OP- THE COTTESWOLD NATURALISTS’ AN VOLUME XII Part I, 1896. Part Il, 1897. Part III, 1898 PUBLISHED BY JOHN BELLOWS, GLOUCESTER an ~ Ea i oF.) : & 3 CONTENTS“ OF" VOEUME -XII —_- PART I, 1896 PAGE THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 1896 : : > : 2 I The Depths of the Sea in Past Epochs. By E. B. WETHERED, F.G.S., with 4 plates. : : ; : , Bien 29 On the Hibernation of Certain Animals. By EDWARD CORN- FORD, M.A. . : : : ‘ ; ; ‘ eae «| On the Pre-Saxon Occupation of the Middle Cotteswolds. By JOHN SAWYER, with map - A : : Q 2 By PART II, 1897 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 1897, with plate ; nae hy Notes on the Geology and Glaciation of Norway. By CHARLES ¢ UPTON, with 2 plates : ; : : : . . 109 On the Archeology of the Coln Valley and Notes on the Welsh Way and Foss Way. By JOHN SAWYER ; J 25 The Manner in which the Domestic Animals and Plants have aided Civilization. By WINNINGTON-INGRAM . 3 ee ; Gloucestershire Rainfall. By A. S. HELPS, with plate. - - 255 Notes and Observations on the Earthquake of December 17th, 1896. Contributed by Members of the Cotteswold Club, . and edited by the Rev. H. H. WINWOOD : 3 a iy, PART III, 1898 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 1898 : : : ‘ Bt 7 Chalk Under the Microscope. By CHARLES UPTON, with plate A : : : ; : ee: : = 209 Observations of a Cycle Tour. By S. S. BUCKMAN, F.G.3: Recent Discoveries in the Geology of the Malvern Hills. C. CALLAWAY, D.SC., EG oom Beverstone Church and Castle, and Malmesbury Abbey. F. W. WALLER PAGE 27, By 239 By 249 ViOlac X11 : ; | PART I PROCEEDINGS OF THE Cotteswold Uaturalists’ FIELD CLUB For 1895—1896 President M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS Vice-Presidents Sa tiAM-c. LUCY, Gs. mooie SMITHE, MA LL.D., > FaG.S:. JOHN BELLOWS Rev. H. H. WINWOOD, M.A., F.G.S. EDWARD B. WETHERED, F.G.S., F.C.S., F.R.M.S. PHonorarp Creasurer tae. JONES Honorary Decretarp Rev. E. CORNFORD, M.A., (CHELTENHAM) ‘THE COUNCIL OF THE CLUB WISH IT TO BE DISTINCTLY UNDERSTOOD THAT THE AUTHORS ALONE ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE FACTS AND OPINIONS CONTAINED IN THEIR RESPECTIVE PAPERS. Se Contents Z ‘THE PRESIDENT’s ADDRESS at the Annual Meeting at Gloucester, 1896. || — The Depths of the Seas in Past Epochs. By E. B. WETHERED, F.C.S. ; _ On the Hibernation of Certain Animals. By EDWARD CorNForRD, M.A., Hon. Sec. 2 |e On the Pre-Saxon Occupation of the Middle Cotteswolds. By JOHN SAWYER. PUBLISHED BY JOHN BELLOWS, GLOUCESTER. S 193919 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD NATURALISTS’ FIELD CLUB For 1895—1896 PRESIDENT M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS HONORARY SECRETARY Rev. E. CORNFORD, M.A. b Wol X1e Part 1 1896 ANNUAL ADDRESS TO* THE COTTESWOLD NATURALISTS’ FIELD CLUB MAY, 1896 BY M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS, PRESIDENT The Annual Meeting of the Club was held at the Bell Hotel, Gloucester, on Tuesday, May 7th. The Treasurer presented his financial statement with the very satisfactory result that the Club possessed a credit balance (exclusive of arrears ae subscriptions) of £125 16s. 3d. Since the death of Professor Harker, Mr Madan had most kindly performed the duties of Hon. Secretary, and he was earnestly pressed to continue to fill an office for which he was so exceptionally fitted. To this he was unable to agree; and the Rev. E. Cornford was then appointed Hon. Secretary of the Club. The other officers of the Club were unanimously re-elected. I greatly regret that I have to record the death of Mr Raitt, of Broughtons, who had been for several years a member of the Club, during which time he has been most regular in his attendance at the Field and Winter Meetings. His geniality and his hearty appreciation of all matters that interested the Club made him a most pleasant and acceptable companion ; and his loss will long be felt by the members. 2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB It was decided that the Field Meetings for the year should be held at Yate and Chipping Sodbury Frocester and Uley Caerleon and Caerwent Newent. During the winter Papers were read by :— Mr Cornford on “ The Hibernation of Animals.” Mr Wethered on “The Depth of the Sea in Past Epochs.” Mr John Sawyer on “The Pre-Saxon Occupation of the Central Cotteswolds,” and by Mr Buckman on “ Geological Non-sequence.” These papers, which were all of great interest, will be printed in the forthcoming volume of Proceedings. The first Field Meeting of the Club was held on Monday, 27th May, when about 20 members met at Yate Station, and first visited the Eggshill Colliery, where many characteristic fossils of the coal period were exhibited, and also the remains of a pump made of oak, which there is reason to believe was used earlier than the introduction of the first Newcomen Engine in 1712. On the way to Yate Court a stay was made to enable members to see some celestine deposits which are being quarried just below the surface of the ground. ‘The existence of celestine in this locality is a comparatively recent discovery, but it has now been traced in the Triassic Marl from near the base of Sodbury Hill across the plain to Aust Cliff. Its chief commercial value is for sugar refining, and for this purpose it is largely exported to Germany. Mr Madan described the chemical processes which are rather numerous and complicated, but the main facts are these: from Celestine (the native form of Strontium Sulphate) is prepared Strontium Hydrate, a substance very analogous to “slaked lime,” and_ this substance when added to solutions containing sugar, forms with the sugar a compound which readily separates we PEAT ahhie v. j = PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 3 from the other ingredients present in the solution, such as treacle, gum, extractive matter, &c. Thus a fine compound of sugar is obtained, from which the Strontium Hydrate can be separated, and the sugar crystallised out. Before this process was used, about half the sugar present in the beet-root or cane juice was simply lost. Yate Court is a very interesting old building, of which the chief features are a fine gate-way with portcullis grooves, and the lower halls of what apparently was a tower; and a moat still exists in almost its original entirety. The property has changed hands so often that nearly all its records are lost, but there is evidence that it existed in the days of Richard I. In the time of Henry VIII Lord Maurice Berkeley bought the property and built a house upon it, in which he incorporated some portions of the earlier building. In the Civil War of the 17th century it was garrisoned by the Parliamentary forces, who, it is said, on leaving it, set it on fire and reduced it to ashes. A farm-house now on the site contains portions of the old structure, including a staircase made of solid blocks of oak. The party next went to Yate Church which has a history dating back to Norman times. The original edifice was cruci-form, with a chapel on the north side of the chancel. Early English builders considerably changed the character of the building, and it appears to have remained as they left it until the perpendicular era. Late in the 15th and in the early part of the 16th centuries the church was practically re-built. To some extent, however, the building still tells its own history. There are very clear traces of Norman work in the-south transept, and the eastern limb, and of early English architecture at the base of the tower arch, and in the south wall of the nave. The eastern end of the arcade between the nave and the nave aisle, and the arch opening into the south transept, are half-a-century later in date than the western end. The A2 4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB staircase to the rood-loft still remains, with its lower steps jutting into the north-west angle of the north chapel. The present church consists of a nave, chancel chapels on the north and south sides of the chancel, a south transept, north nave aisle, south porch, and a tower nearly 100 feet high. Henry VII, it has been suggested, had directly or indirectly a connection with the building of the tower, for on the entrance door-way and around the turret are the fleur-de-lys and the Tudor rose. On a gable over the chancel arch a sanctus bell-cot still remains. After lunching at the Portcullis Inn, the party paid a visit to Chipping Sodbury Church, which we are told by Mr Pope in a paper in Vol. XIII of the Transactions of the Bris. and Glos. Archeological Society, was erected in the 13th century. The chancel was probably built first ; the older builders almost invariably commencing at the east end, so that the offices of religion might be celebrated with becoming decency and reverence as soon as possible. Some early side chapels, into which existing arcades must have opened have disappeared. Possibly some relics of them are the 13th century capitals used as corbels for the north aisle roof, which is of 15th century date. The eastern end of the north aisle is 14th century work, and it is suggested that it was part of a design for a church on a grand scale, but which the black death prevented being carried out. As the town prospered, first the north aisle in the early part of the 15th century, and then the south aisle in the latter part of the same century, were erected. A stone pulpit of 15th century work forms a part of the first pier of the north aisle, and at the back is an inscription “Tobias Davis his charge.” In the north chapel is a beautiful incised slab, which probably commemorates a Flemish Merchant who had settled in the town. The ancient altar slab, with four dedication crosses upon it, has been appropriated as a grave-stone. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 5 To Cheltenham visitors one feature of the church has a special interest, because of its connection with Richard Pate, founder of the Cheltenham Grammar School. In the reign of Henry VI, a religious guild was founded in Chipping Sodbury, and dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Its objects, to quote the quaint language of the period, were “to erecte a chauntry for ij priests to celebrate at thalter of S. Mary within the Chapell or Church of the seid Chipping Sodbury prayeng for the good estate of the seid King, and after his deceasse for his sowle, the ffounders’ sowles, and all Xpen (Christian) sowley.” The chantry chapel was behind the north chancel of the church and has disappeared. Part of the possessions of the suild were, in the reign of Henry VI, bought by Richard Pate, as one of the King’s Commissioners, and several years later Pate sold a portion of them to the Burghers of Sodbury, part for a Town Hall and part for an Almshouse. The members then drove to Little Sodbury, to see the - Manor House, and the little that remains of its parochial church. The Manor House stands on the hill slope, a short distance below the Roman Camp, and Mr John Bellows is of opinion that it occupies the site of the signalling station belonging to the Camp. ‘The house has a long and interesting history, which has been carefully traced by Mr Bazeley, of Matson. It was built, he tells us, by Sir John Walshe, who in 1490 was the King’s receiver for the Berkeley lands which had been alienated from the Berkeley family by William, Marquis Berkeley, and entailed on the King and his heirs male. This appointment was a profitable one, and Sir John Walshe who died in 1492 left his son-heir to several manors. Sir John Walshe (the 2nd) was the champion of Henry VIII at his coronation, and was a great favourite with the young King. He married, first, Ann, daughter of Sir Robert Poyntz, and secondly, Ann, daughter of John Dinley, of Hampshire. The house owes much of 6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB its interest to the fact that William Tyndale lived there for a short time as tutor of Sir John Walshe’s children, and also because it was visited by Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn on the 21st August, 1535. The next owner was Maurice Walshe, son of Sir John. In 1556 while he was at dinner in the Hall with his family, “a fiery sulphurous globe” passing from one window to another, killed him and one child, and so injured six more children that they all died within six months. Two sons, however, remained, Nicholas, who succeeded, and Henry. Nicholas married Mary, daughter of Sir John Berkeley, of Stoke Gifford. He died 1577, leaving a son Henry, who was slain in a duel by Sir Henry Wintour, and was succeeded by his cousin Walter, who was seized of the Manor in 1602. Soon afterwards the three Manors of Old, Little, and Chipping Sodbury were sold to Thomas Stephens, of Lypiatt. The Stephenses seem to have resided in the old Manor House, as various members of the family are described in the pedigree as of Little Sodbury. In 1728 on the failure of heirs male, the Manors came to Richard Packer, whose mother was a Stephens; and on his death, without male issue, they passed to Elizabeth, second wife of David Hartley, D.D., whose descendants still hold them. The house seems to have been “restored” at the latter end of the 17th century, but it still contains many traces of the original structure, such as a beautiful oriel window, a fine porch with wood moulding, and several 15th century windows heavily barred. In the interior, the dining hall, although dismantled, is much, as regards its structure, as it was in the time of Tyndale and Sir John Walshe. The family and their guests sat at a raised dais at the south end, whilst the retainers sat at tables placed along the east and west walls. Part of the old hall has been partitioned off, but the original north end, with its two doors, remains intact. Over the entrance from the a ee Eee Te Ye er SS PROCEEDINGS. OF -THE COTTESWOLD: CLUB 7 kitchen and buttery was the minstrel’s gallery, the entrance to which still remains. On the east side of the dais, high up in the wall, is a mask through which the ladies in the ladies’ gallery could watch the revelry below. A few yards to the east of the Manor House are the ruins of Little Sodbury Church, consisting simply of a porch and a fragment of the north wall with the aumbrey, where the sacred vessels were kept. On the summit of the hill above the Manor House is thé well-known Roman Camp, with its well-preserved lofty mounds and deep ditches. Enclosing the Roman Camp is an earth fortification, which may be a British Camp or may be of Post-Roman date. The remains of a circular building and other erections are very similar to remains upon Cleeve Hill, a matter which Mr G. B. Witts discusses in detail in his paper on Sodbury Camp, in the Archzological Society’s Transactions. A survey of the camp brought the labours of the day to a close, and the party drove to Wickwar, en route for home. For its second Meeting, the Club selected a bit of Cotteswold country rich in geological and antiquarian interest, and about a score of members met at Stonehouse, on Thursday, 27th June. Starting in the direction of Frocester, the first halt was at a gravel-pit, just above Stanley Downton, where Mr Charles Upton recounted to the members his recent find, in a pot-hole in the gravel, of a reindeer’s antler. He remarked that it was an interesting specimen, nearly two feet long, bearing upon its surface marks which appear to be undoubtedly the result of blows inflicted with some rather blunt-edged weapon at the hands of man. With regard to the gravel itself, Mr S. S. Buckman pointed out that it is a river accumulation, deposited by the river Frome when it ran at a much higher level than at the present day. The valley of the Frome is now some 50 feet lower than where these beds ) PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB are situated, a fact which means that the valley has been deepened to this extent since the gravel was deposited. The drive was then continued to the foot of Frocester Hill. There the members left the break, and, under the guidance of Mr S. S. Buckman, examined the geology. Attention was first drawn to a roadside section, showing beds yielding Ammonites bifrons and A. falcifer, species characteristic of the Upper Lias. The geological structure of the hill was then explained : a short distance up the hill is the Marlstone, a hard rock of the Middle Lias, which generally forms a particular feature of the Cotteswold landscape as a lower subsidiary escarpment of the hill flank, projecting beyond the more lofty escarpment of the Oolitic rocks. Above this is a considerable thickness of clay beds—the Upper Lias upon which the members were standing: and they are of economical importance as being one of the water-bearing beds of the district. The clay is capped by an immense development of the Cotteswold Sands—in the present case nearly 250 feet thick, as ascertained by measurement with the level, and these are covered by _ iron-shot, calcareous, marly strata, surmounted by some Oolitic rocks. By means of a coloured diagram showing sections of various localities between Frocester Hill and the coast of Dorset, Mr Buckman explained both here, and when the party arrived at the top of the hill, the result of his work during the last ten vears, namely, that the sands of the Cotteswold Hills, over which there had been so much controversy, as the annals of the Club can testify, were not deposited contemporaneously with the sands of Bath and Dorset, though they are similar in colour and appear- ance. The fact is, he said, that the sands of the Cotteswolds had all been deposited, and part of the over-lying cephalopod bed had been laid down, long before sands began to form in Dorset; and that the underlying clay beds in Dorset which have always, on account of a PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 9 similarity in lithology, been called “Upper Lias,” and thought to be contemporaneous with bifrons beds at Frocester Hill, are shown by their fossil contents to have been deposited at a later date—contemporaneously with the over-lying cephalopoda bed of the Cotteswolds, a bed nearly 300 feet above. Leaving the roadside section, the members ascended the hill, Mr Buckman pointing out the scenic features made by the Marlstone, and noticing other points of interest shewn by the Vale of Severn. Higher up he drew attention to a bed about the middle of the Cotteswold Sands yielding “Ammonites bifrons,” and recalled the fights this find had occasioned among some Cotteswold geologists in days gone by. Arrived at the top of the hill, the geological guide continued his remarks upon the strata as compared with those of other localities. Then he drew the members’ attention to the false bedding exhibited, and explained its cause. From the top of Frocester Hill the party drove to Uley Bury Camp, the unusual fortifications of which were seen with special interest by those members of the club who had not previously visited Uley. The possible date of the camp was the subject of some discussion. That it was occupied by the Romans is beyond question: it was one of the long series by which they strengthened the “scientific frontier” of the Cotteswold escarpment in coping with the Silures. But it probably is of much earlier than Roman date. In some of its features, Mr John Sawyer pointed out, it resembles the admittedly British Camp on the Malvern Hills; while the occurrence within it of numbers of worked flints, and without of long and round barrows are also evidence that it was constructed in pre-Roman times, possibly by the early Celts. 10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB From the camp the members made a short descent into the adjacent Coaley Wood, being shown an interesting quarry wherein Mr Buckman drew attention to the Upper Trigonia grit—resting upon the lower beds of Inferior Oolite, the bearing of which he explained later. They were also being shown the cephalopoda bed in_ this locality, when the Secretary’s whistle hurried them to the next item in the programme. This was a visit to the famous long barrow of Uley Bury, locally known as “Hetty Pegler’s Tump.” It is one of the few long tumuli in Britain which have been opened and yet preserved in their original condition; and those members who for the first time crawled through its narrow entrance, and then in stooping posture, and with lighted tapers, explored its chambers, expressed their eratification that such an interesting memorial of far-off days is protected under the Ancient Monuments’ Act, mingled with their regret that there is not sufficient scientific enthusiasm in this country to keep these monuments in a condition, such as obtains in France in like circumstances. Half-a-mile to the north, at Nympsfield, is another barrow of similar type, which was opened by the Cotteswold Club in 1862, and described in the Club’s Proceedings by the late Professor Buckman; but this is now minus its roof and covering earth-mound. Since the last visit of the Club to these tumuli, anthropology has made enormous strides, and very much light has been thrown upon the history of the men who made these early Cotteswold burial-places. Seating themselves upon the dry greensward of the Uley barrow, the party listened to a short paper by Mr Sawyer. He pointed out that the first fact to note about the tumulus is that there can be no doubt as to its relative age. Near its highest part, and about six inches below the surface, was found a skeleton, with which were three Roman coins. If the coins may PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB II be regarded as indicating the age of the skeleton, the mound is obviously of Roman or post-Roman date. but this evidence. of age is of little moment compared with that afforded by the plan of the barrow, and by what has been found in it. Its special features are its ovoid-form, and the peculiar horned shape of the walling at the wider end. Tumuli of similar plan are found in almost every county between John O’Groats and Land’s End, indicating that they are the work of one race. It has been suggested that, as no one race has occupied Great Britain in historic times, this wide-spread occurrence of the burial mounds of one race is very strong proof that that race occupied the country before the arrival of the Roman invaders. The evidence is no doubt very strong, but it is not conclusive, because the distribution may be due to the race being driven, as other races unquestionably have been driven, from one part of the kingdom to another, by powerful and persistent enemies. Still, although the supposed Roman supra-interment and the widespread occurrence of this type of barrow may be insufficient proof, the evidence afforded by the contents is absolutely conclusive that the tumulus is of pre-historic age. Long-chambered barrows have been opened all over the country, and their contents carefully observed; and in not one of them has there ever been found the slightest trace of metal. Implements and weapons are of constant occurrence, but all are flint. stone, or bone. When Czsar invaded Britain he found to his cost that the natives were armed with metal weapons: the beginning of the bronze age, in fact, dates back to a time long before the Roman invasion. The men who made the long barrows lived at a time when the use of metal was to them unknown. They belong, in fact, to that period in the history of man known as the age of stone. Mr Sawyer then pointed out the nature of the evidence by which the stone age is divided into older and newer— 12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB the older dating back to a time before the North Sea had divided England from the Continent, and before the Severn Valley had been scooped out, and the newer being, so far as is known confined to the period within which the country had assumed its present configuration. Next he showed that the men who made the long barrows belonged to the earlier part of the newer stone age, and that in the opinion of anthropological experts they were Iberians, a race which at one time inhabited a a great part of Western Europe. When the Uley and Nympsfield barrows were constructed it was, he concluded, impossible to determine ; it was best to follow the advice of the Duke of Argyll, and to treat pre-historic chronology not as time-absolute but as time-relative. From Uley Bury the party retraced their steps to the top of Frocester Hill, and then drove to Selsley Common, stopping on the way to see the Nympsfield tumulus in a field on the road-side. At the top of Selsley Hill the members left the break, and walking across the down were shown the different beds of the Inferior Oolite by Mr Charles Upton. His intimate knowledge of the strata of this hill, and of the fossil contents of each bed, was fully placed at the disposal of the party. At the quarry on the west side of the hill Mr Upton drew attention to the Oolite Marl and Upper Freestone overlaid by Upper Trigonia-grit : and Mr Buckman, by the aid of a diagram, explained the result of his recent investigations in the Cotteswolds—shortly to be published by the Geological Society—saying that though to their eye the Upper Trigonia-grit followed the Upper Freestone in a perfectly regular manner, yet other localities shewed, as separating their deposits, more than 60 feet of strata, all of which are absent here. He said that the same state of things obtained at Birdlip, and that it was due to erosion before the time when the Upper Trigonia-grit was deposited. At Birdlip this erosion had cut out a PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB fe) trough in the Inferior Oolite beds some six miles wide and 30 feet deep. Other sections on the hill were visited under Mr Upton’s guidance. He drew attention to particular features of the Upper Freestone, and to a very noticeable trough-fault where the Upper Trigonia-grit had been let down some 10 feet. The remaining sections of the Pea- erit and the lower beds of the Inferior Oolite had to be hurried over for want of time. As the party walked across the common, the Rev. E. Cornford directed attention to the very large number of shallow depressions which many antiquaries regard as remnants of Pit-dwellings. Ina brief paper Mr Cornford summarised the evidence for and against this theory, leaving members to form their own conclusions. As a further aid in doing so, Mr Upton pointed to a slight mound and ditch following an irregular line across the hill, and to the fact that all the depressions are on one side (the western) of this line. Descending the precipi- tous hillside, the members rejoined the break at Selsley Church, and drove through Stanley Park and Dudbridge to Stonehouse. The most largely attended Field Meeting of this Club in recent years was that held on Friday, July 26, when about forty members and friends arrived at Newport, ready for a drive to Caerleon and Caerwent. The latter place was visited by the Club in 1876, when it was included in a day’s journey from Portskewett to Sudbrook Camp and Caldicot Castle. This was the first time, however, that the Club had gone to Caerleon, a fact which partially accounted for the large attendance; for those who are acquainted with the history of the Roman invasion and settlement in the western part of the kingdom, are aware that the first Roman force that occupied the Cotteswold area and then built Gloucester, afterwards pushed forward into South Wales, and 14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB constructed strongly fortified camps at Caerwent and Caer- leon, the latter place ultimately becoming one of the nine Roman colonies established in Britain. ‘The members also had the great advantage of being accompanied by their colleague, Mr John Bellows, as guide, philosopher, and friend; for no one is better qualified, if indeed there is anyone so well qualified, to speak of the connection between the Roman settlements in Gloucestershire and those in South Monmouth, and to tell the story of why and how the settlements were planned and carried out. CAERLEON Caerleon, to which place the party first drove, is a quiet village about three miles north-east of Newport, and close to the river Usk. The wall built by the Romans more than eighteen hundred years ago may still be traced in its entire length, and in some places it is ten or twelve feet high. Within its area a large number of Roman remains have been found, most of which are preserved in a small museum. Outside the walls is a well-preserved amphi-. theatre, very much like that at Cirencester. Giraldus says that in his time the stone seats might still be seen. They have, however, long since disappeared, because, probably, local builders looked upon them with utilitarian, rather than antiquarian eyes. The name Isca Silurum, which the place bore in Roman times, has of course fallen out of general use, but strangely enough, a few houses on the south side of the river are still known among the cottagers as “ Ultra Pontem,” a name which eighteen centuries has not effaced! The bridge which connected the two places was in existence a hundred years ago, for Archdeacon Coxe describes, how in crossing it, he was nearly being precipitated into the river, because the planks were loose, and how, in reply to his remons- trance, he was told that the planks could not be nailed PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 15 down, because the nails would split the wood. Mr Bellows ventured the explanation that the loose planks were a survival from Roman times, as Pliny states in his Natural History, that it was an article of religious faith never to nail down the planks of a bridge. Of course, the object in leaving them loose was, that they might instantly be removed on the approach of an enemy. ‘While the party were gathered in the Caerleon Museum, Mr Bellows gave an exceedingly lucid address upon the invasion of Britain by the Romans, and their settlement in the country, illustrating it by allusions to local events, and local remains of Roman rule. He began by pointing out the composition of a Roman legion, and traced its history and developments originally. A legion consisted of 3,000 foot and 300 horse, but by degrees it was enlarged, until in the time of Czesar it comprised over 4,000 foot and 300 horse, besides being associated with a - large body of auxilaries. About the beginning of the Christian era, the Emperor Augustus raised a legion with the title “ Legio Secunda Augusta,” named in honour of himself, and bearing as a badge the sign of Capricorn, under which he was born. Vespasian, when a young man, became an officer in this legion, and accompanied it to Thrace, where it was recruited with several cohorts (or regiments) of Thracian horsemen. From Thrace, the legion was drafted up the Danube, and down the Rhine to Holland, taking with it six cohorts of this auxiliary cavalry, one of which was recruited in Holland. On the Rhine were also at this time two other of the Roman legions, which had been -sent there under Germannicus, to avenge the Roman defeat by the Germans; and in the year 43 A.D. these three legions (the second, fourteenth, and twentieth), joined later by the ninth, which had served in Africa with their auxiliaries, formed the invading army of Britain, and numbered in all, at least 50,000 men. 16 PROCEEDINGS \OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB The plan of the Claudian invasion of Britain was next dealt with by Mr Bellows. The popular idea that the invaders came from Rome and followed the line of Julius Czesar’s march across Gaul, is, he said, a mistake. A force sufficiently large was already stationed near the mouth of the Rhine, with ample means of transport, and with nothing to do there, for the Germans were effectually conquered, and kept in entire subjection. In the century which had elapsed since Julius Ceesar’s abortive invasions, England had ceased to be a “terra incognita” to the Romans, for Strabo says the Romans during the reign of Augustus were brought into intimate relationship with Britain, and he mentions four “principal” ports on the continent which were used for traffic with this island, namely, the mouths of the Rhine, the Seine, the Loire, and the Garonne. A definite plan of invasion could therefore be arranged; and Mr Bellows hinted at his belief that this plan was really the work of Julius Czesar, and laid in the pigeon-holes at the war office at Rome until the Emperor Claudius found a fitting Opportunity to carry it out. The reason for this belief is that Julius Czesar was the first man to devise the policy of making great rivers the boundaries of the Empire ; and we have the clearest archeological evidence that the Claudian invasion made the securing of the Severn its primary object. The order for the invasion was given in the year 43 A.D., and it was given to Aulus Plautius, under whom Vespasian was placed as a General of Division. Dion Cassius says that as they sailed along, they were discouraged by contrary winds, but encouraged by a meteor, which fled from east to west, the direction in which they were sailing; so that clearly they sailed past Dover and along the English Channel, and not from Boulogne, or Calais, north, as many take for granted. There is also good evidence that they landed on the shores of Southampton Water, and entrenched themselves - ——— ee ee ei | aT PROCEEDINGS OF. THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 17 at Wareham, where there are still remains of strong defences on the northern side. Having firmly planted their feet on British soil, the invaders set about their conquest with two leading ideas clearly in view. The first was as we have said, to make rivers the boundaries of the subjected parts of the country; the second was, as Dr Htbner has shown, to advance northward in parallel lines from east to west. It has long been known that Camulodunum (Colchester) where the ninth legion was stationed, was one of the earliest spots garrisoned by the Romans, but until twenty years ago, the site of the other end of the line, of which it was the commencement, was not known, nor was there any evidence of where the second legion was quartered. To Mr Bellows belongs the credit of having solved both problems. In 1876 he contributed to the “ Proceedings ” of the Cotteswold Club a paper descriptive of a number of discoveries he had made in Gloucester, clearly proving that it was a garrison of the second legion; and shortly afterwards, Dr Hubner, of Berlin, one of the greatest authorities living, on Roman history, published an article in a German Archeological Serial, in which he said Mr Bellows had supplied: the missing link in the history of the Roman invasion of Britain, by showing that Gloucester was the western end of the line of which Colchester was the eastern end. But Mr Bellows’ discoveries did something more than reveal the first location of the second legion, and the relation of Gloucester to Colchester. They prove beyond question the intention of the Romans to make the Severn the north-western boundary of the province with Glou- eester as the key to it. The Romans had, it is true, previously crossed the river. Dion Cassius tells us that soon after landing they received the submission of the Boduni, who occupied the Cotteswold Hills, and whose chief town, according to Ptolemy, was Corinium, B 18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB (Cirencester) and that leaving a garrison among them, they came to the banks of a “large” river, beyond which the enemy lay in fancied security. That river could only have been the Severn, and the place where the enemy lay was probably Newnham. Among the Roman auxiliaries were a number of splendid swimmers, and at low water the passage would not be difficult; and crossing the river they fought the Britons in a decisive battle. But they did not remain on the Forest side of the Severn; that was not a part of their plan. They made their way to Gloucester, upon building which they spent more pains than they did upon any other camp in Britain; as no fewer than four different lines of water defence had to be crossed, before the actual wall of the fortification could be reached on the western side. But the intention to make Gloucester the north-western boundary, at least for a time, was frustrated by the Silures, who lived on ‘the western side of the Severn. In the Annals of Tacitus, we are told that “the Silures were not so easily quelled; neither levity, nor rigorous measures could induce them to submit. To bridle the insolence of that warlike race, Ostorius judged it expedient to form a camp in the heart of their country.” There can be no doubt, that in this brief notice Tacitus refers to the foundation of Caerwent, or as the Romans called it “Venta Silurum.” This fortress stands about four miles inland from Portskewett, where the camp to cover the landing of troops after the passage of the Severn is still in excellent preservation. On the former visit of the Cotteswold Club to Caerwent, the Great Western Railway Surveyors happened to be at the Tunnel works, which adjoins the camp, and at the request of some of the members, they took the exact average height of the ramparts, 19 ft. 3 in., this being 20 Roman feet. On the south-western side of this camp is an excellent beach for running the boats on, used in the passage. It has even PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 19 been suggested that the name “Aust” passage is a corruption of Augusti, in “ Trajectus Augusti”—that is the crossing place of the “ Augustan,” or second legion. It may be remarked, while laying no store on this etymology, that it is in accordance with the general tendency of the western Celtic dialect to suppress the “g”- thus in Cornwall the miners of a generation ago, always pronounced “ engine ” and “angel” as “Inyan” and * Ain-yel.” Similiarly the town in North Italy has changed from Augusta to * Aosta.” This settlement of Caerwent, however, could not have finally secured the conquest of the Silures, for about the year 80 the Roman General and Engineer, Julius Fron- tinus, was charged with the task of subduing them. In this he succeeded, and it must have been as a sequence of this conquest that the head-quarters of “ Legio Secunda Augusta” were removed from Glevum to Isca Silurum ; that is, that Caerleon became the permanent camp of the legion till nearly the close of the Roman occupation of Britain. In reply to a question, Mr Bellows said that the reason the Romans called the town I[sca was that the true pronunciation is nearer this than Usk, the “u” in Welsh being sounded as “e.” The word Esk, in Scotland is the same and means “water.” The Exe was also called Isca by the Romans, but owes its native form to a peculiarity of the Devon dialect, which transposes the “sk.” Thus from “Pysq” the Cornish for witchcraft or sorcery, we have the Cornish “ Piskie,” a sprite; but the Devon- shire folk make this “Pixie.” In the same way they make pesk. into “ Be The name Caerleon, it is scarcely to be doubted, is a corruption of Cair-legion. This has been disputed by an eminent Welsh scholar, on the ground that the Welsh language has a word of its own for legion, which would have been used, and not the Latin form. As against this, B2 20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB however, we must place the fact that the dialects of Celtic varied, and that which prevailed in the districts with which we are dealing showed some affinities with Cornish, which are not found in standard Welsh. One of them is the eliding of the sound of “g,” as already mentioned—so that the Cornish form of the Latin “legionis” would be “leon.” As the place was a colony, and so specially connected with the “Legio Secunda,” and as the Latin .name of the village across the Usk has remained un- changed till our own time (Ultra Pontem) the probabilities are strong that Caerleon is thus derived. Not only did the Roman occupation leave its impress on Caerleon and Caerwent in the circumstance that each of these places was a seat of learning, an “academy” in Saxon times ; but the Legionary City was the Archbishopric afterwards removed to ‘St. David’s.” Thus in Gaul, each adminis- trative centre under the Romain domination became the seat of a bishopric, so that the whole of the present ecclesiastical districts of France have been moulded by the Roman occupation. The most curious of all the results of the Roman stay in Caerleon, is however, the rise of the legend of King Arthur’s Round Table. As has already been mentioned, the Cotteswold Club visited the amphitheatre, which still forms a conspicuous feature in the green meadows outside the old city wall. It is a depression of considerable depth, slightly oval in form; but the strange thing about it is, that it is known locally by the name of “King Arthur’s Round Table.” As there are many spots in widely separated parts of England that bear the name of “ Arthur,” we must be prepared to seek the clue to their nomenclature in some mis-translation of a precedent British name, probably descriptive of some physical feature in the landscape. Thus we have King Arthur’s Castle, at Tintagel, in Cornwall, where “Ard” or “Arth” means “high,” the word Tintagel itself meaning in a still PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB an older dialect high headland. On the Wye and in York- shire we have caves respectively known as King Arthur's Hall, and in Westmoreland a round evidently used for some ancient games is known as King Arthur’s Round Table. At Edinburgh is “Caer Arthur”—high camp: not “ Arthur’s Seat.” Now the Welsh “Bwr” meant a bank or round seat or camp. We have it in the name of the next Roman station after Isca—in Burricum or Usk, and in Bourton, Gloucestershire, as, well as in the Cornish word Burrows for the spoil banks of mines. ‘“Arth” was the name for a bear, so that Bur Arth would be the “ Bear Pitt.” That this was really the name of the Roman amphitheatre at Caerleon is confirmed by that of the field on the opposite side of the Roman street. The latter is still called the Bear-House field. It is evident that the people of the district who were accustomed on certain high-days and holidays to witness the Roman games, continued to keep up these games after the legions had withdrawn from Britain. Thus at Wareham, cock-fights, etc., were kept up in the Roman amphitheatre under the north wall, till the last century, or, beginning of the present one. But the sound of “Bwr Arth” is so near that of “Bwrdd Arth” as to be easily confused with it—and while the first means “Bear Pit” the second signifies “Arthur’s Table” ! The fact of several centuries having elapsed after the death of King Arthur before any historian hints at the story of the round table, should of itself make us more cautious in accepting the story as more than a myth: and here we have the clue to the myth. Well may Wendall Holmes say that all things are in all things—and Emerson declare that nothing is wholly new, but must also contain some thread that is old. Vespasian’s founding of Gloucester, and the conquest by Julius Frontinus, of the Silures, brought Alfred Tennyson to Caerleon to compose his “‘Idylls of the 22 PROCEEDINGS ‘OE .T HE COTTESWOLD CLUB King,” and to “Give to airy nothing a local habitation and a name.” The concluding portion of Mr Bellows’ address— which was an informal talk, with interesting digressions from the main line of the story—was devoted to a com- parison of the size and plan of Gloucester, as ample evidence that both places were the work of one set of builders, and to a brief description of the road connecting .them. Ordnance maps of the two places, prove that Caerleon is a replica of Gloucester in size and plan, and there is evidence in the masonry of the walls that both were the work of the second legion. Besides conquering the Silures, Julius Frontinus also constructed a magnifi- cent paved road from Gloucester through Dene Forest to Caerwent and Caerleon—a road still known as the “Julian Way,” and the paving of which is still preserved in some of the Forest glades. The road crossed the Severn at Over, near Gloucester; indeed the iron bridge which carries the Great Western Railway there rests upon foundations which were laid by the second Augustan legion, eighteen hundred years ago. Returning to Newport, the party lunched at the King’s Head Hotel, and then breaks drove to Caerwent. On the way they stopped to see the remains of a Roman Villa in process of excavation in a field on the roadside. At Caerwent, time only permitted of a walk round a portion of the wall. The sight is a very striking one of the great Roman city standing silent in the midst of the fields; its rampart for the most part buried in foliage, though here and there the solid masonry shows out twenty feet in height, and with its polygonal bastions almost intact. There-has been a good deal of pilfering of the stone from the foundations, which unless stopped, will destroy this most interesting and beautiful monument of antiquity: and we hope our Monmouthshire archzeological colleagues will bestir them- selves to prevent the loss to the world of Isca Silurum. ee ee See eae ee eee ve PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 23 On arriving at Chepstow some of the members returned, but the majority accepted a kind invitation to tea at Pen Moel, where Mrs Price had various fossils from the great quarry set out for inspection below her house. The stay here would have been most willingly prolonged had time permitted, and with an expression of hearty thanks to Mrs _ Price for her hospitality, and with a graceful response on her part and a hope that in the next season the Club would pay a longer visit, the party reluctantly wended . their way to the station at Chepstow, and trained home. The fourth and last Meeting of the Club was held on Tuesday, August 20th, and the members had the good fortune to be accompanied by their old and able associates Poagtessor R Etheridge, F-R-S:, and Mr W. C... Lucy. Driving from Gloucester, the party first went to the site of the new Gloucester Waterworks at Newent, which was visited by the Club about two years ago. Here Mr Lucy gave an interesting sketch of the distribution of the northern drift in the district, and added some generalisa- tions upon the character of the drift period. Tracing the drift on the route the party had driven from Gloucester, Mr Lucy said that after passing Over Bridge, it occurs at Elmore, Hempsted, and Lassington. At the Pinetum, at Highnam, is a thick bed of sand; and near to Highnam Court, a gravel pit of thirteen feet deep, containing pebbles of considerable size, with syenite, chalk flints, and what is remarkable, some oolite, having the appearance of being brought there by a strong eddy, indicating a time before the present river was formed, and when the drainage of the country was probably different from what it is now. Maisemore and Woolridge are capped with drift, and at Collen Park it is thicker still. But by far the most instructive example of glacial drift— and this was probably re-deposited—is at Limbury, an isolated hill quite flat at the top, and covering ten acres. A pit, nine feet deep, contains Silurian blocks, probably 24 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB from Malvern, with characteristic corals and brachiopods, and from it he obtained a large boulder of Caradoc lime- stone two feet six inches long, and one foot six inches wide, (now in the Gloucester Museum) Lickey quartz, pieces of Carboniferous Limestone, a piece of hard chalk, and Grypheea Incuroa and other foss Is from the Lower Luias. The denudation of the Lias round high hills forms an interesting chapter in drift history to trace out, and shows what must have been the position of Lias during the latter part of the quarternary period. As a rule, there is a striking continuity of drift terraces upon the slopes of the hills, ranging from forty to three hundred feet above the sea, and it is in those, that Mammalian remains are found. Dividing the drift period into three great divisions, with several intermediate stages, Mr Lucy said these are :— (1) A great subsidence of the land underneath the sea and strong currents, bringing icebergs into our valleys, transporting rocks with them from Scotland and the North of England and depositing them, as seen in our Midland Counties, and, though reduced in size, in our Northern Cotteswolds and on Cleeve Hill. (2) An up- heaval of the land took place, and the hills appeared from beneath the sea with a less cold climate, and land _ ice, frozen snow, and heavy rainfall became the principal agents in distributing the drifts. (3) Another depression of the land, which afterwards rose again above. the sea, and although less cold, the temperature in winter was sufficiently low to form land ice, and it is not improbable, it is to this date, that the drift brought down from higher levels and re-deposited, may be referred. Several minor oscillations of the land took place subsequently, and the sea again came up the estuary of the Severn, levelling the gravels brought down by the land ice, of which there are examples in the pits extending from Berkeley to Worcester, often two or three miles from the present EET lil Ee ee PROCEEDINGS OF. THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 25 hills. In conclusion, Mr Lucy impressed upon those present, that where gravel is found on isolated hills and terraces corresponding in height, the level of the ground at the time the gravel was deposited, was probably fairly con- tinuous, and the valleys between them have been made since. In fact the Severn valley is a valley of denudation caused by water, frost, rain, and wind. The water is being tapped, or rather pumped, by the Gloucester Corporation, at a spot, half-a-mile from Newent. The well, said Mr R. Read, the Gloucester Corporation Surveyor, is situated in the New Red Series, nearly mid-way between two parallel faults running north- east and south-west with the syenite of the Malvern Range, about seven miles to the north-east, and the Silurian of May Hill three miles south-west. The west fault is of great extent, and has the Keuper beds of the New Red on the surface on its east side—in which the well is sunk—and the Old Red on the surface on its west side. All along the west fault, from Retford Bridge, over the Leadon, on the north, down to Great Boulsdon, in the south, small out-crops of coal are found, and some years ago the Oxenhall Colliery shaft was sunk right on the fault which yielded an abundance of water, but very little coal. The results of the Corporation boring show that the bottom Bunter beds were not completely pierced at 1,190 feet, and as these crop out on the surface with the breccia or pebble beds of the Permian, at a distance of six miles north-east, it is fair to assume that they are in a wedge-shaped trough of the New Red, 1,200 feet deep at the bore-hole, thinning out at six miles to the north-east, near Bromsberrow, where the surface is some 200 feet higher than the ground at the bore-hole, which is 102°5 feet above ordnance datum. The first 300 feet of the bore-hole consists of beds of Conglomerates, Marls, and Sandstones, but below this the whole of the beds are Sandstones of varying hardness. The well section is 26 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB much more reliable than the bore-hole section, owing to the difficulty in boring through Conglomerates, without destroying their character, but there is a remarkable difference in the position of the beds in the two sections, although they are only 300 feet apart. Red Sandstone Rock was found at eleven feet deep, and the beds are hard Marls, Conglomerates, and Sandstones, but chiefly Con- glomerates of varying character and size. At nineteen feet in a Conglomerate bed, a piece of stone like part of an elk or stag’s horn was found, and at fifty-two feet some petrified timber. The dip of the strata is chiefly from west to east. It is only one in sixty to about forty feet, but then the dip increases until at 126 feet, it is one in twelve. The water over-flowing from the bore-hole was not affected until 26 feet had been reached, and the water in the colliery shaft, which was 46 feet from the surface at the commencement, was not altered until after passing through a bed of Conglomerate 31 feet thick, from 58 feet to 88 feet of depth of well. ‘This bed was very hard, with traces of iron and some large pebbles. The next eleven feet consist of Marlstone, Sandstone, and a dark broken Conglomerate, and from 99 feet to 110 feet Conglomerate eleven feet thick, with large pebbles, nearly six inches in diameter, followed by five feet of very dark mottled Conglomerate to 115 feet in depth, then seven feet of grey rock and Conglomerate to 122 feet deep, six feet of hard Red Sandstone to 128 feet, and six feet of mottled Conglomerate to 134 feet, the present depth. As was pointed out at the visit of the Club two years ago, it is singular that with such a large drainage, so little water finds its way to the surface. Mr Lucy said the only way he could explain the matter was this:—That in all probability an under-ground current passes beneath the bed of the Severn near Over into the very deep gravel pit there. In the early part of their negociations the Corporation sank a well near Over Bridge, in the hope of PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 27 getting a good supply of water out of the gravel there, and although evidence of an ample supply was forthcoming, it was found that the water was not of a character suitable _ for the city. Although the place, where the boring took place, was within 40 or 50 feet of the river, that water had no connection at all with the Severn—it all passed underneath ; and whether the tide was flowing or ebbing it did not make the slightest difference. Mr Fox said that his theory was that the water crossed the bed of the Severn much farther down the river than at Gloucester, and at a much lower level than that of the Gloucester meadows. The reservoir is at Madam’s Wood, about eight miles from Gloucester, and is 250 feet above the sea level, or about 50 feet below the level of the water-works at Witcombe. The service reservoir, which is simply intended to equalise flow and pressure, is 100 feet long by 60 feet broad, and 18 feet deep, and will have a capacity of 675,000 gallons. The water will be conveyed to Gloucester through 14-inch castiron pipes. It will be possible to lengthen the reservoir, if necessary, but inasmuch as the mains will be ablé to deliver this quantity of water in ten hours, and the pumping machinery being in duplicate will be able to replace the water in the tank with equal dispatch—and as with night and day pumping it would be possible to deliver a million-and-a-half gallons in 24 hours—it is not ~ thought likely that any large tank will be required. The members were most hospitably and sumptuously entertained at luncheon by Mr Knowles, of Newent Court, after which the journey was resumed to Clifford’s Mesne, which was visited by the Club in 1887. At that time the Downton Sandstones were the only beds exposed, but a large excavation of fully 40 feet in depth has recently been made, showing some of the Limestone beds of the Upper Ludlow formation. The Downton Sand- stones are generally considered to be the top beds of the 28 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB Silurian system, upon which rests the Ledbury Shales (transition beds) separating the Silurian beds from the Old Red Sandstone. The return to Gloucester after a most pleasant day’s excursion was made through Vaynton. ere Die fits. OFT HE. SEA IN PAST, EPOCHS BY Paes ewe LER ED: FGiS. At the beginning of this century Hutton taught that the past history of our planet is to be explained by what we see going on at the present time. The lapse of more than half-a-century has proved the truth of this assertion. Applying this principle to the Depths of the Sea we have been at a disadvantage. Up to the time of the “Challenger” expedition our knowledge of what was to be found was very limited, and we knew less of those regions in past epochs. We now know that at the present time calcareous deposits are taking place over very extensive areas, and that these are largely the result of the accumulation of the tests and skeletons of microscopic life. The Globigerina Ooze is an instance of this. We have, too, proof that larger creatures, mollusca, corals, etc., contribute in the same way to the building up of calcareous deposits, but this appears to be the case chiefly in shallower waters. Modern dredging appliances have made it comparatively easy to obtain this information from the depths of the ocean of to-day, but how are we to know what took place in past epochs? It is possible that in the case of extreme depths we may always remain in ignorance, but of the shallower waters we may obtain very considerable 30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB information by the study of limestones. ‘These rocks are, of course, the marine calcareous deposits in the depths of past oceans, now elevated often high above the level of the sea and altered by molecular changes. In limestone then we may expect to find what is capable of preservation of the life which lived in the sea of past epochs. Much, of course, has already been done in the study of limestones, but, strange as it may appear, the use of the microscope has been but little applied to this work in anything like a systematic investigation. In fact, com- paratively little had been done with this instrument in the study of thin section of limestones till Dr. Sorby, F.R.S., called attention to the subject in his excellent Presidential Address to the Geological Society in 1879. Generally speaking, Geologists have been content with fossils which could be detected without the use of the microscope, and this mostly for the purposes of the classifi- cation of the rocks or the study of the structure of fossils. The examination of the limestone has yet to be done, and there is much to be learnt. After reading the report on “Deep Sea Deposits” by Mr Murray, a member of the “Challenger” expedition, it occurred to me that it would be of interest to study microscopically the marine calcareous deposits in past epochs, now represented by limestones, and still further. test the teaching of Hutton relative to the depths of the sea ancient and modern. In attempting this paper, however, it must be clearly understood that the subject is a vast one, a life’s work in fact. I can therefore only now give results so far obtained, namely from Silurian, Carboniferous and Jurassic limestones. Commencing with the Silurian system, I have selected the Wenlock Limestone as being perhaps the most interesting calcareous deposit in the Silurian sea. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 31 A visit to a quarry where this rock is exposed will __ afford proof that mollusca, corals, polyzoa, encrinites, etc., were numerous in the waters of this period. This is further proved by thin sections of the limestone which show that the rock is largely made up of the debris of these and other calcareous organisms in a very fragmentary condition. Another interesting feature is that at times these remains became either partially or entirely enclosed in a crust (Fig. 1A) which up to the time of my investigations had passed unnoticed. To such an extent has this process gone on that the crusts form a very considerable part of the limestone. It therefore becomes important that we should understand the nature of this growth. Microscopically examined thin sections of it show that it is made up of endless minute tubules, (Fig. 1B) varying in size between ‘o1 and ‘05 of a millimétre in diameter. Small as these objects are, aggre- gations of them form dense masses of crust around the calcareous remains of other organisms, but each tubule is a separate individual with a clearly defined wall of carbonate of lime.* Living matter occupied the interior: this of course perished after death, but not so the tubules which were filled in with calcite or mud, or became closely pressed together. When first I discovered these crusts in 1889 I recognised the organism as the little understood genus Girvanella, first noticed and briefly described by Professor Alleyne Nicholson and Mr R. Etheridge, junr.+ They figured one species, namely, G. problematica, but since then I have discovered a considerable variety of forms varying from the Silurian to the Jurassic system of rocks. Minute, and at first sight apparently insignificant, as these *In the illustration a form of Girvanella is represented not previously figured. 4 + Mon. Sil. Foss. Girvar, pp. 22-23, p.l. ix., more recently in Nicholson’s and _ Sydekker’s Palaeontology, Vol. i, pp. 127-128. 32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB forms of life are, I shall show that at times they lived in great profusion in the depths of the sea, and there performed a work of incrustation around nuclei which became a considerable factor in the formation of the calcareous deposits and subsequent limestone rocks. Shortly stated, the process which went on in the Silurian sea during the formation of the Wenlock limestone was this: the shells and skeletons of the larger marine organisms which existed collected on the floor of the sea in very small fragments. Whether this condition was due to detrition or to the fact that the creatures had served as food for large Ganoid fishes, I know not. Judging, however, by the high percentage of inorganic detrital material in the Wenlock limestone derived from the denudation of existing rocks, which sometimes amounts to as much as 30°4 per cent., I conclude that land was not far distant. Consequently the Wenlock Limestone represents a Terrigenous deposit, and the shells, etc., would probably be subject to the action of waves. This may be an explanation of the fragmentary condition in which they occur in the Wenlock limestone. These remains having finally settled on the floor of the sea, then the incrusting process of Girvanella commenced. Tubules of this genus attached themselves to fragments of debris as nuclei, and partially or entirely enclosed them in a crust formed by the multiplication and growth of the tubules. To avoid misunderstanding [ must make it clear that there are very many exceptions to the fragmentary conditions of the shells and other calcareous remains of organisms which have furnished material for the building up of the Wenlock limestone. Thus it is not difficult to find well preserved portions of coral, especially of polyzoa, shells, etc. These fossils, however, in the May Hill district of Gloucestershire, are chiefly to be found in argillaceous beds which separate thin strata of limestone. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 33 I now pass to the Carboniferous Epoch. The calcareous deposits in the sea of this period are represented by the Carboniferous Limestone, of which the well known cliffs in Derbyshire, at Clifton in Gloucestershire, Cheddar in Somersetshire, and a great portion of the hills near Rhyl in North Wales are instances. That mollusca, corals, crinoids, polyzoa, etc., were plentiful in the sea of this period is well known, but it is erroneous to suppose the remains of the shells and skeletons of these creatures were the chief contributors to the calcareous deposits which accumulated on the floor of the Carboniferous sea. In certain beds of this series, remains of mollusca and coral debris became doubtless the chief factors, but if we take the great central mass, which at Clifton is 1620 feet thick, we shall find that microscopic life has in the main contributed the material of which the limestone has been built up. Indeed microscopic life must have been quite as abundant in Carboniferous days as it was in the sea in which the chalk formation took place, and in parts of the ocean of to-day. We know that the white chalk is largely made up of the shells of foraminifera, and that the calcareous ooze dredged up by the “Challenger” was also largely made up of these minute shells, together with the remains of certain other low forms of life, including siliceous ones. . It is, of course, deeply interesting to know of the existence of these deposits, both at the present time, and during that of the period in which the white chalk was gradually formed. This interest, too, is increased when we know that a very similar condition of things existed in the still earlier Paleeozoic days of the Carboniferous Lime- stone, a fact which is strictly consistent with the teaching of Hutton. c 34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB That foraminifera were very numerous at times in the Carboniferous sea is of course well understood, but the vreat extent to which the tests of these microscopic creatures contributed to the calcareous ooze which collected on the floor of the sea of this period has not been fully realised. It is of these minute shells that the great central mass of, the Carboniferous Limestone in the West of England and North Wales has been so to speak constructed Fig. 2A. The only other organism which can rival the foraminifera in this respect is the remarkable and minute genus Calcisphzra which averages about “004 of an inch in diameter (Fig. 2B). This organism, so named by Professor Williamson, F.R.S..* of Manchester, consists of a hollow sphere of carbonate of lime, the interior of which was apparently occupied by living matter. When cut in section the Calcispharz have the appearance of rings, in which form they are seen in Fig. 2A and B. In the former they are so minute that a magnifying glass will probably be required to see them, but in Fig. 2B they will be observed without difficulty. That the Calcisphzrz are organisms | think there is no doubt, but whether they are to be referred to the animal or vegetable kingdom is a matter yet to be decided. They must have existed in Carboniferous waters in vast multi- tudes, and their interest as limestone-forming organisms has not been realized. So numerous were they that I question whether a fragment of Carboniferous Limestone from the middle series of this formation could be examined without finding several of them either whole or in part. Another important incident attached to Calcisphara is that we have not found it to occur in any other rock but that of the Carboniferous Limestone, hence its presence is one way of determining this formation when doubt arises. * Phil. Trans. vol, 171, pp. 520-525, 1880. ee PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 35 As in the case of the Wenlock sea, incrusting organisms were at work on the floor of the Carboniferous ocean. The Girvanella tubules were at times very abundant, seizing hold of calcareous fragments and enclosing them in a thick crust. In this way whole beds of limestone have been built up by the granules so formed. At this time, too, we meet with a second incrusting organism, namely, the genus Mitcheldeania, to which reference was made in the Cotteswold Club Proceedings for 1885-1886 (pp. 77-79). The same is no guide to the nature of the organism, for it is so complicated that I thought it best not to attempt any specific naming, hence I called it Mitcheldeania, from the locality, Mitcheldean in Gloucestershire, where I discovered the first species, namely, M. Nicholsoni. The interesting nature of this organism has attracted the attention of other geologists, especially Professor Alleyne Nicholson, after whoin [ named the first species. He has now discovered another species in the South of Scotland, to which he has given the name M. gregaria.* Briefly stated, the skeleton of Mitcheldeania consists of capillary tubes, with a diameter ;: to 1; of a millimétre, which, according to Professor Nicholson, have “porous walls and are united by a still more minutely tabulated tissue.” t At times Mitcheldeania must have lived in great profusion, usually incrusting some foreign object. In Fig. 3A I have given a representation of a fragment of a small Gasteropod shell surrounded by a Mitcheldeania crust. In Fig. 3B I have represented, by greater magni- fication, the minute structure of the organism. At first I was disposed to refer this to a low form of animal life, and this may still be correct, but there are certain * Geol. Mag., Dee. r11, vol. v, p. 17. 1888. + Nicholson’s and Sydekker’s Palaeontology, p. 200, vol, i, 1889. G2 36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB features about the fossil which would seem to indicate a vegetable origin. Possibly it may ultimately be referred to the calcareous algze, or even to some still lower form of vegetable life. I now pass to the Oolitic Period of the Jurassic rocks. I need not remind geologists of the origin of the term oolite, but as we have present persons who are not conversant with geology in general, I may mention that the oolites are characterised by a structure resembling the roe of a fish, hence the name “roestone” or “eggstone” was given by the quarrymen, and this has been translated in the language of science into oolite. Freestone is a type of this rock. We know that during the Jurassic Period marine life was exceedingly abundant. There were numerous types of mollusca, echinodermata, ammonites, corals, polyzoa, etc.; but the interesting process which went on was the formation of the minute oolitic granules (“roestone”) to which I have referred. The process of oolitic formation is still going on in the sea of to-day, but dredging expeditions appear to have over-looked the importance and interest attached to them. The explanation probably is that it was taken for granted that the granules were simply concretions. Dr. Rothplatz however has written on oolitic granules collected in the Red Sea and Great Salt Lake, and assigns their origin to lime—secreting fission algz,* and not to a concretionary process as generally supposed. At the British Association, in 1888, Professor H. G. Seeley, F.R.S., read a paper “On the Origin of Oolitic Texture in Limestone Rocks.” t * British Association Report, 1888, pp, 674-675. + American Geologist, vol. x, 1892, p- 280: trans. F. W. Cragin, from “Botaniocheo Centralblatt,” No. 25, 1892. ee er es) PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 27) In this the Professor argued that the oolitic texture might originate in many ways, and drew attention to the close resemblance of the internodal grains of nullipores to grains of oolite. I was also at work on the same subject, and in 1889 I wrote a paper “On the Microscopic Structure of the Jurassic Pisolite,’* in which I proved that these larger forms of oolitic granules were not concretions, but were formed by an incrusting process produced by the genus Girvanella. In fact these larger oolitic granules called “Pisolites” or “Pea Grit” are simply the work of incrusting organisms on a large scale. More recent observations+ have convinced me that all oolitic granules, large and small, are of organic origin, Figs. 4A, the majority being the work of a variety of incrusting organisms, but others apparently, originating from growth not necessarily around a nucleus. The process is illustrated in Fig. 4A, where it will be observed that the calcareous fragments which settled on the floor of the sea are coated with a crust, some being entirely enclosed and appear in the fossil state as “ oolitic granules.” In this way freestones have originated. As to the nature of the incrusting and oolite-forming organisms, it is possible that they may belong to the calcareous alge. As I have said it is to this low order of vegetation that Rothplatz assigns the oolite granules in the Red Sea and Great Salt Lake. If the fossil ones have a similar origin, then there is again further proof of the teaching of Hutton that the past is to be explained by the present. * Geol. Mag., N.S., Dee. 111, vol vi, pp. 196-200, 1887. + Formation of Oolite, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. li, pp. 196 205, 1895- : EXPLANATION OF PLATES Fic. 14.—Section of Wenlock Limestone x 17 Diam., May Hill, Gloucestershire, shows fragments of Calcareous organisms enclosed in crusts of Girvanellz, thus forming sranules. Owing to a defect in the negative this illustration is not so clear as could be desired. Fic. 1p.—Portion of the crust of the uppermost granule in Fig. ta x 7o Diam. Shows the Girvanella Tubules which form the crust. The lower portion of the figure is the calcareous fragment shown in the centre of the uppermost granule in Fig: 1a. This is a new form of Girvanella here described for the first time. Fic. 2a.—-Section of Carboniferous Limestone from the middle series, Clifton, Bristol, ~ 32 Diam, Shows the Limestone to be made up of the minute fragmental remains of microscopic life, mostly Foraminifera and Calcisphzerze. Some of the former are well preserved, and can be easily distinguished, but the Calcisphzerae appear as very minute rings requiring a magnifying glass to see them clearly. Fic. 28.—A portion of Fig. 2a x 65 Diam. This higher magnification shows one of the foraminifera, and fragments of others, also several sections of Calcisphzerae which appear in rings. Fic. 34.—Section of Mitcheldeania inerusting a fragment of shell x 9 Diam. From the Lower Carboniferous Limestone Shales. Drybrook, Gloucestershire. Fic, 38. Tangential section of Mitcheldeania Nicholsoni x 70.Diam., shewing the minute structure. From the Carboniferous Lower Limestone- Shales, Drybrook, Gloucestershire. Fic. 4a. Section of Inferior Oolite Leckhampton Hill, near Cheltenham x 16 Diam. Shows fragmental remains of Calcareous organisms enclosed in crusts of Girvanellze, thus illustrating the formation of oolitic granules. Fic. 48. Sections of portions of the crusts of two of the granules in Fig. 4a, showing the Girvanellge tubules x 70 Diam The two crusts touch each other. The lighter part on the left is a portion of the nucleus of one of the granules. ie x 17 Diam. Fig. 1a. x 70 Diam. Fig. 1b. i os rey We sign hone 7 we nf edad te ees Fig. 2a. x 32 Diam. Fig. 8b x 70 Diam. Fig. Ab. x 7O Diam. ON THE HIBERNATION OF CERTAIN ANIMALS BY EDWARD CORNFORD, M.A., HON. SEC. There may be some misapprehension as to the true meaning of the word “Hibernation.” Its origin, no doubt, leads our thoughts into winterly associations. But as applied to animal life it may have nothing whatever to do with winter nor a cold condition of atmosphere. A “hibernacle” is generally understood as signifying a winter shelter or covering, and could be applied to the warm retreat of the squirrel, or the’ hut of the Eskimo ; or any winter quarters, as Carlyle writes in his “ Frederic the Great”: “From the beginning of April the Russians hibernating in the interior parts of Poland were awake, and getting daily under weigh.” The scales which protect the buds of the horse chesnut and of many other trees, shielding them from sleet and frost, are hibernacula. The operculum of the snail is its outer door, and behind it, it hibernates in its dark chamber, during many months. Hibernation has been said by some, and by many others thought to be, passing the winter in a secluded place and in a torpid state. This definition of the term is some- what inaccurate and misleading, as I think we shall see. It may be taken for granted that a supply of oxygen is absolutely necessary for the sustenance of animal life, and that any animal totally deprived of a supply of this gas 40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB must, within a shorter or longer period, by no means an illimitable one, cease to exist. This is one of the laws of Nature, which amongst others is inimitable and unexceptionable, and from man 1o the lowest forms of life rules over all. Another law of Nature is this: vital functions fail without a supply of a certain amount of heat. Many animals retain sufficient heat for their existence within their bodies, when the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere is extremely low; e.g., the Arctic fox and other animals inhabiting the northern regions of the elobe, and possibly also the southern—of which we know at present so little. In the account of the Jackson-Harmsworth expedition, we read that when the Thermometer registered 50° below zero, bears came and rubbed their noses against the windows of the Russian log-house, in which the explorers were passing the winter. There is therefore, if I may so express it, an internal generation of heat, more or less independent of atmos- pheric influences; but there can be no animal heat apart from some measure of a supply of oxygen, and movement of the blood is necessary. Those animals which have not the property or gift of maintaining their internal tempera- ture up to a certain degree—varying considerably in its range, die: other animals having this property survive. Nature in this direction, as in others, has its differential- tions, and whilst some insects survive the winter, and in tattered robes appear in the sunnier days of spring, and give occasion for letters in provincial prints, others are unable to resist the influence of the cold of any ordinary winter, and though probably equally sufficiently supplied as some others with material to withstand its rigour, are no more, owing to their less instinctive faculties : may it not be so? PROCEEDINGS: OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 4I Thus whilst that very common butterfly, the small tortoise-shell, is seen in the very early days of the year, other Lepidoptera as a rule do not hibernate, and | think it probable that no moths survive the winter. Where then do those animals which are capable of enduring an extreme degree of cold derive the resistant power; what is the secret of the fortress which defies in some instances the rigour of a temperature of which none of us can have had any experience and probably never shall ? When animalcule—I use the term generically—are frozen in a containing vessel of water they are not destroyed. This is a fact which may easily be verified by anyone in a very simple manner. Each of the little organisms will live for a time in a tiny uncongealed space. A minute portion of film of the surrounding fluid, by reason of the temperature of the body enclosed, is kept in an uncongelated condition. It is true that these creatures are called cold-blooded, as also others, which, really are not truly and absolutely so. If you want to make an experiment, which though not agreeable, may be instructive, I have read on good authority that if you — were to make a pile of worms, leeches, snails and slugs round a thermometer you would find the mercury rise above the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere, and therefore (if this be true) these animals have some power of resisting the influence of a cold temperature, owing to their internal heat—without which they would inevitably perish. In the so-called cold-blooded vertebrata the heat of the body almost entirely depends on the temperature of the environment. It is so with fishes, ~ Qvith some few exceptions) in which the blood contains a larger proportion of red globules or discs. For in birds, reptiles, and fishes the blood particles curiously differ from those of mammalia. The proportion of red blood particles in the whole mass of the blood varies greatly in 42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB different animals. They are greatest in those which possess the highest measure of muscular vigour and activity, and which therefore consume the largest quantity of oxygen by respiration, and they are much more abundant in mammals than in reptiles or fishes. This fact throws a side-light at all events on my _ subject. Physiologists tell us that one function of the red particles is to convey oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and organs through which the blood circulates. When the muscular system is in active operation it requires a larger supply of oxygen: when it is at rest it wants but little; so that when roused into activity it requires an increased supply. The quantity of oxygen which the animal takes in by its breathing apparatus, and the quantity of carbonic acid which it gives off, will therefore vary with the amount of its muscular exertion. It is in consequence evident that an animal in a state of repose requires a much less amount of oxygen than when in a state of vigorous activity of existence. Animals in a state of lethargy, by consequence, do not require the same amount of oxygen as is necessary for an active habit of life. . Atmospheric air is necessary to the continued life of all animals, and the result of its inspiration is the giving out of carbonic acid gas. But the amount of atmospheric air absolutely necessary for the continuance of vitality is a question which perhaps no one can decide. Certain functions as I shall mention bye-and-bye are performed, but with some diminution or decretion. Life may be apparently in abeyance for a considerable time without vitality being absolutely destroyed. The common garden snail, not to mention other instances, may be kept for a very long time without water. I kept one quite by accident more than two years, and it revived when placed in a moist atmosphere. Snakes and frogs have been _ i ee Lee ee PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 43 placed in ice-houses and have revived after two or three years exposure to and experience of the low temperature. Hibernation, as I have already mentioned, is generally understood as passing the winter in a state of torpor—a mistake arising from a derivation of the word from the Latin—but it has not, strictly speaking, this restricted meaning as applied to animals. The state of hibernation is not the same thing as, or any condition of, a state of torpor. Hibernation is a provision of nature for the preservation of life, especially for that of the insectivora, when by reason of seasonal change their sources of daily food supply are necessarily unprocurable. This, e.g., is the case with the bat, when spring and summer give place to winter, and insects as a rule disappear. The very observant author.of the “ Natural History of Selborne” hardly, if at all, makes good his opinion that swallows hibernate by any reliable facts. in December, 1773, writing to Barrington, he says: “ We make great “enquiries concerning the withdrawal of the swallow “kind, without examining into the causes, why this tribe “is never to be seen in winter. The hirundines, if they “please, are certainly capable of migration, and yet no “doubt are often found in a torpid state.” The sand martin makes a hole, round and regular, in sand or fine gravel, generally straight, with a slope upwards towards the opening, and about two feet distant from the entrance. At the end of this, in a little globular chamber, the bird builds its nest, consisting of moss, fine grasses, and feathers, which one would think would be, if anywhere, a desirable place in which to spend the winter. But says Gilbert White, speaking of this species: “ These birds do “not make use of their caverns by way of hibernacula as “might be expected; since banks have been dug out “with care in the winter, when nothing was found but - 44 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB ‘empty nests.” In September, 1781, with reference to another species, viz. the house martin, he says: “ In some “former letter I expressed my suspicions that many of “the house martins do not depart in the winter far from ‘your village. I determined to make some search about “the S.E. end of the hill, where I imagined they might “slumber out the uncomfortable months of winter. But “ supposing that the examination would best be made in “the spring, and observing that no martins had appeared “by the 11th April, | employed some men to explore “the shrubs and cavities of the selected spot. The “persons took pains, but without any success.” With reference to swifts, which are the first to leave our country, as they are the last to arrive, Gilbert White states that the swifts left about the Ist day in August—all save one pair—which in two or three day’s time was reduced to one individual. This one was watched till August 24th, and then it was found that this—which was the mother bird—was looking after two young ones, which by that time were fledged, and they were seen until the 27th ; but, on the 3Ist, on examination, it was found that the nest only contained two stinking swifts. Reverting subsequently to the case of the sand martins, Gilbert White seems to be his own witness against his theory that some swallows hibernate, for if any species would be more likely to do so than others I should judge the sand or bank martin to be that one, seeing what a warm nesting place it has. Now in March, 1788, oppor- tunity was taken to examine some of the holes in the banks, where that species of bird congregated. The investigator hoped that they might have slept there, and that he might come upon them just before they awoke from their winter slumbers. He dug with some diligence and perseverance into the bank. He found the nests at the end of the canal as was to be expected, they had evidently been occupied, but no birds were to be found. