a place where travellers proceeding from London to South Wales halted. It had a weekly market—now held monthly—and four fairs, of which one only remained called the “Feast,” held in August. There seemed to have been Roman Colonists about Newent, several coins of Vespasian and other Emperors were found in 1812. In the reign of Queen Mary, a Martyr named Richard Horne was burnt here. His wife was also condemned, but she recanted and was afterwards married again. Near where the present Old Court stands was a priory or convent; and the lake in Mr Knowles’ ground was probably a part of the Abbot’s fishpond. In the sixteenth century glass was manufactured at the place still called the “Glass House,” at the foot of May Hill, and the manufacture was carried on by foreigners. Close to the Railway Station is a house which goes by the name of the “ Furnace,” and 20 tons of iron a week were at one time made at Newent. The Church contain some features of interest, and there are traces shewing that an older building preceded it. The Nave and Aisles were destroyed by snow in the 17th century, and were re-built a few years afterwards; and a century later the Hast window was blown in. The former Nave and Aisles stood apart from the tower. The present Nave is built up to it, and is therefore broader than the old one. The roof is a stupendous structure 75 feet long by 50 feet wide, without being supported by pillars, the timber in it which came from Newent Wood, then part of the Forest of Dean, weighed 80 tons, and was given by Charles II. It was erected geometri- cally like the Theatre at Oxford. Sir Gilbert Scott, when he * examined the Church, was much interested in the peculiar style a 185 of the windows. The Canon said the parish records state that Taynton Church was destroyed by Charles the First’s troops in 1644, and was re-built in 1699; that on March 19th, 1718, the moon being very bright, about 7.15 p.m., a light appeared in the West, bright as the sun, but lasted for a short time only ; that in August 1720 a bricklayer’s wife had four sons at a birth ; that “on Thursday, May 7th, 1702, about 4 o’clock in the after- noon, there happened such a violent and horrible thunder and lightning at Minsterworth Church, that a ball of fire as big as a bushel was seen to fall omthe wooden steeple which it burnt down, and melted the five bells in the tower, doing great damage to it.” The Club dined at the George Hotel. July 28th 1887, the Third Meeting, was fixed for Hdge- worth, but as Dr Day was able to make arrangements for an excursion up the Severn to Diglis under very favorable circum- stances, not likely to occur again, the Edgeworth Meeting was postponed until the following month. The steamer “ Berkeley Castle,” specially chartered, took on board a large party at the Westgate Bridge and proceeded up the Severn, making a halt opposite Wainlode Cliff—a fine section in the Rhetic formation which has been described by Messrs Brodie, Strick- land, Etheridge and Wright. Here the President gave a brief history and explanation of the various beds which are seen to much greater advantage from the river. On arrival of the boat opposite Tewkesbury Park, the Rev. W. Bazeley gave an interesting paper on the battle of Tewkes- bury, fought on May 4th, 1471. After discussing the disputed point as to whether Prince Edward was killed during the fight, or was murdered in Edward IV’s tent, he concluded by saying “All that can be said is, that the serious charge against Edward and his brothers was first made in a chronicle some thirty years after the event when there were probably no eye- witnesses left to disprove it, and that all the contemporary chroniclers wrote as though they knew that Prince Edward was slain on the field of battle like the Earl of Devonshire and Lord John Beaufort. He is said to have been buried near the centre of the choir of Tewkesbury Abbey, under the tower, without a monument or an inscription.” 186 Shortly after three o’clock the party landed at Diglis lock, and gathered round Dr Day, who gave a most interesting and exhaustive paper on “ The Severn Fisheries,” which is published in our Proceedings. Notice of the postponed Meeting at Edgeworth for August 25th, was duly sent to the Members, shewing an excellent programme arranged by Mr Witchell, with a kind invitation to the Club from Mr James of The Manor House. Alas! this Meeting had to be indefinitely postponed owing to the sudden and lamentable death of Mr Witchell, on the 20th of August, who was to be our guide. The First Winter Meeting was held at the Science School, at Gloucester, on Nov. 26th, 1887. The President opened the Session by alluding to the great loss the Club had sustained in the death of three of its distinguished Members—Sir W. V. Guise, the Rev. W. S. Symonds and Mr Witchell—and his remarks were very ably supplemented by Dr Day, Vice-President. Professor Harker read a valuable paper on “The Natural History of the Gall Midges,” which is published in the Pro- ceedings. In conclusion, the Professor said he could not allow the occasion of the first meeting of the Club, since the loss of its distinguished and revered late President, to pass without adding his tribute of respect and affection for the memory of Sir William Guise. For more than ten years he had met and corresponded with him on Natural History matters. Sir William was an ardent and humble student of nature, always eager to learn and to follow up a question to its conclusion. In one so gifted this was the index of a truly great man. On Tuesday January 17th, 1888, the Second Winter Meeting took place, and the first paper “On the Behaviour of Granites and Granulites at High Temperatures ” was given by the Rev. Dr Smithe, Vice-President—a subject little under- stood, and which was treated in a masterly manner. The paper is published in our Proceedings. Mr ©. A. Witchell followed with a paper entitled ‘“‘ Obser- vations on the Reptiles of Gloucestershire,” the result of careful investigations made by the author, given in a natural 187 simple manner. I congratulate him upon its success, and am glad that in his love of Natural History, he is following in the footsteps of his father. The paper will be found in our Proceedings. The Third Meeting was held on February 23rd, when the Rey. A. Winnington-Ingram gave an interesting paper on “Coins.” Dr Day afterwards exhibited three coins belonging to Sir Brook Kay, one being half a dollar of Spain personally stamped by King George III. It appears a Spanish ship with silver on board, having been captured by an English vessel, it was determined that instead of re-coining the dollars they should be stamped with the King’s effigy and issued as current coins of the realm. George III occasionally amused himself with this stamping, and an ancestor of Sir Brook Kay’s—a great friend of the King’s, found him one day thus employed, when His Majesty gave him this half-dollar. The other two coins were a silver dollar issued by the Bank of England in 1804, and a bank token for ten-pence, Irish, coined in 1818. Dr Day likewise shewed a Burmese rupee, having the device of a peacock; and a leaden coin on which there is a hare; also some debased silver coinage of Travancore; and a small copper piece weighing over a few grains. He remarked that the coinage of Ceylon clearly shews that at four different periods the island has been subjected to the rule of Malabar, which invariably, when in the ascendant, had the battle-axe of Parasu-Ramah placed as a device on the convex coinage of Ceylon. The Rev. Dr Smithe shewed a few ancient coins, perfect in condition :— A gold piece of the Emperor Valentinian I. (about 360 A.D., struck at Milan); also some silver, equally fine, of Septimus Severus, who died at York 211 A.D., of Commodus Britt, A.D. 70, of Trajan, and of Constantine the Great. A well-preserved silver, bearing the stamp of the best period of Greek Art, was one of Menander, King of Bactria, who pushed his conquests to the Punjab, beyond the River Sutlej, and whose coins have been found as far East as the Jumna. Mr J.D. Robertson alluding to the debasement of the coinage in the 16th century, said that although it had reached its worst point under Edward VI., the restoration to the old Standard had been nearly effected by the same ce) 188 king, and was only completed by Elizabeth in her second year. He then dis- cussed the various processes of coining which were tried in the reigns of Elizabeth, Charles I. and Cromwell, with the object of superseding the ancient mode of striking with the hammer : and the adoption of the screw press in 1662. The principal objection to its earlier use seemed to be the fear of its quiet working giving encouragement to forgers, whereas the noise of the old process made it difficult to conceal it. Speaking of copper coinage, Mr Robertson said it was true that tokens had been issued under a patent granted to one Harrington during the reigns of James I. and Charles I., but the public dislike caused their withdrawal, and the general circulation of trades- men’s tokens “ for necessary change” was the result. These were decried in 1672, when the first really authoritative copper currency was begun. The effigy upon it of Britannia was copied from a Roman coin struck to com- memorate the conquest of Britain, but the portrait was that of the celebrated Mrs Stewart. The “gun money” of James II. was only issued in Ireland after his expulsion from this country, and could not, therefore, be considered a debasement of the English coinage. Referring to the farthings of Queen Anne, he said that the ordinary type was not particularly rare, but there were several proofs which were so. Mr Robertson expressed his appreciation of the lucid manner in which Mr Ingram had dealt with his subject. The Rev. W. Bazeley referred to the interest and importance of the collection and study of coins, especially urging collecting in our own county. Mr John Bellows said the lecturer had mentioned the value of coins in helping us to a knowledge of history. A remarkable instance of this was the medallary history of Carausius, by Roach Smith, who had been able to deduce a great deal of what that Emperor had done after wresting Britain from the Roman rule, from the coins he had struck. More than 2,000 different types of these had been found in this country. It would appear that one of the grievances under which the Britons laboured just before the reign of Carausius was the lack of coin, This was often the case under the Roman Empire, the soldiers sometimes going, it was said, for twenty years without their pay. Early traces of the law of distress were those in which military men seized cattle, etc,, for arrears of pay due to them. Another illustration of the aid rendered to history by coins, is furnished in the number of forged pieces of Claudius that have been found at Kingsholm, Gloucester. Lysons mentioned this as corroborating the very early occupation of this city by the Romans, for no forger would select the money of a bygone period for imitation. A coiner now, for example, would be certain to counterfeit the current pieces of Queen Victoria, and not those of William IV. or one of the Georges ; and, therefore, the discovery of these sham coins of Claudius, as well as of one of the moulds used for casting them (for they were cast, not struck with dies), is a strong proof that Gloucester was garrisoned during the reign of Claudius—that is, at the very outset of the invasion, which ended in the 189 conquest of Britain. In connection with these forged Claudian coins, he mentioned that there is a mould in the Gloucester Museum which was placed there by a former Canon of the Cathedral, and which was reputed to be one of the Roman moulds for producing spurious money. The fact is that the Canon, who was much interested in the matter, had charged some workmen at Kingsholm to keep on the look-out for such instruments, and to bring any they might find to him. The demand created the supply, and before long a mould was brought to him, for which he paid the discoverers, and which he placed in the Museum. Mr Bellows was struck on examining this relic, by two suspicious points about it. One was its new look, for it was as fresh as if made a week before: of white pMster of Paris. The other was the true circle of the coin itself, for Roman coins are only roughly rounded ; never an exact circle. On getting an impression in putty from this cast, he found it to be that of a farthing, apparently William IV. It was, therefore, the forgery of a forgery. The Fourth and last Meeting was held as usual at the School of Science, Gloucester, on March 20th, 1888, but before the proceedings commenced, the President requested the Mem- bers to accompany him to the site of the house in the Hastgate Street, formerly occupied by Mr Margrett, and which has just been pulled down to erect a new building for the National Provincial Bank. On arrival at the place the President re- quested Mr John Bellows to kindly give the Members an explanation of these very interesting remains. Mr Bellows said— The pieces of pavement just laid bare are parts of the building dis- covered in 1806 during the erection of the Blue Coat School adjoining, and the portions then found are in the Museum. These formed the floor of the Pretorium, and there is evidence to show that they are among the oldest Roman pavements in the British Isles. In the year 43, Gloucester and Colchester (Glevum and Camalodunum) were made the great legionary garrisons at the two ends, respectively, of a line which was then the bound- ary of the Province—Britannia (afterwards called Britannia Prima). The system then followed, nearly that of the Polybian Camp, required the General’s quarters to be placed where this line of pavement occurs, with regard to the position of the ‘“‘Decuman” Gate and the Cross; points represented here by the East Gate and the Cross of Gloucester main streets. The General’s quarters or Pretorium had the Forum or Market facing them, and the reason why the present Eastgate Market, on the site of the old Corn Market, stands opposite the Blue Coat School, and this site of the new _ National Provincial Bank, is that it has succeeded the Roman Market which o 2 190 stood on the same site 1800 years ago. The pavement is 6ft. 3 in. below the level of the present street—this representing the rise of the roadway since the Roman invasion. The street has risen three inches in this century, as is shewn by the foot of the railing in front of the Blue Coat School. The pattern in the floor is not in alignment with the existing street, showing a nearer approach to the north than the latter. This is also the case with the piece of Roman Wall found in 1872, which “skews” a little more to the north than the line of the street. The tesseree of White and Blue Lias stone of Roman pavement of this age are generally about half an inch square. In more recent pavements the stones are larger. A stone tank or bath has also been laid bare, and a portion of lead pipe, about an inch in diameter, under it, is of precisely the pattern of the water pipes laid in the period of the , Empire in Rome itself ; that is, a piece of sheet lead worked up to a sort of triangular section, with a capping piece soldered over the joint at its apex. Some of the lead used for the waterworks in Rome was brought from Britain ; pigs having been found in the Mendips and elsewhere, bearing the Imperial stamp. Hundreds of tons of such pipes were taken up during the Middle Ages, and re-manufactured into sheet-lead for roofing the ecclesiasti- cal and other public buildings in the “‘ Kternal City.” Detailed reasons for concluding as to the age of the Roman occupation of Gloucester, which are very clear, are given in the paper by Dr Hiibner, which has been published in the Transactions of the Cotteswold Club (vol. 6), and in the first volume of those of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archeological Society. The President read a paper “On the Jurassic Rocks at Crickley,” illustrated by four sections, and some photographs of the hillside, made by Mr Helps, were thrown on the screen from the optical lantern by Mr Embrey. The paper led to some discussion in which the Rev. H. Winwood and Mr E. Wethered took part, and is published in the Proceedings with a very valuable supplement by Mr R. F. Tomes on the “Corals of Crickley,” with a plate of three typical specimens. Dr Drew gave a paper on “ A Difficulty in Evolution,” now published in the Proceedings. After thanking Dr Drew for his paper, the President requested Professor Harker and Dr Day to express their views upon the subject. Dr Day said he felt the subject was so wide, and the time at their disposal was now so limited, that he would defer what remarks he had to make until a more suitable opportunity. Professor Harker desired to point out that while Dr Drew had in the first part of his paper brought forward an interesting 191 problem, or difficulty in evolution, viz: the form of the red blood corpuscles in the Camel] and its allies, which it would be valuable to discuss; he had, he thought, unfortunately devoted the after part to an attack, in general terms, on the whole theory of evolution. The occasion was not suitable, nor indeed the time available, to answer at this meeting, so general an opposition ; but he could not allow it to pass without taking up the challenge, and making a brief protest. The present position of the working Naturalis§ was this ; he found that the evolution theory explained, in his daily studies, hundreds of difficulties for which there was no other explanation, it opened new fields for study and enquiry, and placed the whole range of Biological Science on a broad intelligible basis. The Biologist met with hundreds of difficulties, many of which might remain for ever unexplained, but he was entitled to make this assertion, that there was no important discovery in Biology or Paleontology of the past 20 years that had not brought additional confirm- ation to the soundness of the arguments on the main doctrine of evolution. All working Biologists were indebted to it daily, for help; and while deprecating attempts to make it explain more than actual experience would justify, he could scarcely allow so sweeping a condemnation of it to pass unnoticed. On the former part of Dr Drew’s paper he would be happy to assist at discussion, though he did not think the varying form of the blood corpuscles so inexplicable a difficulty as to effect one way or other the doctrine of evolution. After the elections to-day the Club will number ninety-five Members, and for the present it would appear desirable to leave some vacancies open. The finances are in a fairly satisfactory state, and the economy of expenditure suggested at the last Annual Meeting must be kept in view. In again thanking you for the loyal and generous support I have received, permit me to express a sanguine hope that the ' coming year may be alike successful in the good attendance at our Field Meetings, and in the character of the papers con- tributed at our Winter gatherings. Notes on the Polyzoa with reference to Lepralia foliacea, in 24 fathoms of water. Found 30 miles west of Lundy Island, and now im the Gloucester Museum. By R. Etueripas, F.R.S. The fine species of Lepralia (Millepora) foliacea of Ellis and Solander, was dredged up about 30 miles west of Lundy, in 42 fathoms of water. It is probably one of the largest and finest specimens on record. It measures 5 ft. 6 in. in circum- ference, and 4 ft. across. The Escharide to which this genus (Lepralia) belongs is a large and important family, embracing 10 well determined genera and 42 species, viz. :— Lepralia ... ae re ... 8 species Umbonella ... Porella Escharovdes... Smithia Phylactella ... Mucronella ... Palmicellaria Rhynchopora pb — & co co © bw Core S Retopora | 42, The genus Lepralia was established by Johnson for those Polyzoa having ovate Zozcia, with horse-shoe shaped orifices, arched above, and slightly constricted along their sides; the lower margin of the cell opening, entire and curved outside. The Zoarium is encrusting, or rising into foliations or foliation expansions, which are composed of one or two layers of cells, and two in the present Zoarium. Fam. Escharide. -(Smith.) Zoarium, or calcareous mass encrusting, may be erect, lamellate or ramose. This family contains a miscellaneous assemblage of forms, but a line of affinity links the whole of the different genera. 193 The primary orifice in the Zoecia of the different genera range from semi-circular to semi-elliptical, and sub-orbicular to sub-quadrangular and horse-shoe-shaped. The erect habit of growth is common in this family, in which there are no less than 10 genera. The Escharide may be divided into three chief sections. I.—Species with a simple primary orifice only, Lepralia and Umbonella. . II.—The genera Porella, Hscharoides, Smithia and Phylactella possess second orifices, differing in form from the primary. I1.—Mucronella, Palmicellaria and Rhynchopora possess a mucronate elevation of the peristome. Genus LEPRALIA. (Johnston.) Possesses a simple primary orifice only. Generic Cuar.—Zoecia: ovate, orifice more or less horse- shoe shaped, which is arched above and slightly contracted at the sides; the lower margin entire and slightly curved outwards. Zoarium : incrusting, or ultimately rising are produced into foliated expansions, which are composed of one or two (in this specyes) layers of cells. Species LEPRALIA foliacea. (Hillis and Solander). Millepora sh re < Eschara gy (Lamark).. Sprcirico Cxar.—Zoarium: (mass) foliaceous, membrano- caleareous, composed of thin expanded plates, with an entire margin, and variously contorted. Zoecia: disposed in two layers, back to back, and arranged quincuncially. Surface of cells or Zoecia punctured, often nodulose, lower margins nearly straight, below which occurs a prominent central avicularum. Occur in Colonies forming large foliated and chambered masses, of brittle texture, and when dead (as in our specimen) of a brownish colour. This species, with its broad, foliated, and contorted expan- sions, (chambers) freely anastomose, forming large cavernous masses, often of great size. This specimen is probably one of the finest ever obtained oe 29 194 in the Bristol Channel area; one obtained off the Eddystone measured 7 ft. 4 in. in circumference, and 1 ft. in depth. Abundantly off the coast of South Devon Lepralia foliacea occurs attaining to a very large size.* It is evidently a southern species : but it has been found in the Minch, (Hebrides) on the western and warmer side of Scotland, and this is its most northern locality. This form is common off Budleigh Salterton, Exmouth, &c.; it has been found also at Ilfracombe, off Cape Clear, and the Isle of Man. GrocraPHicaL Distripution.—Lepralia foliacea has a wide geographical distribution, occurring in the Mediterranean, off Naples, the Adriatic, Algiers, la Charanté-Inféreure and la Gironde. Ranee in Time.—Common in the Italian and Sicilian Pliocene deposits, the Lower Pliocene or Coralline Crag of Britain, (usually catalogued as Eschara) and generally occurs in a fragmentary condition. The remaining British species comprising the genus Lepra- lia are— Lepralia pallasiana, (Moll.) occurs in Cornwall, South Devon, Guernsey, Isle of Man, Dublin Bay, the Minch, Shetlands and Orkneys; and fossil in the Coralline Crag. Lepralia canthariformis, (Busk.) rare, Shetlands. Lepralia pertusa, (Esper.) Isle of Man, Cornwall, South Devon, Tenby, Orkneys, Shetland; fossil in Scotch Glacial deposits. Lepralia adpressa, (Esper., Busk.) Torbay, Hastings, Guern- sey; fossil, Pliocene of Italy. Lepralia hippopus, (Smith) Northumberland ; fossil, Post Pliocene of Canada. Lepralia edax, (Busk.) Plymouth Sound, Guernsey ; fossil in the Coral Line, and Red Crags. Lepralia polita, (Norman) Shetlands, 70-100 fathoms, in the Minch, (Hebrides). * Mr Etheridge obtained two specimens off Lyme Regis nearly as large as the specimen here described, and which was given by Mr J. W. Davis to the Gloucester Museum. The Battle of Tewkegbury, A.D., 1471. By the Rev. W. Bazevry, M.A. Read July 28. The principal authorities for the eventful period of English history which terminated with the deaths of King Henry VI, his son Edward, and the nobles who supported the Lancastrian dynasty, are— I.—The 2nd Continuation of the History of Croyland ; II.—Fabyan’s “ Chronicle ;” II.—Warkworth’s “ Chronicle,” quoted largely by Leland in his “ Collectanea ;” IV.—The English History of Polydore Vergil; V.—The Memoirs of Philip de Commines ; and VI.—The fullest and most valuable of all, the ‘Chronicle’ called Fleetwood’s, which has been used largely by Holinshed, with material alterations.* Of these Warkworth’s and Fleetwood’s “ Chronicles ”’ were written within a very few years of the battle of Tewkesbury, certainly during the reign of Edward IV; Fabyan was an alderman of London in the reign of Henry VII; Polydore Vergil published his history in 1534, late in the reign of Henry VIII; de Commines wrote in France during the reign of Henry VII, and had to depend for his information on the testimony of those who fled from England. We should naturally expect that the earlier Chronicles would have a Yorkist tendency, while those written in the reigns of Henry VII and Henry VIII would be in favour of the © There is also an able paper on the Battle of Tewkesbury in R. Broke’s “ Visits to Fields of Battle in England, of the 15th century,” 1857, from which I have obtained much information and help. 196 Lancastrians. I think we must take it for granted that Fabyan and Polydore Vergil would not have thought it prudent, even had they dared, to correct any traditions which attributed cruel behaviour to the Yorkist leaders. The Chronicle which gives the best account of the battle of Tewkesbury, and of the parallel marchings of the two armies through the vale of the Severn, is no doubt Fleetwood’s MS., entitled “Historie of the Arrivall of Edward IV in England, “and the finall Recoverye of his Kingdomes from Henry VI, A.D. MCCCCLXXI.” The name of the author is not known, but he describes himself as “a servant of Edward IV,” and declares that he “presently saw in effect a great parte of his “exploytes, and the resydewe knew by true relation of them “that were present at every tyme.”” This Chronicle forms the 1st volume of the Camden Society’s first series. On Friday, May 3rd, 1471, Queen Margaret arrived before the gates of Gloucester, at 10 a.m., and demanded admittance. But Edward had sent messengers to the Governor, Richard Beauchamp, the son of Lord Beauchamp, bidding him “ keep “the towne and city” for him, and promising speedy succour if the Lancastrians attempted to enter by force; and Beauchamp obeyed. Had Gloucester opened its gates to the Lancastrian army, and thus enabled Queen Margaret to cross the Severn, and join forces with Jasper Tudor, who was marching from Chepstow to her assistance, the issue of the campaign might have been very different. One hundred and seventy two years later the closed gates of Gloucester were once more fatal to her English sovereign. Thwarted in their design, the Lancastrian leaders deter- mined to proceed to Tewkesbury (with what immediate aim it is difficult to ascertain); and at 4 p.m. they took up their position “in a close even at the towne’s ende; the towne and “Abbey at theyre backs; afore them and upon every hand of “them fowle lanes and depe dikes, and many hedges, with hills ‘and valleys, a right evill place to approche as coulde well “have bene devysed.” 197 It may seem strange to us that the Lancastrians did not put the Severn between them and their enemies; but we must remember that there was no bridge over the Severn at Tewkes- bury at that time, or indeed until 1826. The next bridge above Gloucester was at Upton-on-Severn. The Lancastrians had the choice of (1), selecting the strongest position they could find on the Gloucester and Tewkesbury road, and fortifying it as well as they could with the time and means at their disposal; (2), attempting to cross the Severn at the Lower or Upper Lode; or (8), crossing the Avon by the bridge which spanned both branches a little below the parting, and a little above the junction of one branch with the Severn. The real reason why they adopted the first plan seems to have been that their men were utterly worn out, after a long day’s march, and refused to go any further. But it would have been a perilous attempt, and one which would have exposed the rear of the army to destruction, to cross a broad river like the Severn by a ford or a ferry, with a powerful foe close upon them. Again, had they marched through Tewkesbury, crossed the Avon, and taken up their position on the Mythe, they would have given Edward possession of the town; and he would, by crossing the Lower Lode, have been enabled to intercept the men and supplies that Jasper Tudor was bringing to the Queen. It seems very probable that, in these circumstances, the Lan- castrians acted wisely; but, as we shall see, their leader, the Duke of Somerset, ruined all by his impetuosity the next day. King Edward, having sent messengers to Lord Beauchamp, started very early on the Friday morning from Little Sodbury, with 3,000 footmen and a small force of cavalry, marched along the ridge of the Cotteswolds by the ancient road which leads from Bath to Gloucester, and, descending Leckhampton Hill, came “unto a village called Chiltenham,” where he learned that Margaret had reached Tewkesbury, had entrenched herself, and intended to give him battle. Edward only halted at Cheltenham to refresh his men with 198 such food as they carried with them, and then continued his march to within three miles of the Lancastrian position. I have no means of fixing on the site of Edward’s bivouac, though I have heard several positions suggested. On the morrow very early Edward prepared for battle, and took up a position about half a mile south of the Lancastrian army, on a common, now enclosed, called the Red Piece, from whence the ground sloped downward, and formed a depression between the two armies. The Lancastrian army was drawn up in three bodies behind the natura) and artificia) defences of their position. The Duke of Somerset and tis brother, Lord John Beaufort, commanded the first line, or the van; Prince Edward, son of Henry VI, the Prior of St. John,and Lord Wenlock the second, or the centre; and the Earl of Devonshire the third. On the other side Edward had given his brother, Richard Duke of Gloucester, the command of the van; the King in person, together with his brother, the Duke of Clarence, com- manded the centre; and the rear was commanded by the Marquis of Dorset and Lord Hastings. The position which the Lancastrians occupied seems to have been an eminence now called Gupshill, with the stream called Swillgate on their left, and a large wood, known then, as now, by the name of The Park, with a little stream intervening, on their right. The road which now passes to the east of Gupshill has been diverted within living memory. It formerly passed to the west of the present farm buildings, and joined the present road 60 or 70 yards on the Tewkesbury side of the first mile post, thus avoiding the hill. The new road is cut through a field to which tradition has given the name of Margaret’sCamp. A small circular enclosure, near the present road, about 30 yards across, with a shallow ditch, called The Island, could not have been part of the entrenchments. It was perhaps a place of burial of the slain, or a memorial of the battle. 199 Edward, seeing the Park on the Lancastrian right, sent 200 spear-men to occupy it, if they could, and lie there in ambuscade until they could be of service. Then the fight commenced. Richard, Duke of Gloucester, made a fierce attack on the Lancastrian position, plying them with cannon balls and arrows, but was unable to come to close quarters. Then he made a feint of retreat, and Somerset rashly quitted his entrenchment, and led his men down the slope into an open meadow. Richard quickly rallied his division and attacked Somerset, while the spear-men lying in ambush in the Park attacked him in the flank. Somerset retreated up the hill, closely pursued by the van and centre of the Yorkist army, and re-entered the entrenchments in confusion. Lord Wenlock had remained stationary, instead of coming to the help of the van, and Somerset, riding up to him, beat out his brains with his battle-axe. Then the rout became general, and the camp being forced, all who stood their ground were slain. The remainder fled, some into the Park, some towards the Lower Lode, and were slain in a little field near Lower Lode Lane, now called the Bloody Meadow. Some, attempting to cross the Abbey mill dam in the Ham, with a view to escape by the Upper Lode, were drowned in the Avon, and the rest sought sanctuary in the Abbey Church. The Earl of Devonshire, Lord John Beaufort, and Lord Wenlock were among the leaders slain on the field. The Duke of Somerset and the Prior of St. John took refuge in the Church, whither they were followed by the King with drawn sword; buta priest, holding up the Host, forbad his defiling the sacred place with blood. A few days later these noblemen were taken from the Church, tried before the Duke of Gloucester as High Constable, and the Duke of Norfolk, as Marshal of England, condemned, and: beheaded in the Market Place. Queen Margaret had crossed the river before the battle commenced, and took refuge at Payne’s Place, in the parish of Bushley; on the Sunday she fled to a religious house near Worcester, where she was discovered on the Tuesday following, 200 and brought to Coventry, to grace the King’s triumphal march into London. With regard to the particulars I have given there is very little disagreement amongst the Chroniclers. The most difficult question for the historian to settle is “What became of the young Prince Edward ?” The commonly received account is, that he was taken prisoner by Sir Richard Crofts, and, on the King issuing a proclamation that the person who produced him would receive an annuity of £100, and that the Prince’s life would be spared, if he were yet alive, he was brought into the King’s presence. Then followed, we are told, the scene which Shakespeare has immortalized: the King haughtily inquired how he dared take up arms against his lawful sovereign ? and the young Prince as haughtily replied that he came to rescue a father from prison, and regain a crown which had been usurped. Whereupon the King struck him with his gauntlet, and Gloucester, Clarence, Dorset and Hastings hurried him from the royal presence and despatched him with their poignards. The deed is supposed to have been done in a house, since re-built, on the north side of High Street, near the Tolsey, now, or of late, occupied by Mr Webb, an ironmonger. There is certainly great doubt whether this story of the Prince’s assassination in the presence of the King is not alto- gether a fiction. Fabyan, who wrote in the time of Henry VII, describes the murder, but in no way inculpates Richard Duke of Gloucester. Polydore Vergil, who wrote in the next reign, is the first to tell the story as it has been commonly received. Of the contemporary Chroniclers Fleetwood’s “Chronicle ” says :—‘‘ In the wynnynge of the fielde such as abode hand- “stroks were slayne incontinent; Edward, called Prince, was “taken fleing to the townewards, and slayne in the fielde.” C.S., page 30. Warkworth says.—‘‘And ther was slayne in the felde “ Prynce Edward, whiche cryede for socoure to his brother-in- ““lawe the Duke of Clarence.” 201 De Commines says:—“And the Prince of Wales, several “other great lords, and a great number of common soldiers “were killed on the spot.” Bohn’s Ed., I, 202. Bernard Andreas, the biographer of Henry VII, distinctly states that the young Prince fell in the fight. All that can be said is that the serious charge against Edward and his brothers was first made in a Chronicle some thirty years after the event, when there were probably no eye- witnesses left to disprove it; and that all the contemporary Chroniclers write as though they knew that Edward was slain on the field of battle, like the Earl of Devonshire and Lord John Beaufort. He is said to have been buried near the centre of the choir of Tewkesbury Abbey, under the tower, without a monument or an inscription, Notes on the Fish and Fisheries of the Severn, by Francis Day, C.LE. and F.L.S. The following remarks upon “the Fish and Fisheries of the > consist of merely a few notes upon a subject which Severn’ has always been of great interest to myself, for it was in this river many years ago that I commenced practically studying the habits of fish first by capturing minnows, next gudgeons, chub, roach, dace and flounders, and lastly, trout, grayling and salmon fry. This was at a period before navigation weirs had been constructed, or the waters of the Severn had been deemed fair spoil for distribution to townships situated in other water- sheds, and merely one miniature steamer had been seen in its Salopian portion.* Prior to leaving Shrewsbury school, the late Professor Rymer Jones, F.R.S., had pointed out to me the difficulties which then existed respecting the early life of the salmon, and I had made investigations into the reputed dis- tinction between salmon fry and samlets, and observed an autumn migration of smolts. Although my angling days were interrupted for many years by a residence in India, I again find myself in the valley of the Severn, and returning to the investigation of the fishes of this river, their enemies, and their friends, and what it is that tends to their increase or decrease. During nearly thirty years absence, some changes in the fauna have taken place which forcibly strike one by whom they are suddenly perceived, for the gradual alteration in fisheries is more observed by the fisherman who obtains his livelihood from netting the waters than the general public, while he is the last person who generally brings their condition = When the members of the Club were going up the Severn in the steamer from Gloucester, small fish were several times seen cast upon the river’s bank by ‘“‘ the wash” occasioned by the screw. Oe a — 203 to notice, unless to complain of their deterioration in order to obtain some concession, until his statements have come to be received with a considerable amount of reserve. The Severn, both in its fresh water and tidal parts, is too well known by the members of this Club for a detailed descrip- tion being necessary, except to observe that at the present time the Tewkesbury weir may be considered as the division between these two portions. While certain causes have largely altered the primitive condition of this river, and re-acted upon its piscine inhabitants, which alterations have been to a con- siderable extent occasioned, either directly or indirectly, by ‘the requirements of an augmented population. Such influ- ences may be considered under the heads of obstructions, pollutions, and injurious modes of fishing. Obstructions, such as weirs, may extend across the entire width of a stream for the purposes of navigation, or else for the deflection of water for mills or the supply of towns, while such constructions must impede the upward passage of migra- tory fish, or even entirely prevent it, unless means, as fish ladders suitable for the purpose, are likewise present and kept in an efficient working order. When floods are excessive, so that the summit of the weir is entirely concealed, strong fish can surmount it, while others are incapable of stemming the current. Fish-passes, however efficient, cannot overcome all the deleterious influences of weirs, which invariably, more or less, arrest the progress of fish ascending to their spawning- beds. Shad, and perhaps twaite, may during flood time pass over weirs, but the flounder is unable to do so, unless there existed a gap in the structure extending downwards toward the bed of the stream, or else a lock fish-pass were constructed through its substance. While their action upon eels, lampreys and lamperns are questions which require more research than they have as yet received. These weirs, in a low state of the river, likewise entirely stop young or spent fish descending seawards, a subject but too little attended to. Weirs for working mills or supplying reservoirs act in either of the following ways; in the first, the water, after a P 204 longer or shorter course, returns again to the river, whereas in the second it does not, consequently, all the fish that obtain access must be destroyed, unless proper precautions are taken, for it becomes a large fish trap. Precautions may be taken, and these are divisible into gratings fixed at the intake, or a periodic removal of fish from the reservoir back to the stream from which they had been abstracted. But the gratings are disliked by canal officers because they obstruct drifting objects and may choke the intake, so as a consequence they have no sympathy with their maintenance.* Another cause of the destruction of river fish is railway embankments; for when such extend some distance from the bank of a river, and the ground slopes away from the water, large lakes become formed, and as they subside all water connection with the contiguous river first becomes cut off, and subsequently, when they dry up, all the contained fish must necessarily perish. Pollutions may be so poisonous as to directly occasion the death of fish, and among such are mine washings, the refuse of manufactories, as those of gas or from paper mills, bleach- ing grounds, tanneries, sewers, &c. Likewise artificial root manures carried down from cultivated fields, sheep dippings, and many other deleterious substances, while the more rapid the current the more quickly do these poisons become diffused, and their injurious influences thus generally decreased. Some fish, as bull-heads, gudgeons, or loaches will thrive where salmon would die; and old fish sometimes survive where fry succumb. The modes of fishing may be injurious, and increased takes are not invariably symptomatic of improved fisheries, as such may be done at the expense of future years’ supply, while leaving only small parents to continue the race is a potent * H.M. Inspector of Fisheries has sanctioned that at some intakes at the Tamar, where a large quantity of samlets are reared for the Severn fisheries, that the legal grating be merely left in situ during such times as smolts are descending seawards, which period he fixed from February 14th until May 31st. At this period it was observed there were no leaves in the river. That many smolts migrate seawards, even in the autumn, appears to have been ignored or unknown: and this plan sanctioned in 188¢4 is still in force ! 205 means of causing deterioration of fisheries. The most deleterious mode of fishing is erecting a weir across the river and permit- ting a trap to be fixed in it, a plan which in a very few years exterminates the salmon. All fixed engines are more or less injurious, and next to them is constant netting, one net follow- ing the other in rapid succession. Many of the lower animals are injurious to the fisheries, the most so being the otter, which does not restrict its meals to weakly or diseased fish; but it is said to do some good by destroying eels, which are considered to be baneful to salmon. Omniverous as this animal is, the contention that it principally lives upon cray-fishes cannot be sustained in the Severn, as here, these crustaceans are not found. The great black-backed gull, _ Larus marinus, on account of its proclivities, is known as the salmon-gull, and is deadly to these fishes when stranded in the estuary of this river. The fishes in the river are divisible into those which are present in its tidal or estuary portion, and such as are restricted to its fresh waters, while an intermediate class may be said to frequent both localities. Scientific names have been given to these various classes in order to signify what are their habits in this respect, thus some are strictly fresh water forms, as carp and their allies, which are restricted to the non-tidal portion of the river; catadromous forms are those as the common eel, which pass their lives in fresh waters, but when they are desirous of continuing their species they descend to the estuary and salt water; anadromous forms, as the salmon, are such as naturally pass most of their existence in the sea, but ascend rivers for the purpose of depositing their spawn, while here the eggs are hatched and the young reared; these latter, when suf- ficiently mature, descending to the ocean. Lastly, we have strictly marine forms, some of which may be more or less restricted to the shores or littoral, while others enter from the sea, which is mostly done in pursuit of prey. It must not be taken for granted that these fish are only found in the situations to which their habits would apparently restrict them, for it is evident that many marine rapacious forms will follow P2 206 their prey even into fresh water; but in the Severn the Tewkesbury weir acts as an arrest to their further ascent. In the estuary and tidal portion the young of many marine forms seek shelter until sufficiently old to shift for themselves; thus at Lydney, last August, the shrimpers in the Severn were taking large quantities of the young of the whiting (Gadus merlangus) but of too small a size to be useful for food. About eighty years ago a sword fish which had inflicted a fatal wound on a person bathing at Worcester was captured near that town. At Weston-super-Mare I collected the fish from the Severn estuary and upper portion of the Bristol Channel, while others are likewise included in the following list captured from near Bridgewater (these are marked by the letter B.) The bass, Labrax lupus, Lacépéde. Stone bass, Polyprion cernium, Valenciennes, (B.) Red mullet, Mullus surmuletus, Linnzeus. Pagrus, Pagrus vulgaris, Cuy. and Val., (B.) Sea bream, Pagellus centrodontus, De la Roche, (B-) Sea scorpion, Cottus scorpius, Bloch. Father lasher, 1 bubalis, Euphr. Elleck, or red gurnard, Trigla cuculus, Linn. Streaked gurnard, ” lineatus, Gmel. Sapphirine gurnard, » hirundo, Bloch. Gray gurnard, » — gurnardus, Linn. The piper, » —— dyra, Linn., (B.) The pogge, Agonus cataphractus, Linn. Great weaver, Trachinus draco, Linn. Little weaver " vipera, Cuv. and Val. Mackerel, Scomber scomber, Linn. John doree, Zeus faber, Linn. Boar-fish, Capros aper, Linn. Sword-fish, Xiphias gladius, Linn. Little goby, Gobius minutus, Gmel. Linn. Two-spotted goby, Gobius ruthensparri, Euph. Parnells goby, " parnelli, Day. Dragonet, Callionymus lyra, Linn. Lump sucker, Cyclopterus lumpus, Linn. Sea snail, Liparis vulgaris, Fleming. Montagu’s sucker, Liparis montagui, Donovan. Angler, Lophius piscatorius, Linn. 207 Band-fish, Cepola rubescens, Linn., (B.) Blenny, Blennius gattorugine, Bloch. Sand smelt, Atherina presbyter, Cuv. Grey mullet, Mugil capito, Cuv. Lesser grey mullet, Mugil chelo, Cuv., (B.) Tinker or stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus, Will. Fifteen spined stickleback, Gasterosteus spinachia, Linn Ballan wrasse, Labrus maculatus, Bloch. Cook wrasse, y miatus, Fries, (B.) Corkwing, Crenilabrus melops, Linn., (B.) Greater sand-eel, Ammodytes lanceolatus, Le Sauvage, (B.) Lesser sand-eel, " tobianus, Linn. Cod fish, Morhua vulgaris, Flem. Haddock, Gadus eglefinus, Linn. Whiting, 1» = merlangus, Linn. Bib, w luscus, Linn. Pollack, vu pollachius, Linn. Hake, Merluccius vulgaris, Cuv. Forked hake, Phycis blennoides, Briin., (B.) Ling, Molva vulgaris, Flem., (B.) The whistler, Motella mustela, Linn. Three-bearded rockling, Motella tricirrata, B1., (B.) Trifurcated hake, Raniceps trifurcatus, Flem., (B.) Turbot, Rhombus maximus, Linn. Brill, ” levis, Linn. Scaldfish, Arnoglossus laterna, Walb. Plaice, Pleuronectes platessa, Linn. Dab, u limanda, Linn. Flounder, « flesus, Linn. Sole, Solea vulgaris, Quensel. Variegated sole, Solea variegata, Donovan. Lemon sole, vu lascaris, Risso. Little sole, w lutea, Risso. Argentine, Maurolicus pennantit, Walb. Gar-pike, Belone vulgaris, Flem. Skipper, Scombresoxz sawrus, Walb., (B.) Flying-fish, Bxocetus evolans, Linn., (B.) Anchovy, Engraulis encrasicholus, Linn. Herring, Clupea harengus, Linn. Pilchard, »« pilchardus, Walb. Sprat, » sprattus, Linn. Conger eel, Conger vulgaris, Cuv. Common eel, Anguilla vulgaris. 208 Broad-nosed pipe-fish, Siphonostoma typhle, Linn., (B.) Great pipe-fish, Syngnathus acus, (B.) Ocean pipe-fish, Nerophis equoreus, Linn., (B.) Puff-fish, Tetrodon lagocephalus, Linn. Oblong sun-fish, Orthagoriscus truncatus, Linn., (B.) Common sun-fish, " mola, Bl. Schn., (B.) Tope, Galeus canis, Bonap. Porbeagle, Lamna cornubica, Gmel. Linn. Lesser spotted dog-fish, Scyllium canicula, Linn. Thornback, Raja clavata, Linn. Common skate, Raja batis, Linn. Among the anadromous fish the salmon is now that of the greatest consequence; but it is asserted that in the tidal portion of the river the value of the shad and twaite, in times gone by, equalled if it did not surpass that of the salmon : while in the upper waters Randall remarks that the lamprey fishing was that which was most thought of. As, however, only a certain number of fish can be accommodated in a river it becomes desirable to ascertain where that limit might be fixed. In considering such a question it has to be remembered that, excluding the eels, we have two classes of fish to deal with: the residents, which permanently remain and feed there, and the anadromous forms, the majority of which merely enter fresh water for breeding purposes, and most of which do not feed there, consequently a far larger number could be provided for than if they were rapacious kinds. It is, of course, very desirable, could steps be taken in order to prevent any undue capture from one portion of a river which would be detri- mental to the other riparian proprietors, or cause too great depletion to the stock present, which would injure the rights of the fish-consuming public. The naturalist has to draw attention to salmon being bred in the upper portions of rivers, and that it is there that artificial cultivation could be best carried on. It would be hardly just to the upper proprietors, who have had all the trouble and gone to a great portion of the expense, for the foregoing purpose, if such slaughter were permitted in the lower reaches of the river, that the upper proprietors merely see them during the breeding season when 209 it is unlawful to kill them. It would seem that to permit increased facilities for killing fish in the tidal portion, so soon as the proprietors in the non-tidal portion have augmented the stock, would be a most suicidal proceeding, for owners will scarcely care for these fisheries if they are to have no return from them. In sixteen years, ending January Ist, 1885, 27,600 salmon were captured above the Tewkesbury weir, and 233,500 below it, or nine out of ten fish were taken in the tidal portion; in 1880, 15,500 were taken in the entire length of the Severn, and only fifteen were obtained by anglers. When we consider that each female salmon gives from about 800 to 1,000 eggs for every pound weight of the parent fish, one would imagine that something must be amiss either in the condition of the water, the obstructions to the passage of those migrating, or in the modes of their capture, that the produce in a river like the Severn is merely about 20,000 of these fishes annually, a number equal to those of the eggs of one 20-lb. fish.