. 4 bs ~ a HS 5 ? . ad ; " > s. as ass ‘ he ¢ %. Be ie ol, tay a . “« RAY ‘i f any as yi SoMa Us ann 15 1 j , Duis i , i i M4 i ene HCG iy WIN ma Cl Ath i mM ou a SNe sa UNG Dwi {yh ital i Hi , ca ae Ky ie ¥ ¥ ‘ i nih rN AN ae et VAAN uae iM) Tati Ba on A Dai eae Ai ns Nei att , fh FROGEEVINGS OF THE er pee aay Indiana Academy of Science Gately EDITOR, «=~ =-«C. A. WALDO. ASSOCIATE EDITORS: J. C. ARTHUR, W. A. NOYES, C. H. EIGENMANN, A. W. DUFF, V. F. MARSTERS, A. W. BUTLER, W. S. BLATCHLEY. INDIANAPOLIS, IND. 1898. INDIANAPOLIS: Wo. B. BuRFORD, PRINTER, 1898. TABLE OF CONTENTS. An act to provide for the publication of the reports and papers of the In- SIPMANNC BLOHAYE (Ly MSCLETICEs 5.55 «Fe-8) «os 1 0) 9 as stalershals ate cape Oye ecelei ed 0 se ayes An act for the protection of birds, their nests and eggs................... Bia TS MSO (page myelin eee sNeuokaval cous Sie sy nccle\ wh okeveuer cna wlnuenere a pusceal anges) alas) ecace, re PB PTEMIMI ELS CAMS Deer ooe We iets coo ars elie si tune cissslie elnve Gis Gis) gels OE ele eerseee eo Peer OMICEES SINCE OLZANIZALION. «<2 0 o/.. oie ole < wleeis is ss 0s oeltee sie eeelels (7 2 SE TIURGTONG dhcraka Qreng chee Bal Gree mee oe Pg Ee SRP PR Se lesy ol LEINEle Boia e SCG CORO ea CE er aera NC oe AaleS ae tka Tee eros Me HRS MHOM LO Wii rr versie: veivelsinic: Siave"s ah aye (enslofeiel die vo c's aieie Sle snere ete, Goe0 o4e well. « Me nse OMCs ICEL sry re tee eis ic) ciate aysiis cio cdahis alnieis leva Wiaie: players ed cate isletell DILCIEAIDRTE), QEUDYS ig Sc ace SeethG Gea el DONS eee CAR eR TaD ah aC Bena 0 Ls ELEY TIRIDIADE S595 So eetle AS 2 AEgaC aae era ML OTeUTNCORLESPON GENES) 3). 2... cic sisiec.e s cied 6 ae ec elaine Saisie e os Seiersalere Program oi the Dhirteenth Annual Meeting’ . 2.2.0... 2.2.5.6. 606 vee oe oe Report of the Thirteenth Annual Meeting of the Indiana Academy of BULGE FO eee ey ar seeds aloes aiede ss siete Chk ne he cass e Si snate unese'sy atti hm ano, koaloae Report of the Field Meeting of 1897............ We sas Shige Nowe sant Gated Spee S EU Ca NOTES S oo oe, o.\ 2) afaytha cir icici se os 4-2 eye) Sele .s) 6, sis ga] ple tele dinusl ofe's 88 Erde Xa CR PE acer Eas EMER AE Ae REN LIN) CP Uh yeti na A a tehalau at paatiote et & PAGE. aor oOo co An ACT TO PROVIDE FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE REPORTS AND PAPERS OF THE INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. [Approved March 11, 1895.] WHEREAS, The Indiana Academy of Science, a chartered Preamble. scientific association, has embodied in its constitution a pro- vision that it will, upon the request of the Governor, or of the several departments of the State government, through the Governor, and through its council as an advisory body, assist in the direction and execu- tion of any investigation within its province, without pecuniary gain to the Academy, provded only that the necessary expenses of such investi- gation are borne by the State, and, ; WHEREAS, The reports of the meetings of said Academy, with the sey- eral papers read before it, have very great educational, industrial and economic value, and should be preserved in permanent form, and, WHEREAS, The Constitution of the State makes it the duty of the Gen- eral Assembly to encourage by all suitable means intellectual, scientific and agricultural improvement, therefore, ee ake eca Section 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the of the re- State of Indiana, That hereafter the annual reports of the ports of the . etc ; Indiana meetings of the Indiana Academy of Science, beginning with Academy ofScience. the report for the year 1894, including all papers of scientific or economic value, presented at such meetings, after they shall have been edited and prepared for publication as hereinafter provided, shall be pub- lished by and under the direction of the Commissioners of Public Print- ing and Binding. Sec. 2. Said reports shall be edited and prepared for pub- Eine lication without expense to the State, by a corps of editors to be selected and appointed by the Indiana Academy of Science, who shall not, by reason of such services, have any claim against the State for compensation. The form, style of binding, paper, typography and manner and extent of illustration of such reports, shall 2 heed be determined by the editors, subject to the approval of the reports. Commissioners of Public Printing and Stationery. Not less than 1,500 nor more than 3,000 copies of each of said reports shall be pub- lished, the size of the edition within said limits, to be determined by the 5 concurrent action of the editors and the Commissioners of Public Print- ing and Stationery: Provided, That not to exceed six hundred dollars ($600) shall be expended for such publication in any one year, and not to extend beyond 1896: Provided, That no sums shall Proviso. be deemed to be appropriated for the year 1894. Stc. 3. All except three hundred copies of each volume of said reports shall be placed in the custody of the State Libra- Diet rian, who shall furnish one copy thereof to each public li- brary in the State, one copy to each university, college or normal school in the State, one copy to each high school in the State having a library, which shall make application therefor, and one copy to such other insti- tutions, societies or persons aS may be designated by the Academy through its editors or its council. The remaining three hundred copies shall be turned over to the Academy to be disposed of as it may de- termine. In order to provide for the preservation of the same it shall be the duty of the Custodian of the State House to provide and place at the disposal of the Academy one of the unoccupied rooms of the State House, to be designated as the office of the Indiana Academy of Science, wherein said copies of said reports belonging to the Academy, together with the original manuscripts, drawings, etc., thereof can be safely kept, and he shall also equip the same with the necessary shelving and furni- ture. Src. 4. An emergency is hereby declared to exist for the immediate taking effect of this act, and it shall therefore take Emergency. effect and be in force from and after its passage. AN ACT FOR THE PROTECTION OF BIRDS, THEIR NESTS AND EGGS. [Approved March 5, 1891.] SrcTion 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Indiana, That it shall be unlawful for any person to kill any wild bird other than a game bird, or purchase, offer for sale any such wild bird after it has been killed, or to destroy the nests or the eggs of any wild bird. Sec.2. For the purpose of this act the following shall be considered game birds: the Anatide, commonly called swans, geese, brant, and river and sea ducks; the Rallide, commonly known as rails, coots, mudhens, and gallinules; the Limicole, commonly Birds. Game Birds. 6 known as shore, birds, plovers, surf birds, snipe, woodcock and sand- pipers, tattlers and curlews; the Gallinse, commonly known as wild tur- keys, grouse, prairie chickens, quail, and pheasants, all of which are not intended to be affected by this act. Sec. 3. Any person violating the provisions of Section 1 ee of this act shall, upon conviction, be fined in a sum not less than ten nor move than fifty dollars, to which may be added imprisonment for not less than five days nor more than thirty days. Sec. 4. Sections 1 and 2 of this act shall not apply to any po eS person holding a permit giving the right to take birds or their nests and eggs for scientific purposes, as provided in Section 5 of this act. Peek. Sec. 5. Permits may be granted by the Executive Board Science. of the Indiana Academy of Science to any properly accredited person, permitting the holder thereof to collect birds, their nests or eggs for strictly scientific purposes. In order to obtain such permit the ap- plicant for the same must present to said Board written testimonials from two well known scientific men certifying to the good character and fitness of said applicant to be entrusted with such privilege and pay to said Board one dollar to defray the necessary expenses attending the granting of such permit, and must file with said Board a coe properly executed bond in the sum of two hundred dollars, signed by at least two responsible citizens of the State as sureties. The Beenie bond shall be forfeited to the State and the permit become feited. void upon proof that the holder of such permit has killed any bird or taken the nests or eggs of any bird for any other purpose than that named in this section and shall further be subject for each offense to the penalties provided in this act. Sec. 6. The permits authorized by this act shall be in see youre. force for two years only from the date of their issue, and shall not be transferable. Sec. 7. The English or European house sparrow (passer et prey: domesticus), crows, hawks, and other birds of prey are not in- cluded among the birds protected by this act. Sec. 8. All acts or parts of acts heretofore passed in con- Actsrepealed. 4:4 with the provisions of this act are hereby repealed. Sec. 9. An emergency is declared to exist for the imme- Emergency. diate taking effect of this act, therefore the same shall be in force and effect from and after its passage. OFFICERS, 1897-98. PRESIDENT, C. A. WALDO. VICE-PRESIDENT, CARL H. EIGENMANN. SECRETARY, JOHN S. WRIGHT. ASSISTANT SECRETARY, A. J. BIGNEY. PreEss SECRETARY, GEO. W. BENTON. TREASURER, J. T. SCOVELL. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. C. A. WaLpo, THomaAs GRay, OF PHAw C. H. EIGENMANN, STANLEY COULTER, T. C. MENDENHALL, JouHN 8. WRIGHT, Amos W. Butter, JoHN C. BRANNER, A. J. BIGNEY, W. A. Noyes, J. P. D. Jony, G. W. BENTON, J. C. ARTHUR, JoHN M. CouLTER, J.T. ScovELt, J. L. CAMPBELL, Davin S. JoRDAN. CURATORS. OMUAUN DYER er clac st tas sisi sitcociy cect’. saheeceevas J. C. ARTHUR. (CIS UBS ENG OI OE DG eaas Re ADO an soins Oiggiy meen C. H. EIGENMANN. HERPETOLOGY MAMMALOGY ORNITHOLOGY | NGO MOTE GIy ree cues eee WO ee ace ep eveleleuere’a W.S. BLATCHLEY. SRS A Te Mig NI ec a peau eur Amos W. BuTLER. COMMITTEES, 1897-98. PROGRAM. D. W. DENnyIs, A. J. BIGNEY. MEMBERSHIP. R. ELLswortH Catt, D. W. Dennis, ’ C. R. DRYER. NOMINATIONS. W.S. BLATCHLEY, W. A. NoyYEs, W. E. Stone. AUDITING. Gro. L. Roperts, R. ELLSwortH CALL. STATE LIBRARY. C. A. WALDo, W. A. NoyYEs, A. W. BurTLer. A. W. Durr, J. S. WricHr. LEGISLATION FOR THE RESTRICTION OF WEEDS. J. C. ARTHUR, STANLEY CoULTER, J. S. WRIGHT. PROPAGATION AND PROTECTION OF GAME AND FISH. C. H. E1GENMANN, A. W. Butter, W. S. BuaTcHLEyY. EDITOR. C. JAs WALpo. DIRECTORS OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. C. H. EIGENMANN, V. F. MARSTERS, : J. C. ARTHUR. RELATIONS OF THE ACADEMY TO THE STATE. C. A. WALpDo, A. W. Bur Ler, C. H. ErIGENMANN. GRANTING PERMITS FOR COLLECTING BIRDS. A. W. BuTLer, C. H. E1igGENMANN, W. S. BLATCHLEY. DISTRIBUTION OF THE PROCEEDINGS. A. W. BurLeEr, W. A. NoyEs, C. A. WALDO. C. H. EIGENMANN, V. F. MARSTERs, J.S. WricHT mes 0°08" if ‘mouuvys ‘q “MM ‘uouuRYys “qd "M ‘mouueYys “d “AN ‘uouurys “dq “M ‘uouurys “d “AM ‘OPIEM “VO ‘OpreM “V ‘O ‘suryuer “q ‘O suryuoy “gq ‘O ‘suryuey “J ‘O ‘suryuet “qd “O ‘suryuer “gq “O ‘suTyuer “qd “O MOUNT "MA *094) "MAM ASVAY ‘AUVLANOTY SSAUT ‘sousig “( °V ‘kousig *f “VW ‘kousig *(¢ °V “sousig “f °V “UBUIION "AA AA “UBTIION “AA MA ‘raypnog AapuRyG ee OC WON) GO CR ORO Or Oi Trin see eee Siepele se si[s) 46 eee) ee 6.4 CC ‘AUVLTWOAG “LSSy TUS “S UYOL ‘IUSIIM “S UqOL “YSIIM “§ UqOL ‘IYSIIMA “§ UYOL ‘OPTRA “V “O “ol JO “M. sOuLY “1aTIN,G “MA souly ‘reyjng “AA souly “TapNng *\\ SOULY “rayyng “AA soulry MOTE eM SOULY, ‘raping “AA souy ‘layyng “AA soury OVA NE GD) “ARID SVULOTT, ‘Iayynog Aayurqzg seling MV ‘SOLON “WV OM SLANE OS OY atk ‘yeqdmey "T “¢ “KCH ‘ad ‘O eye pee Noe ‘rauuRIg “Q Uyor A OS Cent ‘Iay[NOD "PY uyor OE) eS EEG 8-681 L-968T 9-G68 c-V681 P-S681 §-G68I G- 1681 T-0681 06-6881 6-8881 8-L881 Z-988T1 9-GS8I *KUVLANOAG “LNUCISHY ‘AONAIOS AO AWAGVOV VNVIGNI AHL 40 SHAOIMAO CONSTITUTION. ARTICLE I. SrcTion 1. This association shall be called the Indiana Academy of Science. Src. 2. The objects of this Academy shall be scientific research and the diffusion of knowledge concerning the various departments of science; to promote intercourse between men engaged in scientific work, especially in Indiana; to assist by investigation and discussion in developing and making known the material, educational and other resources and riches of the State; to arrange and prepare for publication such reports of in- vestigation and discussions as may further the aims and objects of the Academy as set forth in these articles. Whereas, the State has undertaken the publication of such proceed- ings, the Academy will, upon request of the Governor, or of one of the several departments of the State, through the Governor, act through its council as an advisory body in the direction and execution of any investi- gation within its province as stated. The necessary expenses incurred in the prosecution of such investigation are to be borne by the State; no pecuniary gain is to come to the Academy for its advice or direction of such investigation. The regular proceedings of the Academy as published by the State shall become a public document. ARTICLE II. Section 1. Members of this Academy shall be honorary fellows, fel- lows, non-resident members or active members. ' Sec. 2. Any person engaged in any department of scientific work, or in original research in any department of science, shall be eligible to active membership. Active members may be annual or life members. Annual members may be elected at any meeting of the Academy; they shall sign the constitution, pay an admission fee of two dollars, and there- after an annual fee of one dollar. Any person who shall at one time 11 contribute fifty dollars to the funds of this Academy, may be elected a life member of the Academy, free of assessment. Non-resident members may be elected from those who have been active members but who have removed from the State. In any case, a three-fourths vote of the mem- bers present shall elect to membership. Applications for membership in any of the foregoing classes shall be referred to a committee on applica- tion for membership, who shall consider such application and report to the Academy before the election. Sec. 38. The members who are actively engaged in scientific work, who have recognized standing as scientific men and who have been members of the Academy at least one year, may be recommended for nomination for election as fellows by three fellows or members personally acquainted with their work and character. Of members so nominated a number not exceeding five in one year may, on recommendation of the Executive Committee, be elected as fellows. At the meeting at which this is adopted, the members of the Executive Committee for 1894 and fifteen others shall be elected fellows, and those now honorary members shall become honorary fellows. Honorary fellows may be elected on account of special prominence in science, on the written recommendation of two members of the Academy. In any case a three-fourths vote of the mem- bers present shall elect. ARTICLE III. Section 1. The officers of this Academy shall be chosen by ballot at the annual meeting, and shall hold office one year. They shall consist of a president, vice-president, secretary, assistant secretary, press secre- tary, and treasurer, who shall perform the duties usually pertaining to their respective offices and in addition, with the ex-presidents of the Academy, shall constitute an executive committee. The president shall, at each annual meeting appoint two members to be a committee which shall prepare the programmes and have charge of the arrangements for all meetings for one year. Src. 2. The annual meeting of this Academy shall be held in the city of Indianapolis within the week following Christmas of each year, un- less otherwise ordered by the executive committee. There shall also be a summer meeting at such time and place as may be decided upon by the executive committee. Other meetings may be called at the discretion of the executive committee. The past presidents, together with the 12 officers and executive committee, shall constitute the Council of the Academy, and represent it in the transaction of any necessary business not specially provided for in this constitution, in the interim between general meetings. Sec. 3. This constitution may be altered or amended at any annual meeting by a three-fourths majority of attending members of at least one year’s standing. No question of amendment shall be decided on the day of its presentation. BY-LAWS. 1. On motion any special department of science shall be assigned to a curator, whose duty it shall be, with the assistance of the other members interested in the same department, to endeavor to advance knowledge in that particular department. Each curator shall report at such time and place as the Academy shall direct. These reports shall include a brief summary of the progress of the department during the year preceding the presentation of the report.. 2. The president shall deliver a public address on the evening of one of the days of the meeting at the expiration of his term of office. 3. The press secretary shall attend to securing proper newspaper re- ports of the meetings and assist the secretary. 4. No special meeting of, the Academy shall be held without a no- tice of the same having been sent to the address of each member at least fifteen days before such meeting. 5. No bill against the Academy shall be paid without an order signed by the president and countersigned by the secretary. 6. Members who shall allow their dues to remain unpaid for two years, having been annually notified of their arrearage by the treasurer, shall have their names stricken from the roll. 7. Ten members shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. MEMBERS. FELLOWS. al, Ce Ui AS Sar Se en ee ANCE aay ccseu note Lafayette. EPS DOT ater e cons \ekel a oicye"'s slakeys USO See avs sie ctataisiese Greencastle. eorse W. Benton...) .)...5.....-. boo 1G) Sap erltn GE PRR Seine Indianapolis. PME TIOY. 2 fo rs sale Sieiege ie acinus ee IS Opts arate cvrstel siete Moore’s Hill. ENG NAVGPLSSILH Whe cele Sate ne are MS ORE a Veta creperete ele Lafayette. Mires latehley.) oi. .is os oe dee ee Io 1c papa Ai aise Indianapolis. PUM EEATINGT = osha e le toe cee PODS ioc ePoibase since Stanford University, Cal. Ware Wowe Bryan. |)./.....22.5...: BOO SMe ean Cotte Bloomington. Lod SCS Fea oe SOE Mevetsee sia 3 3/2 Indianapolis. “ir LES ACEI RSS et ote 08 6 NEOS Poy cerca Lawrenceburg. PmPrMe IMO DEN ee oe eho se Shes 1 oR ee ak ee Crawfordsville. MEU COMET. ee. ie ce oes es BO Siesta cts, 2 eibrsiese Chicago, Il. Simimllesy (Calli Shor acca ae mnie NSO Sites Seca wie creeeste Lafayette. MEY OWIETITIIE 6 oc 0)orsins ois vies wa ths a « « Roh op an Aaa eae Richmond. PRUE KET oye Sees escineys einer e btn ¢ Se WOO De et ianciage) demeetet Terre Haute. PANY UME TEE a ais. Sea a,< Shaves cle’ lee NS OG fates. oy nent Lafayette. “Sy Lab LO ora) 15) NSO ta tants se Bloomington. Pe HOley, .. 8 220%..2,5 ott ae rene eres TRO eae ae eee abloomington: Katherine E. Golden.............. SOOM par clastae ts fa Lafayette. Bema aN GOR a: sraccte fos ehh lee co: eo « SUSE) Seog toms ioe Lafayette. ‘aoe Grane Beds Sao See eee ee BOS sis hye eee Terre Haute. PACH SEL ALMA WAY as. Ac eto¢c.0.s0 c'sie'» as. BOD Rec ieeyie cpa Terre Haute. OQ); IEG BIE is Go) od beet a ae aOR NGO eats aeeerais ae Washington, D. C. He AMET SLONN. fee vaaieoes cies + aes BOBS Autel accte horse Lafayette. Jy RAMOS oh A eee SOB). ova cveye Hotere ste Greencastle. NOMS HONG AM bes Ws stetne tet axes. afeuc, 2 Slee eve USO SH ts ios yey ste sues eee Stanford University, Cal. lial ees Jdn IU koat 35 6g spo oe odooborn Theis to} ins abopioicios = Bloomington. RGR NAP ROLES 02 sie.e sists « UROS hacen we Bloomington. (Ch Tbe IW ana Se a eee 1S Ors cnr ssevahs te Terre Haute. ea@aMendenhallls 2.557. pije cbse ae Ife oes Bleee oie aria Worcester, Mass. * Date of election. 14 yosepi Moore. 22.1): 22 hey ens SIS So es ae oe Richmond. Pe NE OTHIOR. shc.5/-, Schill eal co ade 1893 5) teencemerite Bloomington. DN ERIN VOR: 6 |. 52 «oda Soetntiaia Ss Gyan L698 oie seach eae ie Terre Haute. Meee Retiger if. se ho aes ee he SOG. eects Terre Haute. Deedee COVELL: .. bn ae shotenick Obed! 1 B08 in etotes Terre Haute. tiie oF > DIPADNGR oe yo. osx aoa ied 1893 3p eee Greensburg. PaMlexs SST 2 Fo Secon ceiek ews ok oO VOBS: as O53 pictet wre Chicago, Ill. Wiebe StOnGr-2b eee cies « oe.es esters IRS ESA cet rie Lafayette. BSN a Span ae ee EGOS 5. wpideee was Crawfordsville. Peri Cindorwood . 352. ode. da ews 1803 ~ shi. Fite. ane < New York City. Petey Mad NWVE ce owe cone cae ces 1898 -seecee ve ee Bloomington. AW AIGOTs es fi creo ene exci oie lite}! he arian Seen Ss, = Lafayette. ig WE AGW CUBLET Ct ni. © crecincinieh tei Iasi: Rite ees Reon Wooster, O. PEM AIVV or WWVULGY a ot irae ik caterer ct sate © eed USO Feet ote sceeeeer Washington, D. C. se AW CNN oe oo vn sh mya ves ape Oe ROE LL Rae a Indianapolis. NON-RESIDENT MEMBERS. Renee Ac / MOMENEAUIOI NS bc, Sui» 4m taks1e a pat Sel aie sot & cae Sete Boo Stanford University, Cal. Sn REE URE I > ea ere tro \: Washington, D. C. PRAM GH AE MESEID OE whew rand. 2c-e 6 0 send wield site nM ehlie Ry Stanford University, Cal. IRR MEONN S hacen c.g Sila d ada its B= aa gl aes in tin bs peels Stanford University, Cal. SETAE OU Gs hes ain aclein sole ethos a Fela eae ou ale Syracure, N. Y. SE ETM POR ce Ios oS sil vin Rv'e cc neta o's hs tide Stockton, Cal. EE IN Oe Ae Cee ee fee Si mere mes 5 Stanford University, Cal. a EERE ELEY SS a an ieee 0k ee Soe oc op Tufts College, Mass. INS IIOI «Sis nic lis og sw oeicie Rowe osu phieten mamkes® Cincinnati, O. SEER UAL EID ae a de Bee otk wea s gore Sodom Binwio me Washington, D. C. MERTEN NALIN. on Scena Tate gus sys WivGhicinrn se PO eae Clemson College, 8. C. SRC WE A OTOWB 6 2. 