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 45 Occasional late appearances of these birds prove really nothing as regards their hibernation. Their power of accumulating even a modicum of food within them must be extremely limited, and I think we are quite safe in saying that no species of hirundines hibernate (in the sense of the word as used in this paper) in this or as a matter of fact in any other country. (1 know I have Von Humboldt against me.) They fly to fresh fields, and a more genial climate, and all tales of their surviving the winter in this country are (me judice) not worthy of belief. The bat goes to sleep, and its usual food is, for a time, not a necessity of its existence, and even if the weather be abnormally mild we cannot find that it leaves its shelter until it has been there for a considerable time. To what extent hibernation extends in the animal world has not been and cannot. be accurately ascertained. The enquiry into the subject is a very difficult one, and we can only draw our conclusions from certain plain and evident facts, leaving many more which are beyond our powers of investigation. The bat, the badger, the hedge- hog, and the dormouse amongst the mammalia are the most easily observed examples in our country of this singular and strange physiological condition, and_ this condition presents no easy problem for naturalists to solve; and it may be by reason thereof, the literature bearing on the subject is very scanty, and some even of that, not altogether reliable. What is hibernation, from a physiological point of view? This question is the root of the whole matter and embraces many considerations of much interest, for it is evident that any animal in a state of hibernation, i.e., of more or less suspended action of its ordinary functions is, so far, in an abnormal condition. How then does it continue to exist ? Now, we are told by physiologists that the quantity of respiration is inversely as the degree of irritability of the 46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB muscular fibres. The bird tribe have a high degree of respiration and a low irritability; the reptiles have a high degree of irritability and a low degree of respiration. This law holds good not only in the different genera of animals, but also in the different stages or states of the same animal under altered conditions. The structural changes of an animal from one condition to another, or from one stage to another, are always a change from a lower to a higher degree of respiration, and from a higher to a lower degree of irritability. Thus the changes from the egg to the bird, or from the tadpole to the batrachian, or from the larva to the insect condition, are changes in which the quantity of respiration is augmented, and the degree of irritability is diminished, whilst on the other hand, the physiological changes in the degree of activity in animals, [for example, during sleep] but especially in that remarkable condition which is called hibernation, the respiration is diminished, whilst the degree of irritability is augmented. On what this susceptibility of change depends, and especially on what the power of taking on an augmented irritability depends, is at present unknown. But I think that in this power we may find one clue to the secret of hibernation. I take it for granted that all animals have the power, or privilege, of sleeping. During sleep, respiration is in its intervals diminished only as a rule slightly; the irritability is probably proportionately increased, and this may be one object of the period of repose. So it is that after a night’s rest we wake up and feel invigorated for the day’s work. So also if we do not sleep, or sleep only fitfully, we do not feel ourselves as fully “fit” as we should like in the morning. This phenomenon has its limits, and limits beyond which it cannot pass, so far as we are concerned. But in some animals the boundary line is beyond ours; their limit beyond ours. In them the quantity of respiration is still PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 47 further diminished, and the degree of irritability still further augmented, and the deeper sleep or lethargy of hibernation results. During this lethargy, the law of the universe ratio of the respiration and of the irritability still continues. If the respiration were to be diminished without a corresponding increase in irritability, the heart would cease to be stimulated, and the animal would die, -as in the case of torpor, or of asphyxia. If the respira- tion were augmented, without proportionate diminution of irritability, the heart would be over-stimulated, and _ death in this case also would ensue, as in the instance of an animal too suddenly roused from its lethargy, or of one placed in an atmosphere of pure oxygen gas. A dormouse roused from sleep and exposed to a low temperature did not go to sleep again, but died. One difference therefore between those animals which hibernate, and those who do not, seems to be this: that in the former, there is a power of involving, if I may so say, or somehow or other generating, an augmented degree red of irritability of the muscular fibres; a power possessed by all animals within certain limits, but by hibernating animals beyond those limits. Sleep, (however a condition both remarkable and perhaps inscrutable it may be in itself) and hibernation are really similar periodic phenomena, induced by some- what similar causes, leading to similar effects, but differing very greatly in degree. Hibernation seems to us more extraordinary than sleep, but only perhaps because it is less familiar to us. Most animals are in fact naturally awake and asleep each day or night, some being diurnal, others nocturnal in their habits in this respect. Sleep may be called the first stage of hibernation. The faculty of passing into the second stage is really the acquisition of a greater irritability of the muscular fibres. Many have made mistakes by viewing hibernation as an effect only produced by a low temperature. The influence 48 PROCEEDINGS#OF THE COTTESWOED CEUS of cold in inducing torpor is its too well-known power in producing a sleep which has so often resulted in death.* The direct effect of cold on the animal frame is totally different from hibernations. Hibernation is a physiological condition—not the direct effect of cold. Torpor is on the contrary, a pathological condition, and generally only too frequently a fatal one. The term hibernation, as I have said, has usually been employed to signify the condition in which certain animals pass the winter season, and I have also said, it is by no means an exact definition. If we may, e.g., credit Cuvier it is not so. He observes with reference to the Tenrecs: “These are nocturnal animals, which pass three months “of the year in a lethargic state, although they are “inhabitants of the torrid zone.” Burguiére even asserts that it is “during the great heats that they sleep.” The Germans have not only the word Winterschlaf, but also Sommerschlaf—for which Von Humboldt is responsible. If Cuvier be correct, it is evident that ‘the? State oF hibernation in its widest and fullest sense is not necessarily connected with a low degree of temperature; and_ yet, strange to say, he writes in another place: “The sole “condition of lethargy is cold and the absence of irritating “causes.” How on this supposition can we explain the hibernating of numerous insects during our warmest time of the year? In the sleep of hibernating animals, respiration is more or less diminished, until it almost reaches the vanishing point, and if the temperature be taken, it will be found to be many degrees lower than if the animal were in a state of activity. The following facts have been observed and recorded. Dr. Todd made careful observations in the case of two hedgehogs, which were kept in a temperature varying from 45° to 50°. They alternately woke up, took * And does inevitably if the dormant cannot be roused. PROCEEDINGS, OF THE COTTESWOLD. CLUB 49 food, and went to sleep again. When they were awake, their temperature, (which he found by placing a ther- mometer under their stomachs) was about 95°; when they were dormant, their temperature was only 45°; that of the atmosphere being 42°. In the month of February, with the atmospheric temperature at 50°, both hedgehogs were dormant, the temperature of one being 52°, and that of the other 1° lower. On the next day, the air temperature being 49°, the temperature of one hedge- hog, who had woke up for a bit, was 87°; of the other, who was asleep, many degrees lower. The difference between the air temperature and that of the animals under observation was on one occasion no less than 39°. Similar observations were made in the case of dormice. These two kinds of creatures seem to wake up at call of hunger, to eat, Gf they have access to food, in default whereof, I expect they perish) and then again become dormant in temperatures which may be called moderate ; but the bat, which could not find its food, however swiftly and keen-sightedly it might swirl through the air, as a rule sleeps the winter through. There are therefore degrees between ordinary sleep— broken at longer or shorter intervals, and profound hiber- nation. The ordinary sleep produces or rather induces less vivification, as far as the action of respiration is concerned, as also a less evolution of contained heat, with at the same time an increased power of resistance to the abstraction of a greater or less extent of atmospheric air. This sleep, in some instances, passes into true hibernation. The blood becomes less arterial and more venous for the diminution of respiration, and the muscular fibre of the heart acquires increased irritability. Various functions of the system during the period of hibernation are, of course, much modified. The process of sanguification is, in most cases, all but arrested, possibly entirely in some. There is also a marked D 50 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB difference in the effect, and therefore in the activities of the digestive organs. It is a condition of appropriated somnolence. The bat, being insectivorous, would rouse himself in vain, when the snow whitens the ground or the cut of the skates rings clear. The hedgehog which on some unusually warm morning might find a few slugs or worms—even the dormouse a nut or two amongst the leaves fallen from the filbert trees— are not enticed out for any time, until as a rule, the increase © in temperature tells them of a coming period of love and food and general enjoyment, and they then leave their hibernacula. They are not in any hurry to do this. It seems that the bat is not disposed to really wake up, except by reason of external warmth and excitement. If the air temperature be about 40° to 50°, the hedgehog rouses itself at various intervals from two to four days, . when after taking food it will return to its hibernaculum. At the same temperature the dormouse will wake up daily. In proportion also to surrounding temperature, as | we might expect, the action of the stomach, bowels, and kidneys of hibernating animals is almost, in varying degrees, I admit, suspended, as also that of respiration. This is proved by the absence of all detectible respiratory acts— by the absence of any but the slightest change in the air as tested by the pneumatometer—by the capability of supporting for a time the entire or nearly entire depriva- tion of air. When, e.g., placed in a box, during its hibernation, the slightest knock caused the bat inside to respire more quickly, the hedgehog in a similar condition respired deeply and sonorously. If touched, it can be ascertained whether the. last-named animal is hibernating or not. If hibernating, he responds with a snore, if not hibernating moves and rolls himself up more tightly. After the deep respiration, there are some gradually more and more feeble ones, and then apparently, quiescence. The bat # ¢ “oe iene SE PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 51 similarly respires, rather more quickly, but without the deep sound of the hedgehog, and then soon lapses into quietude. It is very difficult to ascertain the comparative tempera- ture of the animal with that of the environing atmosphere. The slightest excitement induces a quicker respiration, with the consequent evolution of an increased degree of heat. From observations, which extended continuously over many years, it was found that the temperature of some of the. hibernating animals followed that of the atmosphere —of course within certain limits and with certain excep- tions. A animal can endure the total abstraction of oxygen or of atmospheric air for some time. For instance, Spallan- zani placed a marmot—one of the hibernates, in its hibernated state—in carbonic acid gas for four hours, and it was not killed, but a rat and a bird died at once. It seemed, therefore, that in the case of the hibernating animal, respiration was all but, if not altogether, suspended for a time. Torpor and hibernation must then be distinguished, the one from the other. Torpor may be produced in any animal, e.g.: in man, but a man cannot hibernate. Torpor means a benumbed state of the nerves, a_ stiffened _ condition of the muscles, a loss of any desire for exertion, a strong desire to sleep. This is the direct effect of cold, and even the hibernating animal, under such surrounding influences, may be affected by them and die. ‘True -hibernation is not produced nor induced by extremely low temperatures—but rather by those only moderately low. All creatures which hibernate avoid, as much as their instinct teaches them, and their opportunities allow, exposure to extreme cold, though of course in some seasons all their precautions are in vain, and they perish in countless myriads. Such must have been the case last winter, (I speak of 1895) when we all in common with the lower forms of life experienced, and perhaps suffered from its very severe and prolonged frosts. D2 52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB The safe and cosy hollow in a gnarled oak, or an old pollard willow, the cleft or cavern in the cliff, the shelter of the thatch on some country cottage, the heap of leaves in the forest, the mound of the cast-off dress of the larches and firs, provide so many hibernacula for “our humble relations.” Sometimes these hibernates congregate in clusters, and it is not beyond the range of possibility that the mass of wintering snails with which gardeners are familiar, derive some amount of heat from their associate- ship. Be this as it may, the true hibernating animal, if roused from a state of rest and shelter to a state of activity, is then exposed to severe cold, it passes into a state of fatal torpor. If we ask, what are the hibernating animals? I would say it is a question which needs further investigations than (so far as I know) it has received up to the present time. All animals, as I have already said, sleep periodically during the night or day. Some sleep several days together, especially after food, and in the colder or any other part of the year. During true hibernation, respiration and circu- lation are reduced to the minimum, consistent with the presence of life. Hibernation may result in changes in some instances which, unless we had the evidence of our senses, would be absolutely incredible; but in other cases the condition of the animal hibernating is scarcely altered. I take two familiar instances. The first that of a butterfly or moth. In the pupa stage they maintain the continuity of life in a sufficient, though much changed and greatly modified condition. The environment is absolutely altered. The access to food from without is shut off, a great change is undergone in the greater or less darkness of the coffin, or place of temporary confinement, a change which may be prolonged for years, or which may take place within a very short period. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 53 But it is a remarkable fact amongst many others of a like sort that whilst the larva of the goat moth, Cossus lipniperda, does not come to maturity for three years, the pupa hibernates only for a few weeks. I may say that owing to its size and perhaps also to the nature of its food, it afforded Lyonnet an excellent subject for his anatomical researches. It by no means follows that during the process of hibernation the imago, or perfect insect, will become in time as handsome as the larva, or vice versa. E.g.: the caterpillar of the peacock butterfly, Vanessa io, one of the most beautiful of our country, is black spotted with white, with hind legs red, and feeds on the common stinging-nettle. The pupa is greenish and dotted with gold, whence the term Aurelia or Chrysalis. Such is the larva, and such the pupa. What is the imago? The caterpillar, I may say, is about two inches in length when fully grown. After hibernation, it sees again the full light of day. !t can ___ breathe freely, it can with its thousands of eyes look the sun in the face, it can with its delicately-feathered pinions float on the air, it can chase its fellows in a seemingly endless dance, it can direct its course from one flower to another, sipping here and there the nectar which has been provided for it. What a marvellous, and be it noted so far as we know a continuous work is going on during that period! Indeed some might almost be disposed to say, “all things are become new.” - In a sense it is so, but not _ by a new creation, but by an evolution and development _ of that which previously existed. It is by no means impossible, and some have asserted it to be the fact that the future form, I do not know a better word, of the perfect insect may be found in the caterpillar. It is certainly I think not beyond the range of possibility for this reason. The caterpillar feeds on those substances which will by the laws of the natural world supply it with such juices as will in its perfected state result in and 54 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB exhibit that form and colouring which is, if I may so say, (they keep as it were to their own peculiar castes) its hereditary possession. For the Lepidoptera are a very conservative species of animals and we cannot cross a red admiral with a meadow brown and get a new variety— or a peacock with a tortoiseshell—and I think that some physiologists have not given sufficient attention to this subject. The alchemy of Nature is a mystery, and the process by which the caterpillar, by its instinctive faculties and the powers with which it is endowed, absorbs those elements which are necessary for its future development, will probably ever remain amongst the many insolubles. But still the fact remains. The larva has absorbed “a quantity "—whatever that quantity may be—or of what- ever character—which it does not throw off or lay aside, except as regards its integriment, when it enters into the chrysalis or pupa condition. It takes its juices with it into its coffin. It falls into a condition not far from death, insomuch that many have said of such, it is dead. But far from that, from the time it is shut up, by its own will and action, from the outer world, there is a process going on within that gold-spangled or dull coloured encasing, day by day, hour by hour, may we not say moment by moment, a marvellous, ever-progressive development of that which was, into that which shall be, and if that progression be not interrupted will result in a transformation such as could never have entered into the wildest dreams of man to conceive. There are many secrets to be discovered in Nature, in its work and in its results, but there is no more difficult problem in.my humble opinion to be solved, than that to which I have referred. The microscope can help us much in many instances, in some not at all; and though it may reveal the changes which take place hour by hour, in the condition of certain pupa, it cannot, nor can any PROGEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 55 appliance of science reveal to us the reason of, nor the manner of, nor the operation of those changes. I turn now to another part of my subject. It is interesting to us naturalists to know what is the relative quantity of air consumed by insects in their three states, their power of existence in certain media, and the relation which this power and the consumption of air bear to the comparative volume of the structures concerned. It is obvious that only two or three examples can be referred to on the present occasion. In larve we find that respiration in the very early stages of existence is feeble, but the circulation is quicker; the amount of food required is, of course, less, though in proportion to the size of the individual it is enormous; the generation of heat is less than at a later period. In the next or pupa or hibernating stage respiration is very much less in frequency and volume, circulation slows down, no food is taken, and the temperature is consequently much diminished in degree. In the imago, or perfect insect, all functions, as we might expect, are working at their full power, with this exception—that the need of food is, in most cases, if not all, not nearly so great as in the case of the larva. Many caterpillars eat daily twice their weight of leaves, and by a simple arithmetical process we conclude that this is as if an ox weighing say 60 stone, as exhibited, would require about 34-ton of grass in 24 hours, or a man weighing 12 stone, something like three ewt. of food. The larve of flesh flies or maggots— commonly so called—in 24 hours become two hundred times heavier than they were. I mention these facts because I think they have a distinct bearing on my subject. We see the very extraordinary capacity of insects in the larval state, and the, in most cases, absence of any nutriment from outside in the pupal and succeeding state. The voracious caterpillar had, in fact, to lay up in store, in the most condensed form possible, for succeeding 56 PROCEEDINGS Z@E~LHE- COTTESWOLD CLUB generations, probably also assimilating metallic atoms. Rejecting by evacuations the coarser substances, it retained chiefly the juices of its food, and by a process which it were in vain to try to understand even if in itself there was outlined the future development of the animal, which in the pupa becomes more pronounced, so that by a momentary inspection in the case of many genera, we can see without difficulty under the temporary tabernacle, or hibernacle the eyes, the proboscis, the folded wings, and so on, of the fly that is sooner or later to break its bonds asunder. The voracious caterpillar when changed into a moth or butterfly feeds on the daintiest of foods, and only very sparingly on those. If we from feeding, turn to breathing, in these species of animals, we note that the parts which have to do with respiration are the trachee and spiracles, together with their associated muscles and nerves. The trachee are the ducts by which air is conveyed from the exterior, and the spiracles are the outer doors as it were. These are, generally speaking, nine in number on each side, and between the spiracle and trachee there is a_ conical ‘“oeclusor” muscle by which the trachee may be closed at will, and these conditions or others very similar exist in the case of the larva. Nearly all the muscles and nerves of each segment of the body are used in the act of respiration. It has not been, and here again I speak only so far as I know, definitely ascertained how air is renewed in the trachea ducts; it may be by contraction of the dorsal vessels, or the opening or closing of the muscle just referred to, or as some think, by the active over-lapping of the segments of the body. In the grass- hopper (Gryllus sp. viridissimus) about 37 contractions per minute were observed when it was excited—several short inspirations being followed by one long one. In the hive bee there have been observed 110 to 160 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB By contractions per minute of the abdominal segments when aroused or excited, and about half that number when at rest. In the account of Mr Newport's experiments as communicated to Royal Society by Dr. Roget (1836) we find his method was as follows:—First the bulk of the insect was ascertained. It was then confined in a stoppered bottle of known capacity, and the hour and the degree of temperature were noted. After some time the bottle was put invertedly into a vessel containing lime water, and the stopper withdrawn. It remained thus for half-an-hour. The contraction in the enclosed air (allow- ance being made for any change of temperature and pressure) indicated the amount of carbonic acid formed, and therefore the quantity of respiration. The following tables as the results of some of a number of experiments are given. DURATION OF Amount of Insect State Experiment, Temperature carbonic acid f cubic in. Sphinx Ligustri - Larva -— 5 hours - 69°—71° .- 07430 eu eee apa: A TAZ. i =) 52°58 i=) 20-280 _ Papilio or Vanessa urticee SUVA eee in -. 70°—66°" = 07120 0 = yPupa’ 9-48 ou 67°—-78° - 0°130 u - Imago - 16% » - 79°—82° - 0°200 (4 weeks old) Bombus terrestris Imago - 1 i" - 60” oi = {O25 (just caught) During hibernation, the temperature being from 20° — 37°, the respiration of certain pupe experimented upon was almost suspended, but yet distinct evidence of its being ‘carried on in some degree was obtained, and vitality continued in spite of the low temperature and all the pupz became imagos. The relation of the organs of respiration to the volume of structure is this: In larvee 58 PROCEEDINGS @OPo HE» COT TESW OLD "CLUE the organs are proportionally very small—in the pupa state the organs much larger, though the respirations are very much less in number. Ancient Natural History gave wonderful accounts of the existence of an animal under very unfavourable circumstances. The poor toad, a very useful—but often by ignorant people a much-abused and ill-treated creature— was the subject of experiment. That it is not a trivial matter to which I draw your attention I may gather from the fact that the occurrences to which I shall allude were the subject of papers read before the Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris, which even in the 7th decade of the last century contained members who were by no means mere sciolists. Before the members of that Academy, a paper was read bya M. Guillard. He stated that in pulling down a wall which was known to have existed 100 years, a toad was found, without the smallest aperture being discernible by which it could have entered, and it had been dead only a short time. Forty years before the date of this statement, a M. Seigne before the members of the same Academy gave an account (more remarkable than the foregoing) of a toad found in the centre of a solid oak, and no place by which it could have entered could be found. From the size of the tree he calculated that it must have lived where it was found for 80 to 100 years. Other similar instances are recorded, but I have ventured to name these two, as they were gravely and by men of some scientific knowledge at all events, brought before the notice of those Frenchmen, who in their day represented the science of the period. How the assembled philosophers received the tales, history does not tell: but one M. Herissaint determined to test the truth or otherwise of these alleged facts by experiments, which however conclusive, and putting an end to such nonsense, I do not wish to justify. M. Herissaint, in February, 1771, enclosed three toads in three cases of plaster, PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 59 plaster of Paris, I presume. He then placed these cases in a box,—the size of the box is not stated—which also he covered with a thick coat of plaster. On the 8th April, 1774, i.e., about three years and two months after, he removed the plaster coverings and found two of the toads alive,—one had died. On the 15th April the survivors having had access to air, and perhaps to food for a week; he placed the two live toads in a basin of plaster, which he covered with a sealed glass case, so that he might observe their movements. On the 9th May he exhibited this case and its occupants before the members of the Academy. One was still living, the other had died the night preceding. On the 15th April he enclosed in a glass bottle another toad, and buried the bottle, after securely closing it up, and on the 9th May it was found to be well, and it croaked when the bottle was shaken. You will observe that in these experiments the animals were in a case pervious to the air. and the waste of tissue owing to their compulsory inactivity must have been exceedingly small, and their respiration probably very slow. But the result I think is to show that all those stories which tend to prove that the laws of Nature can be almost indefinitely suspended are utterly unreliable. Nature, as I have said, has its laws, and they cannot be set aside by man or beast without direful or fatal consequences; for the laws of Nature are decreed and directed by a Higher Power. It is in my judgment absolutely impossible for a toad or any other animal to live for three years totally without any supply of moisture or air, and I do not think much of the experiments of __M. Herissaint, for they prove nothing as regards the _ power of any living creatures of a higher or lower order to exist for any lengthened period deprived of those elements which are necessary for that existence. All animals that hibernate must have access to air (some perhaps to food). 60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB As to the hibernation of fishes, it is evident that we cannot know anything about those which live in salt water and we may conclude, I think, that the hibernation question does not touch them. Fresh water fishes do no doubt hibernate, by compulsion, not always as a certain habit, but by instinct through force of environment, e.g., as in the instances of fish in shallow streams, which in some years become altogether iced for weeks together, and yet the fish are, I think, not destroyed. But as this statement may be questioned, I would call your attention to the case of a fish which inhabits the beds of rivers in Africa, and which is called by zoologists Lepidosiren annectens, or mud fish. Now it is known to all who have a little knowledge of the smaller rivers in tropical or sub-tropical latitudes, that at certain times of the year the rivers are in full flush, at other times only a trickling stream, or perhaps none at all—only shallow pools here and there. What then becomes of the fish which one day are swimming in a full bath and a few days after have not sufficient water even to shelter them from the burning sun? They hibernate, not owing to the cold, but owing to the heat. The heat of the sun in January or February bakes the cracked mud into so many irregularly-formed bricks. When the fish I have mentioned, by that instinct, which in similar instances is possessed by many other kindred animals. feels that the hot and dry season is coming, it wriggles its way into the mud. After burrowing, if I may so say, a sufficient depth, it curls itself round, and waits for the rain, and _hibernates. When the rain falls, the water soon reaches the cell of the fish through the numerous fissures caused by the drought. It then resumes its activity. The cell, or cocoon, in which it hibernates is described as formed of clay, the hollow being quite smooth. Three specimens found in one lump of clay were immersed in water. At first the creatures were very sluggish, but after an hour or two PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 61 they became active, one however died, and one of the others lived only about six weeks. In this case you will note that they without doubt had, during their seclusion, access to air. IJ must, however, remark that it was and perhaps still is a moot question whether Lepidosiren is a fish or a reptile. It seems to depend on the question whether it possesses more of the piscine or reptilian characters. | myself was inclined to place it amongst the reptiles, but on consulting various authorities | have come to the conclu- sion that it must be classed as a fish, belonging to the order *Dipnoi,” and a hibernating fish. 3 A number of other observations have been made, but I __ will allude to one instance only. The salt water Terrapin, ~ “Malachlemys” is found in the salt marshes in North and South America. During the summer it is always on the prowl; but when the cold weather comes it excavates a hole in the muddy banks of the marsh, and there lies buried until the spring. But this is an exceptional case, as a rule, and only those animals which are found in very shallow waters, and under special circumstance, hibernate. Allow me now briefly to sum up the leading features connected with my subject. One of the most important characteristic of organisms __and that on which the maintenance of life depends, is their ~ metabolic power: (metabolism being the act or process by _ which on the one hand the dead food is built up into living _ matter, and by which on the other hand the living matter is _ broken down into simpler products within a cell or 5 peeeism). Metabolic power 1s therefore | the power Bee wing the matter of which the body is composed. _ Every phenomenon of growth pre supposes the reception _ of, and the change of, material constituents; all movements, secretions and manifestations of life depend on the exchange 3 of matter; or in other words the breaking down and building up of chemical compounds. On this alternating destruction 62 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB and renewal of the combination of the body-substance— two properties necessary to living creatures depend—viz. : the secretion of food and the excretion of waste products. Nevertheless this important property of living creatures, viz.: metabolic action, may under certain circumstances be temporarily suspended or suppressed without thereby depriving the creature, or organism, of the power of existence. By removal of water or heat, it is possible, in the case of many of the lower organisms and their germs, to suspend the vital principle for months and even for years, and then to restore the apparently lifeless body to the full exercise of its vital properties by the simple addition of water or warmth. Such is the case with the eggs of Apus—one of the Entomostraca, of the Cypris, a cuirassed ostracod, which is found in our ponds and ditches, and other like forms, and of frogs and other animals. The intensity of respiration stands in direct relation to the energy of the metabolism. Animals which breathe by means of gills and absorb but little oxygen, are not, of course, in a position to oxidize a large quantity of organic constituents, and can only transform a small quantity of potential into active energy. They perform, therefore, not only a proportionately smaller amount of muscular and nervous work, but also produce in only a small degree the peculiar molecular movements known as heat. The source of this heat is to be sought, not in the respiratory organs, but in the active tissues. Animals, in which thermogenic activities are small, have no power of keeping independently their own internal heat when exposed to the influence of the temperature of the surrounding medium. This is also true of those air-breathing animals in which the metabolic and thermogenic activities are great, but which in consequence of their small size offer a relatively large surface for the loss.of heat by radiation, as in the case with many insects and the lower orders of animals. On account of the changes of heat which are constantly PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 63 taking place between the animal body and the surrounding medium, the temperature of the former must be in such animals largely dependent on the latter rising and falling with it. Hence most of the lower animals are poikiloth- .ermic, or, as they not so accurately, but more commonly, designated, cold-blooded. The higher animals on the contrary in which, on account of their highly-developed respiratory organs and energetic metabolism, the thermo- genic activity is great, and which are protected from a rapid loss of heat by radiation by the size of their bodies and by the possession of a covering of hairs or feathers, or some artificial covering, possess the power of main- ___ taining a somewhat constant temperature, which is largely . independent of the rising or falling of the temperature of _ the surrounding medium. Such animals are called ~ homothermic, or warm-blooded. Since they require a high internal temperature, varying only within compara- tively small limits, as a necessary condition for the normal course of the vital processes, or one may say for the maintenance of life itself, they must possess within them- selves a series of what may be termed regulators, whose function it is to keep the body-temperature within its proper limits with relation to the temperature of the surrounding medium. This may be effected either by _ diminishing the production of internal heat (diminishing the metabolism) or by increasing the loss of heat from the surface of the body (by radiation, evaporation of _ secretions, or cooling in water), when the temperature of the surrounding medium is high; and on the contrary, when it is low, by increasing the production of internal heat (increasing the metabolic energy) by a more plentiful _ food supply, more vigorous movements and so on; or also, by diminishing the loss of heat by the use of more __ effectually-protective coverings. When the conditions necessary for the action of what I have called these 64 PROCEEDINGS-OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB the phenomenon of winter sleep, in which life is preserved, though there is a temporary lowering of the metabolic processes; or when the metabolic processes of the organisms do not enter into abeyance, we find the remark- able phenomenon of migration, as is the case with many birds. NOTES Re “IRRITABILITY ” Movement of a voluntary description is accomplished by muscles receiving through nerves their stimulus to action from the brain, which in turn is stiniulated in an unknown way by the will. Thus the central nervous system is both the terminus to which messages from the organs of sense are sent, and that from which commands to the voluntary muscles proceed. All sensory function is not sensation, and all movement is not voluntary. The nervous system may receive an influence from without and transmit it to groups of muscles without intervention of any act of consciousness. This is what is called reflex action, and “ in such a case the part irritated, from which the nervous impulse starts, is still said to have sensibility and the nerve to be sensory, although there 1s no sensation, and the movement is involuntary. Also the property of response to irritation is not confined to the nervous system; structures may alter their shape or undergo other change on application of a stimulus, and this property is termed irritability. The active part of change of shape or movement probably in all cases consists in contraction, and is hence called contractility. Irritability and contractility, although they may be well included under the terms sensory function and movement, are not, like sensation and voluntary movement, confined to animals. ‘They are found in the vegetable world also; and it may be maintained with probability, that they are properties of every part of every living being.—Cleland’s “ Animal Physiology,” pp. 15, 16. The great majority (if not the whole) of the movenients of the body and its parts are the effect of an influence (technically termed a stimulus or irritation) applied directly, or indirectly, to the ends of afferent nerves, and giving rise to an molecular change, which 1s propagated along their substance to the central nervous organ with which they are connected. The molecular activity of the afferent nerve communicates itself to the central organ and is then transferred to the motor nerves which pass through the central organ to the muscles affected. And when the disturbance in the molecular condition of the afferent nerves reaches their extremities, it is communicated to the muscular fibres and causes them to take up a new position, so that each fibre shortens and becomes thicker. Such a series of molecular changes is called a reflex action, the disturbance caused by the irritation being as it were reflected back, along the motor nerves to the muscles. A reflex action, strictly so called, goes on without our knowing anything about it, and hundreds of such actions are going on continually in our bodies without our being aware of them, . . . . We speak of “states of consciousness,” but what consciousness is, we know not; and how it is that anything so remarkable as a state of consciousness comes about as the result of irritating nervous tissue, is just as unaccountable as any alternate fact of Nature.’ —Huxley, “Elementary Lessons in Physiology,” pp. 187, 188: see also p- 254, &c. ON THE PRE-SSAXON OCCUPATION OF THE MIDDLE COTTESWOLDS BY JOHN SAWYER In broad outlines, the nature and extent of the occupation of the Middle Cotteswold area before the coming of the English are well known. Camps and implements and burial mounds tell of tribal dwellers in pre-historic times; roads and villas and divers remains reveal a complete and prolonged colonization in the palmy days of Rome. During the last few years the outlines _ have bit by bit been filled in, and a fairly good picture is now presented of what manner of men they were whose records we trace before and at the dawn of Cotteswold history. Ethnologists are now agreed in dividing the primitive races of mankind into two ages, for which Sir William Dawson suggests the names Palanthropic and Neanthropic* and Mr Horace B. Woodward the terms Palzanthropic -and Mesanthropic,t as being more scientific than the terms *“ The terms ‘Paleolithic’ and ‘Neolithic’ are objectionable, as implying that _ these ages can be best distinguished by the use of certain stone implements, which is not the fact.”—“‘ The Meeting-Place of Geology and History,” p. 17. —s- F Congrés Géologique Internationale Compte rendu de la 4™° Session, Londres, _ 1888. Appendix B, p. 29. In Mesanthropic Mr Woodward includes the Neolithic, _ Bronze and Iron ages. 66 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB Palceolithic and Neolithic, with which we have been familiarised by Sir John Lubbock. It is also generally believed that the men of the Palzeanthropic age belonged to two distinct periods, and possibly to two distinct races. The earlier men are those whose traces are found in drift deposits on hill slopes and in river valleys; the later are those whose weapons and implements are found in and beneath stalagmitic accumulations in caverns and caves. THE DRIFT PERIOD There is some evidence of the occupation of the Middle Cotteswolds by men of the Drift period. ‘Thirty- three years ago Mr John Jones and Mr Edwin Witchell* described and figured the occurrence in a drift bed on the slope of Stroud Hill of some flint implements, associated with carbonised wood, oolitic stone changed in colour by the action of fire, and the bones of animals. The bed had undoubtedly been formed by the denudation of the higher ground and had never been disturbed; and both gentlemen were convinced that the flints (some of which had cutting edges), charcoal and fire-marked oolite were the relics of men who dwelt on the top of the hill before the bed was deposited. Mr Thiselton Dyert has also recorded the occurrence at the Barton Pits, Cirencester, of a considerable number of very rude flint flakes, some of which were accepted by Mr Franks, at the British Museum, as being of human manufacture. Our late Presidentt (Mr W. C. Lucy) notes the abundance in the neighbourhood of Blockley Station of small flints, having a chipped appearance, associated with drift of a, variable * Cottes. Club Proc., Vol. iii., pp. 97-1115 208-211. + Ibid, Vol. v., pp. 273-2. + Cottes. Club Proc., Vol. v., p- 100. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 67 character.* In the peat-bed at Sharpness, described by Mr Lucy, a head of Cervus Elephas was found, the antlers of which had, in the opinion of Professor Church, been cut off by some rude instrument. Mr Chas Upton has also found ina gravel pit at the mouth of the Stonehouse _ yalley a reindeer antler bearing marks of having been cut - with a sharp instrument. Diligent search and careful observation may add to our knowledge of primitive Cotteswold men; but there can be little doubt that the plateau was occupied by men who were contemporaneous with those whose remains are found in gravel beds in the valleys of the Somme and the Thames—men who, as Professor Boyd Dawkins says, hunted the reindeer, bison, woolly rhinoceros, and horse, and who were in the same rude state of civilisation as “the Palzolithic man who “hunted the extinct hippopotamus in the forests of a India; who wandered over Palestine and the valley of “the Nile; who hunted the wild boar and stag, the “mammoth, and probably the pigmy rhinoceros in the _ “ Mediterranean,” and in whose time the English Channel had not been formed, and the North Sea did not exist. THE CAVE PERIOD _ Of the existence upon the Cotteswolds of men of the Cave period there is no evidence whatever. And looking to the great changes in the configuration of the country that have taken place since their time, it is not likely that any trustworthy testimony will ever be forthcoming. The jate Rev. W. S. Symonds (a distinguished member of our Club) estimated that since the relics of Cave men were x *In “A Slight History of Flint Implements, with especial reference to our own » (Cottes. Club Proc. Vol. x., p. 22) Mr Lucy discusses the general and adjacent areas, gests localities in differences between Paleolithic and Neolithic flint implements, and sug this county where the former may be found. oe. _ F Ibid, Vol. vi., p. 113- / £2 68 PROGEEDINGSAOFE, THE COTTESWOLD CLUB left in the well-known King Arthur’s Cave and Banner- man’s Hole on the Wye, the deep gorge between Symond’s Yat and the Great Doward has been excavated,* and that both caverns “are mere fragments and vestiges ‘of limestone fissures which were once much longer, “and have been worn away at their northern extremities “and degraded by the atmospheric denudation of ages.” t In other caves, the nature and position of the deposits above the buried implements of human manufacture also indicate the prolonged action of eroding forces. It is obvious that the soft Jurassic rocks of the Cotteswolds have offered far less resistance to denudation than have the Mountain Limestone of the Wye gorge and other hard rocks in which alone caverns containing the remains of Cave men occur; and any Cotteswold caverns which existed in the Cave period have undoubtedly been destroyed in the scooping out of the river valleys. TYPES OF YLUMULI The evidence of the occupation of the Middle Cottes- wolds in the Neolithic or Neanthropic age is abundant and varied. Typical of long tumuli are those in West Wood, near Birdlip; the prominent one on Shurdington Hill; Belas Knapp, in the parish of Charlton Abbotts ; and others at Notgrove and Stow-on-the-Wold. Although they vary in the number and position of the chambers or cists in which the bodies were placed, they are built to one general design. A dry wall of stone determines the shape, and at one end curves inwards, giving the peculiar horned appearance which is characteristic of long barrows, and is, the late Professor Rolleston{ said, strikingly * “ Records of the Rocks,” p 353. T “‘ The Severn Straits,” p. 37. { Trans. Bris. and Glou. Archzo. Soc., Vol. v., p. 210. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 69 suggestive of the form of the entrance to a Cave dwelling. Much more numerous than the long barrows are round tumuli, of which examples may be found within any two-mile radius in the Middle Cotteswold area. — Asarule, the circular barrow consists of a small stone cist (in which the human remains were placed), covered with a mound of loose stones. Besides the long and round barrows, circular mounds of loose earth or gravel are scattered about the district. Whether or not they are _ burial places is an open question. Canon Greenwell, who has opened a number of similar mounds in the North of _ England, says that he has never* found the least trace of any burial in them, or the slightest fragment of pottery or chipping of flint. Nevertheless, he thinks that they covered unburnt bodies, interred without vase or imple- ~ ment; while Professor Rolleston thought the absence of _ human remains is accounted for by the small size of the mound, which, to quote his words, “would give free “access to rain and carbonic acid, to say nothing of rodents and carnivores, and the larve of insects, all of which animals learn, and act upon the learning, the value of phosphate of calcium.” Canon Greenwell admits that the explanation is not absolutely satisfactory, and the late Mr 'G. F. Playne, a member of our Club, whose careful examination of a number of Gloucestershire mounds entitles his opinion to considerable weight, dissented from 1e view that they were ever used as places of sepulture.t But it is worthy of note, that at Cubberley there is a circular mound, simply a heap of earth and stones, thout any trace of a chamber, yet in the centre of which, D -. Bird records, there was found a human skull, and with it some flint flakes.§ 70 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB CONTENTS OF TUMULI The dates to which the long and round barrows may be assigned have been the subject of much controversy. That the long tumuli are the earlier has generally been recognised. When first studied they were also referred to a pre-historic age. Against this theory Sir James Fergusson has protested with great vigour. All the chamber-tumuli in Gloucestershire, he contends, belong to the post-Roman period. “There are,” he says, “hardly “ half-a-dozen tumuli in the whole county. . . . All, too, “it may be remarked, are close to Roman stations, and ‘surrounded by evidences of Roman occupation.” But in the quarter of a century that has elapsed since he wrote, the number of long barrows known to exist in the county has increased to about forty, and enough has been learned about them to place their pre-Roman date beyond question. First, we have the fact that flint and stone implements are frequently found in them, while in an undisturbed barrow there has never been found the slightest scrap of metal. Secondly, although long barrows are distributed over the greater part of Britain, all have the same peculiar conformation, indicating that they are the work of one race of men; and, as Professor Rolleston says, we have no record of Great Britain ever having been occupied by one single race in historic times. Thirdly, we have the authority of Professor Rolleston,} that a fairly selected set of bones from any long barrow would be distinguishable from any fairly selected set of bones from any other variety of interment in Great Britain, of what- ever age. Any one of these facts is strong proof of a pre-historic occupation, but the cumulative character of all is conclusive. * « Rude Stone Monuments,” p. 166. } “British Barrows,” p. 627. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 71 If further evidence be needed, it may be seen by _ comparing and contrasting the contents of the long and round tumuli. As types of the human bones found in each, we may take those from the West Tump long _ barrow, and from round tumuli at Hawling and elsewhere. ‘In a letter to Mr G. B. Witts, to whom belongs the honour of having discovered the interesting mound near _ Birdlip, Professor Rolleston says: “The bones from the “West Tump are like all bones from similar barrows “which have been through my hands, and in the following “points: They belonged to a short-statured but long- : Breaded race, who were, if we may judge at all from what ‘we see of living men of the samie eee character, “darkish in complexion and hair.” Dr. Bird, describing the skeletons from round barrows at Hawling and other places on the Central Cotteswolds _ which he examined, says: “The bones of the extremities “are large and strong, and the processes and ridges well “marked, thus showing that they belonged to a tall, _ “square-built, muscular people.” These are exact des- criptions of typical long and round barrow skeletons throughout Britain. Professor Rolleston also notes the not infrequent association in round barrows of skulls of dolicho-cephalic and brachy-cephalic types;{ and Dr. Bird records that in a round earth tumulus at _Cubberley there was found “a small skull, long and “narrow,” and “the stature of the individual was not more than five feet.’ The implements found in the round tumuli often include metal as well as flint and stone. In * Trans. Bris. and Glos. Archzo. Soc., Vol. v., p. 210. Tt Cottes, Club Proc., Vol. vi,, p, 333- ‘a -{“ British Barrows,” p, 627, et seq. 2 § Cottes. Club Proc., Vol. vi., p. 332: 72 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB and a leaf-shaped arrow-point were unearthed ;* in one at Snowshill some bronze spear-heads and a_ bronze pin, with a beautifully worked implement of stone, having a hammer-head and cutting edge; + and in one at Oddington some spear-heads and a fibula of copper.t Besides the differences presented by the contents of the two types of barrows in the craniology, the skeletons and the non- metallic and metallic character of the implements, there is a third distinguishing characteristic to be noted. In all the long barrows that have been opened, over the Cottes- wolds generally, burial has been by inhumation only. In the round barrows, on the other hand, there is abundant evidence that the prevailing practice in the deposition of the dead was burial after cremation, the body so treated being sometimes placed in an urn, sometimes in a small stone cist, covered with earth, and sometimes in the ground without any protection whatever. STONE CIRCLES At two places on the Mid-Cotteswold escarpment there are what appear to be portions of stone circles. On the south side of the small valley between Leck- hampton Hill and the Crippetts are several masses of rock belonging to one of the lower beds of the Inferior Oolite. Some of these masses are so placed as to seem to form portions of two distinct circles, and on the six-inch ordnance survey map they are so described. The hill-slope bears evidence of landslips, and it may be that the position of the stones is due to accident. On the other hand, there is some evidence that their position is due to design. Old people residing near assert that * Cottes. Club Proc., Vol. v., p. 283. + Archzeo. Handbook of Gloucestershire, p. 99. t Fosbrooke’s Gloucestershire, p. 406. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB vie. some years ago the circles were much more complete than they now are, and there is a tradition that at one time _ they were regarded with something akin to superstitious awe. More important, however, is the size of the circles. The only one that can be measured with any approach to accuracy has a diameter of 100 feet. This is exactly the diameter of the well-known Rollright circle, near Chipping Norton, and also of stone circles in Cumberland; and one of the circles at Stanton Drew and another in the Orkneys are of nearly the same diameter.* If, therefore, the Leckhampton circles are due to natural causes, it is a remarkable coincidence that one of them is of the same size as stone circles elsewhere which are un- -questionably the handiwork of man. In a small coppice, known as Nutter’s Wood, on the slope almost immediately beneath the well-known Cleeve Hill Camp, are about half-a-dozen small stone circles. The stones are two or three feet square, but irregular in shape, and some if not all of the enclosed spaces have apparently been excavated. About fifty years ago,, Mr ~Gomonde, a Cheltenham antiquary, printed for private circulation a small pamphlet treating of archeological remains near Cheltenham, and to it appended a map on which he marked the undercliff at Cleeve Cloud as the site of a British village. It is therefore possible that excavation in the wood may reveal further traces of human occupation than are now to be seen. _ The purpose of stone circles is a matter of conjecture. Fergusson contends that they are entirely of a sepulchral ture. Tylor, while recognising that they have often to do with burials, says that “ considering how tombs are apt “to become temples where the ghost of the buried chief “or prophet is worshipped, it is likely that such stone “circles should also serve as temples.” t ~ * Rude Stone Monuments,” pp. 124, 149, 159, 241. + “‘Anthropology,” p. 348. 74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB STONE AND FLINT IMPLEMENTS In the number and variety of its Flint Implements, the Middle Cotteswold area is exceedingly rich.* In almost any recently ploughed field, especially after rain, flints bearing undoubted marks of human manufacture may be picked up by the dozen. At the top of Crickley Hill, near the Air Balloon Inn, flints have been found in such numbers, and in such a variety of stages of manufacture, as to suggest that here was the site of a flint factory. One of the most diligent and observant Cotteswold collectors is the Rey. J. H. Cardew, Rector of Wingfield, Wilts, for some years a resident in Cheltenham. Many thousands of flints gathered on the Cotteswolds have, he says, passed through his hands, and the results he has embodied in a valuable monograph, with a great number of illustrations.—| [he most numerous implements, he * The methods by which the stone and flint implements were manufactured are treated of in detail in Sir John Evans’s well-known work. But on the manner in which hammers and axes, such as have occasionally been exhibited at our Club meetirfes, were perforated and externally shaped, it may be of interest to supplement Sir John Evans’s suggestions of chiselling, grinding, and drilling, by stating how similar instruments are made to-day on the comparatively unknown islands of New Britain and Duke of York. Until the advent of the white trader a few years ago, the natives of these islands made the whole of their weapons and implements of stone, so that in this respect they are a modern type of pre-historic dwellers on the Cotteswolds. The most formidable weapon used by the New Britain natfves is a stone club—a large, round ball of stone, with a long wood handle through a hole in its centre. It is made, Mr Wilfred Powell tells us in this way :—‘“‘ The native first takes a piece of suitable “granite, which he places in a slow fire of cocoa-nut shells, which give an immense “heat, and allows it to become red-hot. He then, by the aid of a split bamboo, in the “place of tongs, removes it from the fire, and begins to drop water on it drop by drop, “each drop falling exactly on the same place. That portion of the stone on which the ““ water falls begins to crack and fly off, until the heat has gone out of the stone. He ““then repeats the operation until an irregular hole is formed through the centre; he “then fixes a stick through it, and takes it to a place where there is a large granite “rock in which is a dent like a small basin. He hits the stone upon the rock until “all the rough corners are knocked off, and it is worn fairly round; then takes the end “of the stick, and pressing the stone down into the hollow of the rock makes the stick “revolve rapidly between his hands, weighting it with other stones fastened to the top “of the stick, until that side of the stone is worn perfectly smooth and round. He “then shifts the other side of the stone downwards and works at that until both are “smooth and even.”——‘‘ Wanderings in a Wild Country,” p. 160. ft Trans. Bris. and Glos. Archzeo. Soc., Vol. xvi., p. 246, et seq. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 75 - tells us, are scrapers, varying in diameter from less than an inch to an inch and a half. Most of them are of a shape suitable for scraping the skins of animals, while a few have the concave edge which would be specially useful for scraping arrow-shafts or bone needles. Arrow- heads are so numerous and so varied in shape, that Mr - Cardew divides them into six typical varieties, some half- an-inch some two inches, from base to point. Equally - yariable in pattern are the knives. Some are triangular, and might easily have been fitted into a handle ; others are scimitar-shaped; others are like lancets, with sides curving to a sharp point, the effect of a prog from one pu of which, says Mr Cardew, we would rather contemplate in the imagination than experience in the reality, for no _ sharper weapon could be devised with hammer and steel. ~ Worked balls of flint, like bullets, were probably used as _ sling-stones. Borers and rimers are by no means un- common, and flints with serrated edges, like miniature ¢ saws, are often found. A remarkable feature, not only of - the Middle Cotteswolds but of the Cotteswolds generally, is the almost entire absence of the larger megalithic _ instruments, such as hammers and hatchets. The “scarcity is the more remarkable from the fact that in other parts of the country pre-historic stone implements include a fairly large proportion of axes and hammers, indeed, Canon Greenwell does not believe it would be possible to find a parallel to it in any other part of Britain, at all events in so great a degree. Explanation he has none; it is not easy, he says, to understand “how a population which it might be supposed would require “axes to cut down trees, adzes to work upon the wood, “and hoes to break up the soil, equally with other people “who appear to have lived under much the same “conditions, were able to construct the essential requisites p. of domestic life, or to obtain some of the main products 76 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB “of the soil, without such tools.”* Professor Rolleston suggests that the paucity of axes and hatchets indicates that the Long Barrow people enjoyed the blessings of peace, and in support of this view he says there is an absence of evidence of cremation, reminding us also that Herman, the classical commentator, held that cremation was practised only or mostly out of necessity, such as wars or pestilence produce.t Two other “finds” in the Middle Cotteswold area are also noteworthy. In a long barrow at Eyford, three miles from Stow-on-the-W old, there was found a bead or amulet (apparently made of Kimmeridge slate) slightly oval in shape, much flattened, and with a large hole through its centre. This was found lying upon the breast of a skeleton of a woman, indicating that it was an ornament suspended from the neck when she was buried. Canon Greenwell records it as a remarkable and unique dis- covery.{ Four years after the learned Canon’s work was published, Mr Witts found in a long barrow at Notgrove a bead resembling the one found at Eyford, but larger.¢ GENERAL CONCLUSION The general conclusion to which we are led by the construction and contents of the long and round barrows, and by megalithic and ancient metal remains of human manufacture, is that in the Middle Cotteswold area, as in many other parts of the kingdom, there were in the Neanthropic age at least two successive races of men. The earlier race were of short stature, used implements * “ British Barrows,” P 444. Y Trans. Bris. and Glou. Archzo. Soc., Vol. i., p. 55. at British Barrows,” p, 519. § “ Archzeo. Handbook of Gloucestershire,” p. 83. PROGEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB ii and weapons made only of flint, stone, and bone, and buried their dead by inhumation in long, horned-end barrows. The later race were taller and stronger, were acquainted with the use of metal as well as of stone, practised cremation, and disposed of the cremated remains beneath circular mounds of earth. THE EVIDENCE OF HISTORY AND PLACE-NAMES The knowledge thus obtained agrees with and_ is supplemented by the records of history. The long _ barrow men belonged to the Iberian race, which long ago _ inhabited a great part of Western Europe, and whose nearest modern representatives are the Basques of the _ Pyrenees. The round barrow men, to judge from their osseous remains and historical records, belonged to the great Celtic race which, starting from its home in the East, swept across the Southern part of the Continent, seized upon land in Spain and Gaul, and then landed in Britain. These Celtic invaders came in two swarms, and a considerable time elapsed between the two invasions. The earlier swarm were the Goidels; the later were the _Brythons, from whom the name of our island is derived. 7 Professor Rhys tells us that to the Goidelic race “belonged _ “the ancestors of the people who speak Gaelic in Ireland, “the Isle of Man, and the Highlands of the North;” and that the Brythonic group “is represented in points of “speech by the people of Wales, formerly one might have “added the Welsh of Cumbria, and till the last century “some of those of Cornwall.”* The obvious inference - is that the Goidels were pushed northward and westward by the Brythons, who were in turn driven in the same directions by a still later race. _ Traces of the Celtic occupation of the Middle Cottes- a wolds are also to be found in place-names. A great deal * “Celtic Britain,” p. 3. 78 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB has been written about the origin of the word “Cotteswold.” The explanation generally received is that given by Camden, that, to quote his words, “ Cotteswold, which of “wolds and cotes, that is, hils and sheepfolds tooke that “name.” But, as Mr John Bellows once pithily said, to imagine, as Camden does, that “cotes” is from sheepcotes, would require us to suppose that the hills were first covered with sheep pasturage and then named. The fact is that the word “ Cotteswold” contains two synonymous elements. ‘‘ Cotes” is from the Celtic “coed,” “wold” is from the Anglo-Saxon “ weald;” and both words signify a wood. Other local illustrations of Celtic names may be found in Bredon, from “ Bre,” a Celtic word for promon- tory, and the suffix “down,” a common ending of the names of the Severn Valley outliers, is probably a corrup- tion of the Celtic word “dun,” a hill. As to river-names, they, says Taylor, “‘are everywhere the memorials of the “earliest races... .' 4. they seem to posseseuam “almost indestructible vitality . . . . throughout “the whole of England there is hardly a single river-name “which is not Celtic.”* The Isbourne, the Chelt, the Coln, the Avon, are examples from the Middle Cottes- wolds. The completeness of the Saxon conquest of Gloucester- shire doubtless abolished many Celtic place-names, and drove off much Celtic speech. But, as Professor Rhys says, “skulls are harder than consonants, and races lurk “behind when languages slink away. The lineal descen- “dants of the Neolithic aborigines are ever among us, “possibly even those of a still earlier race.”+ Much ingenuity has been expended in endeavours to fix approxi- mate dates for the order of the pre-historic invasions. In the absence of trustworthy data, it is wise to act upon the * «Words and Places,” p. 130. + “Celtic Britain,” p. 275. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 79 advice of the Duke of Argyll in reference to the first appearance of man upon the earth, and to content _ ourselves with the relation the order of invasions bears to - time-relative rather than to time-absolute.* THE ROMAN INVASION It was in the middle of the first century that the ~ Romans planted their feet upon the Middle Cotteswolds. ~ What is now Cirencester was seized and fortified, and it is probable that the Roman rampart (a part of which still _ exists, and is known to every child in the town as “the city bank”) followed the irregular oval line of the British entrenchment. A few years later we find the Romans _ occupying a chain of camps extending the whole length of _ the Cotteswold escarpment. Then onward for nearly four _ centuries the Middle Cotteswold area was occupied by a _ population under rigid Roman rule. The magnificence of the remains at Cirencester, and the pavements and other relics in villas like those at Chedworth, Spoonley, _ Wadfield, Dryhill, and Andoversford, attest a peaceful possession and cultured taste. But westward there were for a long period a source of danger. The great Roman stations of Caerwent and Caerleon were planted in Silurian territory; behind them was the strongly forti- ied colony of Gloucester; and behind that was, to use a famous phrase of a famous statesman, the “scientific frontier” of the Cotteswold escarpment. We know that after time, when it was supposed that their power had 80 PROCEEDINGS (OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUE or less of success. We know that when they had been conquered a strong hand was required to keep them in sub- jection, for they and other tribes living in the fastnesses of Wales offered a prolonged resistance, and were among the last to submit to the Imperial yoke of Rome. ROMAN CAMPS AND ROADS ec Prebendary Scarth says that ““when the Romans left “the island they had formed a system of roads throughout “its whole extent, even over its inaccessible mountains had constructed bridges, and made fords.”* A glance at a map of the Cotteswolds reveals large districts without Roman roads which were somewhat thickly populated in Roman times. Five great arterial roads converged at Cirencester; one of less importance can be traced from that town through Salperton and Hawling to Hailes; and the Ermine-street, which con- nected Cirencester with Gloucester, was continued (as the Via Julia) through the Forest of Dean to Caerwent and Caerleon. It is obvious that beyond these vie there. must have been a considerable number of minor lines of communication, traces of which have altogether dis- appeared or can only be found by diligent and careful observation. In endeavouring to add to the road map of the Middle Cotteswolds in Roman times, we may get some help from the positions of camps and villas, the names or lines of ancient highways, and the existence of fords. The camps at Birdlip, Crickley, Norbury (near Coles- borne), Leckhampton, Dowdeswell, Cleeve, and Notting Hill must have had, in Roman times, easy means of com- munication, not only with each other, but also with the colonies of Corinium and Glevum, for, as Mr John Bellows has forcibly pointed out, rapidity of transport was the chief secret of Roman domination. oe “Roman Britain,” p. 218, PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 81 The Roman Villa at Chedworth, which in the opinion of Mr Bellows was a government farm for the supply of horses to the posting stations,” and the important villa at _ Andoversford,’ must also have been connected with arterial roads. From Cooper’s Hill, running through Brockworth to Churchdown Hill, is a road still known by the name of Green-street; another road climbing the hill from Shurdington to Ullen Wood and across to the Seven Springs is called the Greenway: a third road termed Greenway-lane passes Battledown Knoll, on the eastern boundary of Cheltenham; and a fourth highway called Greenway follows a winding course from Andoversford to Norbury Camp, near Northleach. It is probable, as the Rev. S. E. Bartleet has suggested, that the name “Greenway” is a translation of the Roman designation “Via viridariensis.”t From Seven Springs, skirting the side of Leckhampton Hill, and descending to Charlton Park is an ancient highway called Sandy-lane, a name _ which in some places is the modern name for a Roman way. In the little valley of the Churn, near Cowley, _ where an old road through Elkstone from the Ermine-street -erosses the river, is Cockleford, a name which Mr _ Bellows suggests may be derived from a Welsh word _ signifying a ford in a hollow. In Cheltenham, a road to 4 Bath, which is known to have existed in Saxon times, crosses the river Chelt at Sandford; and the probability _ that this name is a corruption of “sarn-ford,” a paved-way _ ford, is strengthened by the presence of paving-stones in ay bed of the stream beneath the bridge which carries the road. Andoversford, the site of the Roman station of “Wycombe, probably derives its name from a ford * Cottes. Club Proc., Vol. x., p. 226. { Described in ‘“ Gentleman’s Magazine,” Jan., 1864. mt t Trans. Bris. and Glou. Arceeho. Soc., Vol. vii., p. 132. | 82 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB on the little river Coln, and may reasonably be identified with the Onnanford, near Withington, mentioned in ecclesiastical records of the eighth century, but which the Rev. C. S. Taylor, in an article on “Gloucestershire in the Eighth Century,” says cannot now be traced.