* The young as par or lastsprings continue in fresh water for two or three seasons, when they change their colour from being yellow banded with silver and covered with black and scarlet spots, to a silvery colour with few spots, when as smolts they descend to the sea returning probably the succeeding year in the autumn as grilse which after breeding again migrate to the ocean to re-appear as salmon. Whether these fish breed annually or every alternate year has been questioned, some at least cannot be annual breeders, such as clean fish which ascend in the autumn, rendering it probable that they do so on alternate years, as is the case in some American rivers. Grilse as up to 5 Ib. or 6 lb. are termed botchers, small salmon as of about 10 Ib. are termed gillings in the trade, and mending kelts laurels. Salmon trout are not so numerous in the Severn as in some other rivers, it was asserted in 1860 that they were so uncom- mon that they were given to the fishermen as their perquisites. ® July 19th, 1887, the retail price of salmon at Gloucester was 10d., and at Cheltenham 1s. a pound. 210 An anadromous form, which has been destroyed from the upper waters of the Severn since the erection of navigation weirs, in 1842, is the flounder, for its mode of swimming will not serve to take it up a fish-pass or over a weir, while only a few can obtain access through the lochs. To this broad assertion, however, an exception has to be made in favour of the Tewkesbury Weir, which at spring tides has from two to three feet of water passing over its summit, thus enabling these fish to ascend and find access into the Teme, although they are unable to pass the Diglis weir on the Severn. Prior to the erection of these lochs they used to be taken at Shrews- bury with a worm, and so common were they in the spring that certain fishermen earned a livelihood by their capture. Also some fishes of the Severn which used to ascend in shoals of goodly numbers, but whose place is beginning to know them no more, belong to the herring family, and migrate into our rivers to breed, are designated as the shad or Allis shad. It is observed entering the Severn about the middle of April, but the time depends, to a considerable extent, on the condition of the water, as it does not appear to like to face Severn floods, waiting until such have subsided. But as these fishes are unable to ascend the fish-passes, and but rarely have the oppor- tunity of passing through the pound-lochs, it is solely at the periods of heavy freshes, when the weirs are covered with water, that they are able to cross them, the very time they seem to normally object to face the river. When migrating into the river, small males arrive first, but subsequently larger ones. It deposits its spawn about June in fresh waters, where the young have likewise been captured. The shad is sometimes taken as high as Worcester, but has diminished in numbers during recent years, most likely consequent upon the navigation weirs; in fact in the year 1869 it was noticed in the annual report of the Conservators of the river that the run of shad and twaite up the river during the spring was very large, much better than it had been known for many years. While in 1872 the taking of two shad near Shrewsbury (one was found dead) was considered worth recording, as their capture had been of 211 very rare occurrence since the erection of the navigation weirs, when the exceptional amount of wet so frequently caused the weirs to be out of action, that these fish were enabled to pass. Since 1872, I am informed that none of these fishes have been seen in the Severn near Shrewsbury. Randall observed that “shad were formerly taken in considerable numbers. by men who stood at the fords, watching for them as they ascended the river at night. Their approach was marked by a phosphor- escent light or ‘“‘loom” in the water. They were difficult to catch in the daytime, as they could either go over or under the net. When in proper condition they were a well-flavoured fish, and attained sometimes 2 lbs. or 3 lbs. in weight.”—(The Severn Valley, 1882, page 502.) When, as last year, the river rose to a considerable height, these fishes could top this con- struction, and perhaps some obtained access to their spawning grounds, so were able to continue their race: but in years when the water supply is low, as at present, they cannot effect this, and then very few young are produced. The eggs float, and the weirs would arrest their downward course, or that of the young: while the constant passage of steamers must be like- wise very detrimental to them. The flattened form of the shad and its spined abdominal edge, are unsuited for its jumping and pushing up a salmon pass, and until such time as these passes, by a series of lochs, go through the body of weirs, they will be useless for shad. A few may, it is true, pass through the pound-lochs when open, and fortunately one female gives an enormous number of eggs, for were this not so, the proba- bility is that this breed ere now would have become extinct in this river. And if this has been the effect upon the larger form it has been equally or more disastrous to the smaller twaite, which often arrives two or three weeks later than its relative. It passes up the Severn to the Teme, up which it ascends so far as the Powick weir. But it likewise is a fish that will at no distant date probably to almost or quite extinct in this river, for it is unable to obtain access to. its spawning beds, and these forms of shad, which formerly were of great moment to 212 the fisheries of the lower Severn, are fallen to great poverty. The young which used to descend in shoals, as a fisherman expressed it, “‘like autumn leaves on the river,’’ are now seen in a few dozens only at a time, or more likely merely two or three together. Lampreys are a form of almost parasitic fish, which have been observed to attach themselves to their victims and eat into their substance. The earliest examples obtained from this river of late years was on March 15th, 1881, and the latest May 18th, 1887. Their season at Tewkesbury is stated to be from April to the middle of June, and their greatest perfection to be about Ascension Day. They breed about May, and sub- sequently return to the sea in an exhausted condition. These fish up to within recent years were pretty abundant in the upper portion of the Severn, but decreased very perceptibly from twelve or fourteen years since. They were captured by bargemen far above Shrewsbury, and ascended into the Verniew: some fishermen took them by means of bush nets, and one plan was to pass a hand into a stocking, and then in a punt provided with a steady boatman to drop quietly down a shallow, when one or a pair of these fish would not uncom- monly be seen at the tail of the ford attached to a stone by means of their sucker. As soon as perceived the boat was stopped, and the fish if possible seized by the covered hand, without which it would slip out of the grasp. They were supposed to be blind from not moving when anyone was in their close vicinity. Large numbers were likewise captured in the tidal portion of the river, but everywhere they have decreased in numbers, and now appear to be unknown in the higher districts of the Severn. Although surfeiting as food, it has been held in great estimation, especially when potted or stewed. Henry I. is said to have paid with life, at Rouen, in 1135, the penalty of too great an indulgence in this article of diet. A lamprey pie, embellished with gilded ornaments, was sent annually, as a Christmas present, from the Corporation of Gloucester to the sovereign of the realm, up to the period of Corporate Reform in 1830. 213 The lampern or silvery lamprey,* although diminished of late years, still affords much occupation to fishermen in the lower portion of this river, and numbers are taken in cruives or wheels about and below Tewkesbury. In the autumn, at the navigation weirs, large numbers are taken, but the amount is very uncertain; in a good night they may be counted by thousands: the chief places for their capture being at the weirs of Gloucester, Tewkesbury, Worcester, Camp and Holt on the Severn, and Powick on the Teme. ‘The season for their capture during the last few years has varied from the beginning of October to the end of March, but some are occasionally taken up to June. They are largely sold for bait to the cod fishermen, being well adapted for this purpose, but those obtained late in the season have passed the period when they would be useful as cod bait. As to the cost of these fishes, at Worcester, in January, 1882, it was about one penny each; at Tewkesbury, in January, 1884, they were selling at fifty shillings per thousand for bait, or six shillings a hundred for potting. For this last purpose they have to be very carefully cleaned, and the spinal column removed. Local fishermen assert that these fish only cross weirs when the water is so high as to quite conceal them, but the correctness of this view is somewhat doubtful. These fishes ascend high up the Severn, but their periods of migration do not seem to be much noticed; they are merely employed as bait for eels, one lampern cutting up into four or five pieces. They are obtained during the months of June, July, and most of August by shovelling out the mud in * Randall, in The Severn Valley, 1882, page 502, observed respecting these fishes that ‘“‘Lampreys, too, which were formerly considered of more im- portance than salmon, and were caught in the upper Severn, have altogether ceased to visit it since the erection of the first weir in 1843. An old man at Bridgnorth says the large lampreys were called ‘lamper eels,’ and the small lampreys ‘lamperns,’ and that the lamper eels were formerly speared on the fords, at the bottom of which they excavated a sort of trench, burying their heads and flapping their tails. Lampreys are of two kinds—the lamprey, formerly taken of large size in the Severn in April and May, during which months it ascended the river to spawn, and the lampern, or river lamprey, which is smaller, and sometimes called ‘nine eyes.’ ” 214 certain suitable spots, when along with it the fish are thrown on shore. Eels are numerous in the Severn, and although the fisher- men around Shrewsbury assert that their numbers have not diminished perceptibly of late years, that their size has much decreased, and smaller hooks are employed on the lines set to catch them. At the Aquarium at the “ Healtheries,” in 1884, I observed that they were partial to concealing themselves under the sand, and in December merely the heads and tails of some were visible, while others took refuge in clusters under the broad expanse of Homelyn Rays. In June silver eels descend towards the mouth of the river with the first freshes, among which the largest breeding ones pass downwards from the end of September to about Christmas. These are the best for eating, and are occasionally captured up to six pounds in weight. The glut-eels are a large-headed, coarse form, pro- bably sterile females, which travel about and attain to about six pounds in weight, but are not observed migrating seawards. During March and April they are in holes, and are groped for by fishermen in the river banks. Green eels are small ones of eight or ten to the pound. Irrespective of the foregoing, we have stick-eels, which are small forms descending with the first freshes in August, and averaging about four to the pound. They are also sometimes observed in June, should heavy rains occur. The minute eels which ascend from the sea or estuary are termed elvers, and are gathered in vast quantities for making elver cakes. Three tons weight were despatched from Gloucester on one day in May, 1886. These elvers had been protected by legislation from the times of Charles II., but in the reign of George III., so much of the former Act was repealed as related to a penalty on persons taking elvers for their own use only, and not for sale. But the Salmon Act of 1861 repealed the previous legislation, and the destruction became so excessive that an official enquiry was made at Gloucester which resulted in the present law, which authorises their being taken between March 1st and April 25th only. By some error this was not made to have effect in the hundred of 215 Gloucester where the destruction of these young eels goes merrily forward. Eels are essentially the poor man’s food, and in an official report it was held that “the unrestricted destruction of elvers was not shown to have any appreciable effect upon the supply of eels.” And so destruction of the young proceeds, and astonishment is expressed when a diminution of the adult stock follows. Another argument added was that eels were undesirable in a salmon river as they devoured samlets. When they have attained to about six inches in length they are called elver-bouts. Consequently there are two migrations—those of old ones descending seawards to breed, which they do about November, and an up-stream migration of young, that takes * place more or less in May and June. But, as already observed, glut-eels do not join in either of those acts, but rove about by themselves in the fresh waters. Likewise, in the tide-way, breeding eels are not constantly descending, for the eel-traps are set to capture both ways, on the ebb and flow, as they are found to descend with the fresh or land water, but as soon as they meet the flood they turn back and re-ascend. This plan of capturing, both on an ebbing and a flowing tide, is why the eel-traps below Gloucester take so much more than those higher up the Severn, for in the non-tidal portions the traps are said never to be faced down stream. LHels are likewise taken in the autumn months between Stourport and Gloucester, in large fixed nets that are used when the water is discoloured by rain. There are about twenty of these nets in the district mentioned, and each net is probably employed about ten nights yearly, with an average take of one cwt. a night. It has been asserted that eels, at the time they are migrating, abstain from food, and always are found with their stomachs empty. This, however, cannot be invariably the case. A fishmonger in Cheltenham has observed that the first consignment he receives from the Severn in October are usually gorged with worms, and that if they vomit many they invariably die. Lastly are the indigenous fresh water forms, consisting of the game fish and the coarse fish. Of the first are the trout 216 (Salmo fario, Linn.), which are more common in the upper portion of the Severn and its affluents than in the main river; and the grayling (Thymallus vulgaris, Nilsson), which was by no means rare on the fords in the Severn, near Shrewsbury, especially around “ The Isle,” and at the mouth of the Verniew and other streams. In the report of the Salmon Commission for 1860 we are told that about 1856 “grayling were exceed- ingly abundant in the Severn, and the Verniew particularly,” (p. 242,) but that at this period they were almost cleared out by disease, or parasites, and have never quite recovered their former position; in that report an excellent description was given of what we now know as Saprolegnia feraz. Another injurious influence affecting these fishes was said to exist in the way in which fords were being denuded of gravel for the purpose of mending roads. Many coarse fishes are captured in this river, some being more common in tributary streams, but still finding their way into the main channel, while others are constantly present in both localities. The bull-head or boar-pig, Cottus gobio, Linn. Three-spined stickleback, G'asterosteus aculeatus, Linn. Ten-spined stickleback, " pungitius, Linn. Pike, Esox lucius, Linn. Gudgeon, Gobio fluviatilis, Flem. Roach, Leuciscus rutilus, Linn. Chub, " cephalus, Linn. Dace, u vulgaris, Flem. Minnow, » phoxinus, Linn. Tench, Tinca vulgaris, Cuv. Bream, A bramis brama, Linn. Bleak, Alburnus lucidus, Heckel. Loach, Nemacheilus barbatula, Linn. Among the foregoing forms the pike is a favourite for sport with some anglers, its appetite is insatiable, and it is believed to occasion considerable mischief among the fishes of this some- what sluggish river. Although so long ago as the time of Queen Elizabeth barbel (Barbus vulgaris, Fleming,) were pro- tected by law in the Severn, it is not now present, and may have died out, at least I never took one in its waters, or heard 217 of its being captured there. Minnows have largely decreased of late years in the upper waters, but are found to even below Tewkesbury weir. The bream appeared in the lower waters of the Severn, and extended into the Teme after the construction of the Tewkesbury weir, which seems to have been favourable to its dissemination. The loach is another fish which has considerably decreased of late years. The most casual observer must admit that this river, with- out any difficulty, would carry a very much larger stock of fish than it at present possesses; certainly of such anadromous forms as do not feed while ascending to breed. The food existing in this stream may be animal or vegetable, and is all more or less influenced by pollutions, which consequently besides occasionally directly killing the fish by their poisonous character, may, if less virulent, merely starve them by destroying their food. Should it be intended to fully re-stock this river with fish, it would become necessary to first decide what forms should be employed for this purpose. Those which are avail- able are anadromous species, as the salmon, sea trout, and their allies indigenous to these islands. Or exotic forms, as those from the United States or elsewhere. Non-migratory fresh- water fish, as those termed coarse fish, or indigenous trout, and grayling; or else forms obtained from other countries. Before it is decided to go to the expense of augmenting the stock of salmon, it would not be amiss to ask whether such will be accomplished by all the riparian proprietors and the fishermen of public and tidal waters, acting conjointly, and if it becomes a success, how are the fisheries in future to be carried on? If the stock of salmon were largely augmented (judging by the past), would the up-country proprietor be likely to have more fish than he has at present; would fly-fishing for salmon again be a recreation on the Severn; or would the increased supply merely go to the fishermen of public and tidal waters. In attempting to re-stock the river with salmon, the question - would also arise as to what is the best course to pursue? It would be possible to have eggs collected in the river by a com- -petent person, and then sent to some fishery establishment to 218 incubate, the little fish about a month old being re-transmitted to the river and turned to its waters. Here they would form good food for larger fishes, but it is improbable they would increase the stock, for to do this the fry should not be less than one or two years old, up to which time they should be kept in appropriate localities. While it may be asked, why, if a larger stock is required, are not killers of last-springs and smolts more severely dealt with? If fishermen in the upper waters are to be believed, there is at the present time an enormous destruction by anglers of salmon fry, and one can hardly blame them, this being almost the only condition in which salmon, not breeding or foul, are seen in these parts. Or should it be wished to acclimatize foreign forms of salmon, the same questions of how to proceed would have to be con- sidered, the character of the proposed imported form should be investigated, both as to.its properties when cooked, its breed- ing, and the food it is most partial to; while anglers might like to know its sporting characters, and in seeking for such information, it may not be amiss to warn them to be cautious in accepting all the statements which may be made, unless there is likewise ample evidence in confirmation. A Mr Carter has lately asserted in a lecture, among other extraordinary facts, that “‘land-locked salmon have proved a success in the Severn.” One would like to know where? not having heard of it. If, however, the proprietors or workers of the fisheries in the middle and tidal portions of the Severn will not join in any general scheme, or submit to any restrictions which would permit the riparian owners (who reside higher up the river and rear the fish,) to obtain any of the results, the latter might think it worth while to consider whether effectual steps might not be taken to largely augment the non-migratory fresh water forms. In this all the present angling societies and anglers would probably join, while if successful, it would bring large numbers of visitors to spend their vacations on the banks of our silvery stream. Here, at a much less cost, trout, grayling, and coarse fish might be reared, and used for stocking pur- poses. Reservoirs ought to be yearly netted, and the contained 219 fishes returned to the stream, while it must not be overlooked that with a decrease of salmon it is generally possible to increase the head of trout. This plan has been denounced as a selfish one of the up-country proprietors, but one cannot see why they should not enhance the value of their fisheries by increasing their stock, affording sport to anglers, and augment- ing the supply of food to the public. Investigations should likewise be carried out by competent parties into the decrease or destruction of shad, twaite, flounders, and lampreys in the upper waters subsequent to the erection of the navigation weirs, and what steps would be necessary to prevent a continuation of this loss. While it might be as well to never permit any water bailiff to be like- wise in the pay of any angling society or owner of a fishery, as such might possibly be a cause of his work not being so strictly carried out as it ought to be. For the sake of the fisheries the abstraction or deflection of the waters of the Severn should be watched with the greatest solicitude, pollutions should be stopped, obstructions should be overcome in the best possible way, stationary modes of fishing (except for eels and lampreys) should be forbidden, and the manner of netting, size of the mesh of the nets, as well as the proceedings of anglers, ought to be jealously watched in order that the greatest benefits might accrue to all. On the Gall-Midges (Cecidomyide). An introductory paper. By Professor AtLeEN Harxer, F.L.S., Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ; read 22nd November, 1887. The Gall-Midges have occupied the attention of Naturalists since the middle of last century. De Geer, of whose labours it would be difficult to speak too highly, described 3 species, and some of his minute observations upon them, on which doubt was thrown by subsequent writers, have recently been confirmed. I hope to publish, later on, a complete bibliography of the family; in this paper my object is merely to give a general] introduction, and to record one or two observations of interest in the life history of these insects, which have occupied my attention during the past two summers. The Gall-Midges in themselves are inconspicuous and insignificant looking creatures. They are small two-winged flies (Diptera) with plume-like antenne, delicate bodies and long legs. They are dwarf-like relations of the ‘“‘ Daddy-long-legs.” Their wings are beautiful by reason of their sheen and hyales- cent colours, due to markings or clothing of hairs on their surface. Few of these flies reach one-fourth of an inch in length of body (excluding the antennz) or an expanse of wing of more than a half inch. They would indeed hardly obtrude themselves on the notice of the casual observer at all, save that on fine late spring or early summer evenings, they crowd together to per- form their nuptial dances, as is the habit of the Culicidae and Chironomidae, allied families of Diptera, and like clouds of permanent smoke they rise and fall, and roll along the landscape, ‘‘ de loco in locum continuo volitantes.”” They live but a short time, at longest a few days, their paternal and maternal duties performed, they disappear. I have often been surprised at their fragile hold of life; on capturing a specimen and bringing it home in a small collecting phial, it is invariably dead in a few hours, while many species of flies will live for days in a similar bottle. 221 The species of the Gall-Midges already known, now exceeding 300 in number, are distinguished from each other by the differing venation of their wings, the number, shapes and clothing of the joints of the antenne, and the greater or less hyalescence of the wings. I propose in a subsequent paper to give a synopsis of the genera, with figures of the important characters above alluded to. ‘ It is in the preparation made by the parent fly for its offspring, and the behaviour of the larva during the weeks or months of its active life, that is centred the interest so many naturalists have felt for these Gall-Midges. With a few notable exceptions the larva lives within the tissues, or upon some modified parts of plants, disfiguring them, and causing by its presence abnormal growths or abortions, such abnormalities going by the general name of Gattis. In this habit they resemble certain other orders of INSECTA and some ARACHNIDA, and their galls are in many cases not to be distinguished in external appearance from those of the Cynipi- dae (true gall-flies), Tenthredinidae, (the saw-flies,) the Phytopi (Mites), or the Coleoptera (Beetles). Certain species of other families of Diptera possess a similar habit, but among Diptera, the Cecidomyide are the Gall Makers. It may be of local interest to mention that the well-known red hairy gall on the Wild Rose, made by a Cynips, is called on the Cotteswolds, “Robin Red- breast’s pincushion.” Under the general term of Gall (confining ourselves strictly to those of the Cecidomyide), are included many varied plant malformations differing in character and degree of modification of the plants’ organs and tissues; and many attempts have been made to arrange and classify these structures according to their forms and external appearances, and the parts of the plant they have modified. To allude to but a few of these modifications; Galls take the form of scales on leaves, in appearance like mere spots, and but a fraction of a millimetre in thickness; some such have actually been taken for micro-fungi and so described. Wart- like lumps, minute spheres, cylinders and cones, as on both sides Q 2 222 of the Beech-leaf; swellings more or less spindle-shaped on the twigs, pedicils or peduncles; hard button-like excrescences on the same parts; bladder like vesicles on the ribs of leaves, as commonly on the ash; and rolled edges of leaves as in Acer campestre; all these are quite closed, and the larve present the same puzzle as did the apples in the dumpling to King George III. We have again purse-like forms, where parts of the plant have been drawn together, but left open at the ends; leaf buds and flower heads similarly drawn together; scales between two modified leaves; or tufts of leaves as in some of the Conifere. I found in May last, near Coniston Lake, a large Yew, whose every tuft of new leaves was aborted by a Cecidomyid larva, giving the whole tree so very remarkable and unusual an appearance, that I at first took it for some unknown variety. Further, rolled leaf edges may form open trumpet-shaped cones, each with its larval inhabitant; and felted masses of epidermal hairs, constitute what serves as a mere shelter or covering. These are but a few of the more common and striking methods in which the Gall-Midge larve abort their host plants, pro- ducing conspicuous gall-growths. Dr Loew to whom all students of Diptera, as well of this family as of so many others, are deeply indebted, says: “‘at one extremity is a true gall, a vegetable growth of definite form, attached to a plant by a small portion of its surface, not otherwise deforming that part of the plant; at the other, a simple deformation, folding of a rib, arrest of a bud, stalk, twig, or seed-vessel.” It would appear impossible to draw any hard and fast line of demarcation between these varied plant structures, and at present it seems a mere waste of time to attempt a classification on the basis of gall architecture alone, as has been done by Bremi. Although the habit of gall-making characterizes the majority of the family, yet it may here be pointed out that many very notable exceptions occur, and that too with species that are among the most numerous and most widely distributed of 223 the group. The most important are those which, while feeding upon plants, bring about no other modifications than those caused by diminution of vitality, ending in the entire destruction of the part attacked, or the death of the whole plant. As the study of the larve of these species will occupy no inconsiderable portion of my work on the family, the mere mention here of such well-known species as the Wheat Midge, which lives on the grain of wheat, the Foxtail-Grass Midge, on the seed of Alopecwrus pratensis, the Hessian Fly in the joints of the stem of Cereals, and the Pea Midge on field and garden peas, will suffice.* Other species undoubtedly feed on fungi and on rotting wood, being found under loose bark. Osten-Sacken records a species found by him on the leaves of the hickory apparently feeding exposed. Some are said to be inquilines, or guests in the galls of their congeners, while others again are believed to be associated with Aphides in some connection not hitherto understood. This however wants confirmation. The larval stage, we have seen, is the one to which the greatest interest attaches, and the progress of the gall and sim- ultaneous growth of the larve, offer a hitherto comparatively unexplored field of observation and research. A voluminous literature, chiefly foreign, deals with the aspect of the galls, and the descriptions of the known species of adult and larval Cecidomyide ; but little work has been done on the question of the actual and continuous changes in the gradually modifying tissues of an affected plant, due to the pressure and behaviour of the embedded larva. To this point my own observations have been mainly directed, and by means of continuous sections through galls of various ages, something of the life-history of the gall has I think been revealed. * Recent attention has been specially directed to the Hessian Fly from its appearance in England as a farm-pest on wheat and barley; and the economic aspects of the question have been fully discussed by Miss Ormerod in a small brochure, entitled ‘The Hessian Fly"; in some valuable letters from Prof. Riley, U.S.A., to the Times; and in Government Reports by Mr C. Whitehead. 224 The egg is very small, and is laid by means of a long telescope-like ovipositor. In the Cynipide the ovipositor is hard and chitinous, just a weapon suited to piercing the epiderm, and even harder cork tissues of a plant, but in the Gall Midges this organ does not appear to be adapted for any such boring or piercing function, and it may be that the egg is laid on the surface of the epiderm. To this interesting question attention will be hereafter given. In the case of the Wheat Midge, the oviposition of which it is 80 easy to watch in the mild June evenings when the wheat is flowering, the eggs are of course pushed between the inner glumes of the florets and left adherent to them or lying on the pistil at their base. The larve are white, yellow, or orange coloured grubs, usually foot-less, from the 7, to 3 of an inch in length. Their colour changes somewhat with age. They have been said to furnish an exception to all other larve in the number of the segments of their body, being 14 instead of 13, a supernumerary 14th segment existing between the head and the first thoracic (or stigma bearing) segment. The spiracles are yellow chitinous nipple shaped projections, and are very conspicuous features. They number usually 9 pairs, and the main trachea communica- ting with each is readily seen under a low power with transmit- ted light. The surface of the body is ornamented by papillated protuberances or caruncles, and in many species there are distinct pseudopods. De Geer first pointed these out, but subsequent Dipterologists have stated that he mistook the back for the venter, and described what were merely dorsal caruncles as pseudopods. The older naturalist was however quite correct. I have examined hundreds of larvee with both carwneles and pseudo- pods, and there can be no doubt of the accuracy of De Geer’s record. J have further remarked in certain species, rows of minute spines on each segment, corresponding to similar spines on such larve as the Aistride, which live in the organs and tissues of animals, and their function must be locomotary in a limited fashion, probably aiding the grub in turning itself in its gall. Figures of these will be given. 225 Many species of larvee can jump or spring for a distance of several inches. This they accomplish by folding the body until the posterior and anterior extremities meet, and by the aid of stout spines on the anal segment, or some means not yet precisely described, are clasped together; then the sudden relaxation of the hold causes the whole body to be thrown upwards and outwards. The species of the genus Diplosis are according to Loew the possessors of this habit. Its use to the larva is manifestly to aid it on leaving the gall, as many do, and seeking suitable quarters for pupation. The mouth parts are exceedingly minute and most difficult to separate out. No piece of microscopic anatomy requires greater care and patience. Ratzburg thinks they consist of a horny (chitinous) ring, through which protrudes a lip (labium) used as a sucker. In the Wheat Midge they are more than this, and a rudimentary mandibular process is certainly present. A pair of two-jointed appendages forms part of the anterior portion of the head segment; but whether these are palpi, as Ratzburg and Dufour thought, or rudimentary antennz (Osten-Sacken), seems yet to be doubtful. The most striking feature of the larva of a Cecidomyid, is a hard chitinous organ on the ventral face of the body in the middle line, projecting from the third segment. It has received a variety of names, and many conflicting views have been taken as to its function and homology. Nicholas Wagner in his cele- brated paper on a viviparous larva which belonged to this family, “Beitrag zur Lehre der Fortpflanzung der Insecten Larven,” (Zeits. £. Wissensch. Zool. Vol. XIII, p. 514), describes it as a borer, with head, (spitze), shaft, basal portion and muscles of attachment, and gives an admirable figure of it. He considers its function to be that of a boring apparatus. ‘‘Um sich in harten Holze den Weg zu erdffnen ist die Larve mit einem besonderen Apparate bewafinet. Es ist dies ein spitziger horniger auf dem dritten Segmente befestiger Auswuchs.” Hanin (op. cit. XV. 375) thinks this borer of Wagner is used asa means of facilitating progression by aiding the act of springing. 226 Loew terms it the breast-bone (Brustgrate), and this name is used by the American authors, Packard, Osten-Sacken, and others: Osten-Sacken looking upon it as the homologue of the pair of prolegs found in allied families (Chironomidae). Ratzburg considers it as the homologue of the mentum; while Hagen has just recently stated that he finds its homologue in the labrum ; Miss Ormerod considers it may in some way assist in preparing the larva’s food. The term “Anchor process,” has been used for the organ in this country. The view of Baron Osten-Sacken is a most rational one. I have certainly seen the organ used by a Wheat Midge larva to assist it in retaining its position without other support, high on the maturing ovary of a wheat-floret. It varies slightly in form in different species, but between that of C. tritici and those of several true gall inhabitants I have been unable to detect the slightest difference, and it can- not be looked on as a character of much value in discriminating species. It is a question whether it is present in all the Cecido- myid larvee or not, and one which it would be highly important to have answered, before forming any decided opinions on the function of this organ. Ina carefully stained example dissected from a larva from the Lime, muscles were attached to the inner extremity of this organ, as described and figured by Wagner. Many of the larve spin cocoons, some remaining inside the galls to pupate, others, the majority, leaving and pupating in the ground. This too is the case with most of the non-gall- making species. During the past summer the following observations have been made on the galls produced on the Limes, (Tilia europza) in our College Garden, by a Cecidomyia, or rather a Diplosis, probably the OC. floricola, Rudow. This species has been recorded as British by Professor Trail in his valuable papers on Scottish Galls, (Scottish Naturalist, No. RLV 1 p- 255, April, 1882). These papers by Trail, written chiefly from the botan- ist’s point of view, have during the past 16 years appeared from time to time in the Magazine quoted, and form an important contribution to our knowledge of Cecidomyid galls in Britain ; they are of the highest value to students. They deal with galls 227 made by all the various Arthropoda that have the habit. Inch- bald, Hardy, Miller, and Meade have also published important papers on British Gall-Midges. The galls on the Lime are produced on the flower stalks, in the form of a round or ovate swelling, at first pale green in colour, but as they reach full size tinged with reddish pink. They are inhabited each by a single larva; but it is very common to find two or more galls so close to each other that in time they merge together and form a large bunch of galls ; while the abor- tion may include all the flower pedicils, and prevent the formation of any perfect flower at all. On making continuous sections of the gall, the larva is found occupying a cavity, which it almost completely fills, in the very centre of the fibro-vascular bundle of the stalk. This portion of the plant, and indeed the whole tissues of the stalk at the affected spot, have undergone important changes. A - comparison with a normal fibro-vascular bundle shows that its vessels have been partially obliterated by the thickening of the walls of all the cells; the bundle instead of showing cells of different structure as usual, consists in fact of fairly uniform thick-walled cells, apparently thickened, and increased in number radially, to compensate the disability caused by the pressure of the foreign element. The cells of the parenchym are stretched out of their normal shape and assume forms such as would be the result of tension, due to pressure from within ; those of the epidermis are similarly pushed out of shape. It would appear that mainly, if not entirely, the bulk of the additional material forming so large a swelling as the full sized Gall, quite 4 or 5 times the diameter of the normal stalk, is made up of altered fibro-vascular tissue. Drawings of the section would of course convey a better idea than mere description, and a subsequent paper will, I hope, contain accurate illustrations of the various changed tissues of these galls, as well as of other species which I have examined. It has been remarked by Winnertz that “a want of horny organs of mastication (in the larve), authorizes the supposition that a lesion of the plant does not take place, more probably 228 that the larva has the power of producing some peculiar irritation which causes an overflow of the sap necessary for its food.” Furthermore it has been remarked by several observers that no traces of excreta are to be found in the closed galls. Now it was plain that in my sections the central pith of the stalk was absent, but that so far from any other “lesion” of the plant being evident, the woody portions of the bundle ring as seen in section were increased and thickened. The larva seems to fill the cavity, leaving barely room to turn in; and no excreta are present. In most sections the body of the larva was sliced through and remained in the cavity which it just fitted. 'The food must consist of the fluid which flows through the bundle, or of broken inner bundle cells torn by a movement of the larve within, probably of both. The absence of solid excreta is remarkable. I suggest that they are fluid and exercise an irritating or other effect on the plant cells, probably hardening, or at any rate altering the substance of the cell wall. This is partially borne out by the fact that a bundle from a gall will not take staining fluids that are effective with a normal section, indicating some change of a chemical or mechanical kind. I hope to show in a subsequent paper the gradual change of the tissues, studied from galls of varying ages from the first appearance of the swelling on the flower stalk; as well as com- parative studies, from other Cecidomyid galls, which are now in progress. More than 25 years ago a writer on galls expressed his opinion that little more was to be discovered regarding them. I rather incline to the view that a very wide field for research remains still but partially explored. On the behaviour of Granites when exposed to High Temperatures. By Frepericx Smuirue, L.L.D., F.G.S8. CONTENTS IntTRopUcTION III. Porruyrites I. Granites IV. Puystcat OBSERVATIONS II. GrRanvites V. Summary or Resutts APPENDIX On Decrees or Hich TEMPERATURE INTRODUCTION Granites, as well for their beauty of tint, and their interest- ing grain and structure, so clear to the eye when polished, the promise of durability and wide occurrence, have been favourite ornamental and building materials amongst the ancients, and at the present day are increasing in favour. Such rocks as granite of various types, can now be more readily obtained from quarries, in slabs and monoliths of considerable size. It is true that the Romans were fully impressed with their value, but saved themselves the trouble of quarrying, by the easy expedient of despoiling the Egyptians of numbers of the largest and choicest monoliths, and erecting them in the capital as trophies and embellishments. Rome is said to possess at the least 13 Egyptian obelisks, either set up in the open spaces of the city, or outside the walls. The highest of these is one in the Piazza Laterano, brought by Constantius, in 357 A.D., the height of the shaft of this obelisk is 105 ft. 7in. The date of its erection 230 in Egypt was 1655,-1600 B.C. (Thothmes III. and IV). The inscription on the stone sets forth that it was 36 years in cutting and preparation.* In this country now, granite, by which word, taken in its general sense, we mean any rock of the type, has won its way into more general use as a building stone, from its intrinsic qualities, and moreover from the vast improvement in the manufacture of steel; also in the art of tempering and devising tools, appliances, machinery and steam power requisite to procure easily and speedily from the quarry, blocks of granite of huge size, so far as the jointing will admit—to face the slabs—to reduce them to the shape required, and next to finish the pieces by polishing the surfaces. Again, readiness and facility of transport count for no small share: small finished articles are despatched by railway from the North, those larger and of considerable weight, are shipped from the Peterhead district to London for instance, by seagoing steamer; and all these, together with other advantages, work toward bringing _ the stone into more extensive employment than formerly + have stimulated the demand for it, and raised it generally in esti- mation, and deservedly so, with the exception on which we would now enlarge. Granites, with all their valuable qualities, are lacking in one respect, namely, in their power to withstand exposure to heat beyond a certain temperature. The tremendous conflagrations in Boston, Chicago, in Liverpool and London, brought the fact clearly before the eye, that granites collapse at a high degree of heat and fall to pieces, indeed granite is much more susceptible of injury by fire than a compact sandstone with a siliceous matrix. * For a valuable account of the natural building materials employed in ancient Rome, including a notice of the Egyptian granites and syenites, we would refer to a recent work by Prof. J. H. Middleton, M.A., entitled “ Ancient Rome in 1885.” Black & Co., Edinburgh, 1885. See pages 10-19. + It is calculated that over a million tons are now quarried in Aberdeen- shire alone every year. See Granites and our Granite Industries, by Geo. F. Harris, F.G.S8. London. Crosby Lockwood & Son, 1888. A work well worth having, though it reached the author of this treatise too late to be of service to him. 231 The object of the examinations, here undertaken, is to explain some of the less obvious causes, and to trace them step by step to their effects, so that we may have reason to know, and be able to give some answer to the question—why this disintegration of granite which once was believed to be the most permanent and adamantine of all rocks. A casual circumstance led to a discussion and examination of the question, namely, the almost entire destruction by fire, in 1881, of the Parish Church of Newnham, in the County of Gloucester. This fine ancient building had been not long restored, and contained rows of columns of polished red granite, some 21 inches in diameter, which formed the arcades of the nave or body of the Church. After the fire was subdued, the pillars were left standing—mere wrecks of their former state, and ruthlessly destroyed. Fragments of the burnt granite obtained from the ruins of the Church were kindly given by the President of the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Society to the writer to examine and report on to the Society. This account he has ventured on presenting, and would apologise, if the scope of the investigation has not been strictly limited to the granite of the Newnham edifice, but has been extended to some other related rocks of granitoid character, and instances of their condition after exposure to elevated temperatures up to fusion- point, adduced, where possible. The particulars of this research may be conveniently placed in the following order :— I. Granires—(1) A description of the composition and character of the granite of Newnham Church as affording a good type or representative example of this class of rocks, known to petrographers as the Orthoclase-mica-quartz rocks. (2) The effects observed to have been produced in this granite after subjection to only a moderately high temperature, such as a low Black Red. The results being learned from experiment and examination both of hand specimens and preparations specially made for microscopic inspection. (3) Reference made to a natural specimen of burned. granite from a dyke in the island of Arran, which had been 232 under a volcanic cokeing process for a prolonged but indefinite geological time. Il. Granvutires—(1) A compressed account of some ex- amples of these granitoids from widely different areas, such as: a. South of France c. Malvern Hill b. Channel Islands d. Saxony (2) The behaviour of some granulites, when reduced by fusion to the vitreous state. Ill. Porruyrires.