4.u)2:5o1n' smn Afaleres du wera Aen Bloomington. NT REI tees git «i a a0) 9 iia,s sin o> ob cis 4 oD Oe egy ale Bloomington. (hotreeiiy9 8 EVM4] 0) ee Ee PE ie ae Indianapolis. PENTEL ANY AAS MESON Ups Iyio3 5 g's oie Fi vib. = vie oe «o's Gus vive ga wate Crown Point. * Date of election. + Deceased, December 16, 1897. Som UIICS) sferetter eyes sists oreiciets| Sie)s ce sis oe ce see Seite ein'e's Indianapolis. PPE SECO ye ayer tciate.o'ecjavefe ely nis te s'c's eels s\0.6,a)aie'e « Bloomington. PME MITCCTOD ACK. Ser atets tc so.5's ale o.c.aieye.eleecleleie’s sees 'e s 3 Greencastle. Prrmarie Vm ES a Grit cera ere cc afatereie «\siale idee s ain sisieieiacie » Lafayette. REED EOIN OU i py iote <5 clothe ci eip' i oyule oe vinla's'ee 60 webs ... Valparaiso. PRMD NAR NEE HESOLLINUE 65) ys A cisic ofa% ss ie. sis e's deus 6 vce s,0' 6 eve Crawfordsville. IDEM ESC ATITAOU Ae lnlets Pw ste iat cavers os! as cs) <-cyolw's, oa a aie ose. els oie Grand Forks, N. D. ern Mae MPESECIYESOM¥ Sr rtereyeia «fos Sie’ #)r'<'a) 212/08 6'sale. + vniaiais o's Indianapolis. RA EAIC SAC mL SON Tiga yy cte iy cre cis cvodeicicjei eieeicdic ls © vere tele sero Indianapolis. etme PEST Car cea setae 5. cists ovis a/c'ope ees saeid sivicveeo pevelsie ss Irvington. IMEEMLSV AUC ED ie ee ai dh) as acrelnic ane falas cs Osea c ees Indianapolis. EMEC SS UTEAGEE Cass Gis Fe c'e'els V's ted aleiels sieew'eleore « Lafayette. . SNE SIR EME oe oiris Se ocaichs iis <2 sibs ba gv e/a sowie e one ers Cloverdale. EH EMME UMELET. Sore G ec a ciela'e ois le sidiaiern sole ode sn isis y's Indianapolis. EMME AIIN GUC anata sia Taine alos otdivicle coccsdece cease South Bend. MUS EET OUNG sb 0 che! chalsin, vic: Tae save soe oasis we'c.e #'s'e Rockyille. Athangler: Cin. fides secede a> is ae aa ee Bicknell. RMR OM ATAU CIIAIN Fics gc ues cee wcs neces cise os Bloomington. MEMES CO MEETS cle sccrs sis ba vo oie cele obese sage crs Warsaw. PIPMEILC GRO LGA WALT: ster a. teas ois chorea eval ciavare ic 01 ole) el ere) o-2 Indianola, Ill. Sean AOL EMMETIUS Mea chaials tictelas G-series ois cues coe. 0 she susie 3 Crawfordsville. MMR VENTA 100 © tnee\cestty ais inia x sys) eiub Soiele «cs olelevtiens = Washington. RMP ER MOUICKOTIC LA tether c (= aie erste! clay aiojrie ciate sim sie sie dies Tangier. VEO SES Ore eae nites aye ore es iave cd a Pati TR re teat Mankato, Minn. Re TOT OME a 10 5/4 mons .o Seis 46 oie es vie Be oki Os wisieee's Ft. Wayne. SO UTE II hase SE era Sie ata oie aie ciel wi fsb sisie Wee oe eles Indianapolis. Glenn HUN EERICO Ig ee ei a Hanover. AWPSLUL (Chm GeO Ree ope te ees aie a a a eth Greensburg. Penny NO TIMMID RAND Hose. < sw leir'e ec scien cdvles seccdees Lafayette. PME MANEATIS AN I oe 2 /s, ae vac die Wale mssle sas eo Indianapolis. BOLO OULU oR s.5)s 5 s)icelnerdias feos eo s)eieee omc Columbus. Pee WAVIS 35 i.3)- «5 Eo 0 GE OES I ier eae oer a a Los Angeles, Cal. PR EBERRON eS fea c oh aYuoid cloieie\swi cs wie's ad vip eae @ Westfield. 15 1 DEINE Ac ae oo rene I ect ee ane ar ea Syracuse. SST TDS ache 2 2S ee Indianapolis. 12), Gio 1B a AB lee oS Boe bec One eC Cn ane > operon Indianapolis. * Deceased, March 31, 1898. 16 MVPS INUIT O Ge. 22 51)5 We beet Aes act che EE lo ah Manek, fe vatece eV ttars Columbus. eMC MORY 55.5, Sets elheereca tn torake Gian asets saan Nimo ee tae Morgantown, W. Va. Perey Norton Eyans) oi w.i)ew stn :,\s ects sate, OR ee Lafayette. amie (Ge yang divacietat winivtel hs aero npafvts tet leenbre aarany, Evansville. Carlton G. Ferris...... AE FASE See SMA S At Sa Big Rapids, Mich. SME OIPMBH OR SS iate cds cccetats ais ie. 2 < stetatark ciate a abe BT Urmeyville. Minis) lt PAL MGE A yeae-c hers viatera a sie sco aa otha ale OO Re OEE Lafayette. Deg taps LOPGRACRSY cin, ceatstetex Sepsis te foxeled watcha) «tote oletetsls hte ORR te Indianapolis. PCS CAIN GE VERILKE $ ies dim, ote mentee lao 4 fouls fe tore lade tater eee Bloomington. en AG APMOR ex 204 Sic Shales hlota sete ani tha ts ails felsic oda oeareeTs Crawfordsville. FFM ras CMDM TNE Ase, Sararets shes tots aos clete/ aia alors farelaiets Re nied Terre Haute. CEB GREG Mets yethsccnite Soon asks lolavel pakotoos alot) states seb eaMe Newbern. Michaels Je Golders. otirsactsiscc cos loetate cesisrela tesla aieteacle Lafayette. IV vse CROLARDOLOU SI. .'a)ro!fufePie’ iol es luhainl ik tale 'e Fats tiallenelatala Lafayette. Roose CROLD Vpeeneter nets. obra oe anche at atetare Meroe drtevcl arnterarctateaeo Net Franklin. UGgeLTN) CUT TLG TE ye Ate ae 2 ARRAS RS MIN eR Jp A Rochester. SN MRNAS Nis ty it Arashe totaly Were alee.» tule Neig tntn tolabtietate wrsonee Brazil. PAI orp ELA GUO payee erotic re aerate ls a tacese tent la tapes lls evleda tetets Melbourne, Fla. AVVorn Pas @tutryy EMU W is Mors raiavare votes lastetes exciesnis fala etichatataaatate teal sbets Washington, D. C, AEE UKE VV MERAY tyel cley sth oh ops ln! oboratalich on sistem corctalectatehetene Indianapolis. Biase LPCACOU Rare icin -o cide \i lta te ghaiisiatciaacs ntard 6 diet vata Topeka, Kas. MOT ASSAM ELLY O WE stele aya )e ool ab atajnrevepe?aelishevete te pHa nat anaes Chicago. UGH PEACE Ea ister op aefah ste vical ssHeeksiels wee he, she lobe Aeinty. aid» dudba Bloomington. BVOVECEMICHEIGH 2) Osi. s isteie vs coe oie pinjemes tele she Aina gO TLE OER REN BRET OL Weert hetetele cru 'asAdd shale Yoh vie ye vtote w, wblguy oteloret deen EON TM (LDP & Sil a2 Up aaa hs aa RUB A SO A Pr CRIA ANA Indianapolis. SIC MIV VSL AIVESEYRNOY Sites 0 lava ala. uhe: a's dieters iefoves wemtyishvhe giadls ears Bloomington. MARU VEE NMG SER TUSALTG. -p5055 5 es «, w\eiw'si hare vic Wiphw' 4 she om alate ase South Bend. SRS a ENN TOA a A RS ea gh REA SMR Indianapolis. is 106 BIGHT Sa CAG ABO SRE Mets tino p Ort tee ents Dr cost Carmel. . ShMlhy@a tered Ke) aya Gace y ds Ape MOR temObee nnbce ge Oris rs ok Irvington. IVA erOGINA SO Traum fereneteciees chs. s. Ses: sotoe envatiee okt sean eeu eeners es Franklin. MEAN C ONY Ae NRL CLD Years telictes dtericle is cnotseicndsatiaylacdiendtefa lots cl ttefopae Meares Bloomington. WRU ECCT ISD! Sy) i PO RIE ce eX Irvington. DESC CULE ype tdai rate staicre. Sciche © sie) Sad; a6 Ss ray Sn ee OMe Jeffersonville. PEED, WHMIS AG SW eh ee bc hans, « « sipsdm'a ha Ree he cone eee Terre Haute. AMT GINTEL AEN IN CLG Keene ya f-etaee ralreevctessst8 tie oArolenieselnes aes eee nepate Terre Haute. Sem yes SMALL Gy atch Au te Seis Sh paler Swen lord ose natalia) Solna eS EM Bloomington. spr TCA esa a Veps es cre\e sv fe Sis deis'a eee bd gs hee Laas ae Columbia City. ‘Clawiiellasy 406 Ul oy Oe als, duct SOIC A ONERE ROIS Ue eee eee Bloomington. Mar LIMA MALO Chun eter ie niniorciava eens maaan sa Ab Lue Evansville. SEIN PU any TV ATIR svc rar ciate te arcvesere clere cvencisi sels Bet aidiel a seo yshe ees Indianapolis. Pig lintm We veran Caper eisai velco) S s/ca.clere Sainielaeiaiel eevavaled os Lafayette. Oy SEES VE (ye) p07. 6 Ua Se Indianapolis. TINS ee SIN EE) 05) ey el a Terre Haute. Bar ee Demet rafaetiale 320s )oeisdsciyeseveius oe clare b/d Shae aya Lawrenceburg. PAPAL Ve VG SENG Griacltisrels c.Aar dy ayvieduc cvs Sas Bie 6, vidi ieee Indianapolis. obeniavVesleve MCI rider niece sec eccucteerdetele cele siete tre ate Indianapolis. ANCALE BMG Oartlivsey cine ise fevers sities cies cisvavelaus © sud eicheiete Wabash. Peemese ATi MG GHATS. eign %s, Je onsieru's abet olel ve teil dl veld el sie a's Bloomington. Moe VCH OMIA Seber Silt cise etd eis Acai nveidlauecd lees a. Minneapolis, Minn. 2 AVS CURIS Sidi Ga at rs ORIOL Se Le Indianapolis. Shy NAS AIEEE 0 Ge tee serait ete eee a Indianapolis. SUPAMMRS BENS POMEL eerie ttt hale, ol ial/o dso cay eis's odie Se. oe oe eh Lafayette. Seen Wey Kee tale Reis cet cate ifs detciedis eae. ae cces Brookville. rele) UGLIGERY htels lagi h cate sisi Sinid ele tals alerae gale ts Brookville. esate APR TUN CI tartar tae cece siarsneies njaieaiclad/ cle Ad me e's Bloomington. pm CTA ATS at ec slairis « elolmneyese pce 0 8b is aysieie no oye San Paulo, Brazil. PRP NOMLEM Fie ory era ae ee cis ies Socketaude edie Sacha Medic 6 Cambridge, Mass. Je, JEL UNI ARO on Gel Gein biatg CeAIO CRO Ce Ieee enna er een Greencastle. Seer Mlies ett VC REI ales P02 stele Su iaicte cic 5) vie 2. ohare cae es Irvington. Sno NC WSO) tity vate a lycniis)sttie'e: ce: cue acai tncrciar ts wbevecse Elizabethtown. 1B Vivo QUIN Gra a tinlGhe cho tiGicnsichetenG REPO I IChainy RReae ta camertn Indianapolis. Vor LBL 5 QUI Gie ntoid.olcto ca bis OW CLEC CIC ice ee GeO ie eae Indianapolis. EP OCH Piiyerien io. Com Naa 22 lc a\e eae sdiela Niele sie aad sa Franklin. Mente MBE INGE ae 2a acts lae\\tacere sale aveisl'n 0 &, ave Sle Swe. eV assis Vee TepnC INCOR pat rales here claves a) ySuierteinesiecierers male sere Chicago, Ill. BBR OOGWMIg Casi sere ect el a cia ise a nicvecale pie Gin Sue eyeipie lane Noe sree Dunreith. MRM OAT RCO oni hiccta sere sissincde sk aes tabese eae ae Bloomfield. Eins cnt ep ACME DOME Matar s/ Wie alniene lode, 21a ads, ¢ Je ls asa eyeieyehate arias) se Indianapolis. fo LEG IR SO BO Gis eos big re eI Se MA SRiSran eins Fayetteville, Ark. oy licina Climb ielit INU eatete net ranenciiel dics cue! nievencicifey Sache aiaee evereve cvs Fairmount. elie Cree CTC Kamerereten siete icvayeyiciaie aie’ sce/aleverioie/a aie siever vs)aiiehe Bloomington. Bassi (C, TRIG en7 epee c Apa Oe eC ree code abdntiomone South Bend. Ay * Deceased, December 30, 1897. 2—ScIENCE. 18 WD MOSURIGSLE Ye is) ic Uisieisrerers le) jejeryerncises Aclerorneheeiajclere race Chicago, III. GUimtiseA RIN S0 1 soars seen poet aneye usier h etnievas coerce aber tages Bloomington. EMEP en HOUCTIG: fi Scns sricwre khets Purstok tats Sie 5 oepsneaets Greensburg. PMNS OAL ELS 5 . taal tant Cialete ob ie pemeactojpiele ew a ents mente New Castle. wobnvbs Sehhai bles: sh seem ose Seti s ajo Ree oes Lafayette. eB mochater 2.2.8 dcp merase aectnrtic a eterna anete Huntington. Ar Schiilize i. Wem oee sys oh, Wane eee ..Ft. Wayne. MAO ANC OC ETAT siege aac 8a) 85 tare Ccouetiaers ata, cueyeue ara ene et Indianapolis. ohne WiseShep herders): siete teloroure s-ch Gris sytem ote lnte: Hanes West Lafayette. IBIGAR CUB SLES tat. cvetayel «Ur arte Meith eletelass eu wlelan cadet ey nee Lafayette. RAMMAURALOB Li Watarancctke ste syd Gym ete eee. «cece niece eee comune eee Chicago, Ill. Fipmet EVO INPROD: 31.5. bias aa le o:sye aoe a an te woos sae Reale Richmond. Marites Mis TASH ER: circ steuec aides Gaon cuaecetsrere aeceeear ens Irvington. PALM O TU WEL 15 utils sucleyeces Tee steam m edeiers fete Maine eters Oxford, Ohio. MOET MS PEG VED: s,s, 6 cys crag, cide om (nsatody« letererdete erga & sees Dee Goshen. SVIME EARN IVIIETYOT «1, !arinat'. » o,m Soave x te coven aretertAoiroueht tonnes pea Lafayette. IS, 104 "ONG oie Pane WAI en etch oleate a rein se North Manchester.. PREVI IOLGCT 6.5 2s solos ns» 9k OS ee ee eee eee Knightstown. UPMTEM ee NCL GD. lau dis os ha «eh 5 Ser pave ae Rockport. ROMEPEENCIOITICOS B.0..% 0, J: sinie os) e0;0's «ays 0 owe Da eae Brookville. J), Tals, NAOHIEY gp aio CENCE Canaan non RE resestA PS ter = Bloomington. EMPEY Y CRUE Darr Sree atte avfals eevee ais . aa. doc = ¢ U. S. Hanna. Nomentestsvonepallahearings. Om 5 c-nc)s selarjancs «4s siete M. J. Golden. PML CTMALEC LO LOCESSES pulemIM sie rcynsrcietsiavs) «lee se.e ares ielers eve aro A. 8. Hathaway. A new form of galvanometer, 10 m................ J. Henry Lendi. A relation between elastic limit in flexure and tension..W. K. Hatt. Behavior of wrought iron under compression.......... IW). Ke Ellaitk: CHEMICAL AND BACTERIOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. TATION CaCl rely TMs epee en ciien mh esl cy eroivey ni elciere alaaer ay aye ecelve W. A. Noyes. Certain combustion products of natural gas, 5 m...... P. N. Evans. The melting point OMMGANE-SUSAT YH Mdee sr eaieradliens mere cde sy W. Hi) Test. Nitro derivatives of low-boiling paraffines, 5 m......R. G. Worstall. Occurrence of nitrogen in gases derived from bacterial fer- TAEINGACLOM ee olla are oieval ate’. cleveieue se see S. Burrage and A. H. Bryan. , Micro-organisms in flour, 10 mM.............-.......5-. C. G. Ferris. The number of colonies of bacteria and moulds obtained in the testing of air, milk and water by different culture TIPO LM ETT Utes ye ya cha craks ins restate tccneiiecreley aks olteds Mereuaers enh airs A. W. Bitting. 30 *34, *35. *36. 37. 38. 39. 40. *41, ns oo *44., *45, 46. 47. 48. 49. oO =| Concerning the alkaloids of Lupinus subcarnosis, 10 m..L. S. Davis.. INGLES Ol Selamthre%t sys Wises cae oke ee Syston einvs of ere re ole teiekels wickelar R. Lyons. The synthesis of a new member of the furan-thiophen ZTOUP; LOL eas st rererciete ale cncfele shale sje ecole R. Lyons and H. Reddick. BOTANICAL SUBJECTS. The effects of formalin on germinating seeds, 8 m...M. B. Thomas. The Myxomycetes of Crawfordsville, 10 m............ E. W. Olive. The. germ of pear-blight; 15 mM .)./. se ssisces + < otele = Miss Lillian Snyder. Water power for botanical apparatus, 10 m.......... J. C. Arthur. Development of the embryo-sac of Solea concolor, 10 m. F. M. Andrews. Contributions to the flora of Indiana, No. V., 10 m..Stanley Coulter. Notes concerning the germination of composites, 10 m. Stanley Coulter. The Mycorrhizae of Aplectrum, 10 m............ D. T. Mac Dougal. The tendrils of Eutada scandens, 5m............ D. T. Mac Dougal. Distribution of the Ericacez in Indiana, 10 m..Alida Cunningham. Distribution of the Gentianacez in Indiana, 10 m. Alida Cunningham. RHATECHING OF AOMK ULI EES Soe wiecs cine vue win oe eee weet wate -... John §. Wright. Notes on the cypress swamps of Knox county, Indiana. John 8. Wright. ZOOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. Some indians ‘Crow TLOOSIS; VOVIN. 2h calc siete ieite wyajettsnaiee A. W. Butler. Notes on crow roosts of Western Indiana and Wastern Illinois. John 8. Wright. Brunnich’s Guillemot (Uria lomvia) an addition to the birds otindiana,. 10) «2c se Bin ear a cesiees siete mapas A. W. Butler. Notes on the birds observed in the vicinity of Wayne county, PATA LOIN... 35.) ss ateuathisietaets atm oneroret ste eee eteees Alden H. Hadley. Notes on, Indiana: heronries, 10 amis 72 Jassie icicles e's A. W. Butler. The recent occurrence of the raven in Indiana, 10 m..A. W. Butler. A description of new facial muscles in the Anura, with new observations on the nasal muscles of salamanders, 20 m. * ? H. L. Bruner. A rare species of Bascarion (B. ornatum), 6 m........ H. L. Bruner. *74, it. 78. 79. 80. 31 ¢ . Structure of the heart of lungless salamanders, 10 m..H. L. Bruner. The pulmonary arch of lungless salamanders, 12 m..Miss MacWoldt. Methods of staining to show centrosomes in egg cells. (Illus- THEDINIOS) Fed ones nega mocks CD On Oo AON CIO EOE eA L. J. Rettger. An instance of bird) ferocity, 2M). < css 6c... sce ces G. Culbertson. ASE VISION OLetnesSenUsHLO, LOMME c). 5 cccicctelesies osiclecie acre c R. E. Call. Material for the study of variation in Etheostoma caprodes, LEVITT Seay sroey sds eee ofa aie costal eucts/sieasie.s \e si0.e!e, slo wie! 6-8 wists J. N. Moenkhaus. OTA AMMO CAVE Lat A, Leh TIN in «2 bici'eie)e! orciela sie) oie! sieie e's C. H. Higenmann. The eyes of the Amblyopsidae, 15 m............ C. H. Eigenmann. A new species of blind fishes from the caves of Missouri, 5) Tish.4 eb Road che COG OC do a0 CO toe tin DOO Donec C. H. EHigenmann. The habits of Amblyopsis, 15 m.:............. : ...C. H. Higenmann. The blind salamanders of North America, with specimens, & Tihs sdaboiousenc itiggo pu eo OOO OOAOo potorrc acer C. H. Eigenmann. Embryology of Paragordius (Gordius) aquaticus........ A. B. Ulrey. GEOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. Formation of quicksand pockets in the blue clay of South EVETI Comoe BIN yeicn ace ctatelorcie tetas la a acdra lel cle lereiei’. se tetee sje s W. M. Whitten. MH CAGAGVSIMALS Tsoi suse ai we aleisic oie ieieis's sic ve cvisiecla'e cons he Ee Balle Preliminary work for the approximate determination of the time since the retreat of the first great ice sheet, 8 m. G. Culbertson. Note on fault structure in Indiana.............. George H. Ashley. Notes on the geology of Mammoth Cave, 10 m........... R. E. Call. A section from Hanover to Vincennes, 10 m........ J. EF. Newsom. The Knobstone groups in the region of New Albany, 10 m. J. KH. Newsom. The upper limits of the Knobstone in the region of Borden, RSEUUMU Peter er Leet taper ctetena ith iehatoiclois’ che act Sisiece else! Siete vie si ee,s L. H. Jones Four sections across the Knobstone group, 15 m....L. F. Bennett. Notes on Indiina ceoloty, TOM.) he. ss bec ccs ees cs soc ts J. AePri¢e-s An old river channel in Spencer county, 15 m.......... A. C. Veatch. * Author absent; paper not presented. Br] THIRTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE IN- DIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. The thirteenth annual meeting of the Indiana Academy of Science was held in Indianapolis, Wednesday and Thursday, December 29th and 30th, 1897, preceded by a session of the Executive Committee of the Academy, 8 p. m., Tuesday, December 29th. At 9a.m., December 29th, President Thomas Gray called the Academy to order in general session, at which committees were appointed and much other routine and miscellaneous business transacted. After the disposition of these affairs the reading and discussion of papers of the printed program, under the title of “General Subjects” occupied the time until adjournment at 12 m. The Academy met at 2 p. m. in two sections, biological and physico- chemical, for the reading and discussion of papers. President Thomas Gray presided over the physico-chemical section and Vice-President C. A. Waldo over the biological section. At 5 p. m. the section meeting adjourned to meet in general session of the Academy at 7 p. m. The Executive Committee met at 5:30 p. m., holding a brief business session. Academy met 2 p. m. Following the disposition of committee reports and the transaction of other business the retiring president, Dr. Thomas Gray addressed the Academy on “The Development of Electrical Science.” Thursday, December 30th, 9:20 a. m., the Academy met in general session for the transaction of business, after which it divided into ‘sec- tions for the consideration of papers. President Gray acted as chair- man of the physico-chemical section, Vice-President Waldo presided over the biological. ; Adjournment of physico-chemical section, 10:20 a. m. Adjournment of biological section, 12:15 p. m. 33 THE FIELD MEETING OF 1897. The Field meeting of 1897 was held Thursday and Friday, May 27th and 28th at Lafayette, Indiana. On the evening of the 28th the executive committee of the Academy met and transacted miscellaneous business. Thursday morning, May 27th, the members started into the field, going by conveyance into the vicinity of Battle Ground, where they divided into sections for special work. At noon all met at Tecumseéh’s Trail, where luncheon was served, after which the Academy visited the State Soldiers’ Home. On the return to the city the country home of Mr. Mortimer Levering was visited, where a reception was given to the members. Thursday evening, at 8 p. nx, the Academy met in the chapel of Pur- due University and was addressed by Dr. Frederick Starr on “Dress and Adornment.” Following the lecture a short business session was held. Friday morning, May 28th, the members visited the laboratories of Purdue University, after which they took conveyances and drove to the site of Fort Ouiatenon, where special field work was done. The Academy is greatly indebted to the Lafayette members and their friends, whose energy and generesity made the field meeting of 1897 a marked success. 3—SCIENCE. 