* As further evidence that places whose names have the affix “ford” are upon ancient highways we have the fact that Fairford, Whelford, and Kempsford are joined by a road still called the Welsh Way. BRITISH TOWNS AND TRACKWAYS In endeavouring to ascertain what track-ways may have existed in the Mid-Cotteswold area before the coming of the Romans there are some considerations which are useful for guidance. (1) “ When the Britons,” says Czsar, “have fortified “a thick wood with rampart and ditch, they call it a “town.”t With such a definition, it does not require any stretch of the imagination to identify many of the Cottes- wold camps as British towns. Cooper's Hill, with its double mound enclosing an area of about two hundred acres; Norbury (near Colesborne) with its area of six acres, defended by a single mound and_ ditch, and close to thick woods; Crickley, with its nine acres, protected on three sides by precipitous hills, and with a thick wood on the fourth side; Dowdeswell, with an even larger area, in the middle of thick woods; Cold Aston, whose entrenchments have disappeared under the plough, but in which a great number of flint arrow-heads have been found; Salmonsbury, in the parish of Bourton- on-the-Water, with a mound and ditch defending an area of sixty acres; Eubury Camp, in the village of Condicote, * Trans. Bris. and Glou. Archzo. Soc., Vol. xvi., p. 229. T Ceesar, ‘‘ Gallic War,” Book v. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 83 near Stow-on-the-Wold, with an area of eight acres—all these camps are probably the sites of British towns, just as Cirencester to-day is the modern representative of the ancient town of the Boduni. (2) Some of the escarpment camps bear evidence of successive British and Roman occupation. In the Nott- ingham Hill Camp, in 1863, Mr Witts records, during some excavations the original mound of the Britons and the superstructure erected by the Romans were laid -bare.* The camp on Cleeve Hill was unquestionably occupied by the Romans, and it is probable that a long _ line of earthworks to the north of the camp was the _ boundary of a pre-historic settlement. On Leckhampton Hill there is a somewhat similar entrenchment outside _ the camp, and inside this area a large number of flint _ arrow-heads have been found; while the fact recorded by Buckman and Newmarch that in 1850 a true Roman well was still existing in the centre of the camp, is of itself sufficient evidence that the camp was occupied by the Romans.+ (3) Ancient British track-ways, says Prebendary Scarth, _ may be traced by their being “often worn into deep “hollows, especially near the camps and places of occupa- “tion.” The camps at Nottingham Hill, Cleeve Hill, Hewlett’s Hill, Dowdeswell, and Leckhampton, are approached from the valley by roads sunk below the level of the adjoining land, in some cases to the depth of several feet. Whether the hollows are due to wear or to their having been so constructed to ease the gradient is an open question. (4) Old maps of the county Bane that some roads now almost disused were formerly important highways. A * “ Archzological Handbook of Gloucestershire,” p. 13. + “Roman Remains at Corinium,” p. 5. t “Roman Britain,” p. 18. 84 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB map of Cheltenham and the vicinity a century ago, in the possession of our colleague Mr Vassar-Smith, notes two roads to London which even then had ceased to be so used. One was over Hewlett’s Hill, past the Hewlett’s Hill camp; the other was up Sandy-lane, on the eastern brow of Leckhampton Hill. Ogilby’s “Book of the Roads of England and Wales,” published in 1698, in describing the road from Gloucester to Coventry, tells the traveller, when he gets to Prestbury, to avoid the turning on the left to Southam, and to go “thro’ an irregular ‘“Way over a Hill of 1M. by a Beacon on the Left, and “by Postlip on the Right”—to Winchcomb. Therefore two hundred years ago there was a regularly-used road over Cleeve Hill direct from Prestbury, instead of from Southam, and which crossed the common on the south side of the beacon or camp. These three roads, it is important to note, have for a considerable distance been worn into deep hollows. (5) There are certain bye-roads which from construc- tion or name or connection with ancient camps require to be connected with arterial highways. In addition to the roads from camps already mentioned, is a road running from Whittington past Cleeve Hill camp to Nottingham Hill camp, and another from Seven Springs past Norbury camp to Colesborne. There are also two short pieces of road which are somewhat remarkable. From Upper Dowdeswell to the village of Withington, there is a road nearly two miles long, which from its straightness and breadth is almost certain to be of Roman construction. A similar road, nearly three miles long, joins Eubury camp with the Cheltenham and Stow road two miles west of Stow-on-the-W old. If these camps and bye-roads are marked upon a map of the Middle Cotteswolds, it will readily be seen that three additional lengths of highway are required to bring them into common communication. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB: 85 First, we want a road extending from the Ermine-street at Birdlip to the Foss Way at Stow-on-the-Wold. If we _ suppose the existing highway between these places to have been a British road, we may by following its course see that a number of bye-roads and camps are connected with it. (a) The British town on Crickley Hill. (b) The Greenway, from Churchdown, which crosses the Leckhampton-Birdlip road and runs through the grounds of Ullen Wood. (c) Sandy-lane, from Cheltenham, and road from Norbury Camp (Colesborne). (d) Two camps at Dowdeswell. (e) The bye-road from Nottingham Hill and Cleeve camps. (f) A small camp at Salperton. (g) What, judging from its barrows, must in _pre- historic times have been a populous district around Upper and Lower Swell. (h) What is apparently a Roman road from Withington to Upper Dowdeswell. (G) A probable Roman road from Eubury camp. The last two roads should be specially noted. If they are of Roman construction, as they appear to be, the pre-existence of the Birdlip-Stow road is_ proved. Indeed, the only possible conclusion seems to be that one road was made by the Romans to connect the villas at Withington and Chedworth and the White Way with a British track-way at Andoversford; and that the other road was made to bring into connection with the same _ track-way the important camp at Eubury. _ Secondly, we want a .road crossing the valley from ~ Leckhampton Hill to Cleeve Hill via Sandford Bridge, Cheltenham; for the Romans would assuredly have con- nected the camps on Leckhampton and Cleeve by a direct valley toute as well as by the circuitous road past 86 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB Andoversford. Such a road we have in the disused Sandy-lane and a line of road (the Old Bath road, Hale’s road, and Cemetery road) to Prestbury, which until recently was the boundary between Cheltenham and Charlton Kings; and from Prestbury to Cleeve Cloud there is the road described in Ogilby’s book. Allusion has already been made to the probability that Sandy-lane and Sandford Bridge indicate a Roman way. To this evidence for place-names may be added that not only are there, as already mentioned, paving-stones in the bed of the stream at Sandford Bridge but that in the road climbing the Cleeve escarpment the edgings of a stone pavement may still be seen. From Sandford Bridge only a short length of road would be required for a connection with Greenway-lane and the track-way over Hewlett’s Hill to Andoversford. In connection with these two valley roads, reference should be made to a camp on the summit of Battledown. It is somewhat singular that this camp has never been included in the printed lists of Cotteswold camps. What its age may be is doubtful; but considering its size (about ten acres), the strength of its embankments, and its short distance from the camp on Hewlett’s Hill, it was in all probability occupied in Roman times if not earlier. Commanding as it did two important track-ways at its base, it was not likely that the Romans would have left such a position open for occupation by their enemies. Lastly, we want a road extending from the Seven Springs to Cirencester. There is an old track-way, a continuation of Sandy-lane, which runs past Norbury camp to Colesborne. From that village, and west of the present high road, which is quite a modern one, an old track-way passes Combend Roman villa, North Cerney camp, and the remarkable entrenchments at Bagendon, whence it continued to Cirencester along the valley of the Churn through Baunton and Stratton. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 87 In his Annual Address to the Cotteswold Club just twenty years ago, Sir William Guise said: “The fact ~ “forces itself upon us more and more every year, that we “are gradually ransacking every cranny and corner of the “district which is within our reach by road or rail within _ “the compass of a day’s journey. It becomes, therefore, m6 increasingly difficult to arouse interest in mere locality, “and we must rely more and more upon the efforts of “members to work out minute facts of scientific interest “in their different localities.”* It is in the spirit which ought to prompt a response to _ the appeal of our departed President that | venture to ~ offer these notes “On the pre-Saxon occupation of the ~ Middle Cotteswolds.” In the same spirit, may | ask for the co-operation of members of the Club in an endeavour to make a complete map of the old by-roads of the county, many of which were in constant use by drovers before the abolition of turnpikes, and are now practically _ discarded. * Cottes. Club Proc., Vol. vi., p. 269. Treod 24 NOV.96 é Eubury Camp r ] Salmonsbury Camp orthleach Norbury Camp @ Notting Hill Camp [| Sppontey Villa Camp Wadfield Vill Prestbury se Churchdown @ Salmonsbury Camp Seven Springs . . H Wy [Withington Villa : =} Northleach Birdlip Elkstone @ Norbury Camp @ i020" Bas {_]Chedworth Villa aDap To Illustrate Paper “On the Pre-Saxon Occupation of the Middle Cotteswolds.” Scale—Half-inch to the Mile. 1 DEC. 97 PARE PROCEEDINGS Cotteswold Uaturalists | FIELD CLUB For 1896—1897 President M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS Vice- Presidents * WILLIAM C. LUCY, F.G.S. _ Rev. FRED. SMITHE, M.A., ELD, Paes: 3 JOHN BELLOWS " Rey. H. H. WINWOOD, M.A., F.G.5S EDWARD B. WETHERED, F.GS., F.C.S., F.RMS. Honorary Creasurer J. H. JONES Honorary Accretarp A. S. HELPS, (Gtioucesrer) 1B COUNCIL OF THE CLUB WISH IT TO BE DISTINCTLY UNDERS1T00D THAT THE AUTHORS _ ALONE ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE FACTS AND OPINIONS CONTAINED IN THEIR RESPECTIVE PAPERS. a , a —_——__ ib Contents eal s AppREss at the Annual Meeting at Cheltenham, 1897. s on the Geology and Glaciation of Norway. By CHARLES UPTON. ‘the Archeology of the Coln Valley and Notes on the Welsh Way and Foss Way. By J OHN SAWYER. 2 Manner in which the Domestic Animals and Plants have aided Civilization. By WINNINGTON-INGRAM. G Brastershire Rainfall. By A. S. Hers, Hon. Sec. Notes on the Earthquake of December 17th, 1896. By H. I. Winwoop. PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY JOHN BELLOWS, GLOUCESTER. S 203813 PROCEEDINGS OF THE Pei ClLUB For 1896—1897 PRESIDENT M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS HONORARY SECRETARY A. 5 HELPS Vol. XII. Part II. 1897 ANNUAL ADDRESS EG) CAE COTTESWOLD NATURALISTS’ FIELD CLUB | APRIL, 1897 BY _M. W. COLCHESTER -WEMYSS, PRESIDENT _ The Annual Meeting of the Club was held on Monday, q April 27th, at Cheltenham, in consequence of the serious outbreak of small-pox at Gloucester. _ The Treasurer presented his financial statement and ~ the following 7 “a RULES _ were adopted for the Club :— ¥.—The Objects of the Club are to study the Natural _ History and Antiquities of the County and the adjacent _ districts. _ 2.—The Club shall consist of a President, Vice-Presi- dents (not exceeding seven in number), an Honorary Secretary and an Honorary Treasurer, and Honorary, rdinary and Ex-officio Members. The number of Ordinary Members shall be limited to one hundred. - 3.—Before anyone can be elected a Member he must be duly proposed and seconded at an Ordinary Meeting, and come up for ballot at a subsequent meeting; one black ball in ten to disqualify. _ 4.—The Entrance Fee shall be £1. The Annual Sub- scription of Ordinary Members shall be Fifteen Shillings, due in advance on the first day of January. gO PROCEEDINGS” OF ‘THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 5.—Any Member in arrear with his subscription for the year is liable to removal from the list of members. 6.—No Member shall be entitled to a copy of the proceedings whose subscription is one year in arrear. 7.—The Club may admit a limited number of Honorary Members (see Rule 2), whose scientific work entitles them to the distinction, and who must be elected at the Annual Meeting. 8.—The Executive Council for the management of the Club shall consist of the President, Vice-Presidents, the Honorary Secretary and the Honorary Treasurer, all of whom shall retire at the Annual Meeting, but are et for re-election. 9.—The Annual Meeting shall be held in the early part of each year, at which meeting the President's Address shall be read, the financial statement of the Honorary Treasurer shall be presented, and the President, Vice-Presidents, Honorary Secretary and Honorary Treasurer shall be elected, and the dates and places of the Field Meetings be fixed; but the arrangements for the Winter Meetings shall be left to the Executive Council. 10.—The Club shall usually hold yearly four Field Meetings, and also four Winter Meetings for the reading and discussion of Papers. At the Field Meetings any Member may introduce one Visitor, and at the Winter Meetings more than one; and at the Winter Meetings the term “ Visitor” may include ladies. Members must give due notice to the Honorary Secretary of their inten- tion to be present at any Field Meeting, and should any Member, having given such notice fail to attend, he will be liable for his share of the expenses. I1.—The Council may at any time call a Special General Meeting of the Members. Upon the requisition of any eight Members being sent to the Honorary Secretary, a Special General Meeting shall be convened, PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB gI a _and any proposition to be submitted shall be stated in the notice. Not less than seven days’ notice of any such - General Meeting shall be given. 12.—The Club shall use its influence to promote the preservation of all antiquities and to prevent, as far as possible, the removal of scarce plants and the extermina- tion of rare species of flora or fauna. eS ha It will interest the members to know that on the roth awarded to Professor Etheridge, an honorary member of our Club, the Bolitho Medal. The honour was all the greater, as Professor Etheridge is the first recipient of honoured by the Geological Society, Mr S. S. Buckman having received the award of the Murchison Fund for this year, chiefly in recognition of his researches in the Geology of the Cotteswolds. - This year being the Jubilee of the Club, it was decided to repeat, as far as possible, the programme of the first ‘meeting of the Club, which was held at Birdlip on July 7th, 1846. | It was arranged that the Field Meetings of the year should be held at— 4 Oxford Birdlip Awre and Westbury a Bibury 2 4 During the winter papers were read by :— Mr Chas. Upton on “ Geological Notes on Norway.” Mr John Sawyer on “ The Archeology of the Coln _ Valley and Notes on the Welsh Way and Foss Way.” Winnington-Ingram on “The Manner in which Domestic Animals and Plants have aided Civilization.’ 92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB Mr Helps on “Gloucestershire Rainfall.” Mr Winwood on “ Notes on the Earthquake of December 17th, 1896.” These papers, which all possess great interest, will be published in the forthcoming volume of Proceedings. The first Field Meeting was held at Oxford on Thurs- day, 4th June, when the members assembled at the Oxford Station at noon. They were here met by Pro- fessor Green, who had kindly agreed to act as guide, thus materially contributing to the success and interest of the excursion. During the drive through Cowley to Wheatley several quarries were examined and their geology explained by Professor Green. After luncheon the members inspected some excellent photographs by Mr H. W. Taunt of Saxon skulls, complete skeletons, and various articles of Saxon handicraft which had been found on the site of a Saxon settlement about a mile to the east of the village. Two or three exposures of Kimmeridge Clay and a quarry of Coralline Oolite were inspected, and during a walk over Shotover Hill, strata of Iron Sand, White Quartz, Portland Sands, Kimmeridge Clay, and Coralline Oolite were successively examined. A portion of the party then visited the Bodleian Library, where Mr F. Madan, the sub-librarian, kindly called attention to some of its treasures. The members then proceeded to Queen’s College, where the College Plate was shown, many excellent examples of the silver- smiths’ art being the property of the College, including a curious silver trumpet of the time of Henry VIII., which - was formerly used to summon the members to dinner, a custom still retained. Mr H. G. Madan most hospitably entertained the members with tea, and a most instructive and agreeable day was thus brought to a close. The Jubilee Meeting of the Club was held on July 7th, and I am very much indebted to the Editor of the | a PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 93 _ “Cheltenham Examiner” for his kind permission to reproduce the following most admirable article entitled, ' “A Fifty Years’ Retrospect,” which was printed in that _ paper in giving a description of this meeting. A FIFTY YEARS’ RETROSPECT It was on Tuesday, the 7th July, 1846, that a few _ gentlemen met at the Black Horse Inn, at Birdlip, and _ founded the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club. Yester- _ day week was the Jubilee of the Club, and to celebrate _ the auspicious event the Club again met at the Black Bs 3 Horse Inn, Birdlip. In one thing, at least, the half a hundred gentlemen who assembled did not follow the example of the founders of the Club. “They met for breakfast at eight o’clock,” says the minute book which records the first meeting. Most of those who attended x the Jubilee meeting were content to meet at the G.W.R. _ station, Cheltenham, at 9.45, and be driven to Birdlip, via _ Leckhampton Hill and Crickley. En route, they visited _ the camp on Crickley Hill, and descended the precipitous escarpment to the “ Devil’s Table,” and then they went _ to an exceedingly interesting quarry near the Air Balloon _ Inn, where some of the geological controversialists fully _ maintained the reputation of the Club for ding-dong argu- ment upon knotty geological problems. Thence the q party drove to Birdlip, where a luncheon fit for the veriest - epicure fully satisfied appetites made keen by Cotteswold air. While at Birdlip Mr Wethered gave an excellent address on the chief geological features of the Cotteswold Club area, Mr S. S. Buckman discussed some of the problems yet awaiting solution, and Mr John Bellows dilated on the Roman occupation of Gloucestershire as typified by what could be seen in the far-reaching land- scape spread around. From Birdlip the party drove to 94 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB the long barrow in West Wood, which Mr G. B. Witts had thoughtfully had partly uncovered, and of which he gave a lucid description. Thence to Buckholt, where the breaks were again left, for the party to descend the hill to the Roman Villa at Witcombe, to which the Rev W. Bazeley acted as guide. Thus in the day’s programme three of the chief Subjects- discussed by the Club were kept in view— geological, prehistoric, and Roman remains. And as the Jubilee of the Club offers a fitting opportunity, it may be of interest if we take a retrospect of the progress made in the subjects alluded to during the fifty years that the Club has been in existence. GEOLOGICAL When the Club met for the first time the interest taken in geology was increasing. The geological survey of the United Kingdom had just been formed into a separate department of the Civil Service, and the Geological Society, which was formed in 1807, was just beginning a record of great advance in geological research. In those days there were few professional geologists, and the work of tracing out the history of our planet from the record of the rocks was chiefly done by amateurs, for whom the study had a great fascination. Among the geologists who have from time to time done excellent geological work are several members of the Cotteswold Club who have attained considerable eminence, and whose works will live in the annals of geology. Lycett, Wright, Buckman (father and son), Witchell, Lucy, Guise, Etheridge, Smithe, John Jones, Strickland, Brodie, Tomes, Symonds, Wethered, and others, have done work which has made their names famous far beyond the circles of the Cottes- wold Club. Early in the present century William Smith, the “Father of Geology,” astonished the world by showing PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 95 _ that rocks may be identified by the fossils they contain, and on this basis he, in 1815, published a map of the ~ strata of England and Wales. The correctness of his system of classification has never been shaken, and is now adopted throughout the world. For twenty years after Smith’s work was published, the rocks of May Hill, a well-known Gloucestershire landmark, were given the - yague name of “ Transition Rocks,” the belief being that they represented a period of the world’s history which was transitional between the time when rocks were laid down all over the globe by chemical precipitation (a theory, however, now proved to be in error), from a hot ocean, and a time when conditions more like the present existed. Sir R. Murchison had doubts about this so-called “transition period,” and he undertook, with the help of Professor Sedgwick, to examine this great mass of rocks with a view to their classification. In this he was entirely successful, and he added another clearly defined epoch to ¥ the geological succession of strata, and one, too, especially interesting because of its great antiquity. As a name for these rocks, Murchison selected the word Silurian, after _ the name of the brave tribe which at one time occupied _ the whole area of Gloucestershire, Monmouthshire and South Wales lying to the west of the Severn; and the name is now adopted for all rocks of similar age the world over. Little did Caractacus imagine that the name of his tribe would be handed down to posterity by the name _ given to some of the rocks of the land over which they contested with such determination the advance of the _ Romans. Though the Silurian rocks were named before the Cotteswold Club was formed, yet the working out of ~ details of the various sub-divisions has been chiefly done since, and many have been the interesting days spent by the Cotteswold Club in the study of the Silurian rocks at May Hill and other parts of the county. = ia 96 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB During the last fifty years there has been considerable discussion as to the origin of coal, and several papers on this subject have appeared in the Club’s Proceedings. The vegetable origin of coal is, of course, established without doubt, but the nature of this vegetation is not even now accurately ascertained. For some years coal seams were supposed to have originated from the sub- mergence of forests, but more recent research seems to point to aquatic vegetation, more in the nature of bogs than forests. With the Coal Period the Paleozoic series of rocks come to an end, and this end was brought about by physical disturbance on a very grand scale. Instead of there being a continuous series of horizontal beds deposited one over the other in regular sequence, the Paleeozoic system of rocks became tilted up, and it was not till after a long lapse of time that these forces sub- sided and the process of rock building continued. The débris which formed the Permian and Trias systems was then deposited over the upturned edges of the Palaeozoic rocks. As to what went on during this great interval we are but little better informed than we were 50 years ago. All we know is that when the forces of disturbance ceased a new order of things was introduced with the advent of the Secondary Period. Most of the life of Palaeozoic days had disappeared, and new forms appeared in the Permian and Trias rocks, which lie at the base of the Secondary series, this life including Marsupials, Mam- malia, and numerous Reptilia, and among the latter is the Thecodonto-saurus discovered in the Keuper beds near Bristol. Resting on the uppermost beds of the Trias are a very interesting series of strata which have been the subject of much discussion at the Club meetings, the question in dispute being to define where the Trias system ends and PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 97 the Lias begins. These beds are now included under the term Rheetic, as they are doubtless the representation in time of strata in the Rhatic Alps of Lombardy. The determination of these beds in this country is mostly due ‘to the researches of four members of the Cotteswold ‘Club—Dr Wright, Mr C. Moore, Mr Etheridge, and the Rev P. B. Brodie. In England these rocks may be eearded as representing a period of transition, during which the fauna of the Trias died out, and that of the ‘Lias came into existence, and in this sense they are mS beds. _ At the top of the Upper Lias we come to beds which are still in dispute, the problem being to determine where the Lias ends and the Oolites begin. After a discussion for 50 years, the advocates of drawing a hard and fast line _ between these systems appear to be still at variance as to where this line should be drawn. Probably it is im- possible to do so, for, as Professor Phillips has well observed, “before the Liassic life had come to an end, the Oolitic had begun.” This question of passage beds is a question of more than local interest, owing to strata f this character becoming generally recognised between Bost systems of rocks. _ This passage of life from one system of rocks to the one above was a subject of controversy when the Club was inaugurated, the dispute being between the advocates of Catastrophism and Uniformity. The former taught that tt the close of each geological formation a catastrophe curred which put an end to the living creatures and vegetation, and that in the succeeding formation there afresh creation. The doctrine of Uniformity, with ch the name of Sir Charles Lyell will ever be associated, taught the principle that there had been a regular and Beterrupted sequence of geological phenomena, and a the vast changes which have taken place in former 98 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB periods have been the result of the slow and ceaseless working of ordinary physical forces ; further, that the life of one period was the progenitor of the life which appeared in the succeeding formation. Within the last fifty years the theory of Catastrophy has been shown to be erroneous, and that of Uniformity generally accepted. One of the greatest geological discoveries of the last fifty years is associated with the name of Mr E. Wethered, a vice-president of the Club and a former secretary. The Oolitic rocks were until a few years ago looked upon as of mineral origin, the small grains being supposed to have been formed by layers of lime gathering round a tiny nucleus. By microscopic examination, Mr Wethered has demonstrated that instead of being of mineral origin, the Oolitic grains are organic in structure, and were formed by the tubules of a very low form of life, to which the name “ Girvanella” has been given. Had the Cotteswold Club done nothing else of importance, it might rest its geological fame upon the work of Mr Wethered. But the work also done by Mr Lucy in connection with the Glacial Epoch as it affected the Cotteswolds, by Professor Etheridge and Mr Taunton relative to the hydrology of the Cotteswold area, by Mr Hoskold upon the coal-bearing strata of Dean Forest, and by other members on other branches of geological science, have placed the Cottes- wold Club in the front rank of scientific societies in the kingdom. PREHISTORIC MEN The progress made in our knowledge of our pre- historic ancestors since the Cotteswold Club was founded has been enormous. Fifty years ago, indeed, scarcely any attempt had been made to classify the evidences of pre- historic occupation afforded by burial mounds, flint and stone implements scattered over the surface of the soil, PROCEEDINGS: OF «THE? COTTESWOLD CLUB 99 worked flints beneath stalagmitic floors in. caves, and signs of man’s handiwork buried beneath accumulations of gravel. To-day the chaotic mass has been reduced to order, and ethnologists have from it written the story of early men in Britain. When the Romans landed on our : shores they were opposed by natives who apparently for a long time had used weapons and domestic articles made of iron and bronze. The Cotteswold dwellers were a Celtic tribe called the Boduni (Bo, to dwell; dun, a hill _ —literally, “hill-dwellers”). They belonged to the great - Celtic race which, in two swarms—the earlier the Goidelic, the later the Brythonic—started from their home in the _ East, swept across the southern part of the Continent, seized upon land in Spain and Gaul, and then landed in _ Britain. Their voice is no longer heard in the land ; but, as Professor Rhys, author of ‘Celtic Britain,” says, _ “skulls are harder than consonants, and races lurk behind when languages slink away;” and in circular burial -mounds like those at Leckhampton, Crickley, Birdlip, and _ elsewhere are the bones of the race which had occupied - Gloucestershire long before they had to bend to the stern 4 yoke of their Roman conquerers. But other burial s mounds tell of an earlier race than the Celts. Tall, square-built, muscular, not pleasant in face, were the people whose skeletons are found in the circular-shaped tumuli, and the shape of their burial places was very nearly the shape of their heads. In the long “ tumps,” on the other hand, barrows like those in West Wood and on Shurdington Hill, and, best preserved of all, that which crowns the height of Uley Bury, we have the ‘remains of an Iberian race, short of stature, long in head, and pleasant of countenance. Metal was to them unknown, save that they may have recognised that bits of stone with glistening grains or surface were particularly ; iseful, because heavy, when with sling and stone they 100 PROGEEDINGS: OF THE COTTESWOLD:’ CLUB hunted their prey or defended their homes. Arrow- heads, knives, scrapers, saws, borers were made of flint, beautifully shaped adzes and hammers were of stone, and lighter articles such as needles and pins were constructed of bone. For how long these men dwelt in Gloucester- shire no man knows. Whence they came and whither they went no man can tell. But early as these Iberian stone and flint-using folk were, investigations made during the last fifty years, and particularly during the last twenty years, show that there were other races far earlier. In two caves on the banks of the Wye, and in a cavern near Lydney, remains of man have been found covered by beds of earth, gravel and stalagmite. The thickness of the beds of stalagmite indicates the dropping of lime-charged water from the cavern roof during a very long period, and it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the beds of earth and gravel were swept in by streams which once flowed at the same level as the cavern floor—a level far above that at which the nearest streams now flow. In many caves the bones of extinct animals are associated with human remains, thus placing the great antiquity of the cave dwellers beyond any reasonable doubt. Even cave men, however, were not the earliest Gloucestershire men. It is now about fifty years since a French scientist found some worked flints in a gravel bed many feet below the surface of the soil. His theory that these flints were the remains of men who lived when the gravel was deposited was at first received with incredulity. In the course of a few years worked flints were found under similar conditions in other parts of Europe, and then men began to search for them in England. ‘The gravels in the valley of the Thames speedily revealed evidence of man’s existence when the gravels were laid down, and similar evidence is forthcoming from the valley of the Severn. The general — PROCEEDINGS OF THE -COTTESWOLD CLUB IOI conclusion from these discoveries is that men roamed _ over Gloucestershire, hunting for animals now extinct, with weapons of flint and stone, at a time when the Severn Valley as we know it had not been scooped out, and the North Sea and English Channel did not exist. _ Following them came the men whose remains are found in caves, then the Iberians who were buried in long " barrows, and then the Celtic race, whose remains are interred in round barrows. and who peopled Britain when Julius Czesar landed upon our shores. ag In the working out of these problems of the prehistoric as the Cotteswold Club has taken a prominent part. » To the late Rev W. S. Symonds, rector of Pendock, belongs the honour of having discovered undoubted relics Beeman i in King Arthur’s Cave and Bannerman’s Hole, on the banks of the Wye, and thus made a valuable and ‘corroborative contribution to our knowledge of men of % ne Cave period. The well-preserved long barrow near B irdlip was found by Mr G. B. Witts, and in opening and Beeocnbing it he had the invaluable help and guidance of Professor Rolleston, one of the greatest authorities on the BR bicct. A long barrow at Nymphsfield was opened by a late Professor Buckman, and the Club also undertook the cost of opening barrows in other parts of the county. The ancient camps on the Cotteswolds were carefully surveyed and mapped by Mr G. F. Playne, who also was the first to discover pit-dwellings on the commons above Stroud, and the value of which Professor Rolleston was one > of the first to recognise. THE ROMAN OCCUPATION hen the complete story of the Roman occupation of cestershire is written, the work done and recorded members of the Cotteswold Club will occupy a large : Fifty years ago our knowledge of the Romans in 102. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB this county was confined to a few arterial roads and villas, and some remains brought to light at Gloucester and Cirencester. Thanks to the researches of the last twenty or thirty years, and the vast amount of Roman relics brought to light, we can now in imagination see the march of Vespasian and his followers over the Cottes- wolds, the capture and occupation of Cirencester, the construction—mainly by adaptation of existing defences ~ —of a series of camps along the Cotteswold escarpment, the settlement all over the plateau, and then the building of acamp (which afterwards became a colony) at Glou- cester as part of the forward movement against the Silures on the Western side of the Severn. Evidence has come to light, too, which shows the dates and other details of much of the Roman work. We know that it was in the first century that the Roman engineers constructed the splendid fortress of Gloucester, and made the road which, straight as an arrow flies, connects the city with the Roman posting station at Birdlip. We know that, advancing from Gloucester, they made a road, known as the Via Julia, through Dean Forest to beyond Chepstow, where tall, strong, green-covered walls still mark the site of the Roman camp at Caerwent. We know that, still advancing, the Roman road was carried to near Newport, and that at Caerleon a camp was constructed which was an exact replica of Gloucester. We know that the engineers and soldiers who did all this work belonged to the Second Augustan legion. We know that the villas at Chedworth, Witcombe, and Wycombe (Andoversford) were Government farms for the breeding of horses for the Government service, and the details given by Roman historians as to the civil and military administration enable us to draw a fairly complete and accurate picture of what Gloucestershire was during the first four centuries of the Christian era. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 103 _ Several members of the Cotteswold Club have done “much to increase our knowledge of the Roman occupa- tion, but head and shoulders above all is Mr John Bellows, of Gloucester.. He it was who not only discovered but completely traced the walls of Glevum; it was he who found and tracked the road from Blcacamat to Caerwent and Caerleon; and no man, hardly excepting Prebendary Scarth, knows more than he does of the details of the coming, the stay, and the going of the Power which for nearly four centuries ruled the island of Britain. _ Ina short address the President of the Club glanced at the general character of the work it had done, and expressed a_ hope that the next fifty years will see the 3 lub maintain its present high position. If the spirit of enquiry after truth which has animated its members be continued, a solid record of progress will mark the centenary of the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club. _ Among those present at the meeting were—Mr M. W. nm Colchester-Wemyss, president; Messrs John Bellows and E. Wethered, vice-presidents; Rev E. Cornford, hon. sec.; Mr J. H. Jones, hon. treasurer; Major Abbott, Messrs G. E. Baker, Dr Bond, C. Bowly, C. J. Bowstead, © E. Browne, S. S. Buckman, Rev W. Butt, H..G. fas... Currey Dr J. Drew, T:-S.. Ellis, Major er, C. E. Gael, F. Hannam-Clark, G. W. Keeling, A. Blanc, H. G. Madan, W. Margetson, W. L. Mellersh, L. Meredith, A. E. W. Paine, E. W. Prevost, Deputy- peon-General Ringer, John Sawyer, E. C. Sewell, J. Stanton, C. H. Stanton, C. Upton, Rev. A. W. a : Viner, eee General Watson, Rev A. R. 104. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB The third field meeting was held on August 7th, when the party assembled at Newnham, and drove thence to Awre, where the architectural features of the church were explained by Mr Waller. The members examined the curious old muniment chest, on the top of which in old days the bodies of those found drowned in the Severn were placed; and the Register, complete from the year 1538. The tide was too high to allow of an inspection of the interesting Liassic beds which are exposed at low water in the bed of the river. The drive was then resumed through Blakeney to Soudley, where there exists in good preservation a small Roman Camp in a commanding position close to the Via Julia. Most of the members then climbed the Hill to the Blaize Bailey and walked thence to Littledean, enjoying one of the most lovely and extended views in the Forest of Dean. They passed an old house called the “ Temple,” about which Mr John Bellows made some remarks, saying that he was of opinion that the Severn at Newnham was the scene of the most important battle the Romans ever fought in Britain; that the site of “the Temple” commands this battle field from the summit of the hill above, and that no less than four Roman roads are known to cross at the same spot. »After luncheon at Littledean, the members proceeded to Gunns Mills along the Roman road, on which the bordering stones can still be very clearly traced, passed Flaxley Abbey, examined, close to the schools, an interesting Upper Ludlow Quarry, and thence drove to Westbury, where the Vicar kindly acted as guide to the church. A visit was then paid to the celebrated — Garden Cliff, the geological features of which were explained by Mr Wethered. The party then honoured the President with a visit to Westbury Court, and returned thence in the carriages to Newnham. t PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 105 _ The last Field Meeting of the season was held on _ Thursday, September 3rd, when for the first time the Club paid a visit to Bibury. Driving from Cirencester _ past the junction of the Foss Way and Ikenild Street, the ~ Quarry of Forest Marble at Barnsley was examined and _ described by Mr Buckman and Mr Wethered. The _ interesting Camp at Ablington was visited, which has an _ area of some nine acres, and was probably the site of a _ permanent settlement in very ancient times. Hence a _ member of the Club led the party over Lady Hill, pointing out along low mound with a shallow ditch outside it, _ which is believed to be the vestige of an ancient Rampart. Near Bibury Court Mr Sawyer pointed out the site of a ~ Roman villa which was accidentally discovered some years ago, and which has never yet been excavated. Since the Club visited this spot I have been informed that the chief _ obstacle which hitherto has interfered with the exploration of this villa has been removed, and I should like to suggest that we communicate with the Bristol and Glou- cester Archzological Society with a view to jointly carry- a out a complete examination of the site. A visit was ‘Saxon, is very early Norman. After an excellent luncheon at the Swan Hotel, the famous Bibury spring was eeomined, from which sce Rone an immense v itts, in his Archzological Handbook of Gloucestershire, Says differs from other barrows in the county in being OH 106 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB with rubble. It was opened about forty years ago, and_ found to have the horned end so characteristic of long barrows all over the kingdom, and in the middle of the curve between the ends stood a stone about 6 feet square. — At the north end was a chamber made of rough stones, in which human bones were found. Another structure visited by the Club is of great interest. It is an underground chamber, constructed entirely of stone with dome-shaped roof. The diameter of the chamber is about six feet, and it has an entrance about two feet wide. A few stones on the crown have been removed, but otherwise the structure is in an excellent state of preservation. Locally it is known as a shepherd’s hut, but whatever it was it can never have been built by or for shepherds. Canon Greenwell has described two very similar structures, both at Nether Swell. As to their antiquity he has no doubt whatever, and he inclines to the belief that they were used for inter- ments, and belonged to a transition period, when the long- — chambered barrow was being replaced by the round tumulus for purposes of burial. About half a mile away is a barrow about 100 feet long and 40 feet wide, which has the appearance of a round barrow 40 feet in diameter, with a low mound some 60 feet long extending on its northern side. This extended mound had been dug into, but the loftier circular portion had not been disturbed until it was recently opened by Mr Sawyer. Digging downwards from the highest part of the mound, he found that its central portion, about 10 feet in diameter, was composed entirely of stones, arranged carefully from the centre, from which they had a slight tilt. All the rest of the mound is of rubble. About two feet east of the centre, and on the natural surface of the ground, was a cist about 2 feet square and 9 inches deep, containing phosphate of lime and dirt. The inference is PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 107 _ that a body had been cremated, the bones and dust placed - inthe cist, and then the huge mound built over it. Returning to the village of Ablington, a short visit was paid to the Manor House, where Mrs Gibbs kindly invited the party to afternoon tea. The house is a good speci- men of sixteenth century architecture. - Appended isa short report on the Society’s Library :— It will be within the recollection of the members that an arrangement was authorised at the last General Meeting, under which a large and very suitable and convenient _ room on the premises of Mr J. Bellows in Eastgate street, Gloucester, was rented jointly by the Cotteswold Club and the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archeological Society, for the purposes of a library, reading room, and meeting room for committees. _ The tenancy commenced in June, 1896, and a bookcase was then placed in the room for the reception of the a literature” of the Club. This, which consists chiefly periodicals and reports sent by other societies and at his ees in the Docks. The whole of it, including a large number of surplus copies of the “ Proceedings,” has been transferred to the new bookcase, and a careful inventory has been made of it. About 30 copies of each of the first three volumes of the “Proceedings” have been collected from the loose sheets and stitched in paper covers, ready for issue to any members who desire to have them or other back volumes. _A few articles of furniture, the cost of which has been ired by the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archzological ciety, have been purchased for the room, which has, ce September last, been open every Tuesday afternoon for the convenience of members, very few of whom, how- 108 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB It is proposed to continue the same arrangement, in conjunction with the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archzeo- logical Society, at any rate, for another year, viz., until June, 1898. . It may be as well to mention that the rent of the room, viz., £12 per annum, and the other expenses of main- tenance, have for the past year been divided equally between the two Societies; but since it is found that the Archeological Society takes the largest share both of space in, and use of, the room, it is proposed that for the coming year the Society should pay two-thirds, and the | Cotteswold Club one-third of the expenses. There is every reason to believe that this arrangement will be accepted as a fair one by the Archzological Society. NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY AND GLACIATION OF NORWAY BY CHARLES UPTON One of the first things which strikes a stranger with _ geological instincts on first visiting Norway, is the almost entire absence of plains and gently undulating country such as we are accustomed to see in England. There are no Secondary Rocks such as give rise to our rolling chalk downs, our rounded Cotteswolds, or our level stretches _ of country occupied by clays of the Lias and Trias. . _ Metamorphic Rocks—Gneiss, Mica-schist and the like —occupy the greater part of the country, and these (as is ‘usually the case) are very much dislocated and contorted. The pressure to which the Rocks have been subjected has been so extreme that the included “eyes” have in many cases been drawn out into mere threads and lamine. As one steams along the coast from South to North, one sees nothing but an almost continuous succession of rugged cliffs, sometimes of stupendous height, as in the e of Hornelen, a sheer cliff of about 3000 feet in height, rising straight up from the water’s edge. _ From Stavanger northwards to about the Nordfjord, the rocks have the massive rounded appearance of granite : they are, however, a very highly metamorphosed Gneiss, as -atule of no very great elevation. From thence right © TLOD /-PROGEEDINGS- OF THE COT LES WOLD “CLUB up to the North Cape, and for some distance to the East- ward of that point, the mountains which fringe the coast are, generally speaking, loftier and of more rugged out- line, almost the only breaks in the line of cliffs being the entrances to the numerous Fjords and the lesser valleys at the mouths of the rivers. To the north of Trondhjem the rocks appear to be somewhat less altered, consisting mainly of Schists, fre- quently showing the original lines of stratification very plainly. About three hours steam north of the entrance to the Trondhjem Fjord, is a magnificent range of cliffs of all shades of red, yellow and brown, with occasional white bands. Lit up by the evening sun, as I saw them, these cliffs are a truly gorgeous spectacle, the recollection _ of which is not easily effaced. These Red Rocks have been referred to the old Red Sandstone, but this sugges- tion is, I believe, not generally accepted, and in the absence of fossil evidence their age must be considered not proven. Further north the rocks are for the most part of Schistose character, gradually getting finer in texture until at the North Cape itself they are more of the nature of a dark grey clay slate than true Schists. From Bodé northwards, to some 40 to 50 miles beyond Tromsé, the disturbance and dislocation has been tremendous, and this, together with the action of the frost on the splintery Schists, has given rise to some of the grandest scenery possible. For some 200 miles or more the Lofoten Islands, the islands of Hind6é and Senjen, the islands in the neighbourhood of Tromsé, and the peninsula behind which lies the Lyngen Fjord, present one continuous succession of lofty mountains with sharp jagged tops and equally sharp valleys between, many of the valleys and mountain sides being occupied by glaciers of no mean dimensions, affording PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB III 4 altogether, in my opinion, the grandest scenery of the Eastwards, ied Hie: North Cape, the character of the g rocks changes, gradually growing less rugged and stern : until at Vads6, on the North shore of the Varanger _ Fjord, the shore line consists of low level cliffs composed _of black muddy shales. Here, too, the general appearance of the country is very different. Instead of lofty rugged _ mountains we have comparatively low ridge-like hills, with = On the South shore of the Varanger Fjord the moun- tains, which consist of Gneiss, are considerably more rugged in outline than the stratified rocks of the Northern _ shore, but not so lofty as those further south. So far as _ highly metamorphosed. In one or two places rocks of Silurian Age have been _ detected along the West Coast, but the area occupied by them is comparatively insignificant. Such is a very brief outline of the physical geology of _ the country as seen from the deck of a steamer. It is stated in all text Books on Geology that the southern portion of Scandinavia is sinking, whilst the northern portion is being elevated, and, naturally, I was -on the look out for evidence in confirmation of that assertion. Such evidence I found in plenty. From the races, occasionally of very considerable extent. All towns and villages are built upon them, and, indeed, e it not for such terraces it would be almost impossible Ll2 .. - PROCEEDINGS “OF THE) COTTESWOLD CLUB apparent, as level as the sea itself, looking very like rail- — way embankments, while in many of the Fjords terrace rises behind terrace to a height in many instances of several hundred feet. The materials of which the terraces are formed varies, as it might naturally be supposed, according to the materials which the sea had to act upon, and the circum- stances under which they were deposited, in some instances consisting of pebbles and shingle, ranging from. huge boulders weighing many cwts. each, down to fine gravel; in others, as in the Romsdal, being composed almost entirely of sand; again, in other places being mainly constituted of clayey material, and not un- frequently of shells and shell sand. Where the shore is steep and exposed to the open sea, usually there is but little evidence of terracing, but occasionally more or less obscure notchings in the cliffs could be seen. Two reasons may be assigned for this— Ist, the violent action of the water would tend to keep all portable material below high tide mark, and, as the elevation of the land, though relatively rapid at times, was nevertheless very gradual, the sea had ample time to work upon the in- coherent material which in more sheltered spots would have been left where it was deposited; 2nd, the accumu- lation of débris from the crumbling of the cliffs would obscure any such narrow terraces as the sea might have left. On the other hand, in the Fjords and sheltered coves terraces are almost invariably found. The city of Trondhjem stands on a terrace of sand far up in the Fjord of the same name, formed, so far as one could judge from a very hasty survey, in the manner indicated, but moulded, so to speak, by the river which winds around the city. In the Romsdal the terraces could be plainly seen for many miles up the valley, extending right up to and beyond (Y3LLVW ANIVHOW JO WVG Ad G73H) 3MV1 GNV S3OVYYAL ‘IVGSINOHU “1 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB [13 the very base of the mighty Romsdalshorn itself. The terraces here are composed almost exclusively of sand. Ido not know the height to which they extend, but it must be very considerable, as the road ascends almost continuously from Andalsnaes. The number of perfectly _ well defined terraces is very great, too many to be easily counted, and as they extend entirely across the valley, the quantity of sand accumulated is prodigious. The town of Bod6é stands on a raised beach of an entirely different character. The valley in which the town is situated is of considerable size. Behind the town, and between it and the mountains which rise inland, there lies a level plain, the greater portion of which is at the present day occupied by a peat bog resting upon a substratum of stiff dark blue clay. All along the sea ‘margin there is a ridge having an elevation of about 80 to 90 feet, composed of similar blue clay, with a considerable number of well rounded boulders embedded in it, and upon the top of this there rests a bed of regularly stratified shell sand, varying in thickness from one up to several feet, containing vast numbers of the shells of Mya truncata. Most of the shells are entire, and in very many instances the pairs were lying in contact. ' It _ appears probable, however, that the shells were washed _ up, as none were observed in crypts, and all were lying on their sides, although from their perfect condition they could only have been transported a very short distance, _and by comparatively tranquil water.’ Overlying the shell * is a bed of peat of about 9 inches in thickness. The a ircumstances favoured observation, as extensive Faeasage works were in progress, and consequently a number of excellent sections were open for inspection. In this connection a feature of some interest observed at Bod6é [TA PROCEEDINGS*OF--LHE “-COPTES W OLD*CLUB may be mentioned. For a considerable distance along the foreshore on the sheltered side of the bay there runs a ridge of boulders just about the line of high tide mark at ordinary tides. Being somewhat conspicuous and unusual, one naturally desired to know how they came there. The action of the water alone is clearly insufficient to account for their presence, and there is no obvious reason why they should have been placed there by man. The only tenable hypothesis is that they were pushed up by the action of floating ice. It is a well known fact that in severe winters ice forms along the shore in shallow places to a considerable thick- ness, picking up boulders from the bottom. On the ice breaking up, it drifts through the action of the wind and tide, into the more sheltered bays, where it becomes stranded and eventually deposits its burden of boulders. These in time are pushed up further and further by subsequently formed ice, and ultimately form a ridge at the highest point reached by the drift ice. Amongst and on the land side of this row of boulders a blue clayey deposit is accumulating, very similar to that underlying the town and forming the substratum of the peat bog, and the inference is irresistable that the line of boulders seen along the foreshore is merely a repetition of the action which has been going on for a very con- siderable period; that the ridge is nothing less, in fact, than the commencement or foundation of another terrace. Troms6, like Bod6, is built upon a raised beach. It stands on the west side of a narrow channel, through which runs a very strong current. Ow ving to local causes, the swift portion of the stream is on the side of the strait | farthest from the town, whilst near the shore on the town side there is practically no current. The subsoil consists of Blue Clay with a few boulders, not materially different in appearance from that underlying Bod6, and, as in that PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB II5 case, capped by a bed of very fine shell sand, only of % much greater extent and thickness. One section was _ observed where upwards of 5 feet of the shell gravel was exposed without showing the base. The species of shells are also much more numerous, and a very large propor- .tion are entire. A similar deposit appears to be in course of formation along the shore at the present day. Another instance of a town similarly situated is that of _ Hammerfest, but the circumstances here are somewhat _ different and peculiar. The town is built at the head of an almost circular bay, perfectly sheltered from the _ violence of the open sea, but having apparently a circular current which enters from the south-west, sweeping along _ the north shore, and which, but.for the circumstance to be next noticed, would make the entire circuit of the bay. At the north-eastern extremity of the bay, and immediately to the north of the town, is a stream of sufficient volume to deflect the current, causing it to take a course towards the centre of the bay. Immediately to the south of where the two streams unite, there juts out into the “water a somewhat triangular shaped terrace, and on this has been levelled at the top by the same agency which deposited the material of the terrace just men- tioned, and to exactly the same height as the uppermost 116 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB terrace on which part of the town stands, and it would appear that the moraine was formed beneath the waters of the bay before the land was elevated to its present position, being, in fact, a fine example of a subaqueous moraine. The top of the terrace and dam would be from 8v to 90 feet above the sea level. The best opportunity of studying raised beaches in detail was afforded during the stay at Vads6. The town itself, unlike most of those passed on the voyage thither, is not situated upon a raised beach. Stretching from the town eastwards is a range of low cliffs seldom more than 25 to 30 feet in height, consisting of black shales, looking very tempting to the hammer, but wofully disappointing on investigation, for although they were examined with very considerable care for some miles by two companions and myself, we were unable to discover the slightest vestige of an organism. The age is unknown, though probably of earlier date than the Trias. Towards the _ west the shale is obscured by recent shingle, and about two miles west of the harbour there stands out a pro- montory of Schistose or Gnessic Rock, against which abuts a series of raised beaches. This promontory, with a range. of ancient cliffs extending inland from it, evidently once formed the shore line. Immediately behind the town is a ridge of old beach, the top being about 9o feet above sea level, then comes a bog of considerable extent, and beyond this a grand series of terraces. I cannot say how many distinct terraces might be counted, but probably not fewer than thirty. The height of several of the most important were noted, four of them being respectively 227, 232, 240 and 285 feet above sea level, the last being, so far as my observation went, the highest. The height of the first range of hills in the rear of Vads6 is about 400 feet, but I am disposed to think that an examination of the loftier hills further inland would disclose (13A37 V3S LN3S3u¥d JAOGY 1334 OZ HOVE) S44dI10 LN3IONV GNV SY307NOG 3NYOS 30! HLIM QSQVA LV HOVAG GASIVY ‘% PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB II7 terraces of greater altitude. As, however, there are no roads except along the shore, and the natural features of the country making walking very laborious, I was unable to investigate the matter further in that direction. . a was, however, fortunate enough to be able to extend _ my investigations up to the head of the Varanger Fjord, _and from thence right across the low-lying country lying _ between it and the Tana River, altogether somewhere ~ about 35 miles. Over the whole of that area the same _ series of terraces is persistent, and it is quite obvious that _ at no very great distance of time, geologically speaking, the peninsula lying to the eastward of the Tana River, and to the north of the Varanger Fjord, on which the _ towns of Vads6 and Vard6 stand, was an island. Just above the Lapp village of Karlbotn, which lies at the southern head of the. Varanger Fjord, there exists a _ very interesting feature in connection with these terraces. Bro the-left of the village, looking from the Fjord, is a ; me euncent array of terraces, looking, at a distance, like Pthe most perfect manner. On the opposite side is a oe, poneing series. a terraces for about the lower | 4 settlement of Bigganjargga, the view was very strik- x Immediately in front lay a step-like arrangement of 118 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB the Fjord, and on the opposite side of the Fjord, from the extreme left of the range of vision, all along the shore, passing Karlbotn and right away to the valley of the Tana River for many miles, there is an almost continuous range of terraces, broken only here and there by the more precipitous mountain spurs, constituting probably as fine a panorama of ancient beaches as it would be possible to see. In the neighbourhood of Vads6 each of the more prominent terraces is bordered on the land side by a range of low cliffs, having precisely the appearance of the cliffs against which the sea now washes lower down, and it is perfectly easy to estimate the force of the waves which once played against them. In places where the wave action was but slight, the shales are merely sub- angular slabs, piled up precisely as may be seen on any beach where the rocks are flaggy or shaly, whilst towards the west of the town, where the water must have exerted greater force, the pebbles are perfectly rounded, and the rocks against which they lie smoothed and worn away by the continuous pounding of the pebbles. There were many small potholes or giants kettles in the rocks, in a few instances having the original pebbles remaining in them. The 240 foot terrace was perhaps the most extensive, having a width in places of 40 to 50 yards, and this was remarkable in another way. All along for miles it was strewn with thoroughly well-rounded boulders, many of them of huge dimensions, much too large to have been transported by water, except in the form of ice. Many of the boulders were of material not found in the immediate locality, and the only way to account for their presence is to assume that they were brought there by drift ice. So far as one could judge from an imperfect knowledge of the country, they came from the eastward, beyond the head of the Fjord. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB _ II9 Of equal importance and interest with the raised _ beaches is the evidence of the action of ice in the past and at the present day. Generally it may be stated that _ there is most unequivocal proof that in former ages the - whole country, with the probable exception of the top- “most points of the mountains, was covered by an enormous mass of ice. The sides of all the deep valleys, Srfor, perhaps, from 2000 to 3000 feet up, are smoothed and polished as if they had been carefully worked by ‘masons, and where the rocks are of a character to retain wihem, the striz are as clear as if they were made but yesterday. The direction of the flow was naturally ‘seawards. The pressure of the ice must have been some- thing inconceivable. In the valley above Odde, for miles the side of the mountain is almost vertical, and the face phenomena on perhaps a still more gigantic scale. The Romsdalshorn is about 6000 feet in height, and for the Nzrodal, is ice rounded to the very summit. _ The rocks along the actual coast line and the small untry to the other, have their tops and sides similarly rounded and polished. This may, however, be due partly fo the action of water, but it is probable that ice action highest mountain tops do not appear to have been covered by ice. This is very noticeable in the Romsdal. 120 - PROCEEDINGS OF THE ‘COTTESWOLD: GLUE Further north, too, in the Lofoten Islands and in the neighbourhood of Troms6, the pointed mountain tops stand out from the snow and ice which to a very large extent covers their flanks and fills up the higher valleys between them. Bare mountain peaks also stand out from the perpetual snows of the Jostedalsbrae and the Svartisen Glacier. Nansen noticed the same thing in Greenland, and most arctic navigators have given similar testimony. It is therefore safe to assume that even during the glacial periods the ice never completely covered the loftiest mountains. The action of floating ice in pushing up the ridge of boulders along the shore at Bod6 and in depositing the rounded boulders on the old beach at Vads6, has already been alluded to, but I confess to a slight disappointment at not finding more evidences in this direction. The instances mentioned were not the only ones observed, but, generally speaking, the effects were not very con- spicuous. The usual phenomena connected with glaciers is, of course, very apparent wherever glaciers exist or have existed. At the foot of the Buarbre and the Bojumsbree (which were the only glaciers I visited) there were the usual moraines, and throughout the length of most of the valleys were huge masses of moraine matter, frequently extending completely across the valley and holding up considerable lakes. The Buar lake, just above Odde, is an instance of this kind, and another lake of similar character exists in the Romsdal. Each glacier, too, has its ice cave, out of which flows the stream caused by the melting of the ice. The ice cave at the Bojumsbre is of very considerable dimensions. Near the Bojumsbre is another glacier called the Suphellebra, which is a good example of a re-cemented glacier. The peculiarity arises from the circumstance that masses of ice break off from PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 121 the end of the descending glacier and re-consolidate at the base of the mountain, forming a secondary glacier. Before quitting the subject of ice and ice action, I must refer to a supremely interesting instance of palozoic glaciation to which my attention was called by Mr A. Strahan, of the Geological Survey, and which it was my good fortune to visit in company withhim. Near Biggan- jargga, at the head of the Varanger Fjord, the formation consists of sandstone altered into a quartzite. This quart- zite rests unconformably on an eroded surface of Gneiss, _ and is regularly bedded. The surface of one of the beds of quartzite is.very clearly scored with glacial strice. The _ grooves, which are very numerous and distinct, run in _ various directions, the three principal sets having the following directions, viz: —N. 30° W.; W. 20° N.; and _N. 10° W. There was no doubt whatever about them. _ They were not mere casual scratches such as might be made by rocks tumbling upon and slipping over the surface, but perfectly well defined and unmistakable glacial strice, which could be traced up to and under the drift which rested upon the striated rock. Immediately upon this striated surface reposed a mass of consolidated glacial drift with embedded boulders, the included frag- ments ranging from sand up to two feet in diameter, the larger being for the most part of granitic character, the ‘smaller of shale and other materials. The bed of con- glomerate has a maximum visible thickness of about 9 feet, and a lateral extent of about 60 to 70 yards. How far it extends inland it is impossible to tell. The mass thins out northerly in about four yards from its thickest t, and against it the quartzite is unconformably bedded, is continued in regular sequence over it for a con- siderable thickness. Just at the junction of the upper quartzites with the mass of drift, the rock consists of an termixture of the drift and sandstone, or, to express it 122 ‘PROCEEDINGS OF. THE COTTES WOLD: CLUB more correctly, the quartzite encloses fragments of the drift material, constituting a kind of secondary con- glomerate. The quartzites have not yielded any fossils, so their age is uncertain, but from extrinsic evidence it is considered that they cannot be more recent than the Trias, and are not unlikely to be of Silurian age. | am informed that a somewhat parallel case is known in Australia, but with that one single exception it is believed to be unique. Dr Hans Reusch was the discoverer of this remarkable example of ancient glaciation, and he describes it at some length in the “Norges Geologiske Underségelse” for 1892, with diagrams and reproductions from photographs. It has been stated, on the strength of certain measure- ments taken at intervals of some years, that the Scandin- avian glaciers are gradually advancing down the valleys. Iam not prepared to deny this, nor, on the other hand, am I quite able to accept it as a true proposition. The evidence afforded by the moraines seems to point in the other direction, for they are found in all the valleys whether occupied at the present day by glaciers or not, at frequent intervals from the sea upwards, and in the case of existing glaciers the moranic matter for a distance of some hundred yards from the actual ice foot, has a very modern appearance. This looks very much as if the ice was receding. In connection with this glacial débris one feature which astonished me was the enormous size of some of the blocks of stone of which it consisted. At the foot of the Bojumsbrz some of the blocks must have been of many thousand tons in weight, large enough to have accommo- dated a respectable quarry. Although there is so much evidence of disturbance, such crumplings and dislocations of the rocks of Norway, and so much extreme metamorphism—by far the greater PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 123 portion of the surface rocks being metamorphic, I believe I am correct in saying that there are a few examples of _ igneous rock, properly so-called. Granitoid rocks there _ are in abundance, but most of them are only granitic in _ appearance, and are, in point of fact, sedimentary rocks _ which have undergone extreme metamorphosis. Nor is _ there any evidence of volcanic energy in mesozoic times, such as we have in the West of Scotland in the vast s sheets of Basalt and kindred rocks which there overspread so large an extent of country. The extent of the knowledge of the geology of a E Seontry like Norway which can be acquired in the course of a month, most of which was spent at sea, is necessarily very small, and that. together with the fact that my object in going to Norway was not primarily geological, must be my apology for the brevity and disconnected nature of _ this communication. | P.S.—Since the above paper was written, a paper by Col. H. W. Fielden, F.G.S., on “‘ The Glacial Geology of Arctic Europe and Its Islands,” has appeared in the ee Journal of the oe ie vol. lii., Baiced Beaches and Glacial Deposits of the Varanger Fjord,” will also be found in the same journal, vol. liii., pp. 137 and 147. Some of the matters touched on in my paper are there dealt with in greater detail, and to CHAS. UPTON ON THE ARCHASOLOGY OF THE COLN VALLEY AND NOTES ON THE WELSH WAY AND FOSS WAY BY JOHN SAWYER _ From Foss Bridge to its junction with the Thames at Lechlade, the river Coln flows through a district which has been occupied by man from very ancient times. The earliest monument of human occupation is a long barrow ‘in the hamlet of Ablington, on the western edge of ‘Lambrough Banks covert. _ In its general proportions and in its horned end it is similar to other long tumuli in the county, but it differs from them in the character of its masonry. Instead of, as is usual, being surrounded by a single wall, this tumulus has a double wall, each wall facing outwards, and the space between is filled with rubble. In another respect, also, it is unlike most of the Glou- cestershire long barrows, for instead of the interior being a mere mound of débris, it was, says the late Canon Lysons, “built up of loose stones placed in a slanting position, converging to the centre, like a succession of roofs placed one upon the other, a kind of gutter arently running down the centre through the whole course of the tumulus. A straight dry wall here and there at intervals intersected this sort of roof at right 126 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB angles, so as to strengthen the fabric, the whole covered with soil and turf at the northern or principal end.”* Directly in the centre of the curve formed by the horned _end, and between the two walls, was a stone six feet high by five feet wide. Wood ashes, a few flints, and several sling stones were found in the mound; and at the narrow end was a cist made of rough stones, containing one skeleton. The presence of wood ashes points to burial after cremation, and possibly small chambers containing human dust may have been overlooked. Unfortunately, when the barrow was opened in the summer of 1854, the art of tump excavation was in a rudimentary stage; but we have reason to be grateful to a distinguished member of our Club for placing on permanent record the character and contents of an exceedingly interesting barrow, so far as they were observed in an incomplete examination. Even now considerable portions of the mound are apparently undisturbed, but it is doubtful if further excavation would reveal anything of special interest. About half-a-mile to the north-east of the long barrow just described, in a field near some farm buildings known as Oldwalls Sheds, is a tumulus not marked on the Ordnance map, to which my attention was last summer directed by Mr W. Mills, of Ablington, in whose field it stands. In appearance it is a circular mound, about forty or fifty feet in diameter, and eight or nine feet high, with alow mound about fifty feet long and ten or twelve feet wide on its northern side. By the kind permission of Mr Mills, and with the aid of a stalwart quarryman, | was able to examine its construction and contents, although I am afraid that in so doing it has been robbed of its interest for future antiquaries. We first of all dug into the low extension of the barrow by cutting a trench across it, and * «Our British Ancestors,” p, 318. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 127 making shallow excavations in other parts of its surface. Nowhere was there the slightest evidence of masonry. It seemed to be entirely made up of loose rubble, thrown, as an onlooker said, “all of a yep” (heap), or as loads of _ broken stone are tipped from carts along the margins of our roads. Finding that the “crust” of the circular mound was of the same rubbly character as its extension, we decided to dig into its centre from its crown. Two trenches were made, intersecting at right angles; anda few inches below _ the surface the rubble was found to be resting upon a _ mass of stones which in size, shape, and setting were like the dry walling so common upon the Cotteswolds. As we went downwards we carefully extended the area of the _ excavation, and kept a sharp look out for any sign of a cist or other evidence of human burial. All the stones had a slight tilt from an imaginary central line, as though they had been built over a small object placed in the centre at _ the surface of the ground. But of such an object in that - position no sign whatever did we find. East of the _ central line, however, there seemed to be indications of a small chamber, and every stone was carefully removed in approaching it. Our surmise proved to be correct. d j About two feet from the centre, on the original surface of _ the ground, was a cist, approximately two feet square, and nine inches deep, formed of rough, unshaped stone slabs. _ As a general rule, cists in round barrows contain human bones or other undoubted human relics. This one con- tained a few handfuls of phosphate of lime and dirt. So Pye purpose for which the barrow was built. In round barrows in Gloucestershire, Canon Greenwell says, the _ prevailing practice was burial after cremation. The only inference in this case seems to be that a body had been 128 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB burnt, the bones and dust placed in a small cist, and then a huge mound built over it. A barrow similarly built was some years ago opened at Nether Swell, but the burnt bones were placed on the surface of the ground, and the stones placed directly upon them. A third structure in the hamlet of Ablington is of a very remarkable character. This is an underground chamber, with a beehive roof. From its widest part, about six feet in diameter, the stones overlap inwards and make a dome. In the walls are three recesses, each about ten inches wide, fifteen inches high, and fifteen inches deep. A fourth opening in the wall, with a steep cutting in the surrounding soil, leads to the outside of the structure. Whether this was originally an entrance, or whether it was originally a recess and has been made an entrance, is uncertain. In similar structures elsewhere the entrance is sometimes through the crown, sometimes from the side. In this structure the crown has been disturbed, and it is impossible to determine whether the dome was originally perfect, or whether an opening was left in it which might have been covered with a slab. For what purpose was this underground structure made? Locally it is known as a shepherd’s hut. Amid much that is uncertain about it, we may be quite certain that it was never built by or for shepherds. A man who could build such a structure would find much more profitable employment than tending Cotteswold sheep ; and a shepherd would require a much more convenient shelter than an underground chamber six feet across, into which he had to swing like a monkey or crawl like a mole. Canon Lysons says that in the immediate vicinity of the Ablington long barrow “there exists a round hut under- ground, formed of dry walling similar to that employed in the construction of this tumulus. There were formerly PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 129 more of them close at hand.”* I have reason to think that the hut to which Canon Lysons alludes is not the structure which I have described, but one much simpler in shape, now filled or covered in, and I cannot find evidence of any others in the neighbourhood. Canon Greenwell, however, describes two very similar structures in Nether Swell,f where, singularly enough, as already stated, is a round barrow very much like that at Ablington. For what purposes these underground chambers were made is to a large extent a matter of conjecture. Sir John Lubbock describes some whose object was the con- ~ cealment of food or treasure.{ Dr Tylor, discussing the arts of life, speaks of beehive houses in the Hebrides, ‘covered in with growing turf, which, he says, “ remind _antiquaries of Tacitus’ account of the caves dug by the ancient Germans and heaped over with dirt, where they stored their grain and took refuge from the cold, and in a time of war from the enemy.”