—Notice of a singular instance of a porphyritic granite from the Venetian Tyrol, which had been accidentally burnt in the Church of St. Zanipolo, Venice. IV. On the cohesion of the constituent minerals of the granites, &c., on their molecular constitution, and the sources of weakness in structure. V. Summary of the results. APPENDIX Designation of the degrees of higher temperature, by various authorities. I. GRANITES— 1. The kind of granite forming the pillars supporting the arcade of the nave in Newnham Church, Forest of Dean, is generally known by builders and others as “‘ Aberdeen Red,” whether from the Peterhead or from the Aberdeen district. It is most likely, a granite, considered to be of igneous origin, and which is extensively quarried at Sterlinghill, situated 4 miles South of Peterhead. In weight this stone averages nearly 166 lbs. to the cubic foot, has an even, uniform grain, and possesses crystals of a moderate size, running on the whole rather smaller than those in the Cornish and Devonshire granites. The order of consolidation of the chief or essential minerals in this rock, would be in the order 1. Mica, 2. Felspar, 3. Quartz. The quartz is crystalline, of grey or sometimes smoke colour, and accompanied by some Plagioclase and the two alkaline felspars, Orthoclase and Albite. The Orthoclase or potash felspar is of fine carnation tint, which contributes not a little to the beauty of the stone. It crystallises in the oblique or 233 monoclinic system, and on clearing the crystals, cracks are often visible, traversing the clinopinakoid faces and denoting the easy cleavage in the direction «Pao. The cleavage of the basal planes OP is very perfect, or as it is important for our present purpose, the cleavages are after Bauerman, “001 very perfect, 010 perfect, 110 imperfect,” and are often better parallel to one pair of faces than to the other. The optic axial-plane is usually perpendicular to 010, the first median line inclined at 111° or 112° to c, or 5°—6° to a, giving the horizontal dispersion. By strongly heating them the angle of the axes in 010 is increased, while that for the plane perpendicular to it is diminished. If the heat exceeds 500°, the original positions are not quite recovered on cooling. The granite contains besides Orthoclase, another in rather less quantity; this is Albite, so called from its white colour, a soda felspar crystallising in the triclinic system, the soda is very commonly replaced, to a small extent, but not above 2°5 per cent. by potash, and twinned crystals are the rule, not the exception. The thin lamelle of the tabular forms are often repeated in parallel directions, and the intimate structure of the twinning planes shows at the edges an irregular surface ; more- _over Albite occurs not seldom in a distinctly polysynthetic, granular state, and some varieties reveal, but not so markedly as in Orthoclase, a network of meshes, which, at least in the case of the latter, cross each other at right angles. Albite fuses more readily than Orthoclase;* but when melted together, they fuse much quicker than apart from each other; thus these alkaline felspars comport themselves like the alkaline carbonates, a fact which chemists turn to practical account in assaying, by depriving them of their water of crystallisation, pulverising and keeping the mixture as a flux of general application; since a mixture-of both is far preferable to either alone, and besides, requires a lower heat for its fusion. When therefore a granite contains a potash felspar side by side with a soda felspar, and is exposed to a high temperature, the consequence is obvious, as we shall see in the case of the * Orthoclase being K, Al, Si, O,,, and Albite Na, Al, Si, O,,. 234 granulites, the silicates of potash and soda fuse readily and flow freely, and experience has proved that a mixed or double silicate fuses more readily and flows more freely than a simple silicate. Leaving this, for the present, the subject of the third essential constituent, that is to say Mica, must be noticed. The Mica contained in this Scotch granite is the dark green magnesian mineral, named Biotite, which is present in small scales in variable quantities; it is an uniaxial mica of a very perfect cleavage; besides the principal cleavage, there are indications of other cleavages to which reference alone is sufficient. Other accessory constituents are magnetite and a little iron- pyrite, not to mention crystallites, and needles of embryonic character which do not concern the present scope of remark. An examination of the charred and broken up granite now demands our attention. Concerning the degree of temperature to which the granite pillars could have been exposed in the conflagration at Newnham, only a rough approximation can be made; in feeling the way to this, it must be remembered, that the fierceness of the flames fanned by currents of wind in the winter month of February, and within walls which confined and reflected the heat from its surfaces, must have been intense, and must have produced effects upon the granite proportional to the intensity. One consideration though comes in to modify and qualify the judgment, namely, that the flow of heat was not a steady flow, but fitful and intermittent, checked by the means used to extinguish the fire, and by the failing supply of the wooden seats, fittings, etc., which soon burnt themselves out, ' and left nothing to nourish or maintain a high temperature. The mean of the temperature attained may therefore be care- fully estimated as Black Red heat, which is a colour designation, and will be considered comparatively in the Appendix, on the colour designations of high temperatures, by eminent author- ities. The heated granite if played upon by cold water, or affected by cold air must have been chilled and lowered in temperature, producing a brittleness of condition. Fresh 235 applications of heat would have resulted, not entirely in raising the temperature as in checking and confining thermal effect to such molecular work as disintegration of the granite in certain directions along the lines of least resistance; and this effect is clearly seen on an examination of the burnt specimens—a blackened, ruinous, crumbling mass, varying in size from barely cohering to mere fine crumbly dust. The external surface of these columns was shelled off, and the facing to some depth ruptured and separated from the pillars, stripped away in the form of elongated ellipsoids, an inch to a few inches in thick- ness across the lesser axes, and thinning away to sharp irregular edges at the margin. The fiercest play of energy seemed to have been exercised on a portion around the middle third of the columns, leaving these once stately objects so many attenuated cores of concave outline. A distinction must not be omitted, in considering this work of destruction even in a rough esti- mation of it. The difference referred to is that between the effect wrought upon the three chief mineral constituents, Mica, Felspar and Quartz individually, and that left upon the granite mass itself. To determine the former purpose, recourse must be had to microscopic scrutiny; a consideration of the latter will follow. Thin sections of the granite were examined, but the burnt specimens could not be well ground thin, from their friable nature. Portions of these consisting of fine grains mingled with dust, had to be separated from the dust by means of a gauze sieve, in order to secure particles of requisite dimensions, namely, less than a millimetre, and these had to be mounted in Canada balsam on glass slips, so as to be fit for examination. The facts disclosed by these preparations were very simple. The disintegration of the felspars was quite complete. The Orthoclase crystals were minutely subdivided into very thin plates, through their several cleavage-planes, so as to show under polarized light the coloured bands and borders along the edges of each fragment, indicating the effect of stress and strain of the thermic vibrations which had acted so forcibly as to destroy the molecular symmetry of the crystallized mineral. R 236 The crystals of Albite also seemed to possess but slight power of cohesion, and the plates separated were thinner than those of the Orthoclase. The quartz, with the exception of cracks was fresh and not greatly changed, yet had an oily look. It showed by the coloured rings, that force had affected the elasticity of the mineral. In form, some of the crystals had a bulging along the planes o P, the course of the isotherms of the prisms. The quartz has a higher conductivity in the direction of the optic axis than in the direction perpendicular to it. In some crystals was an iridescence and play of green and red hues, like an opal. The Biotite, or magnesian mica alters more easily than potash mica, and had exfoliated into numerous scales of light brass colour. The examination was then advanced by submitting some of the burned granite to a crucial test. Experment 1. A portion of the charred substance was placed in the fire and brought to a full Cherry Red colour. It was then allowed to cool in the cold air; when examined, the cracks running through the granite had become wider and deeper, affecting the felspars peculiarly, with zonal margins encircling and bordering the crystals after the manner of that figured in Cohen’s Sammlung (T. xx. f. 4). The red colour of the Orthoclase had become as it were curdled into mottles of a brownish hue, being a re-arrangement of the ferric constituent under high temperature, as iron when in amounts of from 2 to 5 per cent. is of importance, for it affords changes and colour indications when acted on by heat. The hardness of Orthoclase is equal to that of window glass when referred to Moh’s scale. The minimum of hardness is upon the middle and cleavage planes, the maximum is in the direction of the faces normal to the cleavage-planes of the crystal. Exereriment 2. A blackened portion, in this trial, was raised to a furnace heat, a Low White colour, and allowed to cool slowly in the cold air. On inspection the refractory quartz was found much affected, cracked every way; it had become some- what duller, the opalesence disappeared, and the black surfaces ‘ a 237 calcined white, the Orthoclase was nearly white, and was broken up into thin plates with loss of cohesion, following the direction of its cleavage-planes, the core of the felspar showed the markings as in Cohen’s work (T. xx.f. 4). The mica had changed from dark bottle green to a very pale yellow, and some parts had even lost their colour entirely. The whole of the indications point to a state of calcination, but to a degree of temperature yet by no means approaching fusion point. The disintegration was complete, and had it been, whilst hot, thrown into cold water, would have gone to powder. Experiment 8. Next, some quartz grains and crystals were extracted from the granite, measuring about 5 mm. across, and were raised by blast toa heat of a light Orange colour, and then cooled quickly by covering them with cold water. The quartz was reduced to a friable state, cracks generally ran along the cleavage-planes and it could be crushed easily between the fingers. The colour markings had faded altogether. An illustration of the bleaching of the red Orthoclases may be seen in the case of the orthoclase granite—from which the charming porcelain ware is manufactured at Belleck, near Lough Erne, County Fermanagh, in Ireland. The works are built close to the quarries from which the material, a granitoid stone, containing a high percentage of orthoclase felspar is got out. Professor Hull says that the red felspar retains its crystalline form in its original perfection, and on being cal- cined loses its original colour and becomes white. The metallic _ iron which separates in specks from the rock during the process of calcination, is afterwards extracted by simply immersing magnets into the powdered china clay when mixed with water, the particles of iron then adhere and are lifted out. At Worcester China Works a different course slightly varying from this is practised, at least for making the finest porcelain, the powdered china clay (kaolin) is combed with magnetic combs whilst dry, the object being to catch, detain, and remove the iron that is found in almost all granites, as pyrite and magnetites; a small speck of iron pyrite would, after the china came from the kiln, sol ri on it as a blemish in the form of a yellow spot. R 2 238 2. Mention may, in connection with granite, be here introduced of a specimen from a granite dyke in the island of Arran, N. Britain, which on account of its intrinsic value, merits attention, as it is an instance of a granite penetrating and throwing off branches into another granite, or it may be diorite, the interpenetrating rock must have been in a molten state, and affords a characteristic example of contact-metamorphism. This rock exhibits a burnt or charred state under natural con- ditions. The striking point in it, is that we can note the effect of long cooling down from a high temperature throughout a long period of geological time. At Tornidneon, in the island of Arran, the granite veins run into the body of a very coarse granite—strings of the finer grained rock traverse the coarser grained one. Bands of a black Pitchstone, a vitreous state of granite, also penetrate the igneous rocks in Arran. The hand specimen of the charred granitic rock mentioned above, displays a structure entirely granular, the smaller felspar resembles dark round grains of gum arabic, the colour of the whole piece is a brown black, in hue and aspect very nearly like the burnt granite of Newnham Church. Rosenbusch cites (i. page 45, 2nd edit. 1886) Mic’ nel-Lévy in a useful description of a similar contact phenomenon of a eranulite occurring at Morvan in Brittany. An approach must now be made to the alteration at higher temperatures, viz: at the fusion point of some rocks closely related to granite; these are granulites, and will bear illustra- tion, drawn from several well-known sources, visited by the author. II. GRANULITES— Granulite (Weiss). These granitoids are the Leptinite (Haiiy) of French petrographers, and are altered eruptives formed of débris, in nearly equal proportions of quartz and felspar, generally cemented together by a more recent quartz, which has had a tendency to crystallise in somewhat granular hexagons of an irregular contour. It must be remarked emphatically, as it is an essential point insisted on by Haiiy 239 that the quartz in granulites instead of comporting itself as in granites, that is moulding upon or embracing the other minerals, is isolated, brittle, and often rounded; and sometimes is met with even in the form of bi-pyramidal crystals. The granulites contain an alkaline felspar Orthoclase, and the plagioclase felspar, oligoclase; the latter oftentimes more abundant, and the two felspars are vitreous. Black mica is sometimes present, and white mica in variable quantity ; garnets are also accessory. The lacune of the quartz enclose movable bubbles, or fixed bubbles surrounded by very thick black rings. The jointing of the granulites is noticeable, for besides the principal horizontal and tabular jointing, these regular horizontal courses are intersected at right angles by cross joints, somewhat crooked, but with smooth surfaces, which give it a striking and characteristic look, so that, by this aspect alone it may be distinguished from gneiss at a considerable distance, (according to B. von Cotta). Short separate descriptions are here intentionally given of some granulites citing and noticing them in the following sequence :— 1. L’Ardéche. 8. Malvern. 2. Jersey. 4. Dresden. 1. Granvuiire rrom L’ARDECHE— The specimen of this granulite was brought from the Department of L’Ardéche, in France, from an exposure of this rock on the route which crosses the basaltic plateaux of some 4,000 feet or more going from the Béage, on the descent to Montpezat; the quarry of this stone lies to the left hand of the winding road. This specimen shows the well-marked rounded granular state, the felspars Orthoclase and Albite are an opaque white, the quartz vitreous and small in quantity, the grains are coated in patches with bright red oxide of iron ; it often contains bi-pyramidal crystals of quartz. 2. GRANULITE FROM CHANNEL IsLANDS— ‘ A typical granulite is that of Mount Mado lying to the Northward of Jersey, often by the earlier geologists mentioned 240 as Syenite. These quarries were once the most actively worked in the Island. The Mount Mado granulites contain a red Orthoclase which gives the pervading colour to the stone, also a white felspar, Albite, but this occurs only at certain places in this granulite. The quartz is vitreous and in large proportion, interspersed are some spots and spangles of black mica, which _ are occasionally drawn together in aggregates. On the exposed rock and the floor of the quarry, the old rock is decayed and weathered into a depth of loose gravelly material that can be freely dug with a spade, and therein may be easily collected, single or twinned crystals of Orthoclase—the latter are mostly of the Carlsbad type. 3. GRaNULITE From Matvern Hirt— The position of this rock is toward the summit of the Worcestershire Beacon, lying to the South side of the trans- verse fault between the Beacon and the North Hill. The position of the granulite being given, the structure of it may be seen figured and described by Mr F. Rutley, F.G.S., in his paper on the Malvern Hills.* It is described as a very fine grained pale pinkish grey crystalline rock, consisting of pinkish felspar, quartz, and minute deep red grains, seemingly of garnets. The grains composing the rock are all of them irregular in form, and appear to be bound together by a crypto- crystalline cement. The felspar appears to be Orthoclase— while the quartz contains numerous fluid lacune, some of them with bubbles which exhibit spontaneous movement when exam- ined under a power of about 800 linear. The rock is a granulite, and in common with rocks of this class is remarkably tough under the hammer. Portion of a thin section as it appears between crossed nicols, and magnified 55 linear, is shown in Pl. XIX. fig. 8. This granulite seems to form a marginal banding, South of and contiguous to the granitic mass of the Worcestershire Beacon, and may possibly be a condition of the granite with changed structure induced by rate of cooling or other influences. * V. Q.J.G. Soc., vol xlxxx. page 481. 241 4, Saxon GRANULITES— The granulite region of Mittweida in Saxony is surrounded and overlaid by gneiss and schists, and penetrated by numerous dykes and veins of granite, which Naumann considers to be of eruptive origin. Attention is now invited to the behaviour of a granulite, at the highest temperature, namely, at the fusion- point 1100°C, and for economical purposes of both varieties, granite and granulite. The recent establishment at Dresden, by Herr Frederic Siemens, of glass works and furnaces, is worthy of note: as it clearly shows that the granitoids can be turned to account in the arts. The glass from these works is now made from granulite, without the addition of any flux whatever. Some condensed particulars may be acceptable. At the first start, granite was melted and worked up into bottles or other ware, but it was soon found that the pyrite occurring in it was objectionable, and granite was therefore discarded for granulite, which is at present the only material used. The rounded grains of the quartz would lend themselves to the action of heat, and the orthoclase felspar and perhaps some albite in addition, which even under the common blow-pipe flame, will run into a white enamel. Felspathic glazes were used by the Chinese on porcelain ware ages ago, before they were introduced into Europe; prior to the year 1780, the glaze employed at Sévres contained no felspar; since that date, however, the use of an artificially prepared glaze has been abandoned, and recourse had almost exclusively to the granite, or haplite of St. Yrieix, near Limoges, a rock composed of felspar and quartz, and which has according to the analyses of M. Salvétat, the following chemical composition :— Silica Ae a a 74° Alumina ..- ae fe 18° Potash as 6 Lime a am te 0: Magnesia ... 0 Loss 0 242 The bottles now made at F. Siemen’s works at Dresden, are not common black wine or beer bottles, but a superior sort used by vintners and druggists; the writer has critically examined them, and undoubtedly they are good glass, free from defects or blemishes of any kind, and of very light colour; some of them had a tinge of orange brown, which owns to a slight addition of manganese oxide. Crucible melting pots are not employed for glass making in Germany, but the materials for glass are melted in large tanks made of refractory clay, and of a peculiar domed shape, for the reverberation of the heat (1100° C. being the melting point of glass). Ill. PORPHYRITE (Italy)— Belongs to a family rich in species. This rock is quartzless or else poor in that mineral (Quarzfreierorthoklasporphyr of the Germans).* The density of these porphyritic rocks amounts from 2°63 to 2°76; it consists of a mass of compact felspar enclosing as with a paste crystals of Orthoclase, and of Oligo- clase or Albite. The external character does not differ from that of quartziferous porphyries, except from the absence of quartz. The ground mass or paste is easily fusible, and is generally of dark colour, more or less porous, approaching in tone of colour a dark chocolate brown. Often in addition to the felspar, its accessory is some of a deep brown coloured mica, or reddish or green mica. In NE. Italy, South of the Tyrol in Venetian territory, these rocks are mostly found and are much sought for their attractive and striking effect as building stones, where richness and esthetic character are desirable to be considered. This is a burnt porphritic granite which may be mentioned as germane to the general subject, inasmuch as whilst staying for a few weeks in Venice in the summer of 1887, the author availed himself of the opportunity of inspecting the ruined interior of the burnt chapel, the Capella del Rosario, which formed an adjunct to the ancient Church of 8S. Giovanni e * Rosenbusch. Mikros. Physiograph der massigen Gesteine. 2nd edit. ii. 427. Stuttgart, 1887. 243 Paolo. In 1867 this chapel fell a prey to the flames and was well-nigh consumed.* Two visits were devoted to examining the blackened remains of choice marbles and ornamental stones, and they were not uninstructive. The porphyrite used as small pillars in the chapel, was probably brought from the vicinity of Rovérédo in South Tyrol. The stumps of the pillars standing on the North side of the chapel walls had been completely shelled, and presented the usual scooped out hollow outlines. On both the side walls were worked columns of marble, with fluting and other ornament; these had been stripped nearly all over of their worked exterior, and been licked by the flames into distorted shapes. The heat of this conflagration must have been intense, on account of their being confined within narrow enclosed walls surrounded on three sides, and reflecting the heat toafocus. The marbles were entirely baked to a porce- lainite, and the porphyrites materially changed. Specimens of them, save a few small bits, were difficult to obtain. One fragment of the porphyrite which formed a portion of a pillar, one of a colonnade, on the South of the edifice calls for remark ; this material was a rock of white and chocolate red colour, of brecciated character, so frequently to be observed with other porphyrites in the Venetian Tyrol. The point of interest to be named is that of the mechanical effect: of heat at high temperature. Two portions of the rock of contrasted colours, one of white, the other of a dark marone or reddish purple, had by the fierce energy acting laterally and by a shearing force, left evidence of the direction of the vibrations, wrenching one piece from the other by a transverse strain, and further had left in proof of the direction, small portions of the fractured stones inter- changed, small bits in relief of the white upon the red * The origin of this fire came about in a strange way. There had been a Festival celebrated in the Church, called by the Venetians S. Zanipolo, and some of the tapers not quite extinguished, had been left smouldering and _ unnoticed in a corner of the chapel ; and of course the usual result followed. But the price paid for this piece of carelessness was the irreparable loss of two exquisite pictures, both of them consumed. They were, moreover, fine examples of the Venetian school, one by Titian, the other by Bellini. 244 ground, and of the red upon the white ground. The vibrations of the energy as in the case of a ray of polarized light are iransverse to the wave length. Direction oF THE Hat VIBRATIONS IN PoRPHYRITE IV. PHYSICAL OBSERVATIONS— The physical constitution of granites involves something in addition to a knowledge of their intimate structure and origin—it would lead naturally to a fuller and more precise inquiry, and of course, information, as to such rocks and their capacities—(1) in presence of water. (2) in presence of fire. 1. The conclusion after a course of patient research undertaken by the late Prof. Ansted, was that, in regard to the former element, granite generally contains about 0:8 per cent. of water, and is still capable of absorbing about one-fourth more, or 0°2 per cent. So that a cubic yard of granite of two tons in weight contains in its ordinary state about 3°5 gallons of water, and some specimens can absorb nearly a gallon more, on being placed in pure water for a short period. An accurate and painstaking worker, M. Daubrée, member of l’Academie des Sciences, Paris, relates that water is found and stored up in the interstices, fissures, and cavities of the crust of the globe—but further it exists in a perfectly invisible state locked up in the actual substance of the rocks. All rocks, even the most compact, granite and quartz, enclose it in their pores, although from their extreme fineness quite outside the reach of magnifying power, it is retained by capillary attraction, and is in no wise apparent. But dessication, in consequence of which it is driven out, causes the rock to lose a sensible fraction of its weight, at the least, some ten thousandths. 245 At the same time, certain physical qualities of this latter are modified, for the quarrymen who are accustomed to work slate, quartzose, or other siliceous rocks find a great difference in. the facility of their task between those substances still containing their “ quarrywater,” or those deprived of this water by exposure to the air. Already had the Romans turned to account the porosity of onyx, in order to cause certain liquids to penetrate and heighten the colour of these agates intended for their cameos. Under this latent form of intimate impreg- nation, and however feeble may be the relative proportion, water is incorporated even in the quartz of granites or granu- lites, &c. It is a well-known fact that at the present day, in mountain regions, such as Chamonix in the Haute Savoie, where strangers much resort, flint stones of light colour are prepared for sale, by being boiled in a blue solution, and sold to the unwary as Lapis Lazuli. The property then of granites to absorb and retain water within the pores of their compound minerals, is unquestionable. From the character of porosity in rocks, the line of inquiry would as regards the presence of water in the mineral contents of the granitic rocks, lead to a passing reference to the water existing in chemical combination, as for examples in the hydrous silicates, a class or group containing numerous minerals, a large and important number of these being magnesian, like Steatite and Serpentine, or again, like Muscovite and Damourite, the mica so often present in granitic rocks; on the other hand quartz is anhydrous, yet in some of its conditions, colloidal or quasi colloidal, as in Opal which contains from 3 to 13 per cent. of water, and is a solidified gelatinous silicate; it has water in its intimate structure chemically combined. The test for the water in hydrated minerals is generally simple, but should be carefully conducted; the mineral has only to be submitted in a small glass flask, or ‘ Berzelius-tube,’ to a sufficient heat of say 100 to 120 to determine the conversion of the water into vapour, which condenses on cooling upon the surface. With this bare glance at the water in physical and chemical combination, attention may properly be bestowed upon the water occluded or 246 locked up in the cavities of minerals forming fundamental rocks; of these the most noteworthy and essential to this inquiry, are the lacune or enclosures in the quartz crystals of granites and granulites, &c. These enclosures in quartz are sometimes filled with liquids, such as pure water or aqueous solutions of chloride of sodium or other salts, and sometimes they contain water holding carbon dioxide, commonly called carbonic acid in solution, sometimes liquid carbon dioxide itself ; the shape of the cavities is irregular, or otherwise, varying in size; some may be seen with the naked eye, but in general their largest diameter would be 0:06 millimetre. The smallest are not visible without the aid of a microscope, with an augmentation of 700-800 diameters, in which case more than 120 occlusions have been counted within the space of the 100th part of a square millimetre. In respect of the temperature and pressure at which the quartz containing them was consolidated, Mr H. C. Sorby estimated in the course of his valuable researches upon the subject, that in the quartz of a trachyte from the islands of Ponza, the temperature was probably 356°. Some important observations have been made by Bischof. on the contraction of the igneous rocks, as they pass from a fluid or pasty state to a consolidated condition. It has been ascertained experimentally that rocks expand on being heated, and contract on cooling, this contraction would affect the number of atmospheres of pressure upon the contents of the lacunz. Bischof got in his experiments, the following results for granites :— Volume in the state of glass. In crystalline state Granite ... ax eae i Nia “re x .. 0.8420 In the fluid state In crystalline state Granite ... Ss ase ie ge ee a+ -. 0.7481 From this it would appear that granite contracts 25 per cent., or a quarter of its volume in passing from a fluid to a crystalline state, and 16 per cent. in passing from a glassy to a crystalline state. M. Deville and M. Delesse (Bul. Soc. Geol. France, 2nd ser. iv. p. 1312) arrive at results rather different from Bischof’s, and M. Delesse gives the following as comprising 247 the limits within which these rocks contract on passing from a fluid to a solid state. “Granite, granulites, and quartziferous porphyrites, &c., 9 to 10 per cent.” Were this subject carried further, it would however valu- able as an aid to speculation on the cooling of igneous rocks in its bearing upon the shrinkage of the crust of the earth, not materially serve the present purpose, and the same remark will apply to the opposite direction, namely, of the expansion of the same kind of fundamental rocks. In the Bridgewater Treatise by Mr Charles Babbage (1837) at page 200, there is an account given of some expansions determined by the experiments of Mr Adie, and published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Volume XIII. These expansions are for Scotch granites. Aberdeen Grey granite us 00000438 Peterhead Red granite oa “00000498 (Adie) One instance only may be cited as regards the expansion of Quartz from heat, by Sir Wm. Thompson, F.R.S., taken by him from Clarke’s Constants of Nature. Taste I. (Linear Expansion of Solids.) Quartz. Mean Expansion. Range. Authority 810, along axis + ‘00000781 40 Fizeau SiO, normal to axis + ‘000001419 40 " TaBLE II. (Cubical Expansion of Solids.) Quariz. Mean Expansion. SiO, 000040 These co-efficients of expansions are too inconsiderable to apply to our subject, and attention will be simply invited to consider the pent up forces enclosed in the rock cavities of quartz, and imprisoned at the temperature just now given, viz: 360°, and the pressure corresponding to that temperature. Next in connection, reference may be made to the liquified carbon dioxide so frequently occurring as enclosures in the cavities, and on returning to the recorded descriptions by chemists, of the experiments on the liquefaction of this element, we are impressed with the power of resistance displayed, and the consequent danger incurred in both respects, (1) of water 248 enclosed under great pressure at a high temperature, (2) of gaseous vapour under enormous compression. Sir Isambard Brunel, and later, M. Thilorier, of Paris, succeeded in obtain- ing liquid carbon dioxide in great abundance. Thilorier’s apparatus consisted of a pair of extremely strong metallic vessels, one of which was used as a retort, the other as a receiver, made of thick cast-iron or gun-metal, or what is better, of the best and heaviest boiler plate, and furnished with stop- cocks of a peculiar kind, the workmanship of which was excellent, as the vessels have to bear enormous pressure. When the receiving vessel containing the charge has its stop-cock opened, a stream of the liquid is forcibly driven through a tube by the elasticity of the gas contained in the upper part of the vessel, when the experimenter incurs great personal danger in using this apparatus, unless the utmost care be taken in its management. A dreadful accident occurred in Paris from the bursting of one of the iron vessels, by which one of the chemists lost his life. Again, the liquid contents of these cavities in the quartz of granites are completely vaporised under great pressures. Alcohol or ether enclosed in a tube of strong glass or iron is completely converted into vapour, only when the space not occupied by the liquid is somewhat greater than the volume of the liquid itself. Alcohol when thus heated acquires increased mobility, expands to twice its original volume, and is then suddenly converted into vapour. This change takes place at 207°C (404-6° F.) when the alcohol occupies just half the volume of the tube; if the tube is more than half-filled with alcohol it bursts when heated. A glass tube one-third filled with water - becomes opaque when heated, and explodes violently after a few seconds. What enormous forces then are stored up in these minute cells of the rock, ready to burst into action at an augmented temperature, and do the work of destruction and disintegration. The subject of the temperature and compression indicated by the lacune and their contents, liquid, gaseous, and solid, having been briefly given as it were in outline, some remarks 249 will come in on the temperature and pressure of rock masses which will finish this sub-division. There is no means of estimating * the extreme slowness with which the changes in them have been brought about, except such as are suggested by the changes of level in land that have been observed to be now in progress; and although high temperatures may be necessary to approximate to similar conditions in our experiments, it is probable that in the lengthened periods over which the natural operations extended, the heat involved may have been less than would at first have been expected, and it is more than probable that the phenomena are not to be explained by the action of heat alone. All experiments at the earth’s surface are necessar- _ily under a pressure which is infinitesimal in comparison with that of the superincumbent rock, which has since been denuded from a granitic district, sometimes for a thickness of miles, to say nothing of the force of pressure from lateral contraction which is superadded. And while the water within the rock at once escapes in a furnace experiment, the water is inevitably imprisoned in a metamorphosed rock, so that the conditions of the experiments are not the same. The presence of water appears to be necessary to the production of such crystalline forms for minerals as are met with in nature, for in blast furnace slags which are run out at a temperature of about 3700° F., only complex feathery skeletons of crystals are commonly formed with belonites and trichites scattered in the glass. And when igneous rocks, such as basalt, are artificially melted, the augite crystallises in flat feathery plates, like those of furnace slags, which are rarely if ever seen in nature; and the felspar prisms end in complex fan-shaped brushes, so that the structure of the rock is changed by the conditions of liquefaction and consolidation. Similarly when the Leicestershire syenite is fused and slowly cooled, the solid crystals are lost and replaced by feathery skeleton crystals of magnetite, and flat prisms of triclinic felspar ending in fan-shaped brushes. As to the cavities in granites the same authority remarks, “the proof of the operation of water is quite as strong as that * Sorby Q. J . Geol. Soc. vol. xxxvi. Address, p. 73. 250 of heat, and in fact, I must admit that in the case of coarse grained highly quartzose granites, there is so very little evidence of igneous fusion, and such overwhelming proof of the action of water, that it is impossible to draw a line between them and those veins where, in all probability, mica, felspar, and quartz have been deposited from solution in water, without there being any definite genuine igneous fusion, like that in the case of furnace slags or erupted lavas.” While from the fact that schorl melts readily at a bright red heat and multitudes of hair like crystals of schor] are enclosed in the quartz of Cornwall, it is inferred that the granite did not become finally solid at a temperature much higher than a dull red heat. From the fluid cavities, the temperature inferred for an elvan dyke is 608 F., which indicates a pressure of 18,100 feet. But most of the observations on Cornish elvans gave a pressure of 40,300 feet, while the quartz porphyry dykes of the Highlands of Scotland indicate on similar evidence, a pressure of 69,000 feet. The granite of St. Austell in the same way indicates a temperature of 490° feet, and a pressure of 32,400 feet, while near Penzance the pressure corresponds to 63,600 feet; the mean pressure indicated by Cornish granites is 50,000 feet. The mean pressure of the Aberdeen granite is about 76,000 feet, while the centre of the main mass of the granite of Aberdeen requires a pressure of 78,000 feet. Whence we learn that the inferred temperatures under which these rocks were produced, are scarcely higher than would be reached at corresponding depths beneath the surface by the mere natural augmentation of the earth’s heat, so that if anything like 50,000 or 70,000 feet of rock has been denuded to expose the granite, all difficulty as to the temperature vanishes; and the water though greatly heated, was in most cases caught up by the crystals in a fluid state, more or less saturated with the alkalies which enter into the composition of the minerals forming the rock. For a discussion on the nature of the evidence, see Sorby, Q.J.G.S., vol. xiv. p. 453. Mention has been made of compression at high temper- . atures, and so a short note on the faculty of conducting heat possessed by certain bodies, may well follow, at least to some 251 extent. In this position it will be interesting to regard con- ductivity in regard to crystalline substances; for in these the unequal condition of heat has been well shown by De Sénarmont, Rontgen and other scientists—the experiment is simple enough. A thin layer of wax having been spread over a plate of the crystal, afterwards heat is applied toa single point. The wax then melts in a circular or elliptic area, according as the rate of conduction is uniform or not. The law deduced from this discovery of De Sénarmont would be for a heated crystal of quartz thus stated. If the crystal be of the 3rd system (hexagonal), then the isothermal surfaces of such a crystal heated internally at a point, would be spheroids—the axis being in the direction of the axis of symmetry. Hence it follows that crystals of quartz conduct heat with equal facility in all directions perpendicular to the axis, but with different facility parallel to the axis. The law of conduction deduced for the felspars Orthoclase and Albite, would be that for the crystallo- graphic system characterised by having three unequal axes— the isotherms are ellipsoids with 3 unequal axes; so that Orthoclase and Albite conduct heat differently in all three perpendicular directions. For the conductivity of other solids, a committee consisting of Professors Herschel: and Lebour and Mr J. F. Dunn, appointed by the British Association to determine the thermal conductivities of certain rocks, have obtained results from which the following selection may be found useful for comparison :— Substance Conductivity _k_ | ie eon me pe: in C.G.S. Units c ity of unit volume Granites, various, about ... 00510 to -0092 0100 to 0120 Marblesand Limestones 00470 0085 to -0095 Red Serpentine (Cornwall) ‘00441 to -00560 0065 Caenstone (Building) ... °00433 0089 Fire-brick ... ees ... 00174 0053 Red brick (fine) ... ... (00147 0044 Quartz and Quartzites ... ‘0080 to ‘0092 ‘0175 to :0190 (Units and physical constants by Professor Everett, F.R.S., &c., ed. 2, p. 111.) 8 252 V. SUMMARY OF RESULTS— A review of the summary of results brought together in this modest inquiry, may be fairly required at this stage of recital of numerous facts, more or less in relation to the sub- ject. The real point then at issue is something subjective, being a consideration, and involving a consideration concerning force, and force is subjective, not objective. We see two kinds of forces arrayed in action against each other. Ina bit of granite, consisting of three substances, or rather two, viz: quartz and felspar—for the third essential, the mica, is often small in size and quantity—we have substances or bodies, indued with the usual properties of matter, cohesion and elasticity. Acting against these and striving with them is the form of energy, a mighty force, known as heat. In the principal component of granite, so strong is the quartz element in the force of cohesion, that it will not melt before the flame of an ordinary blow-pipe, and it is only when a jet of oxyhydrogen gas is brought to bear upon it forcibly, or when subjected to heat in the reverbatory gas furnaces of the laboratory that it runs, and the force of co- hesion relaxing, the quartz gives way and loses its rigidity. The other essential components may be sensibly regarded on the contrary as one substance, for our purpose. This is the felspar, an alkaline mineral. What occurs most frequently and extensively in granites is Orthoclase, the potash felspar, which is the weakest component in the granite, and has so little cohesion and power of resistance, that it yields in the presence of heat at a low degree of temperature. Chemically the alkalis are weak and unstable. One word as to the two, potash and - soda, formerly called the fixed alkalis, and so called merely to conveniently distinguish them from the volatile alkali, ammonia. Both of the former, the metals of the alkalies and their oxides are weak and unstable, soft, easily fusible, volatile at higher temperatures and combine very easily with oxygen, decompose water at all temperatures, and form strongly basic oxides which are very soluble in water. In fact, in combination with oxygen their state of chemical combination is very feeble. When we know that in general, heat produces a direct and immediate 253 effect in overcoming chemical forces, can we escape the con- clusion that in this case we directly place our finger upon the felspars as the source of weakness. Not only are the felspars of the granites weak chemically, but as regards their crystalline structure, they are so built up that they easily give way ; being in fact a network of meshes, or a lattice work, by no means a solid structure, held merely together by the force of cohesion. We would indicate the lines of weakness that in this instance of the felspars, mineralogy denotes. For in the presence of higher temperatures, that allied property of matter, the conductivity is too important to omit; and besides, there are the lines of least resistance, or the passages through which the heat courses and vibrations act most energetically. Such are :— 1. The cleavage planes of the crystals of felspar, and especially easy are those of mica (Biotite). 2. The twinning planes of the double crystals. (In Albite, single are infrequent.) 3. The fine lamellar structure of some species. 4. The rounded grains of the granulites favour heat. 5. The thermic properties too of the crystals are to be taken into account. All these properties incidental to crystalline substance, are on the side of thermic energy, and facilitating its action enables it to subdue and overcome the opposing force of cohesion of the molecules, and their power of resistance, and rupture and disintegration ensue. Brittleness is a state that sets in when to a heated substance like granite at a higher temperature, either cold water or cold air is applied, when the friable state or brittleness intervenes, it does not break up the granite, it only so far diminishes the force of cohesion as to ren- der it less powerful to resist the violent vibrations of the heat. The diffusion of heat through the granite by conduction, can be computed by obtaining the measures of the conductivity. The problem is to find the dimension of k, the specific thermal conductivity. To find the dimension and the measures, whether s 2 254 dynamical, calorimetric or thermometric, see the equations and formule given by Clerk Maxwell, Theory of Heat, p. 255. In all computations, of a kind where heat is an integral quantity, it is assumed that the heat is of a constant temperature, and of an even steady flow; where however there is great fluctation, and intermittent action: such for instance, as in the case of a burnt granite exposed in a conflagration, where the temperature or state varies incessantly like the flickering of a candle, it is abundantly evident, that the problem becomes of a complicated character. In too many problems of the kind, the difficulties are eliminated, and so they well deserve the name of “ prepared problems ” applied to them. A fearful source of danger to the integrity of granite is the water locked up in the lacune and pores of its substance. On the application of heat, sufficient superheated steam is generated, and confined under vast pressures in atmospheres, which act as an explosive agent in rending the rock asunder. Its force at great pressures is inconceivably great; since it is calculated that only one cubic inch of water in becoming steam under the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere expands into 1696 cubic inches, or nearly a cubic foot. And when water is present the rise of temperature increases the quantity and density of the steam, and hence the elastic force increases in a far more rapid proportion. The elastic force of steam in contact with water has been lately determined very carefully by Magnus and Regnault. The force is expressed in atmospheres; the absolute pressure upon any given surface can be easily calculated, by allowing 14.6 lb. per square inch to each atmosphere. The experiments were carried to twenty-five atmospheres, at which point the difficulties and danger became so great as to put a stop to the inquiry. So far, some particulars of the structural nature of granite, have been presented in a small compass, yet sufficient to enable the student to judge for himself, and trace the causes and effects into further bearings and relations; so extensive and profound are the fields of science into which the inquiry would naturally lead the way, that we can barely give a glance at them, although intimately connected with the subject : ee eee eS 255 two for instance are (1) the molecular theory, (2) the dynamical theory of heat. 1. On the molecular constitution of matter, and its pro- perties. The chief properties, as distinct from the allied forces of matter, are those with which we are now concerned, namely, cohesion and elasticity; for convenience sake often treated separately. Cohesion is the force that holds together the particles of a bit of granite, and ranged in the same class is another property, that of elasticity, e.g., the elasticity of granite. With both of these, the forms of energy in nature have to do. Such forms are heat, light, and electricity or electrical energy. These forms of force can all in great measure be studied without express reference to any one special kind of matter. In the ultimate structure of matter the unit is the molecule, and though the chemist inclines to the use of the word atom, other scientists regard the atoms as constituents of the molecule. Dr Daubeny, a name grateful to our Cotteswold Naturalists’ Society, enlarges in his excellent work on the Atomic Theory (1850, ed. ii.), upon the atom and its chemical affinities, and adopts the word ‘ mole- cule’ with a limited sense; but this was published nearly 40 years back. Now, the molecule as a constituent of matter, although its existence cannot be detected by the most delicate instruments, is held to be something of a wide sphere of action, one molecule exerts upon another a force which is mutual, and to which is due the cohesiveness of matter. The forces are named intermolecular, and those forces applied to the molecules from without are known as impressed forces. The whole subject is replete with difficulties that stand in the way of developing the theory analytically. Take for instance, the absolute bulk and dimensions of molecules; the law of distribution of their mean positions in their natural state; the law of intermolecular force; the manner in which it depends upon and varies with both the configuration and the temper- ature; the limits of its sphere of action; and lastly, the connection between mean configuration, period, and amplitude of vibration, and the temperature. On almost all these points, there is at present absolute ignorance. For instance, as to the 256 size of the molecules, the latest conclusions are summarised as follows, by Sir William Thompson. “ The four lines of argument which I have now indicated, lead all to substantially the same estimate of the dimensions of molecular structure. Jointly they establish, with what we cannot but regard as a very high degree of probability, the conclusion that in any ordinary liquid, transparent solid, or seemingly opaque solid, the mean distance between the centres of contiguous molecules is less than the five-millionth, and greater than the thousandth millionth of a centimetre. To form some conception of the degree of coarse grainedness indicated by this conclusion, imagine a globe of water or glass as large as a football (or say a globe of 16 centi- metres in diameter), to be magnified up to the size of the earth, each constituent molecule being magnified in the same propor- tion. The magnified structure would be more coarse grained than a heap of small shot, but probably less coarse grained than a heap of footballs.” As to the law of intermolecular force, we are still in more complete ignorance: again as to the nature and origin of molecules, Clerk Maxwell makes a striking remark. “It is possible to frame a theory to account for the present state of things, by means of generation, variation, and discriminative destruction. In the case of the molecules however, each individual is permanent ; there is no generation or destruction, and no variation, or rather no difference, between the individuals of each species. Hence the kind of speculation with which we have become so familiar under the name of theories of evolution, is quite inapplicable to the case of mole- cules. They are as we believe, the only material things which still remain in the precise condition in which they first began to exist,” when they were created by the Supreme Creator of all things visible and invisible. 