35 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. THe DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRICAL SCIENCE. By THomaAs GRaAy. In a brief discourse on the development of electrical science, little time can be given to the early history of the subject. This part is more or less familiar to all the members of the academy, and hence it may be passed over by onty such brief reference as may serve to recall to mind the more important of the early discoveries. The early Greeks have recorded some elementary phenomena now known to he electric, and it is probable that such knowledge was not uncommon, though little noticed. It is only in comparatively recent times that scientific research has taken the place of superstition, and attempts have been_made to classify and find reasons for the existence of all natural phenomena. Beginning with the seventeenth century, probably the first investigator worthy of notice in this subject was Gilbert of Colchester, who published his work entitled “De Magnete” in 1600. Gilbert made systematic experi- ments and showed that the property of attracting light bodies could be given to a large number of substances by friction. He also showed that the success of the experiment depended largely upon the dryness of the body. These experiments gave rise to the classification of substances as electrics and non-electrics. The true effect of Gilbert’s observations as to the effect of moisture was not appreciated for a long time. Gilbert’s list of electrics was added to by a number of other observers, prominent among whom was Boyle and Newton. The fact that light and sound ac- companies electric excitation was called attention to by Otto Von Gue- ricke, who also showed that a light body, after being brought into contact with an electrified body, was repelled by it. ‘ Coming now to the eighteenth century, we find Hawkesbee in 1707, and Wall in 1708, speculating on the similarity of the electric spark and light- ning. Then comes one of the most prominent experimenters of this cen- tury—Stephen Gray—who began to publish in 1720, and who in 1729 found that certain substances would, and others would not, convey the charge of an electrified body to a distance. These experiments were the first to introduce the distinction between conductors and non-conductors, and, of 36 course, very soon seryed to explain the reason why certain substances could not be electrified by friction when held in the hand. Gray also made the important discovery that the charge of an electrified body is propor- tional to its surface, and this was afterward confirmed by the experiments of Le Monnier. Many of Gray’s experiments were repeated and extended by Dufay, who found that all bodies could be electrified by friction if they were held by an insulating substance. Then came the improvements of the electric machine by Boze and Winckler; the firing of inflammatory sub- stances, such as alcohol, by means of the electric spark by Ludolph, Gor- don, Miles, Franklin, and others. About this time (1745) the properties of the Leyden jar were discovered by Kleist, Cuneus, and Muschenbroeck; and a few years later it was given practically its present form by Sir William Watson. Then follows one of the periods of exceptional activity in electrical research. GAILVUYVIWO/: 62 : : Purr YEAST IN BREAD. By KATHERINE E. GOLDEN. Since the introduction by Hansen of pure yeast into bottom fermenta- tion brewing its use has spread to top fermentation brewing, to distilleries, and in fact, to all industries in which fermentation enters as a factor. This almost universal employment is due to the great benefits which accrue from the use of the pure culture. After methods had been devised for the separation of the yeasts it was determined that many which dif- fered from one another very slightly, if at all, morphologically, possessed very distinet properties when considered physiologically. This was shown more particularly in the by-products formed. Many yeasts which give practically the same alcoholic fermentation differ very materially in the characteristics which they impart to beer, so that it was determined that the flavor or “bouquet” of a beer was due primarily to the yeast; that by changing the yeast, keeping all the other conditions constant, a differ- ent beer could be produced. . ; The use of the pure yeast has worked to the great advantage of the brewer, for after a yeast has been selected and careful consideration given to its being kept free from foreign organisms during the brewing, absolute certainty is felt as to the resulting product, definite strength of alcohol is obtained and a constant flavor insured; moreover, the product can be kept indefinitely without deterioration, and can be duplicated when desired. It is evident that where pure yeast is used, elaborate methods for keeping and storing can be dispensed with, for with the absence of foreign organisms there is nothing present in the beer to cause it to de- teriorate. The use of the pure yeast has worked to the advantage of distillers and others as well as brewers, for in distilleries a greater per cent. of alcohol is obtained and jn the pressed-yeast factories a higher yield of yeast results. To determine whether the same advantages which have been obtained in other fermentation industries could not be obtained also in bread fer- mentation, experiments were made along this line. The experiments are merely outlined in this paper, no details being given. First, market yeasts were examined microscopically, chemically and in plate cultures. As a rule, the moist cakes, when taken fresh, had a small per cent. of dead-yeast cells, but had present many moulds and bacteria. The dry cakes had few moulds, but had a large number of bac- teria. All the dry cakes had alum present, not in sufficient quantity to act on the bread, but the alum evidently had been used as an antiseptic in the mash. Slack sponges were also made of the yeasts, and showed marked variations as regards time and extent of fermentation. This is a test that could be made easily by the housekeeper. : Pure cultures were then made of the yeasts. For this there were used eight moist cakes, six dry cakes, six yeasts from the air (four of these being red yeasts), two from cider, one from flour, four from fruits (grape, guava, persimmon and apple), two separated from corn smut and two from beer, making 31 in all. The pure yeasts were tested (1) for gas production, for which purpose beer wort was used in fermentation tubes; (2) for their action in solutions of sugars—sucrose, dextrose, lactose and maltose; (3) to determine the death limit of temperature for young and old cells; (4) for their fermentative action in slack sponges and _ stiff doughs, the latter being baked so as to determine the flavor imparted to the bread. The yeasts were examined microscopically, and it was found that ma- terial differences existed among some, while others were so much alike as to be indistinguishable from one another. The wild yeasts and those from the dry cakes were, in general, smaller than those from the moist cakes, and they also developed a film sooner. The yeasts from the moist cakes were large and resembled the beer yeasts. The appearance of the yeasts when grown on solid media will sometimes show variations that aid in the determination. In gas production there was also much difference, the moist cakes and beer yeasts producing more gas and in a shorter time, as a rule, than the others. Some of the air yeasts produced no gas. In the sugar solutions there were peculiarities appeared, in that certain yeasts would grow vigorously in-one sugar and not in another, the yeasts showing different preferences. For determining the death limit the yeasts were taken when five days old, 21 days and 30 days, and were tested, beginning at 65° C., for three minutes, then running up until the death point was reached. The death point varied between 80° C. for five minutes and 95° €. for 15 minutes, so that every one of them would be killed in the baking, in even the short time required for biscuit. 64 In the sponges the characteristics of the yeasts appeared to good ad- vantage, for not only could the fermentative action be easily determined, but also the particular flavor imparted and the keeping properties. The sponges were tested first with sterilized flour, then with unsterilized. Sponges made with sterilized flour were kept for weeks without giving off bad odors. They were then made with unsterilized flour. The odors gen- erated during the fermentation varied from pleasant fruity odors through pungent odors, flat and insipid odors to decidedly disagreeable odors. Some of the sponges would remain in good condition for weeks, whereas in others, growths of moulds would appear in a few days or disagreeable odors were generated. The breads varied also, some being pleasant to the taste, some insipid and a few left a sharp or unpleasant aftertaste. Then the texture differed even with as nearly as possible the same amount of kneading; some were even-grained, while others would show quite an extent of irregularity in the grain. One thing that was quite noticeable in all the breads was the lack of any sourness, and on account of this lack when the breads are tasted, there seems something missing to which one is accustomed. The experiments on the whole indicated that if the best results are to be obtained in bread-making the yeast will have to be selected with the same care that a yeast is for the fermentation of beer or other liquor, A yeast should possess certain properties to make it valuable in bread- making; it should have a fairly vigorous action, so that the fermentation would take place before any deleterious changes could take place in the dough; it should impart a pleasant flavor and without any disagreeable aftertaste, and should give an even, fine texture to the bread. All these qualities could be obtained by taking the same care in the selection of a yeast for bread that is now taken in the selection of a yeast for beer. Besides, there are great possibilities in the variety of flavors that can be obtained from the use of different yeasts. I presume the reason for the apathy that exists in regard to the selection of yeasts for bread- making purposes is due to the fact that a great deal of the bread is of home manufacture, and if not suitable, it is not so easy for one to change the base of supplies, so that a good deal of competition is eliminated. 65 A New LABoRATORY AND Its WorkK. By Ropert HESSLER. [Abstract. ] The paper read gave an account of a new laboratory connected with the Central Indiana Hospital for Insane, it being known as the Patholog- ical Department. In the introductory reference was made to the con- stantly increasing number of insane under the care of the State. A few years ago one hospital was sufficient for the State, now there are four, and all are full. Mere clinical description has been all but exhausted and little additional information is to be gained by such. Insanity is assumed to be due to some change in the brain, it may be ever so minute, and to dis- cover these and to draw deductions for practical application in the pre- vention and treatment of insanity requires special facilities—and we thus have the laboratory idea. A description of the different departments of the laboratory was then given: there are separate rooms for chemistry, bacteriology, microscopy, photography and for necropsies; all being properly supplied with appara- tus for work. The work will consist, in the beginning, of a course of instruction for the medical staff of the hospital in histology and clinical chemistry, fol- lowed by bacteriology y and pathology; the examination of blood, pus, urine. hew growths, etc., as aids to a thorough understanding of clinical cases; systematic post-mortem examinations; finding and studying the lesions of bodily disease and searching for those of mental disease; original work as opportunity offers. 5—SCIENCE. "INSWLYVddd IWOISOTOHLVd ‘idns "0 *W ‘HY3LYVHN3G]3 “4 "O39 AG GANDISSO ONIGTIING 7 mh 4 4 H 5 as io Pas a Sy 001 js4t wool, pubdage (ELIZA ALLL y WY, Ui A Ds ehh ESIC aS ee ai? = } [fA SUD IDSA yy : y 1 oo j eee fs p14 V4 / Y Be ica | 3g A ym FA Lomogiih bee d antec. 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He is an inmate of the Institution for Feeble-Minded Children at Fort Wayne, Ind. He was born July 13th, 1883, in Germany. His father died at the age of 49. His mother lives at Garrett, DeKalb County, Ind. He is the sixth child of a family of eight children.. Of these six are said to be well formed. One other, Mary, who died at the same institution at the age of fourteen, in 1895, was microcephalic. His parents were second cousins. The following table gives the size of the cranial portion of his head in comparison with nine other microcephals reported by Carl Vogt in 1866: a o. rt = | 2 £2 | Sa r= a=) ASS 2 = D — s = ge Cc o aa | FS | otS)) ae Poy Soll ae aK 2 o ee | 2 | ssa! g | o Pa fir eo i sod ie eS e| es | 2S | "ssc came 2 an ° S Ss yee o!saiq|o 2 | 2 o a = 2 7 | aus Selelae/Sl/alelel(elela18) 2 /a#laye Epes lomo elleCeale Pantanal sis beens peste he Wied | (SWFA be emt aces ee Wet dh eh Menlo) dee sms bey | erage PNANTEOMCOLOT MIP ae llee tes ls a otel| (ci--sh iooaeiltom aa ees ls | seve [rcaale leesural| loess iccomrnall bese Doe asa e Suture, sagittal....|.... SAA er Abe FAG | GAS [Esch sll tS scl ee ae Aer a AL | SAITO LUE OU OL aller | Seppell sce litrcioray|(e cte: alll arama. ison beailconteilte sasica Tie ee cll koa A A on Aon Suture, squamose..]....]....].... lett{:-*: 7d ie afer | Lae | left. left. Suture, basilar..... ae PAGANS Ti Ate HVACR IANS | See tine orale thal ige A Ave x = a Nort.—This table shows the state of the sutures in sixteen cases.. A means suture ossi- fied. Five are children under fifteen years of age, and none of the sutures of these are ankylosed; and of the remaining eleven none are ankylosed that would not ordinarily be in normal skulls. A cure founded upon this theory has been tried, generally, at least, without success. The sutures are opened to give the brain room to grow, but it refuses to grow, and the tendency in re-ossification is to diminish instead of increase the cavity. Eddie Basse is not sick, as the hydrocephalic patients are. He is healthy, hearty, comfortable, perfectly satisfied with the world as he finds it, and perfectly incapable of conceiving that the order of things might be otherwise. In nothing that has been said is it claimed that there are not microcephalics who are sick, or whose malformation has net been caused by sickness; it is simply maintained that Basse is not. The other 72 theory supposes that microcephaly is atavistic. Atavism does not require that some abnormal organ like supernumerary nipples shall be grown; it equally applies to the suppression of growth in any particular organ, pro- vided that this suppression has left its subject in the normal condition of some adult ancestor. It is the common property of all students of embryology, that the de- veloping human brain passes through a stage when it has no brain mantel whatever; that is, no cerebrum; and that when the cerebrum begins to grow as diverticula from the fore-brain, its growth is forward, upward and backward until it has covered successively the fore-brain, mid-brain and hind-brain completely. During this backward growth the cerebrum gains also greatly in height and in complexity in many ways, but espe- cially with reference to convolutions. It is equally well known that these successive stages of the growing human brain are represented by the adult stages of the brains of mammals. Now by this theory Basse’s brain has been arrested in its development at an anthropoid stage. He cannot speak because his speech centers have not been developed. He cannot reason because his brain stopped in its development before it teached the human stage. This negative statement of the case is not all, however. His power of imitation far transcends that of normal or weak-minded chil- dren; that is, he has not stopped in his development merely at somewhat the level of the ape, but he has developed until it is more than human the physiological trait that has given the ape his name, imitation. It is ad- mitted that a rudimentary tail is atavistic; that additional ears on the side of the neck (relicts of the gill-slits that point back to an ancestry that is aquatic) are; but to admit these things and deny a similar significance to Basse’s lack of brain and abnormally quickened imitative powers, and his other accompanying animal traits, is like asserting that the chief characteristic of man is lack of tail instead-of brain capacity and power of thought. Everyone has seen cases of atavism which point back to father and grandfather; and it is said that in the most ancient families of Europe, that have in their possession paintings of their ancestors for many gen- erations back, evidence of atavism often appears in children and is a thing to be proud of. But can it point back for thousands or even for mil- lions of generations, if there are so many? Among animals and plants it ean, and assent is universal. I have had a lemon brought to school with a perfect sector of the rind a bright green, when all the rest was the ri) usual lemon yellow. The meaning was not far to seek: this part of the rind is reverting back to its ancestor the leaf; the green sector is atavistic. Atavism can also be geological, as Vogt points out; the millionth colt is born with the three toes of the hipparion; but the horse is recent and the hipparion is tertiary. Atavism explains Basse’s case in every particular: his small cranial cavity, his lack of speech, his great imitative powers, his ambling gait, his unbalanced head, his unabated interest in the hundredth repetition of the simplest act, his inability to think. His sister, Mary Basse, was more animal-like from all reports than he. She had to be waited on as a child, her frame was much more stooped, and she always walked with bent limbs. A detailed study of her skeleton would be of the highest scientific value. But I have not as yet been able to obtain it. THE RELATION OF GEOGRAPHY TO NATURAL SCIENCE AND TO EDUCATION. By Cuas. R. DRYER. [Abstract. ] Geography is a subject which has points of contact with the whole range of natural science from physics to anthropology. It has intimate relations with a large portion of the work done by the State Department of Geology and Natural Resources, and by the Academy of Science. It is the only natural science which is taught in all the schools of the State. Its presence in the school curriculum furnishes a line of least resistance along which scientific nature study may be introduced into schools of all grades. The personal interest and attention of every member of the Academy was invited to the opportunity here offered for the promotion of scientific education and for the improvement of geographic teaching. THE SUSCEPTIBILITY OF DIFFERENT STARCHES TO DIGESTIVE FERMENTS. By W. E. Stone. The question of the nutritive value and digestibility of many kinds of foods narrows down practically to a discussion of the amount of starch which they contain, since in many instances starch is the principal nutri- tive substance present. A knowledge, therefore, of the percentage of starch which such foods contain is about all we have been accustomed to ask in estimating their comparative value. Examples of such food ma- terials are potatoes and rice, while the various cereal preparations are also characterized by their starch content, although this is not the only nutritive substance which they contain. It has apparently not occurred to any one, or if so, such conjecture has not found circulation, that possibly there might be an inherent character in different starches by reason of which certain ones might be more or less digestible or nutritious than others. In the case of sugars this thought has lately come prominently to the front, Fischer particularly expressing the belief that certain sugars were more readily assimilated than others. Certain classes of sugars are known not to be digested or assimilated by the human organism. Certain others are not fermentable, and others ferment only slowly and incompletely. A study of the action of animal secretions, such as blood serum and infusions made from va- rious glands, upon the more complex sugars, shows conclusively that dif- ferent sugars exhibit a greatly varying range of resistance to these agents. It would seem, therefore, quite reasonable to expect that the starches existing in so many physical modifications and derived from so many different sources might also present some phenomena of this sort. A very serious difficulty, however, in the way of obtaining experimental data to show this is that starch considered as a chemical compound is an exceed- ingly complex and unstable substance, which under the influence of not extreme conditions is easily changed into other and different substances. Few compounds have been studied more than starch, and yet we know actually very little about it as such. We know much of its derivative and decomposition products, but starch itself is insoluble in its unchanged state, and so defies any direct study of its molecular condition. It is well known that starch is readily dissolved and at the same time converted into sugar by a number of the so-called enzymes or unorganized 75 ferments. Prominent among these are diastase, one of the enzymes de- veloped in the germination of grains; ptyalin, a characteristic constituent of saliva, and pancreatin, secreted by the pancreas. So far as the diges- tion of starch is concerned these are probably the principal agencies which change starch from its natural, insoluble form into the soluble and digestible modifications, and a study of their action upon starches ought to throw considerable light upon the comparative degrees of resistance of different starches to digestive action. Such studies have been made with the codperation of several students and at different times, leading to results which seem of general interest and application. As material for one study we selected the starches of wheat, maize, rice, the common potato and the sweet potato, as represent- ing not only important food articles, but starches of different botanical character. These were prepared in the laboratory in preference to using commer- cial preparations, with the attendant risk of adulteration. Moreover, acids and alkalies are commonly used in the preparation of the starch of commerce, and undoubtedly affect its character. The five kinds of starches were prepared by grating or grinding the raw materials, agitating with cold water, straining through coarse muslin and afterwards allow- ing the starch to settle from suspension in water after frequent washings. The materials thus obtained were probably quite pure starches, and at least were sufficiently free from impurities or foreign matter to satisfac- torily serve the purpose of the experiment. The plan of the investigation