§ Mr Robert Damon, of _ Weymouth, records, among objects found in similar underground structures in the Isle of Portland, a celt, - skulls and bones of domestic animals ; and some of the articles, he adds, do not differ from those found in the Swiss Lake dwellings.) Canon Greenwell strongly inclines to the belief that the Nether Swell structures a places of et ae for bodies that had not under- _ *«QOur British Ancestors,” p, 319. + “ British Barrows,” p. 447, et seq. _ “Prehistoric Times,” 1869, chap. ii. § “ Anthropology,” p. 232. || « Geology of Weymouth,” p. 166. 130 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB When the Club visited Ablington in its Field Meeting last September, the structure had been, by the kind offices of Mr Garne, partially cleared of its accumulation of débris. A further clearance might, however, reveal objects of interest, and it is sincerely to be hoped that care will be taken to preserve intact this almost unique monument of our prehistoric Cotteswold ancestors. The Valley of the Coln is intersected by two well- known Roman roads. The Foss Way crosses it at Foss Bridge, and Ikenild Street at Coln St. Aldwyns. Parallel with the Valley on its northern side, and running to, and probably through, the town of Lechlade, is the Salt Way. But these are not the only ancient highways in the district. On the Ordnance map the Welsh Way is the name given to a road running from Barnsley past Ready Token to Fairford and Lechlade. On old maps of the county a road bearing the same name goes in the other direction from Barnsley to Perrott’s Brook. Connecting with it at Perrott’s Brook is a short length of road, also known as the Welsh Way, which joins the Irmin Street about three miles north of Ciren- cester. In the days when Welsh cattle were driven from the Principality through Gloucester to the metropolis, this road was greatly used for that purpose, and a glance at the map shows that it is shorter than the ordinary route through Cirencester. The probability that the road is an ancient one is very much strengthened by the name of a place upon it— Ready Token. In its present form the name is meaning- less, and it is obviously a corruption of a name that had a ineaning. For the original name we must look at the position and surroundings of Ready Token. It is a small area of high ground, and with its clumps of trees is PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB _ I3I visible for some distance away, so that it is a useful land- mark for travellers. Four miles east of it, along a wide road, is Fairford, with its “fair ford” over the river Coln, an important matter in the days when bridges were few and far between. It is therefore very probable that the _ place once bore a name indicating that it was the way to the easy passage across the river. If this be so, the origin of the name is not difficult to find. Rhydd, the Celtic name for a ford, may easily be corrupted into Ready, and Token is very likely to be a corruption of the Saxon word “ tacen,” an indication or sign. Ready Token __ would on this theory mean simply * ‘The way to the ford,” and would indicate an origin dating back to pre-Saxon times. _ Whether this be the explanation of the name or not, _ the existence of the Welsh Way suggests an interesting enquiry. Commencing, as [ have said, from the Irmin Street, it ends at Lechlade. Why does it end there? A second ancient road also runs to the town—the Salt _ Way, which some say ended at Lechlade, while others _ maintain that it passed through the town on its way south. A third road passing through Lechlade also merits some attention. If you follow the course of the Roman road from Winchester through Marlborough, you will see that from almost exactly opposite where it joins the Irmin Street an important highway runs northward through _ Lechlade to Stow-on-the-Wold, where it joins the Foss _ Way and also the Roman road through Alcester to the Watling Street. _ Lechlade is therefore connected with the most im- 7 ortant of the Roman roads in the South of England. Is : this from accident or design? oe In studying the means of communication used by the omans in Britain, we have not, | think, sufficiently con- “sidered the extent to which they may have utilised inland 132 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB navigation. We know that on the Continent the rivers were in Roman times, as they have ever since been, great highways for military and commercial purposes. Mommsen records that a tombstone found near Tréves “has the form of a ship; in this sit six mariners plying the oars; the cargo consists of large casks, alongside of which the merry-looking steersman seems—one might imagine—to be rejoicing over the wine which they con- tain.”"* Mommsenalso reminds us that immediately after the Romans crossed the Thames and took Colchester, the working of the British mines began, and “a stream of Roman merchants and artisans poured into the country, and London became the natural emporium of trading on a great scale.” Now it is obvious that a great deal of the mineral wealth of the country was then, as now, in the south- west. In the Forest of Dean, as abundant evidence testifies, the Romans worked iron to an enormous extent, and even to-day the unexhausted “cinders” they left are worked to profit. Some, if not much, of the mineral resources of the Forest probably reached the Continent through the port of London. Was the conveyance to the metropolis the entire distance by road, or was part of the journey by water? There is no trustworthy evidence for an answer to either question. But three considerations point to the probability that the Thames was used for a considerable part of its course. (1) From Gloucester, the lowest point at which the Severn was crossed by a bridge, to London there was no direct road in Roman times; the great Roman road from Gloucester to the metropolis was through Silchester, a very roundabout and troublesome journey for commercial traffic. (2) The * Mommsen’s “ History of Rome: The Provinces.” Part I., p. 116. + Ibid., p. 177. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 133 Romans were perfectly well aware of the great advantage of water over land transport in labour and expense ; they could see the help afforded by a current flowing towards their great emporium; and the vast importance they attached to the use of horses for military purposes would naturally lead them to avail themselves of any other means of communication for non-military objects. (3) The Thames was then, as now, navigable _ for a very considerable part of its course by boats which — could carry many times the weight that could be drawn by horses. John Chamberlayne, F.R.S., whose work on Great Britain was published in 1708, says that much of the fuel used in London came down the Thames, and that from London “boats are drawn about 200 miles to - Oxford, and higher many miles.”* This is sufficient proof that before the weirs, which now form an essential feature of Thames navigation, were erected, the river was navigable for boats as far as the town of Lechlade. a Members of the Club scarcely need to be reminded that q when a century ago the Thames and Severn Canal was constructed, it was at Lechlade that the junction with the Thames was made. In the plan they adopted for the conquest of Britain, the Romans had two leading ideas. One, as Mr John Bellows has demonstrated so admirably, was to make rivers the boundaries of the subjected parts of the country; the second was, as Dr Hiibner has shown, to advance northward in parallel lines from east to west. The first of these lines, as Dr Hiibner and Mr Bellows prove, was from Gloucester to Colchester. The reason for selecting Gloucester as the western end of the line is obvious : it was the key to the Severn. Was Colchester ‘selected for the eastern end simply because thereby the - * « Magnae Britannige Notitia,” by John Chamberlayne, p. 284. 134 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB line was made parallel, or was there another object in view? May it not also have been because it passed just north of Oxford and thereby secured complete command of the Thames from its source to its mouth ? The coming of the English into the Coln Valley may reasonably be assumed to have quickly followed the famous battle of Deorham, in 577. Dr Guest’s* view is that when the Saxons first entered Gloucestershire they came from the Marlborough Downs across the Cottes- wolds to the Foss Way a few miles south of Cirencester, and then marched down the famous Roman highway in the direction of Bath. It is generally believed that after the battle they at once descended into the Severn Valley and marched northward. Is it not much more likely that they kept to the high ground of the Cotteswolds? By doing so they would have protected their lines of com- munication with their base in Wiltshire, while a descent into the valley might have hemmed them in between fierce enemies on the one hand and the broad waters of the Severn on the other. By quickly retracing their steps they would be able to prevent their scattered foes from again collecting in dangerous force, and with the plateau conquered and reinforcements close at hand if required, the conquest of the lower part of the Severn Valley would be a comparatively easy task. The language of the Chronicle, too, bears out this theory, for after recording that Cuthwine and Ceawlin slew three Kings, it adds that “they took three cities, Gleawanceaster and Cirenceaster and Bathanceaster.” Clearly, therefore, the invaders went to Cirencester on their Northward march. Some light is thrown upon the early Saxon occupation of the Cotteswolds by an examination of the boundaries * “ Origines Celticze,” II., p. 182. = Fe c y. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 135 of parishes along the Foss Way. This is now made easy by the publication of county Ordnance maps which exhibit parish boundaries with lines of main roads. A study of the maps of Gloucestershire and Wiltshire reveals the remarkable fact that the Foss Way from Littleton Drew through Cirencester to Stow-on-the-Wold, a distance of about forty miles, is for almost its entire length a boundary of parishes. No other main road in the two counties, ancient or modern, is a parish boundary for more than a mile or two in length, and even this is of rare occurrence. The Irmin Street, which, next to the Foss Way, is the most important of the other Roman roads, is in its entire course across the two counties a parish boundary for only about half-a-dozen miles. It is further noteworthy that the southermost point from which the Foss Way is a parish boundary is almost exactly where it is joined by the direct road from Dyrham. Was this boundary originally parochial or tribal ? If the West Saxons, after their victory at Dyrham, _ marched over the Cotteswolds instead of up the Severn _ Valley, they probably did so along the Foss Way. In the settlement which quickly. followed, its well-defined line _ would be of great service in the distribution of the land, and thus it may originally have been a parochial boundary. On the other hand, the Foss Way may have been a tribal boundary. The Hwiccas were a tribe which, on the authority of Professor Freeman, occupied Gloucestershire, _ Worcestershire, and a part of Warwickshire. The western boundary of their land was probably the Severn, and the southern the Avon. What was the northern and eastern? The Foss Way, which runs near the border of Gloucestershire, may well have been the eastern boundary, _and the Watling Street, from the point where it is inter- -sected by the Foss Way, may have been the boundary on 136 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB In the road map of England there is no such striking feature as the Foss Way, which runs in almost a straight line from Cornwall to the mouth of the Humber. Its importance in the Roman occupation of the country is obvious. It is probable that the historical interest which thus attaches to it is increased in our own part of the Kingdom by the part it played in determining the original settlements of our English forefathers. Upon the Coln Valley and its neighbourhood the Danes have left a more lasting impress than upon any other district of like size in Gloucestershire. Elsewhere in the county, with two or three exceptions, the Danish inva- sions were mere plundering expeditions. In and around the Coln Valley the invasions resulted in permanent settlements. The earliest record of a Danish connection with Glou- cestershire is that in 855 Burhred, King of the Mercians, brother-in-law of Alfred the Great, granted to a Danish bishop Alhun and his family, at Worcester, certain property in Ablington and the surrounding parishes of Barnsley, Poulton and Eisey. Twenty-two years later the Danish army first planted their feet in the county, and, despite a desperate resistance from the citizens, success- fully attacked Gloucester, and settled within its walls. At the beginning of the following year the Danish host, as the Chronicle says, “rode through the West Saxons’ land, and there sat down, and mickle of the folk over sea they drove, and of the others the most deal they rode over.” In the spring of the same year (878) Alfred defeated them in the great battle of Ethandun, near Trow- bridge ; in the following year the Danish army went from Chippenham to Cirencester, where they “sat” for a year, and in 880, under the treaty of Wedmore, the Danish army left Gloucestershire and never afterwards came within its borders. a = PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 137 By this agreement, which was renewed half a century later, the Danish district was divided from the English Kingdom bya line passing along the Thames, the Lea, and the Ouse, and then following the course of Watling Street to Chester. It is commonly believed that south of this line Danish names do not exist. It is true that tried by the most important of the characteristic Danish test-words, the suffix “ by,” the place-names fail to reveal a Danish origin. But take another useful test-word, “thorpe,” “throp,” or “trop,” a Danish suffix which means a village, and we find a number of Danish settle- ments south of the line indicated, and several in and con- - tiguous to the Coln Valley. Adjoining the town of _ Lechlade is Bouthrop (or Eastleach Martin), and follow- _ ing up the valley of the Coln we have Southrop, Hatherop, - Williamstrip (the suffix “trip” probably a corruption of “trop”) and Cockrup, and adjoining the Foss Way at _ Foss Bridge is Dr Taylor holds that from the q - Danish. word “bzc,” a brook, we have several place- _ names,” so that possibly Bibury, which in the Domesday 4 Book is called “ Bechberie,” may also be a name of } Danish origin. Coln St. Dennis is a name said to be _ derived from the fact that in Norman times its church . belonged to the Abbey of St. Deny’s, near Paris. But it _ is noteworthy that the natives of the village and of the 3 neighbourhood invariably call it Coln Deans, and the rector of the parish (Rev Lewis B. Bubb), to whom I am indebted for some interesting information on the subject, Bleted 1683, the parish is twice described as “ Coln St. Deny’s alias Coln Deans,” and that on the church plate the name is spelt in three different ways—Coln St. os, Coln St. Denys, and Coln Deans. Everyone +. * « Words and Places,” p. 124. 138 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB acquainted with the Cotteswold dialect is familiar with the sound of “a” as “e,” so that it is easily understood that Coln Danes, or the Danes’ Coln, would be called Coln Deans. Of course, Deans is also a very possible corruption of Denys, and if the popular name were Coln Saint Deans, that might be the correct explanation. But the “ Saint” is dropped, whereas Coln St. Aldwyns, three parishes south, is called by its right name, and never called Coln Aldwyns. Pindrup, although close to the Foss Way, and within a stone’s throw of Coln St. Dennis Church, is in the parish of Coln Rogers. At one time, Mr Bubb tells me, it must have been a place of some importance, and some remains of a moat around it still exist. Coln Rogers, therefore, was probably a Danish settlement, and it is significant, as well as curious, that amongst its inhabitants recorded in Domesday Book was “one foreigner.” If, then, we admit the place-name Bibury to be of Danish origin, the whole of the Coln Valley from the Foss Way to the Thames bears an unmistakable impress of occupation by the only foreign enemies our English forefathers had to fight against in England until they had to bow their necks under the iron heels of the Norman. | THE MANNER IN WHICH THE DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND PLANTS ; HAVE AIDED CIVILIZATION BY WINNINGTON-INGRAM _ There can be no doubt that Man has not suddenly reached his present position on the earth, but has only attained it after vast ages of development and progress. __ .Man, though weak in body compared with the other be mnimals, has struggled upwards through the gloom of ages to hold the Supreme command. Many circumstances assisted his rise, and perhaps, indeed, the very conscious- ‘ness of his weakness was one chief help in his upward course, for that consciousness made him seek the aid of other forms, and he pressed into his service those animals and plants which seemed best adapted to his needs. This practice was begun, many thousands of years ago, and for a long time little advantage was gained. By degrees, hi owever, some races wee were more ees than Ag aa ; "The dog, the horse, the ox nae the sheep are those nimals which have been most useful to the primitive 140" (PROCEEDINGS "OL--PHE COTTES WOLD, £LUB Throughout the world the dog was the first possession of man and his earliest companion beyond his own race, and the dog has been so long separated from the primitive species that we cannot trace with any certainty the stock from which he originally sprang. No animal has been so thoroughly or so universally domesticated as the dog, in none have the moral and intellectual faculties been so largely developed. Wherever man of any degree of civilization is found, there also is the dog found. The dog took his origin at a very remote period, for we find undoubted evidence in the very earliest records of his existence and regular domestication. Among the early Hebrews he seems to have been known, or rather despised, and it seems very remarkable that such an astute nation of shepherds should not have domesticated and used so valuable an assistant. Possibly this was partly owing to the prejudice of the Hebrews against an animal which was venerated as a symbol of the Divine Being by the idolatrous Egyptians. Yet this objection cannot go for much, as the Hebrews kept oxen, which were also wor- shipped by the Egyptians. But it must be remembered that in the East dogs were, and are, filthy and savage creatures, which act as scavengers in the towns. The only instance in the Bible where the dog is mentioned as a domestic animal is in Job, chapter 30, verse 1, where, speaking of the greatness of his former prosperity, he says, “But now they that are younger than I have me in derision, whose fathers I would have disdained to have set with the dogs of my flock.” This passage is extremely remarkable as showing at what an early period of the world’s history the dog was sufficiently domesticated to be capable of the arduous task of guarding sheep—a task, the proper performance of which necessitates a total suspension of the true canine instinct, which is not to guard sheep but to worry and devour them. PROCEEDINGS OF-THE COTTESWOLD CLUB = 141 There is, however, another allusion in the Sacred Writings to the domesticated dog, I mean in the Apocrypha, where in the Book of Tobit, chapter 5, verse 16, we are told that when Tobias and the angel were setting out on their journey, “ They went forth both, and the young man’s dog with them.” It is certain that the Egyptians selected their dogs so as to produce well-marked varieties, for there are to be seen on the Egyptian temples representations of dogs with long ears and broad muzzles. The Assyrians, too, had considerably advanced in the breeding of dogs, for mastiffs anda kind of greyhound are found represented on their tombs. The ancient Greeks and Romans, as is well _ known, possessed dogs. Homer frequently alludes to them. But more ancient than any of these records are the evidences which prove the existence of the domestic dog _ among the prehistoric savages of Northern Europe. In the Danish “ Kitchen middens” or heaps of house- hold refuse piled up by men of the newer stone period, are found bone cuttings belonging to some species of the _ genus Canis. Together with these remains are some of the long bones of birds, all the other bones of the said : ‘birds being absent. Now it is known that the bird bones here found are the very ones which dogs cannot well devour, while the absent ones are those which they can _ bolt with ease, and it has been ingeniously argued from this that the remains in question really belong to the domesticated dog, as if the animals to which they apper- tained had been wolves, they would have made short work of the long bones of the birds as well as of the others. Other dog bones are found in Denmark belonging to later “periods. At the time when flint knives were succeeded by bronze a large dog existed, and at the time when iron was used a larger one still. In Switzerland during the 142 (PROCEEDINGS OPLTHE COTTES WOLD CLUB newer stone period a dog existed, probably the oldest of which we have any record. It partook of the character of our hounds and setters or spaniels, and in the formation of its scull was equally remote from the wolf and from the jackal. This dog, too, like its Danish contemporary, was succeeded in the bronze period by a larger variety. Thus we see that when our ancestors were living in the dens and caves of the earth the dog was systematically kept and selected, that is, any good varieties which appeared were noted and kept up. When the savage was driven to feed upon his dogs in times of dearth he was naturally more willing to sacrifice the least intelligent and affectionate of them, and would delay killing the best dogs as long as possible. In this way for ages a careful, though unintended, process of selection was applied to those animals, and to this we may attribute the great intellectual and physical pablo. | which has taken place among them. The dog has contributed in various ways to the civiliza- tion of man; he has done so by calling forth sympathy and kindness towards the lower animals, the dog being the first creature which was domesticated and made the captive and friend of man for the sake of companionship rather than profit. As time went on, however, the dog was serviceable to man by helping him in the chase, and so enabling him to procure a larger quantity of game ina shorter time than by himself: and so man had more leisure for other pursuits. Also the dog was useful as a guard over the dwelling and property of his master, and later on, when man acquired flocks and herds, the dog protected them; and in some countries he was used to draw sledges. The opportunity to advance beyond the state of the early savages depends very much upon men possessing animals which can be domesticated and used as beasts of PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 143 burden and of draught; and where men had such means of supplementing their own strength they made great advances. In Asia, in Europe, and in North Africa where the country afforded the horse, the ass, the ox, the buffalo, the camel and the elephant, mensoon advancedincivilization. But in North America the natives, though they were ingenious people, remained savages; andalso in Southern and in Central Africa, though there were plenty of large mammalia, yet as they were not such as could be domesti- cated and used as beasts of burden, the savages remained in their barbarism. The immediate result of the posses- sion of beasts of burden and of draught is to increase the productiveness of the soil, to save men the labour of digging, to promote trade by producing a surplus of food and distributing it ; and also to develop the arts of war by enabling swift marches to be made, by furnishing an army with cavalry as its eyes and ears, and to bear down the enemy by a furious charge ; and to facilitate the transport of war materials. The chief of these beasts of burden and of draught is certainly the horse. . In the early Pliocene and late Miocene Ages the family of the horses was represented by the hipparion, a small, slender and graceful .animal possessed of three well- _ defined toes on each limb bearing hoofs, one strong and _ large in the middle, while the two lateral toes were so small that they did not extend below the fetlock, but _ might be compared to dew claws. The next step above _ the hipparion was the anchitherium. _ It is very remarkable that occasionally horses have been _ born with tridactyl feet similar to the ancestral type. _ The tarpon and the wild horse of Tartary are the nearest - examples of the stock from which the domestic horses are derived. It was in the Polished Stone Age that domestic horses were introduced into Europe. Their remains are 144. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB found in the ruins of Swiss Lake dwellings, but it is sup- posed that at this time they were chiefly used as food. The horse was universally used for food by man before the historic period. During the Roman occupation of Britain it formed a large part of the diet of the inhabitants. It was eaten by the Scandinavians in honour of Odin. As Christianity prevailed over the heathen worship, it was banished from the table. It was, however, used in this country as late as 787 A.D., after it had been prohibited in Eastern Europe. The ecclesiastical rule, however, was not always strictly obeyed, for the monks of St. Gall, in Switzerland, not only ate horseflesh in the XIth century, but returned thanks for it in a beautiful metrical grace. During the Bronze Age horses were used for riding, as may be seen from the bronze bits which are dug up in France and in Italy. As the horse came into use in war, those nations which used horses conquered those which were without them, and pressing forward from their own lands they over rode the tribes which were unmounted. So imposing is the effect of cavalry on all peoples who have no previous knowledge of the horse, that it always produces fear, for to such people the horse and his rider appear a single terrible being, and the Greeks have left a token of their appreciatoin of the strength derived from the union of the man and horse in the myth of the Centaur. And the ease with which the Spaniards conquered Mexico and Peru is to be attributed to the awe which they struck into the ranks of the savage footmen by their mail-clad horses. Until the invention of gunpowder the success of an attack depended chiefly on the charge, and the army which possessed cavalry was able to overwhelm a host consisting only of infantry. Since the introduction of firearms, and more especially since the invention of the breech-loading rifle, the manner of employing cavalry has PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB I45 been altered; but, nevertheless, horses are more useful than ever in war. They are used as chargers for field officers and aides-de-camps, and artillery, on which the success of a modern battle chiefly depends, could not be managed without horses. And they are necessary to bring up stores. Cavalry are still of great use as scouts and to pursue fugitives. So the strength of a country in war depends very much on its supply of horses. Although at one time the horse was chiefly used in war, yet, perhaps, it is in peaceful pursuits that he has most contributed to the civilization of man. Asa pack horse, as a plough horse, and as a coach horse he has distributed - goods, increased the food supply, and conveyed passengers, letters, and merchandise throughout the country. An hundred years ago, if the horses had been exterminated in England, famine and depopulation would have been the result. But since steam engines are coming into such general use, horses are not so necessary to man as they were, and it is possible that before long the use of horses will be chiefly confined to luxury and sport, to farm work and to war. But it is worthy of remark that even in this _ age of machinery the force of engines is still calculated in _ horse power, horse power being the force which will raise 33,000 lbs. one foot in one minute. And this fact bears strong testimony to the great services which the horse has rendered to mankind. The earliest use of animals to assist the strength of _ man appears to have been brought about by the taming of wild cattle. Several varieties of wild bulls were dis- tributed throughout Europe and Asia, such as the Bos 'Primigenius, Bison Europeus, and Bos Longifrons, and _ were chased by the primitive hunters. The full grown animals were ferocious, but when the young were caught and brought up by hand they soon became tame and continued about the dwellings of their masters. And 146 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB thus men became possessed of domestic cattle, whose tameness increased and whose shape and colour changed after passing through successive generations in subjection. By domesticating horned cattle man gained the use of creatures well suited to promote his advancement from savagery to civilization. The first use to which domesti- cated cattle were put was probably that of carrying packs and of moving tents and such like from place to place. Then some ingenious savage was seized with the idea of harnessing one of his tame bulls to the forked branch of a tree and making him draw it up and down a field, tearing up the ground, and so produced a great improvement in agriculture by thus originating the plough. Then, having experienced the beneficial effects of making the strength of the bull assist his own, the primitive farmer proceeded to put cattle to other occupations and made them draw carts and wagons. The next advantage which man derived from horned cattle after their use as working animals was from their milk, which is the most perfect and complete form of food; and those nations which drink milk and use its products, cheese and butter, are the strongest and most enduring. With regard to the moral aspect of the owning of cattle, nothing has been found more civilizing than the possession of property, with its sympathies, its responsi- bilities, and its independence. And among primitive men cattle were the earliest forms of property. The clever and astute Jesuit missionaries who evan- gelized South America made much use of this means of civilization, and by introducing property in cattle they raised the natives above the state of mere hunters, and by improving their worldly condition they were able also to promote their spiritual welfare. Asia is the headquarters of the genus Ovis, and the domestic sheep is said to be derived from the different PROCEEDINGS “OF. THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 147 wild forms which are found in that Continent. The fleece of the wild sheep is composed of hair with wool at its roots. But in the domestic species, by continued care and selection, the hair has been reduced to a minimum, so _ that wool is the only coat. In Great Britain the breeds - of domestic sheep are very numerous, and have been greatly improved of late, and have been brought by judicious breeding to a high state of perfection in the valuable qualities of early maturity, aptness to fatten, smallness of bone, and gentleness of disposition. And ~ the length of the wool and its quantity has been improved till a single fleece will now generally weigh from 5 or 6 to 12 lbs., the latter being, of course, an unusual weight. As flesh-producers in a barren country, sheep are much more valuable than horned cattle. They mature more _ rapidly, and are reproductive in less than two years, so _ that in many parts of the world it is possible to obtain a larger quantity of flesh from poor pasturages with sheep _ than with any other domesticated animal. But the chief contribution of the sheep towards civilization is in provid- ing material for warm clothing for men inhabiting cold countries. Before the domestication of sheep, men who - were exposed to severe winters dressed in the skins of wild beasts, but such garments were rough, uncleanly, and not always procurable in sufficient quantities. But by the introduction of sheep, which can be shorn year by year, _abundance of wool is obtained, which, when made into cloth, forms the strongest and warmest clothing that can be devised; and if we consider only such an item as cloth for the uniforms of our army, navy, and police we shall see how much we depend upon the sheep for our modern costume. _ Did time permit, I might go on to point out how the goat has contributed to civilization by its milk and flesh and by providing material for tents; the ass and mule, 148 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB by acting as handy beasts of burden in rough countries and over rocky mountain paths, and the pig by its abun- dant food supply. How the camel has acted as the ship of the desert by conveying men and merchandise across the sandy wastes. And how the intelligent Asiatic elephant has been enlisted into the service of civilization as a mighty bearer of burdens both in peace and in war. As I have mentioned the elephant, I will at this point of my paper read a note which [ have recently made con- cerning that animal. At the present time Mr Hagenbeck, a German, is engaged in a scheme for re-domesticating the African elephant for use in German East Africa. I say re-domesti- cating, for the African elephant was trained and success- fully employed by Pyrrhus and by Hannibal in their wars, but of late it has only been regarded as a wild beast and shot down for its ivory. But if the African elephant could be re-domesticated and used as a beast of burden in the districts where the tetse fly stops all animal carriage, and where for generations human transport has been the only means of conveying goods from the interior to the coast, it would be of vast service to civilization. The African elephant is hard to tame, and is deficient in memory, and is said to be descended from the mastodon. The teeth of the African elephant correspond with those of the mastodon, and it may be that it has inherited the mental qualities of its huge ancestor. With regard to the Asiatic elephant, it is easily domesti- cated and has a good memory, and it is possible that it owes these qualities to its descent from the mammoth. The teeth of the Asiatic elephant are analogous to those of the mammoth. But were I to enter into a full description of the manner in which these and other animals have contributed PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 149 towards civilization, I should weary both you and myself. I will, therefore, now turn to the domesticated plants. As the pastoral life was an advance from the existence of the hunter, so agriculture was a step in civilization above the pastoral life. But in order to live by agriculture it was necessary that certain plants should be domesti- cated, so that man, instead of ranging the forests for game or wandering about with his cattle in search of pasturage, should be able to settle in one spot and by means of these plants be able to keep himself, his family, and his animals in plenty and comfort. Of these domesticated plants the various kinds of corn are undoubtedly the chief. The original plant from which wheat has been developed is said to be the zegilops, a wild grass which still grows On the French and Italian shores of the Mediterranean. If the seed of this grass be trans- _ planted to good soil and well tended, after a few years of _ cultivation it develops into perfect and productive wheat. _ This transmutation of grass into a cereal was effected by _ M. Fayre, who found that by selecting the most perfectly _ developed plants of each generation and thus making each _ crop an advance on the preceding, in 12 generations wheat was evolved. From other plants originally wild like this _ have come our oats and barley, rve and maize and other _ varieties. Corn has been used by man for a vast number of years. Many bushels of wheat and some ears of six- rowed barley have been discovered in the pile works of the Stone Age at Wooseedorf and Wangen, in Switzerland. Egypt since historic times has been a great corn-producing country, and was also remarkable for its early advance in civilization, the extreme fertility of the soil enabling a “comparatively small number of men to raise abundance of corn for the food of the rest of the population, and so leaving a large number of people to engage in literary I50 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB pursuits, to erect magnificent buildings and pyramids, and ~ to invent elaborate systems of religion. Theophrastus and Pliny make frequent mention of wheat, for it was used among the Greeks and Romans. When Cesar landed in Britain he found wheat growing in the island, which, possessing a temperate climate, is well suited to its cultivation. In early times in this country corn was grown for several years running on the same ground, and then the land was allowed to fall down to grass, which was after a time ploughed up again for corn. But in process of time the system of seeding with clover and artificial grasses was introduced. The clover, by means of its broad leaves, attracts the nitrogen from the atmosphere and stores it up in the nodules on its roots to the great benefit of the succeeding corn crop. And, moreover, the clover itself provides an abundant supply of green food and of dry fodder for live stock. Another domesticated plant which has produced an important effect upon civilization is the turnip, which is not a truly British plant, but was introduced by the Romans, having been previously evolved by years of cultivation from a wild plant with a slender and worthless root. The culture of the turnip was discontinued in this country for a time, but in the 16th century the Flemings brought in several vegetables, and it is supposed the turnip among them. But for many years after it was chiefly used as human food, being sometimes mixed with flour and made into bread. This was notably the case in 1629 and 1630, which were years of dearth. But in the 18th century Lord Townsend, who was Secretary of State to Kings George Ist and George 2nd greatly promoted the growth of the turnip as a regular farm crop as food for animals, and turnips have for some time taken their place in the four course system of agri- culture—wheat, turnips, barley, clover. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 151 Root crops, including the turnip, Swedish turnip, and a _ root of the chenapodez tribe, the mangel wurzel, have been of great service by providing material for feeding sheep in folds and cattle in stalls during the winter, thus enabling animals to be made fat just at the season when such meat is required, and abolishing the necessity for the old plan of feeding animals fat in the autumn and then killing and salting them for consumption during the winter and spring, a plan which was productive of scurvy and other cutaneous diseases, which were also accelerated by the dearth of green vegetables of the brassica group of _ the cruciferze, which are now in general use. _ The potato is a domesticated plant of the solanum tribe, which has been, and is, of great service to civiliza- tion. The early explorers of America discovered a plant of the solanum tribe with a small, bitter root, growing on the _ sea shore, which plant, having been brought to these _ islands and carefully cultivated, has developed into the large and palatable potato. Besides the fact that. the potato produces a large 4 quantity of wholesome food, without much skill or _ expense being necessary on the part of the grower, there is another advantage connected with the potato which is not, I think, generally appreciated, and that is that the _ potato crop could not be burnt nor easily destroyed in _ other ways in war time. I will give an illustration of this _ from events in the history of Ireland. a oe the Cromwellian | wars OBO. Inshiquin, and .. man and beast. Bepopulation therefore Paanet and the country was reduced to a desert. But some fifty q years or so later, during the war of the Revolution, when King William’s soldiers killed and wasted without control, I52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB the population of Ireland nevertheless kept increasing. This was owing to the potato, which about this time was spreading into cultivation and afforded the Irish and their animals an abundance of food, almost beyond the power of the enemy to destroy, for the potato field cannot be fired like a cornfield, nor when the root is out of the ground can it be destroyed with much facility. It would not be proper for me to conclude my remarks upon domesticated plants without some reference to the flowers which have been artificially reared in our gardens, for they, too, have their bearing on civilization. Among the poor it is well that they should aim at something more than bare existence, and the few bright flowers which adorn the cottage garden in addition to the vege- tables, are an advance beyond the mere necessities of life and are good both on account of the refining influence which flowers exercise even over the roughest natures, and because any nation which keeps too near the line of want soon feels the pinch of poverty in seasons of dearth, since the people have nothing which they can abandon without actual distress. 3 Ireland in 1847 and India at the present time are instances of what I mean. Among the richer classes there is no purer or more healthy and civilizing pleasure than that which is derived from seeing the various flowers springing up in their seasons, refreshing the eye with their lovely hues and gratifying the senses by their fragrance. Some of these flowers bring us acquainted with the flora of foreign lands, while others are monuments of the patient ingenuity and attention with which skilful gardeners have developed their gay forms. Modern civilization is fast filling this country with unsightly rows of brick houses and the din and fumes of steam engines. Such uninteresting sights and sounds PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 153 grow wearying and monotonous, and there is nothing i Bevore refreshing to the spirit than to turn away from them Eeaath nature, has developed and autos iced and has brought into close communion with himself. But in regarding both the domesticated animals and ; - plants as contributors to civilization, we must not forget that there is a yet Higher Power which has been working through all the ages by means of the lower forms for the hhysical and moral progress of mankind. - x * o GLOUCESTERSHIRE RAINFALL BY: ai SS HELPS _ The widespread attention which is now given to the Be resting subject of rainfall statistics may be said to be Be tirely due to the labours of Mr G. J. Symons, who, since the year 1860, has published a yearly record for the British Isles; and the success which has attended his devotion to the work is manifested by the striking increase the number of observers making returns dealt with by m. In the year 1895 these observers were over 3000, the number having been only 1000 in the year 1865. 4 ‘I have long thought that the collection and publication of the earliest known rainfall returns for the County of Gloucester, which, as far as I am aware, have not yet been brought together in an easily available shape, would be of sufficient interest to form a part of the proceedings of the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club, and this more cially as it is the fact that some of the earliest and est and, consequently the most valuable registers been kept by past members of the Club. ave, therefore, endeavoured to make such a collec- of rainfall returns for the county as will form at least basis for a complete record of all such information as ow in existence, and, although Iam quite aware that collection is not as yet an exhaustive one, sufficient erials have come to my hand to warrant a beginning. 156 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB Rainfall records in the British Isles are known to be in existence which go back complete for over 170 years, and, with intervals, for about 50 years more, or over 220 years altogether. The earliest known records for Gloucestershire date back to the years 1774 to 1778: these were taken in Bristol. . Records for the six years 1833 to 1839 were taken by Mr Moss, of Cheltenham, and then come returns which will be found below, kept by Mr T. C. Brown, F.G.S., who was a member of the Cotteswold Club, at Further Barton, near Cirencester, commenced in 1844 and con- tinued by his daughter, Miss E. Brown, F.M.S., to the present date, and another kept by the late Mr J. Curtis Hayward, at Quedgeley, from the year 1844, and con- tinued by his son, Colonel Curtis Hayward, and Mr W.G. Robinson, to the present time. These two registers and that of the late Mr Clegram and the Rev C. J. Jones, at Westbury-on-Severn, are good representative returns from the Hill and Vale; the Forest is not so well represented, the best record which I have as yet discovered being that from Edgehill House, Mitchel- dean, kept by the late Mr Phillips. . The late Dr Burder, who was also a member of the — Cotteswold Club, kept a return at Clifton for the years 1853 to 1865. This register I give, and then follows the return kept by Mr W. B. Clegram, C.E., another member of the © Cotteswold Club, at Saul Lodge, which dates from the year 1858, and which has been continued since Mr Clegram’s death by Mr F. A. Jones, C.E., to the present time. | ; Among the other registers given are those for the Witcombe Water Works, Heath Lodge, Cheltenham, Witcombe Court, Bowden Hall, Westbury Vicarage, | Newnham, Edgehill House, Mitcheldean, and Gloucester. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 157 There are now no less than 75 observers in Gloucester- shire whose returns are yearly published in “Symons’s British Rainfall,” but, in the main, I confine this paper to some of the older and more continuous returns, illus- trative, as far as possible, of the three natural divisions of the County: Hill, Vale, and Forest. For all or most of these records I have calculated the means both of the monthly and yearly falls, and have distinguished by a red line all those figures which exceed the average; thus, I hope, adding to the interest of the information recorded. It may be thought that a register of rainfall such as is here printed is, after all, rather a dry statement, but let us see what may be gathered from one, by analysis and comparison. I take my own register, with which | am most familiar. First of all it should be noted that 14 years, which is my total of observation, is obviously too short a record to give atrue average. This is shown by the fact that the first seven years show an average fall of 30°03, and the last seven of only 25°90: and bya comparison with the fall at Witcombe Waterworks. The recognised standard for calculation is, that the amount of rain increases in ordinary hill districts (not mountains) 2% per cent. per 100 feet of increased eleva- tion. Witcombe Water Works for 34 years gives an average of 29°52. 4 My gauge is over 400 feet higher, and should, therefore, show 10 per cent. more, or 32°67, but the 14 years only _ give 28°02. Witcombe, for the same 14 years, gives _ 27°67, thus proving an increase in the higher station. One point comes out very strongly, viz., the remarkable _ correction afforded by a continuous record. The proverb is quite true—‘ There is no debt so justly paid.as that 158 PROCEEDINGS OF -FHE-COT TES WOLD: CLUB: from the sky to the earth.” In my own return it will be found that the monthly returns have varied as follows :— Jantae es. from “69 to 4°76 |. July ...... from 0°30 to 5°10 Feb: 23 ey Ol- 5. hose Aug. » > O09). Sees Mar FO 20 eee || Sept: » 76. ees Aprile. eo Ome) Oct se: 3. 700) Saas Mayes 2» fa toetee 9 1 Novi 3 -) “O82 aime JUneees. ae Gage 449 | Dero ,°) “40\32aan Showing an average range of as much as from I to I0, and considerably more in individual months. July, for instance, “30 to 5°10, or as I to 17; while the yearly returns have only varied from 20 inches to 36 inches, or as from I to 134. It will be noted, also, that February is the driest month of the year, and that the last six months of the year average 16°07 inches, as against 11°91 for the first six; hence, when February has any heavy fall of rain its effect following on the six wetter months, at a time when evaporation and vegetation are at their lowest, is so apparent in the larger amount of rain finding its way into watercourses as to have given rise to its “fill-dyke” name. Another fact not perhaps recognised, and which can only be shown by daily returns, is that a fall of one inch in 24 hours is not by any means common even to every year. The last which I had was on 12th November, 1894, and there were none in 1892-3, so that four years out of 14 did not have any fall of one inch; in the other 10 years the falls of one inch were rather more than two for each year. A rainfall of three inches in two days has only once fallen within my experience, and the result of this, in the consequent flooding of the road between Gloucester and Birdlip, and the lower parts of Gloucester at the Spa, Wagon Works, &c., is such as to make one thankful that in our temperate climate we have not to contend with the PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 159 enormous rainfall with which some parts of the world are regularly visited. In a severe thunderstorm, as much as ‘15 to 20 will fall in as many minutes, or at the rate of O'OI per minute. A fall of from O'10 to 0'15, between 9 a.m. and 9 p.m., will make quite a wet day. Since writing this, I note in the “Times” of 8th February, the results of a fall of less than three inches. in five days following upon a wet January, where, speak- ing of the district round Lincoln, it is stated that “ Thousands of acres of land are flooded in Lincolnshire, and the loss to agriculturists will be incalculable. _ Many houses in Lincoln are flooded, and at three of the _ large engineering establishments work had to be stopped. The bank of the Fossdyke Canal, at a point seven miles west of Lincoln, gave way just as a barge was passing, and the vessel was carried by the sudden rush of water partly over the bank. It would have been taken right into the adjoining field had not the captain realised _the position, and dropped anchor.” _ * What would be the effect on the Severn Valley of a fall of 40 inches in one night, as reported to me last year by the Rey Canon Parker through a relative in the Mauritius ? _ But without contemplating any such a visitation, it is clear that the Severn Valley would become largely un- - inhabitable with a rainfall of 80 inches per annum, such as is common to the N.W. Coast of Scotland, and that but for the marvellous adaptations of nature, if the rainfall at Clifton were common to Tewkesbury, its Severn - meadows would be very prejudicially affected. Eleven inches more per annum fall at Clifton than at Tewkesbury. An interesting and practical point is apparent from the _ return (when given) of the number of days with rain in _ayear. This on my register for 14 years averages 172, _ but it must be remembered that a rainfall day is 24 hours, 160 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB Some observers are enthusiastic enough to take their return both at 9 a.m. and 9 p.m., but the majority, of © which I form one, are content to take it every morning for the previous 24 hours. I have, however, made a compromise by declining to label a fine day as a day with rain, when the gauge showed a fall during the night, and have roughly used a distin- guishing mark for such cases, from which I conclude that from 30 to 40, or even more, days from 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. may be deducted as rainless, thus showing that on the average 230 days out of the 365, or nearly two days out of every three, may be expected to be absolutely without any fall of rain to interfere with either business or pleasure. The relation of the number of days rain to the total also presents noticeable features. In the driest year 166 days give 19°19, or “II for each day of 24 hours; while the wettest year, with 198 days, shows ‘18 for each day; the mean figures are 172 days with ‘16 for each day, so that the more days rain there are the more rain you get on each day, and the less days the. less rain each day. It is obvious that a rainfall of 80 or 90 inches must involve much heavier falls than we ever experience in this county, or there would be no fine days at all, and accord- ingly at Fort William, the station at the base of Ben Nevis, 78°81 falls on 222 days, showing an average for each day of over ‘35, while an east coast station, Lincoln, gives 22°73 on 170 days, or “13 per diem. The observer who lives in a town does so under great disadvantages in respect to rainfall. He can, on a rainy day see only a wet pavement and roof, and a glimpse of open sky, with perhaps a weather cock stuck in the wrong direction, and one rain is very like another; he cannot enjoy or take any interest in a rainfall, or see where it comes from, or goes to. Now on a hill station how THE MATTERHORN -~ Raga © ae ea ee G ey EY BOG rae ae CS" ; wae Be a=) g Wf NOSS HEAD, SHETLANDS, S.E. WIND PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB I61 different it allis!} You go outside the front door and hear a S.E. wind drawing down through the trees on the edge of the hill, and you hardly need to look at the baro- meter to know that it is falling for the passage of a cyclonic depression. You may see from the windows the “badgers brewing in the wood,” a local expression refer- ring to an indication, which requires some explanation. At certain states of the distribution of pressures a warm, or comparatively warm, and saturated current comes over from the south and east and condenses on the colder banks of the Witcombe valley, which faces N., and parts of which never get any warm sun, presenting the appear- ance of a continuous formation of cloud which seems to rise out of the hill side, and which is similar to that, to com- pare small things with great, observed to advantage on such places as, for instance, the peak of the Matterhorn, or Noss Head, Shetlands, when a. warm and moist wind passing a cold headland forms a continuous stream of cloud. When, therefore; the “ badgers are brewing,” rain is not far off; these floating clouds are visible until a large amount of rain has fallen, but when the balance of temperature is restored “ the brewing is done.” With the advance of the depression the regular succes- sion of weather may be watched—from halo, gloom, muggy weather, drizzly rain S.E. to S., driving rain, passage of trough S. to S.W. Squall or showers W. to N.W., when the sky clears with cumulus clouds and blue sky, and the Forest Hills, the Black Mountains, and Brecon Beacons become visible. This is a clearness of distant views not forecasting rain. At another time the rain storms may be seen on the Forest side working up the valley, obscuring, and again leaving clear, the Forest Hills. May Hill, more distant hills in Herefordshire, and the range of the Malverns, and sometimes, though only to a partial extent, striking across the Severn Valley. 162 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB If you see a moon with a greasy ring of halo at about twice the distance of its apparent size you may expect half an inch of rain in the night. It has been noted that rainfall observers are generally long-lived ; probably the regular habits acquired by a daily visit to a rain gauge, with the consequent distraction from other cares, may have something to do with this. In 52 years 18,980 rainfall observations will have been taken, and if to this be added, as is very common, the readings of a barometer, dry and wet, maximum and minimum, and ground thermometers, the number is no less than 113,880. The amount of rainfall is most important with reference to water supply—a question which is yearly attaining greater prominence, and which will some day, for England with its dense population, present one of the problems of the age, even if this time may not be said to have already arrived. In considering this aspect of returns, attention should be paid to the area of woodland which, especially when at a good elevation, has a large influence over and above that produced by the tendency of a thickly-wooded district to attract and detain low-lying clouds, and so increase the recorded rainfall. I am disposed to think that this influence is perhaps insignificant in comparison with the precipitation induced by trees at a time when rain does not actually fall. When the air is saturated with moisture short of the formation of rain, you may see under a large beech tree in the winter quite a stream of water coursing down the bark, and a heavy shower of rain falling from the branches, so much so that, ona light, oolite soil, a large area round each tree will be found to be saturated with moisture and, even, standing in puddles of water. I am not aware that the amount of this precipitation, as distinguished from PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 163 rainfall, has been measured and recorded, but it must be very considerable, especially when a large area of wood- land is present. In a severe frost the same effect is continued by the formation of ice, every twig bearing at times an inch, or even two inches, of frozen moisture extracted from the air. When this is dislodged and falls under the influence of the morning sun a very beautiful effect is produced, and one which, once seen, is not easily forgotten. In connection with this it is very noticeable how far from any town smoke products are present in the air, which now become visible by a black deposit in the ice. The same deposit is found to be present on the leaves of trees, for instance, in shooting through a cover of young larch which, even on the top of the Cotteswold Hills above Cheltenham, will quite blacken the hands and clothes. By the kindness of Mr J. G. Symons, I am able to show you a rainfall map for the British Isles. This was constructed 30 years ago, and was published with the sixth report of the Rivers Pollution Committee, and is the one which is reduced in Huxley’s “ Physiography.” Mr Symons, in sending it to me, writes that of course he could doa better now, but that he cannot get the time. You will see that the only details given for this county are a rainfall from 25 to 30 inches over the whole county, except the Cotteswold district, &c., where it is given as 30 to 40 inches. On such a small scale map, further niceties cannot perhaps be easily shown, but bearing in mind that the key to the amount of rainfall is the physical configuration of the land in relation to the direction of the rain-bearing winds, you will see that the mountains of Ireland, Cornwall, Wales and Scotland, dispose of all the heavier rains ; and that not more than from 35 to 40 inches reaches our coast, if I may use the expression (the S.W. boundary of the county). This maximum gradually thins 164. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COT'TESWOLD CLUB out up the Central Severn Valley, as shown by the follow- ing figures :— No. of Years Average Rlifton.(Dr.Burder): . = s22:. AQ. ak... 34°11 iito, Wk. Fs Sturse(to-1039). 34 ~is23 35°51 EEK GION = prise ates 9. 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I 06.1 cyst | sayouy | soyuy | sayouy 7 ‘tay UWVIN ada | Nvf | MWA —_—eenreee OO MOS ‘punors aroqr soyout WALSAONAMID NOW va LAIN NMOWA “A %Q VAALM OA [PAZ] vas DAOqe jooy Cech LV SSIN ¥ SOA UA a NMOWE Ive ‘DO SVWOHL Cc / SuVvarA OMT A LAs A ash Say NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS ON THE EARTHQUAKE OF DECEMBER THE 17TH, 1896 CONTRIBUTED BY MEMBERS OF THE COTTESWOLD-CLUB, AND EDITED BY THE REV. H. H. WINWOOD, VICE-PRESIDENT The earthquake which occurred with especial severity in the Cotteswold and neighbouring districts on the morning of Thursday, the 17th of December, 1896, has not unjustly been characterised by Mr Symons as the greatest English earthquake (except the Essex one, in 1884) of modern times. It was therefore thought that a permanent record of the occurrence would find an appro- priate place in the Proceedings of the Cotteswold Club, and a circular was sent by the Secretary to all the members, requesting those who had made any definite and noteworthy observations of the phenomenon, or who had heard any really trustworthy accounts of the details of it from others, to commit them to paper and send _ them in; for the purpose of forming the basis of a short _ report on the subject. As an indication of the kind of information which ‘ would be most useful, the following series of questions, _ formulated by Dr C. Davison, F.G.S., who has made _ seismology his special study, was sent with the circular, 188 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB and members were asked to arrange their replies under the heads given. It is to be feared that this request was taken too literally by some, at any rate; for many of the replies are severely tabular, and hardly take the form of a continuous, succinct narrative, such as would be best suited for transference verbatim to the pages of the Proceedings. THE CHIEF POINTS ON WHICH INFORMATION RESPECTING THE EARTHQUAKE IS DESIRED (ORMULATED-BY DR -C. DAVISON,, F:G,5.) 1.—Name of the place where the shock was felt. 2.—Situation of the observer. (a) Whether indoors (and on which floor of the house) or in open air; (b) How occupied at the moment of the shock. 3-—Time at which the shock was felt ; if possible, to the nearest minute, 4.—Nature of the shock: (a) Was any tremulous motion felt before the principal vibrations, and for how many seconds? (b) How many principal or prominent vibrations were felt, and for how many seconds did they last? (c) Was any tremulous motion felt after the principal vibrations, and for how many seconds? (d) Did the movement gradually increase in intensity and then die away, or were there two or more maxima of intensity or series of vibrations ; and, if so, what was the interval between them, and the order of their intensity? (e) Were the principal vibrations strongest near the beginning, the middle, or the end of the series ? (f) Was any vertical motion perceptible, and, if so, was the movement first upward and then downward, or vice versa ? 5-—Duration of the shock in seconds, not including that of the accompanying sound. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 189 6.—Intensity of shock: Wasit strong enough (a) To make windows, doors, fire-irons, &c., rattle ; (b) To cause the chair or bed on which the observer was resting to be perceptibly raised or moved ; (c) To make chandeliers, pictures, &c., swing, or to stop clocks ; (d) To overthrow ornaments, vases, &c., or cause plaster to fall from the ceiling ; (e) To throw down chimneys, or make cracks in the walls of buildings ? 7-—Sound phenomena: (a) Was any unusual rumbling sound heard at the time of the shock, and, if so, what did it resemble? (b) Did the beginning of the sound precede, coincide with, or follow, the beginning of the shock, and by how many seconds? (c) Did the end of the sound precede, coincide with, or follow, the end of the shock, and by how many seconds? (d) Did the sound become gradually louder and then die away? (e) Did the instant when the sound was loudest precede, coincide with, or follow, the instant when the vibrations were strongest, and by how many seconds ? (f) Did the sound change in character at or about the time when the vibrations were strongest ? 8.—If any slight shocks were felt before or after the principal shock, a list of them with their times of occurrence would be most useful, together with answers for each shock to any of the above questions, ‘especially to Nos. 4, 6, and 7, the notes relating to each shock being kept separate. The following thirteen members (a rather small pro- portion out of a total of about a hundred) responded to the appeal :— Mr M. W. Colchester-Wemyss (President) (Westbury-on-Severn) Sir Brook Kay (Cheltenham) Rev. E. Cornford (Secretary) (Cheltenham) Sir J. E. Dorington (Stroud) Mr A. S. Helps (Birdlip) Mr W. Leigh (Woodchester) Mr G. E. Lloyd Baker (Hardwicke) 190 . PROCEEDINGS OF “THE COTTESWOLD CLUB Mr H. G. Madan (Gloucester) Mr W. H. Mellersh (Cheltenham) Mr W. L. Meredith (Gloucester) Dr T. Ringer (Cheltenham) Mr C. H. Stanton (Stroud) Rev. H. H. Winwood (Vice-President) (Bath) In giving a general summary of the information supplied, it is proposed to adhere to the order of Dr Davison’s series of questions, and to preserve, as far as possible, the individuality of the replies. 1.—THE LOCALITY OF THE OBSERVATION It will be seen from the above list that the records come from places situated on or near the line of the Cotteswold escarpment—from Cheltenham on the north, to Bath on the south—the majority coming from Chelten- ham and Gloucester. 2.—THE POSITION AND OCCUPATION OF THE OBSERVERS With two exceptions—Mr Meredith and Mr Mellersh —all were (as they should be) asleep in their bedrooms, the latter being, in all cases except two, on the first floor of the house. 3.—THE TIME AT WHICH THE SHOCK WAS FELT Here discrepancies occur in the accounts which would be remarkable and almost inexplicable but for the fact that nearly all the observers were aroused from a state of sleep and took an indeterminate time to collect their senses and consult their watches. Probably the most reliable statements are those of the two observers who happened (I suppose I must say fortunately) to be awake at the time, viz., Mr Meredith, who dates the commencement of the shock at “5h. 33m. a.m., Greenwich time,” and Mr Mellersh, who gives PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB I9QI 5h. 34m. a.m. Mr Madan estimates that the whole occurrence was comprised within the limits of 5h. 32m. and 5h. 32m. 45s.a.m. Other records vary from 5h. 29m. to 5h. 40m. a.m.,a difference of I1 minutes. This may partly be accounted for by inaccuracies of clocks, certainly not by the progressive movement of the earthquake wave past the places of observation, for these tremors are calculated to have travelled at the rate of thirty miles per minute. 4a.—THE NATURE OF THE SHOCK The bulk of the evidence appears to show that the principal vibrations were not preceded by any tremulous motion, at least, the latter was not noticed, owing possibly to the fact of its not being sufficiently strong to arouse the sleepers. One observer, however, Mr Mellersh, who was awake at the time, states that “the shock began with a distinct tremulous motion, which merged into prominent vibrations, increasing in intensity and then dying away.” Neither is there any record of such tremulous motion having been felt after the principal shock, though there is a general agreement as to the gradual increase in the intensity of the shock. Mr Helps states that “the shocks increased to a maximum, the final vibrations being shorter, and hardly, if at all, less intense than the maximum.” Dr Ringer says that “the movement gradually increased in intensity and then died away, the principal vibrations being strongest near the middle of the series.” Sir Brook Kay considers that “they were more violent towards the end.” Mr Madan states that “there were at least two maxima of vibration, one dying away and followed almost imme- diately by another, which latter was the most violent of the two.” I92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB Mr Meredith’s report (which, from his long experience as an engineer, and from the fact of his being fully awake at the time, is worthy of especial attention) includes the following details :—‘“ My attention (being awake) was drawn to a rattling and vibration of the whole house, too strong to be entirely accounted for by the disturbance due to a train which was passing near my house at the time. Thinking that the train had left the rails I jumped up in bed and noted the time, 5h. 33m. a.m. Instantly a second shock occurred, which I at once recognised as an earthquake, and noted all the subsequent incidents. Including the first shock, observations of which were rendered doubtful by the passing train, there were three distinct series of vibrations, separated by intervals of about one or two seconds. The second of these con- sisted of five lateral oscillations, equal to at least one inch horizontal movement, and lasted between two and three seconds. The third shock consisted of seven distinct vibrations, of which the first three were the most severe, and about equal to those of the previous shock. It lasted about four seconds, and all tremulous motion ceased within about two seconds after the distinctly-counted seven of the third shock.” 4b.—THE DIRECTION OF THE OSCILLATIONS It seems to be the opinion of all the observers that the vibratory movement of the earth was entirely horizontal, and not vertical, and that it took place in a plane lying approximately north and south. (Mr Meredith, however, considers it to be N.N.E. and S.S.W.) The following notes by Mr Madan may be quoted in confirmation of this. He says—“I have a barograph (Richard Frére’s pattern) in which the changes in atmospheric pressure are continuously recorded by an ink trace upon a band of paper wrapped round a brass cylinder which is rotated on : PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 193 a vertical axis by clock work. The instrument is screwed firmly to a bracket attached to one of the internal walls of the house. The long arm, or lever, which carries the recording pen is so sensitive to changes of vertical pressure that the mere employment of a housemaid’s brush near the instrument is enough to cause a vertical displacement. of 1-12th of an inch in the ink trace. If, then, there was any vertical movement of the wall during the shock, there would undoubtedly be a straight vertical line observable in the ink trace. If the movement was purely horizontal the pen would be simply jerked away from the paper and would fall back to its former position. I examined the register shortly after the shock and could find no trace whatever of any vertical irregularity in the barometric line.” Mr Madan goes on to say—‘“I have seen here (at Gloucester) one interesting piece of evidence respecting the direction of the earthquake wave. A large iron ornamental vase, weighing at least 3 or 4 cwt., with square pedestal, stands in the middle of a lawn on a square block of stone sunk in the ground. A few hours after the earthquake this vase was found to have been moved side- ways on its stone foundation through a space of about an inch, or rather more. [ laid a long straight lath close to it, and adjusted the lath so as to lie as nearly as possible in the direction of displacement. I then took compass readings near each end of the lath (to eliminate any deflexion due to the mass of iron). The mean of the readings gives (magnetic) N. 18° 30’ E. as the direction in which the vase had been shifted by the movement of the earth underneath it. Since the magnetic declination at Gloucester is now approximately 18° W., this would show that the oscillations took place in a plane lying very nearly due (geographical) north and south.” 194. PROCEEDINGS OF “THE COTTESWOLD CLUB Sir J. Dorington mentions a fact which seems con- firmatory of the above estimate of the direction of the wave. He says—“ A pane of glass in a mullion window in my house (near Stroud) was cracked from top to bottom by the earthquake. This window lies in a plane nearly north and south, which perhaps indicates that the vibration passed from N. to S. or vice versa. If the pane had been broken by an E. and W. oscillation, it would have cracked horizontally and not vertically.” 5.—THE DURATION OF THE SHOCK This is variously stated. Only five attempts to estimate it were made, and these range from 3 seconds to 45 seconds. Mr Meredith says—‘‘ The whole earthquake did not last more than 10 or II seconds from beginning to end.” 6.—THE INTENSITY OF THE SHOCK This seems to have varied very much in different localities, but in no case is any serious structural damage recorded by the observers (except in one or two instances at Gloucester). All agree in reporting that the vibrations were sufficient to make doors, windows, jugs, &c., rattle, and to ring bells on shutters. The minimum of disturb- ance seems to have occurred at Cheltenham and Stroud, where no permanent displacement of things was observed. Mr Colchester-Wemyss (Westbury) mentions that china was thrown off shelves into the middle of the room. Mr Lloyd Baker (Hardwicke) says that a bottle on his dress-— ing table was upset, and that two or three vases and ornaments about the house were thrown down or broken. At Gloucester, besides the displacement of the massive iron vase already alluded to, several chimneys were partly or wholly shaken down, and a fair amount of damage was done to glass and crockery. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB) 195 47.—THE CHARACTER AND INTENSITY OF THE SOUND ACCOMPANYING THE QUAKE Here the usual and obvious difficulty of distinguishing between the sound of shaking doors, windows, furniture, &c., and the true earth sound-wave is felt by many of the observers. At least two were not conscious of having heard any sound either preceding, accompanying, or following the vibrations. The others describe the sound phenomena in various ways. Mr Colchester-Wemyss compares the noise to “that which a traction engine would make.” Mr Lloyd-Baker heard “a rumbling sound as if a wagon had run against the house.” Mr Helps, on the edge of the oolitic formations, likens the noise in its intensity to “that of Niagara Falls.” Mr Winwood, to “the roaring and rumbling of wind in a chimney.” Mr Madan speaks of it as a “ rattling and grinding sound like that of a load of bricks emptied out of a cart.” Mr Meredith thinks it was similar to “the sound of an under- ground explosion as heard by a person on the surface.” Most of those who noticed the sound and its character consider it as coincident with the vibrations, increasing in intensity with them and dying away as they ceased. Mr Madan, however, is pretty sure that the greatest oscillation of the bed occurred a second or two later than the maximum of sound, and this is likely to have been the case, since sound waves are known to travel through rocks faster than vibrations of the whole mass. 8.—SUBSIDIARY SHOCKS No one appears to have noticed any minor shocks or noises during the hours preceding or following the occur- rence of the principal sets of vibrations above described. A few remarks may be offered, in conclusion, respect- ing the area affected. Mr Symons (Meteorological Magazine, Jan. 1897, p. 178) considers that this earthquake 196 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB was one of a series which have occurred at various times during the last 600 years over approximately the same area. The damage done (which is, of course, a rough measure of the intensity of the shocks) seems to have been chiefly confined to a district included within lines drawn through Worcester, Hereford, Ross, Dursley, and Gloucester, a space about 30 miles in length and about half that amount in breadth. This district Dr Davison (in a letter to “Nature ” of Dec. 24th, 1896) considers to contain the epicentre, though the exact position of the latter is not yet definitely ascertained. The total area, however, over which the seismic disturbance was felt, was very much greater than the district above mentioned, and includes nearly the whole of England and Wales—a space nearly ten times as great as that of the Essex earthquake of 1884, though the intensity of the latter was much greater. Mr Symons, in the article above referred to, estimates the rate of progress of the disturbance at about 30 miles per minute, from Hereford as a centre. Perceptible shocks, according to Mr Lowe (Proc. British Meteor. Society, vol. 1863-65, p. 59), are much more frequent than is generally supposed; and it is believed that a shock occurs on an average every six days somewhere in the British Isles, and that they are more frequent in winter than in summer. VOL. XII PART III : 7 . PROCEEDINGS OF THE Cotteswold Uaturalists’ Pet D CLUB For 1897—1898 President j M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS Vice- Presidents Pay =F RED. SMITHE, M-A., LL.D:,:-F:G.S. JOHN BELLOWS Rev. H. H. WINWOOD, M.A., F.G.S. EDWARD B. WETHERED, F.G.S., F.C.S., F.R.M.S. [SE JONES CHRISTOPHER BOWLY, M.A.I. Ponorarp Creagurer Ae S, HELPS Honorary Accretarp S. S. BUCKMAN, F.G.S., (CHELTENHAM) —EEEEEE ‘THE COUNCIL OF THE CLUB WISH IT TO BE DISTINCTLY UNDERSTOOD THAT THE AUTHORS ALONE ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE FACTS AND OPINIONS CONTAINED IN THEIR RESPECTIVE PAPERS. —E—SEeE _ Contents Tue Presipent’s Appress at the Annual Meeting at Gloucester, 1898. q “Chalk under the Microscope. By CHARLES UPTON, with Plate A. Observations of a Cycle Tour. By S. S. BuckMaN, F.G.S. Recent Discoveries in the Geology of the Malvern Hills. By C, CALLAWAY, D.Sc., F.G.S. _ Beyerstone Church and Castle, and Malmesbury Abbey. By F. W. WALLER. as. PUBLISHED, SEPTEMBER, 1898. PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY JOHN BELLOWS, GLOUCESTER. s 208663 The Library of the Club is at Mr John Bellows’, Eastgate, Gloucester. _ It is open every Tuesday afternoon from 2.30—4.30, when ‘books may be examined, or borrowed. Books, Pamphlets, etc., presented to the Club should be addressed to The Cotteswold Club, The Library, East- gate, Gloucester. PROGEE DINGS OF THE Pett eaVOkD NATURALISTS FIELD CLUB For 1897—1898 PRESIDENT M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS HONORARY SECRETARY Ss, BUCKMAN E.G. Vol. XII. Part III. 1898 —* Se UCC Ae eA Be A DD BHESS:S ; TO: THE COTTESWOLD NATURALISTS? FIELD CLUB, MAY 16th, 1898, BY M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS, PRESIDENT. During the year the Club has sustained a severe loss by the death of its late Honorary Secretary, the Rev. E. Cornford. With the exception of two years spent in South Africa, when he was first ordained, his whole career was passed in Gloucestershire, until the last few months of his life, when he accepted the living of Shipton Bellinger, near Andover, where he died on New Year’s day last. A resident for many years in Cheltenham, he took an active part in public life, and his leisure hours were devoted to natural science, of which he was an ardent student, and a keen observer. On the death of Professor Harker he was appointed Honorary Secretary of our Club, and on resign- ing that office he was elected a Vice-President. Since his death, Mrs Cornford has presented the Club with his collection of fossils, the result of the devotion of many years to the study of geology. This gift will be highly appreciated ; it will form a fitting and lasting memorial of a most regular attendant at the Club Meetings, who will be greatly missed by the members, to nearly all of whom he was intimately known. N 198 PROGEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB Since this address was penned there has occurred the death of another officer whose loss will be long and severely felt: William Charles Lucy, lately our President, one of our oldest and ablest members, has passed away, full of years, honoured and respected by everyone. It is most desirable that some record of his life should appear in our Proceedings. No one is better able to write this record than his old friend, John Bellows. To him I tele- graphed a request to render the Club this service. He most kindly and promptly responded with the following letter : “Tt will be the desire of every member of the Cottes- “wold Club that some expression should be given to the ‘sorrow we all feel at the loss of our most valued mem- “ber, and late President, William Charles Lucy. ‘All through the most vigorous period of our history “as a society, his name has been associated with it as the “most active of its workers, not only from the material “he has left in permanent record in our Proceedings, but “from the aid he has given us, verbally, in our summer “excursions, and in our winter meetings, as well as by his ‘individual study at other times, of areas both at home “and abroad, which offered features of geological interest. “For a large part of his life William Lucy held a lead- “ing position as a merchant of Gloucester: a position “won by-a unison of ability and uprightness such as is “not very common, even where these qualities are separ- “ately present. In using the word ‘ability, Ido not mean “that he was a brilliant, or a remarkably original man. He “was not: but he possessed an insight into the broad “bearings of whatever he had to decide upon, and a pru- “dence that made his judgment valued, and sought after. “This led to his being weighted with an amount of work “under which a less patient and methodical man would ‘have failed hopelessly. Not only as a merchant carrying ‘ PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 199 “on a large foreign business, as a director of the Bank, “and of the Canal Company, as chairman of the Severn “Bridge Railway Company, as a Magistrate, and as a ‘““member of I know not how many local committees, was “the estimate shown in which he was held by the busi- “ness men of the community; but he was continually “appealed to by unbusinesslike people to help them in “their dilemmas, some of which must sorely have tested “his patience. I recollect an occasion when I had “accidentally become aware of such a task that had been ‘unreasonably laid upon him; I asked why he should be “expected, busy as he already was, to give his time to it; “he said, with his wonted quiet smile, ‘they come to me “because I am a busy man; for if you want a thing done, “you are more likely to get it attended to by a busy man “than by an idle one: he must get it out of the way; “but the man of leisure puts it off till some other time, “and perhaps never does it at all.’ “The real motive for his undertaking so much extrane- “ous work was his sympathy with others—especially “with those least able to help themselves. He gave _ “the same painstaking and interested attention to secur- “ing the savings of a poor needlewoman, so as to _ “make her lonely old age comfortable, that he did to the _ “management of the thousands invested by his wealthier _ “friends in the bank, or in the Severn Bridge. Apropos _ “of the Bridge, I know that at one period he would gladly, : “have retired from the Chairmanship, to take more rest ; Be but he told me that as he had been the means of “some persons placing their money in it, he felt they - “would be easier if the management were in his hands _ “than if it were intrusted to anyone else—‘and so for. ““their sakes,’ he added, ‘I am keeping on.’ “Not personal gain, but the happiness of others; not “self first, but duty first, was the continuous motive of N2 - 200 , FRECCEEDINGS ‘OFS [HE -COTTES WOLD ‘CE@B “William Lucy’s daily life. He was very reticent, even to “an intimate friend, of speaking of his own inner state, “but his conduct and his spirit manifested it more clearly “than words. “Wisely forseeing the danger of confining his circle of ideas too exclusively to business matters, he chose the “study of geology as a relaxation from the cares of bread- “winning. This enforced a little leisure on him, and “gave interest to his country walks, which as we all know “was shared by many of his friends: and more especially “by the members of this Club. How excellent a leader “he was to us, as our President, every one of us will “testify. It was my own lot, besides so often accompany- “ing the Club under his guidance in our field excursions, “to share his walks for hundreds of miles, both in Eng- “land and on the Continent; and as I look back on “these journeys I am reminded of some of those little “acts of self-denial, and of consideration for others, that “so endeared him to those who knew him. I have said “little acts’: but they were little only in the sense that ‘the ruby or the diamond are so: for it is precisely such “acts that build up the ultimate character. For forty “years I knew William Lucy very intimately. I have seen “him lifted on the wave of prosperity without losing his “balance of simplicity and humility in the smallest degree. “T have seen him plunged into disappointment, and trial, “and sorrow, and yet bear himself with the same quietude “and sweetness of spirit that he had shown in his happier “days. Age, that for some men is dark and unlovely, “was not so with him; and now that it, too, is closed we “have seen in it the fitting end of a life spent in the “patient endeavour to do justly, to love mercy, and to “walk humbly with God. We know not what there is “beyond our sight, or in another state of existence; but “we do know that a life so spent cannot fail of its “ reward.” ee oe ae PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 20I During the year there has also passed away one of the last, if not the last, link between the Cotteswold Club of to-day and of fifty years ago. The Rev. P. B. Brodie, F.G.S., who died in November last, was one of the earliest members of the Club, for he was elected in 1849; and as President of the Warwickshire Field Club he was an ex-officio honorary member of our Club at the time of his death. While curate of Down Hatherley, from 1840-1853, he was an earnest student of geology, and contributed some valuable papers to the Club’s Proceedings. After leaving Gloucestershire he continued his geological in- vestigations with great zeal, chiefly devoting himself to a study of insects and vertebrates. The collections he made in these two branches of Palzeontology, in the course of half-a-century, were unique. About three years ago the British Museum acquired many of his specimens of fossil _ yertebrates, and it has now purchased the rarer and unique _ examples from his collection of fossil insects. The name of Brodie ranks with those of Wright, Lycett, Buckman, Lucy, Jones, Witchell and other early members whose contributions to geological science have shed great lustre ‘upon the Cotteswold Club. During the year four Field Excursions have been made : _ one to the Forest of Dean, the next to Beverstone and ~ Malmesbury, the third to the neighbourhood of Chelten- ham, the last to Thornbury and Aust Cliff. __ The day’s programme in the Forest of Dean (May 24th) : included a descent of the Trafalgar Colliery, an inspection _ of an Electrical Fuse Factory, and a visit to some stalactite _ caves near Symond’s Yat. = In the prosecution of these scientific objects, some -yery lovely parts of the Forest of Dean were passed through, especially lovely at the time as many of the en- closures were seen to be literally carpeted with masses of 202, PROCEEDINGS “OF THE COTTES WOLD CLUB the beautiful flowers of wild hyacinth. Fortunately times have altered since the publication of an ancient book on Forest Laws, called “the Book of Denys,” which in- forms us that “noe stranger of what degree soever hee “bee but onely that beene borne and abideing within the “Castle of St Brevills and the bounds of the Forest as is ‘aforesaid shall come within the mine to see and to know “ye privities.” No penalties however were incurred by the members of the Club who, thanks to the courtesy of Mr. Frank Brain, were enabled to descend some hundred fathom at the Trafalgar Pit, to see something of the method of winning the coal in one of the largest and best appointed mines in the County of Gloucester. One interesting feature at Trafalgar is the extent to which electricity is, and for a long time has been used as a motive power. The whole of the haulage on one of the main roads in the Pit, with a gradient of about I in 5 (up which the loaded trucks have to be pulled), is done by electric motors supplied by dynamos above ground. Electrical energy is also extensively used for lighting both above and below ground; and there are many pumps in different parts of the Pit which are worked by the same power. Its ready capacity for transmission renders it peculiarly applicable for this special work. After luncheon at Symond’s Yat, the afternoon was spent by some members in exploring the Coldwell Rocks, by others in visiting the interesting stalactite caves at the Elysian Fields, by the remainder in a placid contemplation of the beautiful work of nature so lavishly displayed on woodland, cliff, and river, in one of the most lovely valleys in the kingdom. The second excursion of the season was to Beverstone and Malmesbury, on June 19th. The members assembled at Nailsworth Station, thence they drove over the Cottes- wold Hills to Beverstone, where they spent some time in PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 203 the examination of this most picturesque and interesting village. The remains of the Castle are extensive enough to show that it must have been a place of considerable importance; and the old farm house, partly built out of, and partly embedded in the ruins of the Castle, is very quaint and attractive. From Beverstone a pleasant drive over the hills brought the party to Tetbury, where a halt was made for luncheon, and to allow of a ramble through the streets of this old-world Cotteswold Town. A short distance beyond Tetbury the boundary of the County of Gloucester was passed, and journeying for a few miles through Wiltshire, the party arrived at Malmesbury. The rest of the day was devoted to an examination of the _ Church and other remains of the ancient Abbey of this Town. I have to tender my hearty thanks to Mr. Waller, who acted as guide during the day, for his great kindness in _ furnishing me with some valuable and interesting notes on the Church and Castle of Beverstone, and on the Abbey of Malmesbury. They will be found printed as a _ separate communication in the body of the Proceedings, —p. 249. On July 23rd, the Club spent a most enjoyable day in the neighbourhood of Cheltenham. For its success - the members are largely indebted to Mr. Sawyer for his careful explanations of the archeological items on the _ programme, and to Mr. Buckman for his interesting re- _ marks on geological features. The earlier part of the day’s programme was chiefly of antiquarian interest, and related to the Roman occupation of the bay in which the town of Cheltenham stands. _ Rapidity of transport being an essential feature of the Roman military system, it is obvious that the camps at i _ Leckhampton and Cleeve were connected by a road across 5 PROCEEDINGS -@F =CHE COTTESWOLD GLUB Sir R. J. Murchison * opposed the “ Laurentian” hypo- thesis of Dr. Holl, and contended that the gneisses and schists are metamorphosed Cambrian strata. Much more recently, Mr. F. Rutley t has suggested a modification of the views of Phillips and Holl, and has attempted to construct a succession amongst the foliated rocks. He thinks that the structural planes “sometimes certainly, at others possibly, indicate planes of stratifica- tion.” My attention was first attracted to the Malvern region by Holl’s “baked rocks,” which, from his descriptions, I suspected to be something very different. In 1878, I visited the ground, and was at once able to identify the rocks with our Salopian Pre-cambrian volcanic series, { which is now known as the Uriconian system. Both lavas and ashes were to be recognised in the craggy out- crops, but nothing approaching a succession could be made out. Happily, the local authorities of Malvern, with unconscious benevolence, have come to the aid of science by excavating a reservoir for water in the heart of these volcanic rocks, thus exposing to view excellent sections of the anatomy of the formation. It is now seen that the lavas and ashes clearly alternate with each other in bands which display definite dips and strikes. Mr. H. D. Acland, President of the Malvern Field Club, has published § a short account of the rocks exposed in the cuttings; and it is to be hoped that he will work out the details of this interesting formation. We now come to the crystalline rocks which form the core of the Malvern ridge from end to end. The main * ©Siluria,’ 1867, p. 14. + Quart. Journ., Geol. Soc., Aug., 1887, p. 481. t Quart. Journ., Geol. Soc., 1880., p 536. § Pres. Address; Proc. Malvern Fieid Club, 1893. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 24I1 problem to be solved was the origin of the parallel structure which they so frequently display. Were the older geologists right in concluding that the gneisses and schists were once sedimentary strata, mere beds of clay and sand, which, under the influence of heat and pressure, had been transformed into the likeness of bedded granites and diorites ? In the year 1884, while studying the crystalline rocks of Donegal, I was struck with the fact that in one locality the massive granite of that region was distinctly foliated and bedded, as if it had been formed in layers; yet within a few yards of this foliation, the granite sent out veins into adjacent rocks. It was therefore evident that an apparent bedding was no proof of an original sedimentary condition.* In the following year,f 1 found a similar phenomenon in County Galway. In addition, I ascertained that differ- ent kinds of igneous rocks, intruded into each other and, subjected to pressure, assumed a banded appearance. The different bands were therefore merely compressed veins, and not igneous sediments. These studies led me to undertake an investigation of _ the Malvern crystallines, which I commenced in 1886, and - continued for five years. The results were embodied in a series of three papers to the Geological Society of _ London,f{ the last of which appeared in the Journal for _ 1893. I propose in the present paper to sketch, in un- — technical form, the chief conclusions to which I have been led. All the crystalline rocks of the Malvern chain, excepting _ the volcanic mass at the Herefordshire Beacon, are in * Quart. Journ., Geol. Soc., May, 1885, p. 228. + Ibid., Aug., 1887, p. 517. } Ibid., 1887, p. 525; 1889, p. 475; 1893, p. 398. 242 PROCEEDINGS «OF THE ‘COT TES WOLD CLUE their origin igneous and plutonic, not igneous and sedi- mentary. ‘The apparent stratification is due to pressure, not to deposit under water. The crystalline condition is not superinduced upon an original fragmental structure, but is itself either original or a recrystallization under new conditions. To make the theory clear, a few details are necessary. The Malvern crystallines were once an igneous complex, that is to say, they were a mass of igneous rocks, chiefly a granite, and two or three varieties of diorite, which were intruded into each other in veins, dykes, and masses. The diorites form by far the largest part of the range, and may be well seen in the quarries at North Malvern, in a large quarry in the Hollybush Pass, and indeed almost wherever rock is exposed. The granite is easily distinguished from the dark-green diorites by its pink or reddish colour. It usually forms veins in the diorite, but at the northern end of Swinyard’s Hill, and at several other localities, it appears in considerable masses. The veins vary in thickness from several yards to a scarcely perceptible line. Sometimes they occur in great numbers very close together, and give the rock a distinctly banded appearance. After the rocks of the complex had consolidated—or the greater part of them—the whole mass was subjected to enormous pressures, acting for the most part along a north-east and south-west line, which caused the rock here and there to give way, and flow along planes at right angles to the direction of the compressing force. I say “flow,” but it will be readily understood that the flow of a solid differs from that of a liquid. A solid body yields to the pressure by fracturing; it can give way to the new stresses only by breaking into fragments, and these, as the crushing continues, are forced to shear and slide over each other. They take the form of lenses, thickest in the middle, and thinning towards the edge. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB) 243 These lenses or lenticles are of all sizes, from the dimen- sions of a sofa-cushion down to the minuteness of a wafer. In the granite, which is a very coarse rock, they are much thicker in the middle than they are in the finer-grained varieties of diorite, where they are almost like uniform sheets, though of course they thin out towards the margin. The bands of rock within which shearing and sliding have taken place, I have called “shear-zones.” These zones vary in breadth between a few lines, or inches, and several yards, or hundreds of yards. They usually strike obliquely across the axis of the hills, and their laminated structure gave rise to the belief that they were composed of aqueous sediments subsequently metamorphosed by heat. This hypothesis, I may remark, was at the time, a very natural one, since deposition under water was the only cause known to the older geologists which was capable of producing a laminated or banded structure. I need hardly point out that all this crushing and shear- ing must have been attended with the evolution of heat. _ The rubbing of two sticks against each other will cause _ heat enough to kindle the wood. What then must have been the result of the friction between flakes of solid rock, forced to slide over each other under inconceivable _earth-pressures ? An illustration taken from modern _ Dr. J. W. Redway, of Mount Vernon, New York, writing in “Science,” in 1894,” describes a remarkable accident that happened to some machinery. A cone- _ shaped bearing was found to be too large for the cylindrical _ box in which it was supposed to revolve. Dr. Redway _ goes on to say: “ A speculative workman thought it might _ “wear down to shape, and started the machinery. The “experiment, though of doubtful success from a mechanical Babeby 0; pi. 79; 244° PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB “standpoint, was brilliantly successful in another light. “The bearing and box, both of drop-forged steel, were ‘welded to each other, and broke into a dozen pieces. The “interesting point, however, was the fact that two forgings ‘of laminated steel under the agency of heat were con- “verted toa metamorphic form. At the surface of welding, “the laminated steel became crystalline, and even the parts “at some distance became semi-crystalline. It was a fair “illustration of what is now called ‘ dynamo-metamorph- ““ism. > The ‘writer “then: goes on to comparesthe metamorphism of the steel under the influence of pressure and heat, with the metamorphism of the Malvern rocks as described in my memoirs, and he concludes that “in essential principles” the metamorphism in both cases is of the same kind. With this view I agree, and I point the moral of Dr. Redway’s illustration by asking: If the forces developed in a steam-engine can do so much in such a substance as steel, how much more may be effected by enormous earth-pressures acting upon stone, which, compared with steel, is soft and friable ? That heat was generated during the metamorphism of the Malvern crystallines, can be demonstrated by the direct observation of microscopic slides. The fragments produced by the crushing are seen in an advanced stage of the schist-making to lose their angularity, and to be flattened out into minute cakes. These are often cement- ed together to form larger cakes or lenticles. In the completed gneiss, the fragmental structure is often entirely lost, but sometimes there remain a few crushed crystals of felspar to indicate, like an ill-cooked potato in Irish stew, the origin of the rock. There will be little difficulty in understanding that all this crushing and shearing has been attended by great chemical changes. In the earlier stages, decomposition: sets in; in a later stage, reconstruction occurs. Complex Ee ee 4 PROCEEDINGS! OF SHE COTTESWOLD CLUB 245 minerals are at first broken up into simpler compounds, and these products often form new combinations. Take for example, the change frequently undergone by potash- felspar. This is a silicate of alumina and potash. In the metamorphism, a portion of the silica separates as quartz, and the remainder, in union with the alumina and potash, forms white mica. Apply this change to the metamorph- ism of the Malvern granite. This granite is a coarse crystalline compound of quartz and a reddish potash- felspar. The quartz remains unchanged. A part of the felspar breaks up into quartz and white mica; and the rest is reconstructed in granules, or in small crystals. Thus a binary granite, consisting of quartz and felspar confusedly intermixed, is transformed under pressure into a rock made up of quartz, felspar, and mica, with these minerals arranged in lenticular layers, so as to form a mica-gneiss. Sometimes in the crushing process a portion of the rock proves too tough for the earth-mill, and remains unaffected. Owing to the shearing motion of the sur- rounding mass, this core is made to assume a lenticular form, while the planes of sliding curve round it, just as the current in a rivulet is divided by a boulder in mid-stream, and bends round it on each side. These lenticular cores are galled ¥ eyes, . and the rock containing them is known as “augen-gneiss.” The activity of the chemical forces in the rock will obviously be greatly increased by its crushed condition. _ A crushed granite is almost as porous as a sponge. The _ products of the decomposition of a diorite, such as iron- _ oxide and chlorite, can often be traced into an adjoining ‘sheared granite for many yards, passing between lenticular - flakes and filling microscopic cracks. In this way, heated _ waters containing in solution ahah: alkaline caupuates, 246 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB The change from a massive igneous rock to a well- foliated gneiss or schist sometimes produces in an intermediate stage a curious mimicry of a sedimentary grit. The large quarry at the hamlet of White-leafed Oak exhibits this phenomenon. A coarse-grained diorite is intensely crushed. The felspar is broken up into angular fragments, the hornblende being decomposed into chlorite, iron-oxide, and other compounds. As the pressure in- creased, the fragments were rolled out into thin layers, with the soft green chlorite and the dirty-looking iron-oxide lying between the layers, and among the fragments. The resemblance of this rock to a laminated grit is remarkably close. Ina further stage of metamorphism, this grit is converted into a well-foliated micaceous schist. I must not enter into further details of the new theory of metamorphism. ‘They may be seen in the papers to which I have referred. In conclusion, I will indicate the great variety of gneisses and schists which have been formed out of the few varieties of igneous rocks contained in the Malvern range. One of the most striking effects of the metamorphism is the production of mica. Three varieties of this well- known mineral have been generated in the Malvern rocks, white mica or muscovite, brown mica or biotite, and a silky white mica called sericite. One or more of these micas will be found in all the gneisses and schists in which the metamorphism has proceeded to an advanced stage ; yet in the granites and diorites which have been the raw material of the metamorphism, not a scrap of mica occurs. All the varieties of mica which are found in the Malvern crystallines must therefore be regarded as of secondary origin. These micas are formed in several ways. Potash-felspar, as we have seen, breaks up into quartz and white mica. Soda-lime-felspar may also be a source of mica. But the PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 247 most remarkable change that takes place in the Malvern metamorphism is the generation of mica out of hornblende. The hornblende yields, as a product of decomposition, the soft green mineral called chlorite, a silicate of magnesia combined chemically with water. In a further stage of metamorphism, this chlorite loses water and takes up potash, thus becoming a brown mica. It would seem then that all the principal minerals in the Malvern igneous rocks, except, of course, quartz, may be a source of mica. Granite alone is converted into muscovite-gneiss, as we have already seen. Diorite, a compound of hornblende and soda-lime-felspar, is changed to a hornblende-gneiss, and in a further stage into biotite-gneiss. Sericite-gneiss also may be formed out of diorite. Some of the most interesting gneisses are produced by the interveining of diorite and granite. The contact of the granite with the diorite assists in the production of brown mica, and when _ the veins are numerous and near together, the intervening ' diorite becomes charged with the mica, and a beautiful gneiss results, in which the bands of red granite alternate with dark seams glittering with the mica. These illustrations will perhaps suffice to explain the _ general theory of the metamorphism of the Malvern _ crystallines. A similar theory has been found to apply _ to the old gneissic rocks of the Highlands of Scotland, of _ Scandinavia, and of many other parts of Continental _ Europe, as well as to the so-called Laurentian gneisses of — North America. Indeed, it is now generally admitted that all the older Archaean rocks of the globe are of igneous ‘origin. +e a 5 ; _s. 7 2 oe BEVERSTONE CHURCH AND CASTLE, AND MALMESBURY ABBEY, BY F. W. WALLER. (Read at the Annual Meeting, May 16th, 1898.) BEVERSTONE CHURCH The Church, dedicated to St Mary, was no doubt a originally a Norman structure. It now consists of a “nave, 40 ft. 10in. by 19 ft., a narrow south aisle only 6 ft. wide, and the whole length of the nave, a chancel, 28 ft. Sin. by 14 ft., a chapel on the north side known as the Berkeley Chapel to ft. 6 in. by 11 ft. 6 in., and a western _ tower. _ The arcade between the nave and south aisle is an interesting example of transitional Norman work. This, the doorway under the porch, and the figure which has been inserted in the south wall of the tower are ae about the same date. Lord Berkeley is said to ‘restored, and it is difficult to understand some portions : for instances, the stone coffin-covers built into the south wall 250 PROCEEDINGS “OF THE .COTTES WOLD: CEUB of the nave, and the west wall of the Berkeley Chapel in the 14th century; also the arched canopy under the window in the south aisle, which probably covered a re- cumbent figure; also the skew passage or large squint in the Berkeley Chapel, and the rood stair. Bigland says: “In the great window of the Church are the arms of ‘“ Berkeley, which was probably built by Thomas, Lord ‘“ Berkeley in the Reign of Edward III.” There is an angle piscina at the south-east corner of the chancel very similar to that in the chapel at the Castle. There is a good Edwardian pulpit on a modern stone base. There is no arch or other opening from the Church, though I am told that a small doorway existed previous to the last restoration. The jambs of the chancel arch have been cased on the front apparently, thus much injuring the effect of the responds of the inner arch. Was the floor of the Church formerly lower than at present? See the part by the tomb. I understand that some very interesting mural paintings were destroyed at the last restoration, by being covered up with cement. Some traces of decorative work still remain round the north door. The roof and fittings are all modern. BEVERSTONE CASTLE. I feel very great diffidence in venturing upon any re- marks on the subject of this Castle. The building and its history are most interesting, but I have not had either the time or opportunity for such study as I should have wished in such an exceptional case. Unfortunately no plan of the building exists, either old or new, so far as I have been able to ascertain, and a good plan is an invaluable aid to investigations. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 251 Had time permitted, I would have taken a plan myself; but to plot such a structure as this with fair accuracy, and to lay down the probable lines of the parts which have | wholly or partially disappeared is a considerable undertak- ing, and one needing much careful research. I have only a rough sketch plan for reference. For the following notes I am mainly indebted to Big- land and other known authorities. The place does not appear to have been known in history until ‘‘ Earl Godwine and his patriot host,” marched from here to Gloucester to meet Eustace of Boulogne “in the autumn of 1051.” Godwin did not actually reach Gloucester, so it is said, and the difficulty was got over, and Godwin reinstated in his position; but Sweyne, his son, was outlawed, and died at Beverstone, which they are stated to have seized: it appears in Domes- day Book in 1086 as crown property. There seems to be a doubt as to whether any Castle actually existed here in 1051, though Rudder says “some “accounts expressly say that they (the Godwine’s) seized _ “upon the Castle of Beverstone;” but he does not state ~ whence this information comes. _ It seems probable that there may have been a strong- _ hold here before the present one ; and Blunt calls attention to the fact that “the base of a circular tower of solid “rubble masonry, 24 feet in diameter, was discovered in _ “1873 in the Rectory kitchen garden, opposite the west es face of the great tower of the Castle, and 37 yards dis- Seetantirom it... . .-. and some large chamfered “stones were also found under the Rectory lawn, and “their position seemed to indicate the presence of a gate “of similar age.” Could these have been the remains of an earlier build- » 252 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB Beverstone formed part of the Royal Manor of Berkeley which was Crown land at the Conquest, and was granted by the Conqueror to Roger de Berkeley of Dursley. The Berkeleys having got into trouble in the wars between Stephen and Matilda, the property was granted by Henry II. on his accession, in 1154, to one Robert Fitzhardinge, son of a Bristol worthy; and Robert was born in Bristol. The Manor passed to the 3rd son of Robert Fitzhard- inge, who took the name of de Wearr, from a manor he held in Somersetshire, and then to his son Maurice, who assumed his mother’s name of de Gaunt, and to him is ascribed the building of the Castle of Beverstone in 1225. There would appear, however, to have been great doubts as to his loyalty and intentions; and he was taken to “task” for having fortified his Castle without Royal permission. He seems to have overcome the difficulty, and to have been allowed to complete the work; and Bigland says: “it ‘then became a military fortress, and was probably much “ dilapidated during the Barons’ wars.” Blunt says: “the “lower parts of the Castle are all of this date, massive “Norman piers and groining still remaining in a perfect “condition, with external walls many feet in thickness.” But nearly all appears to me to be of later date. Maurice de Gaunt was succeeded by his nephew, de Gournay, and he again by his son, Anselm, and the latter by his son, John, whose daughter and heiress married John Ap Adam: and their son, Thomas, sold Beverstone to the 8th Lord Berkeley, in 1331, who is said to have reconstructed the Castle, without however destroying all the work of his predecessors. The necessity for reconstruction is explained by Big- land’s note as to the dilapidations during the Barons’ wars. There is a curious point connected with this recon- struction; the funds are said to have come from the PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 253 ransom of prisoners taken by Lord Berkeley, at Poictiers, (1356) but Lord Berkeley’s eldest son, Maurice, was taken prisoner there by the French. Why was it that Lord Berkeley did not first ransom his son—was he an un- natural parent, or the son an unsatisfactory person ? The Manor next passed to Sir John Berkeley, and remained in that family for over 200 years. It was sold by another Sir John, the last of the Berkeleys of Bever- stone, to Sir John Pointz, in 1579, and successively to Henry Fleetwood, Sir Thomas Earstfield, Sir Michael Hicks, and in 1842 to Mr Holford, whose son, Captain Holford, is the present owner. -__- During the early part of the 17th century, Smyth says that the Castle was kept in good repair, and was “ often “inhabited by the Lord thereof;” but by 1840 it had become a farm house, for Nicholas Shipway (farmer) of the Castle was buried on August 27th, 1640. Subsequently, during _ the Civil Wars, the Castle was a point of contention _ between the opposing forces, its position being important for strategic reasons. It was held first by the Royalists in 1643-4, but Colonel Massey determined, if possible, to take ee it. . __ There is an interesting and somewhat amusing account of his first endeavour in this direction :— “Colonel Massey brought up his men and two sakers _ “against Beverstone Castle, when having surrounded it he _ “planted his guns within pistol shot of the gate and gave A “fire several times.” “Fifty musketeers ran up to the gates at noonday and _ “fixed a petard, which nevertheless failed in execution.” _ “Those from within threw grenades amongst our men, ~ “but hurt none, who, although thereby forced from the ba gate, ran up a second time, being open to the full shoot “of a secure enemy, and brought of the petard with much e gallantry.” 254. PROCEEDINGS..OF THE COTTESWOLD -CLUB The attempt to take the Castle was abandoned for the time, but a second effort was more successful. The Governor, Oglethorpe, while away from his duties, as some say courting a fair lady in the neighbourhood, paid for his temporary abberation by being taken prisoner ; and Massey, suddenly appearing before the Castle, and de- manding its surrender, it was yielded to him, and from thence held by the Puritans. According to Bigland, the Castle was burnt down soon after the siege, and a large dwelling house built within its walls; that house was also burnt in 1691, and replaced by the present farm house. But this hardly seems pro- bable, it is more likely that the Castle was dismantled, and the old Hall turned into a farm house, as suggested by Blunt, and that this old hall, adapted as a farm house, was the house which was burnt previous to the erection of the present one. Next, with regard to the building itself, of which I must regret there was no time to make a good plan. As before suggested, it is possible that an earlier strong- hold may have existed, and that the remains found in the Rectory garden were part of it; and there may be remains of the Castle of 1225 in the lower portions and founda- tions of the present building, but it appears to me to be for the most part Edwardian. Blunt gives the following general description :—‘* The ‘reconstruction of the Castle by Lord Berkeley left it a “fine quadrangular structure, with—so tradition states— ‘four towers (though only two now remain) a Barbican, “a large Banqueting hall on the site now occupied by the “dwelling house of the Castle Farm, and a moat im- “mediately under the walls of the Towers and Curtains.” “The western face of this Edwardian Castle still re- ‘mains, consisting of a large square Tower, 34 ft. by 30 ft., “at the southern end, a smaller one, 24 ft. square, set PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB) 255 “angularly at the northern end, and a curtain between “them containing roomy galleries, the whole side extend- “ing to 123 ft. The distance from the outside of this “face to the outside of the Barbican is 165 ft.; the whole “area of the Castle within the moat may thus be reckoned “at 2255 sq. yards, and the Court Yard must have been “ of small dimensions.” “The great tower at the southern end of the west side “consists of three storeys, and is 60 ft. in height. The “lower storey formed an entry and a guard room, the “latter being lighted by a beautiful ogee leaded window, _ “which remains extremely perfect, as may be seen from _ “the bank of the moat.” “The ascent from the entry is by a newell staircase in “an octagonal turret, which seems to have been added on “to the main tower in a very insecure manner.” “The large chamber above the guard room and entry “was probably appropriated originally to domestic use, “but turned into a Chapel early in the 15th century, two “sedilia and a piscina having been added, which are ; elaborately carved ina shallow and rather debased style “of art.” “ Another large chamber occupies the tower above this, “forming the third storey ; and northward of this is the “more ancient Chapel, which is situated in the curtain, “and beyond which is another chamber nearly as large as _ “that in the tower.” _ “There are double slits or squints on both sides of this _ “Chapel, so that although it is not large enough to hold a “dozen persons, more than a hundred could be accommo- - ‘dated in the chambers on either side, most of whom “could obtain a view of the altar through these squints, “and all could distinctly hear the service which was going eon there.” 256 PROCEEDINGS* OF -THE GOTTESWOLD “CLUB “The only trace of the Great Hall is the mark of the “weather table, on the inner wall of the table adjoining “the Great Tower.” ‘ Below this is the roof of the present dwelling house, “which preceded this, and which was burnt down, was “the great hall itself, divided by floors and partitions.” “A noble gallery which, with the narrow passage be- “tween its western wall, and the exterior wall of the ‘Castle, occupied the second storey of the curtain, is “now roughly divided, and used as store rooms for farm “ produce.” “A handsome stone chimney piece of 18th century “workmanship, shows how recently it was used.” ‘“ Beneath it, on the level of the courtyard, are vaulted “offices, which are now used as dairy and brewhouse.” “Lower still, is the only underground portion of the “Castle, a gloomy ‘dungeon, which lies immediately “under the west end of the upper Chapel.” “This vault, whatever its use may really have been, is ‘entered by a door near the guard room.” “The northern, or angular tower, has nothing remain- ‘ing of its interior dimensions except the vaulting of the “floor chamber, which is used as a coal cellar.” ‘Above the vaulting the tower is gutted to the roof, ‘which itself is modern.” “Tf there was ever a curtain on the northern side of “the Castle not a trace of it remains, nor is there any of “the other two towers, which are said to have completed “the square of the fortress.” ‘ ‘ MALMESBURY ABBEY CHURCH In placing these notes before you I can lay no claim to original research: I fully acknowledge my indebtedness to a most valuable paper by the late Mr. E. A. Freeman, PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD: CLUB - 257 and to an article, with a plan, which appeared in the “ Builder,” in March, 1895. I do not propose to enter into any detailed account of the early history and foundation of the Monastery: this has already been dealt with in various able papers. The generally received account of the original founda- tion is that Maeldulph built a cell at Malmesbury; that Aldhelm, a disciple of his, enlarged, in the 7th century, upon Maeldulph’s work, founded the Monastery, and dedicated it to the Holy Saviour and St Peter and St Paul. Mention is also made of two smaller Churches dedi- cated respectively to St Mary and St Michael. Aldhelm was transferred to Sherborne, but was subsequently buried at Malmesbury. The Monastery received many grants of land and other benefactions from various donors, particularly from King Athelstan, who is said to have been buried before the altar in 941. fm Passing over the interval between the original founda- _ tion of the Monastery and the rebuilding of “the Church - onits present grand scale, we find that this building is _ said to have been commenced by Roger, Bishop of Salis- bury, about the year 1135, but the character of work _ would hardly bear out this view. Freeman says on this eet : “It appears to be generally believed that the “present Church was begun by Roger, Bishop of Salis- - “bury, about the year 1135,” “This tradition seems confirmed by two passages “of William of Malmesbury, neither of which directly “assert it.” “ Certainly the architecture of even the earliest portions “of the Church is remarkably advanced for that date, but “this is no more than we might reasonably expect in the “works of a prelate so renowned for his architectural 258 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB “skill, and whom we might therefore naturally expect to ‘find at the head of the artistic developments of his age.” “Tf, then, we accept this date we may recognise in the “foundation of this Church one of the most memorable “epochs in the history of architecture in this island, for ‘““we may safely set it down as exhibiting the first English “example, not indeed of the incidental use of the pointed “arch, when any special necessity rendered it desirable, “but, what is a very different matter, the first instance of “its distinct preference on esthetical grounds in the main “arcades of a great Church,” ‘When this point had been gained, the battle between “Romanesque and Gothic was really won by the latter ; “every Gothic detail now followed as a natural develop- “ment in its natural order.” ‘“ Malmesbury, however, happily exhibits the style just ‘after this first and greatest change had been accomplish- “ed, and no other commenced; every other feature is “still Romanesque.” “In short, while in a history of English architecture, ‘we ought to speak of Malmesbury as the earliest of ‘“ Transitional examples, it will, in practically describing “the building itself, be far more convenient, and indeed “far more accurate, to speak of its earliest portions as a “specimen of the pure Norman style.” “One remark, however, I must make. I mentioned ‘1135 as the date assigned to the commencement of the “Church. We must on the one hand remember that ‘“oreat churches were not, least of all in the reign of “Stephen, finished in a year or two, and that the west end “would probably be the last part finished ; consequently “Malmesbury nave may well be twenty or thirty years “later than 1135.” This is such an important point in the architectural history of this Church that I venture to quote the words of so great an authority in full. ‘ ¢ PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB = 259 PLAN. On reference to the plan it will be seen that the whole of the main walls are Norman, everything in fact to the clerestory level except some minor details, and the building consisted of the usual parts of a great Norman Church, the four arms of the cross and a central tower, and the dimensions, so far as they can be ascertained, were as follows: the nave, 150 ft. by 32 ft.; north and south aisles, each 12 ft. by 150 {t.; the central tower, 28 ft. by 28 ft. within the walls; he south transept, 39 ft., internal projection beyond the aisle, the width probably 30 ft. The size of the north transept cannot be deter- mined, nor yet the sizes of the presbytery, and the eastern chapel which is said to have existed. William of Worcester mentions some dimensions (gresons snos) from which it might be inferred that the length of the presbytery was 110 ft. east of the crossing, that is, a presbytery of six bays, with an eastern ambulatory _ supposing the bays were the same size as those of the nave (see planin blue); but Freeman thinks that the pres- __ bytery was ‘“‘a short Norman structure of 3 or 4 bays, as _ at Peterboro’ or Romsey,” (see plan in red.) The large south porch is 14 ft. by 12 ft. The cloisters and other buildings were to the north of 4 the Church, as at Gloucester, and in their main features enclosed in one semi-circular arch, all being Norman; above this again is a clerestory and vaulting of entirely The unusual height of the clerestory (which appears to have been about the same in the Norman work) has a 260 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB particularly fine effect, and is far more satisfactory in design than that at Gloucester. Freeman says of it: “ this “whole elevation must have been one of the very grand- ‘est in England; it has all the solemn majesty of a “Romanesque building, combined with somewhat of ‘ Gothic inspiration.” There is, however, an unpleasing effect in the awkward lines of the long ribs of the quadripartite groining where they join the wall and pass down it. Note the roof shafts rising off the caps of the columns, the elaborate mouldings of the arches, and the increased richness eastward, the arch labels and their terminations. AISLES. These were lighted by single round-headed windows, with arcades beneath them, many of these re- main with later perpendicular tracery inserted, and some have been entirely replaced with large decorated windows. Note the treatment of that on north side—those on the north side are higher than those on the south, being above the cloisters. The vaulting is quadripartite. WEST FRONT. The treatment of this was unusual in Norman work, at each angle was a large staircase turret, oblong on plan, with a wall connecting it with the west end of the nave, thus forming a facade which screened the terminations of the roofs westward. This facade was richly arcaded and divided into four storeys horizontally. Freeman calls this facade “simply a sham,” “the pro- totype of that at Salisbury.” Lincoln and Wells were similarly treated, there was a fine Norman west doorway, which has now a perpendicular insertion within it, and above is a window of similar date. A great western tower was added in the perpendicular period. The construction of this appears to have been alto- gether exceptional and reckless : instead of being built on to the west end of the Church, as was the usual plan, it ¢ PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 261 was actually built over the last two bays of the nave, the western wall of the tower resting on the western wall of the nave. Leland speaks of it as a “great square” tower, and Freeman suggests that such towers were to carry bells— the central towers acting as internal lanterns—and that the arrangement adopted at Malmesbury may have arisen from a desire not to injure the fine west front already - existing, and because the form of that front would not have harmonised with a tower built out in the ordinary manner. In carrying out this tower, so completely was it sup- ported on the existing work that even the clerestory and cornice on the south side were not disturbed, nor the decorated clerestory and vault interfered with internally, an arch being thrown across aboye the vaults between the second piers westward, on which the east wall of the tower rested, and some additional support being obtained by strengthening the wall and pier, and by flying buttresses outwards: thus a fine west front was obtained, and no material alteration effected internally. But this piece of reckless construction, though standing in Leland’s time, fell subsequently, and in its fall destroyed the west end of the nave and north aisle, SOUTH PORCH. This is a magnificent specimen of ~ Norman work, with a subsequent casing in the decorated _ period. Possibly this is the most remarkable feature of ~ Malmesbury, and, as such, merits a paper all to itself, es- pecially as so much of the interest would naturally centre in the sculptures. ____ Professor Cockwell has treated of these in his work on _ the sculptures of Wells Cathedral. There is a Norman doorway in the north aisle which gave access to the cloisters. This has a perpendicular _ insertion with groining of the same date over. * 262 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB CENTRAL TOWER AND LANTERN. The north and west arches of the central tower still remain, the latter being blocked by the later masonry. The effect of these great arches is extremely fine, and when complete, this lantern and tower must have been grand indeed. The tower is said to have been surmounted by a lofty spire— these fell previous to the Dissolution, and were not rebuilt. Freeman says: “the character of the central tower “which these arches supported we can only conjecture— “ perhaps we shall be nearest the truth in imagining a rich “Norman tower crowned witha timber spire of later date.” The Ritual Choir, as may be seen by the inner faces of the eastern and western arch of the tower piers, was under the crossing—as these faces have no projection, whereas those north and south have, and the arches above are stilted to compensate for the difference in width, and bring the arches level. A perpendicular vault was subsequently introduced and cut off the lantern—the springing of this can still be seen. Leland speaks, in 1540, of two steeples, one having a “mighty high pyramis,” and which stood in the middle of the Church, and fell dangerously, within the memory of man. TRANSEPTS. Of these a great part of the west wall of the south transept remains, and a small piece on the north side—they had no western aisles—and that on the south projected two bays beyond the aisles of the nave. PRESBYTERY. Of this only sufficient remains to show that the general character of the work was similar to that of the nave, but richer. EXTERNALLY. Of the external changes from the Nor- man work now apparent are the pinnacles and flying buttresses, which the decorated stone vaults over the nave, rendered necessary by the new clerestory with stone vaulting, and the pagancts.of the same date. RESENTED tad 15 JUL. 1901 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB 263 INTERNALLY. There are some points of interest which should’ be noted. The perpendicular rood screen still remains within the present church, and forms an altar screen; and stone screens of the same date, but with decorated tracery, exist at the ends of the aisles. The tomb of Athelstan, so called, is now placed on the south side of the altar. There is a curious projecting gallery on the bays of the south’ triforium, and Freeman suggests that this may have been a watching place of some kind. As before pointed out, the cloisters and buildings were on the north side, and the ground here slopes rapidly down to the river. The effect of the whole group of buildings from this side must have been very fine. Some remains of the old buildings may be seen forming a base- ment to the old house to the north-east of the Church. There is one point to which I should particularly like to direct attention, and that is the wonderful similarity in much of this Church with that of certain of the Roman- esque Churches of the South of France. The decoration on top of the abacus of some of the nave columns closely resembles that on a string at the Chapel of St Croix de Montmajour. At the Cloister at the same place are arcades of four arches beneath one. The T + is on an abacus in the Chapel of St Gabrielle, and at St Trophime (Arles). The ornament over the north door is similar to that on the capitals of the columns in the cloisters of Vaison, and also at Montmajour. (END OF VOL. XII.) PRESENTED 1415 JUL. 1901 » aad ; ¢ | . “ . , ' - . s ° ‘ ' . Z S PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIELD CLUB Sa VOLUME XIII. Parts I, II, 1899. Part III, 1900. Part IV, 1901 GLOUCESTER: 1899—1I901 : ay 1899 S. S. BUCKMAN—-HUMAN BABIES 107 the eyes, and the consequent corrugation of the eyebrows, in the case of a child, who finds the task of manipulation one of considerable difficulty. The corrugation of the eyebrows is similar to that seen in fig. IO. The expression of fright would be principally a modifi- cation of that of pain. There would be the exhibition of fighting weapons; the use of the voice—the original motives for its employment being diverse; the shutting of the eyes and general crouching out of harm’s way, as in fighting ; the strained look of the hunted animal who has exerted every muscle in efforts to escape. But I have not had the opportunity to illustrate this subject with a photo- graph, and merely mention it for the sake of alluding to some rather curious childish traits. Animals with fur on, and snakes would have been, from long and painful experience, two recognised enemies both to Simian ancestors and to primitive Man; and the fear which they excited would have been deeply impressed on our ancestors’ minds. I have observed a young baby which had not seen a live snake show very particular signs of perturbation at a picture of one; and the antipathy of women to snakes is notorious. As to wild beasts, Dr Louis Robinson * noted the terror of children under two years old at an imitation of a wild beast. I consequently tried the experiment. A baby screamed at a fur boa, and was very disturbed.. When at another time I covered myself with a fur cloak and walked towards her on all fours she was thoroughly terrified. When I crawled without the fur even, she was also terrified. When I got up she recognised me with pleasure, and said “Dadda!” When again I put on the fur cloak she, was * «The Primitive Child;” North American Review, Vol. CLIX, No. 4, p. 476. Oct., 1894. H2 108 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. Xill. (2) again very frightened. She seemed to know who it was; but instinctive habit conquered reason. A repetition of the experiment a few days later produced similar results; but on a third opportunity it was not so. She seemed to have learnt by experience that no harm resulted, and reason had conquered instinctive habit. She said “‘ Dadda!” and was inclined to treat it as a new game. IV. THE LAST STAGES IN MAN’S DEVELOPMENT The following passage, which I have translated from Prof. Ernst Haeckel’s standard work on the development of Man,” has particular reference to those last stages in Man’s history, those stages to which the characters of babies that have been considered above especially point, and from which they have been derived. ‘As the twenty-second stage f in our human genealogical tree we can place, next to the Half-Monkeys [Prosimians, or Lemurs] the oldest and lowest Platyrrhines of South America, with jaws of 36 teeth.. They have developed from the former by the perfection of the characteristic monkey-head, by the particular modification of the brain, of the jaw, of the nose, and the finger. From this Eocene Monkey-stem, by modification of the nose and loss of four teeth, have come the oldest Catarrhines or Old World Monkeys, with jaws of 32 teeth as in Man. These oldest stem-forms of the whole Catarrhine group would, at any rate, have been still very hairy, and furnished with long tails: Tail-Monkeys (J/enocerca). They certainly lived during the oldest period of the Tertiary, and are found * Anthropogenie oder Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen: Keimes- und Stammesgeschichte.—Zweiter Theil, Stammesgeschichte oder Phylogenie, p. 611, Ed. IV., Leipzig, 1891. + That is, reckoning up from Protozoon as the first. 1899 S. S. BUCKMAN—HUMAN BABIES 109 fossil in the Miocene. Their nearest representatives, among the present-day species of Tail-Monkeys, are pro- bably the Slim-apes (Semznopithecus).” “As the twenty-third stage of our genealogical tree we can place in order, after these Tail-Monkeys, the Tail-less Man-like Apes (Anthropoids) under which name, as we now know, are brought together the highest developed of the living Catarrhines—those which are nearest allied to Man. They developed from the Tailed Catarrhines by loss of the tail, by partial loss of the hairy coat, and by the greater improvement of the brain, which is indicated by the greater elaboration of the frontal portion of the skull [the greater development of the forehead]. At the present day there are but four species of this remarkable family in existence; and they form two distinct groups—an African and an Asiatic. The African Manlike Apes are confined to the western portion of tropical Africa; possibly, how- ever, yet more species have spread into Central Africa. We only know two species with exactitude: the Gorilla (Pongo gorilla, or Gorilla gina) the largest of all Apes: and the little Chimpanzee (Pongo troglodytes, or Troglo- dytes niger) which at present often lives in our Zoological Gardens. Both the African Man-like Apes are black in colour, and are long-headed (dolichocephalic) like their countrymen, the negroes. On the other hand, the Asiatic Man-like Apes are mostly brown, or yellow brown, in colour, and short-headed (brachycephalic) like their coun- trymen, the Malays and the Mongolians. The largest Asiatic Man-like Ape is the well-known Orang, or Orang- Utan, which dwells in the Sunda Islands (Borneo, Sumatra, etc.) and is brown in colour. It is now possible to separate two species: the small Orang (Satyrus morio) and the large Orang (Sa¢yrus orang). One genus of small Anthropoids, the Gibbon (//y/odates) lives on the Continent of Southern Asia, and in the Sunda Islands: of IIO PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (2) this genus 4 to 8 different species are separable. None of these living Anthropoids can be pointed out as the most absolutely man-like Ape. The Gorilla stands nearest to Man in the shape of its hand and foot; the Chimpanzee in important characters of the skull; the Orang in brain- development; and the Gibbon in the development of the breast cavity. Obviously not any one of these living Anthropoids belongs to the direct ancestral line of the human species ; they are all the last divergent remnants of an old Catarrhine branch.” “Although the human species (//omo) now follows immediately upon this Anthropoid family, and has un- doubtedly taken its rise directly therefrom, yet we can insert as an intermediate form between them, and as a twenty-fourth stage of our ancestral series, the Ape-Men (Pithecanthropi).* By this name have I denoted the speechless Primitive-Men (4/a/z), who certainly in general appearance (namely, in the differentiation of the limbs) would properly stand as ‘Men’ in the ordinary sense ; and yet one of the important human peculiarities, namely, articulate speech, and the greater understanding connected therewith, are wanting.” “As the twenty-fifth and [ast stage of our animal ancestry, the true man, the one able to speak, would now finally be seen. This is the man who has developed from the foregoing stages by gradually improving brute noise (sound-speech) into the human talk (word-speech). As to the place and time of this true ‘Creation of Man- kind’ we can only put forward very doubtful speculations. Probably primitive Man first had a beginning during the * Dr Eugene Dubois has found in the Pliocene of Java a skull and other remains which he considers to be this link. He discusses them and their relations in a paper “On Pithecanthropus erectus: a Transitional Form between Man and the Apes ; Royal Dublin Society; Vol. VI., Series II., p.1. February, 1896. Fe ET ER OLY PG un teat a ( — ery “. 1899 S. S. BUCKMAN—HUMAN BABIES III Pleistocene Period,* in the Torrid Zone of the Old World, either on the Continent of tropical Africa or Asia, or on a former Continent now sunk beneath the surface of the Indian Ocean—one which stretched from East Africa (Madagascar and Abyssinia) to East Asia (Burmah and the Sunda Islands).” These are the views of Prof. Haeckel elaborated by that profound and most painstaking research which is so grand a feature in all German work, and illustrated by an im- mense mass of most interesting detail concerning the ontogenetic and phylogenetic history of the animal kingdom. . I will now venture to fill in slightly more detailed portraits of our immediate ancestors. V. OUR PRE-HUMAN ANCESTOR By studying the embryonic and youthful characters of fossils, and the characters of allied species in particular series, it is often possible to predict, by methods known to many paleontologists, what the general appearance and chatacters of a particular ancestor should be—one which the rocks have not yet yielded to our researches. And in many cases it has happened that, subsequently, the pre- dicted ancestor has been found, answering most satis- factorily to the portrait drawn on supposition. There is no reason why the same method should not be pursued in the case of Man; and working on this basis it may be allowable to state, tentatively, the following description of our pre-human ancestor, of the one answer- ing to about the middle period of what Haeckel calls the twenty-third stage. * He must have been earlier than that; for the excellently worked weapons (Palaeoliths) are of Pleistocene Age. It would be reasonable to conclude that primitive Man began in the Pliocene. Z I12 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (2) A quadruped, or more properly four-handed animal, with fore-limbs longer than hind limbs; the body covered with a hairy coat; the face somewhat of a bull-dog style. This animal walked somewhat clumsily on all-fours, being rather troubled with its front hands, which stil] retained the definite inward curve of the fingers, the bough - grasping attitude. In consequence, the animal would often rise on the hind limbs, using them for short, rather unsteady walking. It would also rise on the hind limbs in order to grasp, say fruit, and when feeding itself, and in play, and in courtship, and so forth. But the hind limbs were too ill-adapted for sustaining the weight of the body—the knees would not straighten out—the animal had no muscles properly developed for the arduous duty of balancing. There was no calf to the leg. On the long hind hands (feet) were opposable thumbs, and well-developed fingers (toes) capable of considerable independent, and fairly accurate movement. The front hands were short, broad, had short opposable thumbs, and fingers not capable of accurate, independent movement. The body was thin, rather long, covered on the back with a dark reddish-brown, or in some cases, almost black hair,* on the belly, with lighter coloured hair. But the whole hairy coat tended to become lighter with age; it tended to get thin and fall off considerably, especially from the chest, abdomen, and insides of limbs.f The posterior part of the body was bare, and, possibly, as in Macacus rhesus, of a bright.red colour, especially in the female. * “Not infrequently the woolly coat of the [human] Embryo differs considerably in colour from the later hair covering, Thus, for instance, sometimes it happens that in our Indo-German stock the children of blond parents are born covered with a dark brown or even black woolly coat. After this has come off, then there appears the blond hair which the child has inherited from its parents. Sometimes the dark coat remains for some weeks, or even months, after birth.” Haeckel, Anthropogenie, Ed. IV., Vol. II., pag. 635. + Partial shedding of hair characterizes many Anthropoids. 1899 S. S. BUCKMAN—HUMAN BABIES II3 Head long (dolichocephalic); face decidedly prognathous, jaws heavy and prominent; lips heavy; mouth large, fur- nished, in the males, with fairly developed canine teeth for fighting. Nose very depressed, broad ; nostrils large, parted by a broad septum. In the males each side of nose carried fleshy protuberances, spreading below the eyes ; these protuberances furrowed and highly coloured with red, especially during the breeding period. Cheeks perhaps pouched for storage of food; eyes blue, large, prominent; ears rather large, slightly movable. Head covered with reddish-brown hair, which in male probably stood up as a prominent crest over the skull. Both sexes furnished with beard, whiskers, and moustache,* in colour yellowish-brown, inclining to become white. The animal lived in herds, and carried on a certain amount of communication by means of guttural sounds. The breeding season would have been limited to a certain portion of the year. There would have been much fight- ing between the males. There would have been promis- cuous intercourse subject to the law of battle.t VI. OUR HUMAN ANCESTOR The pre-human ancestor acquired the ability to walk more and more on the hind limbs, until the perfection of * Among the bearded races of Man it is stated that the female is becoming more hairy about the face. This follows the well-known law of the gradual transmission of male characters of hair, horns, etc. to the female; so the female of the future Man should again become more and more bearded. + The season would have been spring, and the effect is still felt in Man, according to poets. [Asto the season and the nature of the intercourse there are relics in sundry customs —notably the kissing ceremony of Hungerford, in April; a similar practice in Birming- ham—the subject of a police-court case this year; and the May-day revels. The actual significance of these customs is shown by the religious festivals of certain tribes of India, where the ceremonies are fully carried out (described by Westermarck in his “ History of Human Marriage”); and also by the worship of Priapus. Oct., 1899. j II4 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (2) bipedal gait was obtained. This brought about a con- siderable differentiation in fore and hind limbs — the latter became longer, the former became shorter; the latter lost much of the grasping ability, the former acquired more tactual ability. Further, the bipedal position required very remarkable modification in the skeletal structure, and it induced, together with the necessity for providing greater brain-accommodation, a decrease of prognathism. While these changes were going on there was another in progress which produced a curious change of appearance —the animal lost nearly the whole hairy coat from all parts of the body, even from the head*—so that our human ancestor became almost as destitute of hair as a deal board.f In other characters he was probably much like a negro, only shorter in stature, longer armed, longer footed, more prognathous, and of a reddish-brown colour. This is my idea of what Haeckel would call the 24th- stage. * There may have been a little hair on the head and on the back; but it almost seems as if for a short period of development there was a stage of complete hairlessness. + Loss of the typical mammalian hairy coat has not been confined to Man. Ata rather later date it occurred in other cases, for instance, in the Elephant, the Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, etc. ; + Both in the Semitic and the Indo-German languages the roots which gave a word for ‘‘earth” also gave a word for “Man”; as if both “Man” and “earth” were named from what they possessed in common—a reddish-brown colour. And the negro infant is not black, but of a reddish colour, shewing that the blackness of the negro is not primitive. But it may be asked if some of the now light races have been through a black stage, and then retrograded. There is this to be said,-—they represent their gods as black. Elworthy, in his work on “The Evil Eye,” gives a list of Hindoo, Egyptian, Greek, Roman Christian, etc., deities and deified persons who are represented as being black ; and he says (p. 190): “In India, the infant Chrishna, the incarnate deity, in the arms of Devaki beeps the child is black with woolly hair—a thing strange in India.” How is this to be explained ? The people with black deities have either been through a negroid stage, or they have been subservient to a negroid race. 1899 S. S. BUCKMAN—HUMAN BABIES 115 But as to Homo alalus | feel doubtful; that is to say, whether he was a@/a/us strictly. I should imagine that he had a language, primitive enough perhaps, one of, say, 100 words at most, with of course no distinction as to parts of speech. But this would be a language; and by it, with gesture and intonation, primitive Man could let his fellow know very well what he wanted. Anyone who has conversed with a young baby will know that with half-a-dozen monosyllabic sounds it can give a fair account of what is going on around. This has to be remembered, that the baby is perfectly understood by the young children who are its associates ; it is better understood by them than by its parents; and far better understood by its parents than by strangers. VII. CONCLUSION I may bring this paper to a close with quotations from two of the great masters. “Ts Man something apart? Does he originate in a totally different way from Dog, Bird, Frog, and Fish? Or does he originate in a similar germ, pass through the same slow and gradually progressive modifications,— depend on the same contrivances for protection and nutrition, and finally enter the world by the help of the same mechanism? The reply is not doubtful for a moment. Without question the mode of origin and the early stages of the development of Man are identical with those of the animals immediately below him in the scale” (Huxley, 1863). “* Know thyself!’ That is the source of all wisdom! But for Man to have real self-knowledge it is of the first importance that he know his own development” (Haeckel, 1891). 116 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XI. (2) VII]. APPENDIX: UNDUE ACCELERATION, AND RETARDATION, OF DEVELOPMENT Acceleration of development, or the inheritance of characters at an earlier stage in each generation expresses the process whereby the ontogenetic history recapitulates the successive stages of phylogeny. But though the re- capitulation may be fairly accurate when each character is considered independently, yet it appears to be inexact when the whole series of characters of a particular stage is reviewed. Thus while in regard to many characters the normal acceleration of development has taken place, yet in others undue acceleration has become necessary to fit the organism for the part it has to perform in life, and in others again retardation has taken place. The most noted case of retardation of development is that of the wisdom teeth of Man. They appear late in life, as if they were a character only recently developed ; but actually they were very well developed in the pre- human ancestors. The post-natal development of teeth in Man is a case of retardation. The inability to see in the case of many animals until some time after birth is again retardation. The inability to walk in the case of many young animals is an instance of retardation. Some of the figures given in Plates I. and II. illustrate what may be termed the unequal rate of development in regard to certain characters. Thus in fig. I is the quad- rupedal gait which would have characterised the old early Catarrhine ancestor. But he would have had a hairy body; here the body is destitute of hair, and that was a character of primitive Man. Again, the hind foot shows acceleration of the human foot-character: the quadrupedal 1899 S. §. BUCKMAN—HUMAN BABIES II7 Catarrhine would have had a bough-grasping hind hand, with rather long toes and an opposable thumb (big toe). Again, the head (compare also fig. 2) shows extreme acceler- ation. It is of the Caucasian or orthognathous type. The head is of a more advanced type than that of the child shown in fig. 4, which has a certain amount of the prog- nathous character typical of primitive Man. And yet the curly hair shown in figs. I, 2, etc. would seem to indicate an earlier stage of development than the head, for curly hair is associated with marked prognathism in the Negro. The characters then may be summed up in this manner, referring to Haeckel’s stages. There is the quadrupedal character distinctive of early 23 stage, the naked body of middle 24 stage, the foot of middle 25 stage, the type of head of late 25 stage, and the type of hair of early 25 stage, all making up an ontogenetic stage which should correspond to about middle or late 24 stage of phylogeny, so that it is easy to see which characters have been unduly accelerated and which retarded. In fig. 10 there is an interesting case of retardation. The form of the mouth of the crying child is on purpose to display canine teeth. It is therefore an inheritance from remote ancestors who used their canine teeth for fighting ; and such special use of the canine teeth would have arisen very soon after those teeth had been developed in a special form, suitable for such a purpose. So that, strictly to repeat phylogeny, the canine teeth should come first, and the special form of mouth suitable for their use should come afterwards. But, in the ontogeny of Man, the develop- ment of the teeth has been retarded. The special form of mouth suitable for the exhibition of canine teeth appears first ; the teeth themselves do not appear till later. If the ontogenetic development of the teeth had proceeded equally with that of other characters, then the teeth should appear through the gum of the embryo, long before the child is born. 118 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xml. (2) EXPLANATION? OF 'PLALE= 1: Fic. 1. A child 10 months old, showing quadrupedal . habit of progression (p. 93). Fic. 2. The same child, 11 months old, not able to ~ walk, but able to raise itself momentarily on its hind legs. The knee-flexure is shown . (p. 94). FIG. 3. A cat raising itself on its hind legs to claw at something ; to compare with fig. 2 (p. 94). Fic. 4. Another child, about 12 months old; showing the manner of grasping (p. 96). The child is unable to walk. FiG. 5. The same child as fig. 2, and at the same time ; showing bough-grasping attitude of hands (p. 97), flexure of knee (p. 95), and facial expression (p. 104). FIG. 6. Same child as fig. 4, and at same date; showing : method of grasp (p. 97), movement of toes (p, 100), and facial expression (p. 107). EROG. COTES WOLD CLUB: Vio, chi sPeatE 1: 120 7 PROG. (GOTTES WOLD? CLUB* “7 VOL xXII4@) BXPLANATION OF SLATE «IL FIG. 7. Same child as fig. 4, but 19 months old, show- ing ability to use, and know the meaning of the use of one finger for a definite purpose (p. 101); also facial expression (p. 104). Fic. 8. Same child as fig. 2, and about the same time, showing sitting-on-hocks attitude (p. 101), position of hands (p. 97), facial expression (p. 104). FIG. 9. Same child as fig. 7, and about same age, showing, besides proportions of body, facial expression, and other symptoms of pleasure (p. 104). FIG. 10. Same child, but at same age as fig. 4, showing facial expression (p. 106), also attitude of i hands (p. 97). FIG. 11. A cat ‘“‘swearing,” to compare with fig. 10 (p. 106). FIG. 12. A cat afraid of a blow (p. 106). All the illustrations in these two plates are from instantaneous photographs taken by myself. For the capital reproductions I tender my best thanks to Messrs Bemrose and Sons. Unfortunately in one or two cases they have shaved just a little too closely round the figures. PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB. Wor. AIL, PLATE 2. ~ SOME COTTESWOLD BRACHIOPODA, BY CHARLES UPTON. [PLATE III.] (Read March 21st, 1899) INTRODUCTION. In the Supplement to the British Jurassic and Triassic Brachiopoda by Thomas Davidson (Vol. IV., p. 230) is set out a list of 33 species collected by Dr F. Smithe from the Lias of Churchdown—that term denoting all the strata from the zone of Am. ee: down to the base of the Lower Lias, inclusive. Ina paper read before this Club in 1889,* S. S. Buckman enumerated 34 species of Brachiopoda from the Inferior Oolite of the Cotteswolds, the term in that case com- prising the strata from the Clypeus Grit to the base of the Pea Grit series, inclusive. In another paper read before the Geological Society in 1895, which is printed in the Quarterly Journal for that year (Vol. LI., p. 388) he in- creases the number to some 53 or 54 forms. The list, however, comprises a good many which are referred to merely by the generic appellation. Taking these figures as representing at the time of publication the sum of the recognized forms of Cotteswold * Published in the Proceedings, Vol. IX., p. 374. £22 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL, XIII. (2) Inferior Oolite and Liassic Brachiopods, we have some 86 or 87 species. Since the publication of these works I have collected in the Cotteswold district a number of forms which neither Dr Smithe nor Mr Buckman mention. Some of them belong to species already described from other localities: others appear to be undescribed; and I thought it might be of interest to the Club to have their discovery recorded in its Proceedings, together with a more complete reference to some two or three species which Mr Buckman mentions in his second paper, above referred to, more or less on my authority. I wish at the same time to notice a very interesting and peculiar example of a somewhat scarce Brachiopod (Terebratula galeiformts, M’Coy) which has been found very sparingly up to the present time, and only in the Cotteswolds. ‘[he specimen, which is in my collection, I owe to the generosity of one of our members, “Mr W. Thompson. DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES. I. TEREBRATULA GALEIFORMIS, J7’Coy, var. Pl. III., figs. 1—4. 1853. TEREBRATULA BENTLEYI, var. SUB-BENTLEY], Dav., Mon. Brit. Oolitic and Liassic Brach. Vol. I., pl. xiii., fig. 11. 