2. With regard to the dynamical theory of heat, modern physicists are now beginning to regard the great forces of the universe, such as heat, and others, as producing effects on bodies, of the same kind as are produced by mechanical force. In this sense would be a piece of granite when exposed to heat, and become distorted and ruptured, its rigidity from the heat rising a ee eS eS 257 above the critical point and collapsing when degrudation ensues. The destructive effects are on the dynamical theory, explained as stresses of force at work internally, produced by strain. The ease of strain in the example supposed, that of granite, is particular. It is known as shearing stress, which is dynamically a tangential force tending to separate a body by making its parts slide one upon the other in opposite directions to resist shearing motion, and for this reason it is very often called shearing stress; this is the physical point of view. Writers on the mathematical theory of perfectly elastic solids, often adopt the same view as engineers. This may be described as looking at all the phenomena of strain from an outside point of view. Each body or portion of a body is regarded not as an agent opposing strain of its own substance by the exertion of stress, but as passively yielding to the stresses exerted on it from without. This is the mechanical view of such cases. Energy acting thus, actually does work in the moving of matter, overcoming rigidity of the mass, and causing distortion and displacement of the body. The publications upon the Mathe- matical Theory of Elasticities, embracing and treating on the ~ properties of strain and stress, are already so many, that in the words of a mathematical author, they constitute “the enormous literature of Elasticity.” - APPENDIX Designation of grades of High Temperature. The information placed under the above heading, will, it is thought, be of some service to an intelligent inquirer in aiding him to form a conception of what is understood by degrees of high or elevated temperature. Such degrees are mentioned in the annexed lists, and without help of the kind, the citations would be vague and unmeaning. The subject is attended with difficulty, and few indications of this nature are printed ; there are notes extant, but in general only to be found incidentally in the Transactions of Scientific Societies. By far the best, as far as they go, are those fixed by M. M. Fouqué & Lévy, the French chemists, who achieved such brilliant results in their experiments 258 in the Government laboratory in Paris. Experiments conducted at very high temperatures, or states in which they recognised and adopted certain standard points, such as the following, are four in number :— I. 1175° (Violle) The melting point of Platinum ... ae ... Is sufficient to reduce to a vitreous mass Anorthite, Leucite, Olivine II. The melting point of Steel ... Melts all felspars except Anorthite, and all the bisilicates III. 1054° (Violle) The melting point of Steel and Copper ... Melts easily Augite and Nepheline IV. 1000° (Violle) The melting point when Copper fuses with difficulty. Some colour destinations in general use, are indispensable for many purposes. “The student,” says Faraday, “will do well to observe the appearances of a furnace or a substance, as it rises from a dull red heat to the highest possible temperature that can be given to it; to form in his mind a clear idea of the colour and appearance of the light emitted in succession; and to select three or four distinct periods of the ignition to serve him as it were for degrees. The terms dull red, red, full red, yellow, white, bluish white, or any others he may choose, should not be quite indefinite, but so far understood and appreciated, and the appearance he intends to express by them so fixed in his mind, that he may be able to say whether a fire is above or below any required degree; or having registered a particular heat by its appearance in his note book, that he may be able to attain it again with considerable accuracy.” (Chem. Manip. Faraday, 3rd ed. page 146.) In degrees In degrees Cent. Fahr. Cent. Fahr. Nascent Red ... ... 525° ... Lowest ignition of iron Dark Red “ie Serer ALOE eee (in dark) ... acai eoais *635° Cherry Red_... ... 900°... Ironbrightred(indark) ... *752° Deep Orange Red... 1100° ... ‘Tron red hot (in twi- White ... re lode Ras light) 506 rose? Uiess 884° Glowing White ... 1500° ... Red fully visible in th day ... “ee ; 1077° Heat of acommon fire... 1141° (J. Jamin) (Daniels) —— 259 Solid bodies begin to be— 1. A little lower than a Tron, red hot, visible in dull red visible in dark a Fae er 932° the dark ... ..» 320° 608° Iron red hot, visible in 2. Dull red in the dark 335° 670° daylight ... Pop eee ee hs 3. Very dull red visible Cherryredheatofiron ... 1292° in the dark .. 360° 680° Full red heat of iron... 1472° 4. Of adecided red heat 380° 716° White heatof iron... ... 2372° 5. Bright red ... .. 400° 784° (Sorby) (Carnelley) In the course of the discussion in the preceding Paper on granite, &c., some degrees of temperature were cited, and are approximately as below :— 1. Probable mean temperature attained in Newnham Church by granite, 320° C. 2. In Experiment I, first described, when granite was brought to cherry red, 900° C. _ 8. In Experiment III, the degree to which the granite was raised was orange red, 1000° C. 4, In the second trial the granite reached to a low white degree of heat, 1200° C. 5. The granulites in tanks at the Dresden Glass Works melt at about 1100° C. : In this appendix on the higher temperatures, are inserted the approximate values of certain colour names of temperatures, or states of heat; for some of these data the writer desires to acknowledge his deep sense of the favour so generously given by Dr Sorby, F.R.S., and Professor Carnelley, D. Se. of Uni- versity College, Dundee, F.R.S., both eminent as specialists in all that pertains to the action of heat and this branch of research. Observations upon the Reptilia and Batrachia of Gloucestershire. Read January 17th, 1888, by Mr C. A. WircHeELu. In Volume III of the Proceedings of the Cotteswold Club will be found a list of the Reptiles of Gloucestershire. This list is now complete, at least to the extent of my knowledge. The Geological history of Reptiles has, I believe, been treated before the Club by Mr Cornford. In the preparation of this paper I at first intended to record merely my own observations, but as such a record must of necessity have been somewhat disjointed, it seemed better to connect them by matter already commonly known, and thus render them more acceptable to those who might be kind enough to listen to my remarks. I will not occupy your time with a defence of my subjects; but this I will say, that every indi- vidual reptile (whether a snake two feet long, or a lizard only as many inches) has a character as distinct as his body from that of his fellows; and that if we would divest ourselves of that loathing which we seem naturally to feel when in close proximity to reptiles, we should discover in many of them pleasing features, harmony in their colourings, and grace in their movements. I have been familiar with them during eighteen years. The Green Lizard (Lacerta viridis). A few Lizards of this species were liberated some years ago on Leckhampton Hill. I am ignorant until what year these survived, or if any of them remain. This Lizard becomes, in confinement, an interesting pet. It will readily take food from the hand, and will eat many kinds of common soft-bodied insects and larve. It is an exceedingly handsome reptile, from a foot to 15 inches long, and is usually bright green in colour. a 261 I do not know whether the Sand Lizard (Lacerta agilis) has ever been found in a wild state in this county. The viviparous or common Lizard (Lacerta vivipara) is plentiful, being especially abundant, together with other wholly terrestrial reptiles, along the southern and western slopes of the Inferior Oolite, and is less frequently seen in the valley of the Severn. In length it is usually six inches; the largest specimen I have seen was six and a half inches long, and was a female. The length of this reptile is to a great extent dependent upon the length of its tail, which is variable in old Lizards, in con- sequence of their liability to an accidental loss of that member, and its partial reproduction. The tail is less likely to be broken in cold weather than on a hot day, because the Lizard is then less vigorous. This remarkable feature in reptile life is not peculiar to the common Lizard. At the Cape of Good Hope, on moving a travelling trunk, I found the broken tail of a Lizard wriggling upon the floor. The Blind-worm also possesses this means of eluding the grasp of other creatures. In all cases in which the fracture occurs the broken tail inva- riably twitches and writhes, continuing these movements during several minutes. In the common Lizard the tail is partially re-produced within a full year after its loss. In the Blind- worm the tail is not re-produced, but the wound heals over, and the tail gradually becomes pointed as if no fracture had occurred. Lizards with tails partially reproduced are of fre- quent occurrence, but I have never seen more than one Lizard which had sustained an accident to any other member. This Lizard had lost a fore claw. Many persons imagine that the cold, clammy little animals sometimes found in cellars are Lizards. Lizards are never found in cellars (at least in England). They are always clean, and, although cold to the touch, they are dry, and, except in their form, are totally unlike Newts, the occasional inhabitants of damp cellars. The skin of the Lizard is apparently covered with scales, but these are only minute excrescences on the skin; they become polished by continual contact with grasses 262 and dead leaves, and glisten in the sunshine like rows of jewels. The legs are covered with larger scales, and the body is pro- tected beneath by scales or plates, which extend in two rows along its under surface. The tail is one half the entire length of the reptile, and is round, thus differing from that of the Newt, which is flat, and adapted for swimming. The feet of the Lizard are very pretty, the toes covered with bright scales like the body, each ending with a claw. The head is protected by large plates instead of scales; the tongue is not forked, as in Snakes, but is notched at the tip; and the eyes are lively and bright. The Lizard has the power of extending his ribs in such a way that his body becomes flattened, and thus exposes a larger surface to the rays of the sun, from which all his natural warmth is derived. The digestion of reptiles prac- tically does not raise their temperature, and the heat necessary for the circulation of their blood must therefore be obtained from other sources. This is the cause of their love of sunshine, and the reason why they have often been found concealed behind fire-places and in similar situations. The colour of the upper surface of the Lizard varies in different individuals from olive green to warm red brown. The males may be distinguished by some black spots scattered on their under surface, which is generally yellow, but sometimes pink in colour, the latter hue having been attributed to the advanced age of the reptile, and my own observations tend to confirm this view. The female is always of a yellowish cream- colour beneath, unspotted. She is more timed than the male, and less easily tamed. She seeks a more secluded spot in which to sun herself, especially towards the middle of summer. In July she brings forth from two to five young, exact repre- sentations of herself in all except their colour, for this is black, and only changes after the lapse of some months; but. they scarcely exceed an inch in length, and are never dependent upon her for any kind of food; in fact she takes very little notice of them, and while they daily wander farther among the long grass, she seeks a deeper seclusion under the leafy shade of bushes. The young grow rapidly, and at the end of their 263 first autumn have reached twice their size at birth; at the end of the first year they are two inches long, and when three years old they have attained their full size. The Lizard emerges from his hybernaculum about the end of March; the earliest I have seen was abroad on the 19th of February, 1882. Male Lizards emerge about a fortnight before the females. It appears that procreation does not take place at this time of the year, as with Snakes and the Batrachia, but that it occurs later, for I have dug out from their winter dormitories female Lizards which were pregnant, and which afterwards gave birth to young in their cage. Lizards are awake early in the morning during hot weather, and at mid- summer I have found them sunning themselves at 6 a.m. The food of the Lizard wholly consists of insects, for which, while sunning itself, it is always watching, and which, with its crocodile-like jaws, it rapidly kills. The grass spiders and the flies upon which these subsist, the grass caterpillars, and those which fall from the leaves of trees—driven from their haunts by insect-eating birds—alike fall a prey to this active reptile. It appears that nearly all reptiles drink water, and the Lizard especially is fond of it. How is this to be obtained by a creature never found in damp situations, and generally living on dry banks? On grass or weeds of any kind there may always be found, on dry mornings, abundant drops of purest water—a supply distilled by Nature from the early mists. This is the Lizard’s drink; he sucks up the drops one by one, but in confinement he does not hesitate to drink from a vessel in his cage. During cold weather he eats little, and takes no sustenance in winter; but he does not suffer from hunger, since the rapidity of his digestion is proportionate to the heat of his body, and he sleeps throughout the days on which, if he sought food, none could be obtained. Towards the end of September the Lizard prepares for the winter, by digging with his claws a burrow under some large stone, or among the roots of a tree. Into this he retires, and apparently each individual forms his own cell, and does not, like a Snake or Viper, seek others of his species for 264 companionship during the long period of hybernation. When the surface of the ground becomes warmer, in February or March, the Lizard slowly crawls out into the sunshine. He has known nothing of the dreary cold weather ; the piercing frost has not penetrated his retreat; the rushing winds have not disturbed the completeness of his repose; the mole, a destructive exca- vator, has not changed the long slumber of hybernation into the sleep of death; and he comes forth to find the earth as bright and the sun shining as warmly as it was five months ago. In winter Lizards should be sought among the roots of shrubs, where they may be discovered in their hybernacula; - but the best time to capture them is in summer, and the best method of taking them is to seize them very quickly with the naked hand, being careful not to squeeze them or lay hold of their tails. Mental Capacity and Character of the Lizard.—With regard to his life in captivity I can only describe the Lizard as a charming pet, most easily tamed, and easily provided with food. I trained one to run out of his hole to a certain stone whenever I struck the door of his cage. Seven days after capture he had well learned the lesson, and on hearing my signal invariably ran to the stone, even when watched by half a dozen people. I did not starve him in order to train him, but rewarded his docility with the present of a delicacy, in the form of a large spider. The stone was at least six inches from his place of concealment, and his cage was large. The first male Lizard placed in a cage will bully other males introduced a day or so later. Female Lizards are perfectly inoffensive in their habits towards each other. The Lizard distinguishes his owner from other people. All creatures seem to be more or less local in their habits, having a partiality for some certain spot which they are accustomed to frequent, and from which they endea- vour to drive others of their species. Animals of many kinds, from the lion to the house-mouse, birds of large size and as small as the crested wren, fishes in the stream and butterflies on the hill-side, contend with others of their species who would enjoy the security or productiveness of their favourite nooks. 265 This combative tendency is not found in all reptiles, but it exists in certain of them. The common Lizard is one of these, for the male vigorously attacks any other who trespasses on his little domain, his garden on the favourite bank, the paths of which are the runs of field-mice, and its flowers sweet-scented weeds. In pursuing his prey the Lizard shows much activity, some perseverance and intelligence. If approached slowly he remains still for a time, quietly eyeing the intruder; when, however, he decides on a retreat, he moves with great rapidity, as if he understood that in doing so he might discover himself, and therefore must move as quickly as possible. When angry with others of his species the Lizard rattles his tail upon the ground. I have on several occasions witnessed the same habit in the common snake. Modifications due to Surroundings.—On Painswick Hill, among loose stones and sand, I found several Lizards, which only differed from the common species in the exceedingly muscular development of their limbs, and in the unusual thickness of their skins. It was evident that these Lizards had become affected in this manner by the character of their surroundings. The Blindworm or Sloworm (Anguis fragilis, Lin.) is plen- tiful on all the warmer slopes of the Cotteswolds. It habitually lies in the seclusion of thick hedgerows, or concealed beneath moss-covered stones. In length it rarely exceeds fourteen inches, but I have, in the neighbourhood of Stroud, found several of these reptiles which were more than eighteen inches long. The colour is usually a shade of bronze, but when the skin becomes loose preparatory to sloughing, it is changed to a dull leaden hue. This reptile, although snake-like in form, is a Lizard, having rudimentary legs concealed beneath his skin; having moveable eyelids, and jaws which resemble those of crocodiles. There seems to be no reason for the word “blind” to be applied to him, for his eyes, though small, are bright and pretty, the black pupils contrasting with the yellow irides. The Sloworm is habitually “slow,” but I know of no reptile or quadruped which, in proportion to its size, can move so 266 rapidly. Upon two occasions I have known this reptile move so quickly that my sight was totally unable to follow its movements. The Blindworm emerges from his winter retreat about the same time as the Lizard. If he does not discover sunshine at the entrance of his burrow he will exert him- self to come within reach of its life-giving power, and will even climb to the top of a bush a yard high in order to be warmed by the sun’s rays. When thus basking, and before he is thoroughly awake, his glistening form may attract the atten- tion of some passing urchin, who at once believes the creature to be a venomous snake, but on seeing it lie inert and apparently asleep, he takes courage, hurls a great stone upon it, or batters it to pieces with a stick. We are gradually becoming aware of the economic value of some of our birds, and an uncertain protection has been accorded them, but many of our reptiles are as useful as birds, and should be encouraged rather than exterminated. The food of this reptile principally consists of small slugs and worms; for this reason it is well adapted to captivity in a fern-case, or it may be liberated on an open rockery, and in the latter situation it will survive, within my knowledge, for fifteen years. The Sloworm is perfectly harmless. I once received a bite, which bled pretty freely, from one of these reptiles, but the wounds (for there were many of them, caused by the numerous teeth) healed very quickly. This reptile brings forth from 6 to 16 young at a birth. I had one which gave birth to 23 young in two consecutive years. The Sloworm is a good weather prophet, and often comes from his hole, on the look out for slugs, before the shower has fallen which is going to attract from their places of seclusion the creatures upon which he subsists. I believe the Sloworm attains his full length when about three years old. T have no record of the Smooth Snake (Coronella Leevis) having been seen wild in this county. The common or Ringed Snake (Coluber Natrix) is a more persecuted, and, consequently, a more timid reptile than those . ai. 267 already mentioned, and is therefore found in places more remote from the haunts of men. The Ringed Snake derives its name from the yellow marks upon the sides of its neck, which form an almost complete ring or collar, and are so distinct that generally the reptile may be at once distinguished from all other snakes, and especially from the viper, his companion in our hedgerows. The ground-colour of the Snake varies in all shades between warm red brown and clear light green, and these different shades correspond with the length of time elapsed since the last shedding of the skin, for the brown snake becomes a green snake when this event takes place. The points of difference between the snake and viper are many and distinct. The snake, of whatever ground-colour he may be, has never a continuous line of black spots down the centre of the back; in the viper, this line, zigzag and blotched, is always present. The eyes of the snake are yellow and the pupils are round; in the viper the eyes are red and the pupils vertical, like those of a cat, and render the aspect of the viper more repulsive than that of the Ringed Snake, which is really a handsome reptile. The long forked tongue bears no poison; I need not say that no snake has any sting in its tongue or in its tail, but the teeth are the only weapons used for attack or defence, and in this respect the English snake is perfectly harmless. I have had blood drawn from my fingers by the accidental bites of snakes, but suffered no sort of inconveni- ence in consequence. The only weapon of the common snake is a foul odour, which he always pours forth when captured. In length the snake generally exceeds two feet, and is rarely more than three feet, although individuals have been found more than four feet long. The largest I have seen in this neighbourhood was three feet seven inches in length. Were we to believe all the statements made by persons who, when enjoying a country ramble, have been startled by a snake, the dimensions of the reptile would be increased to the size of a small boa. Fear is a powerful magnifier, but it is difficult to correctly estimate the length of a snake gliding rapidly through long grass or dense herbage. T 268 About midsummer the female snake lays her eggs, from 4 to 27 in number, in—if possible—her favourite nest, a manure heap. Where did she lay them in the days when dunghills were of less frequent occurrence? I have never been able to hatch out snakes’ eggs in a cage. The food of the snake consists of frogs, newts, young birds, mice, birds’ eggs and insects. In the excrete of snakes I have found masses of the fur of the meadow vole. In the fur were numerous small bones, but where these had protruded they had been dissolved by the process of digestion, and their abrupt ends were blackened, as if by charring in a fire. His. manner of feeding, and his dexterity in seizing his prey, are very interesting. The jaws of the snake are united by what may be termed a double hinge, so that he can open them to twice the extent allowed by the single-hinged jaws of quad- rupeds and man. The bones of the jaws are united in front by cartilage, and therefore the snake can open his jaws until they lie nearly in the same plane, and can expand them until their orifice is nearly round, like the end of a tube. In confinement the snake likes to catch his own dinner, and will seize newts swimming in a vessel of water in his cage. One of my snakes ate 17 newts at a meal; another devoured a gudgeon six inches long; and a third, when coiled round my hand, would catch sticklebacks in an aquarium. He lowered his head in the water, and opened his mouth, when the fish mistook his red jaws for a piece of meat, or perhaps a worm, and, coming near, were captured. This snake was a small one, but he had no difficulty in disposing of a stickle- back, whether the spines of the fish (which are a quarter of an inch long) were erect or depressed. The snake is said to eat toads, and undoubtedly does so, but not, I believe, habitually. (See page 275.) I have had at least 30 snakes at different times in my possession, and had but one which would touch a toad. This snake was very hungry, and ate a little toad. About four days afterwards he died, and as there was a bright green mark on his stomach, I cut him open, and there was the toad, undigested, but a nauseous mess, dark green in colour ; "we Hy SS ee Se 269 and all the tissues of the snake at this part, from the intes- tine to the skin, were discoloured. This happened early in September. Like other reptiles the snake prepares for winter by con- cealing himself in some suitable retreat. Sometimes he retires into a hollow tree, or a stack of brushwood may afford him shelter, but in default of these, he burrows into the ground. In thus burrowing he does not push himself lengthwise into the earth, but he continually moves round in a coil, endeavouring to thrust his head, which is at the bottom of the coil, into the mould. By this means he slowly lowers himself in the soil, and gradually disappears from view; but he is in no danger of suffocation by the falling-in of mould, for his con- tinual movement presses into a firm wall the sides of his little chamber, in which he will rest secure alike from frost and tempest, fearing nothing, knowing nothing, for the cold of winter will completely numb his faculties, and he will have no more feeling than the dead leaves scattered above him. In this seclusion he remains throughout the winter months, but towards the end of March he gradually awakes, and works his way up into light and sunshine. He does not appear to be entirely guided by temperature in making his exit from this retreat, for I have found that if placed in a greenhouse before the usual time of waking, he will not be deluded by the genial warmth into the belief that summer has come, but will hide in his sleeping box until the end of March, and will then appear contemporaneously with his former companions of the hedgerow and thicket. The skin of the snake is generally cast entire, and always exceeds the length of the reptile from which it has been removed. I have always found the skins of snakes which were captured in the fields to be more brightly polished than those of snakes captured among stones. When out snaking one ought to wear garden-gloves, as the best manner of capturing a snake is to seize him with the hands, and if these were unprotected an accident might be caused by mistaking the identity of the reptile. t 2 270 The snake may be kept in a large glass covered box, or a vivarium, which should be examined carefully, in order that no crevices or projections may remain to injure him in his efforts to escape. Snakes vary much in disposition, but all of them cherish in confinement their natural love of freedom. The floor of their cage should be strewed with small pebbles, or in default of these, with fine gravel-stones; sand or earth | would stop their nostrils, and bare metal or wood is uncom- fortable to them. A vessel of water should be introduced, and changed daily, and a piece of charcoal kept in the water will maintain its purity. The female snake does not incubate her eggs, but still she appears to have some sort of feeling of protection towards them, for after any of my snakes had laid eggs they were always singularly fierce and intractable, hissing violently when the litter in their cage was disturbed, and one of them even struck at my hand when her eggs were removed. The Viper or Adder (Peleas Berus) is fairly plentiful on the Cotteswolds. It is generally about two feet in length. The largest I have seen was 263 inches long. A writer to The Field mentioned one which measured 27 inches when dead, but dead snakes stretch considerably. The ground-colour varies in all shades between slaty white and warm red-brown. Down the centre of the back runs a zigzag black line, and there are other black markings on the sides. The viper is often found in close proximity to the common snake, a circumstance which I first discovered under rather alarming circumstances, when, at the age of ten years, far away from any house, and alone, I had a narrow escape from a bite. The food of the viper consists principally of mice, but Dr Henry Bird, whose name may perhaps recall pleasant memories to some of the members present, informs me that he has often found in the stomachs of vipers dissected by him the remains of the common black dew-snail (Arion). With regard to the popular belief that the female viper will swallow her young, in order to protect them, I can add a 271 fraction of evidence upon that disputed point. I know a person, filling an official position of trust, who declares that he has seen a viper do this, and I have no doubt that what he relates is true. There is another belief, more absurd than this, that if a viper be roasted alive legs will grow from him; and I know a person who tried the cruel experiment, of course without success. This fallacy may be the result of a very rudimentary knowledge of the anatomy of a snake. The viper may be found a little later in the year than the snake, and appears to be able to resist a somewhat greater degree of cold. The smell of the viper is peculiar. I often discover vipers by smelling them at the distance of some yards. The best way to capture a viper is to seize him by the tail, of course taking great care to do this when the creature is endeavouring to glide away, and not when he is coiled. If carried to a pathway he may be deposited there, and kept in his place by lifting him with a stick when he tries to crawl away. Let no one attempt to seize a warm viper by the neck, as in that endeavour he will place himself entirely at the mercy of the reptile. Dr Bird informs me that the light coloured vipers are males, and that the brown ones are females. I can give no personal experience of the sexual differences of this or any other of my subjects, as I have never wilfully destroyed any reptile, and few of them have died in my keeping. I have always found light coloured vipers near or in stone walls, and brown ones upon dead leaves or the litter of wood- land undergrowth. The viper refuses food in confinement, but all of mine (and I have kept eight of them) drank water every day, though they would not touch a mouse. The viper is naturally timid, very timid, but the worm will turn, and this poor reptile, set by nature as a guardian of trees and plants against the smaller rodents and mice, will strike a blow for liberty and life when threatened with the loss of both. The viper can never be 272 tamed; he remembers the freedom he has lost, and is always ready to revenge himself upon the hand of his captor. With regard to the strength of the viper’s poison, I may mention the experience of Professor Rupert Jones, who told me that he saw a very little viper, about six inches long, crossing a road, and presented his finger to it, which the reptile at once struck, inflicting a painful wound. Mr Jones’s hand swelled, and the sting was, he said, as painful as that of a wasp. Barracuta.—The common Frog (Rana temporaria) is plen- tiful, but not so common as the toad. I believe that the numbers of the frog depend upon the abundance of water-fowl in any given district. The frog has no ribs, and therefore he cannot inflate his lungs, as higher animals do, by an effort of the chest, but he must force air into his lungs by means of the muscular construction of his throat and mouth; in fact he gulps the air into his lungs, and in so doing causes that pulsating undulation beneath the throat so clearly observable when the creature is at rest. Little effort is necessary in expiration, as the constricting muscles of tle lungs naturally contract when the air is allowed to escape. In consequence of this construction of the organs of respiration the frog quickly dies if his mouth be propped open, as in this position he cannot force the air into his lungs. I have revived frogs which had become insensible from suffocation, by opening their mouths and blowing violently into them. The frog aerates some portion of his blood by means of his skin, which must be moist, to ensure healthy action. In summer, when ditches and roadside pools are dry, the frog absorbs the necessary moisture from the dew, and when rain falls he hops out of his retreat in the wall or hedgerow and enjoys a shower-bath. The frog has a voice. His song is not distinguished for that sweetness and enthusiasm which are so charming in the notes of our woodland birds, but the sound is not unmusical. When seized by a snake the frog will sometimes scream like a child, and so loudly that I have known a dog lying asleep at a distance of twenty yards spring up, on hearing a 273 the cry of a small one, as eagerly as if he heard the shriek of a rabbit. Blight of all kinds are the food of the frog, the most minute winged creatures, as well as those of larger dimensions, earth-worms and creeping things innumerable. He does not destroy them, as do the warblers and insect-eating birds, before our eyes, above and around us, but his usefulness is not the less assured. He lurks beneath stones and thick herbage where birds cannot go, and there he destroys the fugitives who have retired beyond the reach of their feathered enemies to sleep during the day in the seclusion of their retreat, perhaps -to find a nest for their eggs and provide for the continuance of their evil race. The frog is a useful tenant of the fern case and hot-bed, and his flesh is edible. But I believe that the true edible frog does not inhabit Gloucestershire. This latter reptile closely resembles the common frog, which has, however, a broad dark streak behind the eye. not found in the edible frog. The latter has also an inflatable sac under the skin on both sides of the face. Frogs’ spawn floats in masses at the surface of the ponds in which it is laid. I have seen newts crawl into the masses in search of the embryo tadpoles. The frog apparently attains maturity when about three years old. Frogs are usually found of three sizes, corresponding to three periods of growth. The popular idea of frogs or toads remaining for years immured in solid blocks of stone was rendered absurd by the experiments of the late Dean Buckland. With regard to the means of capturing frogs, I may mention that I have found a terrier useful for this purpose. The dog in question soon learned to seize the frogs by their hind feet, as he had observed me take them; and he proved himself very useful to me when out “frogging.” The common Toad (Bufo vulgaris) lays its eggs in strings at the bottoms of pools. These eggs do not float, as do those of frogs. Toads and frogs do not drink like other reptiles; they neither gulp down water like the tortoise, nor suck it up in the manner of a lizard or snake, but they squat in it and 274 wait until their porous skin has absorbed sufficient liquid to quench their thirst. Within the warts upon a toad’s skin is contained a viscid, creamy substance, highly poisonous, which is the toad’s only weapon for defence, and one in no way avail- able for attack. I have no record of the occurrence of the Natterjack Toad (Bufo calamita) in this county. The Great Water Newt (Triton cristatus), the Smooth Newt (Lophinus punctatus), and the Palmate Newt (Lophinus palmatus), are all common in Gloucestershire, the first two being most often found in the valleys, while the Palmate Newt is partial to higher levels. The life history of the newt is much the same as that of the frog and toad. For an average period of six months the young newt lives the life of a fish, breathing by gills, which are partly external, and are absorbed when he leaves the water. The legs appear in pairs; the fore legs show first, when the tadpole is only three weeks old; and the hind legs are developed about two months later. When the tadpole is hatched from an egg laid late in the summer. he does not leave the water that year, but remains in his pond throughout the winter, and emerges in early spring. He lives a wholly terrestrial life for three years, and only when full erown does he again become aquatic. The tadpole of the Great Water Newt will attack and devour the tadpoles of smaller newts. The best method of catching newts is to snare them in a horse-hair noose, or a small red worm tied on a piece of cotton will prove an effective bait. The re-production of limbs which have been amputated is a strange feature in the physiological characteristics of the newts. I have witnessed the re-production of a fore leg which had been accidentally cut off. In this case the toes of the foot began to protrude from the shoulder of the newt within about two weeks after the accident, and the limb slowly grew and developed to its proper proportions. Procreation takes place in a singular manner among newts. The male faces the female, and by curving his tail and vibrating ——_———— ~~ 275 its extremity, sends forward a current of water, which carries with it the fertilizing germs, and these are carried by the water into the oviduct of the female. é Cannibalism occurs among newt tadpoles. I have seen an embryo Great Water Newt devour two tadpolos of lesser newts without the least apparent inconvenience, but adult newts cannot swallow each other. I have found a Great Water Newt choked by the head and shoulders of a Palmate Newt sticking in her gullet. The skins of newts are generally shed when the water in an aquarium which they occupy is changed. The skins are then seen floating in the water, and may be floated over pieces of glass, which, on being raised, will retain the skins. The water must be carefully removed. The newt is preyed upon by the snake, but in support of my view that snakes rarely eat toads I may mention that I have only possessed one snake which would eat a Great Water Newt. The skin of this newt contains an acrid secretion similar to but less virulent than that contained in the skin of the toad, and, with the exception mentioned, my snakes, when they acci- dentally seized a Triton, always released him with movements which were clearly indicative of nausea. But Mr Alfred Paine informs me that five snakes kept by him would readily eat Great Water Newts, although he is not sure that they then had the opportunity of taking other food, whereas mine could always take one of the smaller newts when they were hungry. I may add that when any of my snakes became thin or indis- posed they were immediately liberated in suitable localities. I have not been able to recollect any further observations which might be considered interesting. No description of the early stages of life in the frog aud toad has been given, as the life history of these reptiles is fairly notorious. It only remains for me to thank those gentlemen who have assisted me with the loan of specimens, Mr Wethered, who offered to look through this paper, and to whom it was sent for perusal, and all those gentlemen present who have kindly listened to my remarks. s 276 The paper was illustrated by an extensive and excellent collection of preserved reptiles and batrachia, kindly lent by Mr Alfred Paine, of Corbett House, Stroud. On the conclusion of the paper Professor Harker stated that he had found numbers of the common wasp in the stomachs of Ringed Snakes (Coluber Natrix) dissected by him. A Lecture on Coins, read at a Meeting of the Cotteswold Club, February 28rd, 1888. By the Rev. A. Winnineron-InGRam. The science of Numismatics is one which opens to the enquiring mind a field of study, which yields to none of the sister sciences in interest or instruction. In a cabinet of coins we have a miniature history of the countries in which they were current, and in it we may trace the development of those countries in the different branches of art. With regard to English coins we may trace the progress of the fine arts in design and in sculpture from their infancy, from the rude money of the Ancient British and of the Early Saxons, improving under the enterprising and ingenious Normans, and then after some centuries of repose receiving a new impulse under the hands of that patron of the arts, Henry VII ; and then we behold them gradually developing themselves till they reach their climax through the genius of that admirable artist Pistrucci, in the reign of King George IV. Nor is the interest of Numismatics confined to the pictorial representation, for we find also a manifest and gradual im- provement in the form of the letter used in. the legend, and in the different manner of spelling the names of towns and of cities where the royal mint was established; in a commercial point of view, too, we see the relative values of metals at various periods, and the alloys to which resort has been had. We have also along with the head of the monarch, his name, titles, etc., and in many instances the circumstances under which they were struck ; the various modifications of the crown, and of the regal costume; and the changes which the revolutions of the empire have caused, displayed in the royal arms. In fact, what is there that is interesting to the his- torian, the biographer, or the antiquary, which is not to be found on coins ? 278 After these few remarks by way of preface, I will now endeavour to trace the history of Numismatics from its very beginning. The original method of purchase was by exchange or barter. Several Greek words allude to this, for instance, apyuwas literally means to purchase with a lamb; wveoua: to purchase with an ass; mwaew to purchase with a foal or young horse. Next, rough pieces of metal of a certain weight were used, as when Abraham purchased Machpelah, “ he weighed to Ephron the silver, 400 shekels of silver, current money with the mer- chant.”” And among the Romans the As or Libra was a pound weight of brass. The Mina of the Greeks, and the Pound of the English were also in the first instance reckoned by weight. Moreover, the Latin word pendere, to pay, likewise signifies to weigh. Servius Tullius first stamped pieces of brass with the images of oxen, sheep, and swine—Pecudes, hence pecwnia. Silver was first coined by the Romans A.U.C. 484, or as some say, 498; and gold was first coined 62 years later. _ Silver coins were, however, in use at Rome before the aforesaid time, but they were of foreign coinage. It is supposed that the first coins of all were struck about 900, B.C., under Phidon, King of Argos. Heroditus, however, ascribes the first coins to the Lydians. The chief coin at Rome in early days was the As, which was made of brass, and weighed one pound of that metal. The early Roman silver coin was the Denarius, which was worth 10 lbs. of brass. The Denarius was sub-divided into smaller coins, namely, the Quinarius=5 Asses, the Sestertius= 21 Asses. This latter, the Sestertius is important, because it was in such frequent use as to be called, absolutely, Nummus. The impression on silver coins was usually carriages drawn by 2 or by 4 beasts, hence called Bigati and Quadrigati. Some silver coins were marked with the figure of Victory, hence called Victorati. A golden coin was first struck at Rome, in the 2nd Punie War, A.U.C., 546, called Aureus, value 25 Denarii. The Aureus in later ages was called Solidus, but was greatly 279 inferior both in weight and in beauty to the golden coins which were struck under the Republic and Early Emperors. The Emperors usually impressed on their coins their own image. This was first done by Julius Cesar according to the decree of the Senate. Money was coined in the Temple of Juno Monéta, whence the word money. It will, perhaps, be well for me at this point in my lecture to say a few words on the depreciation of coin. In ail ages the depreciation and adulteration of coin has been a favourite method among rulers of countries to increase the value of their treasures, and to pay their debts with less money than they have borrowed. The Roman As at first weighed 1 lb. of brass, but in the 1st Punic War, on account of the scarcity of money, Asses were struck weighing only 2 oz. or i of lb., which passed for the same value as those weighing 12 0z. had done; “ whence,” says Pliny, “the Republic gained 5 sixths and thus discharged its debt.” The weight of the As was afterwards again reduced, till at length it only weighed 4 oz. From every lb. of silver were coined 100 denarii, so that at first a pound of silver was equal toa thousand pounds of brass, whence we may judge of the scarcity of silver at that time in Rome. But afterwards the case was altered, for when the weight of the As was diminished, it bore the same propor- tion to the Denarius as before, till it was reduced to 1 oz., and then a Denarius passed for 16 Asses, except in military pay, in which it continued to pass for 10 Asses, at least under the Republic, for in the time of Tiberius it appears that no _ exception was made. The weight of silver money also varied, and was different under the Emperors from what it had been under the Republic. In England, also, the Sovereigns have found it convenient from time to time to tamper with the coin of the realm. Thus a Pound sterling or twenty shillings originally weighed 1 lb. of silver, whence its name. But in 1351, Edward III, distressed by his debts, adopted this mode of paying his creditors with less money than he had borrowed from them. He ordered 1 lb. of silver to be coined into 266 silver pennies, instead of 240 280 pennies. Having experienced the beneficial effects of this expedient, he soon afterwards coined 270 pennies out of the same pound of silver. By this imposition not only the creditors of the crown, but all other creditors were defrauded of about one-tenth of their property, being compelled to receive in payment, money of less value than they had lent. The effect, however, was to produce a general rise in the price of commod- ities, and the poor were greatly distressed by the enhancement of the necessaries of life. Edward, nevertheless, continued to depreciate the value of the coin, and endeavoured to conceal the fraud by the introduction of a new coin, the groat, nominally worth 4d, but in reality only worth 33d; and in 1358 he made 75 groats or 300 pennies out of one pound of silver. Henry VIII adulterated his coin in the most scandalous manner. Before his time the mixed mint puund consisted of 11 oz. 2 dwts. of silver, and 18 dwts. of alloy, In 1548, Henry altered it to 100z. of silver and 2 oz. of alloy. In 1545 he made money with equal quantities of silver and of alloy, and not content with that, in 1546 he put 8 oz. of alloy to 4+ oz. of silver, and even out of this base mixture he proceeded to coin 576 pennies instead of 540, which had been the number since the reign of Henry IV. The Ministers of Edward VI, however, out harried Harry, by mixing 9 oz. of alloy with 3 oz. of silver, and out of a pound of this stuff coining 864 pennies. At the end of his reign, however, Edward restored the coinage to its proper fineness, which was continued through the reign of Mary. In the Great Rebellion, the coin, which was struck in various places, and made of various materials, became much debased. James II was, perhaps, the worst depreciator of all, though his exploits in that point were confined to Ireland. He melted down brass cannon in Dublin, and made them into money which he stamped with the value of silver coins; thus a piece of brass about the size of a half-penny stamped with XXXD served His Majesty for half-a-crown. 