was to subject the different starches under identical conditions to the action of a ferment, and note the time when each kind of starch had been completely dissolved. As an indica- tion of this result the well-known action of starch and iodine was em- ployed. When the starch preparation no longer showed the blue color with iodine it was regarded as completely dissolved or changed. Exactly stated, it was endeavored to obtain an identical physical con- dition of all the starches, and then to expose them under constant condi- tions of temperature and dilution to a uniform solution of the enzyme or digestive ferment. A weighed quantity of the starches, one gram, or in some cases one- half gram, was heated with 50 or 100 cubic centimeters of distilled water in a boiling water bath during 30 minutes and then cooled to 65° C. An infusion of malt was made by digesting five grams of malt with 200 ¢. c. 76 of water at ordinary temperature for two or three hours. Ten cubic cen- timeters of this malt infusion were then added to each of the starch preparations, which were kept at from 60 to 65° C. The starches were all dissolved in the following order: Sweet potato, 6 to 8 minutes; common potato, 12 to 15 minutes; wheat, 60 to 90 minutes; maize, 90 to 120 minutes. On diluting the starch in a subsequent series, using the same amount of malt infusion, the time of solution was much reduced, but followed the same relative order. In another series a larger amount of malt was used, and the time of solution was still shorter; for instance, the sweet-potato starch was completely dissolved in 2%, minutes; potato starch, 34 minutes; wheat, 30 minutes; maize, 38 minutes. These results indicate very con- clusively a decided difference in the behavior of these common starches toward diastase. Similar experiments were then planned with these starches, with the addition of rice starch, and ptyalin, one of the active principles of the saliva. At first raw starch was employed, but it seems to suffer little or no change even after some hours. Boiled starches, prepared as already de- scribed, received each two cubic centimeters of saliva and were kept ata temperature of 40°. After six minutes the potato starch no longer gave any iodine reaction; the sweet potato required 135 minutes; the maize, 145 minutes; rice, 385 minutes; wheat, 400 minutes. By increasing the amount of saliva to six cubic centimeters the following results were ob- tained: Potato, 8 minutes; sweet potato, 7) minutes; maize, 90 minutes; rice, 165 minutes; wheat, 170 minutes. On increasing the temperature to 60° potato starch was almost imme- diately dissolved in two minutes; sweet potato, 25 minutes; maize, 35 min- utes; but rice and wheat were not wholly converted in five hours, indicat- ing that a continuation of this temperature for any considerable time destroys the activity of the ferment. These results were no less striking than those obtained from diastase, although the order of conversion is changed somewhat. Wheat required about SO times as long for complete solution as potato. The experiments with pancreatic ferments were carried out in the same way as already described, so far as the staches were concerned. Using commercial preparations of pancreatin at the rate of .2 grams to .2 grams of the starches gave these results: Potato starch was dissolved in 58 minutes: sweet potato, 317 minutes: maize, 337 minutes; rice and a wheat not wholly changed after 10 hours. Fresh preparations of pan- creatic fluids from the pancreas of both the ox and swine showed that starches of potato, sweet potato and maize were dissolved in the order stated, while rice and wheat were much more resistant and were not finally completely dissolved. Pancreatin seemed less active than the other ferments, but certain of the starches were much more susceptible to it than others. To sum up briefly the result of many experiments, which have here been presented only in outline: (1) The starches of potato, sweet potato, maize, rice and wheat vary greatly in their susceptibility to the action of enzymic ferments. (2) This variation reaches such a degree that under precisely the same conditions certain of the starches require eighty times as long as others for complete solution or saccharification. (3) This variation is exhibited toward all of the common enzymic fer- ments studied, viz., diastase, ptyalin, pancreatin, in the same relative or- der, with slight exception. (4) This order, beginning with the starch which is most easily changed, is, for malt extract, sweet potato, potato, wheat and maize; for saliva, potato, sweet potato, maize, rice and wheat; for pancreatic fluids, potato, sweet potato, maize, with wheat and rice unchanged. (5) Certain of the experiments indicate that the rapidity of the change in particular cases is very clearly proportional to the concentration of the solution of the ferment. (6) It seems reasonable to assume that the same relative degree of susceptibility exhibited by these starches in the experiments described would still obtain when they are subjected to the action of the same enzymes in the processes of digestion. (7) The facts here presented have very important bearings upon indus- trial operations involving the use of starches, upon questions of physiology and nutrition and upon the study of the different starches from the purely scientific standpoint. In seeking for some explanation of this phenomena only two possible causes suggest themselves—either there is some physical difference in these starches by which the action of the ferments is hindered or held in check, or they are inherently different in their molecular structure, or in other words, are isomeric compounds. The first reason seems to me not a valid one. The starches were in each case thoroughly gelatinized by boiling . 78 so as to break up the individual grains and form a transparent gelatinous mass, afterward diluted with water, so as to afford a complete mixture with the solution of the enzymes. The second hypothesis seems reason- able, since we already know that different sugars perfectly soluble are nevertheless quite differently susceptible to the action of ferments and enzymes, and the reason is traced directly to their isomeric condition, i. e., to different molcular constitution. There is certainly nothing improbable in the thought that a similar variation or isomerism exists among starches. Should this explanation, which now seems the only reasonable one to offer, be correct, the theoretical value of the observations presented will quite equal or exceed any practical application they may possess, since the pos- sibility of isomeric starches has not heretofore been entertained. A New Puoro-MicroGRAPHIC APPARATUS. By A. W. BITTING. While it is possible to make excellent photo-micrographs with simple apparatus, a microscope, a camera with a ground glass and a few books er blocks to make the necessary adjustments, such arrangements are in- adequate for laboratory work. To meet the needs of the laboratory many forms of apparatus have been devised, some of which are admirably adapted to the particular work for which they are intended. Most of them have a limited range of adjustment and not well adapted to all kinds of work. The object of the writer in constructing a new apparatus was to get one more nearly adapted to all laboratory conditions than is now provided. The requisites of a good photo-micrographic apparatus are rigidity, ease and accuracy of adjustment and adaptibility to all kinds of work. The first condition has been met by using metal in the construction, thus obviating shrinking, swelling and warping, inherent qualities of wood. The second and third requirements have been met in the mechanical con- struction. The cut shows the stand in working order in the inclined position. The apparatus consists of an upright cast-iron post supported by three cast legs. The center of this post is bored out to receive the elevating post. Near the top is a sprocket wheel, which is turned by a screw and crank. A binding screw is also placed in the top to clamp the elevating post in position. The upright post, with its legs, stands 28 inches high. The 79 elevating post is 28 inches long, is of two-inch steel tubing, turned to fit the hole in the upright post. 3. b. Three-lettered invariant forms. Let a term of this invariant be BAVA 6—SCIENCE. 82 Apply S to this term and. the terms resulting until no new terms are obtained, then forming the simplest symmetric function of these terms we reach Dt rep ele TO 2228 ates oP ae | [4 pete Fe +7) y. eter Bera This form is invariant under S, but vanishes identically unless a+ 6+ y=o0 (mod 3). Hence we conclude a + 8 + y=0 (mod. 8)...............000000e (1) Apply Tto F,. Immediately there appears, among others, the terms A yA Zp VAP and BZ, 223 VA A and B being independent of Z; hence terms of this type are in our invariant, and it is necessary to investigate their behavior under the appli- cation of S. Treating Ba A Zs exactly as Dias 2 Tig was treated above we reach Fy =22[ af ay +e? 28 27 4 2h ay|[ise Cty, +y], which vanishes identically unless 3+) =o. (mod. 3). Similarly treating Z,° zZP Z;, we obtain a form which vanishes identically unless a+ 3—o0 (mod 8). Hence we conclude that a + 30 (mod 3) 1 ) 3 + y =(o) (mod 8) J but a+ 8+ y=o0 (mod 3). -.-a@=o0 (mod 3) Z=0 (mod 3) Perr re sree tte eet et etter scenes (3) —_o (mod 3) It is evident that if t be any three lettered term whose exponents satisfy the conditions (3) that T’’: (t) flay a +8 +7 t, .'. F,, which is invariant under §, satisfies the relation ee Sa rouger rst Soi. ; Hence a + 3+ 7-0 (mod 2) is a sufficient and necessary condition that F, is an 1 absolute invariant under T?. Similar remarks apply to F, and F,. Hence we conclude a+ B--y=0 (mod 2) .. from 1 G64 4 =o: (med’6) abyss sheemaeeaees: wnt soar aeeee (4) Tf, therefore, Tin ZP VAS is a term of an invariant form, then Gap — y—0 (mod 8) |. Me) ms ney Oe (5) a+ 3+ y=0 (mod 6) 83 : ‘ EO aides ; : Applying now S and T to Z, Z) Z; and to the terms resulting until no new ones are reached, and forming the simplest symmetric functions, we obtain the form: Boy Briers y | 7 ASD NOL lay AY ela ea RAY Ad é f ¥, ig 3 7 7 ig 5 7) | RIGA aL I al Aaah ay Sele Aa 9g) 6 Dwy ig ira ig BU ay eh Aware ae Zr Bl One Ae | PRET zea! n+ Ad oe af 22 ZF at \=Pa, B, >, (aay), (0): Giving to a, 3, y all possible values under limitations (5), we obtain a triply infinite system of invariant forms. And this is the complete system, for we cav only start with 7 an Vga t op PS OMea ae oe 6) ) if, Dg.) 2 OP De, Oe OP 22, 22 OP a or BE ZEAL. But all these terms may be found in | oe 3) by a suitable interchange of «, }3, y. A 3. » is also an invariant. Since Certainly any rational function of the forms ps ; Dt fad, a+ 3+ y=o (2), at least one of the exponents is even. Corollary]. Py ga g?7h 472 7P 4 72 7h 4 oooh + 2e oP + ae ae Pe eee A ae Boe Me ere Le eee Ze De \entes Cor, 2. Po. pe = Pe, a; Po ee Cor. 3. If 6 =o and y—o, and a = 0 (mod 2), we get a one-lettered form, Pi bat (t=1 == 4). a= o(mod 6). 2. To calculate the basis of our system. *Hilbert has shown that if Z isa system of integral homogeneous forms of n variables that F, any form of Z can be represented by the expression mm F=Z A; F; when m is finite and A; are homogeneous integral functions of the i=1 variables and F; are forms of Z. And in particular if Z be defined as a system of forms invariant under a group, that F any form of Z may be represented by a rational integral function of a finite number of forms of % This finite number of forms is called the basis of the system. *See Mathematische Annallen, Vol. 36. 84 To find the basis of the forms of P a, 3, y We need the recursion formule, tee ies } d which may be verified by computation. baw. = Ps, 70-1 y, 66 WS Aa 6,B,y+ See Ze Zs Po— 12, B,Y LE ff | Zz Po_=18'6 y= Po en y heed Pe aig Lees Ae Py a” gly ae eee Tay oe Pa, B=18.9 = Pa, B+6,7 mM Se WW: Rg | mM N NS 642 AA BPs pg y—12 ~TTA Pe 2 yg Po, 2 Bee II 28 -> 28 28 Po, p, »—TIXP>xX' Pa—e, s—6, y_6_-N Pe 19.8 99 G14 ee ee Fe Pe oe BANG, y ee Pa +12, 8412 > +412. Making y =o in 8, 9, 10, we get recursion formulz for Pa, ;3. By a repeated and successive application of the formule 8, 9, 10 to any Pa, 3, y, it is expressed as a rational integral function of forms Pa’, 3’, y’ whose greatest index is 18, and therefore finite in number, and which is therefore the basis of the system. I will add, however, that by a somewhat tedious reduction it can be shown that the system can be pares as rational functions of S 6 6 6 #7 r, r dy Zo, > 28 28, > 78 26 28, Z, Z, Zz Zy Pos Piss, Pe3,3, Pe,9,3, Rate oF DECREASE OF THE INTENSITY OF SouNDS WITH TIME OF PROPOGA- TION. By A. Witmer Durr. fAbstract. ] PART I.—THEORETICAL. The intensity of sounds spreading in spherical waves from a source would, if no part of the energy of vibration were lost in the passage, vary inversely as the square of the distance. But it is certain that a consid- erable proportion of the sound energy must in every second be converted into heat, though no attempt seems to have been made to determine experimentally what proportion this is of the whole. The transformation of energy of vibration into heat energy takes place in three ways. In the 85 first place, the viscosity or internal friction of the air must cause a dimin- ution of the vibrational energy and the production of heat. Again, in each condensed part of a sound wave heat is produced by the condensa- _ tion; this causes a rise of temperature and an immediate tendency for radiation of heat and conduction of heat to take place. Similarly a fall of temperature takes place in the rarefied part of the wave with a similar tendency to radiation and conduction. Now, the greater the extent of this radiation and conduction, the less will be the amount of vibrational energy handed on and consequently the less the intensity of the sound. In addition to spherical spreading, viscosity, conduction and radiation, two other sources of diminution of intensity might be mentioned, namely, atmospheric refraction and lack of atmospheric homogeneity; but these two latter influences are only occasional or local, while the former are invariable and universal. Several eminent physicists have given theoretical discussions of the effects of viscosity, radiation or conduction separately or of two of them simultaneously. Thus Stokes, in 1845, studied the effect of viscosity and deduced numerical results, and in 1851 he found a formula for the effect of radiation, but calculation from this result is still impossible because of our total ignorance of the rate of radiation of a gas. Rayleigh has applied Stokes’ method to estimate the effect of conduction. These in- vestigations referred to plain waves only. Kirchoff, in 1868, discussed the effect of conduction and viscosity together on plane waves, and indi- cated the result for spherical waves also. Brunhes has recently examined the effect of conduction on plane waves, obtaining a result in accord with those of Kirchoff and Rayleigh. In order to deduce any intelligible results from the observations, I have made it necessary to either assume or establish a law of diminution of intensity in spherical waves, taking account of viscosity, radiation, con- duction and spherical spreading simultaneously. As considerable doubt might attach to a general formula framed by the superposing the formule already obtained for the separate effects enumerated, it seemed advisable to undertake a new theoretical investigation for spherical waves affected by viscosity, radiation and conduction. (This discussion is here omitted, but will be printed in full elsewhere.) The conclusion which we arrive at is that the intensity varies as — uy e “mr 9 Tr” 86 provided the proportional rate of fall of temperature of the gas by radia- tion be small compared with the number expressing the pitch of the sound. In the experimental work described in the second part of this paper sounds of very high pitch were employed, so that the above condi- tion was satisfied. By this means a value for the constant radiation is finally deducted, and it is found to be small in comparison with the pitch-number of any ordinary sound, and so the solution obtained above may be considered as holding true, at least very approximately, for any sound of moderate pitch. PART II.—EXPERIMENTAL. Any attempt to compare sound intensities is attended by great diffi- culties. The term intensity can itself be understood in two ways—firstly in the subjective or physiological sense of loudness, and secondly, in the objective or dynamical sense of rate of flow of energy. T: e only case in which there seems to be a constant proportion between these two is when we compare sounds of the same pitch and quality. In deducing re- sults from the experiments, I have made the following assumption: When two faint and diminishing sounds are indistinguishable by the ear as regards pitch and quality, the minimum of energy flow required for audibility is the same. While this assumption cannot be fully justified, it seems at least inherently highly probable, and can at most differ but slightly from the truth. The errors consequent on this assumption prob- ably lie well within the experimental errors in the following method: A large number of very small whistles were made of as nearly as pos- sible the same shape and dimensions. From these the eight that seemed most similar were chosen and mounted on a wind-chest in such a way that any number could be blown under a definite pressure measured by a water monometer. The distances at which each pair and the whole eight just became inaudible were then determined. It was found that near the limits of audibility the sounds were indistinguishable in quality. Let R be the distance at which all eight whistles blown simultaneously became inaudible and r the mean distance at which two became inau- dible. Then at a distance r the mean rate of energy-flow from two whistles equals the minimum for audibility, and hence that of eight whistles equals four times the minimum for audibility, while at distance R, the rate of energy-flow of eight whistles equals the minimum for audi- bility. If now, in accordance with the above assumption, the minimum be the same in both cases, 87 e-2mR e-?mr TR = ereglte 4 r ies Mone (> ery The observations were made at a very quiet place on the River St. John, in New Brunswick, Canada, the whistles being sounded on one side by an assistant and the sounds listened to on the opposite side. Only times when there was no appreciable wind were chosen for observa- tion. When a wind sprang up in the course of a set of observations the work was discontinued and the observations discarded. In order to eliminate the effect of reflection from the banks, several different stations for sounding and directions for observing were tried in different sets of observations. The orifices of the whistles were always kept turned directly toward the observer. To avoid errors due to the tiring of the ear, in some cases the observations on the pairs of whistles were made first, and in other cases those on the eight whistles. Various devices were tried to eliminate the effect of bias in determining the distance of inaudibility. As regards the difficulty of determining the point at which the sounds became inaudible, this was found much less than was ex- pected. Nevertheless, there was always a space in which it was doubtful whether the sound was heard or imagined. The middle point of such a space was taken as the most probable position of extinction. As regards the success attained in attempting to make the different pairs of whistles of equal intensity, the following figures may be quoted. (These were the only cases in which the position for each pair of whistles was finally calculated. In general the position for each pair was marked by a stake and the mean finally taken for measurement.) In the first the mean distance was 1,693 feet and the distance of the separate observa- tionstions for the mean —28, —18, +5, +41, a total range of 69 feet. In the other the mean distance was 2,078 feet, and the distances from the mean were —39, —15, +9, +45, a total range of 84 feet. Here something must be allowed for unavoidable bias, but yet the result seems fairly satisfactory. The whistles were made of the stopped-organ-pipe form. In the ab- sence of facilities for the purpose their exact pitch was not determined until after the experiments had been made. The pitch was then de- termined by using a high pressure sensitive flame to find the nodes of the stationary waves produced by reflection from a wall. The semi-wave 88 lengths are as follows, in inches: .98, .97, .95, .95, .97, .95, .95, .96. The mean of these is .960, corresponding to a vibration frequency of 6,820. The following table gives the series of readings made and the values of m deduced, all lengths being in feet: SERIES. r. R. | Temp m Bere ee he Mees rate 1260 1660 80° F .0010 gee a, Soe cl ord abe ieee 1333 1699 74 0012 eee ciobrasie SE SUHAN tb actin,» «1/2 2078 2473 60 | 0013 OE idee Ck Day | SEN ane Sane | 1502 1834 | 70 0015 I) A es Bes Ai ah rl Re 1959 2335 68 .0013 ; To enable us to appreciate the meaning of these figures, it may be noted that, since the eight whistles gave a sound of four times as great an intrinsic intensity as the mean pair of whistles, this sound should, if no cause except spherical spreading affected the intensity, be audible just twice as far, while, as a matter of fact, owing to the other causes enumerated, it was usually audible