1854. TEREBRATULA GALEIFORMIS, 47’Coy,MS.; Dav. Ibid. App. pl. A, fig. 15. The species was first figured by Dr Davidson in his mono- graph from a single pedicle valve in the late Mr Lycett’s collection, under the name 7. Bentleyt, var. sub-Bentleyr. The figured specimen is stated to have been found in the Inferior Oolite of the neighbourhood of Minchinhampton. f ad Et A . : 1899 C. UPTON—BRACHIOPODA 123 At that date (1853) the brachial valve was not known to the author of the monograph. He subsequently discovered that a complete specimen, which was stated to have been found in the Oolite Marl of Brimscombe, was in the possession of Prof. Sedgwick, and that Prof. McCoy had already given it the M.S. name of 7. galetformizs. This specimen he figured in the appendix to Vol. 1 of the monograph which was issued in the following year. Each of the figured specimens has a deep medio-longi- tudinal sinus and one on each side. The present example differs from the type in having fimbriate margins, and an almost flat brachial valve. In other respects it is con- formable. The tests of all Zervebratule are very thin, and conse- quently fragile; and in their more primitive forms have no frontal folds. The first advance on the simple form was the acquisition of a single, more or less elevated, frontal fold. The next advance in development consisted of a reflex fold in the centre of the simple fold; and this stage characterises the major portion of the Jurassic 7eve- bratule. It is obvious that the acquirement of such folds, whether simple or complex, resulted in a gain of strength without an excessive expenditure of material. In the pre- sent specimen the required strength was obtained by the acquisition of a number of small folds instead of in the more usual manner. The exact locality of the specimen is unfortunately not known ; but from the adherent matrix I have no hesitation in stating that its horizon is the middle portion of the Oolite Marl Series, which, south of Stroud, usually consists of a white oolitic limestone. In respect to horizon, therefore, it would agree very closely with all other known specimens. It is a somewhat singular circumstance that this shell should be associated with the only two other well-marked I2 124 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xu. (2) fimbriate Zerebratule known in the Jurassic rocks of England, namely 7. plicata, J. Buckm.and 7. fméria, Sow., both of these shells being found in the Oolite Marl and the Pea Grit: the former being common in the Pea Grit, and the latter very abundant in the Oolite Marl. Two other fimbriate Terebratuloids (one being a Zeredbratula, and the other a Wage//ania) are found in the Lias on the Continent ; and occasional specimens having additional plicee are found belonging to species which normally have either a plain margin, or a single, or a double fold, as 7. spheroidalis, Sow., T. conglobata, E. Desl., and 7. glo- bata, Sow. The species to which 7. ga/eiformis is most nearly allied is undoubtedly 7. curvifrons, Oppel, which in some localities is abundant in the Oolite Marl; though 7. curvifrons belongs to a somewhat lower horizon than that to which I assign the present specimen. In the very inflated pedicle valve and flat brachial valve the present species has a very strong resemblance to T. simplex, J. Buckm., which, however, is confined to the Pea Grit. The plicated margin is as I have already stated a character which it bears in common with 7. fmdbria and 7. plicata. The brachial supports cannot of course be seen; but from analogy I do not hesitate to assert that the loop is very short, and that no mesial septum exists. 2. TEREBRATULA SUB-SPHAEROIDALIS, sp. n. Pi. ils fissi-5 7 D1aGNosis.— Shell inequivalve, pyriform; pedicle valve re- gularly convex; brachial valve considerably elevated near the umbo, sloping gradually towards the front, where it makes a somewhat acute angle with the pedicle valve ; beak prominent, and well separated from the umbo, trun- cated by a medium-sized, round foramen; lateral ridges 1899 C. UPTON—BRACHIOPODA 125 indistinct; margin almost straight, with a slightly elevated front, which in some specimens becomes somewhat angular; shell smooth, growth lines faint; loop short. Length 23 mm., width 20mm., height 15 mm. Terebratula spheroidalis, Sow., has not hitherto been recorded from any Cotteswold locality. In Somerset and Dorset, and in Calvados it occurs abundantly in the upper beds of the Inferior Oolite, attaining its largest dimensions in the neighbourhood of Bayeux. The type came from Dundry Hill, where however it is scarce and ill-developed. On Selsley Hill, near Stroud, there is a bed of fine- grained, non-oolitic limestone about two feet in thickness over-lying, or possibly constituting the uppermost bed of the Upper 77igonza-Grit which yields a form approach- ing closely to 7. spheroidalis. The shells are slightly elongate approaching 7. decipiens, but most nearly re- sembling the shell usually called 7. spherotdats from Castle Cary. At North Nibley a somewhat similar, but usually more elongate shell occurs; and I have a couple of specimens approaching the Nibley forms which I found in a quarry on Wickeridge Hill near the Slad Village. This is the most northerly spot at which I have yet found them. This fossil differs from T. spherotdalis in being much narrower in the neigh- bourhood of the hinge, in the greater projection of the beak which has a somewhat tubular character, and in the more acute angle formed by the junction of the valves. I therefore distinguish it by the name szdé- spherotdalis. 3. TEREBRATULA JAUBERTI, E.. Deslongchamps. 1863. TEREBRATULA JAUBERTI, Z. Des/., Brach. Juras. Pal. Fr., p. 176, pl. XLV., figs. 8—11, &c. 1878. TEREBRATULA JAUBERTI, Dav., Supp. Brit. Juras. and Trias. Brach., Vol. IV., pl. xvii., fig. 13. 126 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (2) Dr Davidson figured an imperfect specimen of this fossil from the Middle Lias of Ilminster. From the same beds at Stinchcombe I have obtained two specimens. The fossil is scarce in England, but appears to be abundant in several localities in France, and also in Spain. The Stinchcombe specimens closely resemble M. Deslong- champs’ types. _.4. TEREBRATULA SUBPUNCTATA, Davzdson. 1850. TEREBRATULA SUBPUNCTATA, Dav., Mon. Brit. Oolitic and Liassic Brach., Vol. I., pl. VI., figs. 7—I10. A large form allied to 7. punctata, Sow. occurs fairly abundantly in the Middle Lias of the neighbourhood of Ilminster. Dr Davidson considered it sufficiently distinct from 7. punctata to justify his separating it from that species ; and he named it 7. subpunctata. I have collected a considerable number of both forms from near Ilminster, and I find no difficulty in distinguishing between them. Crushed specimens of 7. puncfata are abundant in one thin bed of the Middle Lias (Wargaritatus Zone) of Stinch- combe, but hitherto no specimen of 7. sudpunctata has been recorded from the Cotteswolds. Last summer, how- ever, I was fortunate enough to find a well characterised specimen at Stinchcombe, although unfortunately a con- siderable portion of the test is wanting. 5. TEREBRATULA EUIDES, S. Buckman. Pl. III., figs. 8—10. 1881. TEREBRATULA FLEISCHERI, Oppel? Dazv., Appendix to Supp. Brit. Foss. Brach., Voli Ns. ples xix,, cup: 4 1886. TEREBRATULA EUIDES, S. Buckman. Juras. Brach. ; Geol. Mag., Dec. III., Vol. Ill., P2217. 1899 C. UPTON—BRACHIOPODA 127 In the Appendix to the Supplements to Dr Davidson’s Monograph is figured a Brachiopod from the Inferior Oolite of Sherborne as “ 7. flezschert, Oppel?” Subse- quently Mr Buckman distinguished the form as a new species under the name of 7. euzdes. In the sandy beds which underlie the Pea Grit (Zone of 7metoceras sctssum) at Kimsbury Castle, Painswick, I have found several speci- mens which Mr Buckman identifies with his species. T. euides most nearly approaches 7. zxfra-oolztica, E. Desl., but is distinguished from it by having a more or less carinate pedicle valve and laterally pinched-in beak. 6. TEREBRATULA LENTIFORMIS, sp.n. Pl. Ill., figs. 11—13. DIAGNOSIS.—Shell inequivalve, lenticular, almost circular in outline, pedicle valve having a somewhat indistinct longi- tudinal ridge; beak erect, not overhanging the umbo; foramen round ; lateral ridges prominent extending up to, and producing an elevation on each side of the foramen; front margin in adult specimens wavy ; test smooth; growth lines indistinct; loop unknown, but probably short. Length of figured specimen 29 mm., width 29 mm., height 14 mm. To the large shell figured by Davidson under the name T. maxillata, which somewhat resembles the present species, Oppel* gave the name Zerebratula marmorea: he took Davidson’s figs. 4 and 5, pl. Ix., (Mon. Brach.) as the types. Szajnochat also figures 7. marmorea, and states that it occurs in the Zone of Opfelia aspidoides of * «Die Juraformation,’ p. 496. + ‘Die Brachiopoden-Fauna der Ool. von Balin bei Krakau;’ Denk. Math-Natur. Wissensch. Cl. der K, Akad. der Wissenschaften, Bd XLI., pl. III., fig. ro. 1879. 128 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. XIII. (2) Balin. He also refers to the specimen figured by Dr Davidson, and to a similar specimen from the Fuller’s Earth of Metz, which is figured by M. Deslongchamps, (Terr. Jur. Pal. Franc., pl. CIv., figs. 3, 4) as synonyms. Both Dr Davidson and M. Deslongchamps describe the specimens figured by them as the young of 7. maxzlata ; and it cannot be denied that young 7. maxillata are very like the figures. In the Upper Ragstone beds of Rodporuel: either the Upper 77zgonta-, or Clypeus-Grit, | have found a number of specimens of various ages which are totally unlike any other form occurring in those beds, but somewhat resemble Szajnocha’s figure. However, I consider the Cotteswold forms sufficiently distinct from Oppel’s species to justify my giving them a specific name. Moreover, the beds in which they occur in the Cotteswolds are older than those in which 7. marmorvea is found either in Wiltshire, at Balin, or Metz. I am not aware that 7. dentiformzs is found in any locality outside the Cotteswolds. 7. RHYNCHONELLA FORBESI, Davidson. 1852. RHYNCHONELLA FORBESI, ZDav., Mon. Brit. Oolitic and Liassic Brach., Vol. I., pt. 3, pl. xvii., fig. 19. I have two specimens from near Stroud. One I found at Swift’s Hill in the top of the sandy bed which occurs in the 7: Buckmant-Grit, and the other is from the same horizon at the Frith. The specimens are the exact coun- terparts of examples which I have from the neighbourhood of Bradford Abbas, where it occurs plentifully. 1899 C. UPTON—BRACHIOPODA 129 _ 8. RHYNCHONELLA JURENSIS (Quenstedt) Pl. IIL, figs. 14—17. 1858. TEREBRATULA JURENSIS, Quenst., Der Jura, p. 287, tab. xli., figs. 33—35. 1878. RHYNCHONELLA JURENSIS, Dav., Supp. Brit. Juras. and Trias. Brach., Vol. IV., pl. xxvii. figs. 24—27. A small Rkhynxchonella which has been identified as Quenstedt’s /uvenszs is found in the Upper Lias—Zone of Am. communts—of the neighbourhood of Banbury. There is possibly some little doubt about the identity, but nevertheless the Banbury fossil is always referred to as R. jurensts. The fossil has not hitherto been correctly recorded from any other British locality to my knowledge. I have, however, found two specimens in beds of the same age on the southern slope of Doverow Hill, near Stroud, and another from the Margaritatus beds of the Middle Lias at Haywardsfield. Dr Davidson figures the species in the Supplement to his Monograph (pl. xxvii., figs. 24—27), but the figures do not bring out well the peculiar flatness of the brachial valve which is charac- teristic of the English specimens. 9. RHYNCHONELLA COTTESWOLDIA, sp. n. Pl. IIL., figs. 18—22. 1878. RHYNCHONELLA RIMOSA, (non von Buch) Dav. Supp. Brit. Juras. and Trias. Brach., Vol. IV., pl. xxvii., figs. 10, roa. DIAGNOSIS.—Shell small, nearly circular in outline, slightly wider than long; pedicle valve rather flat; brachial valve very convex, umbo considerably inflated ; beak acute, sub- erect, slightly truncated by the foramén which is small and encroaches on the valve ; deltidial plates apparent and "130 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (2) only partially surrounding the foramen; beak area fairly prominent; hinge margin indenting the brachial valve. Valves ornamented by a great number of fine rounded ribs which extend from the beak to about two-thirds the length of the shell, where they merge in from 8 to 10 prominent angular ribs extending from about half-way along the shell to the margin. Sinus and mesial fold well defined, occupied by from two to four of the large ribs which are usually somewhat unequal in magnitude. A large speci- men measures in length 13 mm.,in breadth 14 mm., and in height 9 mm. : Dr Davidson on p. 224 of the Supplement to his Mono- graph of the Brit. Foss. Brach. states that Prof. Tate in the Geological Magazine for Dec., 1869, quotes Rhyn. jurensts from the Zone of Am. opalinus, but does not give the locality. His (Prof. Tate’s) authority appears to be a record of Dr Lycett’s in the Proceedings of this Club (Vol. II., p. 142, 1860), where it is stated to occur in the Upper Zone of the Supra-Liassic Sands. Dr Davidson goes on to say that he has seen the specimen referred to, and has no hesitation in stating that it is referable to R. vimosa of von Buch, and he gives a figure of it (pl. xxvii., fig. 10). I agree with Dr Davidson that the specimen figured is not 2. 7uvenszs, but I am unable to agree with him that it is correctly called 2. rzmosa. Iam well acquainted with both A. vzmosa and the shell figured by Dr Davidson, and I am satisfied that they are not the same. Moreover, 2. xzmosa has not certainly been found in strata of later date than the Zone of Am. Henley, which is below the Marlstone of the Middle Lias, whilst the form in question is confined to the Dumortieria and Moorez horizons of the Cotteswold Cephalopod-bed, which are very much later in date. 1899 _ C. UPTON—BRACHIOPODA 131 NOTE.—The shell is usually more globose than the specimen figured by Dr Davidson, which can scarcely be considered typical. LOCALITIES.—The species does not appear to have been found except in the Cotteswolds. I have found it -at Buckholt (Long) Wood, Pen Wood, and Haresfield Beacon. 132 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xii. (2) EXPLANATION OF PEATE FM, FIG. 1I—4. TEREBRATULA GALEIFORMIS, AZ’ Coy, var. Upper Freestone (Oolite Marl), Stroud. FIGS. Bea 1 TEREBRATULA SUB-SPHAEROIDALIS, sp.n. Top of Upper 7Z72¢gonza-Grit, Setter Hill, near Stroud. FIGS. 8—10. TEREBRATULA EUIDES, S. Buckman. Ferruginous Limestone (Zone of 77met. sctssum), Painswick Hill. FIGS. 11—13. TEREBRATULA LENTIFORMIS, sp. n. Clypeus Grit, Rodborough. FIGS. 14-17. RHYNCHONELLA JURENSIS (Quenstedt). Upper Lias Clay (Commune Zone), Doverow Hill, Stonehouse. FIGS. 18—22. RHYNCHONELLA COTTESW OLDIE, ‘sp. n- Moore? Beds (Opalinum Zone), Buckholt Wood, Frocester. All the specimens are in the Author's collection. Proc: Cotteswold Club Vol. XIfL. Plate II. Geo.West & Sons lth. et imp. Pool OF OIYPES AND. PIGU RED SPECIMENS OF BRACHIOPODA BY Sse. BUCKMAN 1 E:G:S. Only a few words of introduction are necessary. The value of all types and figured specimens, and the necessity for their safe preservation are now duly recognised. The recognition has come none too soon. Specialists in particular have to regret the disappearance of many of the types figured by older authors. And the more doubtful the identification of a species, the more is the dis- appearance of the type to be regretted, and the greater would be its value if it could be recovered. A case in ’ point is the type of Ammonites Bratkenridgti, Sowerby, which has now been unfortunately lost sight of. It would be most interesting to recover the specimen, to set at rest the doubts as to its identification : hence its value is great. To preserve types and figured specimens the British Association formed a Committee for their registration, and the present list is a partial contribution towards the end they have in view. And it is offered to show the manner in which such registration is performed. For I have followed in the main the plan adopted by Mr G. C. Crick, F.G.S., in his “List of the Types and Figured Specimens of Fossil Cephalopoda in the British Museum.” I have, however, made one innovation. In square brackets I have added the date of each specimen, thus 134 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. ximl. (2) [Disczt@]. This refers to the hemera, and it puts the position of a specimen in time with extreme precision, a detail very often wanting in regard to some of the earlier figured specimens. Opportunity has also been taken to amend certain statements of localities which were obviously incorrect ; such emendation I can make from personal knowledge of the specimens and of other circumstances. Notice may be taken of the cases wherein a figure has been made from a combination of two specimens. This practice would easily lead to a non-identification of the types unless the facts had been carefully noted. It is an undesirable practice, unless special mention be made of it in the explanation of the plates. Even then it is dangerous. How easily for instance, supposing a figure were made from imperfect specimens, might the beak of Zerebratula curviconcha have been added to the valves of Waldheimia haasi—two shells which are so remarkably similar in external appearance, and moreover occur together in the same bed. BRACHIOPODA : TYPES AND” FIGURED (25 PECIMENS; S. S. BUCKMAN COLLECTION. Rhynchonella balinensis, Szajnocha: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XX., fig. 3, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ; Bradford Abbas, Dorset. [Dzéscite]. (Figured specimen). Rhynchonella beneckei, Haas: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XX., figs. 8-10, 1884. Jurassic, Yeovil Sands; Bradford Abbas, Dorset. [AZoorec]. These specimens became the types of RAyach. cynica, S. Buckman, Baj. Mid-Cotts. Q.J.G.S., Vol. li., p. 451, 1895: the fig. 8 of Davidson’s plate being taken as the Type. There were four specimens figured by Davidson, his figs. 9 and 9a being from different examples. 1899 S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 135 Rhynchonella bilobata, S. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., fig. 19, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ; Corton Denham, Somerset. [Dzscite]. (Type). The name subsequently altered to 2A. “iostraca, S. Buckm., Geol. Mag., Dec. III. Vol. ii., p. 217, 1886. Rhynchonella brasili, S. Buckman, Baj. Mid-Cotts. Q.J.G.S., Vol. lit, Pl. XIV., fig. 7, 1895. Jurassic, Inf. Ool.; Corton Downs, Somerset. [Jurchisone, or Bradfordensis|. (Type x2). Rhynchonella buteo, Szajnocha: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XX., f. 7, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool.; Brad- ford Abbas, Dorset. [Déscite]. (Figured specimen). Rhynchonella cymatophora, S. Buckman, 1895. See Rhynch. gingensis. Rhynchonella cynica, S. Buckman, 1895. See Rhynch. beneckei. Rhynchonella cynomorpha, S. Buckman, Baj. Mid-Cotts. Q.J.G.S. | Vol. li., Pl. XIV., figs. 2-4, 1895. Jurassic, Inf. Ool.; Frith Quarry, Painswick. Oolite Marlseries. [Bradfordensis|. (Types, 3 specimens). Rhynchonella dorsetensis, S. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach. App. to Suppl. Pl. XX., fig. 2, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool.; Half- way House, Dorset. [Blagdeni, or Niortensis|. (Type). Rhynchonella dundriensis, S. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., fig. 20, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool.; Bradford Abbas, Dorset. Probably from Irony bed and hence [Sawze/]. (Autotype). The name was first given (Brach. Proc. Dorset Club., Vol. iv., p. 43, 1883) to the figure by Davidson, Mon. Brach (Pal. Soc.) App. Pl. A., fig. 28. Rhynchonella gingensis, Waagen: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XX., fig. 1, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ; Bradford Abbas, Dorset. [d¢@urchtsone]. This specimen after- wards became the Type of Rhynch. cymatophora, S. Buckman, Baj. Mid-Cotts. Q.J.G.S., Vol. li., p. 447, 1895. 136 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XII. (2) Rhynchonella hampenensis, S. Buckman, Proc. Cotteswold Club, Vol. ix., Pl. IIl., fig. 6, 1886. - Jurassic, Inf. Ool. (Upper Zrigonia- grit); Naunton, Glos. [Garantiane]. (Type). Rhynchonella liostraca, S. Buckman, 1886. See Rhynch. bilo- bata. Rhynchonella palma, Szajnocha: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., fig. 21, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ; Bradford Abbas, Dorset. [MJurchisone]. (Figured speci- men). Rhynchonella sp., S. Buckman, Baj. Mid-Cotts. Giese Vol. li., Pl. XIV., fig. 6, 1895. Jurassic, Yeovil Sands; Middle Chinnock, Somerset. [Sciss¢]. (Figured specirhen). Rhynchonella stephensi, Davidson: S. Buckman, Baj. Mid-Cotts. Q.J:G.S., Voli hi.” PI. XIV.,. fig: 1, 1895. Jurassic;= Yeovil Sands; Stoke Knap, Dorset. [.Sciss/]. (Figured specimen). Rhynch. aff. weigandi, Haas and Petri: S. Buckman, Baj. Mid- Cotts. Q.J.G.S., Vol. li., Pl. XIV., fig. 5, 1895. Jurassic, Yeovil Sands; Netherton, Dorset. [.Scésst.| (Figured specimen). Spirifer punct&tus, Sedgwick: J. Buckman, Geol. Chelt. Ed. 2, Pl. X., fig. 7, 1845. Spirtfer rostratus, Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) Pl. Il., fig. 2, 1850. Jurassic, Middle Lias; Hewletts Hill (Battledown), Cheltenham. [en/eyz, or 4 Jbex|. (Type). The fig. in Geol. Chelt. is reduced, and restored; that in Davidson is also restored. Another specimen marked S. punctatus in J. Buckman’s handwriting was used perhaps for some details in both drawings. Spirifer rostratus, Schlotheim. See Spirifer punctatus. Terebratula ampla, J. Buckman: auct. See Terebratula perovalis var. ampla. Terebratula buckmani, Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) Pl. VIL., fig. 15, 1850. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. (Ragstone); Sudeley Hill, near Winchcombe, Glos. [Dz¢scite]. (Type). a ae eR et ee 1899 S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 137 Terebratula cortonensis, $. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., fig. 3, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ; Corton, Somerset. [Dyscite]. (Type). Terebratula crickleyensis, S$. Buckman, Baj. Mid-Cotts. Q.J.G.S., Vol. li., Pl. XIV., fig. 8, 1895. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. (Ragstone) ; Crickley, Glos. [Dzscite]. (Type). Terebratula curviconcha, Oppel: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XVIII., fig. 15, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool.; Halfway House (Wyke Quarry, Irony Bed), Dorset. [ Blagdent |. (Type). Terebratula decipiens, E..Deslongschamps: Davidson, Brach. Proc. Dorset Club, Vol. I., Pl. I., fig. 1, 1877. Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) Suppl. Pl. XX., fig. 4, 1878. Jurassic, Inf. Ool.; Broad Windsor, Dorset. [Zigzag]. (Figured specimen). A magni- ficent large example, probably unique as to size and condition. The locality in the text of the works is given as Bradford Abbas, but the colour and condition of the specimen wholly negative this statement, which was probably made on the authority of a fossil collector. It is certainly not from Bradford Abbas; it is most likely froni Broad Windsor, or possibly from Crewkerne. Terebratula eudesiana, S. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XVIIL., fig. 18, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ; Bradford Abbas, Dorset. [Dz¢scite]. (Type). Terebratula euides, S. Buckman, Brach. Proc. Cotteswold Club, Vol. ix., Pl. Ill., fig. 2, 1886, beak figured; and see Tereb. fleischeri. Terebratula fleischeri, Oppel: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., fig. 4, 1884. Jurassic, Yeovil Sands ; Sherborne, Dorset. [.Sc/ssz]. This specimen became the Type of Terebratula euides S. Buckm., Geol. Mag. Dec. III. Vol. iii., p. 218. Terebratula ferryi, E. Deslongschamps: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XVIII., figs. 20, 21, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ; Oborne, and Bradford Abbas, Dorset. [Garan- tiane|. (2 Figured specimens). 138 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xi. (2) Terebratula gravida, Szajnocha; Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XVIII., fig. 17, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ooll. ; Halfway House (Louse- Hill), Dorset. [B/agdeni]. (2 Figured specimens). Two specimens were drawn to make the figure, as stated in a label in Davidson’s handwriting, referring to them. They both bear the x wherewith Davidson marked figured specimens. Terebratula hollandae, S. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XVIII., fig. 22, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ; Bradford Abbas, Dorset. [Garantiane]. (Type). Terebratula leesi, S. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XVIII., fig. 16, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ; Bradford Abbas, Dorset. [d/urchisone]. (Type). See Wald- heimia carinata, var. Mandelslohi, under which name this shell was first figured. Terebratula linguifera, S. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., fig. 1, 1884. Jurassic, Fullers’ Earth Rock ; Haydon, Dorset. [Swbcontracti]. (Type). Terebratula morierei, E. Deslongschamps: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XVIII, fig. 11, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ; Bradford Abbas, Dorset. [Gavantiane]. (Figured specimen, unusually large). Terebratula notgroviensis, S. Buckman, Brach. Proc. Cotteswold Club, Vol. ix., Pl. III., fig. 5, 1886. Jurassic, Inf. Oolite Marl; Notgrove Station, Glos. [ Bradfordensis|. (Type). Terebratula perovalis, var ampla, J. Buckman: Davidson, Brach. Proc. Dorset Club, Vol. i., Pl. 1., fig. 2, 1877. Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) Suppl. Pl. XXV., fig. 2, 1878. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ; Bradford Abbas, Dorset. [Comcavi, or discite]. (Type). This form is now generally recognised as a distinct species, a less advanced form than Zered. perovalis. The figures have been very much restored. A similar remark applies to fig. 1 on the same plates. In fact my father told me that figure was made up from two specimens. 1899 Ss. S$. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 139 Terebratula phillipsi, Morris: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) Suppl. Pl. XVII., fig. 10, 1878. Jurassic, Inf. Ool.; Bradford Abbas, Dorset. [Garantiane?] (Figured specimen). Terebratula pisolithica, S$. Buckman, Brach. Proc. Cotteswold Club, Vol. ix., Pl. IlI., fig. 1, 1886. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. (Pea- grit); Crickley Hill, Glos. [Murchisone]. (Type). Terebratula plicata, J. Buckman, Geol. Chelt. Ed. 2, Pie Wil. fig. 6., 1845. Davidson, Mon. Brach, (Pal. Soc.) Pl. Malte 22, 150; Jurassic, Inf. Ool. (Pea-grit); Crickley Hill, Glos. [Alurchisone]. (Type). The fig. in the ‘Geol. of Chelt.’ is reduced, as was the case with many figures in that work. The dimensions given in p. tor of that work agree with those of the specimen. In David- son’s figure the plications are exaggerated. Terebratula provincialis, E. Deslongschamps: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., fig. 2, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool.; Corton, Somerset. [Bradfordensis|. (Figured specimen). Terebratula shirburniensis, S. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., fig. 5, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool.; Sherborne, Dorset. [Bradfordensis|. (Type). Terebratula simplex, J. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc. Pl. VIL, fig. 2, 1850. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. (Pea-grit); near Cheltenham. [A/urchivone]. (Autotype). The beak has been restored. Terebratula sphaeroidalis, J. de C. Sowerby: Davidson, Brach. Proc. Dorset Club, Vol. i., Pl. Il., fig. 6, 1877. Jurassic, Inf. Ool.; Broad Windsor, Dorset. [Zégzag]. The locality given in the text is Bradford Abbas; but the colour of the specimen does not agree with that: it came most likely from Broad Windsor. See note to Tereb. decipiens. Terebratula stephani, Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) Suppl. Pl. XVIII., fig. 6, 1878. Jurassic, Inf. Ool.; Broad Windsor, Dorset. [Zigzag]. (Autotype). This is really a very pro- nounced development of Zerebratula stephani, in the direction of 140 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (2) Terebratula linguifera. he locality given in the text, ‘ Bradford Abbas,’ is doubtful. The specimen has the appearance of Broad Windsor examples. See note to Tereb. decipiens. Terebratula submaxillata, Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) PI. IX., fig. 10, 1850. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. (Pea-grit series); near Cheltenham. [Murchisone|. (Type). Waldheimia bisuleata, S. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., fig. 9, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ; Bradford Abbas, Dorset. [Gavruztiane|. (Type). Waldheimia brodiei, S. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Fl. XIX., figs. 14, 15, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ; Louse Hill, Sherborne, Dorset. [ Blagdent|. (Types, 2 specimens). Waldheimia carinata, Lamarck: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., fig. 7, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ; Bradford Abbas, Dorset. [Garantiime|. (Figured specimen, an unusually large example). Waldheimia carinata, Lamarck: Davidson, Brach. Proc. Dorset Club, Vol. i., Pl. IIl., fig. 7, 1877. Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) Suppl. Pl. XXIII., fig. 15, 1878. Jurassic, Inf. Ool.; Broad Windsor, Dorset. [Zyzag]. This specimen was subsequently taken as Type of Watdtheimia carinata var. crewkerniensis, S. Buckman, Proc. Dorset Club, Vol. iv., p. 33, 1883. See under that name. Waldheimia carinata, var. crewkerniensis, S. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., fig. 8, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ; Haselbury, Somerset. [ Zrae//iz, or ? Zigzag ?| (Autotype). Is now regarded as a distinct species—the plicate mutation of carnats. Also see Waldh. carinata. Waldheimia carinata, var. Mandelslohi, Oppel: Davidson, Proc. Dorset Club, Vol. i., Pl. III., fig. 8, 1877. ‘Mon. Brach (Pal. Soc.) Suppl. Pl. XXIII., fig. 16, 1878. Jurassic, Inf. Ool.; Bradford Abbas, Dorset. | dZurchtsona@|. This shell was afterwards : aa Rien fins a be fa sh 1899 S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA I4I made Type of Zered. fest, S. Buckman, Brach. Proc. Dorset Club, Vol. iv., p. 28, 1883. See Terebratula leesi. Waldheimia disculus, Waagen: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., fig. 17, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ; Corton Denham, Somerset. [Discite|. (Figured specimen). Waldheimia haasi, S. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., figs. II, 12, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ; Halfway House (Louse Hill), Dorset. [Blagdeni]. Fig. 12 is the uniplicate Type; fig. 11 isa very scarce biplicate development, probably connecting haasié with reversa. Two specimens were drawn for the details of fig. 11, as stated by a label of Davidson’s. Waldheimia meriani, Oppel: Davidson, Brach. Proc. Dorset Club, Mole ta PEST, fig. 9, 1877. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ; Cotteswolds, Glos. [Discte]. (Figured specimen). There is every reason to doubt the locality of ‘« Bradford Abbas” given in the text. Waldheimia reversa, S. Buckman: Davidson, Mon. Brach. App. to Suppl. Pl. XIX., fig. 13; Pl. XX., fig. 13, 1884. Jurassic, Inf. Ool. ; Oborne, Dorset. [Miortensis, or ? Blagdeni]. (Type). Waldheimia (Zeilleria) witchelli, s. Buckman, Brach. Proc. Cottes- wold Club, Vol. ix., Pl. III., fig. 4, 1886. Jurassic, Inf. Oolite Marl ; Notgrove Station. [ Bradfordensis], (Type). NOTE CONCERNING FIGURED TYPES I may take this Opportunity to make a note concerning two speci- mens, both of which I have examined. Waldheimia sub-numismalis, Davidson, Mon. Brach. (Pal. Soc.) Suppl. Pl. XXL, figs. 1, 2. The numbers are wrong in the explanation of the Plate. Figs. 1 and 2 should be interchanged. Fig. 1 (fig. 2 in the explanation) is in the Museum of the School of Mines. Fig, 2 (in explanation, fig. 1) which was in the collection of Mr D. Stephens, is now in the collection of Mr J. F. Walker. Its beak is incorrectly drawn. It is not a Waldheimia, but is Terebratula subpunctata. < PRESENTED 31 OCT.1900 wOr. XIT PAT ETI PROCEEDINGS OF THE Cotteswold Uaturalists’ : FIELD OG a Oils: President EDWARD B. WETHERED, F.GS., F.C.S., F.R.M.S. ; Vice- Presidents : JOHN BELLOWS Rev. H. H. WINWOOD, M.A., F.G.S. CHRISTOPHER BOWLY, M.A. M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS C. CALLAWAY, M:A., D.Sc, F.G.S. Honorary Creasurer A. S. HELPS Honorary Wibrarian H. G. MADAN, M.A,, F.C.S. Honorary Accretarp Ss. S. BUCKMAN, F.GS. YHE COUNCIL OF THE CLUB WISH IT TO BE DISTINCTLY UNDERSTOOD ‘THAT THE AUTHORS ALONE ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE FACTS AND OPINIONS CONTAINED IN THEIR RESPECTIVE PAPERS. Contents President’s Address. By M. W. COLCHESTER- By RaEES Part I.—Formal Record - - - : - page 143 Part II.—A Visit to Robben Tstaad - - - - - - n 153 Part III.—An Account of Leprosy - - - - - See Teeny O16, Excursion Notes: Chiefly on River Features. By S. S, BucKMAN, F.G.S. nw 175 Excursion Notes: The Garden at Priors Sets) 4 M. W. coneust ER- WEMYSS - - 1295 A Fatal Combat between. a Rove Beetle and an Ant. By. c A. WitcHEL and C. J. WATKINS - - n 195 Survivals of Roman Architecture in Brita By Joun BELLOWS - n 199 The Common Fields at Upton St. a vi oc id anon E. C. ScopeLL 215 List of the Members—May, 1900 - - List of Societies, Institutions, ey - - - 2 2 . Treasurer's Account - £ : : E . PUBLISHED, AUGUST, 1900 PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY JOHN BELLOWS, GLOUCESTER. S 217799 13, Qa. '900 (/01g) The Library of the Club is at Mr John Bellows’, Eastgate, Gloucester. It is open every Tuesday afternoon from 2.30—4.30, when books may be examined, or borrowed. Books, Pamphlets, etc., presented to the Club should be addressed to The Cotteswold Club, The Library, East- gate, Gloucester. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD NATURALISTS Pine CLUB PRESIDENT EDWARD B. WETHERED, F.G.S,, F.C.S., F.R.MLS. HONORARY SECRETARY So BUCKMAN, F.G.S. Vol. XIII. Part III. August, 1900 143 ANNUAL ADDRESS Oe TEE: COTTESWOLD NATURALISTS’ FIELD CLUB, (Read at Gloucester, 3rd April, 1900) BY MW. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS,. PRESIDENT. PART I.—FORMAL RECORD During the past year death has, I regret to say, removed one member from our ranks. I refer to the late Joseph Arthur Gibbs, of Ablington Manor. Although quite a new member of the Club—he was elected in 1898—and although he had not contributed anything to our Proceed- ings, yet we had every reason to expect that he would prove one of our most valuable members; for his work, “A Cotswold Village,” which I referred to in my last address, is a book full of literary promise. Unfortunately, almost before my address was printed, our hopes had been disappointed. Mr Gibbs’ early death was particularly sad, coming as the result of an accident in the cricket field. I propose that the Club pass a vote of sincere _ condolence with his mother, and I would further propose 144 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xill. (3) that his work on “ A Cotswold Village” be added to our Club Library as a memorial of him. From the “ Cheltenham Examiner” of May 24th, 1899, I take the following obituary notice :— ‘*Mr Joseph Arthur Gibbs, of Ablington Manor, has passed away at the early age of 31. An injury from a cricket ball necessitated a surgical operation of a rather serious nature, and death resulted from failure of the heart’s action. Mr Gibbs was the eldest son of Mr George Monk Gibbs, and was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford. After his University days, Mr Gibbs resided with his mother at Ablington, entering keenly into all the pursuits of a country gentleman, and at the same time developing those literary tastes, of which his well-known book, ‘ A Cotswold Village,’ published only last December, affords unquestionable evidence. Many people have read this book with keen enjoyment. It gives a remarkably graphic picture of Cotswold life, and presents a very unusual combination of interests. Rustic legends, sketches of village character, village cricket, old Cots- wold pastimes, the origin of place names, harvest feasts and Christmas festivities, specimens of the dialect, and excellently illustrated de- scriptions of the typical Cotswold towns, Cirencester and Burford, and of that prettiest of Cotswold villages, Bibury, with its picturesque hamlet of Ablington—all these matters are brightly treated of. Then, too, there are pages of Wordsworthian musing, nature-sketches sug- gestive of Richard Jefferies, discourse of angling and of hunting in the spirit of a true enthusiast for sport, and, running through all, a distinct feeling for literature and real literary quality. In reading ‘A Cots- wold Village,’ one could not help feeling a wish to meet the author and thank him for the human interest he had imparted to his book. _ It is sincerely to be regretted that a life so full of promise of real literary distinction should have closed thus early and abruptly.” Another announcement | have to make with similar regret,—that owing to the very sad state of his health, one of our oldest members, and our senior Vice-President, the Rev. Frederick Smithe, M.A., LL.D., F.G.S., has had to resign. As you may know, for a long period the state of 1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS I45 Dr Smithe’s health has been very serious, and has pre- vented him not only from taking any share in the work of this Club, but also from continuing his other duties; and so his resignation of his position as an officer and a member of this Club is not unexpected. Still I am sure that I express the sentiments of all our members when I say that we greatly regret it. Dr Smithe’s connection with this Club has been a long one; his name carries us back to quite early days. He was elected at the Annual Meeting, February 15th, 1859 —he and your late President, W. C. Lucy, being elected together on that day—and so he has been a member of this Club for 41 years. He was elected Vice-President in 1887. He became a Fellow of the Geological Society in 1858 ; but he has not contributed any papers to its Journal. In our Proceedings, however, will be found several con- tributions, indicating his high attainments as a geologist and petrologist. He specially devoted himself to the study of the Middle and Upper Lias rocks, giving con- siderable attention to their development in his own parish of Churchdown. In fact, our chief knowledge of these beds in this county is derived from the researches of Dr Smithe, published in different papers in our Proceedings. Further, when Dr Thomas Davidson was publishing his important work “On Jurassic Brachiopoda,” Dr Smithe was able to send him a very fine series of specimens from Churchdown, and to give him many details, all showing how much use he had made of his opportunities for study- ing the Liassic rocks. I do not at present give any more detailed account of Dr Smithe’s work. You will understand why. It is sufficient to show that we appreciate his labours, and greatly regret the cause of his resignation. I now turn to notice work accomplished by our members during the year outside the Club’s Proceedings. I do not K2 146 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xl. (3) find so many contributions as I noticed in my last address. If I have overlooked any work that has been published, I hope members will kindly give me intimation thereof, so that I may rectify the omission. I notice that Dr E. W. Prevost has published an im- portant work, “A Glossary of the Words and Phrases pertaining to the Dialect of Cumberland, by W. Dickinson, F.L.S.—Re-arranged, illustrated and augmented by quo- tations. by E. W. Prevost, Ph.D., F.R.S.E.; ‘with ‘ashore digest of the Phonology and Grammar of the Dialect by S. Dickson Brown, B.A. London. Published by Bemrose, London, and Thurman, Carlisle. Roy. 8vo., pp. cvi.—381.” And I may add, as a matter of some interest, that this work has been printed by John Bellows. The Palzontographical Society has published another portion of the “ Monograph of Inferior Oolite Ammonites” from the pen of our Hon. Secretary. This makes the eleventh contribution ; and the work is now illustrated by 118 quarto plates. The following, which I take from a newspaper, is of interest as reminding us of one of our members, Dr Francis Day, who did so much in his special line of re- search—fish culture: “The Society of Experimental Fish Culture is now in a position to begin work at the Crystal Palace . ... The Day collection of fishes which the authorities at South Kensington removed from the Buck- land Museum has been promised to the Society, and should form a nucleus around which other collections will be accumulated.” A formal record of the Club’s work during the year may now be given. 1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS {47 COTTESWOLD NATURALISTS’ FIELD CLUB REPORT OF THE YEAR'S WORK, 1899 The Annual Meeting was held at the School of Science, Gloucester, on May 2nd, 1899, at 3.15 p.m. The Presi- dent, Mr M. W. Colchester-Wemyss, was in the chair, and about 23 members attended. The Minutes of the last Annual Meeting were read by the Secretary and con- firmed. The President read his address, in which he referred to the work done by members of the Club as shewn by their papers, etc., published in the Journal of the Geological Society and elsewhere. He then gave a formal account of the Field Meetings, and finally read a description of his visit to a Californian Gold-bearing river. A vote of thanks was passed to the President for his interesting address. , The Secretary then explained a “Jurassic Time-Table” showing how its publication would conduce to future work and to the value of the Club’s future volumes, by becoming a basis for contributions from specialists. The Secretary also exhibited and explained some Jurassic Brachiopods. The Treasurer then read his balance-sheet, which was approved. The President then left the chair, which was taken by John Bellows, who proposed the re-election of Mr M. W. Colchester-Wemyss. This was seconded and carried unanimously. Mr M. W. Colchester-Wemyss then an the chair, and proposed the re-election of the Vice-Presidents, the Hon. Treasurer and the Hon. Secretary. These proposals were seconded and carried unanimously. 148 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xill. (3) Proposals for the summer meetings were then discussed ; and the formal arrangement of places and dates was left to the Council. The following was their arrangement :— Thursday, June Ist. The Upper Coln Valley. Monday, June 26th. |Salisbury; a two days’ excur- Tuesday, June 27th. sion. Wednesday, July 26th. Sodbury, for the cuttings on the new railway. Tuesday, Sept. 19th. Lydney and Awre. It was afterwards found necessary to make changes with respect to the last meeting; it was held at Coleford on Thursday, Sept. 21st. There was a good attendance of members at the first of the summer meetings, and an interesting day was spent under the guidance of the Hon. Secretary, who conducted the party over Sevenhampton Common, down the Seven- hampton Valley, and to the village of Withington. The special study of the excursion being that of geological problems connected with the formation of the Severn Valley, and of the valleys through and adjacent to the Cotteswold escarpment, particular attention was paid to the evidence afforded by the valleys themselves. The formation of the Severn Valley has hitherto been generally regarded as the work of the river itself. The - western shore of the sea in which the Cotteswold rocks were deposited was probably the Malvern chain and the hills continuing from it through the Forest of Dean. It has been supposed that when the Severn began to make a channel it found a line of least resistance in the junction of the soft rocks of the Cotteswolds and the hard rocks of the Malverns, and that in process of time it widened its bed by cutting away the rocks on the eastern side and thus formed the Cotteswold cliffs. It has also been com- monly believed that lateral valleys like the Dowdeswell 1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 149 valley were formed by tributaries of the Severn—that, in fact, the pass of Andoversford was scooped out by a river which was an ancestor of the Chelt, fed from the Cottes- wolds when they were much higher than they now are. Of late years, however, new investigations and parti- cularly the researches of Professor W. M. Davis, as re- corded in a paper on “ Development of English Rivers,” in the Geographical Journal, vol. v., 1895, have caused another theory to be advanced which, expressed briefly, is this: that before the Severn Valley was scooped out, rivers flowed from Wales in a south-easterly direction across the Cotteswolds and the Chilterns to the sea; that the valleys which break through the escarpment were formed, not by tributaries of the Severn, but by feeders of the Thames; and that instead of the Severn Valley having been excavated by the Severn alone, the cutting- out process was begun by an extended Thames. I referred in my last address to the paper on the “ De- velopment of Rivers” which our Hon. Secretary had just published in Vatural Sczence ; and it was to hear his views upon the spot that the meeting was arranged. The discussion during the day was largely of an en- quiring character, especially among the older school of geologists. The botanists of the party were interested by some specimens to which Mr W. L. Mellersh led them, while Mr John Sawyer and the Hon. Secretary called atten- tion to the ancient roads of the Cotteswolds. Luncheon was taken at the Andoversford Hotel. Afterwards a resolution was passed in support of the Wild Birds Pro- tection Bill, about which Mr C. A. Witchell gave an address. He also read a short paper about a combat between a beetle and an ant (see p. 195). On June 26th nearly a score of members assembled at Marlborough Station, whence they drove across the Wilt- shire Downs zz@ Oare Hill, Pewsey, Stonehenge, Ames- bury, and Old Sarum, occasional halts being made at 150 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xml. (3) interesting spots. Thus the Hon. Secretary demonstrated how the Kennet Valley and the Vale of Pewsey supply striking evidence of the theory of river valley formation considered at the first meeting, and those of the party in- terested in archeology found much matter for discussion at Stonehenge, Vespasian’s Camp near Amesbury, and the well-preserved ancient fortress of Old Sarum. On the following morning a visit was paid to the Blackmore Museum. Here the party was met by the Director of the Museum, Dr H. P. Blackmore, F.G.S., who kindly con- ducted them over the immense collection of stone im- plements, showing them types of the Eolithic, Palzolithic and Neolithic work, illustrating the evolution in form and design. Such points as the evolution of the axe and hammer, and the transition from the stone to the bronze implements, were fully elucidated. A cordial vote of thanks was passed to Dr Blackmore for his courtesy. In the afternoon, a visit was paid to the Cathedral, and the party had a most painstaking guide in Canon Bourne, who pointed out the salient features of the structure in an extremely interesting manner. Over twenty members attended an excursion to Sod- bury on August 3rd, the object being to inspect the cuttings and tunnel shafts made by the Great Western Railway in connection with their new direct line from Wootton Bassett to the Severn Tunnel. The party assembled at Yate Station, and then drove to the western end of the big Lilliput cutting. Here the Honorary Secretary gave a general account of the geology of the district, and the Rev. H. H. Winwood, F.G.S., followed, devoting his attention more particularly to the strata under inspection. The members then walked along the cutting, many of them interested in the mechanical developments now brought into play in the making of a railroad. Under the guidance of the Secretary and Mr — toe?) 1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS I51 Winwood other points of geological interest were noted, and the party then drove to Chipping Sodbury, where lunch was taken at the Portcullis Hotel. Afterwards a moye was made to the tunnel shaft at the foot of the hill and to that near the Cross Hands, where the various geo- logical questions suggested by the exposed strata led to much interesting discussion. During the day the party was favoured with the presence of Mr W. W. Grierson, the engineer in charge of the works, to whom the Presi- dent tendered the thanks of the Club for all the facilities and kind assistance extended to it. The members also had to thank Mr Hooper, of Stanshaws, for some hospi- tality very acceptable on a hot day. An interesting day was spent in the neighbourhood of Coleford on September 2 Ist. The party assembled at Coleford Station on the arrival of the train from Gloucester, and drove to Staunton, stopping on the way to see a large stone which stands on end close to the road, eee inside one of nae Forest En- closures. It is called “The Long Stone,” or, in Welsh, Maen hir. There are many such stones in + es and they are said to have been used as mustering places for men summoned to serve inwar. The Church at Staunton aroused much interest, many styles of architecture being visible in the building. It has an ancient font, which is probably Early Norman; it has been suggested that it is really a Roman altar converted into a font. The marks of staples can be seen on it, showing that it was one of those fonts that were locked up during very superstitious times. The order for locking fonts was made in 1236. The pulpit is entered by a flight of stone stairs which anciently led up to the rood loft. A walk of about half a mile brought the party to the Buckstone, situated on an eminence which has an eleva- tion of nearly 1000 ft., and commands a most extensive 152 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB __ VOL. xu. (3) view over the Forest enclosures, and the High Meadow woods, with many of the Welsh mountains showing in the distance. Unfortunately this curious old rocking stone can no longer be rocked. Some 15 years agoa party of men armed with crow-bars wantonly and malici- ously upset the stone, and though it was re-erected in its former position, it had to be fixed firmly, and it cannot now be made to oscillate. From the Buckstone the members drove to St. Briavels through the picturesque village of Newland, where time could only be spared to see the far-famed Newland Oak, one of the oldest and largest in the Kingdom. It isa grand tree with plenty of life in it yet; though it is perhaps a thousand years old. An interesting visit was paid to St. Briavels Castle, built by Milo Fitzwalter about the year 1100. Many of the ancient walls are still standing, and there is a fine old kitchen where the original dog-wheel is still 27 sz¢z, inside which the dogs ran whose duty it was to turn the spit. The Castle of St. Briavels stands on a very picturesque site. Its long list of Constables extends in unbroken line from Fitzwalter, till in 1838 this ancient office de- volved upon the Commissioners of Woods and Forests. Many quaint old legal Courts were held here as well as at the Speech House, dealing with the mining laws, the customs of the Forest, the rights of Freeholders and Freeminers, and the many privileges claimed by the Monarch. After luncheon the drive was resumed, and by kind in- vitation of its owner a visit was paid to Priors Mesne, where Surgeon-General Cook has for many years devoted his great knowledge of plants to the formation of a sub- tropical garden. It was with the greatest reluctance that the members left this charming and secluded spot, and partook of the 1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 153 hospitality courteously offered by Mrs Cook and her daughters, and then drove to Lydney for the train. Our Winter Meetings have been particularly well attended, and the interesting series of papers which has been read shows that the working activities of the Club are in a vigorous condition. To accommodate the papers it was necessary to hold an extra meeting besides the four which have hitherto been our limit. I give a list of the communications, which show that there is a wide field to which the Club can devote work. The Recently Enclosed Common Fields at Upton St. Leonards, by the Rev. Canon Scobell. How Nature Discards: a study of Relics and. Make- shifts, by S. S. Buckman, F.G.S. The Pyrenees and the Republic of Andorra, by William Bellows. The Birds of Gloucestershire, by W. L. Mellersh, M.A. A Mimicry of Organic Structure in a Silurian Lime- stone at Old Radnor, by C. Callaway, M.A., D.Sc. Incrusting Organisms, by E. B. Wethered, F.G.S. A Submerged Forest at Westbury-on-Severn, by E. W. Prevost, Ph.D., F.R.S.E. PART II.—A VISIT To ROBBEN ISLAND—THE LEPER SETTLEMENT A few years ago I happened to be at Cape Town, and went out one afternoon to call on the Bishop, who lives at a most charming old Dutch house some miles away. At one part of the road I well remember an avenue of giant pines, vividly illustrative of the idea that is said to have given birth to Gothic architecture. These pines lined the road on either side at regular intervals, their stems rising 154 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. Xu. (3) straight and clear without a single branch, and scarcely tapering at all until they reached a height of about 70 ft., when a few strong branches stretched out and joined hands, as it were, over the centre of the causeway. The Bishop told me he was going over to hold a Con- firmation at Robben Island the following day, and invited me to accompany him, a suggestion which I most gladly accepted, as in those days it was not easy to get leave to go there. The island is certainly a most curious place. It is in- habited entirely by lepers, convicts, lunatics and paupers. At the time of my visit, there were in it about 120 lepers, 250 lunatics, 75 convicts and 50 paupers. It has been used for lepers and lunatics for some 50 years, and until a year or two ago the methods adopted here were primitive in the extreme. For instance, till quite lately all the foul linen from the lepers was carried by them to the female lunatics, who washed it in cold water; but the most dis- gusting thing of all was that the same vehicle which was used for conveying the corpses of lepers (the coffins are so frail that they frequently burst ex route) was immediately afterwards used for carrying about the food for the lunatics and convicts. The lunatics were in the constant habit of resorting to the leper settlement to clear out and devour scraps of food left, after meals, by the lepers. And yet, notwith- standing all this, I was assured most confidently that no instance is on record in the island where a case of leprosy can clearly be traced to contagion. However, everything. has been altered now. I went over the whole of the establishments, and no exception could be taken to anything inany department. Everything is clean, and there is a generous dietary, which is the same for all, except that the convicts have half-a-pound of meat a-day more than the others. The lepers do everything ‘a ee 1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 155 ' for themselves, one white man only, besides the doctors, living with them. Their establishment consists of sundry long, low, thatched sheds, cool, clean and fairly convenient. They have their own compounds, reading-room, cook-house, &c., but they are not confined in any way, and can wander at will over the island. The female lepers have a small settle- ment to themselves a mile or soaway. The year before my visit the Cape Parliament passed a law giving the autho- rities power to remove lepers compulsorily. When | was there all the lepers were natives except two men and one woman, and the males were to the females in the proportion of about three to one. The Superintendent, Dr Dixon, said things were very different indeed now to what they were only a compara- tively short time ago. All the doctors here have the very strongest belief that leprosy is not contagious or infectious, except perhaps in one special way. At any rate they assert most positively that no case of communi- cated leprosy has ever occurred on the island, even not- withstanding the degree of inter-communication that has always existed between the lepers and the other in- habitants. They believe it is inherited in the blood, and is also developed in some mysterious way. They had lately been trying Gurgun oil (produced from a fir tree in the Andaman Isles), but they have not yet had time to give it a fair trial, for which a period of three years is _ said to be necessary ; and it is difficult to get the stomach to retain it in sufficiently large doses. They say, however, that in some cases it certainly has arrested the course of the disease. The disease, however, sometimes seems from no discoverable reason to arrest itself. I saw aman who had been on the island over 30 years, and they said he was no worse than he was 20 years ago. Another man of 94 was there, and his condition had remained unchanged for years. 156 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xu. (3) There are two distinct forms of the disease, the tuber- cular and the anesthetic; and sometimes both exist on the same patient. Sores break out over the body with most loathsome discharge. Nodules arise over the sur- face of the flesh, the extremities, fingers, toes, nose, gradually vanish and drop off, hands and feet becoming shapeless stumps, and often the whole face becomes so bulged and distorted that it hardly seems to bear any re- semblance to a human countenance. Frightful looking objects many of them were, but they none of them seemed to suffer pain, and hardly to realize their position; all seemed wonderfully cheerful and quite ready to laugh at any little remark. PART IIJ].—AN ACCOUNT OF LEPROSY There have been many diseases in the history of the world which from time to time have ravaged humanity, and then have seemed to disappear more or less entirely. Other diseases again, unknown of old, seem to have been produced by causes coincident with the advance of civiliza- tion. Leprosy stands in neither of these categories. It has been known some thousands of years: it exists to-day over the greater part of the world’s surface. It has, perhaps more than any other disease, afforded mankind subject for legislation and regulation ; and yet it isa disease perhaps almost as mysterious to-day as it was when the Israelites passed out of Egypt; and it has, up to now, entirely baffled all those efforts of medical science and research which have been devoted to finding a cure for it. The disease is first definitely described in the “ Ebers Papyrus” which was found at Memphis, and was written during the reign of Rameses II. (1348—1281 B.C.), though prescriptions have been found for a disease called echetu, which seems to be leprosy, and these belong, it 1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS _ ey is believed, to a period about 4600 B.C. In Persia, India, China, and Japan there are very ancient records of its existence. The first case mentioned in Europe is described by Aristotle in 345 B.C.; and from that time onwards the disease has been over and over again depicted in terms so clear and accurate, as to leave no doubt whatever that the leprosy of to-day is in every particular precisely the same disease which was known in classical days under the term Lilephantiasis Grecorum. In the Middle Ages most exact descriptions were given by men learned in the medicine of the day, such as Theodoric of Bologna, Lanfranc of Milan, Barchuone of Barcelona, the famous Guy de Chauliac, and many others. Often the most minute and detailed account is given of the various symptoms which the physician ought to look for in examining a suspected person, and the exact method is pointed out by which he ought to proceed with his examination before venturing to consign a suspected per- son to the seclusion of a leper hospital, and thus for ever doom him to be a despised “child of St. Lazarus.”* It is but little realized how very widely spread was the disease over the whole of Europe in the Middle Ages. Evidence of this is afforded by the records still existing of the laws and regulations, some of the most stringent nature, dealing with the unfortunate lepers, and also from the enormous number of lazarettos or leper-houses that were erected for their reception. A list of over 150 of these existing in Great Britain has been compiled, and it is said that there were no less than 2000 in France. It is no doubt true that many other diseases were confounded with leprosy, and that, especially later on when leprosy was dying out in Europe, a very large number of the occupants of the leper-houses were not lepers. But * Warrant of Edward IV. to examine a leper, 1468 (Simpson, Zdinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, 1841, 154.) 158 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB __ VOL. xm. (3) after making due allowance for this, there is no doubt that a great wave of leprosy passed over Europe com- mencing about the 8th century, gradually spreading, developing, and eventually passing away northwards and westwards. There is a common belief that it was first brought into England by soldiers returning from the crusades, but though many of them may have come back lepers, they did not introduce the disease, which existed here long before their time. There is a well authenticated case re- ported in Ireland in 432. In 950 the Welsh King, Howel Dda, passed a series of laws permitting the divorce of married persons should the man become a leper. And Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, who died in 1089, six years before the first Crusade, founded, during his lifetime, at least one, and probably two leper-houses at Canterbury. Leprosy did not reach Scotland till somewhat later, but it had practically died out in England, while it was still virulent in the northern kingdom. In 1350 some statutes were drawn up for the leper-house at St. Albans, and it appears then that there were hardly any lepers requiring admission ; but in the same year it was thought necessary to institute a leper-house for Glasgow, and nearly 100 years later, in 1427, the Scottish Parliament deemed it proper to legislate on the subject of lepers, though it is curious that the latest leper-house established in the kingdom was one at Highgate, and this was not founded until 1472, at a time when it was officially reported that there were very few lepers left in England. Some years later, in 1540, a Royal Commission was appointed to in- spect the Lazarettos in England, and they reported that among the inmates were very few leprous persons, and yet it is well known that as late as 1693 there were lepers in the Lazaretto at Kingcase. It was long before it became actually extinct in Scotland; it lingered in the Shetlands 1900 THE PRESIDENTS ADDRESS 159 till late into the last century, and the last known case of a Scotch leper was a patient from Zetland who died in an Edinburgh hospital in 1798. These Shetland lepers seem to have been sent to the Island of Papua, and the Session Books of Wales show the expense incurred in keeping them there from 1736-40. But for over 100 years leprosy may be said to have been absolutely extinct in the United Kingdom, though cases are occasionally noticed almost every year, but in all these cases the disease has invariably been contracted during a residence of the patient in some other country. It has never died out in Iceland, and in Norway it exists to this day to a very serious extent. At the present moment there are about 1500 cases, mostly in two leper establish- ments, though 40 years ago there were over double that number. In Italy there are a few spots where the disease still lingers, and also in Sicily, Spain, Hungary and Turkey ; but these spots are extremely limited in area, and the number of cases very few indeed. With these excep- tions, this malady may be said to be non-existent in Europe. Throughout Asia it is, however, still very active, in British India it is believed there are always at least 200,000 lepers. In China there are districts where a very large proportion of the people are affected ; the disease is found throughout Japan except in the Loo Choo Islands, and, generally speaking, lepers are met with everywhere in the Tropics. In the Brazils the malady is virulent, and in — many other parts of South America; but in North America it does not exist except in Mexico, where there are many cases; in California, where some leper spots exist, trace- able to Chinese settlers; in Louisiana, where a few leper areas are to be seen, and in a Norwegian Colony in New Brunswick, where it was clearly imported from Norway. Broadly speaking, it may be said that, over by far the L 160 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xull. (3) larger portion of the earth’s surface, the disease exists with greater or less virulence. Numerous reasons have been given to account for the existence and prevalence of leprosy in infected areas. 1. It has been said that climatic influences affect it. But it exists as near the Arctic circle as Iceland, Norway, and Siberia; all during the Middle Ages it was most pre- valent in temperate regions; and then, as now, it existed almost everywhere in the known Tropics. But in tropical countries, where there are great fluctuations of temperature and great moisture, the body becomes more or less ener- vated, and there is a predisposition to specific disease ; hence perhaps the prevalence in the Tropics. 2. Again, it is said to be specially prevalent near the sea coast. To some extent this is true, but only partially so. In Syria, for instance, it is rare on the coast, and prevalent on the mountains. Precisely the same remarks apply to Madagascar. In India the chief centre is at Rumaon, with an elevation of 5000 ft. above the sea. In the Brazils it is terribly prevalent in many up-country districts, and very much less so on the coast. It has also been observed in all ages that there are certain spots or limited areas where the disease may rage; whereas imme- diately outside these areas, though the conditions are perhaps similar in every appreciable respect, there is absolute or comparative immunity from disease. 3. Again, it is a very common belief that leprosy is prevalent where fish, and especially salted fish, forms a large part of the diet of the inhabitants; but it is endemic in many places where no fish is eaten, and it has disappeared from many places where fish still continues to be largely consumed; and there are bad spots in the midst of large fish-consuming districts, while there is exemption out- side the limited affected area. In Central China fish is essentially the food of the well-to-do, whereas the poorer Mi 3 2 oe ed an 1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 161 classes, who rarely touch fish, suffer far more from the disease. 4. The existence of leprosy is often ascribed to insanitary conditions, especially when they are combined with insuffi- ciency of food. Doubtless insanitary conditionswill produce a predisposition to many kinds of disease ; but leprosy has been by no means confined to the poorer classes whose surroundings are more likely to have insanitary taint. Naaman, the Captain of the host of Syria, was a mighty personage in his country. Baldwin IV., King of Jerusalem, relinquished his sceptre in consequence of his leprosy. Constance, Duchess of Brittany, died of itin 1201. Robert the Bruce suffered from it for many years. Henry IV. of England is said to have been a leper, and Henry III. almost certainly was one.* There is a most touching account extant how one Richard Orange, Mayor of Exeter, a wealthy and important citizen of the town, found himself to be a leper, and voluntarily cut himself adrift from friends, relations, and the world, and secluded himself in a leper-hospital. Again, that the disease is hereditary it would be difficult to deny in general terms, though much can be urged against it. For one thing, sterility accompanies leprosy. From 2864 lepers of both sexes who in 18 years have been secluded in Molokai, only 26 children have been born, and of these only two were lepers; but there can hardly be any doubt that a certain predisposition to the disease can often be traced in certain families, though this is a different thing to a definite hereditary taint. It is, however, on the subject of contagiousness that controversy has chiefly been raised, and it may be added that uniformity of belief has chiefly existed; and yet the proofs are by no means convincing. Certainly the opinion * Vide Simpson, Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, 1841, 396. L2 162 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (3) was most widespread in the Middle Ages that the malady was both infectious and contagious, and in fact this belief lay at the root of all the regulations that were passed ; and yet Simpson says of the study of leprosy: “The investigation of the cause of the disease has, more than in any other department of medicine, been marked by belief without evidence and assertion without facts.” Brunelli said (and he was no mean authority) : “L’opinione era contagiosa e non la malattia.” In support of Brunelli’s view it may be urged that— a. As I have said before, the limits of the diffusion of leprosy are often very narrow and very clearly defined. 6. It may be seen in some parts of the world where two races of men are living with complete inter- course, and yet one race will be affected with leprosy, and the other will be immune. c. I believe it is a fact that the cases are very rare where there is even suspicion that one member of a family has communicated it to another. d. Cases are innumerable where there are leprous marriages with leprosy on one side only. 855 such cases were counted in the N.W. Provinces in India, and in only, I think, two out of the number did the free person become tainted during the period of observation. A Parliamentary Report was drawn up in 1867, consisting of answers sent from Consuls and other officials in all parts of the world to a series of questions framed by the College of Physicians, and almost unanimously they reported against the contagion theory. e. I believe there is no case on record where a nurse or a physician in a leper-hospital has taken the 1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 163 disease, even though they do everything for their patients. J No cases have been ever described of the disease spreading outwards from the leper-houses. g. There is no instance, with one exception, where a European, having contracted the disease ina leprous country, has then come home and conveyed it to others. This is a strong body, if not of proof, at least of forcible evidence. There is no doubt that in medizval times many Public Regulations were instituted affecting lepers, and it seems that affected districts had very full powers to control them in every way. Very few of these laws have been pre- served. The first recorded edict is by Pepin in 757, who, amongst other things, proclaimed that leprosy in either sex was a legal ground for divorce, and so prevalent was the disease in Lombardy in his time, that we are told that in some cities there were many men with three wives living at the same time. Charlemagne passed laws affect- ing lepers in 789 ; and in 950, as I have said, Howel Dda, the Welsh King, decreed, amongst other things, that a woman might divorce a leprous husband, differing thus very curiously from Pepin’s law on the subject. We are told by “Maister Hector Boéce Channon of Aberdene” that before the time of Malcolm Canmore a man who was “sic infirmitie [e,g. daft or wod] as succedis be heritage fra the fader to the son was geldit (castrated). The woman that was fallin lipper was banist fra the cumpany of men, and gif scho consavit barne under sic infirmitie, baith scho and hir barne war buryit quik” (alive). Philip V. of France passed a law that all leprous persons were to be burnt ; this was in consequence of a belief having * Simpson, Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, 1842, p. 406. + Bellenden, Translation of Boéce’s History, p. 58. 164 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. Xi. (3) become current that they were guilty of poisoning all the wells in Christendom. The decree stated that “fire should at one and the same time purify infection of the body and of the soul.” I have come across the record of a most curious Edict of Henry II. of England. It was passed at the height of his quarrel with Becket, when he was most anxious to prevent the imposition of an Ecclesiastical interdict over his kingdom. So he took all possible precautions to avoid the conveyance of official letters to this effect into England. To secure this more fully it was declared that if any in- dividual did carry thither letters of interdict from the Pope or Archbishop he should be punished “ by the ampu- tation of his feet if a regular; by the loss of eyes and by castration if a secular clergyman; he should be hanged if he were a layman; and burned if he were a leper” (Sz leprosus comburatur ). This passage is very remarkable for several reasons. It indicates that lepers were treated as being outside the pale of ordinary law; it shows that notwithstanding all restrictions they were yet able to circulate pretty freely about the world; and it shows that it was considered possible that a person of such high rank as a Nuncio of the Pope might still be a leper. Apparently, when a person became leprous, indirect pressure was brought to bear upon him to seclude himself in a leper-house, eit when he refused, the friends or neighbours could bring the matter under the cognizance of the Crown, and a Chancery warrant could then be issued.* The earliest of these warrants now extant is one by Edward IV. in 1468, and it directs the Sheriff of Essex to take certain “discreet and loyal men of his county” and to cause Johanna Nightingale, a reputed leper, to be “diligently * Simpson, Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, 1842, p. 153- 1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 165 viewed and examined,” and if he finds her to be leprous “to cause her to be removed, in as decent a manner as possible, from intercourse with other people, and have her betake herself immediately to a secluded place as is the custom, &c.” The Sheriff called in two “Doctors in Arts and Medi- cine,” who report as follows :—“ We have examined her person, touched and handled her, and made mature, dili- gent, and proper investigation. On going through upward of twenty-five of the more marked signs of general leprosy, we do not find that she can be proved to be leprous, by them or a sufficient number of them, . . . . and it is not possible for any to labour under the disease in whom the greater part of these signs are not found... . We find . that she is utterly free and untainted, and we are prepared to declare the same more fully by scientific pro- cess if and wherever it shall be necessary.” On the strength of this certificate, which I have been informed is one of the earliest, if not the earliest medical certificate preserved, we may be allowed to hope that poor - Johanna Nightingale was allowed by her neighbours to pass the rest of her days in peace. It certainly appears that medical men of those days were fully impressed with the very serious responsibilities thrown upon them in connection with the disease. Bernhard Gordon, first Professor of Medicine at the School of Montpellier, devotes a very long chapter to the subject™ in a book written about 1305, and says that there are two sets of signs, the occult or premonitory and the infallible ; if the patient shows evidence of the first set, he is to be watched and observed, but not to be adjudged for separa- tion; he is only to be secluded in a leper-house if he manifestly exhibits the infallible signs; and he enjoins the * Feind, History of Physic, 1758, Vol. ii., p. 262. 166 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. Xull. (3) utmost care and caution on any who may be called upon to examine leprous patients. Guy de Chauliac again, perhaps the most celebrated surgeon of the 14th century, wrote on leprosy about 1363, and divides the signs or symptoms under six heads, and he then details at very great length the precise mode in which the physician ought to conduct the examination of every suspected case of leprosy referred to him. The examination is to commence one morning, and to be com- pleted the following day, and “in the meantime,” says De Chauliac, “let the physician cogitate upon what he has seen, and what he may yet see in the case,” because “the injury is very great if he submit to confinement those who ought not to be confined.” If, therefore, the patient is found to have some of the signs only “he must be carefully watched and confined to his own house or mansion ; but if he is found with many both unequivocal and equivocal signs, he must be separated, with kind and consoling words, from the people, and committed to the leper-hospital.” I think I have said enough to show that the question . of leprosy in Europe in the Middle Ages was considered of sufficient importance to demand the attention of kings and rulers, and that special legislation affecting it was very widely established. Now let us regard the question from a more or less social standpoint, and see what general evidence we have indicating the importance that was attached to it. Nothing in this respect can be more convincing than the fact of the enormous number of Lazarettos that were everywhere established to receive the sufferers from the malady. It is no doubt true that at all times many of the inmates were suffering from other diseases (such especially as syphilis) which were freely confounded with leprosy. No doubt, too, as years passed away, and leprosy became less 1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 167 and less prevalent, the houses were used as general hospitals and charitable institutions. I believe the majority of these lazar houses (at any rate in the earlier days) were under the control of the Knights of the Order of St. Lazarus, a very ancient offshoot from the great body of the Knights Hospitallers.* They were a most interesting Order, and took their name from the belief that Lazarus was a leper. For many years the Rule of the Order was that the Superior must be a leper. The knights were accorded many privileges, and at one time were possessed of great wealth and influence. Their chief station in England was at Burton Lazars, in Leicester- shire, the richest and one of the most important of English Lazarettos. In Henry VIII.’s time its revenues were valued at £260. In 1608 Henry IV. of France united the Order of St. Lazarus to those of Notre Dame and Mount Carmel, and the candidates for this united knight- hood were obliged to swear upon the Holy Evangelists, inter alta, “to exercise charity and works of mercy to- wards the poor and particularly lepers.” Members of the Order appear to have been specially numerous in Scotland and France. As far as can be ascertained, the first Lazaretto was established in the Frankish Kingdom about. . . 800 The first established in Ireland ee soieee BOO - 5 Appa tT os jt atte OOF ere Pi oa England: +43 <3. % . 1050 ss 5 in Scotland (Aldnestun) & HEFO is x in Norway. . 