281 Having considered the depreciation of coin, I will now proceed to say a few words upon English coins in general. From the time of the Norman Conquest to the reign of Edward III, silver pennies 240 to the pound weight were the chief coins in use. The coins of William I have a full-faced bust, and a sceptre and star on the obverse, and a cross on the reverse. The legend is Pillem, or Pillemus, R. Ang. (P being the Saxon W.) The coins also bear the Mint Master’s name, and the name of the town in which the mint was situated. From William I to Henry III, no remarkable change was made in the English coinage. During that period the pennies were marked with a short cross, but to stop the practice of clipping, Henry III introduced the long cross; the coin not to be current unless the cross was entire. Before the reign of Henry III, the gold coins used in England were of foreign manufacture, and were called Bysants. But this King issued a gold coin of the weight of 2 silver pennies, which was to pass for 20d. But the people objected to this, seeing that gold was only 9 times the value of silver, and therefore these coins totally disappeared. Edward III in 1344 issued a new gold coinage, consisting of gold florins, to pass for 6/-, 4 florins=3/-, and } florins=1/6. But from being over-valued they did not circulate freely. To remedy this, Edward coined Gold Nobles=6/8, and 4 Nobles= 3/4. The Noble was struck in honour of Edward’s victory over the French at Sluys in 1340, and the King appears on the Nobles completely armed, in a ship, with his sword drawn in his right hand. Edward IV coined Angels = 6/8; so-called from their bearing on them the Archangel Michael slaying the dragon. But time would fail me were I to endeavour to describe particularly all the early English coins, and it would be un- necessary so to do, because they are all of the same type, being made by simply beating out thin plates of silver into a roundish shape, and stamping them by a blow with a hammer. The image of the King on them was full face, and the features, necessarily, somewhat indistinct. This type of coin continued 282 till the reign of Henry VII, when the first great improvement was made by representing the King’s head in profile. In Henry VII reign the Shilling first made its appearance, and also the Sovereiqn. Elizabeth continued the restoration of the coinage, which had been commenced by Edward VI; she fixed the alloy in a pound of silver at 18 dwts., but she coined 62 shillings out of the pound instead of 60, and 62 continued to be the number till 1816, when 66 were made. In the reign of James I the chief gold coins were 30/- pieces, 15/- pieces ; Sovereigns, half-sovereigns; Angels=10/-; half Angels=5/-; quarter Angels=2/6. The silver coins were crowns, half-crowns, shillings, etc. Copper coins came first into general use in this reign; they were farthings. There is a medal of James I which bears the following remarkable inscription :— “Jacobus I totius Insule Britaniee Imperator, et Francie et Hiberniz Rex.” Charlas I, his coins were for the most part of the same type as those of his father. During his reign, silver rose to so high a price that it was melted down and exported. The silver of Wales was therefore of great service to the King in his wars, and accordingly in 1637, Charles established a mint at Aberyst- with. From 1628 to 1640, Nicholas Briot, a Frenchman, superintended the cutting of the dies, and his coins are of great beauty. One of the handsomest coins of Charles I, is the Oxford Crown, on which is stamped the King on horseback, with his sword drawn in his hand, beneath his horse is a view of the City of Oxford. The Legend is “ Religio Prot. Leges Ang. Liber Parl. Exurgat Deus Dissipantur Inimici.” The Obsidional or Seige Pieces were rude coins struck by the King and his adherents, and were made chiefly of silver plate, chopped up and engraved with various devices and values. The Scarboro’ Half-crown is a piece of thin plate doubled, the corners being turned over to hold together, on one side is engraved in a very rude manner Scarboro’ Castle, and the value of the piece in numerals; on the other side is ‘‘ Obs ” Scarborv’, 1645. The Newark Shilling, which is one of the commonest 283 seige pieces, is diamond-shaped ; Obverse—Crown between C.R. Reverse—“ Obs” Newark, 1646. The Pontefract coins are sometimes octagonal, sometimes round; Obverse—C.R. under a Crown. Legend— Dum Spero Spero.” Obverse—Pontefract Castle and the name. Some Seige pieces have only their value stamped on them, or their weight, as on the 9d piece is 1 dwt. 6 grs. During the Common Wealth the gold coins were 20/-, 10/-, 5/- pieces. Silver, Crown, Half-crown, Shilling, Half-shilling, etc. Obverse—Shield of the Cross of St. George, encircled by a Palm branch and an Olive branch. Legend—The Common Wealth of England. Obverse—God with us. Hence a cavalier once wittily remarked: ‘I see that God is on one side, and the Common Wealth on the other.” Sometimes the Reverse of the coins bore the Shield of St. George’s Cross, and the Shield of the Irish Harp conjoined; this was the device on the 6d. The Farthings were of pewter and of copper. Cromwell’s coins bore his head in profile on the obverse. Legend—“ Olivar D.G.R.P. Ang. Sco. Hib. etc. Pro.” Reverse—Crosses of St. George and of St. Andrew, Irish Harp, etc. Legend—Pax queritur Bello. In the latter part of the Protectorate, Crom- well caused his coins to be made with the mill and screw press, by that* celebrated artist Simon. They were exceedingly well executed, particularly the Crown and Half-crown. Charles I, on his accession, the new improvements of the mill and screw press were abandoned, as being so silent as to favour the operations of forgers, and the old noisy process of hammering was resumed. But in 1662 a more perfect form of the screw press was finally adopted. In this reign the figure of Britannia appeared for the first time on the coins. The general character of this device was suggested by the figure called Britannia on some of the Roman coins relating to Britain ; but Miss Stuart sat for the portrait. In 1664 Guineas were first struck=—20/-, made of Gold from the Guinea Coast of Africa. James II. In his reign, owing to the scarcity of silver, base money was made in Ireland, of cannon, hence called gun U 284 money, which was stamped with the value of silver, and made to pass for it. There was also plug-money which was made of a metal resembling tin, into which a plug of copper was inserted to show that the coin was meant to pass for copper. William III and Mary, their coins bear the heads of the King and Queen in profile, the faces both looking the same way; after the death of Mary, the head of the King alone appears on the coins. Queen Anne, in her reign there were 6 different coinages of Farthings, some of which are now very rare. There were also some small medals or counters struck, which are of very beautiful workmanship, and are sometimes mistaken for Farthings. George I, during his reign, in 1723, one William Wood, an Iron-Master of Bristol, procured a patent through the Duchess of Kendal, to coin £108,000 worth of half-pence for Treland. Sir Isaac Newton, the Master of the Mint assayed these coins, and proved them to be of good metal; but in 1724 appeared the Drapier’s Letters, in which Dean Swift declared the half-pence to be of base metal, and set the Irish against the coins to such a degree that they refused to use them; and so they were withdrawn, and Wood was indemnified for his loss by a pension of £3,000 a year. There is nothing else very remarkable among English coins, till we come to those of George IV, in whose reign they reached the climax of perfection. Previous to 1826 they were designed by Pistrucci, after 1826 by Wyon. The King of English coins is the Crown of George 4th, by Pistrucci, bearing his glorious design of St. George and the Dragon. Notes on A Difficulty in Evolution, read at a Meeting of the Cotteswold Club, March 20th, 1888. By J. Drew, M.B., Lond., F.G.8., &e. In drawing the attention of the Society to the subject of Evolution, and stating an objection to the whole theory, which, according to my reading, has never been advanced before; I hope the members will agree with me the difficulty should be fairly met, and either the force of it fully allowed, or entirely disproved by the logic of facts; for the argument is based on the conditions of the blood in the various classes of animals, and the apparent impossibility of evolution through the earliest mammalian remains found in the secondary rocks. The blood of animals is found to be of various colours, red in the higher, and white in the lower animals; it may be dark brown as in beetles; or yellow as in silk worms; but whatever the hue, it always consists of corpuscles floating in a liquor sanguinis, and constitutes that pabulum on which the new being must live, and develop that body, which is to fit it for the circle of its life, for “anima carnis in sanguine est.” Probably in all animals, as in man, the first blood cells formed are somewhat different to those which circulate in more advanced life ; but after a given time the corpuscles peculiar to each individual are perfected, and then do not undergo any further change during the healthy condition of the animal; and possibly the nature of this first formed blood may assist in fixing the class of the developing being. Blood cells are either round, or oval in shape, and vary greatly in size in the different classes of animals; in all mam- mals except the camel tribe they are circular disks, but in this tribe, and in all birds, reptiles, and fishes they are more or less u 2 286 oval; every class has its own peculiar corpuscle, so that if we could suppose a man sufficiently gifted, and familiar with the size and shape of all kinds of blood cells, one drop of blood under the microscope would enable him to define the class which yielded it: for example :— In Man the average diameter is 3200 of an inch. In Monkeys, from 3342 to 3713. In Carnivora, from 3395 to 5365. In Ruminants, from 3777 to 7045. In Marsupials, from 3405 to 4046. In Musk Deer it is so small as 12325. : 3123 to 3555 long diameter In Camel tribe 4 5876 to 6444 short diameter. 1555 to 2358 long diameter. 3166 to 5325 short diameter. 1124 to 1324 long diameter. 1800 to 2743 short diameter. 1043 to 1108 long diameter. 1821 to 2000 short diameter. § 2000 to 2461 long diameter. 2900 to 3555 short diameter. Possibly the circle and internal life of every being are greatly fixed by the shape, size, and quality of the blood globules ; just as the objective life of every animal is determined by the nature of its teeth and limb girdles; for if the size and shape of blood cells be of no consequence in the life and development of animals, why should the same kind of animal always have the same sort of blood? even in the Batrachians which begin life as fishes, the corpuscles do not change their shape, but only increase in size as the creature lays aside its _ lower kind of life. The theory of evolution would teach us that the “vis insita,” and altered external surroundings, can re-mould any form of life in time; but if this were true, it could have no effect on the shape and size of the red particles; blood is formed pari passu with the first development of the heart itself, and is it at all conceivable that any kind of external force could in the smallest degree alter or affect its nature ? In Birds In Reptiles ... In Amphibia In Fishes 287 Let us now for a moment suppose evolution at work amongst the lower animals with oval corpuscles, and grant it as possible that in process of time fishes might become reptiles, and reptiles might become birds, and birds might become mammals, what sort of mammals must the birds become on account of blood relationship? clearly either camels, or llamas, for they are the only mammals with oval blood corpuscles; now let us put this doctrine to the test, and ask the testimony of the rocks, whether either camels, or llamas are the first discoverable mammalian remains. The rocks tell us, that nearly all mammals including man, are of very recent introduction into the history of the earth, for only in Tertiary strata can such remains be found; but fortunately for our argument, at the bottom of the secondary rocks in the Trias, mammalian remains have been discovered, referred to the genera Microlestes and Dromatherium ; and in the Lower Oolites, in the Stonesfield slate have been preserved the bones of 4 others, Amphitheriwm, Amphilestes, Phascolotherium, and Stereognathus; and in the Upper Oolites in the Purbeck beds 4 or more others, Triconodon, Spalacotherium, Galestes, and Plagiaulaz ; now all Paleontologists declare, that all these remains are marsupial, and if marsupial, then when living they most probably had round and not oval blood coursing through their veins. If we reverse the mode of argument, we shall only be landed into a similar or worse dilemma; for if we grant it possible that reptiles (it could not have been birds, for they first appear in the Cretaceous strata) might be changed into those small marsupials, by sudden or gradual change of blood, and that from them in the course of ages all the other mammals with round corpuscles were developed, still the theory will be unable to account for the evolution of camels and llamas with their oval blood. Why all vertebrata should have oval blood up to a certain point, and then stop at the camel tribe is a mystery, which will most likely ever remain so; but that there is some hidden sufficient reason very few men would venture to doubt; and 288 probably fewer still would fail to believe, that similarly shaped cells would be wrong, and injurious in man, and the higher animals; and what light, I would ask, does either evolution, or natural selection throw on such difficult subjects, or on any of those secret and inward forces, by which the molecular parts are for ever working to produce the whole. If the law of nature is, and ever has been, “non per saltum ascendere, sed quasi scalis, et gradibus quibusdam,” and we can observe for ourselves how very gradual and easy those steps are from one animal to another, and how each animal is confined by apparent law and choice to its own little circle of life, I ask, is it fair to suppose, or likely to be true, that one animal has developed out of another beneath it in the scale of creation ? In conclusion I should like to add, that about two years before the death of the late Professor John Morris, of University College, I mentioned to him the subject of this short paper; and he said to me, I cannot answer your argument, and I believe it to be unanswerable. SECTIONS DISTANCE FROM THE BEDS RESTING UPON THE UPPER LIAS N° BETWEEN HAROLDSTEIN AND BELMONT COTTAGES. 790 FEET £LEVAT/ON COVERED N° | ' : ! ~ FREESTONE AT WNW. END. DIP 7° TO 12° E.N.E. PERNA, TRICHITES, PECTEN, OSTRE, SERPULA, TRIGONIA, TEREBRA TULA, PH YNCHONELLA, HIGHLY FERRUGINOUS At —t—: COMPACT STORE ANNELIO BORINGS, SERPULA, BELEMNITES, PENTA CRINITES. SHELLY ANDO MARLY he ; 7 HARD BLO WITH FOSSILS : OTR" SOEs | MUCH BROKEN UP RHYNCKOWELLA, \ | PECTEN, OYSTERS, FERRUGINOUS WITH /MA, ENCRINITES, VERY HARD BED A VENSRSRST ELS AEAGAIT IW PLACES TEREBRATULA * OYSTERS, PEAGRIT /N | RevTM CNN Tes cesta s| WARD SHELLY, °| HIGHLY FERRUGINOUS, - | PEACRIT IN PLACES [MON/TE BED, TRIGON/A, CASTEROPODS, PLEUROTOMAAR/A . 5 i | FERRUGINOUS, ELEVATION 780 FEET - > PEAGRIT IN PLACES / PEBBLES VERY HARD COMPACT STONE, W/TH DIVISION OF BEDS FAINTLY SHEWM, LARGE TRICHITES, AWINCHONELLA, SEVERAL SPECIES OF PERNA, ECHINUS, GRESSLYA ABDUCTA, OYSTERS, CORBULA, BRYOZOA SCALE Yo INCH = | Foot 752 FEET ELEVATION N°4 Sal NEAR THE AIR BALLOON’ 833 YARDS FROM N@l SECTION al MUCH BROKEN UP HEICHT F737 FEET | wéTWOUT PEAGRIT CORAL BED, SEE M® TOMES PAPER FOR LIST oF SPECIES LIMESTONE MUCH BROKEN UP /N PLACES WITH TEREBRATULA SUB-MAXTLLATA, ANDO NEAR,AND AT THE BASE SWELLY WITH ROESTONE, TEREBRATULA EFHERIDEM 40-0 COARSE PEACK/IT MUCH DISINTECRATED, JN PLACES MAALY, CRESSLYA ABDUCTA, ECHINUS, BRYOZOA, SWELLS: /MPERFECT MUCH BROAEN UP MORE COMPACT WITH VEINS OF PEACK/T > COARSE SHFLLY RATRBER AINER CRAINED BASE MARLY — ENN 4b VERY BAB: &: ‘N) COARSE, HARD ) uN Has ily a tts a Mii 8 * VOL. 1X 1 JUL. 90 PART IV. PROCEEDINGS OF THE Cotteswold Uaturalists’ FIELD CLUB For 1888—1889 President WILLIAM CGC. LUCY, F.G:S. Vice- Presidents WILLIAM H. PAINE, M.D., F.G.S. Revere RE D.ASMITHE,3M-A:;: LED. ‘F.G;S. BRANCIS“DAY?-ColE.FLL:S,,. F-Z:S: JOHN BELLOWS Proressor HARKER, PebLeS: Ponorarp Treasurer J. H. JONES Honorary Accretarp EDWARD WETHERED, F.G.S., F.C.S., F. R. M.S. Contents The PRESIDENT’s ADDRESS at the Annual Meeting at Gloucester, 1889 Notes on a Geological Section between Aare inetee and Thornbury. By the Rev. H. H. Winwoop, M.A., F.G.S. Notes on Hybridization. By Francis Day, C.LE., and F. L. S. The relations of Dundry with the Dorset-Somerset and Cotteswold areas during part of the Jurassic period. By S. S. BucKkMAN, F.G.S. Remarks on the Dapple Bed of the Inferior Oolite at the abe mipsias and on some Pebbles from the Great Oolite at Minchinhampton. By W. C, Lucy, F.G.5 On a remarkable occurrence at Sharpness of the eggs of Tetranychus lapidus, observed by W. B. Clegram, Esq. By ALLEN Harker, F.L.S., Professor of Natural History, R. A. College, Cirencester. PUBLISHED BY JOHN BELLOWS, GLOUCESTER s 159285 Annual Address to the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club, read at Gloucester the 30th April, 1889, by the President, Mr W. C. Lucy, F.G.S. The Annual Meeting was held on 19th April, 1888, and after the delivery of the Address you did me the honor of again elect- ing me President; and Dr Paine, The Rev. Dr Smithe, Dr Day, Mr John Bellows, and Professor Harker, Vice-Presidents; Mr © E. Wethered Hon. Secretary, and Mr John Jones Hon. Treasurer. Mr Jones presented his account, which was duly passed, shewing a balance in hand of £54 19s. 2d. to meet the expense of publishing the forthcoming number of the Proceedings. The Field Meetings for the ensuing year were fixed as follows :— Cheddar “AP Se May 17th Edgeworth ... rs June 21st Crickley - sa July 24th Kastnor ast tee August 14th In the evening the members dined together at the Bell Hotel. As arranged, Cheddar was the first meeting of the season, and on May 17th a large gathering of the members left Gloucester at 10.45, reaching Cheddar at 1.40, where they placed themselves under the able guidance of the Rev. H. H. Winwood, of Bath. The weather was very unpropitious, but after waiting a short time the rain nearly ceased, and a start was made for the “Gorge.” On the way the President called attention to a section, by the side of the road, in which was an interesting w 310 bed of coral in the limestone. As the gorge was entered all were struck with its beauty. In front was the ‘Cathedral Rock,” rising in a mural cliff 400 feet above the road, and the next bend brought the ‘Castle Cliff’ prominently into view. Here the Secretary remarked that these high cliffs were formed of the remains of minute organisms; and he shewed some micro-photographs of sections of the limestone, under a microscope. A large cave, which has recently been discovered by Mr Gough, and named the “Fissure Cave,” was examined by the aid of petroleum lamps; and it was generally thought that it would be found to lead to another cave which Mr Gough hopes in due time to explore. Nearly at the top of the gorge, a second cave was visited, and on emerging from it the commanding position of the ledge outside suggested that it was an excellent place to hear the address Mr Winwood had kindly prepared. After welcoming the members of the club to the Mendip Hills, he said—Beautiful as were the combes and valleys of the Cotteswold Hills, yet Somersetshire considered its ravines could hardly be surpassed; indeed the “Cheddar Cliffs” were unrivalled in England in romantic beauty and towering heights. The members had passed to-day from the eastern edge of the coal-basin of Gloucestershire to the most southern ascertained limit of the Somersetshire basin, and they were now standing on the southern slopes of the Mendip anticlinal, and he pro- ceeded to explain the formation of the “Cheddar Cliffs.” They had entered the ravine with the Lion Rock on one side and Gough’s Cave on the other. Continuing along the winding road for some two miles, they would notice, while the beds on the left-hand side presented a dip face, those on the right-hand showed the strike. The dip of the beds on either side is the same, varying only from 15 to 24 degrees, receding angles on one side corresponding with projecting angles on the other. The mural precipices rising to a height of 420 feet from the road, together with most of the caverns, were on the right-hand side. 311 There were only three theories as to the origin of the pass which were worthy of notice— 1st.—The chasm theory of the rending asunder of the rocks by some sudden convulsion of nature might be dismissed, as he felt sure the members of the Cotteswold Club were not sufficient catastrophists to entertain it, and a fatal objection, in his opinion, was the fact that there was no rent or fissure across the bottom. 2nd.—The theory that these cliffs (and the word “cliff” in the popular sense lent some support to the notion) were due to the violent action of the sea-waves and strong currents; and he adduced several reasons which had been advanced by Professor Boyd-Dawkins, and others, in support of this view. 3rd.—The theory that water, by its slow but continuous and effective action, carried on through countless centuries, was the agent: not the gradual cutting its way backwards over the surface, as in the case of the Niagara ravine—the ravine extending as the falls receded—but the dissolving and mechanical action of underground water, finding its way through the weaker places of the limestone beds, gradually working fissures into caverns, and caverns becoming ravines, thus in process of time the water flowing away at another level, so that the Cheddar Gorge was nothing more than a gigantic unroofed cavern. In illustration of this, and to show what is actually going on at the present time, he had brought them to this cavern, or empty ravine. The process of the gradual falling-in of the roof of the cavern was now going on+ Indeed, since he had visited it in company with his friend Professor Boyd-Dawkins, in 1864, much more material had fallen from the roof, and the ravine was gradually and slowly extending backwards at the expense of the cavern. The President, on behalf of the members, thanked Mr Winwood for his paper, and expressed how much they were indebted to him for his instructive and able guidance during the day. With regard to the formation of the gorge, he sug- gested, for his consideration, that if it were admitted that the opening of the gorge began, from whatever cause, prior to the w 2 312 glacial period, the action of ice, in the form of frozen snow, must have assisted in widening the gorge and carrying the detritus into the plain. At the request of the President, Mr Wethered gave his views on the origin of the gorge, and said he could not accept the cavern theory as explaining it. He had seen very extensive underground channels in the great Mammoth Cave, which had originally been the beds of underground rivers, but all these retained clear signs of water action. It might be argued that such signs would be obliterated in a gorge like Cheddar, by atmospheric influences, but still he should expect to find some traces on the right-hand side where the strata had been pro- tected. He believed the gorge commenced with a fissure, and if they viewed the landscape from a distance, it appeared as though the limestone hills had been thrown into a series of synclinal and anticlinal curves. These of course were produced by lateral pressure, and thus the strata would be subjected to an enormous strain. In the case of the anticlinal in which the gorge occurred, it seemed to him the tension had been so great that a fissure had resulted, which took the line now traversed by the gorge. This fissure had been widened by atmospheric influences, which process was still going on, chiefly on the left-hand side ascending the gorge, and he pointed to the slopes now covered with limestone débris in proof of his assertion. The President remarked they were fortunate in having two of their members with them, General Pearse, who had visited the cave at Adelsberg, and Mr Wethered the Mammoth Cave in America—the two largest in the world—and asked them to say a few words about them. General Pearse said at Adelsberg there were thirty-two miles opened up, and it was necessary to go a mile into the interior of this cavernous hill before the great beauties of this marvellous cave were seen. A huge dome 800 feet high, and about 1200 to 1400 feet in diameter, then burst on one’s view. On the sides are tiers and tiers of roadways. and bridges, the latter spanning a rapid stream six to eight feet wide. The river serpentines four times, and in some places is above and at others below where you 313 stand. From the dome, hugh and lovely white crystalline stalactites hang, and further into the cave is a lake of con- siderable size in which the eyeless fish are found. Mr Wethered then explained very clearly the leading features of the Kentucky cave. _ Dinner was served at the Cliff Hotel, and the members left Cheddar Station about six o’clock and owing to the facilities afforded by the Great Western Railway, Bristol was reached in time to proceed by the 7.30 train from there to Gloucester. The Second Meeting took place on June the 21st. the mem- bers leaving Gloucester by train to Kemble Junction, where they were met by Professor Harker, who took them to an adjacent cutting on the railway, and at the request of the President gave a brief sketch of the Geology which it was intended to see during the day’s excursion. He first explained the various divisions of the Inferior Oolite, and then referred to the Great Oolite, including the Forest marble and Cornbrash, and men- tioned that the dividing line between the Great Oolite and Forest Marble was still a vexed question with Geologists. The officers of the Geological Survey, when they made the map of the district, took an arbitrary line in placing the white lime- stone as the topmost bed of the Great Oolite, and considered the beds above as Forest marble. As a working Geologist he pre- ferred to regard the blue argillaceous shelly limestones, shewing little Oolitic structure (with their associated clays and tile stones) as belonging to the Forest marble, and the white and yellow Oolite beds as Great Oolite. He admitted that, before any general alteration was made, further careful investigation was needed. He particularly directed attention to about 4 feet of clay which was seen to rest upon an uneven bed of stone that had been subject to abrasion, but without any of the material of which it was composed being left in the hollows or depressions which were filled in by the clay. It was destitute of fossils, and might probably be correlated with the Bradford clay. Some sections on the new line were also visited and described, and the Professor suggested the club should make a 314 special visit while the exposures were fresh and before the banks were raked down. The party went on to Cirencester, where they were joined by some other members, and then drove by Stratton to Daglingworth, where a halt was made to see the church, which was shown, and its leading features pointed out by the Vicar, (the Rev. Canon Barker), and the Rev. E. Cornford. Daglingworth Church is pleasantly situated, with a neatly- kept churchyard, a charming Rectory, picturesque, comfortable stone houses for the poor; and a venerable and courteous Rector. Indeed at Daglngworth, with its surroundings, everything appears in harmony, and marks it as a model Cotteswold village. A full account of the church and its history will be found in a valuable paper by the Rev. W. Bazeley, (Vol. XII. of the Transactions of the Gloucester and Bristol Archeological Society). Owing to a heavy rain a hurried inspection could only be made of a Long Barrow in a field a short distance from the main road en route to Edgeworth, and it was thought prudent to hasten on to the residence of Mr James, (The Manor House) where, owing to his father’s indisposition in London, the mem- bers received a hearty welcome from his son, Mr Arthur James. After a most acceptable luncheon, the President proposed a vote of thanks to Mr James, which was duly acknowledged by Mr Arthur James. A succession of storms of thunder and lightning set in, accompanied by heavy rain, and the members had to give up a visit to the Edgeworth quarries, and took leave of Mr James at 5.15, driving direct to Cirencester, where dinner was partaken of at the King’s Head. The third meeting was at Crickley Hill on July 24th. with the special object of examining there the Jurassic Rocks which the President had described in a paper read before the club in March, 1888, and which is supplemented by a valuable amended list of the Madreporaria by Mr Robert Tomes. The examination commenced at the N.N.W. end of the hill, and every section was visited and found in its order. 315 During the day the President described the various beds, particularly directing attention to the Pea Grit and the well- known Coral Bed. Mr Wethered exhibited some photographs of the Pea Grit, reduced to thin sections for microscopic examination, and which showed that the granules contained the nuclei of organisms. The party then ascended the hill to the Camp and, not- withstanding a gale of wind blowing at the time, Mr Witts gave an excellent account of the Camp which, he said, formed one of a series along the Cotteswolds, and was remarkable for the well-preserved rampart and gateway. The latter was so built that an enemy entering would be obliged to turn to the left, and so expose himself to the defenders. The ramparts appeared to be made up of rock material which had been burnt, but he was not prepared to offer any explanation of this. Mr Bellows made some remarks on Roman Camps generally, and the members then walked to Birdlip, looking at some quarries on the way, and dined at the George Hotel. The fourth and last meeting, fixed for Eastnor, had to be changed, and took place on the 10th August, when sections on the new line of railway in course of construction from Kemble Junction to Tetbury were carefully inspected. A brief look at some of the beds at Kemble, it will be recollected, was made in June last, before proceeding to Edgeworth. The members had the advantage of the presence of Professor Etheridge, F.R.S., and were under the guidance of Professor Harker, who took them along the line to Jackment’s bottom, which is on the Ackman Street Roman Road from Cirencester to Bath. The route showed some interesting exposures of the Great Oolite, which is estimated to be 100 feet in thickness, in the middle of which occurs a remarkable bed of stone called the Dagham. At the request of the President, Professor Etheridge gave a description of the bed, and also those examined during the walk along the line. The day was very hot, and on arriving at Jackment’s Bottom the members gladly availed of the kindly forethought of Mr M. Biddulph, M.P., who had provided some very acceptable refreshments, Here carriages were taken, 316 and the first halt was in a cutting of the close to the old Tetbury Road Station, where there is an exposure (now a good deal covered up with grass) of the Bradford Clay, from which were obtained so many characteristic fossils, of that formation, by the late Dr S. P. Woodward, and his successor Mr Buckman, when they were Professors at the Royal Agricul- tural College, many of which are now in the College Museum. Some fine specimens of Terebratula digona and coarctata were found. Jarvis’s Quarry was next visited, where Professor Harker shewed how the beds of the Great Oolite were capped with a fissile limestone, which he regarded as a transitional deposit, and upon which rested the true Forest Marble. Thence the party proceeded to the Three Mile Quarry, at the bottom of which is a well-developed coral bed containing specimens of Isastrea Micheline in abundance. Through Earl Bathurst’s Park, passing through the Avenue of the Cathedral Firs, admiring the many splendid trees, the party reached Cirencester, where dinner was had at the King’s Head. Professor Etheridge made some interesting remarks on the beds visited during the excursion, which were supplemented by Professor Harker. Afterwards a visit was paid toa garden in the town, in a wall of which were some remarkable fine examples of the Dagham stone, beautifully perforated. Professor Harker stated he believed the perforations arose from humic acid acting upon the limestone; and the President remarked he had seen in the South of France, a few miles from Nismes, the same phenomena in beds of the Carboniferous limestone. The first Winter Meeting was held on the 20th November at the School of Science and Art at Gloucester, when the Rev. Dr Smithe gave a Paper “Notes made in 1888 on Périgueux in the Dordogne, France,” of which the following is a very brief account. The author went during the year to the ancient town of Périgueux in the Valley of the Dordogne—a part little visited by Englishmen—yet deservedly worthy of careful study of its various points of attraction, Commending itself to one interested 317 in Quarternary geology and pre-historic studies; to such, perhaps the first visit should be to the Musée d’Archéologie in the centre of the town of Périgueux. A short notice was accorded to this rich and instructive collection. A ramble in another direction was then referred to, leading past the old Cathedral of St. Etienne (no longer used as such) towards the remarkable Tour de Vésone—a ruinous tower attributed in age to either Gallic, or if later, to Gallo-Roman times. Standing near this edifice, the outlines and deviating roads of the “oppidum” can be readily made out, whilst looking towards the railway and away from the town of Périgueux, touching the line of rail, stands the picturesque chateau which was the abode of the old Counts of Périgueux. Returning to the subject of Cathedrals, Dr Smithe remarked that the present church in use as such is the Cathedral of St. Front—marked by its construction and style of architecture—Byzantine; and its belfry and spire is con- sidered to be the only one known of the Byzantine style. Another interesting ruin of the Roman period was what remains of the Amphitheatre—the arena of it being converted into public gardens, and here and there, in the boundary enclosing the arena, occur the “vomitoria,” or exits of the spectators, when they retired from the exhibitions of the gladiators or wild beasts after the conflict at the public shows. Some other topics were also introduced in reference to remains of a date later than that of the Roman domination, and also of specimens of Middle Age and Renaissance, &e., &c. The second paper was read by the Rev. H. H. Winwood, entitled “A hitherto unpublished section between Tytherington and Thornbury,” which appears in our Proceedings. This section was visited by the Club in May, 1871, when the line was being made. After the reading of the paper an animated discussion followed between the author and Mr Wethered as to the sandy beds at the base of the limestones, which it was arranged should be resumed on the spot during the coming year. The President exhibited some specimens of gold in quartz from the new diggings in Wales, and also from the rich mine 318 of Barberton in the Transvaal, and read the following extract of the latter from a recent work, “Incuadi Yami,” by Dr Matthews :— Resumé of the opinion of Dr Schenk, Geologist :—The Barberton formation consisting of very old and in most instances highly metamorphosed rocks, composed of slate and sandstone, with interposed eruptive rocks of greenstone (diorite, serpentine, &c.) These rocks are highly erected, dipping invariably at great angles, often perpendicular, and run from east to west. In this formation the gold-bearing veins or reefs are situated, and these, with few exceptions, run in the same direction (this is for instance, the case with the reefs at Moodies, and with the Sheba, etc.) nearly always accompanying the eruptive rocks. The gold came from the interior of the earth with the eruptive rocks to the surface, and was therefore concentrated in these reefs, which consist of quartz, and often contain iron along with the gold. This formation probably corresponds in age with the Silurian forma- tion of Europe, and is found also in Swaziland, Zoutspansberg, and the recently discovered goldfields of the Tugela. There is no younger formation overlying these rocks at Barberton, but in Drakensberg and at Witwaterstand a Younger formation lies unconformably over the older rocks—probably of Devonian age. The second Winter Meeting was held at the Science School at Gloucester on January 22nd, 1889, to hear a paper by Dr Day, C.I.E., F.L.S8., entitled— “NOTES ON HYBRIDIZATION.” The President, on taking the chair, said he and all present were very sorry that a serious illness was the reason of the absence of the author; and that Dr Day had entrusted the reading of the paper to his friend, the Rev. E. Cornford. As this very important communication will appear in the Transactions, I shall make no abstract, and refer the members to an attentive perusal of the paper, which adds much to our knowledge of a very important subject which has only of late years received the attention it merits. The President proposed that an expression of the deep regret of the members at the cause of Dr Day’s absence should be conveyed to him by Mr Cornford. Professor Harker, in seconding the resolution remarked he would not do more 319 than point out that while the first part of the paper contained a resumé of what was known on the subject of hybridization and the fertility of hybrids, which would be most useful as a paper of reference, the second part was of a much more valuable character. It embraced the careful work of eight or nine years on hybridization in fishes, by perhaps the most skilled observer on the subject we have, and therefore would add much to the value of the Transactions. Mr Medland shewed some photographs of some sections of Caswell Bay, near Swansea, and explained the physical features of the district. Mr Buckman exhibited two Ammonites so exactly alike that it would naturally be thought that they were the same species; and yet he stated that not only was this not so, but that they belonged to two different genera. These conclusions were arrived at by a knowledge of the ancestry of each species, and by following the series of changes by which they had each been evolved from very different forms. These two species occur in the Cephalopoda beds—say the top of the Upper Lias; but the Lower Lias ancestor of one was a strongly-keeled species, while that of the other was a small uncarinated species. The first branch has remained almost stationary, so far as important changes go, and has only begun to lose its distinctive keel; the other branch has undergone several changes, each causing it to become more like the first, and at last it has completed this process by putting forth a small keel. Still there remain two slight differences which may be detected by close study, and which may be relied on to separate the members of the two converging genera : one is—a bend of the ribbing on the lateral area of the first, which is not seen on the second, and this is accompanied by a longer ventral projection ; the other is—that the inner part of the suture-line of the second hangs down obliquely, while that of the first is continued straight across. Such minute—but withal extremely important—characters as these were unobserved by the older authors, and consequently were not, necessarily, reproduced with exactitude by artists, upon their plates: hence great difficulty is experienced in 320 determining to which of two converging species a given figure may belong. In answer to further enquiries Mr Buckman pointed out that Tetrabranchiate Cephalopoda were first a straight cone, then a curved cone, then a cone coiled upon itself with a whorl just in contact, and lastly coiled with the whorls very much overlapping. The changes which had taken place in the descent of one species of Ammonite from another were:— A progression from extreme evolution to extreme involution, and then in some cases a retrograde movement. An advance towards involution means generally an increase in the width of the lateral area; and this entails a decrease in the proportionate width of the ventral area and a fewer number of coils to reach a given diameter. Changes in the suture-line correspond with changes in the shape of the whorls ; but these changes take place subsequently to the whorl-changes, because more elaborate sutures are required to support the increased whorl-surface. An increase of the lateral area means an increase in the size of the lateral lobes and the production of more auxiliary lobes, while the ventral lobe is decreased by the law of compensation. Simi- larly—in some species, to compensate for a very elaborate suture- line, the spines and ribs disappear, giving place to a smooth test. Accessory lobes, it was pointed out, were not needed when the whorl was in the form of an arch from one lobe to another; but when, owing to the flattening of the side con- sequent upon increased involution, this part of the whorl became as it were suspended, then an accessory lobe was put forth to support it in the middle. Finally, that changes among Ammonites were rendered possible by the following rule:—The assumption (by the descendants) at an ever earlier age of the characters of their adult ancestors. A study of the evolution of Ammonites brings out two facts clearly :—That, generally speaking, those which have gone through most changes die out the soonest; while those which have gone through the fewest changes are the parents of the future generations, 321 An animated but friendly discussion on the evolution of Ammonites followed the reading of this paper. The Third Winter Meeting was on February 19th, when the Rev. W. Bazeley read a paper “On the Coins of the Ancient British, with special reference to those found in Gloucester- shire,” a new subject, well treated, as will be seen in our Proceedings. Mr S. 8. Buckman followed witha paper on “‘The Relations of Dundry with the Dorset and Cotteswold Areas for a part of the Jurassic Period.” He took exception to the received opinion that Dundry was an outlier of the Cotteswold Hills, and shewed from Paleontological evidence that the fossils found there in the Inferior Oolite agreed more with the Somerset and Dorset beds, which agreement he attributed to a barrier which for a time during the deposition of the Inferior Oolite shut off Dundry from the Cotteswold area. An interest- ing discussion arose upon several points brought forward by Mr Buckman, but more particularly as to the time when the supposed barrier existed. The Fourth and last Meeting was held on March 19th, when the President read a paper which. will be found in the Proceedings, entitled, ‘Some Remarks on the ‘Dapple Bed’ of the Inferior Oolite at the Horsepools, and on some Pebbles from the Great Oolite at Minchinhampton.” The Hon. Secre- tary also gave the outline of a paper “On the Microscopic Structure of Local Limestones,” (illustrated by micro-photo- graphs as lantern slides, which were admirably shown by Mr G. Embrey) a subject to which he has given great attention, and when his investigations are completed he has promised to give the Club the result of his labours. In conclusion, the Field Meetings were well attended; and the papers given at our evening meetings were on varied subjects and of full average merit. They gave rise to long, but not un- duly long, and animated discussion, and it was the general opinion that the new feature of the winter meetings of inviting members who have objects of interest, to exhibit them after the reading of the papers, should be encouraged. 322 To the Hon. Secretary I wish to express how much I am indebted to him for the assistance he has in every way given me, and for the admirable accounts he has written, for the newspapers, of our Field and Evening Meetings, and which have much lightened my labours; and we may congratulate ourselves on the efficient manner in which our Hon. Treasurer has attended to that very needful part of our work—the finance. As the Club has now been established forty-three years, it might not unnaturally be thought the area of its hunting ground was exhausted, that its occupation for good, sound, honest work was nearly over, and that there was a danger of its falling into more or less of a picnic gathering. It is true the broad lines of division of the various geological formations, and their sub-divisions, have long been recognised; but it is now be- ginning to be found that some of these divisions are not so clearly defined as they were once thought to be, and that there is often almost an imperceptable blending or merging of one into the other; that there is no finality in Geology, which is seen more and more to be a progressive science, widening and becoming grander in all its aspects with increased knowledge. The subject has become so vast as to make it necessary to divide its study into many parts; and hence, instead of the naturalist of broad general knowledge, there will inevitably spring up, specialists who will work in various departments, and the mere “all-round man” will soon be a fossil of the past. It will be our duty to watch this tendency of the age, not to follow it blindly; but at the same time to keep well up with the views of the recognised sober leaders of the science, and to follow in their steps. Now the tendency I have mentioned ought to give new vigour and life to a club like our own. Living as we do in a district which embraces several formations, and also the development of beds of a transitional character like the Down- ton Sandstone at May Hill—the Rheetics in our classic sections at Westbury and Wainlode—and the sands intermediate in 323 various parts of the Cotteswolds—there is ample ground for more detailed work, which can only be accomplished in a satis- factory manner by those who live, like our members, in the area; who can work each bed, bit by bit, and piece by piece, notice carefully, and duly record their characteristics. It was in this way that the late Mr Witchell—whose death we often so much deplore—did such good service by investi- gating so patiently the Geology of the district round Stroud. The remarks I have made about Geology apply with equal force to other branches of Natural History and Science that come within our domain to cultivate. Without wishing to diminish your zeal and interest in Geology, which has always occupied so prominent a part of our work, may I venture to express the hope that during the coming Sessions you will give more attention to the study of Botany, Entomology, and to general Antiquarian research. There is still, gentlemen, a future before us, and I would urge the younger members, who have greater power of adaptation to the altered conditions to which I have referred, than some of us who belong to a generation which is passing away, to apply themselves diligently to some special work; and then I have little fear but that the Cotteswold Club will maintain, in its Field Meetings, and inthe papers in its Proceedings, the high reputation it has so long held among kindred Societies. Trreninaron AND ‘Twornsur LY LRGS SWARAMMATD srt Mqaed ——% oor ee Se cc WER Z mie srerasinesi ns wh — maar ad e it am TAS VARIG AW a ad BA AWW AWS TUAA- Yarnil qa- A SeRDnARMAR ON LAMAR QO GEOLOGICAL SECTION OF THE RAILWAY BETWEEN TYTHERINGTON AND THORNBURY TO ILLUSTRATE A PAPER BY THE Rev? H.H. Winwoop, M.A, FGS. Dotomirie CONGLOMERATE VET LZ Vet TEE STINE AL RALLEVEL | “ Lower LimEsTOnE SHALES 2 (7) Rea SANDSTONE SHALES AND CONGLOMERATE ui SI ' Qi a 4 Sy 3 8 RAIL LEVEL Scale 132 Feer ro an /ncw ~ on 2 Crains = 1/ncw tes 2 1 2 3 + s 6 PAIL LEVEL s Ss er) = _GROVES-END TUNNEL Yio eg Sa 0) E ae. ! Oto Heo Cone+ Oto FeQ SANDSTONE Gul & ; “t ee ok Fpsaneeaae SSR ee BURST : aoa sate a eae Cl Ge a (Eine ees (Ss eS a ee ee Fine cRAineo Dot. Cor Wo TUNNEL COARSE GRAINED 2 WITH LIMESTONE fe Fine craiwed Dot Con CARBON/FEROUS LIMESTONE Oto Fen Sawosrowé Coc wits Quarrz PeeBLes FALL LEVEL NoRTH FRONT GROVES \ O10 Feo State \Suemew sipes Scale 10 FEET 70 AN INCH Section AT AB ENLARGED SECTION, NORTHERN END GROVES-END TUNNEL, EAST SIDE OF RA RAIL LEVEL Emarcéo Seorion stewie Fissuné awa Conrorren Beos ar C Dear WL Meneoire CEFCS THe BASE Line 18. THAT OF THE RAILWAY, THE DISTANCES SHEWN IN FEET THUS-129- O ARE meAsuRED BETWEEN THE FralLway MILE PosTs * This should read “at C" instead of A B. ree ae SS Notes on a Geological Section between Tytherington and Thornbury, by the Rev. H. H. Winwoop, M.A., F.G.S. Read November 20th, 1888. Sir Roderick Murchison in “ Siluria,” ch: XXXIV, p. 452, when writing of the rocks of the Tortworth district, describes the Carboniferous Limestone to the S. of Tortworth as “thrown up in a horse shoe outline from beneath the Millstone Grit and Coal Measures, while near Tytherington it rises like a wall from beneath the Cromhall coal-field.” He alludes also to a sub- ordinate band of reddish sandstone, the “ Firestone” of the country people. In the preceding page he incidentally mentions that the Dolomitic Conglomerate to the BE. of Thornbury rests directly on the coarse Conglomerate of the Old Red Sandstone, the beds of the older being almost as horizontal as those of the newer Conglomerate. Since the above was written in 1838, railways have done much to open up fresh sections in that district, and the branch line running between Yate and Thorn- bury, has cut through a series of beds in the Carboniferous Limestone and the Old Red Sandstone, second only in import- ance to those in the well-known and classical Avon gorge. Having visited this section several times with Professor Lloyd Morgan during the past and present year, it was our intention to have prepared a joint paper for the Meeting of the British Association in Bath, giving the results of our obser- vations. With this object in view, we had measured the beds, and had several specimens of the rocks prepared for microscopical examination. Circumstances however, interfered with this intention, and it is left for me to put a few notes together to illustrate the remarkable geology which I had the honor of pointing out to those Members of the British Associ- ation who visited that locality on the afternoon of Saturday, September 8th. x 326 On looking into the literature of the subject, it surprised me to find that no detailed account had ever been given beyond the allusion before quoted, from “ Siluria,” and a short notice in the Proceedings of the Cotteswold Field Club for the year 1872, Vol: VI, p. 6, in which the then President, Sir W. Guise, describes a visit paid by the Members to Tytherington in 1871, and their examination of “a very fine section of the Carbon- iferous Limestone and Dolomitic Conglomerate, the beds of Limestone presenting numerous distortions, and the strata dipping away at a considerable angle, on which the Dolomitic beds repose in a nearly horizontal position. This cutting presents (he goes on to state) very fine examples of the uncon- formable position of these two rocks, which tell a tale of long lapsed time between the deposition and upheaval of the Limestone and its subsequent covering over by the Dolomitic deposit. At the Thornbury side of the Tunnel the Conglomer- atic character of the deposit is very well shown.” It seems that the diagram which Mr Macdonald, the Engineer of the line had prepared, was never published in the Proceedings, and at the request of your Secretary—who rightly thinks that the Cotteswold Club has the first claim—these explanatory notes have been prepared with a view to its publication. Though admirably drawn to scale, as you might expect from an engineer employed by the Midland Railway Co., yet there are a few minor details in the geological reading of the section requiring alteration, and other additions to be made necessitating a fresh survey. This has since been done by Mr Meredith, C.E., to whom the Members of the Club as well as myself are indebted for the admirable drawing illustrating these Notes. Immediately on leaving Tytherington Station, a fine exposure of Limestone is seen in a quarry on the left hand, rising at a high angle from beneath the Gloucestershire Coal Field. This is being worked for road metal and other purposes, by Mr Hardwicke, a landed proprietor of the adjoining village. The beds have a uniform dip of from 30° to 32° S.E., and are a conspicuous object in the scenery. 