only about one and one-quarter times as far. The value of m may be expressed by saying that, excluding the effect of spherical spreading, the intensity of the sound died off about one-fourth of 1 per cent. for each foot of advance. For such rough determinations of a quantity very difficult to determine at all, the agreement between the values of m, as shown by the last column, seems very satisfactory. If now we return to the theoretical investigation it can be shown that the value of m consists of the sum of three parts, due, respectively, to viscosity, conduction and radiation. Since the constants of viscosity and conduction are known, while the full value of m has been found by ex- peiment, it can be calculated that the effect of viscosity is to produce a diminution of intensity amounting to one-fortieth of 1 per cent. per foot of advance; of conduction, one-seventieth of 1 per cent., while the re- mainder, amounting to one-fifth of 1 per cent., is due to radiation. It may be questioned whether all of the part of the effect thus attrib- uted to radiation is really due to that cause and whether part of it may not be due to refraction and heterogeneity of atmosphere, as stated earlier. That it is not due to refraction is pretty certain, for refraction tends to produce actual sound shadows of the surface of the earth or water at 89 certain distances, and so would be very marked when acting. It also varies greatly with the gradient of temperature, being nonexistant when the temperature does not change as we ascend for some distance. Now, both the distances of observation and the state of the atmosphere would rary greatly, and hence if the circumstances were such that refraction had any considerable effect the values obtained for m would vary widely aiong themselves. Moreover, calculation will show that for the eleva- tion of sounding station and observing station employed, the distances at which refraction would appreciably affect the value or m would be much greaier than those employed in the observations. AS regards invisible striaé of water vapor, these must have had a very small effect, if any at all, for the effect should vary very greatly With the state of the atmosphere, and this varied very widely, some observations being made at noonday of very hot days, others between 7:30 and 8:30 in the evening, and on one occasion, while the sky was overcast and the atmosphere heavily charged with water vapor just be- fore a storm. Probably, therefore, nearly all the effect mentioned is due to radiation. Now, the theoretical investigation shows that the effects of viscosity and conduction decrease very rapidly with decreasing pitch, being pro- portional to the squares of the vibration frequency, while the effect of radiation is independent of pitch. We conclude, therefore, that for sounds of ordinary pitch the effect of viscosity and conduction on intensity is practically negligible, while the effect of radiation amounts to about one- fifth of 1 per cent. per foot of advance. THE ConstANT OF RADIATION OF AIR. By A. WILMER Durfr. [Abstract.] Assuming that for small differences of temperature, radiation takes place according to the law stated by Newton, namely, in proportion to the excess of temperature of the radiating body above its surroundings, we may define the constant of radiation of air as the rate of cooling (by radiation) of a body of air which has been raised one degree above the sounding mass. From the results of the preceding paper it can be calculated that this is about 8.8 degrees per sec. This is equivalent to saying that in the first hundredth of a second the heated mass would 90 cool one-twelfth of a degree, or if a mass of air be heated to any excess above the surrounding mass it will fall to one-half of that excess in about one-twelfth of a second. For reasons stated in the preceding paper it is evident that this value must err rather in being too large than in being too small. PRELIMINARY Resutts By A New MerHop FoR THE Stupy OF IMPACT.* By A. W. Durr ann J. B. MEYER. The purpose of this paper is to briefly describe an apparatus for the study of impact of masses of wood on one another, and to state a few results obtained by means of it. It was intended to include in the investigation not only the change in the relative velocity of the impinging bodies produced by impact, but also the length of time the bodies are in contact, the closeness of approach produced by their mutual compression, and the internal vibrations to which impact gives rise. The apparatus was constructed by Mr. Meyer, and the present results obtained by him early in this year, but only a small part of the contemplated work was completed when it had to be discontinued. Calling, as usual, the ratio of the velocity of separation after impact to the velocity of approach before impact the coefficient of restitution, it may be stated that the results to be given here are only a few isolated determinations of the coefficient of restitution and of the time of contact. In principle the apparatus consists of a block dropped vertically on a much larger mass of the same material, the circumstances of the impact being recorded in a curve traced by a pencil attached to the block on a vertical revolving drum covered with a sheet of paper. To describe the apparatus more fully, it consists of two vertical beams mortised in a massive cross-shaped base, the beams adjust- able so that the space between can be regulated. The height of the beams is 8 feet. Between these beams as guides the block can descend with comparatively little friction. On the base, the larger of the two impinging masses, or the plate as we shall eall it, is rigidly clamped. Immediately in front of the beams is fixed on cone bearings a vertical rotating cylinder around which a sheet of paper is wrapped. The cylinder is 2 feet in diameter and 2} feet in height. Fastened to the top of the descending block is a small removable board, to which is attached a brass tube carrying a pencil. The tube is secured in position by a catch attached *This paper is an abstract of a thesis presented by Mr. J.B. Meyer for the degree of B.Se., and placed in the library of Purdue University. or to a lever arm. By a crossbar placed at any desired height, this lever is tripped up as the block descends, the pencil is released and shot forward by the tension of rubber bands so as to press against the paper-covered cylinder. Were the cylinder at rest, the pencil would merely describe a vertical line, turning back on the same line at the moment of impact. When the cylinder is in rotation the _ pencil describes a curve which is abruptly reversed at the moment of impact. As the block usually bounces several times before coming to rest, this curve consists of successive loops meeting at sharp angles which correspond to the successive impacts. This will be fully understood by a glance at the record sheet shown on the wall. If now we draw tangents to these curves at a point of impact, and denote by Vi the velocity of the block immediately before impact, by Vr its velocity immediately after impact and by Vc the velocity of the surface of the cylinder at the moment of impact, then— Ve y =a 4 Ve tan @ a’ ——— —— ’ Vi tan @ y : Ve x Del Vr ae : ‘ or, if x’ be taken equal to x, we have e= crs ~—, the coefficient being consid- / f] y — ered negative, since Vr is a negative quantity. Thus the actual velocity need not be known so far as the determination of e is concerned, and the process is reduced to the drawing of two tangent lines and the measuring of the ordinates corresponding to equal abcissae measured from the point of impact. To enable us to find the time of contact during impact, or, briefly, the dura- tion of impact, it is necessary to know the speed of the cylinder. Now once in each rotation of the cylinder it thrusts up a vertical wire attached to the short arm of a lever, causing the longer arm to descend and complete an electric circuit and give a record on the drum of an electro-chronograph. The speed of the drum is determined by a parallel record of the time of vibration of a second’s pendulum which completes another electric circuit whenever it passes through the vertical. The electro-chronograph thus used is one made by the Geneva Society, of Switz- erland; its drum can be made to rotate once in a second under the control of a Foucault regulator. From the curve exhibited it is plain that the impinging bodies compress each other during the first period of contact, and upon separation they more or less regain their original forms; so that at each rebound a portion of the line traced by the pencil when at rest is intercepted between the curves traced by the pencil. Dividing the length of the portion so intercepted by the product of the circumference of the cylinder and the number of revolutions per second we have the duration of contact. It is not necessary always to determine 92 the speed of the cylinder by means of the chronograph, for, having once found a good average value for the velocity of impact for a certain height of drop, the velocity of the cylinder at any other impact from the same height of drop can be found trom the inclination of the impact curve. Thus ade — hn Ve Vi and Ve = tan a It may also be noted that the amount of mutual compression at impact is at least approximately given by the extent to which the curve sinks below the zero line. By making the moment of inertia of the cylinder large, its speed during the time of contact may be considered as constant. It should be noted that the results do not depend upon the friction between the block and the guides, for we are concerned only with the actual velocities just before and just after impact, no matter how they are attained. PRELIMINARY TESTS WITH THE APPARATUS. The method here employed for the determination of the coefficient of restitu- tion, consists in principle, in the dropping of a mass on a plate so large that the motion communicated to it may be neglected, so that the relative motion is merely that of the block. As a matter of fact in the arrangement adopted, the stationary plate is only about ten times as large as the block, but it is so solidly clamped to the base of the massive structure that it is assumed to be practically immovable. It might however be suspected that the result would depend upon the stationary block, i. e., its mass, or its vertical thickness, for evidently if it were too thin it would in reality be on the elasticity of the base beneath it that the force of rebound would depend. To test this point, a short beam of well-seasoned cherry was taken whose cross-section was a rectangle, one side of which was three times as long as the other, so that the beam was three times as thick in one direction as that in the other. The actual dimensions of the beam were 2’— 13’— 43”. If these thicknesses for the stationary mass be too small, it should be shown by the coefficient of. restitution being different for impacts in the direction of the greater thickness and in the direction of the smaller thickness. The impinging block used was also cherry, the grain being vertical and the impinging surface turned into a hemisphere of 7 centimeters radius. The value of e found with the greater thickness of the beam vertical was .35 and with the smaller thickness 93 vertical was .36. Another beam of the same material was then taken whose cross- section was a square, the side being equal to the greater side of the rectangle in the preceding. The mean value obtained by large number of impacts was .355. It will be understood that the mass in this case was three times as great as that in the preceding cases, and that all three values agreed very closely. Hence it is assumed that the thickness in these cases was sufficient and that practically the base acted like a very great mass. In the preceding, the drops were from the same height. The next point tested was whether or not the height was so great that the limit of elasticity of the wood was passed. A series of determinations was made with all other cir- cumstances similar, but with different heights of drop each time, varying from 1 to 6 feet, and the values of e while varying from .34 to .38 showed no regular de- pendence on the height of drop. It may be stated that such differences as here obtained occurred frequently, although usually smaller in amount. They are mostly attributable to the lack of homogenity in parts which seem superficially | quite similar in structure. The mean value of e¢ in this series was .363. It may be stated that the same impinging block was used over and over again. Had there been any effect produced by the crushing of the impinging surface of the block, it seems evident that it would have shown itself in a change of the value of e. As no such appeared, it seems evident that no such effect existed. To settle the question, however, a series of determinations was made with a newly turned impinging surface each time. The radius of curvature was much larger in this ease. The result was that the values for e obtained in these tests were practically constant and unchanged by the successive impacts of the impinging surface, but were notably large with this larger radius of impinging surface, the mean value being .42, while with the smaller radius of curvature it was .36. The effect of curvature will be spoken of later. In all the preceding tests the impacts were on new and undinted surfaces of the base plate. This was necessary because an effect due to the dinting of the plate had been observed though not accurately examined. We now more carefully tested this point and found that under successive impacts on the same spot of the base plate the value of e rose steadily from the earlier value of .36 to .49, showing a permanent effect due to a crushing of the material of the base plate. The radius of curvature as formerly was 7 cm. Again, to find the effect of curvature of the impinging block, a series of tests were made, first with a curvature of 3 cm., then of 7 cm., and then of 10 cm., and it was found that the eorresponding values of e were-—for 3 cm., .32; for 7 cm., .37; for 10 cm., .42, thus showing that the value of e increased with increas- ing values of the radius of curvature. 94 The last point.tested was the effect of the mass of the impinging block, those so far used weighing about one kilogramme, or two and a fifth pounds. The mass was now doubled and the radius of curvature being 7 cm., as in the earlier tests, a value of .36 was obtained. It was now found that with the height of drop 120 cm., or 4 ft., the value of e remained the same as before, namely, .36, but that for a drop of 6 ft., the value decreased to .383, and with a much heavier mass the value sank to.25. Attention might be here called to the fact that there might seem to be some contradiction between the statements that while greater height and therefore greater force of impact with the light block on fresh parts of. the base plate did not affect the value of e, an increase of the impinging mass showed a decrease in the value of e with increasing force of impact, while suc- cessive impacts on the same spot showed an increasing value of e. The explana- tion would seem to be that whereas beyond a certain limit, increasing force of impact produced an initial crushing of the surface from which there is only im- perfect recovery, when successive impacts take place on the same spot, at each impact there is a greater area of resisting surface encountered, and also less unre- stored crushing, and hence a greater velocity of rebound with a consequent increase of e. The point seems to merit a more careful investigation than it received in these purely preliminary experiments. These tests point out the limits as regard mass of impinging block and height of fall within which it is safe to work in comparing the coefficients of restitution of different materials. It also shows that for a comparison of different materials it is necessary to adopt the same curvature of impinging surface and to use a fresh part of the base ptate for each impact. Hence in the following comparison the masses of the impinging blocks are uniformly one kilogramme, radius of curva- ture of the impinging surface 10 em. and the height of falk 120 cm. TABLE OF COMPARISON. Material. Value of e. Duration of Contact. Whitepile vies enc MBit Fitba eae Ges .0017 seconds. Wihite poplars i..95%. cht ADEE tices h sod sud ee ae .0016 os CON CRNY: 5 coupcis ore nite ce rh oe A eaten 3 th Beet ee .0016 ys ierd! maple ie te ree Be Sed Fps eres Be Bee .0012 is In the above it will be understood that in all cases the grain of the impinging block was vertical and that of the base plate horizontal. The first remark that may be made about these results is the surprising closeness of the values of e for the different materials, varying between .38 and .45, while the duration of con- tact varied between .0012 sec. and .0017 sec. It may also be noted that the values of e varied in the inverse order to the duration of contact. 95 A few determinations were also made with the grain of both block and plate horizontal, the other circumstances, curvature and height, being the same as in the above table. These results are given as they be of interest but very little reliance can be placed upon them as they were somewhat hastily made and time did not permit of repetition. Material. Value of e. Duration of Contact. Witter ova sani SAI Buh eS Aerariag sia ake ole .0024 seconds. Ohennymeis of see he siepeas hs Pe eet eRe pet ph MS Pr 0014 ec Panduinia pl elev jes ate. ADO Ra Mee, ANTM icet Mtoe .0012 rt These seem to show in a more pronounced manner the connection between duration of contact and the coefficient of restitution, but for reasons above stated we hesitate to regard the law as established. It may be added, by way of a postscript of less serious content, that the length of time of contact of a base ball with a bat and the corresponding value of the coefficient of restitution, were determined by this method. These values are for the duration of contact ;+,; seconds, and for the coefficient of restitution %. VARIATIONS IN THE SPECTRUM OF THE OPEN AND CLOSED ELEcTRIC ARC. By ArtHur L. FoLry. [Abstract.] The image of a normal electric are appears to consist of three regions— a central violet portion, an outer yellow sheath or flame and an intermedi- ate sheath of blue. By means of a Rowland grating and a Brashear mounting, and a concave mirror to focus the image of the are upon the slit, a photographic study was made of the spectra of these regions under four conditions: (1) A vertical are and a vertical slit, (2) a vertical are blown out by a horseshoe magnet, (8) a horizontal arc and a vertical slit, (4) a horizontal are and a horizontal slit. The accompanying table gives the results of a study of the three re- gions of the arc with the slit vertical and through the center of each region. Two exposures were made in each position, three seconds and thirty seconds in the violet and blue regions, ten seconds and thirty sec- onds in the outer or yellow sheath. An exposure of three seconds in the latter brought out only ten lines. 96 + REGION 1. REGION 2. | REGION 3, CENTRAL VIOLET. Bur. OUTER YELLOW’ ELEMENTS. ee alee, 3 Lan ees |... ate 1. ate 2. Ex posure! Exposure ae 4h. ae 4. || Plate 5. ak 6. Beda git aan Seconds. Seconds. )||Seconds. |Seconds. CORES cera thas ea bese. 313 450 60 27: 1 8 Mee certo eee en apres 84 107 29 91 47 T4 Se LE rok tates 42 RAS Aree oe A 14 17 3 5) 8 15 Aiea tt SEE ARR oy tae 7 sete 0 20 0 1 0 1 PER eee oye nck Vaan, Bs ok ome ence etauns (i ate 3 4 2 3 2 3 212M (cane, 5 al BS a ot Sel so 2 3 2 2 2 2 Ny iT ogee oe SO Staite, 46 Mrin ea emee ae 2 2 0 2 1 1 Oar. : 0 2 0 0 0 0 12S SAR Sey Oe SEED oes ied Aiea, 1 2 0 1 1 al Winee ech eek eee ae lo cau ae 1 1 0 1 0 i Te setae one Meee Ger mae ta. 1 1 1 1 0 il IWOUAGONIINOM a. caidare se ane 4 50 0 1 0 0 Baintiorbimnred: S' is the point isogonal conjugate to S. R is the point of concurrence of perpendiculars from A, B, C on the sides of Nagel’s triangle. M, is the centre of Nagel’s circle. T is the point of concurrence of perpendiculars from A’ B’ (” upon the re- spective sides of A’” B” C0”. Z is Brocard’s centre. Z' is the point isogonal conjugate to Z. P is the point isotomic conjugate to O. P' is the point isogonal conjugate to P. Q, is the point isogonal conjugate to Q'. F is the centre of Nine points circle. THEOREMS. The original sources of the theorems are known in only a very few cases. The references simply indicate where the theorems may be found. (1.) M, H and G are collinear. (Lachlan—Modern Pure Geometry, p. 67.) (2:) K, G and the Symmedian point of Ma My Me are collinear. (Ibid, p. 138.) (3.) Tangents to the circumcircle at the vertices of AB C form the triange P Q R; Ha, Hv, He are the feet of the altitudes of AB C; P Ha, QHb, RH¢ are concurrent in a point which is collinear with M and H. (Ibid, p. 138.) (4.) M, K and the orthocentre of its pedal triangle are collinear. (McClellan—The Geometry of the Circle, p. 83.) (5) M and the orthocentre of its pedal triangle are equidistant from and col- linear, with the centre of Taylor’s Circle. (Ibid, p. 83.) (6.) Q, Q! and P are collinear. (Aley—Contributions to the Geometry of the Triangle, p. 8.) (7.) K, P! and Q, are collinear. (Ibid, p. 13.) 