1266 The Lazarettos were sometimes Pilla’ < Mesellaria” and the lepers “ Mesels,” a word derived from “ Misellus,” the diminutive of ‘‘ Miser,” miserable. Next to Burton Lazars the most important Lazaretto in England was at Sherburne in Durham.f The diet roll of * Simpson, I., Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, pp. 303, 317- + Surtee’s History of County Durham. 168 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. Xu. (3) this hospital has been preserved, as well as many particulars regarding its internal economy. The daily allowance of each leper inmate was a loaf weighing five marks, and a gallon of ale, in addition a mess of flesh three days in the week, and of fish, cheese, or butter the remaining four. Every day they had the seventh part of a razer (rasarium) of bean meal, and some pulse to make gruel, and they had special extra allowances on certain days. Each leper had a yearly allowance for his clothing of three yards of woollen cloth, white or russet, six yards of linen, six of canvas. Four fires of peat were allowed for the whole community, and at Christmas they had four yule logs, each a cartload; four trusses of straw three times a year, four bundles of rushes three times a year, and on the anniversary of Martin de Santa Cruce every leper received five shillings and five pence in money. The rules of the house were very strict and the religious duties austere. All the leprous brethren whose health permitted were every day expected to attend matins, nones, vespers and complines. The bed-ridden sick were enjoined to raise themselves and say matins in their bed; and for those who are weaker “let them rest in peace and say what they can say” (et guod dicere possint, dicant). During Lentand Advent all were required to receive corporal discipline three days in the week. They were punished for disobedience or idleness at the discretion of the Prior, by corporal correction with the birch—“‘ zxo0d0 scholarum.” At the large establishment of St. Julian at St. Albans, the rules and regulations have also been preserved and are very full and precise.* The dietary table seems to have been much the same as at Sherburne, but on the Feast of the Nativity of the Blessed Mary each leper received an obolus “which is the charity of the hospital,” and at the * Paris, Historia Angli. 1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 169 Feast of St. Martin each had a pig from the common stall; enough pigs were brought to some convenient place, and there each chose one pig according to the priority of entering the hospital. On the Feast of St. John Baptist each received two bushel of salt; on Ascension Day one obolus to buy pot herbs; and a penny on sundry other Feast days; and it was ordered that fourteen shillings was to be distributed in equal portions for their fuel for the year, “as has been ordained of old for the sake of peace and concord.” The “residue” of the property of the hospital was “ordered and decreed to be applied to the support of the master and priests of the said hospital.” The lepers were to wear a tunic and upper tunic of russet, with a hood cut from the same, so that the sleeves of the tunic were closed as far as the hand. They were to wear the upper tunic closed down to the ankles, and a close cape of black cloth of the same length as the hood. A particular form of shoe was also ordered, and, if the order was disobeyed, the culprit was condemned “to walk daily bare-footed until the master, considering his humility, said to him ‘enough.’” There was avery large number of Lazarettos in Norfolk, seven or eight in Norwich itself; and in fact they were fairly evenly spread overall England. The favourite Patron Saint was St. Mary Magdalene, and, after her, St. James, St. Leonard or St.John. Many lazar-houses, suchas Sher- burne and St. Albans, were richly endowed. Others were dependent upon casual charity, and the lepers were allowed under strict regulations to beg in the neighbourhood on certain days, and whenever they sallied forth they were compelled to carry a “cop and clapper,” the cop being a sort of cup to receive money; the clapper.a dish with a peculiar movable lid, with which they had to make a noise to announce their approach, and in which they re- ceived food given tothem. Occasionally, where the leper- house was by the side of the road, they were allowed to 170 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XII-(3) sit by the side and hold out a box for alms, hung by a chain at the end of a pole, and the identical box used at the house founded by Lanfranc at Harbledown, near Canter- bury, is still preserved. In Scotland there were many Lazarettos, the two most notable being at Kingcase, near Ayr, and Greenside, near Edinburgh. In Gloucester there were certainly two, and possibly three, Lazarettos. One dedicated to St. Mary Magdalene belonged to the Priory of Llanthony, the other, St. Margaret’s, was attached to the Abbey of St. Peter; they were both of course, as was the invariable custom, out- side the walls, and the chapels of both are still standing. The first record of the existence of lepers in Gloucester is seen in a document by which Alured, Bishop of Wor- cester from 1153 to 1163, granted them leave to be buried in their own churchyard at St. Margaret's. Mr Bartleet has written an interesting account of the Gloucester leper-houses in the Transactions of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archzological Society. The only other known Lazarettos in Gloucestershire were one at Tewkesbury, and several in and about Bristol. At the Assize opened by the Justices in Eyre at Glou- cester™ on the 2Ist June, 1221, it was presented that (translation) “‘two coffins of lead were found in the court- yard of Robert de Aqua full of bones.” Such treasure trove belongs to the Crown, but the Judges directed as to the coffins and bones “let them be given to the lepers.” This was more humane treatment than was at one time accorded to them in Scotland, for a decree has been pre- served of the Council of Edinburgh that “any putrid or rotten fish condemned in the market was to be sent out- side the town to the lipper folk.” * Maitland’s Pleas of the Crown for the County of Gloucester, 1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS taro A very ancient well-known leper-house, restricted to females, existed on the site of St. James’s Palace in London. Henry VIII. obtained possession of this, which in his time had become a hospital, giving in exchange lands at Chatis- ham in Suffolk. But lepers were not always consigned to Lazarettos. Bishop Stapleton, of Exeter, in 1330, having heard that the Vicar of St. Neots in Cornwall had become a leper, appointed one Ralph de Roydene to be his deputy and take charge of him, “since he cannot, without danger, have intercourse with the whole people as he has been accustomed.” The part of the vicarage inhabited by the leper is to be walled off from the rest of it, and a new entrance made, for the leper’s use. Ralph is to pay him 2s. a week for his maintenance, and once a year 20s. for a new robe, &c. According to the tenor of various old civil codes, when a person became affected with leprosy, he was looked upon as legally and politically dead. He lost the privileges of citizenship, and was incapable of being an heir or of disposing of any property that might have belonged to him. There is an ancient French document in existence. which describes most accurately the official procedure of proclaiming a man a leper. The medical examiners having reported upon the case, if their verdict declared the man a leper, a Priest robed with surplice and stole went to his house. He first exhorted him to endure with a patient and penitent spirit the incurable plague with which God had stricken him. He was then conducted to church and all his ordinary clothes were removed. He was thereupon vested in a funeral pall, placed between two trestles before the altar, and the Mass for the dead was celebrated over him. He was then led to the Lazaretto; a cop, clapper, stick, cowl, and dress, &c. were given to him. He was then solemnly 172 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xml. (3) interdicted from appearing in public without his leper’s dress, from eating and drinking with any but other lepers, and he received a great variety of other ordinances. The ceremony terminated by the chief official throwing a handful of earth over the body of the poor outcast in imitation of the closure of the grave. I said just now that the disease has hitherto baffled all the efforts of science to discover a remedy, and I believe this is strictly true. I did read the other day a German report of a case at Hamburg about 10 years ago which a Dr Unna claims to have cured as the result of a course of treatment spread over several months. He shows photographs of the patient before and after the treatment, but although these certainly indicate a great improvement in the condition of the patient, they also show that the disease was by no means very far advanced. His treatment consisted chiefly in the use of ichthyol, in rubbing the patient with pyrogallic acid, and in applying to the forehead and chin a plaster made of chrysophanic and salicylic acids with creasote. In the Middle Ages leprosy was universally believed to be incurable, though from time to time all sorts of specifics were pronounced to be remedies, such as a bath of dogs’ blood, and even a bath of the blood of young children was declared to be a certain cure. Of late years two kinds of oil, gurjun oil and chaub- moogra oil, have been found to possess very considerable power, being taken internally and also rubbed over the skin, but the utmost that can be said of this treatment is that in some cases the progress of the disease is certainly arrested and kept in quiescence for a more or less ex- tended period, though I believe that, when it does recur, it comes back with extra virulence. I have seen a most curious account of a method adopted for cure among the natives in the Fiji Islands. The leper 1900 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS Ts is stripped naked, taken into a hut, his body rubbed with leaves of the Sinugaga tree (Eucecaria agallocha), a small fire is lighted and heaped up with logs of the same tree, the smoke from which is poisonous and pungent. The patient is bound hand and foot, and a rope is made fast in such a way that, from outside the hut, he can be hauled up and suspended by the heels, his head hanging about 15 inches from the ground. His tortured screams and calls for pity and release are disregarded until he faints away, though this may not befor hours. He is then dragged out, the slime is scraped from his body, and gashes are cut into the skin to make the blood flow freely. This wonderful treatment almost always kills the patient; if it fails in pro- ducing this effect it is said to cure. Such isa brief history of one of the most ancient diseases still existing in the world, most interesting from a historical, most mysterious from a professional point of view. 175 EXCURSION NOTES: CHIEFLY. ON ‘RIVER FEATURES, BY S: S: BUCKMAN, F.G:S. The programmes of the excursions undertaken in the summer of 1899 contained various notes and illustrations of the points for special study during the respective out- ings; and it seems desirable that these notes should find a place in the Proceedings. For this purpose they have been collected to form a paper, and in some cases further illustrations both in the way of additional figures and of explanatory text have been introduced. These illustra- tions, it is hoped, will more fully elucidate the necessarily brief notes given in the respective programmes. The different excursions may be taken in order, the notes of the programmes being given first, with such verbal emendations as may be necessary, and further remarks being added as occasion requires. THE COLN VALLEY MEETING _ The object of the day’s excursion was to study the features of rivers and their valleys. The ideas governing the investigations are that on the first initiation of the present drainage the streams flowed _ with the dip, from the Welsh mountains towards the south- east of England (Fig. 1); that these streams were after- wards in many cases intercepted by later-developed streams M 176 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. XIII. @) such as the Severn (Fig. 2, B), which, working along the strike of soft rocks, lowered the soft Lias country and so left the Oolite in relief; that from these strike streams anti-dip streams (Fig. 3, C) were developed, like the Chelt and the Isborne, which work, and are working, back to rob the original, but beheaded dip streams like the Coln (Fig. 3, D). : ‘| w< | | ‘| | w<——- A | q Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Thus it may be understood that there are developed— first, dip streams, on account of the surface slope; second, strike streams, on account of the relative hardness of the rocks; and third, anti-dip streams, on account of the difference of ground level. It may also be noted that of so many dip streams flow- ing in a given direction (Fig. 4), one will become the master stream by capturing, by means of the strike streams which develop as tributaries (Fig. 5, B), the waters of the neighbours (Fig. 5). EEE a a] ae =e | ar = ee ba es | os Fig. 4 Fig. 5 It is by such capture as this that the Cotteswold streams flow to join the Evenlode at Oxford. They have been captured by a strike stream—the Upper Thames. Examples of the various stages of river and valley de- velopment were studied. The appended Figs. 6, 7, and 8 show the development of a stream from slight curves into pronounced meanders, 1900 Ss. S. BUCKMAN—EXCURSION NOTES Fy, which become greater as the river impinges more, first on the one bank and then on the other. In these figures A A’ are the sides of the valley, B is the curving stream, and CC are the “spurs” of the convex portions of the valley. These spurs tend to become more and more | ABA Ht A_B Cc Cc c a Z | F G = es lm aA A E BX ue " Fig. 6 Big Fig. 8 InrrraTinGc Curves. PRONOUNCED CURVES AND CoNSIDERABLE MEANDERS WITH WELL-DEVELOPED SPURS. TENDENCY TO OBLITERATE SPURS worn away with the development of the meanders, on account of lateral encroachment of the stream—encroach- ment, that is, on the sides of the spurs; and it is the up- stream sides of the spurs which are most worn away. Fig. 9 Tue MEANDER NECK SEVERED. In time, when the curvature of the meanders becomes very great, the river straightens its course by cutting through the narrow neck of the meander at D, as shown in Fig. 9. M2 178 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. Xill. (3) A most interesting example of Fig. 9 occurs near Withington; the cutting is all but completed—the neck is 5 feet, and around the meander is 50 yards. There, too, may be seen the different features in the cutting of a valley, due to shrinkage in the river volume. The following is some of the literature on the subject :— W. M. Davis, ‘Development of English Rivers ;’ Geo- graphical Journal, vol. v., 1895. H. J. Osborne White, ‘ High Level Gravel ;’ Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xv., pt. 4, 1897. S. S. Buckman, ‘Development of Rivers;’ Natural Science, April, 1899. By means of some of the blocks which appeared in my paper above mentioned, on ** The Development of Rivers,” I can illustrate these remarks somewhat more fully. It may be premised that dip streams are termed consequents, strike streams, subsequents, and anti-dip streams, obse- quents.* Then in Fig. 10, A there is a representation of a theoretical case, a series of consequents flowing with the dip being threatened bya subsequent which is develop- ing along the strike of soft rocks, such as those of the Lias vale. In Fig. 10, B there is shown a further theor- etical case, the result of the successful growth of this subsequent. It has captured the consequents successively, has turned them to its own system, and has started ob- sequent streams in the former valleys of the consequents * Such terms as dip streams, etc., would suit the Cotteswold district well enough ; but would be inapplicable in other cases. For instance, strata which dip, say, east may cover unconformably older strata dipping west. The covering strata may give rise to a dip stream, may in course of time be entirely denuded—and then the same stream maintaining the same course has become an anti-dip stream because its channel is cut down through the underlying strata which dip the opposite way. Yet this stream is not an obsequent. There is what seems to be such a case in the Carding Mill stream which flows from the Longmynd into the Church ‘Stretton valley, in Shropshire; it appears to be an original consequent which has by cutting down become an anti-dip stream. But the terms such as consequent, etc., are awkward, because they clash with ordinary English words. 1900 S. S. BUCKMAN—EXCURSION NOTES 179 —such valleys being the natural places for such streams, because they were the lowest ground, and the immediate drainage would therefore find its way into them. These Fig. 10. THeoreticat Diacrams or SrReAM DEVELOPMENT. obsequent streams work back more and more, to diminish the already beheaded consequents. These are the theoretical cases,—the illustrations of what is supposed to have happened. Fig. 11, which is a tracing from the map of the Severn and its tributaries in the neighbourhood of Gloucester. shows how closely the actual river features correspond to the theory. The re- markable point is that the tributaries on the left bank or the Severn are flowing in a direction more or less opposed _to the course of the Severn itself; but that curious cir- cumstance is understood if it be conceded that their direction was first marked out by the consequents, now on the right bank of the Severn, continuing their course 180 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (3) in the manner of the dotted lines shown in Fig. 11, when they were rivers draining into the Thames system. With regard to the breaches of the Cotteswold escarp- ment, and such rivers as the Chelt, this means :—That Fig. rr. Acruat SrreAmM DEVELOPMENT IN VALE OF GLOUCESTER. The dotted lines indicate the courses of the original consequents flowing S.E. ; the arrows, the courses of present streams. the breaches high above the valleys of obsequent rivers were cut by rivers which were extensions of the Thames system ; that obsequent streams, such as the Chelt, Frome, etc., which now flow in their respective valleys below the breaches, are rivers of later date which have worked back from the Severn, cutting out newer and lower valleys beneath the floors of the original consequent valleys. 1900 S. S. BUCKMAN—EXCURSION NOTES I8I Fig. 12 then shows what may be supposed to have been the river system of the Thames with the original conse- quents. But, as pointed out in Fig. 5, these consequents 4 pute, a me ait 5 y Ey hella Sey Red \ LoucestrReT (“BAT NRE 2 ek. = 4 “(lite R I : St "Weeden Articline ~f ‘ Ca No i, RE SE ¢ aS cs THE SUPPOSED ORIGINAL Dre STREAMS OR CoNnSEQUENTS, shown by dotted lines; the present rivers being marked in the ordinary way. There are some misprints in the block: Martrso should be Marlborough (Marlbro’). Welden should be Wealden. Fig. 12. 182 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xm. (3) would compete among themselves; one would become a master stream by developing subsequents along the strike of soft rocks, and would in this way capture its neigh- bours, turning them to its own system. Fig. 13 shows the position of affairs which may be supposed to have 4 -~ sed ¢ ! ‘ 4 ‘ eenee = ‘( ‘ = coon ; . iC ct --* } ~ aint af pace ee ° 4 \ ser) SO Deen Fe eo ee os x 4 Pas OcrA Teme \ \ ee ‘ % x ' \ +.’ ' ‘ N : ee \ ‘\ ' \ ed ‘ “at \ Pa 1 ’ ‘ 1 ' a xy 1 = ‘ 4 BSaeeee ‘ . oe Wyant. ’ A ERR a! *. ‘i . ne ' . ye 1 . is <> = ‘ ae : aS Ss cr ‘ e. Oy . 5 ’ Pa veeaeet “ease! - 5 sees, j ee Sante kee ee nt: Se mS 5 " ‘ o = eee o 5 eee oo . , =e eo. , s : Se Clty “4 ° : . < * cs a Ve = - : " te Set Sate . 1 07 \ OE Bs =, => rin ee . ' e > + ’ € ce , eee a Fig. 13. A SUPPOSED LATER STAGE OF RIVER DEVELOPMENT THAN THAT SHOWN in Fic. 12—the Severn working its way up the vale of Gloucester, but not yet having captured what may be called the Cheltenham river group— the Coln system. Consequents ....... Obsequents ————++ Subsequents 1 existed while the Severn was engaged in working its way back. The Coln flowing through the gorge east of Cheltenham became a master stream, collecting to itself a considerable amount of the drainage of the then high level vale of Gloucester by beheading its neighbours, such as the Churn, the Leach, the Windrush. 1900 S. S. BUCKMAN—EXCURSION NOTES 183 And lower down the river, where a similar series of soft strata allowed a similar state of affairs, the Evenlode-Thames had sent outa strike stream, and had collected consequents in a similar manner. All the Cotteswold streams, such as the Windrush, Coln, Churn, have been captured by the strike stream, the Upper Thames, in this way. Fig. 13 shows it. And what is necessary to point out is that the same state of affairs exists at the present day, the captured rivers in the Vale of White Horse being taken up the Thames now, through the breach in the Chalk escarpment known as the Goring gorge. But what was presumably the analogous state of affairs with regard to the Lias streams taken through the Chelt gorge of Inferior Oolite has passed away, owing to the successful growth of the Severn. If such was the case there should be evidence in the valleys. The Teme-Coln, as it may be called, making its way through the Inferior Oolite gorge should have cut back the sides of that gorge to form a valley with worn- away spurs and only slight concavities such as is shown in Fig. 8, or in a more degraded manner in Fig. 9. And so it has. If anyone will look at the successive spurs and concavities of the sides of the Chelt valley—the high level valley above the 600 feet contour line—they may notice the resemblance of these spurs and combes to the valley-sides formed by a meandering river. This is an important point—the features of the present Chelt valley were really determined by the meandering of the original high-level consequent. The places where Springs and rivulets would afterwards break out to feed the Chelt would be in the combes of the meander bends; because from them the protective Oolite capping had been most removed, and the water-retaining Lias had been brought nearest to the surface ; and, again, atmospheric denudation would have the best chance to make valleys of these combes. 184 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xu. (3) This is quite opposite to what has usually been taught. The combes have determined the position of springs, not the springs determined the making of combes. Or, really, the original meander bends determined where the springs and rivulets of the obsequent river should be situated. Even the valley turns of the obsequent river, seen to per- fection near Dowdeswell, were determined by the mean- derings of the original consequent. And the result of these meanderings to produce valley sides like those of Figs. 8 or 9 may be further observed in the high level of the Coln valley above Withington. Here there are really four valleys, each with their own special features. Ist, the high level valley with nearly obliterated spurs; 2nd, the three valleys with diminishing river curves as pointed out by Prof. Davis, and illustrated in Fig. 14. This figure is only a rough diagram, but from A 3 Fig. 14. Roucu DrAGRam or THE CuRVES IN THE CoLN VALLEY, SourH or ANDOVERSFORD. the hill south of Withington, looking up the Coln valley, there may be seen the features which it indicates : namely, A, large curves; B, course of a lower valley making two turns in each original curve; C, very meandering course of the present river. The features of B to be noticed are, first, the development of a subsidiary spur, jutting out like a buttress from the large valley concavity: this is seen excellently on the left ae IR OAR aF yties SHemrna. oa me tN 1900 S. S$. BUCKMAN—EXCURSION NOTES 185 bank of the Coln just below the allotments north of Withington, and even better in the valley from Syreford to Sevenhampton; secondly, the development of a sub- sidiary concavity in a primary spur: this is well shown in the right bank of the Coln just below the allotments, and on the left bank just below Woodbridge, towards Casey Compton. | Diminution of river curves indicates diminution in river volume ; the latter would be brought about by the success- ful growth of the Severn, as it beheaded, first the western, and then by means of the Avon, the northern tributaries of the Coln—those which would have cut the pass at Charlton Abbotts. So the fact of finding these diminish- ing curves so plainly in the Coln valley is strong evidence for the assumption that the original Thames streams flowed from the Welsh hills over the Cotteswolds before any Severn existed, as in Fig. 12; and that the present condition of the drainage is due to their having been successively broken into by the Severn working along the strike of the soft Lias rocks. A glance at Fig. 12 will show the possibility of the ‘Bristol Avon doing the same for the streams which enter the Goring gorge, as the Severn is supposed to have done for those entering the Chelt gorge, and so leaving the Goring gorge as a riverless breach such as the Chelt gorge is now. The Bristol Avon would have to work back along the line of the Thames to Oxford; and it may be seen that it has already accomplished the process in _ part, and has captured some of the South Cotteswold streams which, by analogy with their neighbours, the _ Churn and Coln, there is every reason to suppose once _ formed part of the Kennet (¢.e. Thames system) drainage. 186 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. XIII. (3) THE SALISBURY MEETING The Vale of Pewsey is an interesting example of a particular phenomenon of geomorphy. It illustrates what has been called a “valley of elevation,” the result of the denudation of an anticlinal fold. The vale has been formed along the axis of the anticline, while the materials were carried away by the rivers which drained north and south from the anticline. Of these rivers the Salisbury Avon is the only one now in existence. It started on the high ground of the anticlinal axis when the Vale of Pewsey was still filled with strata as high as the hills which bound it; and, cutting for itself the channel which now forms a gorge south of Upavon, it carried away the softer rocks which separated the north and south Chalk hills around Pewsey. In doing this it developed a series of lateral streams more or less along the axis of the anticline, and these streams now form its head waters. toEy H) i / = ‘ ' et River Kenneh G 22, Ler, 1) =~ ea ae Fig. 15. DraAcram or KENNET SYNCLINE AND Pewsey Anriciine. The dotted lines show the former position of the Eocene. The horizontal lines the gorge cut by the Avon. The annexed diagram, Fig. 15, shows the structure of the anticline, roughly indicating the general formation of the county from north of Swindon to south of Pewsey, 1900 S. S. BUCKMAN—EXCURSION NOTES 187 with the position of the Kennet in regard to the Avon. The Kennet occupies the synclinal trough. Its _posi- tion and the eastern direction of the Kennet-Thames has been largely determined by the position of the Pewsey anticline. The diagram shows the possibility of the Avon robbing the underground water from north of the Kennet. How far this is applicable to the present case is a matter for future work; but the possibility of such river-robbery in this or other cases is interesting. This diagram (Fig. 15), so far as ground levels were concerned, was merely a rough sketch made after cycling through the country; but since it was drawn, and the above notes were written, I have been able to work out the question more fully. Unfortunately the maps of the Geological Survey do not give contour lines, so the infor- mation as regards contours has to be obtained from one map, and that as regards geology from another, which is not a satisfactory plan. However, I have now drawn a scale diagram of part of the country, and have put in the geology according to actual heights. The resulting diagram (Fig. 16), gives the ground level contour, exaggerated on account of the difference in horizontal and vertical scales ; but the relative levels are correct. It will be seen that the valley of the _ Salisbury Avon is, even near its head, 100 feet lower than _ that of the Kennet, and that the springs supplying the _ Salisbury Avon are below the level of the Kennet. The syncline beneath the Kennet valley really forms a __ basin wherein the water which, both north and south of the _ Kennet, falls on and mainly sinks through the pervious _ Chalk, is held up by the partly impervious Greensand and _ the very impervious Gault. And the water in this basin _ can be held up to the line marked as “water level for _ Salisbury Avon ”-—proved by this being the level of one of the Avon’s springs. => ioe) VY = * 4 Oo > COTTESWOLD CLUB PROE: 188 ‘uoay Aunqsiyes ayy uo yoRoroUe ued ‘QUO JeNIOe ay Wosz iUaraytp Asoa st Sunsed sae ayqista UOAY Jorstig ayi [ef Joyomnb ev yWA Moy ay1 0S ‘SUMO YSNooq Iv ay? JO JsSOW sUTeIp YouUAYy ayi ioM ‘uoAW Ainqst[es aya Surmoys ‘gi “Siz 0} sasue yor yy “LT ‘Sty Moy Burmoys ‘auronue Aasmag aya jo aud puv ‘AayeA youuayy ayi Jo aurpouds ayy, “gr “Sty * S31IW $ sHONI | ‘TWLNOZINOH SATIN $ =HONI | ‘IWLNOZINOH 1334 Q0G =HONI | ‘IVOILYSA \ SaTvoOS 1334 00G =HONI | ‘IWOlLua,, \ 'aTvoS syooy olsseunr ————— | ae a a jo oe, weolys puesudaad, uoAy 10]s1Igr ‘NM JO pvoH Aasmag jo ae uoay Aainqsies “d | 00+ jo spray jauuoy Javiy JO AdTIvA 4334 °S suMOq Ysnorog~ryy ‘punoisiapun AJoqqos-JoalI pur ‘punois JAOQL JUIUIYIVOIOUI-IOALI BULINOAL] SIdULISWINOIID Surmoys suiviseiqy ‘LI ‘QI ‘sSIy 1900 S. S. BUCKMAN—EXCURSION NOTES 189 The point is this :—That of the water which falls on the Marlborough Downs very little finds its way to the Kennet; it soaks down through pervious Chalk and is drained away by the Salisbury Avon which has the advan- tage of the lower level. And if the river bottom of the Kennet were at all leaky that water would be taken by the Avon. It is a very pronounced case of river robbery. And further, the more a river robs, the more it is en- couraged to rob; for the robbery itself enables it to eat its way back into its neighbour’s territory. However, the Salisbury Avon has not got it all its own way. It is, and has been successfully attacked by the Bristol Avon. The diagram (Fig. 17), which is at right angles to the last, along the axis of the anticline, shows the relative position. One of the Bristol Avon’s streams is draining the ground below the Salisbury Avon, and as it can give a quicker fall in a shorter distance, it will certainly eat into the territory of the Salisbury Avon, and get stronger in the process. Already it has beheaded the stream immediately west of the Salisbury Avon, one which, rising from the anticline just south of Devizes, cut the pass through the Chalk from West Lavington to Tilshead:* cut that pass down to 418 feet, or within some 30 feet of what the Salisbury Avon has done. So the capture must be fairly recent. The present position of the Bristol Avon in relation to the Pewsey Vale and the Salisbury Avon may be exactly compared to the state of affairs depicted in Fig. 13 as regards the growing Severn, when part of the Lias vale was drained by streams which flowed through the Chelt gorge of Oolite. What the Bristol Avon is to the Salis- bury Avon now, so was the Severn to the then extended * This is now the beheaded stream which flows by Winterbourne—the name means much in river-robbery. Winterbourne indicates shortage of supply in summer. 190 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xu. (3) Coln ; and the Chalk gorge at Upavon shows the counter- part of what the Oolite gorge at Charlton Kings must have been. So that, changing the necessary names, putting Severn for Bristol Avon, Coln for Salisbury Avon, Chelt Oolite gorge for Upavon Chalk gorge, Severn Vale for Pewsey Vale, we get from a present day example an exact picture of what a Cotteswold river system was in the past. Then, from analogy with what this river system of the Cotteswolds is at present, we can infer the future of the river system of the Pewsey Vale—the Bristol Avon will invade that vale further and will behead the Salisbury Avon; and then the Salisbury Avon will rise below Upavon on the slope of the Chalk escarpment as the Coln does now near Andoversford, and the Upavon gorge will be deepened to become the valley of an obsequent river like the Chelt. But the success of the north-eastern part of the Bristol Avon along the vale by Swindon—detailed in an earlier part of this paper, p. 185—will probably precede this event. It would hasten it, perhaps. There was one feature noticed about the Kennet in the day’s excursion. Ascending the hill from Marlborough, a good view of the valley was obtained; and there could be plainly seen just those diminishing curves which are so characteristic of the Upper Coln—illustrated in Fig. 14. There was another observation. The south-western road by which we left Marlborough for Pewsey was evidently a British trackway leading first to earthworks on the downs overlooking the Pewsey Vale, and then perhaps continuing as one of the ancient roads to Stonehenge. 1900 S. S. BUCKMAN—EXCURSION NOTES I9I THE SODBURY MEETING The Lilliput cutting shows some strata of Carboniferous Limestone dipping west at an angle of 45 degrees. Against, and overlapping them, are Mesozoic rocks with an easterly dip of about 3 degrees. The Carboniferous Limestone exposed is a part of the shore-line of the late Trias and early Lias sea. It formed a kind of cape. It was gradually buried beneath the accumulation of Mesozoic strata. The interesting geological history may be thus stated. After the deposition of the Coal Measures, the strata were thrown into anticlinal and synclinal folds. Denuda- tion, probably marine, planed them down to a base level, destroying the anticlinal fold. Then the district being elevated to form a land surface, the unprotected Old Red Sandstone was removed by sub-aerial denudation to form a valley. The scenery which such denudation would have produced may be compared to that of the Vale of Pewsey. Afterwards depression admitted the sea to this vale, and it became filled with Trias rocks; and then continued subsidence allowed of the whole being buried beneath Jurassic strata. There was again elevation; and sub-aerial denudation removed some of the Mesozoic strata and again exposed the Palaeozoic rocks on the western syncline, but left the eastern syncline buried beneath the _ Mesozoic rocks of the hills. . There is an important question of economical Geology here, namely, the position of the Coal Measures beneath _ the hills. Following the synclinal and anticlinal folds, it _ would be possible to indicate where the Coal Measures _ would be most likely to be found by a boring beneath the _ tocks of the Cotteswolds in the Badminton neighbourhood. N 192 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xi. (3) The effect of the Tunnel, which will be two-and-a-half miles long, on the drainage of the district, will be an im- portant point. In its course it will knock a hole in the bottom of three water-retaining strata—the Upper Lias, the Fullers’ Earth, and the Forest Marble. Thus it will give the water of the hills which formerly went eastwards a chance to go westwards. The upper tributaries of the Bristol Avon will be robbed, and the lower tributary—the Frome—will gain. The effect on the water wets of the Badminton district may be very marked. Two observations were made at this meeting, from the fossils shown in the Engineer’s office at the Cross Hands: —At 132 feet was obtained a specimen of the Grammo- ceras aalense group; at 178 feet, a specimen of Grammo- ceras striatulum. So the Cephalopod bed—the strata of the Hemere aalense-striatuli — is 46 feet thick here. This is a considerable increase on what obtains in the Frocester neighbourhood. The above notes refer to some of the questions studied during the first three meetings in the summer of 1899. For the fourth meeting, as I was much ‘engaged, the President very kindly relieved me of the work. On one feature of the excursion which he arranged he has made the remarks contained in the next contribution. 193 EXCURSION NOTES: He Ke NAT OPRIORS: MESNE, BY M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS The garden to which Surgeon-General Cook has devoted so much attention possesses many features of altogether exceptional interest. It is about two acres in extent, lies on the southern slope of a hill, and, surrounded by a wood, is sheltered on all sides, though open to every ray of the sun. There are three ponds at different levels, with many aquatic plants, including six different varieties of water lily, white, yellow, primrose, rose-coloured, sweet-scented, and double. On an island are some fine specimens of Wellingtonza, with Japanese and other pines, and in the surrounding wood are many species of pine 60 years old: —P. excelsa, P. araucaria (from Chili), Deodara (from the Himalayas), and several younger trees (notably Aédzes douglasi) which have attained a height of over 4o ft. in 15 years. There is alsoa fine specimen of Eucalyptus, over 25 ft. high. Among the most striking objects are several grand specimens of the Abyssinian Musa (MV. ensete) bearing leaves 14 ft. in length and 2% ft. in _ breadth, without a rent in any part; several hardy palms, q Chamerops excelsa, C. humtls, and C. fortuner, the first has been planted out about five years, and its fronds _ measure nearly 6ft. round the circumference; the giant Polygonum (sachalinense) with stems 12 ft. to 16 ft. in height, huge leaves, and covered with spikes of small flowerets. This is the male plant; while groups of the female plant, which show drooping racemes of flowers, and several other species, overhang the ponds. oo N2 194 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB __ VOL. xi. (3) There is also Hedychium gardnerianum, with large soft leaves and flower spikes from 12 to 18 inches high, covered with from 100 to 150 flowers, orange-yellow with scarlet stamens; one of a family closely allied to the tropical arrow-roots ; a new species of Sezeczo (groundsel) with leaves 18 in. by 12 in., fresh, soft and green; a stately plant (Senecio arborea) which promises to be a great addition to the sub-tropical group; a new Musa (M. sinensis), its leaves striped or barred with purple. Amongst other tropical large-foliaged plants are the Azcznus (the castor-oil plant); the giant red-flowered tobacco; three species of Azalea (A. sieboldi, A. cashmeriensis, and A. papyracea); masses of Canna indica; and single specimens of the lovely C. ehemannz, by far the best of all the Caxne, with its large, pure, rose-coloured flowers on hanging terminals. Groups of the giant-leaved Gunnera, from South America, (G. manicata and G. scabra), which are said to be the largest leaved of all terrestrial plants, some of them being from 5 ft. to 6 ft. across, and having a superficial area of from 20 ft. to 25 ft.; they are here, however, exceeded by the leaves of the great (Zus@ near them, some of which actually attain a surface of over 28 ft. The Arundo conspicua from New Zealand, a plant re- sembling the Pampas grass, but far handsomer, flowering in July, and retaining its plumes until the winter ; Spzvree, some I2 or 14 species; and /‘wzkze in great variety, hardy plants which need no extra care, were also noted. Prominent among the foreign accessions to the English garden are the different species of Bamboo; about a dozen species are here represented of heights varying from 5 ft. to 20 ft., some of them forming dense masses 6 ft. to 7 ft. across at the base. These grand plants give a most dis- tinctly sub-tropical character to the garden. Such area few of the many interesting plants which Dr Cook has succeeded in acclimatizing at Priors Mesne. 195 A FATAL COMBAT BETWEEN A ROVE BEETLE AND AN ANT, BY C. A. WITCHELL AnD C. J. WATKINS, (Read June Ist, 1899) I.—DESCRIPTION OF COMBAT. BY C. A. WITCHELL On the 12th of May, at 6.45 a.m., when gardening, I _ found on a ball of mould two insects holding each other. One was a Rove beetle (Xantholinus punctulatus, Payk), _ and the other was a worker of the Garden ant (Lastus niger). The ant held in its jaws one of the antennz of the Rove beetle; and the latter bit at and held a leg or an antenna of the ant, but did not retain its hold for long. The ant appeared to be having the best of the combat. He held on firmly, and seemed quite at ease; the Rove beetle, on the contrary, seemed anxious to be rid of its enemy. The insects pulled each other from ‘Spot to spot on the mould; and after a quarter of an hour had elapsed I persuaded them to alight on a piece of brown paper. But they still held each other. I covered them with a glass, and looked at them from time to time. Thinking to refresh them, I wetted the 196 PROC. COTTESWOLD .CLUB . VOL. Xig) paper, and the Rove beetle lay as if dead in the water, the ant above him. Indeed, I thought the ant had killed him. At half-past nine I dried up the water, and the insects at once resumed the strife. At this time the Rove beetle seemed to be getting the best of the “ mill.” I then left for the day. At 6.30 p.m., when I returned, the ant still held the antenna of the Rove beetle; but the ant was dead. The Rove was as strong as ever, and ran about with the corpse of his foe clinging to him. At six o’clock next morning the Rove was asleep, the ant still retaining his grim hold. I then killed the Rove beetle, which resisted vigorously. I put the insects, as they were, on stamp paper, and took them to Mr C. J. Watkins, of Painswick, who kindly identified them, and returned them to me mounted, but, I regret to say, separated. I]L.—REMARKS ON THE COMBATANTS BY C.J. WERING, “MES: The Beetle is one of the great group of Brachelytra, of which nearly 800 species have been recorded as British. They are commonly called Rove beetles, which are readily known by their elongate abdomen, and very short, straight wing cases, covering, however, a pair of large, beautiful wings. One of our largest species is the well-known “Devil's coach-horse” (Ocypus olens). From the length of an inch they vary down to a size so small as to require a strong lens to show whether they are insects, much less beetles. Most of these Rove beetles are carnivorous, and feed upon decaying animal substances. The larvze or these beetles resemble the perfect insect, and are found 1900 WITCHELL & WATKINS—INSECT COMBAT 197 under similar circumstances. They are very active and voracious, using their sharp jaws with great effect, and sucking the juices of their prey through them. The Rove beetle in question is known as Xantholinus punc- tulatus, Payk. There are 10 British species in this genus, whose members have a peculiar habit of curling, or rather “doubling” themselves up in repose. Some kinds of Rove beetles are constantly found in the nests of certain species of ants. These myrmeco- philous, or ant-loving species have been found even in the inner sanctuaries of the ant’s nest, and appear perfectly at home, their numerous hosts never molesting them. Mr Rye records having seen a Rove beetle (A¢temeles emar- ginatus) being carried about tenderly in the mouth of an ant much less than itself. Another Rove beetle (Myrmedonia funesta) is often found in the nests of the Jet ant (Formica fuliginosa); it is very like its host in appearance, and even acquires the pungent odour common to its host—from living in an atmosphere impregnated with formic acid. To return to our Rove beetle (X. punctulatus) and its seeming enemy which appears to be a worker of the Garden ant (Lasius niger). It is very possible that the ant was the aggressor while out on a foraging expedition, and had the combatants not been removed from the ground it is probable that other workers of the species would soon have assisted their comrade to overcome the beetle. PROC. COTTESW OLD CLUB VOL. XIlI., PLATE TV¥g A Au! \ \i Ns etait = Je ae yy ate vi Li ne it -| il ban ‘i W VY I <3 2—DOGE’S PALACE, VENICE Myc LM po CROSS, 1602 hi Wh uly cant = Fig. 1 eee 2 Fig. 8—GROUND PLAN OF BASILICA, ROME Fig. 4—CANTERBURY fila any Fig. 6—PEUTINGER’S MAP Fig. 5—GREEK AGORA 199 SURVIVALS OF ROMAN ARCHITECTURE IN BRITAIN, BY JOHN BELLOWS. (Read December 13th, 1898) The West of England, especially the district of which Gloucestershire may be taken as a centre, is rich in archi- tecture that shows a historical connection with the past; and some of its public buildings which more than any other have preserved to us features of a very high antiquity are its pillared market-houses. As a whole they are quaint and homely rather than beautiful; and possibly it is their very homeliness that has caused archzeologists to overlook the points which prove their true origin. When the Tolsey, or Town-house, of the City of Glou- cester was taken down in 1896, there were exposed under its foundations the remains of some medizval structures ; and below these again there were found portions of a still earlier Roman building, which has been decided by George E. Fox and Edward Jones, the explorers of Silchester, to have been a Basilica, or place connected with the city administration in the Roman period. If we examine the old engraving [Plate IV., fig. 1] of the Tolsey which was built previous to the one that has lately given place to the Wilts and Dorset Bank we shall notice (ore, ) 200 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xl. (3) three principal points in it. First, that it, too, has the Council Chamber in an upper floor; second, that it has very large and heavy sash windows, which were copied, with modification, in the plate-glass lights of the late Tolsey ; and third, that the room stands upon pillars, and covers the side walk in the street, forming a portico. This older building dates from 1602. Where did the architect who designed this Tolsey of three centuries ago, get his idea of the covered gangway ? for it was certainly a survival, not an innovation. An examination of the Roman build- ing on the same site gives us the clue; for it, too, had a covered ambulatory ; and so had the Basilica at Silchester. The new Guildhall, which happens to stand on the site of the Roman Praetorium, is itself in some degree an evolution of the Tolsey which it replaces, inasmuch as it preserves the principal feature in the older building, which was the placing of the Council Chamber in the upper storey, instead of on the ground floor. This arrangement was the result of experience ; and it is clear that if the Tolsey has thus helped to determine the form of the newer building, it must in turn have received some impress from its predecessor : what it retained, with what it discontinued, make up the evolution we shall endeavour to follow. It is remarkable that while the City of Chester has been so far destroyed in the disturbances it has suffered, that even the main cross of the streets is displaced; yet it has retained the style of building which provides such covered ambulatories on a larger scale than any other town in Britain; for in the Rows at Chester, with their two- storeyed covered passages, we have the parallel evolution to that which is offered by the Doge’s Palace in Venice. The only differences are those arising from the purposes of a commercial building being different to those of one intended for official occupation [Plate IV., fig. 2.] 1900 J. BELLOWS—ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 201 The houses in Pompeii and other Roman cities were built, as our old timber-framed mansions are, with over- hanging storeys, and the same style still prevails in towns of Roman origin in the East: as for instance in Con- stantinople, especially in the Stamboul quarter. That the idea itself goes back to the Basilica and the Agora may be seen from the description of the latter given by Vitruvius, and from the double-storied porticos in the Basilica represented on a coin of Lepidus [Plate V., fig. 2]. The origin of this style of building goes back to the East. In the hot summers of Central and Southern Asia the great desiderata were shade and air; and this deter- mined the arrangement of every structure, from the shepherd’s tent to the palace of the king. To go back to the simplest group of dwellings in the old world, we get a number of tents facing inward, to form a square with an open court in the centre for the cattle: this is the arrangement of every caravanserai in Asia to-day. In the larger and more permanent grouping of a town the same idea is kept in view; and a square space near the gate serves as the Bazaar, round which the shops stand under shaded ambulatories. As the entrance of the town forms the market, it is also the most convenient spot for the administration of justice ; so that “the Gate” very early becomes the synonym for Court, as in Job’s allusion (xxix., 7, 9): “When I went out to the gate through the city . . . the Princes refrained talking °—which in western language would read “When I went to take my seat on the bench my fellow- magistrates gave me precedence.” So in the Book of Esther, Mordecai sitting in the King’s Gate is an orien- talism for his attendance at Court: and in more recent times the mistranslation into French, of Badz A/r, has given us the nonsensical term “the Sublime Porte ” 202 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (3) instead of “the Supreme Court ”—for ad isa gate in the sense of Court, and AZ is the Arabic equivalent of the Hebrew £7, “high” or “supreme,” as in the name of the Supreme Being. In Greece, we find this combination of the market and the seat of justice in the Agora, which was at first a market square in front of the King’s Palace, gradually developed into a set of porticoed buildings round a court, or courts, with ample shaded ambulatories, the elevation of one of which is shown in Plate IV., fig. 5. These buildings included 1. The market and shops. 2. The town offices. 3. A temple for worship. 4. The Court of Justice and the prison. This Court was presided over by the second Archon, who had to decide in matters connected with religion. As during the monarchy this had been the duty of the king, in his capacity of priest, the high magistrate on whom the office devolved when the monarchy was abolished, was styled the “Archon Basileus,” or King-Archon, and the court-house itself was called the Stoa Basz/evos. About two centuries before Christ the Romans borrowed from the Greeks this combination of market and public buildings, which the higher civilization of the Greeks had so developed, and with it the Greek name of the Law- court, which they now termed the Basz/ica. At first the building was simply a pillared portico of two storeys— that is, without side walls, if we may judge from the repre- sentation of it on the coin of Lepidus, shown in Plate V., fig. 2. As its use extended, however, to parts of the Roman Empire where the climate made so much exposure impossible, side walls were added, the whole now forming a kind of cloister running round an unroofed or open square. PROG. COZTTES WOLD CEUB VOL. XIll., PLATE Va Hy WAY 2) SS SEVEN V/V Fig. 2—AEMILIAN BASILICA Hey hs i SNdId41 SNTIIWY Fig. 1—TRAJAN’S BASILICA —— a | a <-S Z, BA SB Z, Fig. 4—OLD TABARD, LONDON Li, 4: CA EZ Fig. 5—BULL AND MOUTH, LONDON Fig. 6B—TALBOT, LONDON 1900 J. BELLOWS—ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 203 In the curious map of Roman Stations, known as Peutinger’s, which has come down to us from probably the second or third century, thermal stations are depicted in this form of an ambulatory looking into an open square. [Plate IV., fig. 6]. Places in which there was a Pre- torium or Imperial Court of Justice, are also thus shown. Cologne (Colonia Agrippina), for example, is drawn as in the second block of fig. 6. _ If, however, the main building of the Basilica was open to all the winds, though it afforded shade from the heat, the law court itself was sheltered by a covered semi- circular building at the end. The seats rose in the form of an amphitheatre : the presiding judge in the centre, and his assessors (adsessores or those who sat with him; ze. advisers) on either hand of him. At the foot, across the chord of the arc a bar separated the “court” from the throng in the main building, and behind this was a low screen of lattice work or cancel. The secretary who recorded the decisions of the judge sat inside this screen, and was therefore termed cancedlarius, or, as we anglicise it, the chancellor. In some of the more magnificent basilicae the cancelli were replaced by a network of marble carving. Now let us see what the simple court of the Greek Archon had developed into under the Roman Empire, A restoration of the grandest of these buildings in Rome, the Basilica of Trajan, is shown in Plate V., fig. 1. The atrium is no longer left open, but is roofed across with timber; the ceiling, 120 feet from the floor, covered with plates of gilded bronze. The great gallery that runs all round the building is guarded with gilded bronze railings, as in Santa Sophia, built by Justinian in Constantinople. The galleries, supported by the granite columns, were reached by outside stairs; a thoroughly Eastern plan to which I shall again refer. 204 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xu. (3) It is worth our while to pause fora moment and glance at the description Pliny gives (Epistle vi.) of the throng assembled in the galleries of the Basilica when he made one of his greatest orations in pleading before the court for an heiress of high rank who had been defrauded by her trustees. It was this use of the basilicas as halls of assembly that fitted them so well for places of worship, after Constantine had made Christianity the religion of the state; when the seat of the judge in the apse at the end became the throne of the bishop, whose subordinate clergy took the places of the assessors of the court. The galleries, however, played a more important part in the Greek Church than in the Western, as they were allotted to the women of the congregation, who, in accord- ance with Eastern etiquette, had to sit apart from the men: a custom still maintained, as everyone knows, among the Jews and the Mahometans. Thus it happens that while, as women are not secluded in western lands, the abbeys and cathedrals replacing the basilica in these countries have mostly discontinued the galleries, in the East, on the other hand, the basilica itself has been displaced in favour of a building square in its ground plan, as better adapted for galleries, while at the same time it admits of being roofed with a dome. This has become the almost universal type of Greek buildings for worship, as in Russia, as well as of Mahometan mosques and Jewish synagogues ; Santa Sophia, in Constantinople, and the synagogue at Frankfort offering good typical examples of such gallery arrangement. While the retention of the atrium, or fore-court, with its covered colonnade as an approach to the basilica, had a distinct advantage in a hot country from the shade it afforded, yet it injured the architectural effect from its too great elongation. As, however, the covered ambulatory 1900 J. BELLOWS—ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 205 was distinctly useful in a stormier climate such as that of Britain, as a place for exercise, we find the earlier archi- tects of the abbeys and cathedrals retained the atrium ; but they placed it at the side of the building instead of at the end. This change is well shown by a comparison of the original Basilica at Rome, which was demolished to make way for Michael Angelo’s great cathedral, with the original cathedral of Canterbury [Plate IV., figs. 3, 4.] In other words, the atrium, with its covered walk in front, has become, in ecclesiastical architecture, the cloisters at the side of the main building, instead of remaining a fore-court. We must remember that this idea of an atrium, derived from Eastern lands, was a governing one in the architec- ture of all Greek and Roman mansions of importance, and of inns for the accommodation of travellers. Examples of such an arrangement in inns have come down to our own century in the “ Tabard,” the “ Bull and Mouth,” the “Talbot,” the “White Hart,” the “Four Swans,” and the “ Saracen’s Head,” hostelries in London [see Plate V., figs. 4, 5, 6]; in the “George” at Hungerford, in the “Falcon” at Cambridge, in the “Ram” at Cirencester (of which, by the way, there is a drawing by Hogarth, who once lodged in it), and in the “New Inn” at Gloucester [Plate V., fig. 3.] This “New Inn,” built nearly five centuries ago, is as real asurvival of Roman architecture, as to its style, as the Colosseum itself. In most parts of Europe where the Roman influence was felt, similar inns still exist; as for example at Bucharest, where one finds the same open galleries looking into a courtyard, built by the Roumanians of to-day, who are de- scended from Italian colonists, still speaking the language. It is worth noting for a moment that this Roman atrium of the old hostelries has left a mark on our English speech in a familiar word, the origin of which is not sus- pected perhaps by many Englishmen. We call the room 206 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xill. (3) in which liquors are supplied, in an inn, “the Bar.” This — usually stood in the gangway or entrance to the courtyard, where the “ bar” was dropped to close the premises during the night. In many towns we have examples of the “bar” still occupying the same position; as in the “Greyhound” and “Green Dragon” Inns at Gloucester. J remember hearing a story, when a boy, of some acrobat who had taken a hackney coach to one of the old inns in London, and who in passing the open window of the bar as he was being slowly driven through the narrow entrance, sprang into it. The driver got down from the box when he reached the courtyard—opened the door—and finding no “fare” within, remounted in no pleasant temper and drove back to his stand. On the way out, the “fare” slipped from the bar back again through the carriage window un- suspected. On reaching the stand he put his head out and asked the man what he meant by driving him about in this way, when he had been ordered to go to the “ Saracen’s Head?” The man moodily drove to his destination a second time, but on being tendered a half-guinea in com- pensation for his wasted time, he grimly refused it, with the significant remark, “No! I won't touch your money! I know who yow are!” Some of these old inns have retained interesting features of the Roman architecture besides the open galleries, all indicative of their oriental origin. The outside staircase is one of these, as shown in the beautiful “ New Inn,” at Gloucester [Plate V., fig. 3]. In the “ Bull and Mouth,” in Aldersgate Street, London [fig. 5 in the same plate], we see a modern casing put over such an outside staircase: a condescension to the less hardy ways we have got into; or rather an adaptation to the climate, for which Italian ‘architecture was not really suited. Another feature is the use of lattice-work for the railing of the galleries of PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. KIL, PLATE Vii Y Wh) | gg 7 LE5 Z Me , a] Y Fig. 1—TETBURY Fig. 2—DURSLEY | YY) i TA Ot A coe Lt > Fig. 4-WHITBY =~ Fig. 8—-LEOMINSTER Fig. 5—ROSS Fig. 7—-LUTON Fig. 6—MINCHINHAMPTON 1900 J. BELLOWS—-ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 207 the same inn. A piece of latticing is also visible in the “Talbot,” an illustration of which appears in Plate V., fig. 6. This lattice or trellis will be referred to again. The courtyard surrounded by these galleries was often used for a place of assembly: and the scene described in the book of Acts, where the young man Eutychus fell down “from the third loft,’ doubtless refers to such a place. He had probably been sitting on the baluster of the upper gallery, listening to the preaching of the Apostle in the “Chamber,” or, it might be, from the lower gallery - opposite, when he fell asleep and lost his balance. Shakes- pear’s and other plays used to be performed in the courts of London inns; and a picture of such a performance in Queen Elizabeth’s time is given as a frontispiece to the second volume of Cassell’s “ London.” Typical examples of the open pillared market-houses which are so frequently met with in the specially Roman parts of Britain are given in Plate VI.: Tetbury [fig. 1], Minchinhampton [fig. 6], Dursley [fig. 2], and Ross [fig. 5]. Those at Whitby and Luton [figs. 4 and 7] are shown for comparison ;.and their similarity is striking. In each of these the building is of stone; but beautiful market-houses were built of timber-framing in Hereford- shire: three of them by the same architect, John Adam, at Hereford, Ledbury, and Leominster, respectively. The town-hall of Leominster has been removed to the Grange, _ where it is now altered toa private dwelling-house; but the illustration in Plate VI., fig. 3, shows its original state. Nearly all these old market-houses kept till a recent _ period the two-fold character they inherited from the Roman basilica, of places of business and rooms for the - administration of justice: even the miniature but pictur- _ esque timber-framed one at Newent has its “ magistrates’ _ room” in the upper storey. It will be observed that one 208 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XilI. (3) architectural feature common to most of them is a bell- turret in the roof. These turrets are so exactly alike in form and in position, usually being in the centre, and not at the end of the roof (and this in market-halls widely separated both as to place and period,) that it is easier to believe them to have come from one common type than to be the results of undesigned coincidence. Thus in Plate VI. the turret at Minchinhampton, in Gloucester- shire [fig. 6] is exactly like that at Whitby in Yorkshire [fig. 4], and that at Luton, in Bedfordshire [fig. 7]; while an old map of London shows precisely such another central belfry in a sketch marked “ Honey Lane Market, off Fleet Street”: a building that has long disappeared. It is interesting to note how, as markets introduced into all parts of the Roman Empire were also carried by traders beyond its limits, the same style of open ambu- latory was preserved in the buildings erected for holding them in, as in Northern Germany. Libeck is a fine example [Plate VII., fig. 1]. Another is afforded by the beautiful old Rathhaus of Schwalenberg [fig. 2]; but here we see the cold of the German winter asserting the need of more shelter than is afforded by the open ambulatory. The rooms on.the ground floor are not brought quite to the line of the street, but a survival of the ambulatory has kept a tiny space behind the pillars with just enough room for a cat to pass: certainly not for a burgomaster.* In Russia, which was beyond the reach of the Roman influence in the establishment of markets, the Eastern bazaar has determined the form of the “ Dvors,” which are sets of shops, as in Petersburg and Moscow, sur- rounded by covered ambulatories: clearly copied from those of a hotter climate. Metz, a Roman city, has preserved a street of open arches which are still used as shops [Plate VII., fig. 6]; * Similarly, the old houses in Hamburg imitate the Roman buildings by overhanging their upper storeys, but the projection of each storey is usually only about nine inches. PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIll., PLATE VII. 4 wey : jeu EE e UY YM aes YY f zn ie Tian Fig. 1—_LUBECK Fig. 2—SCHWALENBURG ml Ra ay a hth! WX Re YLT YY Yl" Yo W]} GA. ie Fig. 3-TOTNES nal Fig. 5—BATH Fig. B—METZ 1900 J. BELLOWS—ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 209 and many such examples may be seen in other parts of Roman Europe, notably in Berne; while, to return to our own Island, we find the tradition of the portico still leaving its mark, as it has done at Chester, upon the Roman towns of Winchester [Plate VII., fig. 4], Marl- borough, Totnes [fig. 3], and Bath [fig. 5]. In the latter city the covered pillar-way has been copied by one archi- tect after another till the last century. “Bath Street” has the side walls entirely under cover; while the entrance to the Abbey Close and the Pump Room, which stands on the site of the Temple of Sul-Minerva, has precisely the arrangement of pillared shade that is indicated in the map of Peutinger, already alluded to. The original of this map was, as I have said, a kind of birds-eye itinerary of the great Roman roads with their stations, in which the towns were indicated by a double tower such as guarded city gates, while places in which there were principal courts of justice were shown by sketches like those on Plate IV., fig. 6. Thermz or Baths were also so indicated. What is sketched is evidently an ambulatory round three sides of an open court: the doors on the right representing entrances to rooms, while the front is a pillared portico carrying no rooms above it, precisely like that which the conservatism of architects has kept for the present approach to the Bath Pump Room and Abbey Close. The Peutinger sketches show no roof over the sheet of water answering to that which is an object of such interest to visitors to Bath. The Romans, carrying with them the same climatic ideas that determined the open market- houses, built their baths, even in Britain, open to the sky: and so they remained all through the middle ages; for the hot spring at Bath was open to all weathers till after the Tudor times. It was simply a Roman /mpluvinm _ occupying the whole of the atrium. While the ground plan of mediaeval abbeys and cathe- drals preserves to us the fore-court of the Basilica, but O2 210 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XII. (3) changed in its position, as the cloisters, the plan of the Roman Domus has been remarkably kept to in some of the old galleried inns. A good illustration is afforded by the New Inn at Gloucester, the arrangement of which is so precisely like that of the “house of the tragic poet” in Pompeii that the plan of the latter, as given in Smith’s Dictionary of Antiquities [Domus] would serve for it. (Plate WL hes. 2.53). This plan shows the same narrow passage from the street as that leading to the courtyard of the New Inn, with shops on either side, entered from this passage, exactly as the “bar” in such inns was entered. Then both the Pompeian house and the New Inn have two courtyards, as have many other hostelries of the same type. ‘This feature was universal in large Roman mansions, and in the Greek houses from which the plan was copied by the Romans. The reason for having two courts was the same as that which led to the building of galleries in the places of worship: z.e. the seclusion or partial seclusion of the women; for while the outer court gave access to the men’s apartments, and was the one in which strangers were received, the inner court, with its little garden, was surrounded by the apartments of the women. A comparison of the plan of a Greek house, from Bekkir, which is given in the article, Doss, in Smith’s Dictionary, already referred to, with that of the house of the tragic poet, and with one of Pansa’s house, at Pompeii, makes this origin of Roman arrangement unmistakable. [Plate ViMechos 1,2, ay: While, however, the house of Pansa, and the Greek house, both have the passage leading to the inner court placed exactly opposite the street entrance—which is also the arrangement in the great Roman Villa at Woodchester, the house of the tragic poet has the entrance to the inner PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII., PLATE VIII. Fig. 2—TRAGIC POET’S HOUSE, fi POMPEII Fig. 1—GREEK HOUSE Fig. 83—NEW INN, GLOUCESTER ee EMPLE OF WINERVA,” 2 > COINOF BYBLOS Cg TRELLIS GATE, ATHENS GLOUCESTER = = stat ypu, ais = rm a. ead FCAUTUAATU eee oll ae Oy” A Fig. 7—GREEK TEMPLE Fig. 8—TRAITORS’ GATE, TOWER OF (From Gem) LONDON 1900 J. BELLOWS—-ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 211 court on the right hand of the outer one, exactly as we find it in the New Inn, as shown in Plate V., fig. 3. This secured greater privacy. An examination of pictures of several of the ancient inns in London shows that they were also constructed on the Roman plan of the double courtyard, and with the entrance to the inner one not in line with that of the outer. The elevation of some of these hostelries shows another survival no less remarkable than that just pointed out in the plan. Vitruvius advises that in building a house the southern wing, or side, should be one storey lower than the northern, in order to let the sun shine on the latter during part of the day. That this system has been followed from age to age is manifest from the examples of it still left to us. A glance at Plate V., fig. 3, will show the Vitruvian architecture of the two storeys on the southern side, and three on the northern, in the “New Inn”; although the photograph from which the sketch is copied has been taken so as to foreshorten the “ third loft,” making it less striking than it really is. In smaller Greek houses, and those mansions in Turkey and Bulgaria which are copied from the Greeks, the separa- tion of the Harem apartments is made by placing them on the upper floor: one large room on each floor taking the place of the atrium ; the doors of the several chambers and other apartments opening directly into it, the windows of this central hall being all placed at one end of it; pre- ferably on the north, for shade. In Constantinople (Stamboul) one can distinguish the houses of Turks from those of Armenians or other nationalities by the windows being fitted with trellis-work, or lattice, to screen the women from observation: and here, again, we have a Roman and pre-Roman survival. In Plate VIII., fig. 4, the lights over the gate of the temple 212 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XII. (3) of Minerva at Athens, and another temple engraved on a Greek gem [fig. 7], show beautiful specimens of trellis windows, which preceded those of glass: and the lattice or diamond panes of our older windows owe their shape to the trellis of which they took the place. And not only their shape, but their very angle: for while this is not invariable, it is so generally of one standard that this cannot be the result of accident. Thus I find the angle of the panes in a window of Ann Hathaway’s cottage, near Stratford-on-Avon, precisely the same as that of the glass in the oldest windows of the Crypt in Gloucester Cathedral, and of the panes in the lattice window of the old tower at Llantwit, Neath. This angle is the obtuse angle of a pentagon: and it is also very nearly that of the beautiful wall ornamentation in the Alhambra, imitating trellis, while it is precisely that of the trellis in the Greek temple shown on the gem and in the temple of Minerva, at Athens, shown in Plate VIII., fig. 4. But it is far older than the Greek temple; for the wall- decoration of the Palace at Birs-Nimroud, which is com- posed of plugs of clay coloured and enamelled at the outer ends, is of exactly the same lattice pattern, or elongated trellis. Of course, in the modern developments of lattice work, there are often variations to suit odd measurements of the window-frame: the glazier simply dividing the total width and depth to avoid fractions of a pane in either direction: as in the window of the chamber occupied by Erasmus’s servant at Queen’s College, Cambridge, in which the pattern is slightly broadened. How ancient the use of trellis is, in temples, is proved by a coin of Byblos, in Phoenicia, which shows the screen round the idol (Isis?) in the cella, composed of lattice- work. [Plate VIII., fig 5]. In the Imperial palaces at Rome the inner doors were of trellis, known, like lattice 1900 J. BELLOWS—ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 213 screens in the Courts, as cauce/liz: and the guard of such a door was, like the secretary of a judge, called cancellarius. ‘Trellis doors offered the two-fold advant- age of giving free passage to air in hot weather, and of enabling the guard to see all who approached them. They could be screened from inside by curtains of purple cloth; and so completely did this arrangement come to be associated with the court, that we find trellis and d/ze cloth formed part of the regal paraphernalia on the King’s journeys in France in the middle ages.* In the “Nuremberg Chronicle” there is a quaint old engraving of the City of Buda, in which the King’s palace is indi- cated by trellised galleries in a building standing on the same spot that is now occupied by the palace of the King of Hungary. Used as a railing, trellis is not only elegant in form, but it is stronger than balustrading, as each piece is sustained by the crossing of others. The bulwarks of ships are shown so constructed on some ancient coins. When large or heavy gates were of open work, the timbers were best placed at right angles. The inner gates of the City of Gloucester, which were taken down in the time of Charles II. and are now in our local museum, are made of three-inch bars of oak thus crossed, and fastened together with iron bolts [Plate VIII., fig. 6]; and the upper portion of the “ Traitors’ Gate” in the Tower of London is similar, but with the timbers set diagonally [Plate VIII., fig. 8], as is the case in the trellis above the gates in the market-house at Ross. * See Article “ TretLiis” in Littré’s large dictionary. An illustration of the word given from a MS of the 13th century runs thus : «Toutes ses herberges estoient closes de treillis de fust, et par dehors estoient les treillis couvers de toilles yndes.” [His quarters were always closed in with wooden trellis, and on the outer side the trellis was covered with blue cloths.] 215 THE COMMON FIELDS AT UPTON SAINT LEONARD'S AND THE RECENT INCLOSURE (1897), BY REV. CANON E. C. SCOBELL. (Read November 14, 1899) - In the parish of Upton St. Leonard’s, near Gloucester, an event has occurred of considerable moment, not only on account of its effect on the present and the future, but because a system of remote antiquity has locally ceased to exist. All connection with the land customs of early times has come toanend. The future is severed from the past. One of the last instances of the ancient system of land tenure, as shown in the “Common Fields,” is no more. In treating this intricate subject it must at the outset be confessed that it is not easy, perhaps not possible, to satisfactorily describe the origin of this system, for those who have made a special study of the subject hold different views. One theory, which may be described as “ legal,” supposes that rights in the Common Fields grew out of grants made subsequent to the Norman Conquest. “As the Lord of the Manor is the absolute lord of the soil in his manor, 216 PROG; GCOTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. x7) the rights which the freeholders and copyholders in the manor enjoy depended originally on the grant of the lord.” Another theory arises out of historical researches. It traces the origin to much earlier times, when the Teutonic village community cultivated and owned their land in common, holding that the degeneration of this community came through the strong influence of one of its members, who ultimately became its lord. A third theory—which may be called “intermediate ”— is the one supported by Mr Seebohm, who shows that, at all events before the Conquest, a system of agriculture did exist, in form, manorial. It would seem, then, almost impossible to give precise date, or assign any single cause to account for this early ownership and cultivation. Professor Maitland* says “The open field system of agriculture prevails as well in the free villages as in those that are under the control of the lord.” That certain customs, however, do exist dating from ancient, even perhaps pre-historic times, before the Aryan settlement, is probable, e.g. the election of a mock mayor in some towns in Cornwall, while a custom in the village of Randwick, in Gloucestershire, points to the former election of an official of whose duties all trace has been lost. The title of certain plots of land called “ No-man’s Land,” or, as in Upton St. Leonard’s, “ Norman’s Acre,” looks back to the same archaic time. The explanation has been found among the villagers of India. “A Surna, among the aborigines of Gangpore, is a fragment of a primeval forest left where the first clearance was made as a refuge for the sylvan deities who might have thus been disturbed. On such plots, too, there is a record of a * Edinburgh Review, 381, p- 117, July, 1897. is feta) hl Pes 7 4 25M Sree Se ti be yy - a “A, va: Pi PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xXill., PLATE [XS A BALK OR DIVIDING STRIP, SHOWING THE MEERSTONE, UPTON ST LEONARDS (From a Photograph by A. J. Lumbert) “aa erre te ati yp es _ PIE Sad tly EE a Bt ra Ante “ 2 et Py err ae) 1900 E. C. SCOBELL—COMMON FIELDS AT UPTON 217 fowl being offered every year to the departed by the living members of the house.” * The system, it may be noticed, is found to prevail in India among savage races, and is fully developed in Ireland. Such similar traits are shown that it may be fairly assumed that this well-nigh universal system is one and the same in general principle. In it we clearly trace the primitive conception of unity of kin—a family brotherhood: a clan or family, not, as now, the individual, being the unit. Whenever the system originated there can be no doubt of its being general in England in the 14th century. ‘The vision concerning Piers the Plowman’ bears witness to this. In the vision he sees ‘|--T92i1 # SORE SS 1867 Upton Church... 0 1 12] r917 T. Townsend... 0 1 28 1901 John Beard O71 34.| 1927 f Ole rrr 1904 1 I 0 4] 1874 Mary Wells On ORD5 1903 0 Me POR Eo 2 7889 it Ota 1863 Richard Helps... 0 3 24 | 1902 " 0 0 26 1936 " O I 37 | 1900 " Pant ee, a 1934 " ee O 608 | r88e, Thomas Avery. 0 2-14 1935 " On. St AEBS 0 O., F52 1861 G. Miles O25.) p88x ‘ o 318 1919 " o 1 20] 1856 " De Bie, 1845 J. Blissett E ot 22)) 189% 0 Oo. dy 1858 " o 1 22| 1844 M. Dean 0 0 35 1870 " o 2 6| 1859 A. Townsend... 0 o 28 230 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xu (3) ‘Tithe. ‘wae Map Owner fee TR Gh Map Owner Al) Re wee Bishop of Glou- I . Wintle oO 1854 eter & Bristol matt a : a Oo I : 1876 " O 0 22 | 1836 3 ee 4 1940 " O 0 20 | 1841 " (oy 70) 1931 " Oy Tea 852 " oe GG) 1910 " OD 1 27 | 1857 " Casey Igi2 oe > Oo I 15] 1865 " ogee irs 1915 " Oo I 33 | 1868 " Ola teres 1880 " TOW 2 |S 75 " 0 0 38 1875 John Cox Os 41 | 1 gu8 7 0 eS 1869 W. Wells ® 1 10+) 1995 i 0. 0.37 1873 " O 0 26 | 1929 n cas 0 See 1908 ne oO 3.17 | 1839: W. Nicholls. ..: “0, gas 1913 " O°-I OF T851 " 0) 4512 1914 n a Oar Th) hog - 9 sbrice O- 51e29 1850 G. Witcombe... 0 3 O| 1855 " 0" te 2 I9II " Oo PA Lay " 0 220 1922 " OF 2: 8 Pops. Ac jOnes O15 2b 1847 J. Wintle 6 <0. 