327 The following is a detailed description of the beds in that quarry :— HARDWICKE QUARRY Beginning with the first exposed bed on the South and proceeding Northwards we have Thickness | ft. in. No. 1 26 27 28 Yellow limestone bed Bluish do. with large (Pr: oducti) Solid do. Ditto, becoming fissile (Pr gst) Solid bed Shaly parting covered with flaked Pr oducti and eee ia Blue solid limestone (Productt) Series of broken up beds, yellowish and ie with soft palin sand near top ‘ : Ditto, do. yellowish mal ee Solid limestone with Producti Four or five beds ‘s Three compact beds, joints aioe: red, = eee al uni- valves, (Euomphali) on surface Compact blue limestone Ditto do. “On a6 ey So: in SS: Ditto do. casts of univalve, (query Euomphalus ?) Ditto, with strings of calcite and Producti “ Firestone,” dense siliceous rock, very hard to work, divided into two beds by a band of Coral (Lithostrotion irregulare) 4 to 6 in. Top bed weathering red on surface, sandy and friable Ditto, siliceous limestone, joints weathering sandy, with casts of Brachiopods (Spirifera octoplicata, Athyris globularis) ... Limestone, with Corals (Lithostrotion) and Brachiopods Thin bed, purplish in fracture, Corals (Lithostrotion) Solid do., faces of joints red ... Yellowish beds Blue do., fissured Clay parting Blue bed broken up Ditto Ditto 3 a fe Brown do., on eS. with pis er with She ian section was measured (October, 1887,) since then worked farther back x2 wore mor 7 om om w co i or) a) NOMA AOoocorF WwW O&O No. 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 5 pre 328 Pinkish shaly parting, yellow on top ae was Bas ene Blue solid bed ... aa er ses ax ae ie Ado. 4 Shaly partings ... BA asi eee oe he soc xe |W Blue beds Sac a be ae Se 500 36: eco AE Parting of argillaceous halle Solid blue beds ane ote ws Se see wise ~eeelO Shaly parting Blue beds (series of) ... le nae a ee aes wits Ll Shaly parting Blue beds graduating into brownish beds... er i coe Black shaly beds (Producti) - Brown beds resting upon yellow do., with Pr tate Fault The horizontal distance from the first appearance of the Lime- ore stone on the 8. at the Railway bridge to its disappearance on the N. beneath the newer beds is 345 feet, taking the rails as the base line ; the vertical thickness, calculating the angle of dip at 32°, is 182 feet. Solid limestone beds, mottled greenish aco AE 3 Series of some 20 beds of limestone, varying from 1 ft to 5 ft. in thickness, with partings of red clay and pinkish shales ... 61 Argillaceous limestones passing into solid bed Limestones, solid, passing into reddish beds 00 30 a0¢ Reddish limestone ee sce can sac Thin limestone beds a Purplish do., from 9 in. to 1 ft. ne Three ee do., varying from 9 in. to 1 " 9 in. Limestone do. broken up Ditto solid, 2 beds Argillaceous do., mottled pinkish, with penaeibe seine Limestone, solid Shale Solid bed Shale Solid bed at base, S. end of Tunnel . eee e 4, Tunnel comes in here and breaks — sequence of the ee The first 45 ft. have been bricked over, so that the measurement of the beds was found to be impracticable. Where exposed, they NoWrR WOW PF ON are seen to form anticlinal and synclinal rolls, so that it is difficult to estimate their thickness. The length of the Tunnel according to Section, is 659 ft., and taking the average dip as 16°, we may calculate the thickness at... oC “gc oe LS ler) PAWwWwoeoenenwoocdcd & @& & 529 At N. end of Tunnel solid beds come in, succeeded by reddish beds, and capped with horizontal beds of Dolomitic Conglomer- ate. A large quarry is being worked on the E. side of the line, the beds of which are fossiliferous and Oolitic, containing Producti, Spirifers, Univalves (Loxonema?,) and encrinital joints. The estimated depth of the quarry from 18 to 20 ft., beds dipping about 20°S.E. by E. Some microscopical sections were taken from the Oolitic beds on the W. side (the last series of solid beds coming in before the shales.) These beds may possibly be paralleled with those at Clifton gully quarry. Horizontal distance from N. end of Tunnel to last of Oolitic beds as measured by scale on Section, about 1667 ft. Taking the dip at 20°, this would give total thickness as ... The Oolitic beds are about 19 ft. thick apy s The fissile limestone beds on N. side and just fitiee ividpe No. 16, are very fossiliferous, containing abundance of Encri- nital stems, Spirifers, Chonetes, Athyris, &c., and Fenestella tuber- culata-arenata. Ossicles of Pentacrinite also occur sparingly. They may be estimated as 85 ft. thick The passage from Middle limestones to ewes lievextans shale seems to be opposite shed on right hand of line, 85 ft. below Oolitic beds ; and the black shales were seen at N.W. corner of bridge. From this point to the first appearance of the “‘Bryozoa” beds on the N. side, the thickness may be estimated at from 85 to 90 ft. ae se oe oe ace se From the incoming of the “ Bebeoe! bed through a succession of Old Red Marls and Sandstones, green, grey, and red, to the first fine grained Conglomerate, with milk white quartz pebbles at From the latter beds to the coarser grained Old Red Conglomerate at the mouth of Groves End Tunnel at : This Conglomerate dips at an angle of 16° S.E. anal nesiaeas pebbles of white and pinkish vein quartz, mottled green pebbles, Silurian quartzite, or Lydian stone. About 28 ft. of this is exposed ; then Groves End Tunnel conceals the beds for a space of 492 ft., they then appear again on the other side, and continue to the end of the cutting, being unconformably overlaid by coarse beds of Dolomitic Conglomerate, these being succeeded by the finer grained Yellow Limestone and clays which die out just beyond the little wooden foot bridge which crosses the line near the 63 mile post. It may be mentioned here that Sir Roderick Murchison remarks on the peculiarity of structure which the Old Red of the Tortworth district presents. The upper beds, instead of being fi. im: . 527 19 85 90 126 . 215 330 Conglomerate, consist of finely grained thin flagstones of white and whitish grey colour, this upper division being underlaid by coarse quartzose Conglomerate and Red Sandstone. Sections made in different parts of the district exhibiting the same suc- cession and persistency of the Conglomerate in the centre, and even lower part of the formation, (‘‘ Siluria,” p. 453.) After this general description of the strata met with in succession and their approximate thickness, it may be of interest to bring out some of the characteristic features of the section into greater prominence. Beginning with the quarry at the S.E. end, we first come upon a series of limestones divided by shaly partings, with numerous flattened Producti and Corals. About 50 feet from the surface come three (No. 12) compact beds of limestone about 7 feet thick, with the dip face of the topmost bed perfectly covered with Brachiopods and univalves. Being very imperfect and merely casts, it was difficult to make out what they are. Some 8 feet lower down a reddish brown coloured dip face (No. 17) attracts attention at once; it pre- sents a hummocky uneven surface, and is streaked with veins and strings of calc spar sometimes coloured red in the centre. The quarrymen find this mass very difficult to work owing to its dense siliceous nature, and give it the local name of “Firestone.” It is about 9 feet 3 inches thick, consisting of two beds 4 feet 3 inches and 5 feet respectively. A band of coral (Ithostrotion) divides the upper from the lower bed. The latter containing more lime than the one above, and their basset edges when exposed to the action of the air and rain water on the top of the quarry, present the appearance of Red Sandstone, and might well be easily taken for that formation elsewhere. A microscopical section shows that the rock is almost entirely made up of quartz grains, more or less rounded with black interstitial matter, probably carbon, and a few joints of encrinites. In the joints weathered sandy by exposure to the atmo- sphere, was the only place where the Brachiopods Spirifera octoplicata and Athyris globularis could be obtained at all perfect, 331 These beds appear to indicate the setting in of a change from the deep sea and clear water formation of the Limestone, to the shallower and turbid water deposits, culminating in the formation of the Millstone Grit, and may be considered as the boundary beds below the Upper and Middle Limestones. After leaving Mr Hardwicke’s quarry and following the line of Railway, the beds dipping at about the same angle, a “reversed” fault comes in about 345 feet from S.E. end of the quarry, bringing the fine grained beds of the Dolomitic Conglomerate, looking uncommonly like Yellow Magnesian Limestone, wedged in beneath the Carboniferous Limestone, and slightly turned up at the edges and crumpled up somewhat by the over thrust of the former. This shearing must have taken place after the deposition of the yellow beds in late or post Triassic times. The lowest bed (No. 37,) brown in colour containing Producti, rests upon a wedge of fine grained yellow Dolomitic Limestone, somewhat brecciated, which requires close inspection to distinguish it from the Paleozoic beds above. These yellow Triassic beds continue for a distance of about 525 ft., when the Carboniferous Limestone is seen rolling up at their base, continuing in a series of rolls with the general dip in the same direction for a space of some 790 feet as far as the first tunnel. The fine grained Dolomitic Conglomerate resting unconformably on the top. A lenticular mass of greenish Keuper marl and sand, marked ‘‘ Sands” in Section at C, is seen on the left hand troughed in between the top beds of Dolomitic Conglomerate above, and the Paleozoic beds below, filling up a fissure in the bottom beds, and containing a block of Conglomer- ate faulted in with it. As the overlying beds have no visible continuing fissure, it is difficult to see how this Triassic deposit could have found its way down. By supposing however, that a fissure once existed above in the beds that have since been displaced in making the line, we can see a possible explanation how this deposit came into its present position. Immediately over the tunnel (No. 15,) a series of light coloured mottled green and pink thin bedded Limestones come in. At the opposite end of the tunnel the solid Middle Limestone series 332 are met with, and on the left hand a large trough of reddish coloured limestones and clays are seen on the top of the up- turned Paleozoic; these on examination prove to be fine erained beds and clays of the Triassic Conglomerate, assuming their red colour, due probably to the infiltration of iron from the Red Marls which overlaid them. Fine exposures of solid limestones are passed through with a more or less varying dip, having near their base some Oolitic beds about 50 feet thick, succeeded by shaly limestone beds with the usual Lower Lime- stone characteristic fossils. The black clays and shales are just discernible beneath bridge (No. 16,) and continues as far as the first telegraph post on the right hand side of the line, where the so-called “ Bryozra bed” crops up corresponding with the position of the same bed in the Avon gorge Section. The colour of the bed is reddish brown and grey, with rusty looking streaks, which when looked at with a high power, are seen to be beautiful Polyzoan forms ; in fact a microscopic section shows that this bed is made up of Polyzoa, Foraminifera, encrinital stems, and here and there an organism which Mr Wethered considers to be a monticulipora. The succeeding sandstones and clays are not well seen owing to the growth of vegetation on the banks, but enough has been exposed to indicate where the Lower Limestone shales die out and are succeeded by the Old Red Sandstones and Conglomerates. Coarse beds of this formation crop up just before the last tunnel, and on coming out at the Thornbury end, are seen rising up from beneath the Dolomitic Conglomerate, and only distinguished from the newer beds by the direction of the bedding. The Old Red Conglomerate shows small faults and slickensides, and at one place on the right hand side, the beds are quite perpendicular, whilst the Dolomitic Conglomerate rests horizontally but unconformably on the top. Both the Conglomerates are of the same red colour, the older containing large pebbles of white quartz, the more recent also having these quartz pebbles at its base, with here and there an Old Red Sandstone pebble, and higher up those of Carboniferous Lime- stone, in some cases quite angular, and of considerable size. 333 Old Red shales and sandstone come in at the base of the cutting here and there, and lower down the finer grained beds of the Dolomitic Conglomerate appear again in a series of yellow clays and limestones. This section is not very rich in fossils, but to the strata- graphical Geologist, few, if any surpass it in the story which its study unfolds of the past history of our earth, and especially of the changes which have taken place since the deposition of the Carboniferous Limestone and that of the Keuper series which overlies it. What a vast lapse of time is here indicated! What has become of the thousands of feet of the Coal Measures proper, and many hundreds of feet of the Mesozoic beds ? Little, if nothing here to indicate their existence: a great deal however to tell a tale of complicated disturbances and enormous denudations ! Notes on Hybridization, by Francis Day, C.1.E. and F.L.S. During the present century the hybridization of animals and plants in this country has received more attention than at any previous period, although possibly to a far less extent than the interest and importance of the subject deserves, while it has been admitted by most of our zoologists that many of the assertions which formerly passed current as facts have been ascertained to be partially or wholly erroneous. Thus there are few, if any, at the present day who could admit the theory of Ray, that “any two animals that can procreate together, and whose issue can procreate, are specifically the same,” nor the statement of the elder Flourens that hybrids can only be produced between individuals of the same genus. “ Constant fertility in the hybrid, proved, in the opinion of Hunter, that the parents were varieties of the same and not of distinct species (Owen, Proceedings Zoological Society, 1836, page 85); while Darwin observed that “species belonging to distinct genera can rarely, and those belonging to distinct families can never, be crossed.” Newton (l.c. 1860 p. 338) asserted, when treating of hybrid ducks, “ that although the hybrid offspring of two animals, clearly distinct, may of themselves be perfectly fertile, it is not proved that this fertility extends to a second generation.”” Romanes (Encyclopedia Britannica, 9th or present edition, article “ Hybridism’’) has gone still further, remarking that it is doubtful whether there is a single instance of a perfectly fertile hybrid, having emanated from a cross between two animal species.”” He concluded his article with the following words; “On the subject of animal hybrids there is > B00 virtually no literature, save scattered records of fertile crosses among sundry species confined in various menageries, and these are without interest as bearing on any of the principles of hybridism.” In opposition to the opinions of the foregoing authorities, I think the following examples, collected from various sources, or the outcome of personal observations, will be sufficient to demonstrate, were such needed, that hybrid offspring can be raised between species pertaining to different genera, and even between those belonging to distinct families; that hybrids are not invariably sterile, their degrees of fertility graduating from sterility to almost perfect fertility. Of course one must not lose sight of Pallas’s opinion that, in some instances, domestication tends to the elimination of sterility ; or Moreton’s, that it merely evolves the capacity for being prolific. But the following instances are not restricted to menageries, many having occurred among animals while in their feral condition. The highest section of the Quadrumana is generally con- sidered to be the Catarhina or Old World Monkeys, and among these are three tribes or families. (1) Semnopithecus, which includes: Macacus, has a long tail, cheek pouches and natal callosities ; (2) baboons, including Cynocephalus, have short tails, large heads, prolonged muzzles, &c., and natal callosities. There were confined in one cage at the Regent’s Park Zoological Gardens, a male ape, Macacus cynomolgus, from Upper Burma, and two female quadrumana, one an adult Mangabey, Cercocebus fuligonus, and the other a Mandrill baboon, Cynocephalus mormon, scarcely adult. On October 2nd, the Mangabey fell down dead from a high perch, and on being dissected, a foetus, far advanced in growth, was discovered in her uterus. The Mandrill, on October 14th, gave birth to a young one that lived until December 20th, 1879. The foregoing are instances of hybrids between allied genera, and also between members of two distinct families. Blyth recorded in 1863 (Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, xxxii. p. 455) a hybrid between a male Macacus nemestrinus and a female Cynocephalus porcarius, or a long-tailed ape fertilizing one of the baboon tribe, 336 Mr Thursfield gave an account (Proc. Zoological Society 1831, p- 66) of how a gentleman rearing a pair of tame rabbits, placed them, when about two months old, with a young buck hare of about the same age, which became as domesticated as its companions. When the doe rabbit was old enough, she had by the buck rabbit and the hare a litter consisting of three young ones, in all respects resembling the mother and the buck rabbit, and three males, two of these latter dying, while a third, which was a female, was reared with the rabbits of her own age, and when six months old producing one young one. She subse- quently bred eight times with tame rabbits and once with a wild one. She died in the society’s possession, and Mr R. Owen reported that its size and colour were those of a hare, but its hind legs agreed more with a rabbit. And it has been frequently demonstrated that the cross between the hare and the rabbit is fertile, with either of the parent species. Experiments made in the Agricultural Institute of the University of Halle, since 1881, have shown that hybrids be- tween the jackal and the domestic dog are capable of reproduction, not merely with individuals of pure blood, but also among themselves. Mr Bartlett observed (Proceedings Zoological Society) that in the bear-pit in the Regent’s Park Zoological Gardens a male American black bear, Ursus Americanus, had been kept for some time with a female of the European brown bear, U. arctos, and on December 31st the latter had three young. At five weeks the two which survived were a male and a female: they were as large as a common rabbit. The number and situation of the teats were somewhat remarkable. They had six situated between the front legs and two in the hinder part of the abdomen. Dr Hoffmann, at a meeting of the Zoological Society held on April 7th, 1870, recorded an instance of supposed hybridism between a house cat and a lynx, Felis rufa, which occurred in the Arizona Territory (P.Z.S. 1870, p. 380). The female tiger, Felis tigris, has been crossed with the lion, F’. leo, while in captivity; and the male jaguar, F’. onca, 337 with a female leopard, F’. leopardus. Also the female Mexican jaguar, F. hernandezi, has bred with the male of the common jaguar, F’. onca, in the gardens of the Zoological Society. (P.Z.S. 1861, p. 141). In the Proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1849 a hybrid was recorded as having been imported from India, and which appeared to be the produce of a zebu, Bos tawrus var. Indicus, mother, and a yak, B. grunniens, sire (p. 172). Mr Bartlett, before the same society in 1884, recorded some remarkable hybrids which he had reared in the gardens, a history of which will be found recorded by Mr Tegetmier in the Field. The zebu, or common Indian cattle, was the female employed for the first cross, and the gayal, Bos frontalis, the male: this latter being found wild to the east of the Brahma- putra, at the upper end of Assam, from whence it extends north and east to the borders of China, and downwards through portions of Burma. It breeds freely in captivity, and is of a gentle disposition. “ Several hybrids have been bred in the Gardens between this species and the male zebu. The first of these was born on October 29th, 1868. In due course she was mated with a zebu bull, and produced five three-quarter bred calves on the follow- ing dates :—The first on June 16th, 1872; the following on October 16th, 1873: January 5th, 1875; March 11th, 1876; and the fifth on November 2nd, 1878. She was then mated to an American bison, and on May 21st, 1881, gave birth to a female calf, which combined in itself the blood of the zebu, gayal, and American bison. This remarkable animal might almost pass muster for an ill-bred cow. Its head and horns are not unlike those of the gayal, and its withers are very high, the udder being small. In colour it is a dull brownish black, paler on the ears and around the eyes, and with a light muzzle. When two years old she was mated to a bison bull, and on March 12th, 1884, produced a female calf, which, according to one mode of stating the pedigree, is one-eighth gayal, one- eighth zebu, and six-eighths bison, and, as might be expected, showed very little trace of its cross-bred origin. It was, when 338 three months old, indistinguishable from a pure-bred bison of the same age, having, in contradistinction to the long tail of the mother, the very short bent tail of the American bison.” It will perhaps render the relation of these hybrid animals more easily understood if I quote Mr Bartlett’s table, the males being distinguished by ¢, and the females by ¢. PEDIGREE OF HYBRID BOVINES. Zebu ¢ Gayal 9 Female hybrid (zebu and gayal) American bison ¢ Born Oct. 29, 1868. Female hybrid (zebu x gayal x bison) Bison ¢ May, 1881. Female hybrid (zebu X gayal x bison X bison) Born March, 1884.* Another instructive instance has been recorded by Professor Kuhn, of Halle, respecting the interbreeding of the gayal, Bos frontalis, and some of the ordinary breeds of the domestic ox of Europe. A young bull and a cow gayal were received from Calcutta, June 18th, 1880; the bull paired readily with cows of every variety of domestic cattle, and numerous hybrids were born, nine males and ten females; of these the older ones of both sexes have already (Field, January 15th, 1885) been used for further experiments. Females on being paired with an ordinary European bull, in every case proved fertile, conclusively, so far, proving the fertility of the hybrid gayal cows when paired with European bulls of unmixed blood. But the hybrid gayal bulls, without exception, have proved absolutely sterile, although they have readily paired both with hybrid females and cows of unmixed European races. *ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY’s GARDENS, REGENT’s Parxk, Lonpon, N.W., December 18th, 1888. Dear Sir,—The female hybrid born 1884 is now in calf by the Bison. The hybrid born 1881 produced a bull calf, now 10 months old; she is again in calf by the Bison. I should much like to carry out the crossing with other _bovines, but I have not the means of so doing. Yours faithfully, Dr Day. A. D. BARTLETT. 339 The chamois is known to cross freely with the domestic goat, and Mr Sterndale recorded (Proceedings of the Zoological Society April 6th, 1886, page 205) a hybrid between Ovis vignei and O. Hodgsoni, which had occurred south of the Indus on the mountain range near Lanskar; and Sir Victor Brooke suggested that the species O. Brookei, Ward, was probably established on a somewhat similar hybrid. Mr Palmedo, H.M. Consul in Corsica, in 1832, remarked : “¢ General Merlin, the commanding officer of Corsica, has now not only a young moufflon born of two tame ones in his possession, but also an offspring of the same male moufflon and of a ewe.” (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1832, page 9). Likewise, it was remarked (Field, May 16th, 1885) that Professor Kuhn has also crossed the domestic sheep with the moufilon, Ovis musmon, the wild sheep of Corsica and Sardinia. The results were equally favourable with the various European, Asiatic, and African breeds of domestic sheep and uniformly successful, whether ewes of the domestic sheep were crossed with moufflon rams, or the reverse. Their descendants proved fertile in both cases when crossed with each other. This was the case with animals of close consanguinity and even with twins, and in 1885 lambs of mule crossings have been born which belong to the fourth generation of these animals crossed exclusively between themselves. All are aware of the existence of mules and hinnies between the horse and the ass, and although some of these mules have been observed to produce offspring, Columella (M. de la Malle, Ann. des Sciences Nat., xxvii., page 235) and others have remarked that they do not have fertile crosses among them- selves, but only when interbreeding with one of the primitive species from which they had been derived. Mr Tegetmeier, in the Field (July 14th, 1888) observed that at Sir H. Meux’s, at Theobald’s, there was a fine mare of Burchell’s zebra, Equus Burchelli, among a herd of ponies, and she had two fillies: one of these rising three years old had been sired by one of the ponies, and showed the stripes of the zebra to a moderate degree. The other and finer filly, a yearling, was the offspring 340, of a half-bred trotting pony and the zebra, and was beautifully striped, not only on the legs and neck, but also on the haunches. Before passing from these hybridization experiments among mammals, a digression must be made as to how instances have occurred in which the male influence (that has first left its impression on the female) has, to a certain extent, been con- continued in the subsequent offspring of the mother. A young mare was covered by a quagga, by which it had a female hybrid, subsequently it had a filly and afterwards a colt by a fine black Arabian stallion, but both of these latter resembled the quagga in the dark line along the back, the stripes across the forehead, and the bars across the legs. In the filly the mane was short and stiff like that of the quagga, in the colt it was long but so stiff as to arch upwards and hang clear of the sides of the neck, but in other respects these young were nearly pure Arabians. In this instance some impression must have been made on the reproductive organs of the mare at the first cross, and which was continued through subsequent ones. Bell noticed the case of a small mare which was turned into a paddock in the Regent’s Park Zoological Gardens in company with a white male ass and a hybrid between the zebra and the ass. She had a foal which was distinctly marked with black stripes across the legs, and which were supposed to be good evidence that the male parent of the offspring had been the hybrid. Among birds hybrids have been observed, when in a wild state, or in a domesticated or semi-domesticated condition, and this in several families. In the Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1849, will be found recorded the crossing of two species of crowned pigeons. Goura victoria, and G. coronata, which occurred in the Gardens : one young one was hatched September 18th, but died September 17th. At this period, two other columbine birds existed alive in the collection, the produce of the male Hetopistes migratorius and the female Turtur risorius (page 171). On June 23rd, 1887, Dr Giinther exhibited at the rooms of the Society a hybrid raised between a male white 341 fantail pigeon and a hen of the collared dove, Turtur risorius, it being the last survivor of three broods. Pheasants have always afforded proofs of hybridization in this country. It may be within the memory of many that forty years since the common pheasant, Phasianus colchicus, was the almost universal species in these isles, the ring-necked form, P. torquatus, being comparatively rare, but now the latter has almost superseded the former, while strains of many exotic species are observable in a single cover. Darwin remarked that hybrids from Cervulus vaginalis and Phasianus reevesit, and from Phasianus colchicus and P. torquatus are perfectly fertile. In September, 1836, Mr Fuller presented two living birds to the Zoological Society of London, which were a cross between a hybrid common barn door hen (Gallus domesticus,) and a pheasant cock, and a pheasant, being a three-quarter bred pheasant. At this time the society likewise possessed a similar living hybrid (Pro. Zool. Soc., 1836, p. 84), while in their Museum were crosses between the pheasant and common fowl, the common pheasant and the silver pheasant. Mr Yarrell remarked that he had found in hybrids of Gallinaceous birds and ducks that the sexual organs of the males were of large size, but those of the females deficient and with some appear- ance of imperfection. He expressed his belief that the attempt to breed from a hybrid was most likely to be successful when a male hybrid was put to a female of the true species. In 1851 a cross was exhibited between a female golden pheasant (Thaumalea picta) and a male common pheasant, reared in a wild state in Surrey, not far from the Framley ridges (P.Z.S., 1851, page 61). Dr Giinther exhibited at the Zoological Society on June 28rd, 1887, a hybrid between a male golden pheasant and a female Reeves. In Cheltenham, Colonel Smyth has instituted some interest- ing experiments in hybridizing pheasants during the last four seasons. He first crossed the male Amherst with a female golden pheasant. Of the hybrid progeny the young males took largely after their male parent, except that the crest was more a 342 fully developed than in the pure Amherst, and the tail longer. A cross was likewise made between a male golden pheasant and an Amherst hen, and the young cocks all partook more of the colours of the male than of the female parent, having the feathers of the crest of a light orange, &c. Since then a cross has been made between an Amherst cock and one of the hen hybrids. From the eggs a male bird was obtained. In due time it had the plume and tail similar to the Amherst, but much more fully developed, while its breast was of a dull white. A three-quarter bred hen was likewise crossed by the pure Amherst cock, and the young were much longer in the legs and larger in the body than the pure Amherst, yet the plumage was identical with that of its male parent. Mr Sabine exhibited at the Zoological Society in 1834 a specimen of a hybrid between the common pheasant and the grey hen, Tetrao tetriz, which had been bred in Cornwall (P.Z.S., 1834, p. 52). Mr Kyton obtained a similar hybrid. For some years previously a single grey hen had been observed in the neighbourhood of Merrington covers, but had never been seen to be accompanied by a black cock, or any other of her species. In November, 1834, an example was shot resembling the black cock in some particulars and the pheasant in others. In December of the same year another, which was a female, was killed: it resembled the former example, but was smaller, and came into Mr Eyton’s collection, and he described it in detail (P.Z.S., 1835, p. 62). The left oviduct was very imperfect, the ovaries very small, the eggs scarcely perceptible and very few in number. In 1837 Mr Yarrell exhibited before the same society a third hybrid specimen from Cornwall, between the pheasant and the black grouse, being intermediate in colours between those two species. Again in 1851 a hybrid between the male of the black grouse and a hen pheasant were shown. On December 4th, 1883, Mr Burton also exhibited a supposed hybrid between a hen pheasant and a male black cock. Mr Spicer recorded (Birmingham Daily Post, October 10th, 1888) how at the Beeches, Sutton Coldfield, a hybrid between a male black cock and hen pheasant had been shot on the 4th. 343 Mr Dresser exhibited at the Zoological Society in April, 1876, a supposed cross between the black grouse and the hazel grouse, Bonasa betulina, which had been received from Norway. The male parent, it was considered probable, had been the hazel grouse. Hybrids are by no means rare in Sweden, between the Capercailly and the black grouse; also between the black grouse and the willow grouse ; while Collett recorded one of the latter pairing with a barn-door fowl. Professor Newton showed, at a meeting of the same society on November 5th, 1878, the skin of a supposed hybrid between the red grouse, Lagopus scoticus, and the ptarmigan, P. mutus, shot out of a covey of grouse, and in a locality frequented by both species. In the Field (August 25th, 1888) was recorded a supposed hybrid between the red grouse and the ptarmigan, shot on August 16th on the Garth Moors. It was a young cock shot (along with the old hen) out of a covey of six: none of the others exhibited such a peculiarity of colouring. In the year 1843, at Castle Martyr, in the county of Cork, a male black swan paired with a female white one. The latter laid six eggs and hatched four cygnets. Before they were six months old three of these little ones met with untimely deaths. The survivor resembled its male progenitor about the head, but its female parent in its body, and it wasa female. In 1845 this hybrid paired with its male parent and laid four eggs, but they did not hatch (P.Z.S., 1847, p. 97). The Polish swan has likewise bred with the common form, and in 1883 a pair of these cross-breeds had again laid in the society’s gardens, but the eggs were not hatched when the report was made. Mr Eyton crossed the Chinese goose with the common goose, from which he reared two hybrids, but from separate sittings. From these two hybrids he obtained a hatching of eight (second generation of) hybrids, the parents being brothers and sisters. Darwin procured two of these hybrids, and from them (brothers and sisters) raised five extremely fine birds from two hatches, which in every respect resembled their parents. Dr Goodacre (P.Z.S., 1879) questioned if the two original parents were specifically distinct, and he made the following crosses :— x2 344, Chinese male with a common goose, female, and from these several goslings were hatched. A pair of these hybrids, out of the same nest, raised some young in 1878 and 1879. Half-bred males were crossed with females of the common goose and also with those of the Chinese species. One-quarter Chinese female was likewise paired with a male three-quarters of the common goose. Also, males with females of both common and the Chinese forms. The Earl of Derby, in 1840, remarked that on the “Great Water” in his park a barnicle had paired with a white-fronted goose, and that they had made a nest in which were nine or ten eggs, but it was not known which was the male parent. (P.Z.S., 1840, p. 33.) In November, 1859, Mr Elliot, of New York, exhibited at the Zoological Society of London what were considered crosses between a wild duck, Anas boschas, and pintail, Dafila acuta ; also between the wild duck and the Muscovy, Cairina moschata ; and a third between the American scaup, Fuligula affinis, or else the collared duck, F’. collaris, and the pochard, F'. Americana (p. 437). While M. de Salys-Longchamps, in 1856, enumerated 44 different crosses among ducks which had occurred between various members of the family, most in domesticated, but some in a wild state, Professor Newton produced before the Zoological Society (P.Z.S., 1860, p. 338) a pair of birds, male and female, the produce of the pintail duck and farm-yard duck, which he had received in the winter of 1855-56. Here were other ducks, but over all, the hybrid drake reigned supreme, and he kept all the rest at a distance from his hybrid mate, which made her nest in August, and hatched four ducklings, two male and two female. But in the second generation he considered they became infertile. In 1861 he exhibited a male hybrid, bred between a male wigeon, Mareca penelope, and a female which was a cross between the common wild duck and the farm-yard duck (P.Z.S., 1861, p. 892). Mr Sclater (P.Z.S., 1859, p. 442) remarked, after describing a hybrid raised between a male common shieldrake, Tadorna vulpanser, and a female white-fronted shieldrake or mountain goose of Southern Africa, Casarea cana, which hatched and 545 reared three hybrid birds, continued as follows :—* In the gardens this year we have also bred two other broods of hybrid ~ ducks; one of these was the produce of a male dusky duck, Anas obscura, and a cross-bred female between the dusky duck and the wild duck. The other was the issue, as we believe, of parents, themselves both cross-bred, and both originating from hybridism between the tufted duck, Fulingula cristata, and the white-eyed Nyroca leucophthalma. But as there is a male, pure bred white-eyed duck in the same pond, we cannot be quite certain on the point.” Mr Bartlett, at a meeting of the Zoological Society (February 12th, 1861) produced living specimens of the following hybrids bred in the gardens, one pair being the offspring of the summer duck, Aix sponsa, and pochard, Feligula ferina ; and the other of the summer duck and the castanaceous duck, F. nyroca. Mr Yarrell, in 1832, exhibited before the same society the apparently healthy generative organs of a male hybrid raised in the gardens between a Muscovy drake and a common duck: its vocal organs more resembled Anas boschas than A. moschata. On December 13th, 1831, Mr Fiennes showed at a meeting of the same society a hybrid duck, bred between a male pintail and a common duck. It was one of a brood of six, several of which were subsequently confined with the pintail drake, from which they had sprung, and reared some young. A specimen of a duck of this second brood.was likewise shown (P.Z.S., 1831, p. 158). In the United States of America, a brood of young duck- lings of the dusky duck, Anas obscura, were captured in Bristol County, Massachusetts, in 1876; they bred in 1877, but by an accident the drakes were destroyed this season. In 1877 young wild mallards, A. boschas, were caught; these mated with the dusky ducks, and in the Proceedings of the United States National Museum for 1884, Mr Slade states: ‘I have now in my yard one of the dusky ducks of 1876, and one mallard of 1877, and the rest of the birds are lineal descendants of this pair. Every egg hatches. One pair of birds, mated and fertile, has the drake three-fourths mallard and one-fourth dusky duck, while 346 the female is three-fourths dusky duck and one-fourth mallard ” (page 66). Several instances of blackbirds and thrushes pairing have been recorded (see Loudon’s Mag. Nat. Hist., August, 1834; Thompson Natural History of Ireland iii., p. 457; Zoologist, 1883, p. 123; 1884, p. 186; 1885, pp. 69, 112). Mr Potts sent to the Zoological Society, November 18th, 1884, a nest and eggs of birds from New Zealand, observing that the parents were of two different species of Flycatchers of the genus Rhipidura, the male being the R. flabellifera, and the female the R. fuliginosa, which he had watched nesting together, and this not for the first time. Among birds, especially finches kept in confinement, many interesting facts bearing upon hybridism have been recorded, and which seem to have more analogy with what obtains in fishes than the instances observed among the higher grades of vertebrata. Hybrids have been raised from a hen canary and a cock goldfinch : a mule between a canary and goldfinch being a male has produced offspring with a hen canary; also hybrids have been observed, from a hen canary and a cock siskin, the young of this cross resembling the siskin in shape; from a hen canary and a linnet. Most of the foregoing have proved fertile, and no great difficulty has been experienced in inducing the parents to pair, but the difficulty increases in proportion to the remoteness of the relationship between the species. A hen canary has also been crossed with a bullfinch, but the eggs, says Bechstein, seldom prove fruitful; but Dr Jassy found a plan of making other canaries sit on the eggs and bring up the young. A hen canary paired with a nightingale in Bechstein’s presence, but the eggs did not hatch. The reason why the canary has been selected as the mother is because she will lay her eggs in an artificial nest, which wild birds are not readily induced to do. Some, at least, of the foregoing hybrid progeny of birds were fertile—as crosses between hen canaries and gold- finches, siskins and greenfinches. The first eggs of these hybrids were said to be very small, and the young hatched from them very weak, but the eggs of the next season were larger and the nestlings stronger and stouter, 347 Mr Boyes, of Beverley, writing to the Field, observed respecting hybrids raised between the goldfinch and the bull- finch, “that these mules are not so rare as that gentleman supposes. I have seen several such, both male and female. Two grand cocks were exhibited at a show of cage birds recently held here, and so frequently are they to be met with now that it requires a very high-coloured cock to win. This cross is, without doubt, the most handsome of all the hybrids between British birds, and I believe they are all produced by mating the cock goldfinch with the hen bullfinch. Another cross very difficult to procure is the one between the bullfinch and canary; I have only heard of one such for which the owner refused £10. It was sent to a show, and, through some neglect in supplying it with food, was hungered to death. I may mention that at the above-mentioned show, a hybrid between the greenfinch and common linnet was exhibited. This is a cross not often met with.” While Mr Macpherson remarked in the same number of the Field, “that every bird show of importance produces some fine pink-breasted mules between the goldfinch and bullfinch. I myself have examined these hybrids at all stages, and possessed a female which sang the song of the chaffinch. Hybrids between the bullfinch and linnet are less frequently met with, but even these are now well-known in this country. The really rare hybrid is that between the bullfinch and canary. I have only examined a single specimen of this hybrid, which was exhibited in London a few weeks ago, and was the offspring of a male canary and female bullfinch.” Before commencing an account of hybrids among fishes, it may not be out of place to refer to certain natural influences, some of which favour, whereas others are detrimental, to hybridization. Having no references to instances of crosses occurring among cartilaginous and cyclostomatous forms, the following notes will be restricted to so-called “ true fishes,” or Teleosteans. In some species of marine fishes, as the herring, Clupea harengus, the eggs sink and become attached to suitable sub- stances, consequently, unless they extruded them near the 548 surface, and fertilization from other species occurred prior to or during the time they were subsiding, the possibility of cross- breeding would be restricted to such taking place with those of other forms whose eggs similarly sink. In the same way the milt of the male, if ejected near the surface, may, while sub- siding, occasionally come in contact with the eggs of forms which normally float. In mixogamous forms, where the males and females congregate together for breeding purposes, and large tracts of the ocean are discoloured by the presence of their eggs and milt, it does not seem very difficult to suppose that a ripe fish of another species or genus might accidentally be present and hybridization occur.; while there are forms, as the mackerel, Scomber scomber, cod, Gadus morhua, and most of our flat fishes, or Plewronectide, in which the eggs float, or have their specific gravity so nearly similar to that of the sea that it requires the agitation of the waves to prevent their subsiding. Some marine fish, as blennies, attach their eggs to shells or other substances, but these cases will furnish me with no instances of hybridization. Among the fish which reside in fresh waters, or seek a fresh water locality in which to deposit their eggs, we have very few that have floating ova: shad, Clupea alosa and C. finta being possibly the exceptions. The Salmonide make a nest or redd in the gravel at the bottom of a stream, and subsequently leave their eggs and young to care for themselves; while among the perches and carps some deposit their ova in stringy bands. But while it is evident that eggs may be carried by waves, currents, or winds to where the milt of another species might be present, or milt may be similarly washed away from the circle wherein the species has deposited its eggs, still there are certain causes in existence which are detrimental to hybridiza- tion when in a state of nature. For the mode in which fertilization takes place is, that the milt or spermatozoa, of the male is brought into contact in the water with the ova or eggs of the female, and obtains access through a small orifice termed the micropyle into the interior of the ovum. It must, however, be evident that simple as this process would be between 549 all forms of fishes were the eggs and milt, or rather the micropyle and the spermatozoa, the same size in all, the specific gravity similar, and the period of breeding identical, it is these very differences which act as a bar to hybridization. For a mechanical difficulty * is in existence impeding, or in some instances preventing, the eggs of small forms or small fishes, even when of the same species, being fertilized by larger parents; while the seasons for breeding are likewise a great bar, for should two forms not be doing so at the same period of the year, it is evident they could not cross. If all forms could interbreed freely one with another, we might find minnows and salmon, perches and bullheads, sticklebacks and carps hybridiz- ing, and in a comparatively short space of time families, genera and species would be things of the past. Were this to occur the result would be readily foretold: at present small species obtain sustenance in small as well as in large pieces of water, but were the smaller forms to merge into the larger, our brooks or lesser streams and smaller ponds would be no longer stocked with fish suitable to the size of their waters, as the amount of food would be insufficient to maintain them in health, even could it sustain their lives. But this is a question I need not follow further at present. On February 1st, 1887, I exhibited, at a meeting of the Zoological Society, an example of a hybrid between the “ Eegs of a small brook trout obtained from streams it is almost im- possible to fertilize with salmon milt from large fish, but if a salmon smolt or grilse is employed the difficulty ceases. For on November 29th, 1883, 4,500 eggs of a fine Lochleven trout were thus milted at Howietoun, and the loss during incubation was only 6 per cent.; while on December 27th, 1884, 7,000 eggs of a large Lochleven trout were milted from an adult salmon with the loss of 28 per cent. The following sizes of eggs measured at Howietoun, show how they vary withage :—Diameter of grilse eggs, from 0°20 to 0-22 of an inch; of a 16 lb. salmon, 0°24 inch; larger fish, 0°25 inch to 0°30 inch. Lochleven trout, 2 and 3 years old, 0°17 inch; 6 years old, 0:18 to 0°19 inch ; 8 years old, ():20 to 0°24 inch. American char, 2-year-old, (0.14 inch ; 3-year-old, 0°17 inch ; 4-year-old, 0°18 inch. If therefore the size of the eggs increase along with the increased size and age of the parent, it is most likely that spermatozoa similarly augment, 350 ' herring, Clupea harengus, and the pilchard, C. pilehardus, having the scaling of the former, or that of the herring, on the left side, and that of the pilchard on the right. These fish are not uncommon off the Cornish coast. But it is among the carps that probably the most hybrids, bred in a wild state, have been observed. Hessel stated that he placed a female of the common carp, Cyprinus carpio, with a male crucian carp, Carassius vulgaris, also a female crucian carp with a male of the common carp, and a female Cyprinus kollarit (a cross between the common and crucian carps) with a male of the common carp. In the two first instances the young became identical with C. kollari, some approaching more towards one parent and some towards the other, while in the last experi- ment the offspring was with difficulty to be distinguished from the