106 S!, K and D are collinear. (Ibid, p. 15.) H, M! and D are collinear. (Ibid, p. 19.) Shi Vik and D are collinear. (Ibid, p. 24.) Q, 21 and §S are collinear. (Schwatt—Geometric Treatment of Curves, p 7.) K, Z, M are all collinear. (Ibid, p. 3.) Z1, H, and § are collinear. (Ibid, p. 13.) N, M, and D are collinear. (Ibid, p. 17.) D, S and G are collinear. (Ibid, p. 7.) Q, O and G are collinear. (Ibid, p. 36.) D!, H and N are collinear. (Ibid, p. 16.) Q, M and Z are collinear. (Ibid, p. 44.) R, O and M, are collinear. (Ibid, p. 43.) Me, Mic and § are collinear. (Casey—Sequel, 5th edition, p. 242.) K, M and the center of the triplicate ratio circle are collinear. oe (Richardson and Ramsey—Modern Plane Geometry, p. 41.) N, M and the point of concurrence of lines through A, B, C parallel to the corresponding sides of Brocard’s first triangle are collinear. (Lachlan— Modern Pure Geometry, p. 81.) K, Ma and the middle point of altitude upon B C are collinear. (Richardson and Ramsey—Modern Plane Geometry, p. 58.) H, G and F are collinear. (W. B. Smith—Modern Synthetic Geometry, p. 141.) If A’ is the pole of BC with respect to the cireumcircle of A BC, then A,, A and the Symmedian point are collinear. (Casey—Sequel, 5th edition, p. 171.) 107 (26.) The intersections of the anti-parallel chords D! E, E! F, F! D with Lemoine’s parallels D E!, E F!, F D! respectively, are collinear. The D, E, F, D', E’, F', are the six points of intersection of Lemoine’s circle with the sides of the triangle. (Ibid, p. 182.) (27.) It the line joining two corresponding points of directly similar figures * F,, F,, F, described on the sides of the triangle ABC, pass through the centroid, the three corresponding points are collinear. (Ibid, p. 237.) (28.) If from Tarry’s point _|_’s be drawn to the sides B C, C A, A B of the tri- angle, meeting the sides in (a, a,, a,) (9, 3,, 8.) (Y, ¥1, Y2), the points a, B, y are collinear, so also (@,, 8,, y) and (a,, 8, y,). (Neuberg.) (Ibid, p. 241.) (29.) In any triangle AB C, O, O! are the centres of the inscribed circle and of the escribed circle opposite A; OO! meets BCin D. Any straight line through D meets AB, AC respectively in b, ec. Ob, O' e intersect in P, O1b, OcinQ. PA Qis a straight line perpendicular to O O!. (Wolstenholme—Math. Problems, p. 8, No. 79.) (30.) A triangle P QR circumscribes a circle. A second triangle A BC is formed by taking points on the sides of this triangle such that A P, BQ, C Rare concurrent. From the points A, B, C tangents A a, B b, C c aredrawn tothe circle. These tangents produced intersect the sides BC, C A, AB, in the three points a b c, which are collinear. (Catalan Geométrie Elementiaire, p. 250.) (31.) The three internal and three external bisectors of the angles of a triangle meet the opposite sides in six points which lie three by three in four straight lines. (Richardson and Ramsey—-Modern Plane Geometry, p. 19.) (32.) If O be any point, then the external bisectors of the angles BOC, CO A, A OB meet the sides BC, C A, AB respectively in three collinear points. (Ibid, p. 52.) (83.) The external bisectors of the angles of a triangle meet the opposite sides in collinear points. (A special case of 31.) (Lachlan—Modern Pure Geometry, p. 57.) (34.) Lines drawn through any point O perpendicular to the lines O A, O B, OC meet the sides of the triangle AB C in three collinear points. (Ibid, p. 59.) (36.) (37.) (38.) (39.) (40.) (41.) If any line cuts the sides of a triangle in X, Y, Z; the isogonal conjugates of A X, B Y, C Z respectively will meet the opposite sides in collinear points. (Ibid, p. 59.) If a line cut the sides in X, Y, Z; the isotomic points of X, Y, Z with re- spect to the sides will be collinear. (Ibid, p. 59.) , If from any point P on the circumcircle of the triangle ABC, P L, PM, P N be drawn perpendicular to P A, P B, PC, meeting BC, C A, AB, in L, M, N, then these points L, M, N are collinear with ‘circumcentre, (Ibid, p. 67.) If PL, PM, PN be _|_’s drawn from a point P on the circumcircle to the sides B C, C A, AB respectively, and if Pl, Pm, Pn be drawn meet- ing the sides in 1, m, n and making the angles L Pl, M Pm, N Pn equal when measured in the same sense, then the points 1, m, n are collinear, (Ibid, p. 68.) If X 'Y Zand X' Y' Z are any two transversals of the triangle AB C: Y W’; ZX, X Y* cut the sides B C, C A, AB in collinear points. (Ibid, p. 60.) If X Y Zand X! Y! Z' be any two transversals of the triangle AB C, and and if Y Z', Y! Z meet in P, Z X!, Z' X meet in Q, X Y', X' Y in R, then A P, BQ, C R cut the sides B C, C A, AB in collinear points. (Ibid, p. 61.) the lines AO, BO, CO cut the sides of the triangle ABC in X, Y, Z; and if the points X?, Y?, Z1 be the harmonic conjugate points of X, Y, Z with respect to B, C; C, A; and A, B, respectively, then X’, Y?, Zire I —_ collinear. (Ibid, p. 61.) If the inscribed circle touch the sides in X, Y, Z, then the lines Y Z, Z X, X Y cut the sides B C, C A, AB in three collinear points. (Ibid, p. 62.) The feet of perpendiculars from H and G upon A G and A H respectively are collinear with K. (Ibid, p. 147.) If three triangles AB C, A, B, C,, and A, B, C, have a common axis of perspective, their centres of perspective when taken two and two, are collinear. (McClellan—Geometry of the Circle, p. 122.) (45.) (46. ) (47.) (48.) (51.) (52.) (53.) 109 AB C is a triangle inscribed in and in perspective with A’ B' C?; the tan- gents from A BC to the incircle of A! B! C! meet the opposite sides in three collinear points, X, Y, Z (BC in X, etc.). (Ibid, p. 128.) If three pairs of tangents drawn from the vertices of a triangle to any circle, meet the opposite sides X, X!, Y, Y!, Z, Z', and if X, Y, Z are collinear, so also are X!, Y?, Z?. (Ibid, p. 128.) Ii X Y Z is a transversal and if X!, Y! Z! are the harmonic conjugates of X,Y, Z, then ts Zhe BOR xk are collinear. Also the middle points of X X!, Y Y', Z Z! are collinear. (Ibid, p. 131.) Tf L is an axis of symmetry to the congruent triangles A B C and A! B! CG! and O is any point on L, A? O, B! O, C1 O cut the sides BC, C A, AB in three collinear points. (Depuis—Modern Synthetic Geometry, p. 204.) Two triangles which have their vertices connecting concurrently, have their corresponding sides intersecting collinearly. (Desargue’s Theorem.) (Ibid, p. 204.) A!, B,? C! are points on sides of AB C such that AA!, BB!, C C! are con- current, then AB, A’ B'; BC, B! C!, C A, C! A? meet in three points Z, X, Y which are collinear. (Ibid, p. 205.) If P be any point, AB C a triangle and A’ B! C? its polar reciprocal with respect to a polar centre O, the perpendiculars from O on the joins P A, P B, and P C intersect the sides of A! B! C? collinearly. (Ibid, p. 223.) If the three vertices of a triangle be reflected with respect to any line, the three lines connecting the reflexions with any point on the line intersect collinearly with the opposite sides. (Townsend—Modern Geometry, p. 180.) When three of the six tangents to a circle from three vertices of a triangle intersect collinearly with the opposite sides, the remaining three also intersect collinearly with the opposite sides. (Ibid, p. 180.) (56.) (60.) (61.) (62. ) If from the middle points of the sides of the triangle A B C, tangents be drawn to the corresponding Neuberg circles, the points of contact lie on two right lines through the centroid of A BC. (Casey—Sequel, p. 241.) : If P is a Simson’s point for A BC, and O any other point on the circum- circle of A BC, then the projections of O upon the Simson’s lines of O with respect to the triangles P A C, P BC, PC A, A BC are collinear. (Lachlan—Modern Pure Geometry, p. 69.) When three lines through the vertices of a triangle are concurrent, the six bisectors of the three angles they determine intersect the corresponding sides of the triangle at six points, every three of which on different sides are collinear if an odd number is external. (Ibid, p. 181.) When three points on the sides of a triangle are collinear, the six bisec- tions of the three segments they determine connect with the correspond- ing vertices of the triangle by six lines, every three of which through different vertices are collinearly intersectant with the opposite sides if an odd number is external. (Ibid, p. 182.) A,, Mia and K?, the intersection of the Symmedian through A and the tangent to circumcircle at C, are collinear. (Schwatt—Geometric Treatment of Curves, p. 4.) If M X and F Y are parallel radii, in the same direction, in circumeircle and Feuerbach circle, then X, Y, and H are collinear. (Ibid, p. 21.) If Y, is the other extremity of the diameter F Y, then Y,, G, and X are collinear. (Ibid, p. 21.) If P, a point on the circumcircle of ABC be joined with H', H'', H'?, the respective intersections of the produced altitudes with circumcircle, and if the points of intersection of P H', P H'?, P H'!? with BC, CA, AB be U, V, W respectively, then U, V, W are collinear. (Ibid, p. 23.) A O, BO, CO meet the circumcircle in A', B', C'; perpendiculars from M upon the sides BC, C A, AB meet Nagel’s circle in A'?, B'?, C1?; the corresponding sides of A! B'C! and A‘! B'! C!! meet in three collinear points. . (Ibid, p. 40.) —_ ee 111 (63.) The feet of the perpendiculars on the sides of a triangle from any point in the circumference of the cireumcircle are collinear. (Simson’s line.) (64.) If two triangles are in perspective the intersections of the corresponding sides are collinear. A different statement of 49. (Mulcahy—Modern Geometry, p. 23.) (65.) The perpendiculars to the bisectors of the angles of a triangle at their middle points meet the sides opposite those angles in three points which are collinear. (G. DeLong Champs.) (Mackay, Euclid, p. 356.) I, I,, I., I, are the centres of the inscribed and three escribed circles of the tri- angle A BC. D, E, F; D;, E,, F,; D,, E,, F,; Dz; E,; F,: are the feet of the perpendiculars from these centres upon the respective sides. N, P, Q are the feet of the bisectors of the angles A, B, C. (66.) AB, DE, D, E, concur at Q). BC, EF, E; F, concur at Nj. CAC FH DLE D, coneur at P;. Q,, N,, and P, are collinear. (67-)) A.B, D, E,, D,'E, concur at Q,. BC) BE, EF.) 8; BF; concur at No. CRAG aD Lae sconcur atk. Q., N,, and P, are collinear. (68.) A B, N P, I, I, concur at Q,. BC PO =) rconcurat N5. CrAQ IN. to i concuriat 2, : Q, N, and P, are collinear. (66, 67, 68—Stephen Watson in Lady’s and Gentleman’s Diary for 1867, p, 72. Mackay, Euclid, p. 357.) (69.) Ma, the middle point of Q O and the middle point of Q A are collinear. (Mackay, Euclid, p. 363.) (70.) The six lines joining two and two the centres of the four circles touching the sides of the triangle A BC, pass each through a vertex of the tri- angle. (Mackay, Euclid, p. 252.) (71.) Ma, O, and the middle of the line drawn from the vertex to the point of inscribed contact on the base are collinear. A similar property holds for the escribed centres. (Mackay, Euclid, p. 360.) | InpranaA UNIVERSITY, December 18, 1898. 112 On THE REDUCTION OF IRRATIONAL ALGEBRAIC INTEGRALS TO RATIONAL ALGE- BRAIC INTEGRALS. By Jonn B. FAuacut. The Inverse operations of Analysis are more interesting and fruitful than the Direct, since each demands a new field of quantity or a new kind of function in order that it may be possible without exception. Thus negative numbers have their origin in subtraction, fractions grow out of division, and irrational and im- aginary numbers arise in the extraction of roots. The same thing is true of inte- gration considered as the inverse of differentiation. At the time of the discovery of the Calculus the algebraic and certain ele- mentary transcendental functions were known. The algebraic functions included all those expressions which can be formed by a finite combination of the processes of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, involution and the extraction of roots. The transcendental functions included the exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric and circular functions. These will be called the elementary fune- tions, and exclude the infinite series. It is a fundamental theorem of the Integral Calculus that the integral of any rational algebraic function can be expressed in terms of the elementary functions. This is sometimes expressed by saying that any rational algebraic function can be integrated. The attention of mathematicians was early directed to those integrals that are made irrational by the presence of the square or other root of a polynomial of the first, second and higher degrees. It was soon found that if the irrationality was due to a square root of a polynomial of the first or second degree the integral could be expressed in terms of the elementary function. The integration being accomplished in each case by reducing the irrational function to a rational func- tion and then performing the integration. This method, however, was found to fail, in general, as soon as the polynomial under the radical is of the third or higher degree. The investigation of irrational algebraic integrals led to the dis- covery of the Abelian functions of which the Hyperelliptic and Elliptic functions are special cases. By means of these functions the integral of any algebraic func- tion can be expressed. The integrals under consideration here are known as Abelian Integrals and are defined thus: {F (x, y) dx. where y is defined by: fu (x, y) = 9, and F denotes a rational function of x and y. a a 113 If y is expressed as an explicit function of x, the expression will contain, in general, a root of some polynomial. The definition is sometimes stated as follows: fr (a, y) dx, ; m y=V Rn (2). Byerly (Integral Calculus Ch. VI) observes that ‘‘ very few forms (of the above type) are integrable, and most of these have to be rationalized by ingenious sub- stitutions.” It is the purpose of this paper to determine the conditions under which irrational algebraic integrals can be reduced to rational algebraic integrals and to present a method of obtaining a substitution by which the integral is rationalized. Given then, the integral : fF (a, y) dx. fu (2, y) =0, where F is a rational function, to determine the conditions under which this in- tegral can be reduced to the integral: A (2) da. Let us consider in the first place the integral : fF (a, y) dx. yo=V (BMG): where R (x) is a polynomial of the second degree. The equation : (ats) gh (ay==o is of the second degree and hence represents a conic section. Let A be any point on the curve and let where r is a rational function. (2.) Bod 05 be the equations of any two lines through A, Then (3.) ptaq=o, represents any line L through A. Since this equation is linear in x and y it can be solved for y by rational processes. Let the solution be: (4.) p=? (a 2). (5) = 9? (2, 2). (6.) -*. 02 (a, 4) — R (a) = o. 8—SCcIENCE. 114 This is the equation for the determination of the points of intersection of L’ and the conic. One solution is known, viz.: x =x. Hence x — ita is a factor. . Divide by « — va and call the resulting equation: (7.) X (a, 4)=0. This equation is linear in x and therefore can be solved for x by rational pro- cesses. Let the solution be: (8.) “= (A). (9.) . y=o[y (A) }. (10.) dz = ’(A) da. (11.) “fF (x, y)de= [F { (4), 9 Lv (4) ] \w (a) ar. Since F, 0, /, ¥’ are all rational functions, it follows that F 4} ¥(4), 91(4)] bw). is a rational function of 2. Call this function r (4). (12.) ve (x, y) de =r (2) da. As an illustration corsider the integral : {F (x, y) dx, y=V ar? + ba-+ c?. (1.) y?=ar?+br+c?. Take A as the point (0, c) and as the Jines through A: (2.) Y=, 20: Then the equation of L is: (3.) y—e+Arx=o. (4.) -. Y= (4, A) =c— Ax, (5.) .*. y2 = (c—Az)?. (6.) (¢ — Ax)?— (ax?+ ba + ce?) = 0. (7,) .. X (2, 2) = (A* — a) e— (2¢ 4 + b)=0. : 2ch +-b (8.) ae e)) Sloe ae ay eVtd+ac (9.) y=o[ (4)]= RE fa — -_-. . le tle: es ae 115 peg eter OMe (10.) da =’ (A) da (a— 22) , Ian 2cA+b ch? + bA+ ca cA? + bA+ ca .. (11.) { F(a, y) dv=2f F( Oe, J. eth mace (12.) ue { F (x, y) dx= fr (2) da. In particular: a ae fs ‘dx dd. J V ax? + bx + ¢ 2) This method always furnishes the substitution by which the reduction is _ 2cA-+-b ; effected, viz.: 7 — A* —a Consider next the integral: fF, y) dx TT Vax? + be? + ex +d. (1.) y? = ax> + bx? + ex d. (2.) ==, Gi== 0. (3.) p+q=o. (4.) y => (2, 4) (5. ) 2 (a, A)—(ax3 + bx2+ ex +4) =0. __ o? (x, A)—(ax* + bx?+ ex 4+ d) ma iF =09, Ui" be (6.) X(2, 4) Now the equation : X (m A)==o0. is of the second degree in x and hence can not in general be solved by rational processes. The necessary and sufficient condition for the reduction of the given integral to a rational integral is that the coordinates of at least one point of inter- section of L and the cubic: fs =y? — (ax® + br? + er +d) =0. be expressible rationally in terms of 2.. This will certainly be true if the cubic, f;=0, has a double point. For taking A at the double point two solutions of the equation : ; @? (xd) — (ax® + br? + ex +d) =0. are known, and, after dividing by (2 — a )*, the equation : xX (a A) = 0. is a linear equation, and can be solved by rational processes. 116 If now the cubic, f, = 0, has a double point, then the first polar: Df, =o0F dfs d fs d fs that is: ae ia Sao where /, has been made homogeneous by the introduction of the variable z. If 7, =o has a double point then the curve is a unicursal or rational curve. Indeed, if one solution of X (x, 7) =o is rational, the other must also be rational, and hence the cubic, /, = 0, is unicursal, and hence it must have a double point, since its deficiency is zero. Theorem: The integral : { F (x, y) dx eet yc can be reduced to a rational integral only when the cubic : Sf; =y? — R, (x) =0 is a wnicursal curve. Consider next the general integral: { F (x, y) dx ‘ m a y=V Rn (x), m =n, The curve: jan =9y™ — Ra (2) =0 is of the n™ order, and the equation: K (z, A)=0 is of the (n—1)** degree. If one rational solution of this equation can be found the reduction can be made, otherwise not. Suppose the curve: fn —o0, has a multiple point of order k, then, by taking A at this point, the equation X (a, 2) —0 is of degree (n-k). In this case it is necessary to find a rational solution of an equation of the (n-k)™ degree. Now fn =o, has a multiple point of orner k if the (k-1)** polar of that point vanishes identically. pe fn = 0: If f, =o has a multiple point of order (n-1), that is if: DD” fn —— is) then the equation : X (x, 7) =o0, is linear and the reduction is always possible. *“ Clebsch. Vorlesungen iiber Geometrie. Vol.I, p.315. =” 117 As an illustration, consider the integral : if F (2, y) de. y= \Le—9 + Va (2—a) | (t—2a). Here we have: (1.) fry? —2y, (x —a)(2—2a) + (xa) (02a) 5 =o, and this curve has a triple point at (2a, 0). Taking A at this point, and (2.) y=o0,7—2a=o0 as the equations of lines through A, we are to solve for the intersections of f,—o, and the line: (3.) y+4(x— 2a) =o. Since three solutions are known, we readily find: (7=) X (x, A) =a (A? —1) 2? —a(2A4— 2142+ 1) =o. (8.) typed (20° = 2A LD, . Nephi (A —1) ? Syne 2 a ie De fee (2h (9.) “y¥=—A(2—2a) = ae If the curve ) fn =o, instead of having a multiple point of order (n—1), has z (n—-1)(n—2) double points, that is, if its deficiency is zero, then it is a uni- cursal curve, and hence x and y can be expressed rationally in terms of a single parameter, and hence the reduction can be performed. ALTERNATE Processes. By Proressor ARTHUR S. HATHAWAY. I, INTRODUCTION. 1. The alternate (and symmetric) procesess that we develop seem valuable from their simplicity and power, and their general applicability in all depart- ments of mathematics. They may be employed in any algebra in which addition is associative and commutative without regard to the laws of multiplication. 118 2. The notation is a doubly dual one, i. e., from a given theorem and proof a dual theorem and proof may be derived by correspondence, and each of these has its dual by another correspondence, so that every theorem is of four-fold in- terpretation. ; 3. As illustrative applications we have taken the extensions, to n-fold algebra, of Green’s theorem connecting integration through aspaee with integration over the boundary of that space (the laws of multiplication undetermined) ; the theory of determinants in any algebra; quaternions, and four-fold space. 4, The alternate processes lead in quaternions to formulas that are almost > and the two notations are identical with those of Prof. Shaw’s ‘‘ A Processes,’ readily convertible. The advantages of our notation are that it pertains to a general theory and that its developments are easy and natural rather than arbi- trary and labored. Il. DEFINITIONS. 5. We consider a function, ¢(p,, po, .. -. pn), of n variables, and substitu- tions, s, s,’, efc., that permute these variables among themselves. 6. We let (s) stand for the assemblage (s,, s,,... 8m), (s’), stand for (s,’, 8’, . - 8m’), and (t)=(s) (s’), stand for (t,, 2, . . . tmm’), where ty s =r &/’, 7 — Dies «My 1D, . on’, and um (r—1) 4247, Hay. 7. We further denote, by +s, the substitution s, with the factor 1 or —1, according as s involves an even or an odd number of transpositions, and by e(s), the fraction which is the ratio of the excess of the number of positive over the number of negative substitutions in (s) to the whole number of substitutions in (s). When (s) forms a ‘‘group” we have e(s) = 1, — 1, or 0, the latter value in all cases where the group contains both positive and negative substitutions. ] r=m 8. We denote by A(s), the alternate process, [~ frihs sy, This process per- formed on any operand 6 before which it is placed, gives as a result a sum of terms, = + 0s,, divided by the number of terms in the sum, where gs, is the function @ with its variables rearranged by the substitution s,, 9. When (s) includes all substitutions of the n variables, so that m= | n, the corresponding process is denoted by A. When a process pertains to the group of |m substitution of m given variables (m not— n), it is denoted by A with the affected variables correspondingly marked. 