33>] T5930 " 0. Sees 1862 0 o I 8| 1924 W. Higgs Oo 329 1906 " o. 1 18 | 1843 R. Carter o-246 PRESENTED 31 0CT.1900 DIE eac 2a ea feo------- en ce 9 oe Fy ia oe ae ee ee a aa Ba ne a r VOL. XUl., PLATE XI. LEONARDS AT UPTON ST. COMMON FIELD PROC COTTESWOLD CLUB 1908 eaaeaSSes NOS ne: pore OI, Sei ee === =--~ 22. = 19/27" >>-== Se oe hf eae ae ee 9/9 ag ee Se © ===. . i LIST OF THE MEMBERS May, 1900 OFFICERS: : President : E. B. WETHERED, F.G.S., F.C.S., F.R.MLS. Pice-Presidents : Joun BELLows. Rev. H. H. Winwoop, M.A., F.G.S. CHRISTOPHER Bowty, M.A.I. M. W. CoLCHESTER-WEMYSS. C. Cattaway, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. Hon. Creasurer : A. S. HELPs, The Knap, Great Witcombe, Gloucester. Hon. Pibrarian: H. G. Manan, M.A., F.C.S., Eastgate, Gloucester. Hon. Secretary : S. S. Buckman, F.G.S., Charlton Kings, Cheltenham. THE OFFICERS CONSTITUTE THE COUNCIL. il. PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIll. (3) Ponorarp Members : The President of the Dudley and Midland Field Club. The Hon. Secretary of the Dudley and Midland Field Club, Dudley. ‘The President of the Malvern Naturalists’ Field Club. The Hon. Secretary of the Malvern Naturalists’ Field Club, Malvern. The President of the Warwickshire Field Club. The Hon. Secretary of the Warwickshire Field Club, Warwick. The President of the Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club. The Hon. Secretary of the Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club, 26 Broad Street, Hereford. The President of the Bristol Naturalists’ Society. The Hon. Secretary of the Bristol Naturalists’ Society, 145 White Ladies’ Road, Redland, Bristol. The President of the Bath Naturalists’ Field Club. The Hon. Secretary of the Bath Naturalists’ Field Club, Bath. The Hon. Secretary, Bristol and Gloucestershire Archzeological Society, Eastgate, Gloucester. Robert Etheridge, F.R.S., F.G.S., 14 Carlyle Square, Chelsea, S. W. Nevil Story Maskelyne, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Bassett Down House, Swindon. George Maw, F.L.S., F.G.S., Benthall, Kenley, Surrey. Dr E. Hiibner, 4 Ahornstrasse, Berlin, W. G. kmbrey, F.C.S., Belmont, Brunswick Road, Gloucester. H. Y. J. Taylor, Conservative Club, Gloucester. Abbott, Major A. K. Ashton, Brigade-Surgeon W. ... Babbage, Major-General H. P. Baily, W. A. " Baker, G. E. LI., J.P. ... Ball, A. J. Morton Batten, Rayner W., M.D. Bellows, John Bishop, W. NG 5a “as Bond, F. T., B.A., M.D., F.R.S.E. Bowly, Christopher, M.A.I. Bruton, H. W. ... Bubb, Henry Buckman, S. S., I.G.S. Butt, Rev. Walter, M.A. SHlembers : 5 Suffolk Square, Cheltenham. Marlborough Lawn, Cheltenham. Mayfield, Cheltenham. Market Place, Cirencester. Hardwicke Court, near Gloucester. The Green, Stroud. 1 Brunswick Square, Gloucester. Upton Knoll, Gloucester. The Brick House, Stroud. 3 Beaufort Buildings, Gloucester. Siddington House, Cirencester. Bewick House, Gloucester. Ullen Wood, near Cheltenham. Charlton Kings, Cheltenham. The Vicarage, Minety, Malmesbury. Pe grrwws ah ¢< 1900 LIST OF MEMBERS ill. Callaway, Chas., M.A. » D.Sc. Chance, H. G., M.A. ... Clark, Oscar, M.A., M.B. Colchester-Wemyss, M. W. Cooke, A. S. Currie, G. M. mets Soe - Dorington, Sir J. K., Bart., M.P. Drew, Joseph, M.B., F.G.S. Ducie, The Earl of, F.R.S., F.G.S. Duke, Col. J. C. Dyer-Edwardes, T Ellis, T. S. aha Evans, Rev. J., B.A. Fisher, Major C. H., F.R.A.S. Fisher, W. H. C. Foster, R. G. oF ; Gael, C. E., B.A., M. asst ¢ E. Gardiner, C. I., M.A., F.G.S. Garnett, F. Garrett, J. H., M.D. . Guise, Sir W. F. G., Bart. Hall, Rev. Robert, M.A. Hannam-Clark, F. Hartland, Ernest, M.A. Hayward, Archdeacon H. R.... Helps, A. S. Jones, John H. ... Kay, Sir Brook, Bart. ... Keeling, G. W.... Knowles, H. Le Blanc, A. Leigh, William .. 4: Madan, H. G., MA, FCS. . .Margetson, W. ... ; 3 Marling, Sir William H, Bart. Marling, W. J. Paley .. Marling, S. S. Medland, M. H. Mellersh, W. L., M.A. Meredith, W. L., F.G.S. Moreton, Lord ... Norris, H. E. Northcott, R. W. Paine, Alfred E. W. 16 Montpellier Villas, Cheltenham. Heathville Road, Gloucester. Spa Road, Gloucester. Westbury Court, Newnham, Badbrook House, Stroud. 26 Lansdown Place, Cheltenham. Lypiatt Park, Stroud. Montrose, Battledown, Cheltenham. Tortworth Court, Falfield, R.S.O. Southern House, Pittville, Chelt?ham Prinknash Park, Painswick, Stroud. 6 Clarence Street, Gloucester. . Rosedale Villas, Kings Rd., Chelt’m The Castle, Stroud. 6 Rowcroft, Stroud. Spa Villas, Gloucester. Charlton Kings, Cheltenham. The College, Cheltenham. Adsett Court, Westbury, Newnham. 24 Promenade, Cheltenham. Elmore Court, near Gloucester. Saul Rectory, Stonehouse, Glos. Hucclecote, Gloucester. Hardwick Court, Chepstow. College Green, Gloucester. The Knap, Great Witcombe, Glo’ster. Barrow Hill, Churchdown, Chelt'm. Battledown, Cheltenham. 10 Lansdown Terrace, Cheltenham. Egerton House, Spa Road, Glo’ster. The Hayes, Prestbury, Cheltenham. Woodchester Park, Stonehouse, Glos. Bearland House, Gloucester. Bright Side, Stroud. Stanley Park, Stroud. Stanley Park, Stroud. Stanley Park, Stroud. Horton Road, Gloucester. The Gryphons, Pittville, Cheltenham. 7 Midland Road, Gloucester. Sarsden, Chipping Norton, Oxon. Cirencester. New Mills Court, Stroud. Swords, Leddington, Ledbury. iv. PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xu. (3) Perkins, Vincent R. Playne, H. C. j Prevost, E. W., Ph. Dy Fr. R. s. E. Richardson, L. ... =e : Ringer, Dep. Surgeon-Gen. T. Rogers, Colonel R., J.P. Royce, Rev. D., M.A.... Sawyer, John Fe Scobell, Canon E. C., M.A. Sewell, E. C. Smith, A. E. Stanton, Walter John ... Stanton, C. H., M.A., F.R.G.S. Taynton, HH. J.... ‘ Thomas, Arnold, F.G.S. Thompson, W. ... Upton, Charles... : Viner, Rev. A. W. Ellis Waller, F. W. Washbourn, William Watson, Dep. Surgeon-Gen. Gus A. Wells, W. S. Wethered, E. B., F.G.S., K.GS., F.RM.S. Wilkinson, Rev. L., B.A. Winnington-Ingram, Kev. A. R. Winwood, Rev. H. H., M.A. Witchell, E. Northam Witchell, C. A. Witts, G. B. oe Witts, Rev. F. E. B., B.A. Wollaston, G. H., F.G.S. Wood, Walter B. Wotton-under-Edge. 28 College Road, Clifton. Elton Cottage, Newnham-on-Sevein. 10 Oxford Parade, Cheltenham. 20 Lansdown Terrace, Cheltenham. Battledown Court, near Cheltenham. Nether Swell, Stow-on-the-Wold. Battledown, Cheltenham. Upton St. Leonards, Gloucester. The Beeches, Cirencester. The Hollies, Nailsworth. Stratford Lodge, Stroud. Field Place, Stroud. 8 Clarence Street, Gloucester. Severn Bank, Newnham-on-Severn. Lansdown, Stroud. Tower House, Stroud. Badgeworth Vicarage, Cheltenham. Horton Road, Gloucester. Blackfriars, Gloucester. Hendre, Cheltenham. Netherleigh, Cheltenham. 4 St. Margaret’s Terrace, Cheltenham, Westbury-on-Severn, Newnham. Lassington Rectory, Gloucester. 11 Cavendish Crescent, Bath. Lansdown, Stroud. The Pines, Charlton Kings. Leckhampton, Cheltenham. Upper Slaughter, Bourton-on- Water. Ellerncroft, Wotton-under-Edge. Barnwood, Gloucester. (Any corrections in this List will be gladly received by the Hon. Secretary.) LIST OF SOCIETIES, INSTITUTIONS, &c. Vv. LIST OF SOCIETIES, INSITUTIONS, &c. To whom Copies of the Club’s Publications are presented An asterisk denotes those from whom tublications are received in exchange. *Tue AMERICAN MusEuM oF NATURAL History, Central Park, 77th Street and 8th Avenue, New York City, U.S. America, c/o Messrs Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London, W.C. *TuE ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, c/o The Secretary, 3 Hanover Square, London, W. *lHE BATH NATURALISTS’ FIELD CLUB, c/o The Librarian (T. S. Bush, Esq.), Royal Literary Institution, Terrace Walks, Bath. *THe BRISTOL AND GLOUCESTERSHIRE ARCHOLOGICAL Society, c/o The Librarian, Eastgate, Gloucester. *Tye BristoL NaTuRALists’ Sociery, c/o C. King Rudge, Esq., L.R.C.P., 145 Whiteladies Road, Redland, Bristol. *Tur CLIFTON ANTIQUARIAN CLUB, c/o A. E. Hudd, Esq., 94 Pembroke Road, Clifton, Bristol. Tue GroLocicaL Society, c/o The Librarian, Burlington House, Piccadilly, London, W. 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HosxKo xp, Esq., Calle Chareas, 1210, Buenos Aires, South America. Mrs SyMonps, The Camp, Sunningdale, Ascot. vi. PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xin. (3) INCOME AND EXPENDITURE FROM RECEIPTS To BALANCES, MAY 2ND, 1899 : Sel oases. Capital and Counties Bank, Deposit Account ... 100 0 © Ditto—Current Account ... 0 aes BA OR Gh 3 In Treasurer’s hands 700 eae ae wee Selly 6 —— 140 2 9 To INCOME: Interest on Deposit Account to Dec. 31st, 1899 .. 210) 10 Sale of Proceedings “oe san see foo) 2G TS. ep Subs. received to April 3, 1900 ... aed 7 OT Jy 1G Use Simeses 1900 TREASURER’S ACCOUNT Vil. MAY 2nd, 1899, TO APRIL 3rd, 1900 PAYMENTS By ESTABLISHMENT CHARGES : eas) xd Asad Club Room Expenses, per H. G. ioe two years to March 3Ist, 1900 op D4 213 1 "J. Bellows, One Year’s Rent of Rogis an AI Ze Os JO 14 13 I Less from Bristol and Gloucestershire Archzo- logical Society, gee of Rent and Gas to Dec. 25th, 1899 . veh “eS She TOrOer4: en 412 9 By Cost OF PROCEEDINGS . J. Bellows, Printing to Sept., 1899 said Sar eSehLG es, Bemrose & Sons, Collotypes ace a ns 4 7 9 West & Sons, Lithograph Plates ... abe a 517 4 Artists’ Illustrators, Blocks fee Pe tas 313 9 J. Pentland, Blocks a sch oe an Tish 6 Hutchinson, Typewriting MSS. ... io oat roy y/ SST 49 0 6 By Cost OF WINTER MEETINGS : Custodian of Municipal Schools ... Rie ac o15 6 Coffee Co., Refreshments, six Meetings .. 6 6 0 Norman & Sawyer, Programmes fncuding those for Summer Excursions) be nice O17 4 Lantern, Operator, and Slides... an be5 116 0 —_— 19 8 10 By OFFIcers’ OuT-OF-POCKET EXPENSES : The President, Coleford Meeting... aes uae I 10 0 The Hon. Sec. (includes postages) oot ee TOTO The Hon. Treasurer a er ai ete 016 4 —_—— 12 14 1 85 16 2 By BALANCES, APRIL 3rd, 1900: Capital and Counties Bank, Deposit Account ... 100 9 © Ditto—Current Account ... ihe ans eh 4 ‘In Treasurer’s hands as ix oe ao 3 15 E20) ues, 4215 5 9 A. S. HELPS, Hon. Treasurer. PRESENTED 31 OCT.1906 §? tT WOT. XITL PART IV PROCEEDINGS OF THE | Cotteswold Waturalists’ FIELD Sg te ly S President EDWARD B. WETHERED, F.G:S. Vice2 Presidents JOHN BELLOWS Rev. H. H. WINWOOD, M.A,, F.GS. CHRISTOPHER BOWLY, M.A.I. M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS C. CALLAWAY, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. | ) i| ed Honorarp Creasurer ASS: HELPS Ponorarp Librarian H. G. MADAN, M.A,, F.C.S. Honorary Accretarp Ss, S. BUCKMAN, F.GS. ‘HE CLUB WISH IT TO BE DISTINCTLY UNDERSTOOD THAT THE AUTHORS ‘THE COUNCIL OF E RESPONSIBLE FOR THE FACTS AND OPINIONS CONTAINED oe ALONE AR IN THEIR RESPECTIVE PAPERS. 4 Contents f Homceomorphy among Jurassic Brachiopoda. By S. S. eae F.G.S. 4 x Plates XII, XIII - - - - - - - - - page 231 _ The Pyrenees and Andorra. By W1LLIaAM BELLows. Pilates XIV-XVI - u 291 _ Polydactylism in Cats. By Rev. A. R. WINNINGTON- INGRAM - - - nn 303 Rhynchelmis: A Rare Aquatic Worm. By W. A. Batty. Plate XVII - un 309 = - - =- = = " 319 Z ~ Resolutions Concerning Maps - - - Title Page and Contents of Volume XIII PUBLISHED, MARCH, 1901 PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY JOHN BELLOWS, GLOUCESTER. $222299 The Library of the Club is at Mr John Bellows’, Eastgate, Gloucester. It is open every Tuesday afternoon from 2.30 to 4.80, when books may be examined, or borrowed. Books, Pamphlets, etc., presented to the Club should be addressed to the Cotteswold Club, c/o John Bellows, The Library, Eastgate, Gloucester. Correspondence should be addressed to the Hon. Secretary, 8S. S. Buckman, Charlton Kings, Cheltenham. Subscriptions (due ist January each year) should be sent to the Hon. Treasurer, A. S. Helps, The Knap, Great Witcombe, Gloucester. PROCEEDINGS OF THE COTTESWOLD NATURALISTS’ PRR CLUB PRESIDENT EDWARD B. WETHERED, F.G:S. HONORARY SECRETARY S..S. BUCKMAN, F.G.S. Voli bh 7Part: TV March, 1901 \— 231 HOMCEOMORPHY AMONG JURASSIC BRACHIOPODA, BY : §,.5. BUCKMAN; ’F.G.S. (Read May 2nd, 1899) PLATES XII, XIII. is INTRODUCTION ... 3 ae axe a patie aheeaes Il. | METHODS OF DEVELOPMENT a ase eee II]. INDEPENDENT DEVELOPMENT OF THE MULTIPLICATE CHARACTER ... : ee p- 240. IV. INDEPENDENT DEVELOPMENT OF BIELICATION p- 246. V. PSEUDOBIPLICATE (BILOBATE) SERIES p- 249. VI. NON-PLICATE HOMCEOMORPHS p- 257: VII. NOTES ON CERTAIN SPECIES ... p: 261. VIII. SUMMARY za oe a ae sie. oe 209; IX. APPENDIX I. ON PHOTOGRAPHIC REPRODUCTION... p. 264. X. APPENDIX II. A JURASSIC TIME TABLE p- 265. I. INTRODUCTION The discovery of a multiplicate Brachiopod belonging to the Zerebratula-galeiformts series, brought to the notice of the Club by Mr Upton,” is particularly interest- ing. It is a further, and as it happens, very striking example of the phenomenon known as parallelism of development. Thereby is produced what I have called homceomorphy — that is to say, the phenomenon of * “Some Cotteswold Brachiopoda,” Proc. Cotteswold Club, Vol. xiii., p. 121; 1899. Q 232 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (4) species nearly alike so far as superficial appearance is concerned, but unlike when particular structural details are closely examined. It is the phenomenon of similarity in general with dissimilarity in details. What is known as mimicry in the animal kingdom is, of course, one phase of homceomorphy. Mimicry may be suggested in regard to homceomorphous fossil species. I seem to recollect suggesting it some years ago in regard to Ammonites—the genera Dumortteria and Grammo- ceras—but I have forgotten where. It would be, perhaps, impossible to prove mimicry in regard to fossils; but with them homceomorphy mostly arises from parallelism of development—the tendency of different genetic stocks to pass, quite independently, through similar phases of development—such as the tendency of distinguishable series of snooth Ammonites to become costate, of costate Ammonites to become spinous, in progressive develop- ment ; or in retrogressive development, of spinous Ammo- nites to become costate, of the costate to become smooth. Similarly there is a tendency among Jurassic Brachiopoda for independent non-plicate species to become multiplicate : that is, analogous to the costation in Ammonites; and in the Rhynchonellide for the multiplicate (costate) to become spinous (Acanthothyris), and in certain cases a spinous species may, with age, retrogress to lose spines (Acanth. obornensis.)* Again, in Jurassic Brachiopoda a simpler development may be found—the tendency of smooth non-plicate species to become uniplicate, of the uniplicate to become biplicate. The various species of different stocks may either pro- duce these developmental characters more or less con- temporaneously, in which case such forms are called isochronous homceomorphs, or they may produce the characters at different dates—a later form simulating an * “Spinose Rhynchonelle;’ Buckman & Walker; Yorkshire Philos. Soc., 1880, p. 13. -« I90I Ss. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 233 earlier one—in which case they are called heterochronous homceomorphs.* An analysis of the methods of development pursued by some of the more notable stocks of Jurassic Brachio- poda may be given now, as having a particular bearing on the subject of homceomorphy. II. METHODS OF DEVELOPMENT The following tabular arrangement is only a rough analysis; but it may indicate the methods of develop- ment :— I a. Dorsalt sulcation slight. “© Tereb ( W.) Heyseana,” Desl. Zeilleria circularis, sp. n.3 Z. Lycetti ; Z. Leckenbyt, Z. anglica ; juv.) 6. Gradual development of ye Leckenbyi; Z. anglica; Z. gibbous valves. Witchelli. c. Later marginal thicken- old age forms of above species. ing of valves. From stage analogous to Id. there is bb. Dorsal plication slight. Z. Darwini,; Z. disculus. A gibbous-valved form analogous to Id, (or perhaps the same, attained by passing through Ia, but of this there is no evidence yet,) develops :— Ib a. Dorsal and ventral sul- LZeilleria numismalis ; Z. inden- cation. tata; Z. digona, etc. 6. Later in some cases, Zeilleria cornuta; Terebratula outgrowth of marginal imitator, sp. n.; T. eudesiana. ~ lobes each side of sulci, produces bilobation (pseudobiplication. ) c. Later, repetition of bilo- Z. quadrifida. bation produces quadri- lobation. _* For remarks on this subject, see “The Bajocian of the Mid-Cotteswolds.” Appendix, “Notes on certain Brachiopoda,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. li., p. 456. + Used arbitrarily, dorsal=brachial (valve), ventral= pedicle (valve). Q2 234 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. Xu. (4) Ida a. __ Bilobation directly, with- Z. emarginata (incipient); Z. out any definite prior bicornis (olim Z. emarginata) ; sulcation. Z. bullata ; Z. obovata. II a. Dorsal sulcation; — de- Glossothyris (Nucleate.) veloping into a some- what linguiform ventral projection. 6. Later bilobation, and the Pygope. fusion of the lobes below the sulcus producing a perforated shell. Ill- a. Flattening or slight de- T. Leest ; 7: simplex ; T. omalo- pression of dorsal valve. gaster » T. subomatlogaster, sp. n. 6. Develops into dorsal T. curvifrons. \ Aulacothyris sulcation. UJ Haast c. Later dorsal plication T. galeiformis. { follows this within the sulcus. \W | plan. The Z.-curvifrons series is quite distinct from Zerebra/ula, the method of biplication being just the opposite. Some of the series have been put to Glossothyris,; but always with a query, as genetic connexion therewith was obviously out of the question, though a certain morphic similarity could be seen by anyone. The necessity for a new generic name has long been felt ; and I venture to propose Pseudoglossothyris (see p. 240.) IV. a._~=Dorsal_ sulcation _pro- Aulacothyris. nounced, and even ex- cessive in some cases. 6. Bilobation added to pro- Aulac. crewkerniensts. nounced dorsal sulca- tion. IVa a. Dorsal sulcation pro- Aulacothyris Mooret in some nounced; and _ later, cases ; ventral sulcation pro- Aulac. bisulcata, S. Buckm. ducing incipient biloba- tion. rehuor =aar I90I S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 235 Analogous stage to I. and III. in the Rhynchonella, thus : — Rh. liostraca; Rh. Meneghinii ; bra eeecaeney, ere: ie Rh. standishensts, sp. n. Vv a. Dorsal sulcation slight, added multiplication. These are most likely prior stages in the phylogenetic history of many of the fully multiplicate RAyxchonelle, so that V b. passes to ¢. multiplication fully de- Eehynch. spp. veloped, continued to d. ventral sulcation de- | Rhynch. spp. with raised veloped after multipli- mesial fold. cation. Except from Vc., Rhynchonelle which attain a similar stage in other ways ; for instance :— VI a Ventral sulcation strong ; b. with subsequently de- veloped multiplication. Rhynchonella acuta group. bd . Vil Striation develops into Rh. furcillata; Rh. - rimosa multiplication by anas- group; A. Wrighti. tomosis of striz. VIII a. Striation alone ; Rh. dundriensis, S. Buckm. 6. later a mesial fold de- Rh. dorsetensis, S. Buckm. veloped. A stage analogous to Ia. and IIIa. may have been an early stage in the development of the biplicate Zerebratu/e. It is found thus: IX a. Flattened dorsal valve. Terebr. Edwards (juv.) ; T. subpunctata (juv.) 6. Dorsal valve deveiops T. Edwardsi ; T. spheroidaits ; gibbosity. T. gravida; T. microtrypa, sp.n. 236 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB __ VOL. XIII. (4) From form attained in IX. 4. various lines of development proceed. One begins uniplication directly, which subsequently passes into biplica- tion, and possibly quadriplication. Another elongates the valves before plication commences ; another develops multiplication directly. X a. Dorsal plica developed. Tereb. Etheridgit ; T. Wrighti,; (compare 140.) f) T. ampla. 6. Subsequent sulcation of T. globata series, and a large plica produces biplica- number of the biplicate Zere- tion. A bratule. The formation of the sulcus is perhaps a case of hypostrophy to the form of I. a.d. T. withingtonensis illustrates a. and 6.; perhaps Plestothyris does too. TZ. maxillata illustrates a tendency towards quadriplication. A slightly different course is taken by some other species. XA a. Dorsal plication and al- T. shirburniensis ; T. hyalina, most contemporaneous sp. n. flattening of the plica. [7 6. The flattening proceeds T. Eudest. to sulcation, and so bipli- cation is produced. M A large number of the biplicate Jurassic Zerebratule would be compre- hended in Divisions X, XA. There is, probably, no real difference in method except that perhaps in X the uniplica is persistent awhile before any infolding begins, while in XA a certain infolding (flatten- ing) begins early and has some duration before definite sulcation commences. Many of the other biplicate Zerebratule followed the course of first elongating the valves: thus from [Xé. there is :— XI —sa._—_—_ Elongation of valves be- T. punctata; T. Buckmant, ete. fore plication. 6. Dorsal valve with uni- T. cortonensis ;; T. Buckmani, in plica. (), some cases. ¢. Sulcation of plica pro- T. crickleyensis ; T. Phillipsi ; duces biplication. AA IT. Phiilipsiana. -¢ 1901 S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 237 Starting from stage attained in IXé there is again :— XII @. Non-plication (gibbous Fimbriate TZerebratule ; Fim- valves) developing drtothyris; the recent Magel- directly into multiplica- lania flavescens ; Rhynch. spp. tion. XIII Dorsal and ventral sul- Dictyothyris. cation ; and later a sub- sidiary plica developed within the dorsal sulcus. XIV Ventral sulcation pro- Epicyrta Eugennii (von Buch.) nounced. This rough analysis of these phases of Brachiopod development will show how homcomorphy may arise. Non-plicate forms may both start towards plication in similar ways. Or starting in dissimilar ways they may become similar (biplicate Zerebratule and Glossothyris to a certain extent.) This is particularly marked in the Rhynchonelle,; in one case the mesial fold is developed and the multiplication follows, in the other case this order is reversed; but obviously after a while the result must be a similarity in form, a multiplicate shell with a mesial fold in both cases. In another case, non-plicate forms may take what are independent lines—one series becoming biplicate, the other bilobate; yet so far as general appearance is con- cerned the shells of the two series may have a very similar aspect—only different in marginal view. The introduction of old age features may often bring about resemblance in what were diverse forms; but the term “old age features” is relative rather than absolute. _ For by the principle of earlier inheritance, or tachygenesis, what is an old age feature, in species at an earlier period of phylogenetic development, may soon become a youthful feature in those at a later one. ‘Thus, multiplication is an old age feature in some fimbriate forms; it is not so in 238 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (4) others where another character, valve-thickening™ is, and comes later. So again multiplication is an old age feature in some Rhynchonelle, it is a normal and very youthful feature in most of them. Multiplication as an old age character pertains to the fimbriate fossil figured by Mr Upton. The interesting point about his discovery is this. There were already known in the Inferior Oolite two nearly related fossils showing homceomorphy—namely, 7erebratula plicata and T. fimbria. They both develop similar multiplication ; yet it is obvious from their beak characters and general shape that they do it quite independently—that is to say, after they have parted from the common ancestral stock. Now Mr Upton produces another fimbriate fossil; and, as it happens, one not allied in a close degree to 7. plicata or 7. fimbria. It belongs to what is known as the caurvz- Jrons group, the proposed genus Pseudoglossothyris. Mr Upton calls this fossil 7. ga/ezformis, a form in which a further development of the cusvzfrons sulcus is shown. But in his fossil a fimbriate margin is produced, and the curvifrons sulcus has been partially obliterated, or has not been developed (see later, note p. 262.) The point then about these fossils is this. 7. plzcata and 7. fimbria show by their characters that they had a common but not very remote ancestor—one, say, in the Ludwigian Age (early Inferior Oolite.) But this fimbriate Pseudoglossothyris shows by its characters a different line of development since it separated from the common stock. Presumably its date of departure therefrom was earlier, and a species of Harpoceratan Age (Upper Lias) gives possible support to the idea that the time was quite an “Age” earlier.f Yet in the course of its development this * By this term I mean the principle of separating the valves by marginal deposit without adding to their superficial area, example Zez/leria Waltonz. + Bajocian Mid-Cotteswolds, p. 447. 1901 S. S$. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 239 curvifrons stock takes on characters which have hitherto been regarded as special to the fmdbria group. Now I have to point out another case in the same genus in which the fiméria character is taken on by a shell earlier in the Pseudoglossothyris series, because it had hardly commenced to show dorsal sulcation before it added fimbriation. And since these notes were written Mr L. Richardson has brought to my notice a fossil of another group, the maazd- lata series of Zerebratula, which shows similar indications of developing fimbriz. Thus in the Cotteswold district, in rocks of about the same date, there are five independent developments of the same character among species of Terebratulide. It may be noted, in passing, that one of the recent Brachiopods, Alagellania flavescens shows the same de- velopment of fimbriae, and is remarkably like 7°. fmérza in every way. The likeness is an excellent instance of hetero- chronous homceomorphy. And in the Lias a fimbriate series of the W/age//anide@ forms the genus /umbriothyris. As may be easily imagined, homceomorphy has led to many errors in identification of species — particularly among Brachiopoda. When the homceomorphous species are nearly related—two stocks of 7erebratule, for in- stance—much excuse may be made. When, however, the species belong to two families, Terebratulide and Magel- lanide C(Waldheimiadz), whose structural details, espe- cially the internal arrangements, are quite distinct, then the confusion of two species of these families under one name becomes serious. Yet such confusions have been made even by the great authority on Brachiopoda, Thos. Davidson, as may be seen in his work on the Jurassic species. Itis the object of the present paper, in part, to call attention to the mixing of examples of two families under one name, to figure other remarkable homceomorphous 240 PROG, “COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (4) forms, and generally to indicate the development of such species. I will now proceed with the description of some species. III. INDEPENDENT DEVELOPMENT OF THE MULTIPLICATE CHARACTER Genus :—PSEUDOGLOSSOTHYRIS, S. Buckman. (Type :—Ps. curvifrons, Oppel, sp.*) Definition: —Non-septate Terebratuloids, the beak stout, short, without beak ridges, and generally with a large, complete foramen. The brachial valve develops from flat to sulcate, with subsequent pro- duction of a plica within the sulcus. Distinction:—From Glossothyris, the whole of the brachial valve is involved in the making of a broad sulcus, whereas in that genus only the middle third is taken to make a kind of narrow linguiform depression. Remarks :—The following species belong to this genus :—Leesz, S. Buckman; szmplex, J. Buckman ; curvi- rons, Oppel; Brebrissonz, Deslongschamps ; galezformzs, McCoy; provincialis, Desl.; all of the Ludwigian Age (lower Inferior Oolite.) There is in the Harpoceratan Age (upper Lias) a species, obviously a non-septate Terebratuloid, hitherto confounded with Zerleria (Waldheimia) Lycettz, which may be expected to be a member of Pseudog/osso- thyrts. * I take as type of the genus the Cotteswold shell known as Zerebratula, or Glosso- thyris ? curvifrons, from the Oolite Marl. ve I90I S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 241 1. PSEUDOGLOSSOTHYRIS SIMPLEX, /. Buckman. PSX, figs: I—3- 1845. TEREBRATULA SIMPLEX, /. Buckman, Geol. Cheltenham, Ed. ii., pl. vii., fig. 5. _ 1851. TEREBRATULA SIMPLEX, Davidson, Jurassic Brach., Vol. I., pl. viii., figs. 1—3. Remarks :—This species is so well known that it needs no detailed description. The interest attaching to the present unusually large example is that in maturity it shows certain small plications similar to those exhibited by its contemporary, Zeredr. plicata, though not so numerous. These plications are also noteworthy in connexion with the plicate, later-appearing “ Terebr. galeiformis” described by Mr Upton. Another point that may be noticed is that the brachial valve of this specimen is rather more convex than usual. There is a rather interesting history connected with this specimen. It was found at Birdlip by Robert Holland,* of Cheshire, when a student at the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, during one of the excursions con- ducted by my father as Professor. This would be some- thing like fifty years ago. ~The specimen attracted atten- tion on account of its unusual size and condition. So much so that some thirty years later my father had not forgotten this find; but he told me that this 7. semplex was one of the ornaments of Mr Holland’s collection. Mr Holland subsequently became my father-in-law, and so, through my wife, the specimen has at last come into my collection. * Robert Holland was a cousin of the Gloucestershire Hollands, one of whom, Miss Holland, made a collection of Liassic fossils, which was the subject of a paper by Dr Wright in the Club’s Proceedings, Robert Holland compiled the Cheshire Glossary, and, ~ with James Britten, of the British Museum, that useful book “A Dictionary of English Plant Names,’’—both works published by the English Dialect Society. 242 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (4) Locality and Stratum of the Figured Specimen :— Birdlip, Gloucestershire, in the Pea-grit. Date of Existence :—Murchisone hemera. 2. ‘“TEREBRATULA”* POLYPLECTA, S. Buckman, sp.n. Pl. XII., figs. 4—7. Description.—A gibbous valved, broadly ovate shell; the valves are fimbriate for about one-third from the front margin, which itself is usually thickened, obtuse, and fimbriate. Beak very short and obliquely truncate. Distinction :—From 7. plicata, J. Buckman, it is an alto- gether smaller shell, the plications begin at a much earlier age and are much more pronounced. From 7. faméria, Sow., it has not the globose form of that species, it is more elongate, its beak is shorter, obliquely truncate, and does not overhang the brachial valve. Remarks :—This species is a development of 7eredr. plicata, and occurs at a later date. In that species the plications are rather rare, and are only found as the adult character, and then they are not much developed. In this species the plications begin in early maturity, and in late maturity or senility another character commences, namely, thickening of the margin of the valves without increase in the size of the shell—a character well shown in figs. 6, 7 of Pl. IV., the plication still being continued. Therefore what is a character of late maturity in 7evedr. plicata has become a feature of early maturity in this species, which in late maturity introduces another developmental phase. Locality and Stratum :-—Notgrove Station, Gloucester- shire, in the Oolite Marl. A good series of specimens has been obtained from this locality; but the species has not been found elsewhere. Date of Existence :—Bradfordensis hemera. * Generic separation of the fimbriate from the biplicate Zerebratule would he desirable. I90I S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 243 Two fimbriate Terebratuloids have now been noticed, Pseudoglossothyris simplex and Terebr. polyplecta. Yo the latter is related 7. A/icata as direct parent, to the former Ps. galetformis, var., Mr Upton’s shell, as not quite a direct descendant. There remains another series, T. fimbria, collateral of 7. polyplecta, though not derived actually from 7. plicata. The fimbria series commences in the Pea grit (JZurchisone hemera) probably a little later than 7. plicata. It has two characters pointing to its close connexion with that fossil—first, a somewhat obliquely truncate beak, such as characterizes the Alicata stock all through ; secondly, a circular shape, which charac- terizes only the young 7. Aficata. But its independence is seen in this: it does not wait to become elongate before it is fimbriate ; it becomes fimbriate while still circular. Then the next stage is seen in the Oolite Marl (Brad- fordensts hemera.) The beak has developed; it is not obliquely truncate, but it curves over the umbo some- what. And the development of the fimbriz has been accelerated—they appear earlier and become more pro- nounced. The third stage is seen at a later date—the Upper Free- stone (later Lradfordensts hemera.) The earlier inherit- ~ ance of the fimbriz has become so marked that little of the original smooth shell is seen: the fimbriz begin in early immaturity. And in immaturity elongation takes place; so that somewhat the shape of Terebr. polyplecta is simulated. But as the fmérza stock in its second stage of development—in the Oolite Marl—becomes possessed of the curved-over beak, it has in its third stage a character of distinction, no matter how much it may simulate another shell. The curved-over beak, in fact, is the character : it isa further development than that of 7. oly- plecta; but that fossil had not acquired it when elongate. The 7. fméria series does so before becoming elongate. 244 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xi. (4) It almost seems necessary when speaking of this very complete developmental series of the fié77a stock to have certain names for the stages attained. They might be subjimbria, fimbria, and perfimbria. Their characters might be defined as follows :— LTerebr. subfimbria. Truncate beak; circular form of shell, with slight fimbriation. Pea grit. LTerebr. fimbria. Curved beak; circular form of shell, pronounced fimbriation. Oolite Marl. Terebr. perfimbria. Curved beak; elongate form of shell, excessive fimbriation extending over most of the test. Upper Freestone. It need not be insisted upon that the advance towards greater fimbriation is always uniform. It is not; and it would not be expected. But such advance is the general tendency the more fimbriate become more numerous. How far the development of the fmérza series corre- sponds with that of other fimbriate fossils may be seen in the following Table :— Upper “Ps. galeiformis, T. perfimbria, Freestone var.,” somewhat very _ fimbriate ; fimbriate. elongate. Oolite Marl T. polyplecta, T. fimbria, distinctly fimbri- distinctly fimbri- ate ; elongate. ate ; circular. Pea Grit Ps. simplex, T. plicata, T. subjimbria, very slightly fim- slightly fimbriate; slightly fimbriate ; briate, and that elongate. circular. rarely. It is between 7. polyplecta and 7. perfimbria that homceomorphy is most marked; but they are not truly isochronous, they are slightly heterochronous. the less fimbriate become scarcer and scarcer, » I90I S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 245 The multiplicate stage of development is uncommon among the Terebratulide ; but among the Rhynchonellide it is dominant. With the great majority of them it begins with the growth of the test, showing that it has been a long inherited character. With others, however, it does not begin till some growth has been completed. Mr Upton shows one such form, which he calls Ahynch. cotteswoldi@: therein the multiplicate character is just beginning to assert itself. Such a character, judging by the young of the species, must be a development inde- pendent from the settled multiplicate character of Rhynch. tetraedra, or from the curious developments of plice in the Rk.-acuta group. So it may be assumed that FZ. cotteswoldi@ is developing plications as a new feature of its own, not as the result of inheritance; and that the multiplicate character in the Rhynchonellidz is polygenetic. I take the opportunity to figure an interesting new species, which shows plicze of a more settled character than RA. cotteswoldia, and yet that they do not begin till the shell is well grown—so that in this case the character appears to be new. Further in this species the brachial valve is sulcate, and that is a character which most Ahyn- chonelle have grown out of, though it is the dominant character in genera of Terebratulide and Magellaniide ; viz., Pseudoglossothyris, Glossothyris, Aulacothyris. 3. RHYNCHONELLA STANDISHENSIS, S. Buckman, sp. nov. Pl. XII., figs. 13—15. Description.—A small, sub-circular, depressed Rhynchonelloid, with a carinate pedicle valve, a sub-sulcate brachial valve, the sulcus ex- tending nearly to the umbo; in each valve about 16 plaits extending only half-way from the margin, no definite mesial fold, but the three central plaits slightly larger than their fellows. Distinction -—From Rhynchonella Meneghinit, Zittel, the general form of the shell is rounder, the plicez are 246 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xi. (4) more distinct, and they begin earlier, so that they are longer as well as broader; the sulcus in the brachial valve is less pronounced, and the pedicle valve is less convex. Remarks :—The differences from the Italian shell, 2. Meneghinit, are particularly interesting, because that shell is distinctly earlier in date. It is said to come from Middle Lias, presumably hemera sfzva¢z. And in accordance with its earlier date it shows less development of plicze than the present species. The general build of the little Italian shell is pretty much the same as the English one, and it has a similar sulcus in the brachial valve; but it is smooth longer, and plicate later, while the sulcus is more distinct. So the English species, which is, say two hemerz later, shows a particular advance in development corresponding with its date; it has carried on and elaborated the develop- ment of plicze, just as we find in the case of the Zeredbra- tula-fimbria series. Locality and Stratum:—From a small exposure of Upper Lias Clay on Standish Park Farm, below Standish Beacon, the beds yielding Harfoceras falciferum, etc. Date of L:xistence :—-Falcifert hemera, Harpoceratan Age (Upper Lias). hk. Meneghinii is from Middle Lias, that would be probably Sfzvatz hemera of the Deroceratan Age, about two hemere earlier than 2. standishensts. IV. INDEPENDENT DEVELOPMENT OF BIPLICATION 3. TEREBRATULA WITHINGTONENSIS, S. Buckman. Pl. XII., figs. Sr Description :—A small, globose, uniplicate, or biplicate Terebratu- loid, with a short, obliquely truncate beak, and an inflated umbo. Distinction -—From Terebr. Etheridgii—the uniplicate form is rather more circular, more globose, and has a less QS ier bepare nes I90I S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 247 pronounced fold; and a truncate beak. From 7Zeredr. nolgroviensts, the biplicate form is rather less globose, and the folds are not so pronounced. From 7. Fudesz, the obliquely truncate beak. Remarks :—The three specimens of the present species which have been figured show the development of the uni- plicate form (fig. 10), the incipient biplicate form (fig. 11), and the definite biplicate form (fig. 12). They indicate that the species is derived from a uniplicate form of the Terebr.-Etheridgit type, and that it develops towards a pronounced biplicate form like Zervedbr. notgroviensis. It is therefore a strictly transitional form, and a connecting link of marked importance between two very distinct species. It is the parent of Zevebr. notgroviensis, preced- ing it in time, as this species occurs in the Pea-grit, that one in the Oolite Marl of the same neighbourhood. The length of time is represented by a deposit of some 80 to 100 feet of limestone. 7. Atheridgit is not exactly the parent of this form, because it has not the truncate beak like this one; but it is a homceomorph of the uniplicate form. 7. £udesi develops its folds in a different manner ; and it belongs to a more spheroidal stock : it is a homeeo- morph of the biplicate form. The specimen of Zerebr. notgroviensis, figured by me in the Proceedings of this Club, Vol. ix.,* is really an ex- treme (Senile) form. It is rather a degenerate form with somewhat pronounced plications. Other specimens from the Oolite Marl are more robust, rather larger, and have less developed plications. Locality and Stratum :—The cuttings on the Midland and South-Western Junction Railway near Withington (Gloucestershire), in Pea-grit. Date of Existence :—Murchisone hemera. * Plate iii, fig. 5. 1887. R 248 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xml. (4) 4. TEREBRATULA HYALINA, S. Buckman, sp. n. Pl. XIIT., figs. Ga; ip Description :—Valves convex, the pedicle valve the most. Outline of shell ovoid, and in lateral aspect globose, elongate. Front margin elevated to form a single fold, level across. Beak small, short, close pressed to umbo. Foramen small. Distinction: — From Terebratula radstockensis, the smaller foramen, the curved lateral margin, the frontal fold. From Zerebr. shirburniensis, longer, less globose, less distinctly plicate. Coneparison :—Many of the Zez//evie are more or less homceomorphs. Remarks :— This extremely elegant species, with a glassy-looking and apparently very thin test, has much resemblance to deep sea forms of the present day. The clayey marl wherein it is found probably indicates deeper water conditions than the limestone of the same date in the Bradford Abbas neighbourhood—where the species has not yet been obtained. This is almost an incipiently biplicate form, closely con- nected with the spheroidal stock of which 7. sherdur- niensis and 7. Eudesi are examples. Though later than the former, it is in some respects less developed, as in its plication; in other respects—departure from the sphzeroi- dal to the ovoidal form—it is more developed. Locality and Stratum :—Somerset, Horethorne Down, in a bluish, clayey marl; scarce. Date of Existence :—Dviscite hemera. 5. TEREBRATULA SIDERICA, S. Buckman, sp. n. Pl. XIII., figs. 11a, b, & Description :—Valves inzequi-convex, the brachial valve being nearly flat. Side margin curved, front margin biplicate; but the plice begin rather abruptly. Beak short, rather stout, somewhat hanging over umbo, hiding deltidial plates; foramen oval, with a kind of labiate ex- tension over umbo. hee tren Gree. oo a ea cee tpi eta stie ete 9 Ngee ne Pace ere 1901 S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 249 Comparison :—-Zeilleria subcornuta is somewhat of a homceomorph. Distinction -—From Terebratula Stephani, the short- ness and abruptness of the plicz. Remarks :—This is a distinctly biplicate form, but its general build shows it to be an independent development separate from either the spheeroidal stock, or 7. wzthing- tonensis. Not unlikely, it is the parent of the more plicate 7. Stephani. Its date agrees with that idea. Locality and Stratum :—Yorset, Wyke Quarry, near Halfway House, in the Irony bed. Date of Existence :—Blagdenzt hemera. V. PSEUDOBIPLICATE (BILOBATE) SERIES (The emarginata homceomorphs.) Attention may now be directed to another series of shells, which show development of pseudo-biplication (bilobation,) This series contains some species which have been seriously misunderstood on account of their homceomorphy; and the opportunity may now be taken to point this out. Some of the following pages were written several years ago; but time did not then allow of the work being completed. Perhaps fortunately; for they come in very well in connection with the subject of this paper. . The particular character of bilobation is not uncommon among the Magellanide; and its independent develop- ment in different stocks is well known. The interesting fact is its occurrence also, though rarely, among Tere- bratulida. And in some cases the resemblance between the species of the two families with this bilobate front margin is remarkable. It is always a matter for regret when any reason compels the changing of the name by which a particular R2 250 PROCHCOPTES WOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (4) species has been familiar for some time; but, unless some fault attach to the work of the original nominator— such as the giving of no figure, or of a flagrantly incorrect description, which would excuse the mistake of subsequent writers, the notoriety obtained by any particular form under an incorrect name cannot become an excuse for its permanently retaining a designation rightly belonging to another. A case in point calls for rectification now. Among a series of Brachiopoda sent to me some years ago for identification by the late Mr E. Wilson, F.G.S., was a specimen from the Fullers’ Earth Rock of Nunney, near Frome. On comparison [| found that this example agreed exactly with what Sowerby had originally figured as “ Terebratula emarginata—discovered at Nunney, near Frome.”* But for many years we have been giving the name emarginata to a more elongate and flatter species found at a much lower level, namely, in the Inferior Oolite. The mistake had arisen in this way. Davidson re-figured Sowerby’s types in 1851,f and said that they came from the Inferior Oolite—in other words, that the rock which yielded these specimens at Nunney was Inferior Oolite. With them he figured another specimen which may have been from the Inferior Oolite, but it is admittedly a malformation, and is in any case not like the Nunney specimens of eargznata. Not improbably the assumption that the rocks of Nunney were Inferior Oolite may be traced to continental authors, for in 1849 d’Orbigny{ had put Terebratula emarginala as a species of his “ 10 Etage :—Bajocien,” which would be translated in English as Inferior Oolite. Then, in 1877, Davidson§ figured from the Inferior Oolite of Broad Windsor, two specimens as Waldheimia * « Mineral Conchology,” Vol. v., continued by J. de C. Sowerby, pl. ccccxxxv., fig. 5, . 50. a + “Oolitic and Liassic Brachiopoda” (Palzeont. Soc.), pl. iv., figs. 18, 19, 20. t “Prodome de Paléontologie,” p. 287. § “ Brachiopoda of the Inferior Oolite of Bradford Abbas and its vicinity,” Proc. Dorset N.H. Club, Vol. i., pl. iii., figs. ro, 11. Sead ee ae ee peers I9O0I S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 251 emarginata—the long-looped, septate Terebratuloids having been separated as Waldhetmia. These specimens are truly enough from the Inferior Oolite; but they do not at all agree with Sowerby’s shells except in being bilobate. The view, fig. I1@, shows almost a circular form, whereas the same view of Sowerby’s shells gives a depressed octagonal figure. In 1878 Davidson figured the same two specimens ;* and he also depicted another bilobate example very different from them. It is undoubtedly from the Inferior Oolite, and, as he says, from Bradford Abbas. It is more like the Sowerbyan specimens, but it is somewhat proportion- ately longer and its valves are more flat across. It is well known what this specimen represents, although the majority of the examples from the Dorset Inferior Oolite are rather longer; it is the form which has of late years been exclusively known as Waldheimia, or Zetlleria, emar- gimata. It is found in the upper beds of the Inferior Oolite, particularly at Bradford Abbas, Broad Windsor, -and Burton Bradstock ; and it has been recorded from the Cotteswolds.f So the case about “emarginata” really stands in this wise: we have three different forms from two different horizons figured by the name of “emarginata” in English literature. Thus there is: I. From the Fullers’ Earth, a subpentagonal shell with somewhat gibbous valves transversely. 2. From the Inferior Oolite, a subpentagonal, but rather more elongate shell, with rather flat valves, transversely. 3. Also from the Inferior Oolite, a subpentagonal shell, with very gibbous valves, transversely. Of these three forms, I is that which is entitled to the name emarginata, Sowerby: 2, though hitherto known as ee * “Monograph Brachiopoda: Oolitic and Liassic,” Suppl. pl. xxiii., figs. 5-—7. + See the Author’s “Bajocian of the Mid-Cotteswolds,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. li., p. 440, 1895 252 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (4) emarginata, is a distinct shell, but it belongs to the same genus; while 3, in spite of the fact that Davidson has drawn it with the angular beak ridges characteristic of Waldheimia (or Zeilleria), is undoubtedly a Zerebratula —a short looped, non-septate species, with rounded beak ridges. Lastly, there is an altogether new species which has not been figured or described:—4, from the Inferior Oolite, like No. 3 in general shape, but longer. But it is not a Zerebratula, it is a Zerllerta ; yet again it differs from the other Zez//ervie@ by having an incurved beak. This species is very like Z. cornuta of the Middle Lias. I found it about twenty years ago, and sent it to Dr Davidson with several of the other new species described in this paper.* He agreed with me that they were new species, and that they required naming, but he had drawn all the plates for his work, and was unable to include them. He hoped that I should undertake the task of de- scribing them. At last I have partly carried out his wish. These species may now be definitely noted in the following manner :— 6. (1) ZEILLERIA EMARGINATA (/. de C. Sowerby). 1825. TEREBRATULA EMARGINATA, /. de C. Sowerby, _Min. Conch., Vol. V., pl. ccccxxxv., fig. 5. The large specimen only. 1851. TEREBRATULA EMARGINATA, Davidson, Ool. Brach. (Pal. Soc.), pl. iv., fig. 18 only, re-figure of Sowerby’s type. 1863. TEREBRATULA (WALDHEIMIA) EMARGINATA, E. Deslongschamps, T. Jurass. Brachiopodes ; Pal. frang., pl. Ixxxv., fig. 1. Non. WALDHEIMIA EMARGINATA, Davidson, and many " other authors. * For instance: 7. hyalina, T. microtrypa, T. subomalogaster, Z. ferruginea; and others not figured yet. j | ] | $) . 4 } a } rie — a ‘ Sn Se ee ee ee eee I90I S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 253 The species is found in the Fullers’ Earth Rock of Nunney, near Frome, Somerset. Its date is, therefore, presumably the hemera of MJacrocephalites subcontractus. The specimen now figured is the one found by Mr Wilson; it is now in the collection of that keen Brachio- podist, Mr J. W. D. Marshall,* who has kindly sent it to me again, with another example, for the purpose of this paper. 7. (2) ZEILLERIA BICORNIS, S. Buckman. 1878. WALHEIMIA EMARGINATA, Davidson, Supple- ment to Jurassic Brachiopoda, pl. xxiii., fig. 7 only. _ Description :—Sub-pentagonal in outline, with a bilobate front margin. Brachial valve flattish, pedicle valve sub-gibbous. Valves thickened at margin, often considerably ; and the thickened bilobate portion often protruded; beak sub-elevated, well separated from umbo; deltidial plates exposed ; beak ridges defined, acute. Comparison :— Terebratula tmitator is a remarkable homceomorph in another genus. Z. sudcornuta is a homceomorph in the ‘same genus. Both are isochronous homceomorphs, or nearly so. Distinction :— From Z. Wadtltonz, the bilobate front margin. Genetic affinity -—It is a bilobate development of the form of Z. Waltoni which lived during Garantzaneg hemera. (There is more than one form called Z. Waltonz). Localities and Strata :—Dorset: Bradford Abbas, Broad Windsor, in the upper beds; Louse Hill, near Halfway House, above the Irony bed. Somerset: Crewkerne Station, upper beds; Milborne Wick, Garantzana beds. Date of existence :—Garantiane hemera, perhaps later also. * IT would call attention to his most useful papers, “Notes on British Jurassic Brachiopoda,” Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc., Vol. viii., 1895-7. 254 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XIU. (4) 8. (3) TEREBRATULA IMITATOR, S. Buckman, nom. nov. Pl. XIIL., fig. 6a, b, c. 1877. WALDHEIMIA EMARGINATA, Davidson (non T. emarginata, Sow.) Brachiopoda in the Inferior Oolite, &c.; Proc. Dorset Field Gluby-Vol- 1; -pl. ii, fies. 20, 2. 1878. WALDHEIMIA EMARGINATA, Davidson, Oolitic and Liassic Brach. (Monogr. Palzont. Soc.), Vol. IV., Suppl., pl. xxili., figs. 5, 6. Description: —A somewhat ovoid, globose shell. The side and front margins thickened, the latter indented, with a lobe each side of the indentation. Junction of valves straight or nearly so, not definitely waved as in biplicate forms. Beak short, stout, separated from umbo, showing deltidial plates; no definite beak ridges; foramen somewhat large, circular. Comparison :—Zeilleria bicornis is so much a homceo- morph that Davidson figured specimens of 7” zmz¢ator and of that species as examples of Waldhermia emarginata. Zeilleria subcornuta is an even more remarkable homeeo- morph. Specimens are identical in shape, the beak is the only point of difference, but of course the septum in Z. subcornuta is indicated by a dark line in the umbo. A heterochronous homceomorph is 7. ezdeszana, another bilobate Terebratuloid. Distinction :—From Terebr. eudesiana, the larger size of the shell, the less globular form, the flatter brachial valve, the straighter side margin, the beak less incurved and definitely separated from the umbo. Genetic relations :— Probably with 7. spherordahs, whereof it is what may be called a bilobate, not a biplicate, development. Its likeness to 7. ezdescana does not indi- cate direct genetic affinity, but parallel development over again from a similar stock. Localities and Stratum:—Dorset: Broad Windsor, and Bradford Abbas, in the upper beds. 1901 S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 255 Date of Existence :-—Truellit hemera, most likely; or possibly zzgzag hemera. 9. (4) ZEILLERIA SUBCORNUTA, S. Buckman, sp. n. Pl. XIIL, fig. 7. Description :—Valves about equally convex; front margin indented, and a depression running up each valve. Beak small, with defined, sub- acute beak ridges; beak curved over umbo, and not much separated therefrom. Foramen small. Note-—A broader form with less marked indentation may, for the present at any rate, be reckoned as the same species. Comparison -—Terebratula tmitator is a remarkable homceomorph. Zezlerta Marie is notable. Distinction -—From Z. cornuta, the less definite inden- tation, the bilobate (cornute) character less developed, the marginal lobes less marked. From Z. dzcornes, the incurved beak. From Z. Marie, the less incurved beak, less acute beak ridges, smaller foramen, generally flatter form. Notes.—In Z. cornuta there is a somewhat quadrilobate appearance; this species is but bilobate. The similarity to Z. Marie is certainly remarkable, because of the differ- ence in date. There is no difficulty in their separation if the beak be studied. Localities and Stratum. ae ee Bradford Abbas, in the railway cutting near Yeovil Junction; Clifton Maybank, in a temporary opening ; both in the base of so-called “ upper beds of Inferior Oolite.” Date of E-xistence:—Garantiane hemera. There is a certain similarity in the following incipiently bilobate form to the preceding species, so it may be noticed pHere: 256 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xu. (4) 10. MICROTHYRIS TARDECRESCENS, S. Buckman, sp.n. Pi. XIIL., fig. 1a; bose Description:—A somewhat elongate, globose shell, with nearly equi-convex valves, which are marked with close-set, distinct ridges of growth. Front margin obtuse, slightly indented. Beak short, curved over umbo. Beak ridges very short, only defined just under foramen, the beak appearing to have no ridges; foramen small. Comparison..—There is much similarity to Zereér. zmitator, except for the growth ridges. A TZeredbratula figured by Deslongschamps as 7erebratula spheroidahs, Brachiopodes jurassiques, Pl. Ixxxi., fig. 1, is similar in shape, and also has growth ridges, which are, in fact, exaggerated growth lines. Distinction -—From Zerlleria ferruginea, the difference in shape, but particularly the absence of well-defined beak ridges. Remarks -—The aspect of the beak is almost that of a Terebratula; but there is a long and fairly marked dark line indicative of a septum in the brachial valve. The beak is of quite a different character from that of the Z.-Waltoni series with the sharp beak ridges, or from the incurved beak of sawbcornuta, which also has distinct beak ridges. The character of the beak seems to justify the placing of this species to Microthyris, E. Desl., whereof lagenalis is the type. At any rate it does not deserve to be called Zezlleria. Localities and Strata:—Dorset: Burton Bradstock, from the upper beds; Bradford Abbas, from about the horizon of the Marl bed. Somerset: Stoford. A scarce shell, but most distinctive, and several specimens have been obtained. Date of Existence :—Garantiane hemera. Note :—The character of ridges really arises from exag- geration of valve-thickening, alternating with normal growth to finally becomea settled feature. The ridges presumably mark times of slow growth. 1901 S. S$. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 257 VI. NON-PLICATE HOMGZOMORPHS II. TEREBRATULA MICROTRYPA, S. Buckman, sp. n. Pio iit, fies. oa ob: Description :—Valves convex, the pedicle valve more so than the other; valves tapering to the margin. Shell in outline sub-circular. Beak small, short, sub-tumid, slightly overhanging, not distant from umbo. Beak ridges defined, sub-acute ; foramen small. Note——A ground-down specimen shows a short loop. Distinction :—From Terebr. ampla and T. Uptonz, it is a smaller shell. From young 7. ama, it has more gibbous valves, it is not so broad posteriorly, it is more inflated around the beak, which is more curved and has more definite beak ridges, and the foramen is smaller. From immature 7. Uftonz, the more gibbous valves, transverse shape, and the beak characters, with beak closer to the umbo, separate it. Locality and Stratum -—Somerset : Horethorne Down, near Corton Denham, in a bluish marly clay with Ahyn- chonella Forbes, etc. Note -—I have two. specimens sent from Dundry by Mr Marshall, which are very like this species ; but as the beak characters are not well preserved, there may be doubt as to specific identity. 12. ZEILLERIA CIRCULARIS, S. Buckman, sp. n. PE XIIE,; figs.-9a,. b,c. Description :—Valves about equally convex, tapering rather to margin, in outline nearly circular. Umbo prominent, tumid. Beak short, erect, truncate. Beak ridges distinct, sub-acute ; foramen not large. Comparison .—Homceomorphs are Jerebratula ampla, J. Buckman, and Ps. Leese (S. Buckman) especially ; T. microtrypa toa certain extent; and Zeredr. lentzformis, Upton, in less degree. 258 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. xl. (4) Distinction :—From Z. Leckenbyi (Walker), the more transverse shape, and particularly the truncate beak. Genetic relations :—With Z. Leckenbyz, and Z. Wit- chelli, S. Buckman. It precedes the former in time dis- tinctly, being sometimes as much as 100 feet lower. The two species named as its descendants express the change of shape from transverse to much elongate. Localities and Stratum .:— Gloucestershire, Crickley Hill; Bull Bank, Miserden; in Pea-grit. Date of Existence .-—Murchisone hemera. Notes.—The most transverse specimen is from Miser- den: it measures 30 mm. across and 26 mm. in length. The largest specimen from Crickley measures, length and width, 35 mm. It shows a more overhanging beak like that of Z. Leckendy:, so that with age it approaches that species in this character, as would be expected. Young Z. Leckendyz have the proportions and appear- ance of Z. cercularis. The Pea-grit of Randwick Ash, near Stroud, which is about the date of the Lower Freestone of Cheltenham, has yielded some broad specimens with rather overhanging beaks; they are really the forms connecting Z. cercularis and Z. Leckenbyt. 13. ZEILLERIA ANISOCLINES, S. Buckman, sp. n. Pl. XI. figs. Tia, be Description :—Inequivalve, sub-ovoid to sub-pentagonal in outline, brachial valve nearly flat, pedical valve per-convex. Beak projected, overhanging the umbo; beak ridges fairly defined, sub-acute ; foramen small. Comparison .—With the heterochronous homceomorph Terebratula subomalogaster. Remarks :—The inequivalve appearance of the shell viewed sideways, which suggests the specific name, gives a longitudinal section the figure of a D. _—" . eS ‘ js ae Catt b 2B ici WS Ee ek | | | { x I90I S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 259 Distinction -—Like Zetlleria Leckenbyi (Walker), but distinguished by the very unequal convexity of its valves. Locality and stratum -—Gloucestershire, Cleeve Hill, in the PAz//7pszana beds of the Rolling Bank Quarry ; rare. Date of Existence :—Sauzet hemera ? Note.—As so many of the Cotteswold Brachiopoda are specifically distinct from their contemporaries in the Anglo- Norman basin; and as these particular PAz//ipsiana beds have. been destroyed by Bajocian denudation except over the Cleeve Hill plateau, it is likely that that place will be the only locality from which the species can be obtained. 14. TEREBRATULA SUBOMALOGASTER, S. Buckman, sp.n. PE XU; figs.-2a, be Description :—Inequivalve, subpentagonal in outline, brachial valve nearly flat, pedical valve convex. Growth lines prominent at intervals. Beak projected, overhanging the umbo considerably ; beak ridges fairly prominent, sub-rounded ; foramen rather large. Comparison :-—With the heterochronous homceomorph Zeilleria antsoclines. There is a certain likeness, on account of the transverse ridges, and even in shape, to Dictyothyris Moriert, which occurs almost in the same bed. Distinction :—From Terebratula omalogaster, Zieten. Verst. Wirt. Pl. xl., fig. 4, by its less transverse shape, and greater compression. Remarks :—As the specific name implies, there is con- siderable likeness to Zieten’s 7. omalogaster, which is similar in inequality of valves, has an overhanging beak, but of less pronounced character; the shell is, however, remarkably transverse, with a beak, as depicted by Zieten, rounded and largely perforate. There is reason to conclude genetic connection between these species; and as Oppel™ states that Zieten’s species * “Juraformation,” p. 426. 260 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. XII. (4) occurs in the Humphriescanus zone, it might be the an- cestor, as its shape indicates. Oppel further remarks that Zieten’s specimen differs from most examples by being too much truncate in front. This species has lain in my cabinet some 20 years, with the present specific name, indicative of its resemblance to the German form. Note.— About transverse ridges, see M7. tardecrescens. Locality and horizon :—Dorset, Bradford Abbas, Bed 5. (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. xlix., p. 485). Date of Existence -—Garantiane hemera. 15. ZEILLERIA FERRUGINEA, S. Buckman, sp. n. Pl. XIII., figs. 4a, b, c. Description :—Valves convex, outline of shell elongate. Front mar- gin more or less rounded, and a little elevated. Beak acute, projecting, with defined, acute ridges. Growth lines prominent at intervals. Comparison .—The elongate, non-plicate forms of the Terebratule of the punctata and Buckmant groups are homceomorphs. One, a new species of the latter group, occurs in the same bed. Remarks :—In the figured example the valves are separ- ated by test deposition, which throws them further apart without real increase of valve area. In some examples this has been carried to an extraordinary excess. In most cases there is not this thickening ; then the specimens have a rather compressed appearance, and are not unlike what a somewhat elongate, narrow Z. anzsoclines might be. Distinction: — From Z . subbucculenta (Chapuis and Dewalque), more elongate; more gibbous valves; more elevated beak, further separated from the umbo. Localities and Stratum :—Dorset, Louse Hill, and Wyke Quarry, near Halfway House, in the Irony bed. Date of Existence :—Llagdeni hemera. I9OI S. S$. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 261 VII. NOTES ON CERTAIN SPECIES The opportunity may be taken to notice the two follow- ing species, one of which requires a name :— 16. TEREBRATULA WURTTEMBERGICA, Offed. 1832. TEREBRATULA BULLATA, Zefen, Verst. Wirt., | pl. xl., fig. 6 (non Sow.) 1856. TEREBRATULA WURTTEMBERGICA, Offel, Juraf., p- 426. Oppel named this species, taking Zieten’s figure as the type. He says it is common in the highest beds of the Inferior Oolite in Wirttemberg, and that Zerebr. sphe- roidalis is distinct from it because it has a much rounder shape. The species is really a kind of elongate 7. spherordats, with rather marked ridges of growth. It is probably passed over as Zerebratula decipiens, E. Deslongschamps, | a specific name made to cover a number of forms, few of | which are really referable thereto. 17. TEREBRATULA PERMAXILLATA, S. Buckman, sp. n. 1884. TEREBRATULA MAXILLATA, Davidson (non Sowerby), Monogr. Brach. ; App. to Supple- ments, pl. xx., figs. 12, 12a, 12b. Description :—A maxillatoid species, with very strong folds, which would almost justify its destination as a quadriplicate shell. The side | margin is in consequence very strongly curved. § Distinction :—From 7. maxillata, the greater strength : of its plications in proportion to its size, the beak more separated from the umbo. Localities and Stratum :—Cotteswolds. Rodborough Hill, near Stroud; Salperton (in the railway cuttings) ; _ Brimpsfield, near Birdlip ; CZypeus grit ; rare. 262 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB _ VOL. XIII. (4) Date of Existence :—Truelhi hemera, assuming that Clypeus-grit was contemporaneous with 77we/d7 strata of Dorset. Remarks :—I\t lived considerably earlier than the true Terebratula maxillata, but it is a form with more old age character. 7. maaz/lata comes froma non-plicate form of the Zerebr.-marmorea type. The fact is that 7. maxzlata, T. permaxillata, and 7. submaaitlata are not truly genetic- ally connected. They are heterochronous homceomorphs, independent plicate derivatives from a non-plicate stock, the plicate character being the old age feature which they independently assume. 18. PSEUDOGLOSSOTHYRIS sp. 1899. TEREBRATULA GALEIFORMIS, var., Upton, Cotteswold Brach. ; Proc. Cotteswold Club, Vol. XIIL., pl. iii., figs. 1-4. I find some difficulty in agreeing with Mr Upton’s identification. The shell seems to be really an indepen- dent development from Ps. s¢mplex, whereof the in- cipiently plicate form (Pl. XII., figs. 1-3) indicates the method of development. In that case it deserves a name as a new species, separable at any rate from Ps. galezformis. I hope Mr Upton will give it one. NOTABLE HOMCEOMORPHS A notice of some of the more remarkable homeeo- morphs is given below. They may be said to form veritable “traps” in the matter of identification. Besides them, there are the various uniplicate, and the various biplicate Zevedbratule which are really homceomorphous developments ; so are what may be called the various quad- triplicate forms of the 7 -maxillata series; so are the bilobate Zeillerie ; and the different multiplicate series. 1901 S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 263 HOMCEOMORPHS ISOCHRONOUS HETEROCHRONOUS (more or less) Aulacothyris Haast Pseudoglossothyris curvifrons Glossothyris curviconcha Aulacothyris alveata Terebratula subpunctata ; 2 : Zeilleria subnumismalts Mucrothyris lagenalis Terebratula subpunctata Zeilleria circularis Terebratula ampla (juv.) al %: Pseudoglossothyris Leest Zeilleria ferruginea Terebratula Buckmaniana Leilleria Lycetti PSOE §P- Zeilleria antsoclines Terebratula subomalogaster Lellerta bullata Terebratula sp. Zeilleria ornithocephala Zeilleria ferruginea Terebratula Buckmant Terebratula sp. aft. Terebr. , Buckmani ° Terebratula spherotdalis Terebratula imitator Zeilleria bullata Zeilleria bicornis Zeilleria Marie Zeilleria subcornuta Zeilleria perobovata VIII. SUMMARY Species of Jurassic Brachiopods dissimilar internally, or _ in regard to particular features, but similar in general aspect, or developing a certain similarity in general features, have been noticed in this paper as homceomorphs. The following new genus has been proposed :—Pseudo- glossothyris. The following species have been noticed ; those printed in heavy type are new; those marked with an asterisk are figured in this paper. 5 264 PROC. COTTESWOLD CLUB VOL. xut. @) *Microthyris tardecrescens - *PSEUDOGLOSSOTHYRIS SIMPLEX *Rhynchonella standishensis TEREBRATULA FIMBRIA *Terebratula hyalina *Terebratula imitator *Terebratula microtrypa Terebratula permaxillata *Terebratula polyplecta *Terebratula siderica *Terebratula subomalogaster *Terebratula withingtonensis TEREBRATULA WURTTEMBERGICA *Zeilleria anisoclines Zeilleria bicornis *Zeilleria circularis *ZEILLERIA EMARGINATA *Zeilleria ferruginea *Zeilleria subcornuta IX. APPENDIX I.—ON PHOTOGRAPHIC REPRODUCTION Plate XIII. of this paper forms an interesting experi- ment in photographic reproduction, and a few words may be said about it. Photography is the ideal method to employ for depicting fossils, because thereby the small personal errors of the artist are avoided—errors inseparable even from the best work. But few people realize how difficult is the photo- graphy of fossils, on account mainly of the different actinic values of their tests (or casts). The plate in this paper is not put forward as an altogether successful result of photographic reproduction ; but it was considered fair as a first experiment. For successful fossil photography the following condi- tions are requisite :—Careful lighting by a side light, the specimens being horizontal, and the camera being mounted 1901 S. S. BUCKMAN—BRACHIOPODA 265 vertically ; long, even over-exposure, with a small stop, the plates being developed with much restrainer ;* some uni- formity in regard to the colour of the examples—whereof the eye is not an efficient guide ; elimination of shadows. The last detail was not attended to in the photographs which were taken for the plate, hence some of its inferiority. To obviate shadows cast by one specimen on another, it is necessary to place them far enough apart. To obviate shadows on the background, Mr Chas. Upton has suggested an excellent plan, which I take the liberty to mention. Mount the Brachiopods to be photographed on small pieces of clay on a glass plate, support the glass plate by glass legs (tumblers) some distance above a white sheet of card- board. Shadows will thereby be eliminated. I have tried, with success, a modification of this plan in the case of Ammonites. X. APPENDIX IIJ.—A JURASSIC (part) TIME TABLE Herewith is given an outline of the Jurassic Time Table explained at the Annual Meeting, 1899. It is important in one respect, as an appendix to this paper on Brachiopods, because it explains the chronological terms used herein. It is hoped that it will be of greater importance later— that it will serve as a basis for making records both of the stratal and faunal sequence ; and that such records, whether made by members of the Club, or by other geologists and palzeontologists, may furnish important technical papers for publication in the Proceedings, to which they would give a very special scientific value. The Appendix is divided into three tables :—(A.) Ex- planatory of the chronological terms. (.) The stratal sequence. (C.) A list of hemerz, with blank spaces left to be used for registration purposes. * In November, 35 minutes with f. 32 gave very good results with Ammonites. 52 GQ 266 PROG} COTTESW OLD CLUB TABLE A.—CHRONOLOGICAL TERMS VOL. XIII. (4) HEMERAL FULL TITLE OF : NAMES DISTINCTIVE FOSSIL Agee ErOcH disci Oppelia (?) discus (coarctale ) Dictyothyris coarctata (maxillate ) Terebratula maxillata subcontractt Macrocephalites subcontractus PARKINSONIAN Susce Oppelia fusca AGE 21g2ag ‘* Stepheoceras”’ zigzag Truellit Strigoceras Truellit STEPHEOCERA- Garantiane Parkinsonia Garantiana niortensis Strenoceras niortense 7a Blagdent Celoceras Blagdeni Sauzet ‘* Spheroceras” Sauzei Witchellie sp. Witchellia sp. |e Sonninie sp. Sonninia sp. Pp P discite Lyperlioceras discites concavd Ludwigella concava bradfordensis Brasilia bradfordensis Murchisone Ludwigia Murchisone LUDWIGIAN “ sctsst Tmetoceras scissum AGE opaliniformis Cypholioceras opaliniforme aalensis “* Pleydellia” aalensis Mooret Dumortieria Mooret Dumortierie sp. ” sp. dispansi “* Phylseogrammoceras” dispan- sum Struckmannt “* Pseudogrammoceras” Struck- mann HARPOCERA- striatulé Grammoceras striatulum TAN AGE variabilis faugia variabilis Lillt Lillia Lilli bifrontis fMildoceras bifrons Salcifert Harpoceras falciferum ARIETIDAN acutt Arieticeras (2?) acutum EPOCH Spinati Paltopleuroceras spinatum margaritatt Amaltheus margaritatus Algoviant Arieticeras algovianum striati Liparoceras striatum latecosta Platypleuroceras latecosta DEROCERATAN Valdani Acanthopleuroceras Valdant AGE JSamesont Optonta Jameson petlt Celoceras petti armati Deroceras armatum raricostatt Echioceras raricostatum oxynott Oxynotoceras oxynotus stellarts Asteroceras stellare obtuse ” obtusum = Turneri Artetites Turnert tL ‘ a bd oy *- zp ~~ ‘ ba ' . « a x Kee ~ oe & 4 : ‘ ‘ ‘ , os ee . : ‘ a he a] a = ' Se J ‘ s% =e diate 4 bod + aI << . i + ss ~ ' i Pi Yi fA. 319 RESOLUTIONS CONCERNING MAPS. At the Second Winter Meeting of the Session 1900- 1901, held at the School of Science, Gloucester, on Friday, Dec. 7th, 1900, the following resolutions, proposed by C. Callaway, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., and seconded by Mr Chas. Upton, were unanimously carried :— I. That this Club, having been informed that the work of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom is under | official review, desires to express the opinion that the | following maps are required for the district. Their general adoption would be of great advantage to geological science, and to the material welfare of-the nation. I. One-inch map of the solid geology, the information | to be put on the new ordnance maps which have contours, the contours to be very plainly lined in; the geological maps at present obtainable for this district being without contours and very inaccurate as to roads. The results of deep borings might also be inserted [by colour circles.] 2. A similar map on the six-inch scale, on which should be indicated the nature and composition of the subsoil. It is also suggested that the details of important coast or other vertical sec- tions should be inserted in the margins of the sheets. 3. One-inch and six-inch colour-printed Drift maps. These would aid in the solution of important theoretical questions at present unsolved. They would also be of great economic value, as bear- ing upon water-supply, drainage, house-sites, general sanitation, and economic questions of agriculture. 320 PROG SCOTTES WOLD CLUB VOL. XIII. (4) 4. A physiographic map on the quarter-inch scale, coloured to height, with the rivers accurately inserted, and with details as to dips, anticlines, synclines, and faults, but omitting details likely to impair the clearness of the map, such as roads, railways, canals. II. That copies of this resolution be forwarded to the proper official quarters, as, for instance, the Director- General of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, the President of the Board of Agriculture, the Board of | Education; also to other Scientific Societies, and that the latter be invited by circular to give it their support. E. B. WETHERED, F.G.S., President. S. S. BUCKMAN, F.G.S., Flon. Secretary. Charlton Kings, Cheltenham. The following members who were unable to be present at the meeting, but are particularly interested in the subject, desire to cordially support these resolutions :— THECRIGHT HON: EARL OF DUCIE? F-R:S;4F Gea: SIR J. E. DORINGTON, BART., M.P. REv. Hy. HOYTE WINWOOD, F.G.S. M. W. COLCHESTER-WEMYSS, ex-President Cotteswold Club. C. I. GARDINER, F.G.S. W. L. MEREDITH, C.E., F.G.S. Ge BASTANTON: E.R’G:S: ARNOLD THOMAS, F.G-.S. G HE AVOLLASTON. E.G:S. ——— ss --”Shc(itsS OC Ce all eae Billed I9OI RESOLUTIONS—MAPS 321 [Copies of the above Resolutions were sent to the In- stitutions, Scientific Societies, etc., mentioned below, with the following note addressed to the Societies. ] The Council of the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club beg to submit to your Society a copy of the resolutions recently passed at a meeting of the Club with regard to geological maps, and to ask your Society, if they approve thereof, to pass similar resolutions with regard to the geological maps required for your district, and to for- ward copies thereof to official and other authorities. The importance of the subject is evident to all Geologists, while the educational and economic value of such maps is undeniable. The Hon. Secretary of the Cotteswold Club will be pleased to be informed as to any action your Club may take. EG. WEVHERED, F.G:S; President. S. S. BUCKMAN, F.G.S., Flon. Secretary. Charlton Kings, Cheltenham. List of Institutions, Societies, etc. to whom copies of the Resolutions concerning Maps have been sent :— Barnsley Naturalist and Scientific Society. Bath Natural History and Antiquarian Society. Birmingham Natural History and Philosophical Society. Board of Agriculture. Board of Education. Bristol Naturalists’ Society. British Association. Caradoc and Severn Valley Field Club. 322 PROC. ‘GOT TES WOLD’ CLUB VOL. XIII. (4) Cardiff Naturalists’ Society. Cheltenham Natural Science Society. Chester Society of Natural Science. Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club. Dudley and Midland Geological and Scientific Society. Essex Field Club. Folkestone Natural History Society. Geological Society of Liverpool. Geological Society of London. Geological Society of Manchester. Geological Survey of England and Wales. Geologists’ Association. Hertfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club. Institute of Mining Engineers. Leeds Geological Association. Lincolnshire Science Society. Maidenhead Field Club. Newbury District Field Club. Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society. Northumberland Natural History Society. Nottingham Naturalists’ Society. Reading Natural History Society. Royal Geological Society of Cornwall. Royal Society (London.) Swansea Scientific Society. Torquay Natural History Society. Warwickshire Natural History and Archzological Society. Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club. Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union. Yorkshire Philosophical Society. (END OF VOL. XIII.) PUBLICATIONS OF THE COTTESWOLD CLUB The undermentioned publications of the Club can be supplied at the following prices :— Fe ako’ To Members the Public Vol. I (not in parts) . : : : 4s 6d 6s 9d ee " IC IG ‘ : é 5s 6d 8s 3d ne LEE " 2 ‘ : ; 7s od Ios 6d Vols. IV-XII, in separate parts, each part . 3s 6d 58 3d Val. Xl; Part I: 5 . é ; 2s od 3s od in » I F : ; : 2s 6d 3s 9d i u III, IV (each) : ‘ 3s 6d 5s 3d In Vols. IV to XII each volume has three parts, with the following exceptions :—Vols. VI and IX have four parts, Vol. VII has two parts. There is also published as a Supplement to Vol. IX, The Origin of the Cotteswold Field Club, and an Epitome of the Proceedings from its formation to May, 1877, by W. C. Lucy, F.G.S. Price to Members 3s, to the Public 4s 6d.