genuine carp. The roach has been observed interbreeding with rudd, and also with the chub. ‘Mr G. Berney, writing from Morton Hall, Norfolk, on April 28th, 1883, to the committee of the Great International Fisheries Exhibition, remarked as follows: ‘‘ Baron Clock informed me that he had a few fish, a cross between the golden tench, Tinca vulgaris, var. auratus, and the common carp, Cyprinus carpio. He clearly did not wish to give me any of them, and I had no desire to introduce a mongrel fish.” Pennant, in the last century, alluded to hybrids between the carp and tench, and also to having heard of some between the carp and the bream. They have also been observed between the roach, Leuciscus rutilus, and the bream, Abramis brama : between the rudd, L. erythrophthalmus, and the bream: and between the chub, L. cephalus, and the bleak, Alburnus lucidus ; while Pritchard remarked that ‘“ Defay mentioned a hybrid between a barbel, Barbus, and a carp, Carpio”’. The family of Salmonide, however, afford us the most con- clusive evidence of hybridization among fishes, as owing to its being extensively cultivated, and the offspring raised by artificial fertilization, opportunities for trying experiments have occurred, and of which fish culturists have largely availed themselves. But that these fish likewise occasionally give rise to hybrids when in a wild state I shall also be able to show. 351 Willoughby (1686) remarked that he was persuaded that the salmon and the various forms of trout interbreed: and many authors in this country have erroneously asserted that par were hybrids, until the question was set at rest by the fish culturists. Mr Shaw, on April 26th, 1841, informed Mr Scope that his “experiments with the ova of the common trout and salmon had been quite successful, and that the hybrids had hatched, and were in good health.” Again, in October, he observed that “they were all in a very healthy state, the cross not having in the slightest degree affected their constitutions.” Edmund Thomas Ashworth (Propagation of the Salmon, 1853, page 19) observed that “the ova of trout fecundated by the milt of the salmon, by the care of MM. Berthot and Detzem, and forwarded from the banks of the Rhine, were hatched in their laboratory. Also ova of salmon fecundated by the milt of trout gave the same results.” Davy (1858) remarked that it had been ‘ascertained that the ova of the salmon can be impreg- nated with the milt of the common trout,” and subsequently, that “Mr Reynolds mixed together the roe of, the lake trout and the fluid milt of the char, which he placed in his breeding boxes in November. In seventy days some of the ova were hatched.” I received from Howietoun (January, 1885) three figures of hybrid Salmonide taken in colours from fish in spirit in the “ College of France,” at Paris. The label asserts “ these were from Professor Coste’s fish house, 1866-67. The water became bad when they were about eighteen months old and killed them. They had milt and roe.” Professor Rasch in 1867 instituted experiments in order to practically test the question of hybrids among the Salmonide ; he found that the ova of the sea and river trout were developed regularly, whichever form were the parent one, and that the offspring were fertile. That of the ova of the char, fertilized by the milt of the trout, 30 to 40 per cent. were developed, but many young fish perished after being hatched. Trout ova, fertilized by the milt of the char, only gave 10 per cent. of young, many of which were mis-shapen. Salmon ova, fertilized with trout milt, yielded 40 per cent. of young fish, but more if 352 the milt of the char were employed. The ova of a hybrid between a trout and a char could not be fertilized by means of trout milt. Carl Peyrer (1876) stated that in Upper Austria “artificial fish culture had produced many cross-breeds, especially of the char, Salmo salvelinus, with the trout, which excel the pure breed in many respects. In Upper Austria the eggs of the char are mostly impregnated with the milt of the brook trout.” Leuchart remarked that in January, 1878, some salmon ova were fertilized with trout milt, and the offspring were kept in a private brook well protected from the ingress of strange fish. In the beginning of 1879 seventy of them were transferred from the water in which they then were, into a small perfectly enclosed pond, wherein they remained until January, 1880. On taking the fish from the pond only fifty- four were found, and a portion of the larger ones had effected their sexual development. Only one example was a female, while twenty-five milters were counted (possibly the missing ones were females which had jumped out of the water at night- time and been carried off by vermin). On February 7th the ova of the female was milted from one of the males. In the middle of March the eyes of the embryo were visible, and shortly afterwards the hatched fry, along with their parents, were brought to Berlin in spirit. In this instance the male parent was a trout, and trout of both sexes commence breeding at two years of age, as was here observed to be the case, the import- ance of which has been referred to. In the Berlin Fishery Exhibition (1880) were some lovely fish, crosses between the char and the trout, shown by Professor Haack. The Hon. Robert B. Roosevelt observed (Proceedings of the American Association for the Advuncement of Science, vol. xxxiii., 1884) that “ the crosses made under the New York State Fishery Commission have been very numerous. The first was that of the California salmon, Salmo quinnat, and the brook trout, Salmo fontinalis: this was in the year 1876. Then came the cross of the salmon or lake trout, Salmo confinis, with the brook trout; then the California trout, the Salmo irideus, and the 353 brook trout: and thereafter the entire range of the salmon and trout families, as far as they were within the reach of the operators, were combined in many and curious proportions.” The earliest hybrids to mature their ova were the cross between the male California salmon and the female brook trout. This took place in the year 1879. They not only be- came gravid, but ascended the spawning races as naturally as those of either distinct species. But as they deposited no eggs and did not appear to mate, an examination was made, and it was ascertained that they were all females. In all subsequent operations, however, the proportion of each sex has been about equal. The cross of the male brook trout and the female salmon trout, the Salmo fontinalis, with the Salmo confinis, matured ova in October, 1880. There were about 72,000 eggs cast, which hatched as readily as those of either parent, although it was found that a larger percentage of them could be impregnated with the milt of the male brook trout than with the milt of their own kind. The percentage of fertility was good, and the young proved to be perfectly healthy and as able to stand the struggle for existence as any of their brethren of pure strain. At the first cross one half of the salmon trout was eliminated, their young impregnated with the milt of the male brook trout left only a quarter of the coarser parent, and then came those which were seven-eighths brook trout to one-eighth salmon trout, which is as far as we have got at the present time. The young of each of these generations show the effects of the cross. The first in descent had none of the carmine specks which are the distinguishing feature of the “speckled trout” of our brooks. In the second generation the spots began to appear, and in the last they are distinctly visible, although fewer in number than in the trout of Sangre Azul. In the year 1883 there were distributed to the brooks of the State 45,300 hybrid fry which were one-half salmon trout and one-half brook trout, and in 1884 a second planting of 79,000 three-quarter brook trout was made. The first, which were deposited in wild waters, were found in six months to have attained a growth of 354 four and a half inches in length, equal to the growth of a brook trout in the same water for an entire year. Mr Roosevelt also recorded that in the United States Salmo confinis had been bred with the whitefish, Coregonus albus; the brook trout with the fresh-water herring, Coregonus clupeiformis ; the brook trout and the California trout, Salmo irideus. Those who refuse to admit that the chars are of a different genus from the trout must allow that Coregonus cannot be included as pertaining to the genus Salmo. Hybrids have been raised between the grayling, Thymallus vulgaris and the trout: the eggs of the former from the Lake of Pavia having, in November and December, 1872, been fertilized with the milt of salmon trout, and hatched in January, 1873. These hybrids bred at the age of 22 months and 5 days—at least the females did, for the males were found to be exhausted, so they were crossed with trout milt. These hybrids again proved fertile, and the cross was again tried, but unsuccessfully. (Société d’Acclimatation de la France, 1877, page 495.) In 1882 I received a hybrid from Sir Pryse Pryse, of Gogerdan, in Cardiganshire, being a cross between the American char which had been introduced, and the brook trout; and in 1887 I ascertained that these cross-breeds were by no means rare, and several anglers have informed me that they interbreed also in the Wandle and elsewhere. During Christmas week, 1885, Mr Thomas Ford observed in a stream at Caistor, in very shallow and perfectly clear water, a female brook trout which had made a large hole, and a male fontinalis. There were half-a-dozen more common trout in the pool, but the fontinalis drove them all away, although they were the larger fish. ‘‘ When shooting its eggs the body of the trout was subject to a tremulous motion, whilst its back fin was occasionally out of the water. At times the fontinalis remained . almost immovable just above the trout, but now and then it would go completely over and under the female fish. It was quite evident that the female trout preferred the company of the fontinalis to that of its own species. This is the second 355 time that I have observed the crossing of the species in a state of nature.” He watched it a quarter of an hour (Field, January 9th, 1886). To partially solve some, at least, of these questions, Sir James Maitland, Bart., F.L.S. and F.Z.8., has at Howietoun, devoted a very great amount of trouble, and gone to considerable expense during the last eight years or more,and when carrying out his ex- periments has given me the opportunity of being present while the crosses were being made, permitted me unlimited access to his hatching-houses and fish ponds, and supplied me with specimens whenever I have required them. Consequently, unless other- wise expressed, all the following experiments were made by the owner himself at his private fish farm at Howietoun. As regards obtaining conclusive evidence that hybrids can occur, fish culture affords that, and also proof that they are not necessarily sterile. Of these we may decidedly recognize some forms by their colours and vomerine teeth, &c., as those between trout and American char, one of which, as I have already ob- served, I received in 1882 from Sir Pryse Pryse, of Gogerdan, in Cardiganshire. In the following I have merely given a synopsis of some of the Howietoun experiments upon hybridizing salmonide, as detailed accounts will be found in the Field, and the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, and my recent work upon British and Irish Salmonide, where many more instances of intercrossing are recorded. On November 25th, 1879, a man arrived at Howietoun with some salmon milt which Mr Napier, the local inspector of fisheries, had despatched the previous evening from Stirling in a tightly corked soda-water bottle, that had been kept during the night in snow, and which seemed on arrival as if it had been frozen. This milt was employed for fertilizing ova taken from a four-year-old Lochleven trout, and a few of the progeny were successfully reared: November 14th, 1882 one, eleven inches long, was taken in my presence; it was a male which I described in the P.Z.S., 1882, and likewise gave a woodcut of its head. Some of these fish when young were placed in the island 356 pond along with the trout, and when that pond was drained in my presence, November 28th, 1883, several were obtained ; three of these I sent to the Heonomic Fish Museum at South Kensington, one I retained and examined, it was also a male (see P.Z.S., 1884). Several were transferred to pond No. 11. November 14th, 1884, on pond No. 11 being drawn, three of the above hybrids were captured, the largest being 16} inches long ; they appeared to be in good health, but none had shown any tendency to spring out of the ponds at the spawning time. December 24th, 1881, about 20,000 eggs of Lochleven trout at Howietoun were fertilized with salmon milt obtained from the Teith. They hatched on March 9th, 1882, or in 75 days. In due course the fry were removed to a planked pond at Howietoun, 20 ft. long by 5 ft. wide, and 1} ft. deep. Through this a stream flows, entering at its upper and making its exit at the surface at its lower end. On November 15th, 1882, the largest fish was 44 inches in length. On March 138th, 1884. these hybrids (numbering 212, the largest six being over 10 inches in length, the majority smaller, while a few did not exceed 24 inches, and all apparently in excellent health,) were transferred to the octagon pond at Craigend, the diameter of which is 20 ft., and its depth 4 ft.; its sides and bottom are planked, while the stream which supplies it flows in at about 1 ft. below the surface and passes out at the lower end at the same level. This stream rises from springs about half a mile away, and before reaching the octagon pond goes through two 100 ft. ponds, which are stocked with Lochleven yearlings, con- sequently anything deleterious in the water must first affect these small fish. These fish did not attempt to spring out of the pond until May, 1885, or when thirty-eight months of age, and in a similar manner to smolts when becoming grilse. On May 24th, one which was found dead was opened, and proved to be female with the eggs developing, and which, had it lived, would evidently have bred that winter. In June, 1885, the water in the Craigend burn, which supplies this pond, became very low, although during that month it never quite ceased flowing. That in the pond became so dis- 357 coloured, it was impossible to see the fish unless they came to the surface, and their existence could only be demonstrated by throwing a very little food in, when they rose to take it. On July 3rd, a slight shower occurred, but rain still held off, and the fish appeared to -be livelier than they had been for several days previously, and when fed at 6.30 p.m. some of them jumped quite out of the water at the little food thrown to them. The temperature at the surface was 64°, and experi- ments made since show that it is 2° colder at the bottom. On July 4th, at 8.30 a.m., on Mr Thompson, the manager, going to feed these fish, one was observed dead on the surface, while none of the others could be seen to move. The water was at once drawn off, in order to shift any that might chance to be alive, but only two were found to be so, and 142 were dead. Some appeared as if they had succumbed more than twenty- four hours; the two which remained alive subsequently quite recovered, and were put into another pond. The largest of the hybrids was 13} inches long, and weighed just over one pound. On November 6th, 1886, 3,000 eggs from a Lochleven trout -were milted from one of these hybrids. About 80 hatched, and 55 fish from 1} to 14 inches long, and apparently very strong, were placed in pond No. 2 at Howietoun: on November 9th they were looking well, some being as much as 5 inches long, and in fact the largest fry yet seen. In this case Lochleven trout eggs were first crossed with salmon milt, and subsequently a male hybrid offspring, 4 years and 8 months old, was em- ployed to fertilize more trout ova. In this last case, although the loss during incubation was about 97 per cent., the resulting fry appear to be peculiarly fine. December 27th, 1884, 7,000 ova from a Teith salmon were milted from a Lochleven trout, and about 5,000 hatched in the old house on March 11th, or after incubating 75 days. There was a great mortality from when they had attained to a month old and continuing up to the time of feeding, many being weak and dropsical. June 30th, 1885, about 2,000 were trans- ferred to pond 4. March 1st 787 were shifted to pond No. 7, the largest being from seven to eight inches long, but several Z 358 were merely from two to three inches in length. November 9th, 1887, they were looking very well. In this case the former experiment was reversed, and salmon eggs were milted from a Lochleven trout, showing the possibility, but the young have not yet been found old enough to breed. The next experiment was made in order to ascertain the effect of employing the milt from a par or young salmon, in order to fertilize the eggs of a mature Lochleven trout. November 29th, 1883, about 4,500 eggs were obtained from a Lochleven trout which had been hatched early in 1875, and these were milted from a par 32 months of age. The number of eggs removed as dead during the 78 days they took incubat- . ing was as follows :—December, 65; January, 18 ; February, 4; or a total loss by deaths of 87; while in addition 199 eggs were found to have escaped fertilization. Consequently, although the mortality was small, it by no means gave a true index to the result of the experiment, for it was soon perceived that the young were not a strong and vigorous brood, while weak ones are useless for stocking purposes, even should they surmount the diseases and dangers of their youth. On February 15th, 1884, some thousands were hatched, but nearly all were observed to be suffering from what has been termed dropsy, or blue swelling of the yolk-sac, probably due to insufficient vitality in their constitutions. On March 12th, 1884, these young fish were of an average length of 0°8 of an inch, but what at once struck an observer was the large pyriform umbilical sac which seemed to anchor them to the bottom of the tank. Some were seen singly, others in groups, while every now and then one would start up and swim a short distance in an irregular or spasmodic manner, and then sink to the bottom. Under a strong magnifying glass there appeared to be a want of vitality in the fish, the pulsations being weak, the heart’s activity feeble, and the blood deficient in red corpuscles. On June 24th they were shifted to the 20 feet pond at Howietoun; on August 29th, 1884, about 100 were alive; May 6th, 1885, they were temporarily placed in No. 4 pond; and on June in pond 382, only 58 fish remaining. June 17th, 1886, they were about 359 two dozens in number, and shifted to pond 16, all being small except two, one of which was twelve inches long and j-lb. weight. On November 28rd, 1886, 1,000 eggs were obtained from one of these fishes, which was 9:1 inches long, and had a shortened lower jaw. These were milted with a Lochleven trout, and about 700 hatched on February 10th, 1887, or in 79 days. June 27th 667 fish were removed to No. 1 pond at Howietoun. In September, 1888, they were looking well. In this instance we see the disastrous results of employing the milt of young fish for the purpose of breeding; still among the few survivors it is clear that not only hybrids raised between female Lochleven trout and male salmon may be fertile, but likewise that similar crosses, when a young salmon, or rather par is one of the parents, may afford fertile offspring. Having thus demonstrated from Howietoun experiments that salmon and trout may intercross, and likewise that their offspring may be fertile, if bred with one of the original parents, or others of the same genus, I may just mention that a cross between the female American char, Salmo fontinalis, and a salmon par proved fertile in 1884, a few of the eggs having been hatched. The succeeding Howietoun experiments refer solely to crosses made between English and American char and Lochleven trout. November 15th, 1882, about 3,000 eggs of the Lochleven trout were fertilized with milt from an American char: they hatched in 85 days. The mortality among the incubating eggs ~ was about one death in every 6 ova. The young were much malformed, monstrosities being numerous: some had blindness in one or both eyes, others had bulldog deformities of the snout ; some were very light-coloured, but not quite white, as the markings, although pale, were visible. July 20th, 1883, the remaining fish were transferred to a large wooden tank raised off the ground, and supplied with water from a stream, but it was rather exposed to the east. On March 12th, 1884, upwards of twenty were found to be dead, so the next day the rest were removed to the upper planked pond at Howietoun, into which z 2 360 211 were turned, but some appeared to be very weakly. In three of these fish a remarkable change had occurred in the colour of their fins, the ventral, anal and caudal having become of a carmine red. One which was 2} inches long happening to die, I found that its left eye had never been developed, while there were adhesions between the iris and subjacent structures. In a second the left eye had not been developed, while the right eye had suffered from congenital malformation. The longest fish was a little over 3} inches in length. On November 12th, 1884, pond No. 3 at Howietoun was examined, and the females of this, termed the “zebra” race, were not quite ready for breeding, while they appeared to be fewer in number than the males, some of which were ripe. On December 24th they were shifted to pond No. 5, and 146 fish were present. September 8th, 1885, the largest removed with a landing net was 94 inches long. November 5th, 1885, on netting pond 5, all those examined appeared to be sterile, the largest fish being 124 inches long. One of these fish was opened on November 26th, 1887, and found to have plenty of milt, thus showing that the cross between the female Lochleven trout and male American char will give a fertile offspring. But on November 12th, 1884, some eggs of the Lochleven trout were milted from one of these hybrids ; some of the eggs eyed, three embryos developed, but they died unhatched. The last experiment was then reversed as to the sexes of the parents operated upon, and on November 15th, 1882, 8,000 ova of an American char were fecundated with the milt of a Lochleven trout. They hatched in 84 days. The young fry were greatly deformed, many had their spines crooked, atrophy was present in the posterior portion of some, and a deficiency of the fins generally, more especially of the caudal. On March 138th, 1884, only eight remained, which in December were shifted to pond 24, and in 1886 to pond 16, when on November 10th, 1887, out of five netted none were fertile. This experiment, however, somewhat similar to the last, again shows that American char and Lochleven trout may be crossed, and that offspring can be raised from them. 361 December 5th, 1885, about 6,500 eggs of Lochleven trout were milted from a Windermere char which had been kept waiting too long, for although the impregnation was considered good, there was a deficiency of milt; in 84 days about 30 hatched ; and on July 30th, 20 were moved to pond 4. December 17th 19 remained, and were shifted to pond 23. They were fully as large as yearlings of the true Lochlevens, and much more silvery. May 30th, 1887, moved to pond 32. Of course they are too young at present to show whether the cross will be a fertile one, but it proves that the British char, similar to the American, can cross with the Lochleven trout. It was also proposed to intercross the American with the British char, and on November 15th, 1882, about 9,000 ova of S. fontinalis were fertilized with the milt of a Scotch char, which had been obtained from Loch Rannoch. They hatched on February 9th, or in 86 days. On March 13th, 1884, 91 lively young fish were transferred to plank pond No. 4 at Howietoun, and on November 12th, 1884, this pond (pond No. 4 at Howietoun) was again examined, and 91 fish were present: the largest fish was 84 inches long: most of the females were not quite ready for breeding, as December set in they began to be languid ; and one or two having died they were shifted into pond No. 5 on December 24th, when 74 fish were transferred. The next day 15 died, and two on the 26th. Subsequently few succumbed. These fish seem, in their shallow pond, to have felt atmospheric changes very severely, requiring deeper water into which to descend. On November 25th, 1885, the largest was 104 inches in length, many were found to be ready to spawn, some not quite so, but from 35 fish from 10 to 12,000 eggs were obtained. Some were crossed among themselves, as will be detailed. There were not so many males with ripe milt as there were females with ripe ova. This experiment has been repeated more than once, and with the same results, showing that American and British char can be interbred, and a race of hybrids, called struans at Howietoun, be produced. I now come more especially to treat of the breeding of hybrids, of the fertility of hybrids, I have previously shown 362 that those between salmon and trout may be fertile. First, then, comes the question—Can hybrids be fertile amongst them- selves, or must they be interbred between one of the parent races? On November 24th and 25th, 1885, about 17,500 eggs were obtained from struan hybrids, and crossed by males from the same breed, they being at that time thirty-three months old. They commenced hatching February 11th, and about 2,000 young came out. Many were very weak, and the mortality became considerable. July 30th, 689 fish were shifted to 20 feet pond No. 3; and on December 27th 450 were moved to the botanical pond, which is about four feet deep. About the middle of June and the subsequent three weeks, when the weather was scorching and the glare great, many were observed to commence to lose their colour, to become nearly white, with the pectoral, ventral, and anal still showing the red colour. On a net being placed near them they did not move unless touched, and on being taken out of the pond were found to be blind: in those slightly affected in colour the pupil was fixed and the colour dull, almost opaque; in those fully affected it was quite opaque. At the commencement of July some wood was placed over the inlet end of the pond under which the fish crowded, but the temperature of the water did not decrease until some rain fell on the 5th and 7th, when the fish seemed more lively. Some boards were now placed over a portion of the pond for the char to get under, but no other locality was available in which to transfer them. Here is a distinct instance of fertile hybrids breeding together, the parent forms being two species of the chars, and which cross has been several times carried out, and always with somewhat similar results. But it was deemed advisable to cross these struans with a Lochleven trout, so that there could be no doubt as to their not being varieties of one species. On November 12th, 1884, 4,500 eggs from two Lochleven trout were milted from a male struan hybrid, and hatched in 83 days. Among them were many deformities, a few dropsies, and subsequently a high mortality. On June 30th, 320 were placed in pond 3. One of these was not blind, while there was a black line along the top of the 363 dorsal fin; the largest fish was four inches long. July 5th, 1886, doing well. November, 1886, their colours were very similar to those of the “ zebra ”’ breed, only. being a little more plum-coloured along the sides, the dorsal fin less marked, and the head darker ; consequently those hybrids which contain one-fourth Lochleven trout blood and three-quarters of that of British and American chars commingled, have adopted the colouring previously observed in hybrids between the American char and Lochleven trout, while the tints of the British char, Salmo alpinus, were almost absent. This, it will be observed, was a second cross, the first being between the two species of char, and the resulting fertile hybrid being subsequently crossed with a pure Lochleven trout, a form which was absent from either of the parents. The original American char eggs were received from America, and the British char from Loch Rannoch. Eggs obtained from one of these hybrids, were milted from another of the same lot, but none of them hatched. A two-year-old hybrid, half American and half British char, was crossed on November 15th, 1887, by a male Lochleven. About 3,000 ova were procured, and on February 38rd, 1888, about 300 hatched. Among them were many deformities. In crossing two forms of char, the mode of dentition on the vomer, or teeth, being restricted to the hind edge of the head of that bone, naturally remains unaltered in the hybrid progeny ; but when hybridization is continued by crossing char with trout we at once see that a very decided alteration in the situation of these teeth takes place. Trout, as is well-known, have not only teeth along the hind edge of the head of the vomer, but likewise along the shaft or body of that bone. But in the intercrossed forms we observe a short single row of teeth along the anterior portion of the shaft of that bone, and which reaches its head, which is shortened posteriorly. Irrespective of this distinct structural difference of such hybrids from other known European forms among salmonide, the external colours are likewise forming a distinct character for themselves. In all they are seen to be covered with vermiform or reticulated 364 dark lines, possibly the result of somewhat similar markings in the char. But it is remarkable that they do not approach the colours of any of our fresh water fishes, which one would imagine ought to be the case if external colours are greatly determined by local surroundings. Among the fiat fishes, or Pleuronectide, hybrids have been observed between the flounder, Plewronectes flesus, and the dab, P. limanda ; between the plaice, P. platessa, and the turbot, Rhombus maximus ; and between the turbot and the brill, R. levis. Now, as all these instances occurred among these sea fishes in a wild state, partial domestication cannot be brought forward as an agent. Numerous as are the foregoing instances of hybridization among domesticated, semi-domesticated, and wild animals, they are merely a selection out of many which I have collected. Unless their correctness is disputed, how, I might ask, can we be expected to accept the conclusions of certain authorities in zoology (1) that species belonging to two distinct genera cannot cross; (2) that species belonging to two distinct families are unable to breed together; (3) that the fertility of hybrids does not extend to the second generation. I have, I believe, made it evident that many animals belonging to the distinct species of the same genus will cross, as, among mammals, the black bear and brown bear, tiger and jaguar, jaguar and leopard, Mexican jaguar and common jaguar, tiger and lion, zebu and yak, zebu and gayal, Huropean domestic ox and gayal, chamois and domestic goat, moufflon and domestic sheep, horses and asses, zebra and ass, mare and quagga. Among birds, two species of crowned pigeons (Gowra), common pheasant and ring- necked pheasant, common and silver pheasant, capercailie and black grouse, black swan and white swan, Chinese and common goose, barnicle and white-fronted wild goose, collared duck and pochard, pochard and castanaceous duck, blackbird and thrush. Among fish, herring and pilchard, salmon and trout, English and American char, flounder and dab, turbot and brill, tench and common carp, trout and char, Californian salmon and American char, grayling and trout, plaice and turbot. 365 That species belonging to two distinct genera cannot cross is shown to be erroneous from the instances which I have adduced, and which I will briefly recapitulate. Among mammals, hares with rabbits, jackal and domestic dog. Among birds, male Ectopistes migratorius and the Turtur risorius, fantail pigeon and collared dove, Cervulus vaginalis and Phasianus reeveswi, common fowl and pheasant, golden pheasant and common pheasant, reeves pheasant and golden pheasant, Amherst and golden pheasant, common pheasant and grey hen or black-cock, black grouse and hazel grouse, black grouse and willow grouse, willow grouse and barn-door fowl, red grouse and ptarmigan, wild duck and pintail, wild and Muscovy duck, common duck and wigeon, common shieldrake and mountain goose, tufted duck and white-eyed duck, summer duck and pochard, canaries and bullfinches, and many of the finches (see page 346). Next arises the question—Are species belonging to two distinct families unable to breed together, as has been asserted? Among mammals, I have instanced a male ape breeding with a baboon in the Regent’s Park Zoological Gardens ; and a second instance was recorded by Blyth in Asia. Some fish of different families have likewise been said to interbreed, but the evidence is hardly conclusive. The question now arises—Does the fertility of hybrids extend to the second generation? Mr Thursfield recorded a hybrid between a buck hare and a doe rabbit. This hybrid crossed with. a wild rabbit, and had one young one; and eight _times with tame ones. A zebu was crossed with a gayal, and the female hybrid produced with an American bison. A gayal was crossed with our domestic cattle and of the hybrids produced, all the females paired with an ordinary European bull were fertile. The mouffion and domestic sheep were crossed, and the cross-bred offspring were fertile if re-crossed with either of the parent species. A hybrid between a zebra and an ass covered a small mare, and had a foal. Among birds, a hybrid between a barn-door fowl and a pheasant was crossed with a pheasant, and two of the offspring were presented to the Zoological Society. A cock golden pheasant and a hen Amherst 366 were crossed, and the hybrid offspring was crossed by an Amherst, and a fine male bird obtained. The Chinese goose has been crossed with the common goose, and young obtained, and from these other young birds were obtained. Similar hybrids between the Chinese and common goose were crossed with females of the common goose, and also those of the Chinese species. The pintail and farmyard duck paired, and from the hybrid offspring one drake paired with one duck, and four ducklings were hatched. A hybrid female dusky duck and wild duck, bred with a dusky duck. Several instances of hybrid finches have likewise been recorded as giving rise to fertile offspring. Among fishes, the ova of hybrids between trout and char have been fertilized with trout milt. Hybrids between salmon and trout have been successfully employed to fertilize eggs of Lochleven trout. Eggs of the Lochleven trout were fertilized from the milt of the American char, and from the milt of these some Lochleven char were fertilized. Here, although some of the eggs eyed, none hatched. Hggs of the American char were milted from Scotch char: eggs and milt from some of these hybrids were procured and crossed, and from these fertile young were produced. Hybrids between the American and British char were crossed with Lochleven trout, and from them young were produced. Having now adduced instances of hybrids having been crossed either with similar hybrids or pure races, it becomes necessary to show how hybrids of the second generation have been known to give fertile offspring. Among mammals I would instance the zebu crossed by a gayal, the resulting hybrid crossed by an American bison, a female hybrid so produced being crossed by a bison, and giving a fertile progeny. Among birdsa male golden pheasant has interbred with an Amherst, and the hybrid off- spring crossed by a pure Amherst. While in our covers and in a wild condition the common pheasant has freely crossed with the ring-necked and other species through many generations, and so far without showing signs of sterility. Ducks have similarly interbred. Among fish American and British char have been crossed, and these hybrids again crossed among them- : 367 selves; also with Lochleven trout, and from these fertile hybrids have been raised. But instances can be adduced of hybrids which have crossed still further than the foregoing ; and again I must refer to the experiments at the Regent’s Park Zoological Gardens. A zebu was crossed by a gayal, the resulting hybrid being crossed by an American bison: this double hybrid was bred from by a bison : and this treble hybrid was alive and well in the gardens, its ancestry consisting of zebu, gayal, and bison. Seeing that none of the three received views alluded to at the commencement of this paper can be maintained when subjected to the light of ascertained facts, it seems highly desirable that these investigations should be continued, as they raise a doubt whether hybrids, if fertile, always revert to one of the parent forms, or whether their infertility does not increase and the hybrid blood die out. It may be advanced that a large number of my instances are taken from fishes kept in a, semi-domesticated state, thus affecting their conditions of life, especially as regards continuing their race. But I have shown that American char and British trout interbreed in our streams, as in Cardiganshire and elsewhere.* Blyth, when referring to hybrids among birds, as finches, or those of the gallinaceous tribe, observed: “the males of all of which appear to have been incompetent to fecundate the eggs produced. Perhaps the superior size, too, of these hybrids generally to that of either of the parent species may be ex- * Much has yet to be learned why it is that animals imported into foreign lands may die out, as white races in India; or, on the contrary, may thrive more abundantly than in their native habitat, as the house sparrow in America, and the rabbit and trout in Australasia. In Europe we see some imported forms die out, in some instances due to the climate, whether they are domesticated or wild, but capable of domestication. New races may be deleteriously affected by changed local surroundings, or after a time they may attain the limits beyond which they will not reproduce unless fresh blood is imported. In some there exists a deleterious sexual influence, occasioned by hybridity, or else otherwise acting unfavourably on the offspring. 368 plicable on the principle which occasions the large growth of the capon” (Charlesworth, Mag. Nat. Hist., 1837,1., p.84). Here hybrid males are considered incompetent to fecundate, and if we refer to Professor Kuhn’s experiments, we also find it recorded that the gayal and Huropean domestic ox had commingled and many hybrids resulted; that of these hybrids the females paired with European bulls of unmixed blood, but that the hybrid bulls, without exception, proved absolutely sterile, although they readily paired with hybrid cows of unmixed European races. But we do not find this to be the case in fishes, where male and female hybrids (American x British char) have freely interbred, and even the males of these hybrid races have inter- crossed with pure Lochleven trout; while I have already alluded to the mechanical difficulty in breeding from very young fish, which sometimes results in non-impregnation, high mor- tality during incubation, deformities of offspring, or very many losses among the young, apparently from deficiency of vitality. - The degree of fertility in hybrids has been said to be in the ratio of the affinity between the parents; and that all true hybrids that have been productive have been raised from species brought from remote countries, and more or less in a state of domestication. The Howietoun crosses give the following results :— 4-year-old Lochleven trout x salmon milt gave a fertile hybrid, a male of which was used with success to cross a Lochleven trout. 8-year-old Lochleven trout x salmon par milt gave a fertile hybrid ; a female of this was crossed with success by a Lochleven trout. Female American char X salmon par proved fertile. u u » Lochleven trout proved fertile. Lochleven trout X Windermere char proved fertile. » American char X Scotch char proved fertile, and the hybrids formed a fertile cross among themselves ; also with the Lochleven trout, and this second generation of hybrids also proved fertile. But although the foregoing demonstrates how various species of salmonide may hybridize and interbreed, it becomes necessary 369 to show, as far as possible, the extent to which this fertility extends, and this will be seen in the following statement :— No. of Eggs Failures No. 1, 1881, Dec. 24th, Male salmon (adult) and Tisshlevext trout.. 3 ... 20,000 vg No. 2, 1884, Dec. orth, Male sei (adult) and Lochleven trout.. ste ee 000 28 per cent. No. 3, 1884, Nov. 11th, Male area wating) oe Lochleven trout.. ore .. 12,000 19 u No. 4, 1883, Nov. 9th, Male San poe saa Lochleven trout.. x .. 4,500 6 " No. 5, 1884, Dee. ath, Male Tigakilévan ase and salmon (young) ... 400 62 ” No. 6, 1886, Nov. 6th, Male hybrid (No. 1) ie Lochleven trout.. a 3,000 91 " No. 7, 1883, Nov. 29th, Male ies jounia so American char ... ‘ 3,695 93 " No. 8, 1882, Nov. 15th, "Male \senunatis a Lochleven sob ... 3,000 17 u ‘No. 9, 1883, Nov. 29th, Hsia ‘fontinalis and Lochleven st ... 3,000 15 " No. 10, 1882, Nov. ‘oth, “Male aca and fontinalis... ne ... 8,000 32 " No. 11, 1885, Dec. 5th, Male British Aig and Lochleven fee ... 6,500 99 " No. 12, 1882, Nov. 1sth, “Male Songenalia and British char... ... 9,000 23 " No. 13, 1884, Nov. 12th, Male ‘ite (No. 12), ; young, and hybrid (No. 12) ... “Ke a 146 8699 " No. 14, 1885, Nov. 25th, Male hybrid (No. 12), young, and hybrid (No. 12)) see 2n6 ... 12,000 83 ” No. 15, 1884, Dec. 6th, Male hybrid (No. 12), young, and hybrid (No. 12)... aan st 600 91 u No. 16, 1887, Nov. 9th, Male hybrid (No. 12), adult, and hybrid (No. 12)... A .. 5,000 50 " No. 17, 1887, Nov. 15th, Male hybrid (No. 12), adult, and hybrid (No. 12)... : .. 12,500 64 W No. 18, 1887, Nov. 23rd, Male hybrid (No. 12), adult, and hybrid (No. 12)... os ... 20,000 50 u No. 19, 1884, Nov. 12th, Male shes (No. 12), young, and Lochleven .. ae - ... 4,500 63 u 370 No. of Eggs Failures No. 20, 1885, Dec. 5th, Male hybrid (No. 12), young, and Lochleven ... : x -- 7,000 78 per cent. No. 21, 1886, Dec. 5th, Male hybrid (No. 12), young, and British char Eos .- 12,000 99 " No. 22, 1887, Nov. 10th, Male hybrid (No. 12), adult, and fontinalis ... ae .- 14,000 86 " No. 23, 1884, Nov. 12th, Hybrid (No. 9) and Lochleven ae .. 1,850 100 " No. 24, 1887, Nov. 15th, Fated ‘Wo. 12), and Lochleven oe wea wets a -» 3,000 90 h Before investigating the foregoing 24 instances of hybridiza- tion, and the percentage of loss among the eggs, I must draw attention to the fact that there always exists a greater percentage of mortality among the eggs from young mothers, or from the young in their earlier stages.* This seems to be consequent upon deficient vitality, while we likewise, especially among hybrids, observe many deformities. This loss among the eggs being caused in some instances by the immaturity of the parents, is seen among the hybrid char, or those raised from fontinalis and British forms. Thus in three instances, when the young hybrids were intercrossed, the loss averaged 84 per cent. among 12,746 eggs, but when the parents were a year or more older, it sank to an average, in three experiments, of 55 per cent. The difference in the mortality, in the two sets of experiments, must be attributed to the age of the parent fishes. At present this hybrid breed seems to be prolific, the original parents being closely allied, both pertaining to the * Among many instances I select the following :—November 13th, 1884, about 500 eggs, having the diameter of 0°17 of an inch, were obtained from a rising 2-year-old Lochleven trout at Howietoun. They were fertilized from another of the same race of mature size. About a dozen hatched, and of these only seven lived up to May. On November 29th, 1883, 4,500 eggs of Lochleven (of the season of 1875) were milted from a salmon par a little over 24 years old, and I have already shown that, although amongst the eggs the mortality was only about 6 per cent., out of 3,700 only 100 were alive at the end of the year. 371 group of Salvelini, or chars, in the genus Salmo. Although one parent was the American form, and the other the British, still both thrive in our waters. But it is very evident that the mortality among the eggs, and the number of deformities among the offspring, are far in excess to that which occurs when pure American or British forms are interbred,* and as this can not be attributed to a mechanical difficulty, some other cause has to be found to account for it. As we have no reason to suppose that the generative organs of the pure chars (from which these hybrids were raised) were in anything but a healthy condition, one is led to the belief that some functional change must have taken place, which has set up this deleterious influence—an influence which diminishes the fecundity of hybrids—compared to that observed in pure species. The experiment was now varied by crossing the eggs of three of the above-mentioned young hybrid char with Lochleven trout, when the mortality was 77 per cent. out of 11,800 ova. As in the same establishment the percentage of deaths among pure breeds is only 4 or 5 per cent., this shows that the mortality is enormously increased in hybrid forms; in fact, in only one instance, crossing a male smolt or grilse with an adult Lochleven trout, was this average of success approached, when the loss during incubation was 6 per cent., but the young, in the alevin stage, were subjected to an enormous mortality from dropsy of the sac. But other things being equal, it seems to me that, in the Howietoun experiments, hybrids made among fishes nearest related are the most successful—that as hybridity as increased the percentage of deaths augments; and were this invariably to be the case hybrids would die out. Still there seem to be some forms in which this may not be the case: possibly the American char and British trout, now seen wild in Cardiganshire and elsewhere, is forming a breed * One Ichthyologist has subdivided one single species of British trout found in fresh waters into six or more, which he terms distinct species. If these forms, as Salmo levenensis, is crossed with S. fario, no augmented mortality among the eggs, nor monstrosities among the offspring, are seen— entirely dissimilar in this respect to hybrids. 372 distinct from its two parents, first by its external colour, and secondly by the vomerine dentition. Another cross, which so far seems destined to continue, if it be placed in suitable ponds, is that between the American and British chars, termed struans at Howietoun. We find similar instances among pheasants which have been introduced into and will thrive in this country, for different species cross, yet without inducing sterility. But I would more especially allude to the bovine experiment at the Zoological Gardens, where we find a zebu, Bos indicus, interbreeding with a gayal, Bibos frontalis, and the hybrids again crossed with a bison, Bison Americanus, but in all of which crossing the bull was of an unmixed breed. Here are what are commonly con- sidered three distinct genera hybridizing, and so far as I know, the last offspring may be fertile. This would seem to show that new forms, or some alterations in old forms, may be produced by hybridization; but only so far, as has been already shown, among parents that are naturalized, and would continue their race. Blyth remarked that “the results of experiments instituted on sheep by the Agricultural Society of Séverac fully warrant the conclusion that where species exist under circumstances favourable for their increase, a greater number of that sex is produced, which, in polygamous animals, is most effectual for their multiplication: whereas the contrary obtains, probably, in proportion to the difficulty of obtaining a livelihood.” (Charles- worth, Magazine of Natural History, 1837, i., p.84.) This would appear to point out that abundance of food is one means of increasing the number of certain species by causing the offspring to be of the most prolific sex. This would seem to be confirmed by the well-fed bovine experiment at the Regent’s Park Zoological Gardens, which I have just cited, as the young were invariably females; whereas at Halle the produced hybrids were nine males and ten females; but we know nothing of the con- ditions under which they were reared: still the bulls were invariably sterile, showing some morphological or physiological changed condition in the generative organs. 