10. A function @ is alternate as to (s) when +8s,* 90, r—1, 2,...m™. 11. A function © is alternate as to (s) for the arrangements (s’) when every 9g’,’ is alternate as to (s). OE. 119 12. We distinguish between s; * ¢— 0s, and‘ s; 4; viz., the latter function involves the symbol s; which is a function of the variables so that a substitution on the variables of * s,9, which have the same order as in @, is not equal to the same substitution on ¢,,. In facts*s,¢—s, ¢; —=s8;5s°o. 13. We have also symmetric processes, C(s), symmetric functions as to (s), ete., whose definitions are obtained by replacing + s; by s; in the above definitions. “ce There is a dualty between ‘‘alternate” and ‘‘symmetric” which consists in the interchange of corresponding terms. The fraction e(s) is in general its own dual. 14. There is also a dual interpretation of the substitutions, viz., write for the moment ¢ (p,, Po, °° pn) —? : a dy" as where we have the number of a “ varia- “cc ” ble,” and beneath it, the number of its ‘‘place” in ¢. Ordinary substitutions affect the upper line of numbers only, 7. e., the ‘‘ variables.” The same substitu- tions on the lower line of numbers only are “‘ place” substitutions. The substitu- tion s that affects the given number 1, 2, ... mn may be marked 8 or s according as it affects variable or place numbers. The dualty arises from these two interpre- tations of the substitutions of any process. When the variables of the operand that are affected by s occupy the places corresponding to their numbers, we have s=3-', and the processes AG. A(s) give the same result provided (s) is a substitution group. If, however, the above arrangement of the variables be affected by a substitution s’, and the result taken as operand, we have s — ¥ 3-1 9/1, so that the two processes A, A to the same group (s) are in eeneeaih different, the latter being equivalent to the former to a group that is similar to (s) only. lI. THEOREMS. [The proofs are too elementary to need insertion.]| Theor. 1. If ¢ be alternate (or symmetric) as to (s), then is A(e) 6 = (or e(s) 9). Theor. 2. If (t) = (s) (s’), then is A(t) ¢ = A(e) Ae’) * ¢ = Ale’) * Ale) 9. Note.—This result shows that the product of two alternate processes is an alternate process, and that a process (Ai?) may be expended in terms of a given minor process ( A(s)_). E.g., A*pqr=} (pAqr—qApr+rApq), A'pqrs=3(Apq Ars+ Ars'Apq—Apr‘Aqs—Aqs'Apr+Aps'Aqr+Aqr'Aps), ete. These are place expansions. Variable expansions give different results, e*g.,A*pqgr=tA (pq r—qp r+ rp) =+ (pAqr—Aqpr+Agqr‘p). See art. 16. Cor. 1. A(t) * = A(e’) o (Or e(s) * A(s’) 9, when @ is alternate (or symmetric) as to (s) for the arrangemints (s’). 120 Note.—If (s) bea group this condition means practically for all the arrange- ments of (f). ; Cor. 2. A(t) * 6 A(s) > (or e(s’) * ©) when o is alternate (or symmetric) as to (s’). Theor. 3. If (s) be a group, then’ A(s) @ is an alternate function of the group (s) for all arrangements of the variables. Note.—A(s) ‘@ is an alternate function of the group (s) only for those ar- rangements s,.... that satisfy s (s) —(s)s. These include the group (s). Theor. 4. If (s) be a group, and (s’) be any assemblage contained in (s), then, A(s) 9 = A(s) * A(e’) 9 = Ale) Ale’) 9 « 15. These are the principal theorems of the subject. We note some im- portant special cases where the processes are those that pertain to all the substitu- tions of given numbers (variables or places). 16. Let A’ affect m’ given numbers, let A” affect m’’ other given numbers, and so on. Then A’ A”... is a process whose factors are commutative and whose substitutions form a group (s), consisting of substitutions that permute each set of variables (or the variables in each set of places) among themselves. One complementary assemblage (s’), such that (s) (s’) forms the complete group of |” substitutions then consists of the substitutions that leave each set of variables (or the variables in each set of places) in their original order among themselves. Any element s’ ,’ of this assemblage may be replaced by any product s; 8’ ,’ with- out charging the assemblage as’a complement of (s). We then have from th. 2. Theor. 2’. Ly ae Ag=Aw) * A’ AY... Oa ty A AY... poe In this expansion of A © in terms of minor A’s, all terms may be made posi- tive by replacing every negative s’ ,’ by its product by a transposition of (s). (a). Ao = A(y > (or O) when o is alternate (or symmetric) as to (s) for all ar- rangements of the variables. Note.—In particular, if 0 be symmetric as to certain variables (or places) for all arrangements of the variables, then A o = 0. (b). Ago = A’ A”... 9 (ore) * A’ A”... 4%) when ¢ is alternate (or sym- metric) as to (s’). IV. LINEAR ALTERNATES. 17. A function ¢p is said to be linear when ¢ (x p+ yq)—zop+yoq, where », y are ordinary numbers (scalars). 18. A function (p,, po, - - + Pm) is a linear alternate of m‘ order, when it is linear as to each of its variables. and the interchange of any two variables changes its sign. 121 Theor. 5. A linear alternate vanishes when one variable is zero, or two variables are equal. It is unaltered by adding to any variable any sum of scalar multiples of the remaining variables. It vanishes when two or more of its variables are linearly dependent —in particular, when the order of the alternate is greater than the order of the algebra. 19. It is easily seen that in an algebra of n’t order the general linear al- ternate of m’*" order is a sum of algebraic multiples of |” |m_ |n-m independent sealar alternates of m’‘" order. 20. If 6 (p,, po,... pm) bea linear function of m’™ order, then by th 3 and note, * Ao and A-° @ are linear alternates of that order. Also we have more constants than we need (n”) in order to make either of these the most general linear alternate of m’™ order; in fact we have more than enough constants to make also * C'¢ or C: 6 the most general linear symmetric of m’™ order. 21. Inthe use of A(s) it is not only well to note that it is a linear symbol, but also that it is commutative with any constant linear symbol, w, of one variable (such as S, V, K, in quaternions). In applying A, however, to a function ¢ we can not reduce the value of © by reason of any special values of the variables i, e, if for special values of the variables we have ¢ — 9’, we do not therefore have Ad= ¢q’. 22. In any algebra of n’** order, we may take the units 7,, 7, i Whine oye the numbers of n independent directions of unit length (not necessary rectangu- Jar). Also, any number p — 2, 1, -+ 2,1, -+..-+ 2n mm where xy, %» ..2n, are ordinary numbers) may be taken as the number of a line whose components, according to the parallelogram law of addition, arex, i,, «2, %2, .-%n in. Takinga fixed origin O, any point P has a definite co-ordinate p, the number of the line O P. Any number of independent lines have two orders of arrangement such that the interchange of two lines changes the order of arrangement. A change of order in the argument lines of an alternate therefore changes its sign. . 25. Consider an m-space bounded by the tangential paths of m independent differentials d, p, d, p,...dm p. This space may be taken so small as to be ap- proximately an m-parallelogram whose r‘® pair of opposite faces intersect the lines of d, p and contain the remaining lines through the points of these faces. By (r — 1) interchanges the ‘‘r’*®” order d; p, d, p, .. dr—1 p, dr +1 p,--dmp becomes the ‘‘15t” order d, p, . . dm p. These interchanges may be made so as to leave d; p first. At the initial ‘‘7*"” face d, p is inward, and we have r inter- changes from the 7’" order in the differentials exclusive of d; p to bring the 7’ order to the first order, say d’, p, d’; p, dm p, wher d’, p——d;, p is outward. 24. If o(p, d, p,d, p,...dr—, p, dy+, p,--.- dm p) =r, be any function of p, that is linear in the differentials, then if d, denote differentiation corre- sponding to d,; p, while A affects the subscripts of the differential symbols that follow it, we have for integration through the m space, | ’ om ~ ~m -1 (i d, + A Op =} Ao(p,d’, p,..-.Ump) over the 7’ pair of faces, where d’, p— + d; p is outward at each face. Thus summing for every pair of faces and noting that, by th 2’, = (— 1)"1.d; A =m A.d,%(p,d, p, d; p,..dm p), we have the following theorem connecting inte- gration through any m-space with integration over the (m-1) boundary of that space : Theor. 7. m (A. dy 9 (Py dy By dy Py» «dm p) ee “TA ¢ (p, dp, d's p,..: d'm p)- 25. The elements d, p,...d, p are in the same order of arrangement throughout the integration; and at the boundary d’, p, .. d’m p are in the same order, with d’, p outward. Any space may be divided into these small finite spaces by the differential lines and the contributions to the boundary integral made by intermediate faces cancel each other, except where the value of © is different on two sides of the same face at the same point of it. In this case such intermediate boundary must be retained in computing the boundary integral. V. ALTERNATE PRODUCTS. 26. Let? (1, po, -- > Pn) = Pi - Oo Po On Pn- We then have: i, ae — PePiy Tsp is- -) Siew $; Po 92) Pa, +++ On Po | 9, Pn 2 Pn On Pn 27. _ This determinant is multiplied out by ordinary rules, except that since the factors may not be commutative, or even associative, each product must appear in the order and association given by o. The expansions of Theor, 2’ are then expansions of this determinant in terms of its minors either by rows or columns, according as we employ place or variable substitutions. 28. When two factors of the product 9 are commutative, for all arrange- ments of the variables, such factors are also commutative in A. The inter- change of the corresponding functional symbols alone has, therefore, the same 123 effect in changing the sign of A as the interchange of the variables alone. Hence when all the factors are commutative, the A may operate either on the variables or on the functional symbols, and since A ¢ is linear in the latter, it has the properties of linear alternates with respect to the functional symbols. If the functional symbols be linear, the alternate A ¢ is also linear with respect to the variables. VI. QUATERNIONS. 29. We consider linear alternate products whose functional symbols are 1, S, V, K. The symbol S gives a factor that is commutative with any other factor, so that any other symbol in the same product with S may be reduced by +17 S, where n is a scalar. | 30. By substituting 1— S-++ V, K—S— V and expanding, our linear alternate product of any order is found to depend on two in which the symbols are either all V or one S and the rest V. Two S symbols give an alternate pro- duct that is identically zero (Theor. 2, note). It appears that: the two of second order are vectors; the two of third order are a scalar and a vector; one of the fourth order is zero, the’other is a scalar. Any linear alternate of fifth or higher order is identically zero. 31. In the geometrical interpretation in which 1, 7, 7, k are the numbers of four mutually perpendicular unit lines in four-fold space, the condition of per- pendicularity of p, gisS.pKq=o=S.Kp.qie,pKq——qKp, Kp.4q —=—Kq.p. Thus in any alternate product whose functional symbols are alter- nately 1, K, and whose variables occur in sets, such that any two of different sets are perpendicular, we have ap =A A, D, where A’ A” are alternate symbols that affect the different sets of variables [th 27 (b), art. 16.] In particular, if all the variables are mutually perpendicular, then aot A“ — 1, and A.¢d= 9. 32. The alternates of second order are: , ale”, Ae po g—= VV, Vp. Vig bd FON ik. ba2 a. SpeVig- = 24.8 p.q—Ai-+ By + Ck. A, B, OC, L, M, N are the six independent scalar linear alter- nates of second order, and are the coefficients of © (1, 7), @ (1, j), 9 (1, k), > (j,k), @ (&, 7), 9 (4, J), in the expansion of any linear alternate © (p, q). 124 33. We have further: (a). A.pq=A:V.pq=A-.Vp-.Vq—V: Vp Vq=A. eee (b). A. pKq=—V.pKq= —2A.Sp.q—A. pq. (ce): (Se poe — F. Kp.q=2A.Sp.q—A.pq. Note.—These and similar formulas are useful in computing alternates of higher order. Thus a factor pq of a product may be replaced by A. pg [th 4] or any of its equivalent values in (a) with or without the partial A. 34. Resolve q into q/ + q” respectively parallel and perpendicular to p. Then A.pKg—A.pKo’ =p. KY [th6, art 31,]. Its tensor is therefore base X altitude of parallelogram on q, p, as sides. We call A. p K q the vector area of the parallelogram (q, p). It gives plane, direction and tensor, by the plane, direction of turn, and tensor of the vector. Observe that A.pq—V. Vp Vq is perpen- dicular to the three-space (1, Vp, })’q) —(J, p, ¢). 35. The alternates of third order are: (a). A.Vp.Vq.Vr=A.A. Vp. Vq. Vr=A. 8. V p. Vg Vr— SVp.Vq.Vr. We call this scalar — a. (b). 3A.Sp.qr=38A.Sp.Vqr=—bi+e7-+ dk. The four independent scalar alternates of third order are a, b, ¢, d, respec- tively the coefficients of ¢ (i, j, k), @ (1, j, k), 0 (1, k, 7) © (1, 7, j) in the expansion of any linear alternate ¢ (p, q, r). 36. We have further: (a) A.pqr=A.Vp.qr+A.Sp.qr (b). S.A. pqr=8.Vp.Vq.Vr=S.pAqr—SA.pAgqr— 4S(pAqr+qA rp+rApq)ete. (c). V.A.nqr=A. 8.9. qr=— ener BA. api (eL," 2) = OAania(eg) hh) an melee > = 2, (Sp. q) then Ap, 4= 4%, A) (1k) = 0, ete. We have thus the identities, (a.) A.W(p K q) ¢ (Kr s)=—0. (b.) A.W (pq)o(rs)=0. (c.) A.v(Sp-.g)¢(Sr.s)=—0. (d,)', 6. Ay pigiS (tr Kr) Seis Al Ors. 9,2 Spe In fact these methods may be employed to multiply formulas indefinitely. The above are interesting as giving the general relations between the six vector alternates of the same form that may be derived from the quaternions p, q, 7, s. 44. We note the following geometrical interpretations: (p,, q,, ele. not affected by A). (a.) 2A.pS.4 Kk q, isa line in the plane (p, q) that is perpendicular to q, ; viz., tis A p K q . projection of q, on the plane (p, q). That it is a line perpendicular to q, in the plane (p, q) is seen by its form and the fact that the operator S. Ag, gives an alternate of a symmetric product which is zero by th 2’. Note.—We have, for the complete proof: A.p.Kq.q=3A(p. Kq.q—p.Kq-q+u- Kp.g 2A. pS. 9K q=A(p-Kugs¢+ p+ Kya) SHAG eae | +9, Kq.p)=$4A(2p.Kq-n4+7-Kqi:¢—%:Kp.q), | so that A.p.Kq.q,-+2A.pS.qKq,=A pKq.q- In this result re- | solve q, into 4,’ -+-q,’” respectively parallel and perpendicular to the plane (p, q) and it becomes (since A. pp. Kq.q, =ApKq. 4”), 2A Sg BiG ae pti 29 Qe SD: 45, Operating on the last result by S. K p,, and remembering, since the planes (p,q) (Pis 91’) are perpendicular, that S.A p Kq. A, p, K q,” = o0,we find, (a) 2A.S(pKp,)S(qKq)=—S.ApKq.A4,p, KY = product of areas times cosine of angle between the planes of the parallelo- grams (p, 4), (pi, q,). It we drop the subscripts after expansion, we have the squared tensor of the area of ( p, q) viz, T? Ap Kq. 46. Similarly we have, (a) 6A. p.S(q Kq,) S(r Kr,) =Uline in space ( p, q, 7) perpendic- ular to plane (q,, 7;)- This line is therefore— A,.q,.Kr,.[A.p.Kq.7r],, the constant factor being determined by putting p, q, r=1, j, k, 91,71 J, k&. This beeomes, to the factor Sr K7,, the line of 44 (a) when r, is perpendicular to the plane (p, q) (b). 6 A.S(pKp,)S8(qKq)S(r Kr) == S8oA.piIeQut K, Aye, ology sis = product of volumes times cosine of angle between the spaces of the parallelo- pipeds (p, 9, 7), (Pi, diy 71) (ce). 24A.pS(q Kq,)S (7 K1r,) S(s Ks,) =line perpendicular to Cis Gis Tr) Ay Dae Gy Ty SPE p. This becomes, to the factor S (s A’s,), the line (a) when s, | (p,q, 7). (4). 244.S(pKp,) S(qKq,) S(r Kry), S(s Ky) —=Sp’ Kp. p’, K p, =product of scalar contents of (P, 9% Ts 8)y (Ps G19 Try 81): 47. We have given sufticient illustrations of the value of alternate processes. The symmetric processes are capable of similar development although we have scarcely touched upon them. A New Form or GALVANOMETER. By J. Henry LENDI. The galvanometer which I am about to describe is a result of the difficulties experienced in attempting to make use of several very sensitive galvanometers in the physical laboratory of the Rose Polytechnic Institute. These difficulties are due to local changes in the earth’s magnetic field, arising from moving locomotives, electric motors and street cars in the neighborhood of the laboratory. It will be seen that the existing condi- tions are anything but favorable to the use of a very sensitive galvanom- eter depending on the earth’s field for the directive force. In the past year or two several attempts have been made to overcome this difficulty by making a galyanometer of the D’Arsonval type; that is, one in which the directive force is independent of the earth’s field. This galvanometer differed only from the ordinary D’Arsonval instrument in that the field was excited by an auxiliary battery instead of a permanent magnet. By this means we were able to secure a very intense controlling field, and thereby, thought we should be able to make a galyanometer 128 ; more sensitive than the ordinary form of D’Arsonval, and at the same time, make use of it in places where there was a liability to local changes in the earth’s field. But in this we were disappointed, for the reason that it was found im- possible to make a deflecting coil free from magnetic impurities in both the insulation of the wire and the wire itself. This magnetic property of the deflecting coil, it is easily seen, intro- duced a moment opposite to that which tended to produce a deflection of the coil, and therefore greatly reduced the sensibility of the instrument. This last difficulty would be entirely climinated if the controlling field were uniform within the limits and in the direction of the motion of the deflecting coil. This has, I believe, been accomplished in the instrument I will now describe: The field magnet is an ironclad electro-magnet of cylindrical form (Fig. 1), the enveloping shell (IX) being simply a continuation of the core of the electro-magnet M, the only opening for the magnetic field being an annular slot 4%” wide, 154” outside diameter and of depth 14”. In this slot the deflecting coil (G) is suspended by means of its two terminals (R, R). This form of field magnet will give us a uniform field in the direction of the slot, provided the two cylinders, forming the slot, have their axes parallel, (not necessarily coinciding). Still another provision was made to guard against the non-uniformity of the field by multiplying the motion between the deflecting coil and the mirror so that a very small displacement of the coil, and consequently in- sensible change of field in which it hangs, would produce a readable deflec- tion of the mirror. This multiplication is accomplished by the peculiar suspending mech- anism. Between the two pillars (A, A) there are suspended two light brass pulleys (P, P) by means of the piano wires (W, W) (diameter .01”). These and the wires are insulated from each other by the piece (C), the faces of the pulleys are directly over the field-gap, and wrapped around them are the two terminals (R, R) of the deflecting coil (G), so that an electric circuit can be established between the pillars (A, A) by way of the deflecting coil. y-. LCI a fiat 130 Again, to the insulating piece (C) there is attached an arm (D) which supports one of the fibers of the bifilarly suspended mirror (B), the other fiber being attached to a fixed pillar (F), which has an adjustment to change the distance between the ends of the fibers. To explain the action of this mechanism, suppose the field magnet (M) to be excited, and thereby producing a very intense magnetic field in the field gap, and that a small current be flowing in the deflection coil freely suspended in this field gap. The result will be an upward or downward motion of the deflection coil, according to the relative directions of the currents in the two coils. This motion will be communicated by means of the terminals to the pulleys (P, P), which will be rotated about their axis, the piano wire, car- rying the arm (D) with them. It will be seen that if the ratio of the radius of the pulleys to the arm (D) be 1-r, then will the upper extremity of (D) describe an are whose length is r d, where d is the distance that the coil moves up or down. Again, suppose the horizontal distance between the upper ends of the bifilar suspension to be s, then will the mirror (E), which, of course, hangs in the plane of the two fibers, make the angle Tan-!rd-+swith its initial position. And therefore for a given value of rd. the deflection of the mirror will approach a maximum as s decreases. We are thus able to increase the sensibility of the instrument in a very convenient manner, and what is more, we can change it a given amount at will by simply changing the distance s by means of the graduated screw (T). The instrument has been completed but a short time, and therefore we have not been able to give it a fair test, but the experiments that have been made are sufficient to indicate that, with a few changes in the me- chanical details, our object has been attained. Note oN SOME EXPERIMENTS TO DETERMINE THE RATIO BETWEEN THE ELASTIC Limit iN TENSION AND IN FLEXURE FOR Sort STEEL. By W. K. Harr. The fact that the material at the top and bottom of a beam of ductile material will show an elastic limit in flexure higher than its elastic limit in tension has been noted by experimenters, by Baoshinger