373 Darwin observed that sterility may be occasioned by close interbreeding,* or due to crosses between two distinct species, “for it is scarcely possible that two organisms should be com- pounded into one without some disturbance occurring in the development or periodical action, or mutual relations of the different parts and organs one to another, or to the conditions of life. When hybrids are able to breed inter se they transmit to their offspring, from generation to generation, the same compounded organization, and hence we need not be surprised that their sterility, though in a degree variable, rarely diminishes.” (Origin of Species, page 266.) The sterility of crosses among pure species wherein the reproductive organs are perfect, often, not always, depends on the early death of the embryo: while the sterility of mules possessing imperfect generative conditions is allied to that condition in pure species caused by the natural conditions of life having been changed. * Although among mammals interbreeding from species of close con- sanguinity has been found deleterious to the offspring, experiments are still desirable as to whether similar results occur as we descend the scale of animal life? It is evident that the offspring of young parents or of hybrids are not vigorous among fishes, also that such as are irregularly hatched, owing to abnormal conditions of the water, or when the young are underfed or overcrowded, no good fish will be reared, any more than they will if there is insufficient food in the waters into which they are turned. But it has not been shown that eggs from small races, when properly treated, will not give results possibly nearly equal to those from large races, or that the offspring, if well cared for, will not attain a large size. AA The relations of Dundry with the Dorset-Somerset* and Cotteswold areas during part of the Jurassic period, by S. 8. Buckman, F.G.8S. Read February 19th, 1889. The classical Hill of Dundry in North Somerset has always been mentioned by our foremost Geologists as an outlier of the Cotteswold range, from which it is distant some nine miles. If, however, we examine its Inferior Oolite, we find that the greater part thereof is both lithologically and paleontologically entirely different from the Cotteswold strata; but it is almost exactly similar to the Dorset beds. I need not enter into any lengthy details to demonstrate this; a few general facts will amply suffice. For instance, in the Cotteswold range between Bath and Little Sodbury, to the westward of which Dundry lies, we find, at the former place all the strata from the Jwrense- to the Parkinsoni-zone are wanting ; at the latter, the Murchisone-zone is represented by a few feet of white unfossiliferous limestone resting on rich ammonitiferous beds (opalinwm- and Jurense- zones, horizons almost unrepresented at Dundry), and between the Murchisone-zone and the overlying Parkinsoni-zone certain strata are wanting. At Dundry, however, the Murchisone-, Con- cavum-, Sauzei-, and Humphriesianum-zones are all represented. In no part of the Cotteswolds are the Sauzei- and Humphriesian- um-zones represented; only in the Northern Cotteswolds is the Concavum-zone present; while both the Concavum- and Murchi- sone-zones are entirely different in lithological character from the Dundry strata. Turning, however, to Sherborne in Dorset, Corton Downs in Somerset, and other places in the neighbourhood, we shall find that the strata agree almost exactly, lithologically, with Dundry; and the same may be said, as far as the Humphriesian- uwm-zone is concerned, if we go to Bayeux, in Normandy. * The Dorset-Somerset area means the district south of the Mendips. 375 Palzontologically, too, Dundry differs entirely throughout its Inferior-Oolite facies from any part of the Cotteswolds, both as regards the number of species and specimens of Ammonites, and its species of Brachiopoda; but again, turning to Sherborne in Dorset, we find an almost absolute agreement between the fauna of that locality and of Dundry—the only difference being that the former is far richer in species. The following table of the distribution of the Brachiopoda into the various districts, and the zones in which they occur, will help to demon- strate the truth of these remarks. DORSsET- Normandy SomERsET DuNDRY COTTESWOLDS AREA Tereb: Phillipsi, Sow. ... H.P.FE. H.P. FE. P. — » Phillipsiana, Dav = — -- Conc ? w Stephani, Dav. P P. — — v ‘maxillata, Sow. = _ — P. u globata, Sow. FE P. FE. — P. « Eudesi, Oppel M M. Conc M. Cone — » Hudesiana, 8. Buckm. M M. Cone M. Conc — v notgroviensis,S.Buckm. — _ -— M. (0. marl) u perovalis, Sow. M M. Cone M? M (Peagrit) » simplex, J. Buckm. ... —_ M. — M (Peagrit) v plicata, J. Buckm. ... M. — — M (Peagrit) « gsubmaxillata, Dav. ... — ? — M. « Whitakeri, Walker ... — — — M (0. marl) » Buckmani, Dav. — H. — Cone (G.grit) « cortonensis,S.Buckm. M Conc Conc — » pisolithica, S. Buckm. — — — M. « Ferryi, Desl. FE Te —_ — v shirburniensis,S.Buckm. — M. — — » euides, S. Buckm. — M. — — « Wrighti, Dav. — Ley — P? » Hollande, S. Buckm. P? H. P. — — « Leesi, 8S. Buckm. — M. — _— » fimbria, Sow. 3 _ _— — M. (O. marl) « gpheeroidalis, Sow. ... H. P. H.P H. — » Crane, Dav. ‘ee — H — — » gravida, Szaj. “3 — H. — - — n decipiens, Desl. mea — H. P. — — « Etheridgii, Dav. Maine et Loire M. M? M. « Tawnei, Whedb. ... — — H. -- AA 2 376 DoRSET- ‘ NORMANDY SOMERSET DtNDRY COTTESWOLDS Glossothyris AREA « curviconcha, Oppel... FE. H. — — » curvifrons, Oppel ... M. M. — M. (0. marl) » provincialis, E. Desl. M. M. Dictyothyris galeiforms, M’Coy — " Moriéri, Dav. ... iP: " hybrida, Dav. ... 1et Zeilleria Waltoni, Dav. ... H.P. ” emarginata, Sow. FE. « Leckenbyi, Walker _— » Whitchelli,S.Buckm. — _ M. (O. marl) ty iar) _— M. (O. marl) — M. (O. marl) = | P P P P ? » anglica, Oppel. ... — M » disculus, Waag. ... _ Cone «» Hughesi, Walker _— P Aulacothyris carinata, Lam. P, iP — ” Haasi, S. Buckm. — H ” Meriani, Oppel. P. H. P ” bisulcata,S. Buckm. — Pe Plesiothyris Brodiei, 8. Buckm. — H u reversa,S. Buckm. — H P 18 M Rhynchonella Wrighti, Dav. M. (Sarthe) ” plicatella, Sow. 1p 4 subtetrahedra, Dav, — ” subdecorata, Dav.’ — ” Lycetti, Dav. ... — ) cynocephala, Rich, Opal: M? Opal: M. _— Opal: M. u ringens, Buch. ... M. ” subringens, Dav, — ” oolitica, Dav. ... _ ” Forbesi, Dav. ... _ Cone — | BE | 4 subobsoleta, Dav. — — — " angulata, Sow. .., _ = ” subangulata, Dav. _ M. — " Tatei, Dav. ... _ _— _— ” parvula, E. Desl. — P. P. " dundriensis, 8S. Buckm.— H. H? _— ” liostraca,S.Buckm. — Conc — — u dorsetensis, 8S. Buckm. — H. — — ” balinensis, Szaj. — Cone — — u buteo, Szaj__i... — Cone _ _ " hampenensis, S. Buckm.— P. — P. 377 DorRsET- NoRMANDY SOMERSET DunpDRY COTTESWOLDS AREA Acanthothyris spinosa, Linn. H. P. H. P. HP. P. " panacanthina, B. &W. Siera Use — Be —_ —_ M. Murchisone zone. Cone. Concavum. H. Humphriesianum. P. Parkinsoni. FE. Fuller’s Earth. An analysis of this Table shews that of the species common to Dundry and the Cotteswolds, there are Terebratula 2 Zeilleria 1 Rhynchonella 1 Acanthothyris soe ace see 1 Total 5 The species common to Dundry and the Dorset-Somerset area, are Terebratula xe 7 Zeilleria ase “or sa 2 Rhynchonella re the “ 4 Acanthothyris vas : Hee 1 Total 14 The species common to the Dorset-Somerset area and to Normandy, etc., of which the list is confessedly incomplete as regards the latter district, are Terebratula ahs bi oat Glossothyris 6c 3 Dictyothyris 550 ses “6 2 Zeilleria eee ic a oe 2 Aulacothyris ave 2 2 Rhynchonella “ioe ies 3 Acanthothyris oe nee ee 1 Total 24 In the Cotteswolds the following species are found. Terebratula ... Ae one Oe Glossothyris Se acs és 1 Dictyothyris ote cr oc Zeilleria eee ae os 500 4 Aulacothyris eee we oo 2 Rhynchonella aes eee ete | Acanthothyris soe 1 Total 34 The fact that only five of these species are found at Dundry—a place only nine miles from the Cotteswold range— indicates that there must have been very slight connection 378 between the two districts, much less, in fact, than between the Cotteswolds and the Dorset-Somerset area, where there are found as common to both :— Terebratula ... re ne se 6 at least Glossothyris ... 1 Zeilleria ma sce ee 2 Aulacothyris whi sac eee 2 Rhynchonella 5 Acanthothyris 1 Total 17 Of this number, eight belong to the Parkinsoni-zone, a period at which, as I shall shew, there was more complete con- nection owing to subsidence and submergence of a greater area. There are fifteen species of Brachiopoda which are peculiar to the Cotteswold area, a fact which points to the isolation of the district. There is only one small species peculiar to Dundry. It is, however, in its Ammonites* that Dundry most strik- ingly exhibits its connection with the Dorset-Somerset area, and more especially by those of the Humphriesianum zone its connection with the Sherborne district. About twenty species have been identified according to the following list :—+ Ludwigia Murchisone (Sow). » rudis,S. Buckm. Lioceras concavum (Sow). Inssoceras preradiata (Douvillé). i Etheridgu, 8. Buckm. Oppelia subradiata (Sow). Cicotraustes, sp. Sonninia Bowert (J. Buckm.) a adicra (Waayen) variety. a Sowerbyi (Miller) = Browni (Sow). ~ arenata (Quenstedt) SS proquinquans (Bayle) * For a knowledge of the Ammonite- and Brachiopod-fauna of Dundry I am much indebted to the labours of Mr E. Wilson, F.G.S., who has kindly forwarded numerous specimens for my inspection. + This list will be much augmented when the new species are all named. 379 Sonninia corrugata (Sow) t Witchellia leviuscula (Sow) jugifera (Waagen) Sutneri (Branco) 99 ” Parkinsonia Parkinsoni (Sow) Spheeroceras Brocchi (Sow) Spheroceras (?) contractum (Sow) t Stephanoceras Humphriesianum (Sow) - Braikenidgui (Sow) With the exception of Witchellia jugifera all these species have been found in Dorset. In the Cotteswold district, after the close of the Opalinum- zone, conditions seem to have been distinctly unfavourable to the residence of Ammonites; and it seems not improbable that the specimens were not actual inhabitants, but found their way, or were by some means brought into the district, from other areas. The number of specimens discovered is extremely small, and their condition of preservation very poor, so that identification is a matter of uncertainty. It may be interesting to notice the species. Horizon in Dorset- Horizon Species Ce ae eae Clypeus grit ... ... Perisphinctes sp. ++ Hoo ... not found u abe ...*Parkinsonia Parkinsoni, Sow. .-. Parkinsoni-zone u 32 ... Oppelia fusca, Quenstedt ... ase " Upper Trigonia grit..." Parkinsonia Parkinsoni, Sow. +s u Gryphite grit ... Hyperlioceras discites, Waagen ... Concavum-zone " 50 7 discoideum, Quenst. -.. " u ay " Walkeri, S. Buckm.... " u _..%Sonninia adicra, Waagen, var. --- ” ” ... Stephanoceras, 8p. +++ Ae te " Lioceras intermedium, S. Buckm. ... u Sonninia, sp. , Lower Trigonia grit | Upper Freestone & { Lioceras bradfordense, S. Buckm.... Murchisone-zone Oolite Marl *Ludwigia Murchisone, Sowerby ..-- ” Lower Freestone ... Nothing recorded ... Ke “oe u Peagrit = Lud. Murchisone «. oe ee u Lower Limestone .-. Nothing recorded ... “ce oH " + The adult form of this species is the Ammonites patella (Waagen). { This is the species afterwards named by d’Orbigny as Ammonites Sauzet. 380 Of the above species, only those marked by an asterisk are common to the Cotteswolds and Dundry—a great contrast to what obtains between Dundry and the Dorset area. These facts concerning the distribution of Ammonites and Brachiopoda in these areas shew us that there was a very fair connection between Dundry and the Dorset-Somerset area ; that there was, during a certain time, a poor connection between the Cotteswolds and the latter area, or possibly none at all; and that there was no connection between Dundry and the Cotteswolds at that time. Such being the conclusions which we may deduce from these facts, it is the object of these pages to shew, how Dundry could have been thus entirely separated from the Cotteswold range—when, in fact, this state of things commenced, and when it terminated; and it will then be seen that, strictly speaking, Dundry is no outlier of the Cotteswold Hills in the same sense as Cam Down, Robins Wood Hill, Churchdown, Bredon, etc¢., because during the deposition of all its strata—except perhaps a small portion of the top—it had no direct connection with the Cotteswolds. On the other hand it was connected directly and actually, by way of the Bristol Channel, with the Dorset- Somerset—area, a part of the Anglo-Parisian basin; and it should be more correctly described as the northernmost outlier thereof, although it is so much further distant from any of the present existing strata of that basin. A glance at a geological map will shew us that Dundry is almost entirely surrounded by strata of the Carboniferous Period. To me it seems probable that, during the deposition of the Keuper Marls, the Dundry area was a small landlocked bay having no connection with outside, except by way of Congres- bury and Weston-super-mare. When that subsidence of land, which led to the incursion of the Lower-Lias sea, occurred, it possibly brought about free communication between the various areas; and the similarity of the Liassic Ammonite-Fauna in all the districts proves that such was the case. But at some period subsequent to the deposition of the Lower Lias,* * This is shewn by the beds of Lias being upturned in the neighbourhood of Purton Passage. I am indebted to the President for this information. 381 occurred a great upheaval of Paleozoic rocks from the May- Hill district to the Mendips; and looking at the fact that the Yellow Sands in the neighbourhood of Sodbury—where this upheaval meets the Jurassic strata—are much thinner and of a slightly later date than the Cotteswold Sands proper—indi- cating the proximity of some barrier—I am inclined to put the date of this upheaval after the deposition of Lower Lias and just before that of Cotteswold Sands. The barrier raised by this upheaval—of which we may still trace remains in the belt of Paleozoic rocks which almost absolutely connects the May Hill district and the Mendips, by way of Tortworth, and the South Gloucestershire Coal Field— would have cut off the Dundry area most effectually from the Cotteswolds. Supposing that this upheaval took place after the deposition of the Lower Lias only, that gives us an amount of some 300 or 500 feet of strata above the Rheetics. If we glance down the line of country where the upheaval took place, we see that the newest strata in this line, of which they form a very small part, are Rhetics, and that therefore the height of the barrier would have been nowhere less than some 300 feet; but, possibly, towards Sharpness, where the Silurian is shewn, it would have been very much greater. We may therefore imagine an isthmus connecting the former Mendip island with the mainland, 7.e. Wales, etc., by way of Sodbury and Tortworth. Coincident, possibly, with the upheaval of what I will call the Tortworth barrier, I imagine another upheaval producing a prolongation of the Mendip axis towards the east. The fact that in the borings round London and in the east of England, New (Old?) Red Sandstone was met with at Richmond and Kentish Town—Carboniferous at Harwich—Old Red Sandstone and Devonian at Meux’s Brewery, London, and at Cheshunt— and Silurian at Ware—in no case overlain by Lias or Inferior Oolite, but generally by cretaceous rocks,* shews where the eastern shore lay in early Jurassic times. There is every reason * H. B. Woodward, Geology of England and Wales, 2nd Edition, Appendix, I., 1888 382 to suppose that the channel which lay between this shore and the Mendips was quite free during Liassic time, because of the similarity of that Ammonite-fauna over England; but towards the close of the Lias, I presume that the same or a similar up- heaval to that which connected the Mendips with May Hill, joined the Mendips with the eastern coast. This is the relative position of land and water which I have indicated in the sketch-map attached ; and it will be seen that the Cotteswold sea is thereby cut off from all southward connection with the Dorset-Somerset sea, which is exactly what we might suppose from the difference in their Ammonite- and Brachiopod-faunas. The outward connection between the Cotteswold sea and the ocean must have been by way of the Cheshire Plain; and, possibly, for Mollusca to pass from the Dorset-Somerset area to the Cotteswold area, may have been a journey of some thou- sands of miles. If so, this barrier which I have supposed to have been erected by an extension of the Mendip axis, would be similar to the Isthmus of Suez. Possibly the result of these upheavals was to lessen the depth of sea over the Cotteswold area, and especially in prox- imity to the new shore;* but a kind of trough I imagine to have been formed from Haresfield to Wotton-under-Edge, and that this trough received a large deposit of sandy sediment derived from a new source which the upheaval had exposed to the action of the sea. This sandy sediment is what we know as Cotteswold Sands, and it is curious to notice that, after attaining a depth of nearly 150 feet in the Haresfield-Wotton district, it was succeeded by a marly-limestone period known as the Cephalopoda-bed. However, during the deposition of this Cephalopoda-bed, the yellow sandy sediment was accumulating in the neighbourhood of Bath—the Midford Sands being of later age than the Cotteswold Sands, but contemporaneous with part of the Cotteswold Cephalopoda-bed. * Jukes-Brown gives reasons why the Oolitic sea-floor was more elevated than in Liassic times: Building of the British Isles, page 152, 1888. These notes, however, were written some months before the appearance of that work. rn SHETCH- MAP. SHEWING THE SUPPOSED RELATIVE POSITION OF LAND AND WATER AT THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE MURCHISON. ZONE OF THE /NFER/OR OOLITE. 383 Another effect of these upheavals was to cause the accumu- ’ lation of sediment, which in the case of the Cotteswold sea came from the North, against the Southern isthmus. The accumulation of this sediment soon raised the sea-bottom near the southern shore, and placed it in such a position that it received no further deposits. Thus we find that the limit of deposit during the Murchisone-zone is represented by a line, a—a, running from just above Bath, eastward of Cirencester, to Northleach and Rissington.* Southwards of that line was an area which received no deposit,+ thus increasing the barrier between the Dorset-Somerset seas and the Cotteswold sea. The limits of deposition during the Concavum-zone do not extend so far south. The line, b—b, running just below Stroud marks the southern limits of these beds. When we come to the time of the Humphriesianum-zone, we find no trace of it in the Cotteswolds; and my supposition is, that, if deposited anywhere, it was northwards of the present Cotteswold Hills, and has therefore all been removed by denudation. This retreat of the area of deposition towards the north is paralleled by a similar retreat southwards and eastwards in the Dorset-Somerset sea, for we find the part covered by the Humphriesianum zone is narrowed to an area extending from Burton Bradstock to. Sherborne and Milborne Wick, c—c. Assuming that Dundry was connected with the Dorset-Somerset area round the western end of the Mendips—and it is singular to find that even the lithology of the Humphriesianum-zone is very similar at Dundry, at Sherborne, at Burton Bradstock, and even at Bayeux in Normandy—we must suppose that the Dundry * The Parkinsoni-zone rests on the Midford Sands at Bath, and on Upper Lias at Rissington and Northleach. + As remarked by the President, the absence of beds over certain areas does not always imply their non-deposition ; but it seems to me that this theory fits in with the facts of the case better than to suppose the deposition of these beds, and again, their subsequent total denudation prior to the time of the Parkinsoni-zone. My idea is that the accumulation of strata in the southern part of the Cotteswold sea continually forced the area of deposition further northwards, until the subsidence which allowed the sea of the Parkinsoni-zone to overflow all these areas. 384 area was linked with the Sherborne district, not only during the time of the Murchisone- and Concavum-zones, but also during the Humphriesianum-zone, and that such links have been removed, possibly by the agency which deposited the Alluvium to the westward of Glastonbury. The Lias which extends along the Glamorganshire coast— up the Bristol Channel to the Tortworth barrier — around Dundry—and down the North Somerset coast—was probably all covered by the Inferior-Oolite sea. So also were the districts drained by the Parret and the Axe. If, then, we restore the Inferior-Oolite over all the country mentioned, we soon see the connection between the Dorset-Somerset area and Dundry. During the deposition of the Humphriesianum-zone we may imagine a narrow trough of the sea stretching from Bayeux in Normandy, to Burton Bradstock, to Sherborne, and round the western end of the Mendips to Dundry, as the area where sedi- ment was being deposited. With the advent of the Parkinsoni-zone a great change must have occurred not only in the Cotteswold, but also in the Dorset-Somerset area. A very great subsidence of land is proved to have taken place by the fact that deposition was actively carried on, not only over all the previous Inferior- Oolite areas, but over what had hitherto been dry land. The Tortworth barrier and the southern isthmus become sub- merged, and the sea covers a greater portion of the Mendip Hills than it had done previously—this being shewn by the fact of the Parkinsoni-zone resting on the Carboniferous. At this time it is most probable that the Dorset-Somerset, the Dundry and the Cotteswold areas were all reconnected by a large expanse of water; and this is exactly borne out by the fauna.* The same general subsidence took place in Normandy. It is during the time of the Parkinsoni-zone that the greater number of species are found to be common to the various districts; and it would appear that while some species * This is not so much the case with Dundry as with the Dorset-Somerset and Cotteswold areas ; because the fauna of the Parkinsoni-zone at Dundry is very scanty. 385 migrated from the north,* others migrated from the south. This is especially remarkable among the Brachiopoda,+ whose powers of locomotion would be small; I can give a few inter- esting examples of this. Aulacothyris carinata (Lamarck) apparently migrated to the Cotteswolds from the south. It isa plentiful species in Dorset, is found less frequently in Somerset (Castle Cary district), and seldom in the Cotteswolds. Zeilleria emargainata (Sow.) follows exactly the same lines. Terebratula spheroidalis (Sow.) began in the Humphriesian- um-zone, and continued into the Parkinsoni-zone and the Fuller’s Earth; it is found plentifully, and of large size, in South Dorset, not so large in North Dorset, smaller still in Somerset (Castle Cary district), and is not found at all in the Cotteswolds. Terebratula Stephani (Dav.), Terebratula Phillipsit (Morris), Terebratula decipiens (KE. Desl.) are found in the Dorset-Somerset area, but not in the Cotteswolds. Rynchonella subtetrahedra (Dav.) is found in all the areas; but Rhynchonella plicatella (Sow.) and Acanthothyris panacanthina only in the former. Zeilleria Hughesi (Walker) migrated from the Cotteswolds. Tt is found plentifully in the North Cotteswolds, less so in the South Cotteswolds, and rarely in the Castle Cary district. Terebratula globata (Sow.) is also a migrant from the Cotteswolds. It is found plentifully and in great variety in that district ; scarce in the Castle Cary district, and extremely = Where did the ancestors of these species live during the period of the Humphriesianum-zone? It was probable that a northward extension of the Cotteswold Inferior Oolite—an extension towards Warwick—at this time received the deposit of this period. That the Jurassic strata once extended away into the Irish Sea, via the Mersey, is proved by the Liassic outliers near Burton-on-Trent and Market Drayton. Possibly all this area was once covered by Inferior Oolite. + It would seem as if Ammonites were still prevented from invading the Cotteswold area, either on account of the existence (beneath the sea) of the barriers mentioned, or on account of the shallowness of the water. ¢ A form called Phillipsiana is found at Cleeve ; I fancy its horizon is lower. 386 rarely in the Sherborne district. South of the Mendips it is not found in any great variety until in the Fuller’s Earth rock, and then not of such size as in the Cotteswolds. One of the Cotteswold varieties of this species is the parent of the Tereb. intermedia of the Cornbrash. Rhynchonella hampenensis (S. Buckm.) also migrated from the Cotteswolds and is found in the Castle Cary district; it is not found in the Sherborne district or in South Dorset. Acanthothyris spinosa is found of very fine proportions in the Cotteswolds, and in the Castle Cary district; but it is smaller further south. Rhynchonella angulata (Sow.) is a species peculiar to the Cotteswolds (Parkinsoni-zone, Upper Trigonia grit.) | This migration of species took place during the Parkinsont- zone, a time when we suppose the barriers, which prevented the Brachiopoda of previous zones from migrating, had been broken down by subsidence. Towards the close of the Parkinsoni-zone some changes occurred which induced most of the mollusca to leave these ° areas; and we find that an almost unfossiliferous white lime- stone— generally a freestone—is common to Dundry, the South Cotteswolds, the Bath-Mendip district, and part of the Dorset- Somerset area. We now take our leave of Dundry, for all traces of the succeeding formation—the Fuller’s Earth—have been removed from that hill by denudation; but it is instructive to briefly glance at the course of events in the other areas. A deposit known as Fuller’s Earth Rock stretches from near Bath into the Dorset-Somerset area, shewing that though the old Mendip barrier had been overcome, there was still some cause preventing the occurrence of this deposit in the Cottes- wolds. With the advent of the Great Oolite period, it would seem as if the Mendips were able to re-assert themselves ; for this formation is not found south of that range. Scattered patches of Bradford Clay probably indicate a tendency of the Oolitic sea-floor to ridge up and form itself into more or less isolated districts. (It is curious to notice that a deposit of this 387 age—Bradford Clay—runs through Dorset.) Probably with the Cornbrash period the most complete connection between all the areas was established; but during all this time—in the Cottes- wolds ever since the Opalinum-zone, at Dundry since the Humphriesianum-zone, but in Dorset only since the early part of the Parkinsoni-zone—Ammonites have been conspicuously absent from the different areas. It is not until we reach the Kelloway rock that they re-assert their old supremacy. CONCLUSIONS. The conclusions which we arrive at in this paper are :— 1. That Dundry was, perhaps, connected with the Cottes- wold area during the Liassic period. 2. That it was then completely disconnected from that area until the incoming of the Parkinsoni-zone. 3. That it was always connected actually with the Dorset- Somerset area. 4. That the same sea which deposited the Inferior Oolite strata of the Paris basin extended without interruption to the district round Dundry. 5. That from the time of the Upper Lias until the Parkinsoni-zone, this sea was cut off from the Cotteswold area by some extensive upheavals, thus accounting for the difference in fauna. 6. That Dundry Hill is more correctly described as the northernmost outlier of the Anglo-Parisian basin, and is not an outlier of the Cotteswolds. Remarks on the Dapple Bed of the Inferior Oolite at the Horsepools, and on some Pebbles from the Great Oolite at Minchinhampton, by W. C. Lucy, F.G.S. Read March 19th, 1889. In the Paper I read before the Club in March last, on the “‘ Jurassic Rocks at Crickley,” I referred to the Second Meeting of the Club in 1846, recorded at page 6 of the “Origin of the Cotteswold Club,” in which it is mentioned that on Hudding- knoll Hill at the Horsepools, the late Mr Hugh Strickland called attention to some quartz pebbles in the quarry, and also to some pebbles of Oolite; in some cases embedded in other Oolite, distinguighed from the matrix in which they are enclosed by a difference in colour and texture; thus evidencing the destruction of older rocks of the same nature during, or previous to, the deposition of the existing Oolite. I have found similar pebbles at the Haresfield section, and Mr S. 8S. Buckman has met with them at Randwick. I also stated that in my Section No. 2, there was a pebble bed, and it appeared to me to be the same as that mentioned above. This, however, from a careful examination of the Huddingknoll quarry, I find is not the case, as the Crickley pebbles—assuming they are really pebbles and not concretions— occur in higher beds. I have several times visited the quarry, and on one occa- sion I had the advantage of being accompanied by Professor Etheridge, whose views of the nature and origin of the supposed pebbles I shall have occasion to bring under your notice later on. The bed is known by the quarrymen as the “ Dapple bed,” which accurately expresses its appearance, as will be seen by the large specimen of the rock now on the table. SECTION, HUDDINGKNOLL HILL, HORSEPOOLS. DAPPLE BED, LIKE A CONGLOMERATE 9 INcHEs To WITH SMALL QUARTZ PEBBLES, AND HOLLOW 1 Foot CRYSTALS. OF CARBONATE Of LIME 9 INCHES RED BED, COLOURING GIVEN BY /ROM, TO 1 Foot SMALL QUARTZ PEBBLES,- RHYNCHONELLA. 270 5 BASTARD FREESTONE. EASILY DISINTEGRATES Feet AND UNFIT FOR ROAD MAKING. 2 Fr Gins. KRoee CSREES . os aes us ERE HARD BROWN STONE, HARDEST . Tees ES Retest, ee ea PN aay ON THE HILL COMPOSED OF 3 Feer Rae ERE RONBY ee SHELLY DETRITUS PECTEWS & BELEMNITES Bee we ROCKERY CONTAINS A GOOD DEAL OF (RON. UPPER PART 4 Feet MUCH HARDER THAN THE LOWER. AWNELIO BORINCS ABUNDANT. SBETLOWS, 161509 389 You will observe in the Section it varies in thickness from nine inches to a foot; and in addition to the white Oolite pebbles (if such they are) it contains quartz pebbles, and hollow erystals of Carbonate of Lime. The bed upon which it rests is of the same thickness, and from its colour is called the “‘ Red bed,” from the additional presence of iron oxide. It contains some of the white pebbles, and, in about the same proportion as the dapple bed, the quartz. There is alsoa Rhynchonella, but it is too much broken up to enable the species to be determined. The next bed is 2 to 3 feet thick—a bastard Freestone. It easily breaks up, is very rotten and of no use for repairing roads. Then beet, (2 to 2 feet 6 inches of) a brown stone, considered the hardest on the hill, composed of shells much broken up and in which Pectens and Belemnites can be detected. The next is termed the “ Rockery bed ” from its being used very extensively in forming garden rock-work. It contains a good deal of oxide of iron, and is much perforated with Annelid borings. The thickness exposed is about four feet, and the upper part of the bed is much the harder. I found that in each bed, near the junction of the one that it rested upon, the beds appeared almost insensibly to run into each other, and it will be seen by the Section, that the four upper beds are of unéqual thickness. As the beds are much displaced in the quarry from the washing away of the sands below—some of them being at an angle of about 45—there is no clear section down to the sands, which are however found close to them, and I estimate their depth from the bottom of the rockery to be less than 10 feet. I will now read-you Professor Etheridge’s letter to me, from which you will gather he does not consider the dapple bed to contain evidence of pebbles arising from the destruction of Oolite beds, and he differs from Mr Strickland’s view as to their origin. “TI now write you some few lines relative to the peculiar “bodies or concretions in your Horsepool Rock. I have again “and again examined them in the specimen you gave to the “Museum, always with the view (yours) that they were derived BB 390 “pebbles, but under no hypothesis can I admit this to be “their origin. They have no particle of exterior covering, no “marked evidence of derivation (through denudation or rolling) “from any prior deposition of the matrix in which they occur, “and are contemporary with the bed in which they occur. “The same could not be derived from itself, and no older “hardened Oolitic rock or bed, or local unconformity occurs ‘“‘anywhere; the whole series is one of continuity. Again, “you have no distant prior indurated, or hardened rock, “from which these rounded, and in places, angular masses “could have been derived—each successive bed was deposited “upon that below, long before induration or hardening through ““superincumbent pressure took place—there was nothing (no “earlier Oolitic rock) to be derived from. These rounded “masses, or lenticular, or angular, or whatever shape they take, “are simply segregation of fine Oolitic matter at the time of “deposition, in small and shallow pool-like irregularities, in “and on the shore at the time of deposition, just as we see ““now in ripples and ripple marked rocks of modern times, “where the small comminuted shells and grains are left in the “hollows and irregularities of a long flat shore, their specific “oravity being different to the then containing, and Oolitic “forming sediments. The Hastern coast of England, Essex, “Norfolk and Suffolk show these small irregular indentations “filled with small and broken shells and debris left by the “returning tide. One part of your specimen shows the extreme “thinness and pellicle-like bottom to one of the oval portions “so thin as to defy measurement, and none of them are “‘ spherical or thick sections, showing them to be mere pellicles, “not pebble-like, or rounded accumulations, without being “indurated into masses; and that without any external coat- “ing could not occur, as it would be partly crystalline or so ‘indurated as to show origin. Again, where could you obtain ‘any evidence of derivation ? Those Horsepool beds could not “be derived from prior undisturbed beds of their own age; they ‘“‘are of the same date and hour as the deposited strata in which “they occur, being accretions through local and natural causes 391 “‘on the shore, accidental, so to speak, in the irregularities “in long nearly flat shores or wide estuaries. Their mechanical “origin is plainly seen under the microscope, and many of the “rains are hollow, though I detect no Foraminifera, which are “rare in the Inferior Oolite. In the Isle of Wight (Colwall “‘Bay) you may see the finest comminuted shells in rills and ““minute pools an inch or two deep, left by the gentle motion “of the water, just as in your Horsepool rock. When covered “up, as they certainly are under certain conditions, they are “very different to the continuing mud or sand, or sandy rock “itself, but nevertheless of the same age to a day. I have “shown your specimens to many, and the theory of their “derivation from any pre-existing Oolite or Jurassic rock, “would not be entertained, as being an impossibility ; if they ‘‘had been Carboniferous limestone, or Triassic masses, or any- “thing foreign to the Oolite (which they are not), then some “clue to their foreign origin might have been furnished.” The views of Professor Etheridge and the eminent friends whom he has consulted are justly entitled to be seriously weighed, and I naturally feel some hesitation in advancing arguments in opposition to, or in modification of them. I must, however, remark :— | First.—There is the undoubted presence of the small quartz pebbles, which clearly show they must have been subjected to a considerable amount of attrition since they were brought from the rock in which they were derived—I believe the Forest of Dean—; they certainly form no part of the original Oolite. Again, I am not prepared to admit that the Lower Oolites have not in course of deposition had some of their beds broken up and re-deposited. Take the Hard Brown Stone bed which is in a great measure a shelly detritus. This admits of but two explanations. Hither the shells must first have been quietly deposited and afterwards subjected to violent wave action, or they must have been derived from a bed which had been deposited and then broken up and re-arranged as we now see it. Moreover, if you look at the character of these small BB 2 392 specks, how different they are to the bed in which they are embedded! They are not broken up shells, but present all the appearance of Oolite, but without the additions of iron. When I look at these Lower Oolite beds and see so marked a difference in a short distance, I am hardly prepared to admit that we now see all the beds as they were originally laid down. Compare this section with the Haresfield Hill. The Rockery represents the Ragstone, and the Sandy bed is at the Horsepools and Painswick ; and here I would remark the quarry- man told me that although the bed was not so hard at Haresfield as at the Horsepools and Painswick, yet it dulled the tools in cutting it, twice as fast, which would probably be caused by its being more silicious. The Coral bed is, at the Horsepools, much thinned out; about half way from there on the way to Haresfield it is several feet thick, and yet it is not met with in the latter section. Again, how different the beds are at Haresfield compared with those occupying a corresponding position at Birdlip and Crickley to the north, and the same beds at Ruscombe and near to Coaley Wood, south of them. I am unable to see how particles of Oolite with so small a specific gravity would settle down into small masses as we see them in the stone before us. As there is evidence from the presence of quartz pebbles, which were brought from a distance, that the water could not have been in a tranquil condition, the tendency would be, I think, to disperse rather than to segregate. I freely admit there is great difficulty in considering them as pebbles; at the same time I do not think Professor Etheridge’s explanation is altogether satisfactory, and I reserve judgment until the question has been more fully discussed. My object in bringing the subject before the Club, is to give the Members an opportunity of endeavouring to work out a difficult question, and that we may again have it before us at one of our evening Meetings next season. MINCHINHAMPTON: COMMON. CARBON/ITEROUS PEBBLES ATTACHED TO GREAT OOL/TE. 393 Two Pebbles from Minchinhampton Common. In March last when looking over Mr A. E. Smith’s very interesting collection of fossils from the sands at Nailsworth, he shewed me two pebbles in Oolitic matrix which much interested me. He kindly allowed me to take them for examination, and I have since received from him the following statement of their history. “The smaller Pebble I found at the highest part of “ Minchinhampton Common (676 feet above the sea), at the “‘ eastern corner of the outside mound of the Amberley Camp* “there. The mound is at that place 2 to 3 feet high, and is “ covered with turf, except in a few places where it is cut or “worn through by roads or footpaths, and in such cuttings the “< stones forming the mound are exposed. “On examining a section of the mound made by one of “these cuttings, I saw the Pebble amongst the white stones “of the mound, and on putting it out I found that it was “partly embedded in a small piece of Great Oolite of the “same description as the other stones forming the mound. I “was satisfied from its position and appearance that it was “part of the original structure of the mound when thrown up ‘‘ from the ditch there, and that it had, not been dropped there “accidentally. The same description of rubbly Great Oolite “stone is found all over the Common a few inches under the “turf. A large reservoir has lately been made by the Stroud “ Water Co. about 100 yards from this spot, and the sections “there showed the same description of stone for some few feet “ below the surface. “ Lycett in his ‘Cotteswold Hills’ p. 93, describes a section “at a large quarry not far from this spot, and the stones in the “mound agree with the description of the top part of his “section. He also says at p. 99 (referring to the Minchin- “hampton Great Oolite): ‘It is a common occurrence to find ““‘isolated pebbles of hard calcareous freestone in the shelly * Camp No. 30 in G. F. Playne’s “ Ancient Camps of Gloucestershire.” Proceedings for 1874-75, p. 214. O94 “¢beds of the formation, but at the Hyde, a hamlet one mile “¢ from Minchinhampton, a small road section discloses a con- ““¢olomerate of the Great Oolite; the rolled calcareous hard ““¢ pebbles having a matrix of pale fine-grained limestone.’ “The large Pebble was brought to me a few years ago “by an old man (Wm. Kirby), who lives at the village of the “Box, on the southern edge of Minchinhampton Common. “‘ He said that he found it amongst the stones thrown out from “a small surface quarry on the Common just above the Box “village. I believe him to be truthful, and have no reason to “doubt his word. I examined the quarry and the stones from “it, but did not find any other pebble or any fossils. This “small quarry was opened and worked for road stone only for “a, short time, and is now closed. It lies about 60 or 70 feet “below the highest part of the Common.” When in London I showed these pebbles to Professor Etheridge, and we both thought, from their great density, that they were an igneous rock, but on cutting them, they were found to be Carboniferous, and shewing, under the microscope, Oolitic structure. Mr Etheridge was of opinion that the rocks were unlike any in the Forest of Dean, and belieyed they were derived from Tortworth ; a specimen from there I hold in my hand. Now the interesting question is, did these rock specimens come out of the Great Oolite, having been embedded at the time of its deposition ? There is no evidence in the whole range of the Cotteswold Oolites of the presence of any rock derived from a much older bed. But in the drift which is found all over the area, I have met with Mountain limestone and Millstone grit at Cropthorne ; at Lower Lemington there is a large boulder of Carboniferous limestone 20 inches long, 12 inches thick, and 15 inches broad ; at Row Hill in the parish of Leigh, 24 miles before reaching Cricklade, Millstone grit, micaceous Old Red Sandstone, Quartz, Chert from the Mountain limestone; at Weston Park a large boulder of Millstone grit; at Moreton, Coal Measure Sandstone; at Limbury, Silurian fossils, Syenite, Granite, Lickey Quartz, 395 Carboniferous limestone, and as near Gloucester as Hempstead, Felstone. In my collection I have numerous other foreign drift pebbles from various parts of the Cotteswolds, extending from Chipping Norton to Uley Bury, and I have been unable to identify the rocks from which some of these were derived. I cannot therefore help thinking that these two interesting pebbles must have come from the drift, although it is difficult to explain how the Oolitic matrix in which they are partly embedded, became attached to them. Since this Paper was read, I have, with Mr Smith, visited the quarry, which is now filled up; and when there, I saw Kirby, who assured me the pebble came out of the bottom, which was about ten feet below the surface, and was covered with the white stone. The quarry is near the junction of six roads, and within a few yards of the Half Way House Inn, and there are pit dwellings close to. On examination of the clay underneath the turf, I found it to correspond with the same I have met with in places all over the Cotteswolds, and in the large quarry at the other end of the Common there were fissures filled with it, many feet below the surface, like those in Woodchester Park, in the Boulder Clay, and which confirms my impression that the pebbles belong to the drift period. (See my Paper on the Gravel of the Severn, Avon, and Evenlode, and their extension over the Cotteswold Hills. Proceedings Cotteswold Club, vol. V, p. 108.) On a remarkable occurrence at Sharpness of the eqgs of Tetranychus lapidus, observed by W. B. Clegram, Esq. By AttEN Harxer, F.L.S., Professor of Nat. History, R. A. College, Cirencester. Read at Annual Meeting, 30th April, 1889. [With a plate. ] On the 30th of August of last year, I received from Mr W. B. Clegram, of Saul Lodge, a microscopic slide (exhibited,) containing two small pieces of stone, attached to which are a great number of what have been determined to be the eggs of one of the sociable Mites, Tetranychus lapidus. The history of the specimens, given me by Mr Clegram in his first and many subsequent communications, was briefly as follows. They were found by him in 1872, at the New Docks at Sharpness, of which he was then the Engineer. On about two acres of land adjoining the works, was a large quantity of stone, bricks, pebbles, &c., and on the morning of the 9th January, 1872, he noticed that all these pebbles, bricks, and other materials (but not the grass,) were covered with a white dust, which he at first mistook for lime that had been blown over the ground, and enquired of the Contractor if he had been discharging lime in the vicinity. Finding this had not been done, he made a careful examination of the lime-dust-like material, and saw that it consisted of myriads of these minute hemi-spherical bodies now identified as eggs. He had been on the ground on the previous day, and thinks he must have observed them had they then been there. So it would seem that they were deposited in a single night. They did not appear to increase, or, at any rate, to cover any larger area than when first noticed. The ground where they were found was from 20 to 40 feet above high water mark. I have now to exhibit a Northern Drift pebble partially covered by the minute eggs, and their superficial resemblance to a white mineral incrustation is most striking. These Northern Drift pebbles occur, as is well known, along the river bank at Sharpness. Allen Harker. 2¢ nat del EGGS OF TETRANYCHUS <«* TO ILLUSTRATE PROFESSOR HARKERS PAPER, 396-9. So MANDIBLE & LABIUM MANDIBLE TETRANYCHUS LAPIDUS, ADULT * # 397 Mr Clegram gave me, in reply to questions I sent him, much careful and detailed information as to the “ wind and weather” preceding the date on which he observed this pheno- menon. The 7th and 8th had been fine, but very damp, the first six days of the month giving 1°48 inches of rain; the morning of the ninth had been fine. The observation was quite new to me, but both from the form of the objects, and the chemical tests applied, I was satisfied they were the eggs of some Arthropod. This was verified, and the precise species discovered, on the finding of some eggs of Tetranychus lapidus, which corresponded in every particular with Mr Clegram’s objects. I forwarded the slide to Mr A. D. Michael, the first authority on our Acarids, and his reply confirmed the con- jecture. He was good enough to inform me that the occurrence of these eggs in such immense numbers, is not unprecedented, though “ very wonderful in so confined a locality.” Jean Frederic Hermann in his “ Memoire Apterologique,” Strasbourg, 1804, pp. 50, gives an account of an occurrence of this Mite in great numbers, which will be found very similar to ‘Mr Clegram’s observations. He says: “Ce fut en l’an 9 le “citoyen Sulzer, docteur en médecine, et prosecteur 4 1’école ““spéciale de médecine a Strasbourg, observa des petits corps ou “points blancs, disséminés, ou en groupes, sur des pierres “calcaires dans les fosses de la grande route, et principalement “dans les petites cavités de ces pierres. Ces petits corps se “présenterent sous le microscope comme des ceufs de certains ““insectes, ou presque comme certains fungus (spheria). Ils “‘etoient arrondis en bas, a la maniére d’une petite marmite, et “ garnis en haut d’un couvercle rayonné, élevé en cone obtus au “centre, et depassant un peu le circonference de la partie “inférieure. Au mois de Messidor an 10 (1802) j’ai trouvé ces ““mémes ceufs en quantité innombrable sur presque toutes les “‘pierres que j’ai examiné, mais ils etoient accompagnés et “entourés d’une aussi grande quantité de petits insectes rouges. “Sous la loupe et le microscope on ne pouvais pas méconnoitre “la forme de Trombides.” 398 The description of the egg applies in every particular to the specimens now exhibited, but on Mr Clegram’s pebbles, a large number of the eggs have lost the “couvercle rayonné,” and show either the spherical egg contents within the lower shell, of a rich crimson purple colour; or these too are gone and only the thin hollow hemispherical cup of white chitine remains. These latter are iridescent, so that-a small batch of the eggs, some perfect, some like cups with crimson balls within, and others, empty iridescent shells, forms a very strik- ing object under a low power. Hermann’s figure of the eggs (two in number) has been copied in Loudon’s Magazine of Natural History, but gives no idea of their beauty. Gervais says the eggs may be occasionally seen on stone- work in the streets of Paris. In the Entomologists’ Monthly Magazine, (1867-71,) Mr Miiller notices the Mite itself in countless numbers on flint gravels near Elmersend, and its eggs have been noticed on other occasions in Britain.* The egg is about the ;3,th of an inch in diameter, so that a square inch of surface might contain over 25,000. I actually counted 16,000 on one square inch of this particular pebble, [Mr Clegram’s two acres might harbour 3(10").] The temperature of the 8th, 9th, and 10th January, 1872, varie | from 34° to 38° Max., 28° to 32° Min., and it is remarkable that at such a time, the female Mites should deposit their eggs, as there appears to be little doubt they then did. Mr Clegram took these eggs to be organisms of a vegetable nature, and did not therefore look out for any of the Mites themselves, nor attempt to hatch any of them. Hermann and Koch have described some 20 species of these’ Sociable Mites (Trombidide,) of the genera Tetranychus and Petrobia, only a few of which have been described from Britain. They feed on plants, on the plum, elm, willows, guelder rose and nettle, and spin delicate webs of silk, on which they live in dense societies. * Proceedings of the Bristol Microscopical Society. 399 The vast number of eggs observed on this occasion, on ground made classical by other researches of the Club, makes a record of the phenomenon worthy of some permanent notice in our Transactions. Since the foregoing paper was read, the Members of the Club will have heard with the deepest regret of Mr Clegram’s death. His interest in microscopical studies generally, and in their observation of his own, and its appearance as a record in the Club’s transactions, with a suitable illustration, was con- tinued even in his last illness, and the writer desires to place on record his great indebtedness to him, to whom entirely the Club owes this paper and its illustration. ae See as ae nif ie he ba in (fea XS a ell per Wy My ep \, Dawe ¢ el J 4 i as ies ; & -. 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