and M. Considere, for instance. For steel bars the elastic limit in flexure was 4 to } larger than in tension, and the increase is a function of the shape of cross-section and ductility of material. The 131 increase may be explained by considering that when a beam is bent to the elastic limit of the outside fibres, connection between these fibres and those just below will prevent the free contraction or expansion of the outside fibres, and thus the beam has its elastic strength increased. In case of harder steels and materials such as cast iron or wood, no such increase may be expected. Experiments are being carried on by the writer to determine as completely as possible the increase of the elastic limit as a function of the shape of the cross section. Up to the present a series of | beams have been tested, and a series of flat plates. The tests in flexure are compared with tests in tension on material cut from the flexure specimens. The plates were partly 63” <1’ with span of 28” and partly 73’ « 13” in section with a span of 40’. The increase in the elastic limit for the plates was 55 per cent. in the first case and 27 per cent. in the second case. A specimen 3” 4” in section tested with a span of 57’ showed an elasti limit of 42,000 lbs. [/’”. A tension test was not made of this material, but the 44 Se yield point reported by the mill is 37,950 lbs. [_} Mr. Gus Henning has shown that the elastic limit of rolled material is some 4,000 lbs. "| less than the yield point from the billet, and if the 37,950 Ibs. [| is thus reduced, the 42,000-lbs. ()” elastic limit in flexure will represent an increase of 27 per cent. When the height increases in comparison with the breadth, the excess strength in flexure disappears, and for the 7 beams tested the elastic limit in flexure was slightly less than that of a tension specimen cut from the web. It is to be noticed also that, in the case of flat plates, there is not free elastic expansion in the side direction during flexure; consequently the modulus of elasticity should be increased. The tests on seven plates show an average in- crease of 3.6 per cent. in Young’s Modulus. NorE ON COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF WrouGHT IRon. By W. K. Harr. While the tensile strength of wrought iron or steel is a definite quantity, the compressive strength is not so well defined. In the case of wrought iron the compressive strength is quoted by different authors in values from 40,000 to 90,000 pounds per square inch for a state of stress consisting of compression in one direc- tion only. The strength of any specimen is a function not only of its physical properties but of its shape, and the maximum resistance to compression may be anywhere from the elastic limit to the plastic limit, depending on the shape of the specimen tested. It is not customary to test iron and steel in compression, since the results of a tension test give an index of the capacity of the material to 132 resist compression; and, while definite standards exist for the shape of tension specimens, no such widely accepted standards exist for tests in compression. Before defining such a standard we must know the relation between the size and shape of specimens of different grades and their strength. Experiments to deter- mine their relation for wrought iron have been undertaken at Purdue University by the writer, in conjunction with Messrs. Fletemeyer and Alling, and the results are now offered to the Academy. There were tested 140 square-ended cylindrical specimens, ranging in length Z from 1 to 10 inches, an area from 1 { |’ to 1 { |”, covering a ratio of — from 5 to , ’ A Ly eo) 5 K 60. The yield point in compression remained practically independent of the shape of the specimen, and the maximum resistance of the specimen was practi- Z : cally the yield point'when the ratio = exceeded 38 (10 diameters). For stouter Zz ash uae specimens, whose x Was less than 38, the maximum load exceeds the elastic limit a Z x being the same for by an increasing amount, the excess for a given value of different grades of iron, and different area of specimen. The material was plastic at 77,000 Ibs. to (_’” with a compression of }. ‘The writer would recommend that the term compressive strength should mean either the elastic limit or the limit of plasticity, both of which are definite points. It does not seem that it is necessary to specify any standard shape of speci- men for compression. CampHoric Acip. By W. A. Noyes. [Abstract. ] The work done with Mr. E. B. Harris! indicates that cis-eampholytic acid may possibly be the neighboring /\’ tetra hydroxylyllic acid, CH, ie i yt, —CO, H 2. CH; 3. The paper gave an account of work which has been done in the endeavor to prepare this acid. The acid has not yet been obtained, and the difficulties met with have been unusual, but work on the subject is still in progress. 1. Amer. Chem. Jour., 18, 694, 1896. 135 CERTAIN COMBUSTION PRopucTS OF NatuRAL Gas. By P. N. Evans. The specimen of material shown was deposited in the course of about three months in a galvanized iron pipe over a natural gas burner in LaFayette, the total quantity being about 500 grams. When first formed the material was waxy in character and accumulated at the lower end of the pipe, which was about four feet in height, but on standing for some months in a closed bottle it became hard and brittle. Its strong, disagreeable, fishy odor made it seem worth examining, since it was quite unexpected considering the circumstances of formation, resembling trimethylamine, which gives the peculiar odor to herring brine. As might be expected, the usual tests showed the presence of zine and iron in the ferrous condition. The material is for the most part soluble in water, the slight insoluble residue having the appearance of oxide of iron. Barium chloride showed the presence of considerable quantities of sulphate, and on warming with concentrated sulphuric acid the odor of sulphur dioxide was very evident, the evolved gas readily darkening paper moistened with mercurous nitrate, but not darkening lead acetate, showing the presence of sulphites, but not sulphides; the aqueous extract also instantly decolorized a solution of iodine and of iodine and starch. That the sulphur dioxide was not derived by reduction from the sulphuric acid used was shown by the same reactions when hydrochloric acid was substituted. None of these constituents—iron, zine, sulphuric and sulphurous acids— were unexpected; neither did they account for the odor. The presence of nitrogen, however, was a surprise, considering that its only source was the free nitrogen of the air and that of the natural gas, which is supposed to contain only very small quantities of the element and in the free state. On warming the substance with a solution of potassium or sodium hydroxide the odor of ammonia was very evident, accompanied by the original fishy smell not noticed when warmed with acid. To remove all doubt of the formation of ammonia and to learn whether it was accompanied by any considerable quantity of any amine, about 15 vrams of the material were distilled with sodium hydroxide and the steam passed into dilute hydrochloric acid. The boiling was continued about 30 treinutes, and then the distillate was evaporated to dryness. The residue in the distilling flask retained its fishy odor unimpaired, while the dis- tillate had a very disagreeable odor resembling decaying cabbage. The 134 residue obtained from the distillate was considerable in quantity and gave about 1.5 grams of a yellow platinum compound, which showed on ignition a percentage of 48.52 and 48.55 of platinum in two determinations. The platinum in ammonium chloroplatinate amounts to 438.92 per cent. These experiments showed, then, about .5 per cent. of nitrogen as am- monia in the deposit—the main point of this communication. Attempts to show the presence of primary amines by the isocyanide reaction failed, and nothing but the odor seemed to indicate the presence of amines of any kind. < {“, and possesses no movement. e (1) Pink variety same as No. 2 c (1). di) Facultative anaerobic, non-liquefying bacillus. Grows well in agar, and very slightly in wort gelatine. The colonies are yellow, tree-like in form, with firm edges, with the center slimy and oily. Form is 3 4 in size and has a slow, waddling movement. No. 4 flour contains 6 forms and one yeast: a (2)-e (1) b @) a @) ¢ @ d (1) and yeast f (1). a(2) Facultative anaerobic, non-liquefying bacillus. This form grows well in agar, but does not grow at allin wort gelatine. The colonies are grayish yellow, oily, slimy, and have smooth edges. Size, 3—44 $. Has a burrowing move- ment. T (1) Turns out to be a red yeast twice as long as broad, differing from all red yeasts previously noted. Has granular contents vacuoles, large and vary from 1—5 in number. Gross appearnce, very dull, firm, pink on agar. Also grows well in gelatine. Some cells show spore like bodies at each end. Size, 6>< 3. 142 e(1) White variety. Same as No. 2 a (2), a(1) Same as No. 1 a (1). B(2) Facultative anaerobic, liquefying bacillus. Grows well in agar and wort gelatine. The colonies are yellow, iridescent smooth, oily, with smooth edges. Size is 3 }/, and possesses slight jerky movement. ec (1) Facultative anaerobic, liquefying bacillus. Grows well in agar and wort gelatine. The colonies are yellow, smooth, oily with smooth edges. Size, 13 #4. Has no movement. d(1) Facultative anaerobic, liquefying bacillus. Grows well in agar and wort gelatine. Colonies, yellowish white, slimy, oily, irregular edges. Liquefies gelatine entirely, forming a white and firm film over the surface, also a heavy sed- iment is formed. The gelatine becomes red brown in color, on agar an emerald green color appears near surface of the agar. Size, 2 $.- Has a movement in circles. ‘ Flour No. 5 contains two forms c (2) B (2), c (2) Facultative anaerobic, non-liquefying, zooglea mass. Very luxuriant grower in both agar and wort gelatine. Colonies aresmooth and oily, with smooth edges. This form is yellow in color. B(2) Facultative anaerobic, liquefyin#@bacillus. Good grower in wort gela- tine and agar. Colonies are yellow, smooth and slimy, with smooth edges. Pro- duces a little gas. Size, 44>< ly. Possesses no movement. Flour No. 6 contains but one bacterium, same as No. 3 d (1). Flour No. 7 contains 4 forms: a (1) a (3) b (1) b (8), The white form a‘3) same as No. 2 a (2) also b (1) same as No. 5 b (2), a(l) Facultative anaerobic, liquefying bacillus. Good grower in wort gela- tine and agar. Colonies are dark yellow in color, slimy and oily, with smooth edges. Size, 2} <1. Possesses no movement. D(3) Facultative anaerobic, liquefying bacillus. Good growths in agar and wort gelatine. Colonies are yellow in color, smooth, oily, with regular edges. Size, 2} >< 1. Possesses no movement. Flour No. 8 contains 3 forms: a (3) Same as No. 2 a (2). a(2) Same as No. 3d (1). a‘l) Same as No. 5 B (2). Flour No. 9 contains 2 forms: a(@l) Same as No. 5 b (2). a (2) Same as No. 2 a (2). Flour No. 10 contains one form : b (2). Same as No. 4d (0), 143 Flour No. 11 contains 2 forms. a (1) Same as No. 1 a (1). a(2) Same as No. 3a (J). Flour No. 12 contains 3 forms. a(l) Same as No.7 b (@). b@) Same as No. 4 b (2). c(1) Same as No. 2 a(3). No.| No. of Forms. Bac. Per Gram. |Moulds Per Gram.|} Grade of Flour. 1 3 4090 2272 High. 2 3 2727 2727 High. 3 4 | 14545 1363 Medium. 4 6-1 yeast. 4545 909 High. 5 2 9090 909 Medium. 6 ] 2727 000 High. 7 4 15909 DID Medium. 8 3 222727 000 Poor. 9 2 4545 4090 High. 10 1 254545 909 Poor. 11 2 6363 0000 Medium. 12 3 18136 909 Poor. This work was done under the direction of Miss Katherine E. Golden. THE NuMBER OF MIcrOo-ORGANISMS IN AIR, WATER AND MILK As DETER- MINED BY THEIR GROWTH Upon DIFFERENT MEDIA. By A. W. Brirrine. While conducting a series of experiments to determine the number of bacteria and moulds in milk, some variations in number were found when the tests were made upon different culture media. This led to an experi- ment to determine the number of micro-organisms present in air, water and milk, using agar agar, glycerine agar, beef gelatine, and wort gelatine. The results of the test were somewhat of a surprise. The agar agar, glycerine agar and beef gelatine were neutral, while the work gelatine was slightly acid, but the degree of acidity not determined. Ten exposures were made with each media, using petri dishes and kept as close together as possible. The conditions were evidently as nearly alike as it is pos- sible to obtain. 144 The average number of bacteria and moulds which developed is as follows: Bacteria. Moulds. PALS HT Pe Alec p.Weteearatreusione cre (« Fe: ercl eis tenet al slstesenstoysttals 86 3 Gaby COTIMe GAO AR teres cteid c,«) 2) sheave lsveusjeleieiskey aie ayelepels 73 tl ECE S PCa tMl Uy sacs, acorn tis» 's ajaseld wis etepopeiene oie ehetele's 64 20 WWiGTE CLIT AS fo ps (oo: i0le co's alpine Steicieatedeeaisieye od. 34 Ten tests of water gave the following result: Bacteria. Moulds. ESO AN ed OA Temi es see Seo. des. Sia te sous eeeteNe eMBYCRALOTE eos 2,370 ? 12 GY CERIMGVAGAT fats oo Heo Piss oeuar a contelelave, sholeratahalata) « 2,260 15 CCLPSETALITIC. 205100. aictihess, o.0.0 to cveimoeroneterageveisietels. = 1,470 60 SVT eeMEL AD TINO) 5 ave sesso a oie; esleeenericel eee oles he te celia te 3 16 480 88 Ten tests of milk gave the following results: Bacteria. Moulds. A RTA leone Pes "esata seel'a, x eo hina. Soler estete jets Teeevs 7,967 2 Mer COMING Hey AT err. ve la ec ats Navel pyoie’e le eusnveMa Tre nS 11,207 7 Beet es elaine hs 26s oh tua eau iso oeeie aie ele 7,416 12 WOES ClATAMOT. 3:5. voi. salts vecstee side Renee 1,700 AT Agar agar shows the highest number of colonies of bacteria, and wort gelatine the highest number of moulds. The inference is that a statement of the number of forms found in anything should be accompanied by a statement of the media used and how prepared. Tue Errect oF FORMALIN ON GERMINATING SEEDS. By M. B. THomas. Having had occasion during the past year to investigate the applica- tion of formalin as a germicidal agent, I became greatly interested as, to the possibility of its use as a fungicide. Some very imperfect laboratory experiments suggested the probability of its value in connection with the destruction of the smut of corn, oats and wheat, and accordingly plans were made to carry out a series of ex- periments with this in view. More careful thought on the subject con- vinced me that such experiments would prove too expensive unless some accurate data were at hand regarding the effect of formalin, in solutions 145 of varying strength, on the germination of seeds. Accordingly, as a pre- liminary investigation, I began in connection with Mr. C. EH. Crockett, a student in the department, a careful series of such experiments with the seeds of grains and other plants. All of the details of the experiments were carefully arranged to prevent a possibility of error and a very pure solution of formalin was secured. In all cases parallel experiments were conducted and check tests made with the seeds soaked in pure water. ; The work was carried on in the green house, where the soil was kept at a nearly constant temperature. The seedlings usually began to appear above the ground by the fifth day, and were measured daily for two weeks, then weekly until well advanced in their development. Seeds were grown both in pure sand and rich earth to determine the possible effects of soils on the treated specimens, but in all of the experiments no difference was noticed from such varying conditions, as the seeds planted in the sand compared in every respect in their behavior with those grown in rich soil. In all cases the temperature of the solution in which the seeds were soaked was about 19° C. With the wheat 4% and 2 per cent. solutions were used, and the time of treatment varied from one-half to four hours. The results show that of the seeds soaked in the % per cent. solution for one-half hour, 76 per cent. germinated; for one hour, 56 per cent., and for 314% hours, 36 per cent. While of those treated for one hour in a 2 per cent. solution none ger- minated. Wheat seemed to be about the most easily affected by the formalin of any seed, and even the use of a 1% per cent. solution for one-half hour is not safe. A 4 per cent. solution for about this length of time will prove the most satisfactory. The results of the experiments showed that the plants of the treated seeds developed as rapidly and perfectly as those of the untreated ones. In a few instances, where retarded germination was evident as a result of this treatment, the plants soon made up this deficiency and at the end of two weeks could not be distinguished from the others. The fact that wheat was one of the easiest affected of any of the grains is no doubt due to the very imperfect protection of its embryo. With oats, of those soaked in a % per cent. solution for one-half hour, 96 per cent. of treated and a less number of untreated germinated, and 10—ScIENCE. 146 one, two and three and a half hours, soaking did not materially decrease the relative percentages, while with those treated with a 2 per cent. solu- tion for one hour only 48 per cent. germinated, and none showed life after four hours soaking. It will therefore be seen that oats can endure the treatment much better than wheat. An interesting condition in the increased percentage in the germination of the treated seeds as compared with the untreated ones in all of the tests can allow of little explanation. The plants of the seeds treated up to four hours were, after a few days, quite a little larger than those of the untreated ones, and this condition remained constant throughout the development of the plant. It seemed that in this case the formalin must have in some way contributed to the development of the plant, notwith- standing the statement of T. Bokorny* that this substance ununited was not beneficial to growth. It is evident, however, that oats can safely be treated for three hours in a % per cent. solution of formalin without danger of injury to the germinating power of the seed. With rye, 44 per cent. germinated after soaking in a 1% per cent. solu- tion for one hour, with but a slight decrease in the number after four hours treatment. With the 2 per cent. solution none germinated after three and a half hours treatment. It is therefore evident that rye will not endure the treatment as well as wheat. In the case of corn, after soaking in a % per cent. solution for one hour 92 per cent. germinated, equaling the per cent. that developed from the untreated seeds. After two hours in the solution a very slight decrease : was noted, and after three and a half hours only 52 per cent. germinated. After the use of a 2 per cent. solution for one hour but 56 per cent. devel- oped. Corn, therefore, seems to endure the treatment fairly well, and the use of a % per cent. solution for one hour will not decrease the per cent. of seeds that germinate. Buckwheat, millet, beans and other seeds were treated with quite sat- isfactory results, and while no use can probably be made of such a treat- ment with these seeds, yet their behavior was interesting as illustrating the general effect of formalin on germinating seeds and developing seed- lings. *Landsw. Jahrb., 21 (1892), pp. 445-446. 147 After the use of solutions that seemed to be about the maximum strength allowable, germination was often delayed for two or three days as compared with that of the untreated seeds, and in one case with treated oats some did not germinate until the third week. In the case of all plants studied the use of formalin did not in any way change the character of either the stem, leaves or root in those that germinated, as far as could be observed, except as above stated in certain exceptional cases. No corrosive action was observed, as is found in the case of extended treatment with copper sulphate, that seems to act quite freely on the tip of the radicle. If,as has been predicted, formic aldehyde in very dilute solutions prove an efficient fungicide, there seems to be no reason why it should not take the place of the well-known copper—sulphate or hot-water treatment for smut of grains. The great reduction in price, the ease of manipulation and its general all-round efficiency as a germicidal agent will make its use more certain by the agriculturist, especially in place of the hot-water process, where no little inconvenience is experienced in arranging for treatment and in keeping the hot water at a correct temperature. This paper is intended to be suggestive rather than exhaustive, and the full statistics now on hand will be published at some future time, if the practical field experiments to be conducted in the spring warrant the con- tinuing of the imvesticution. Since the work covered by this paper was completed I have been able to find in some cases an indirect reference to the use of formalin in 1: 10,000 for destroying the spores of smut.* SUMMARY. 4 The use of formalin for destroying smut spores is very clearly an im- portant proposition. The small expense of the treatment and the facility of its application commend it for a thorough trial, at least. * (1) Low.. Ueber einen Bacillus, welcher Ameisensiiure und Formaldehyd assimiliren kann. Central. fiir Bak. und Parasitenkunde. Bd. XII, S. 462. (7) Comptes Rendues, 1892. (°) Annales de Micrographie, 1894-95. (°) Recherch. sur la valeur de la formal. u.s. w. Arch. de pharmacodynamie, 1894, Wolke ls (*) Bericht id. Gesellschaft fiir Morphologie und Physiologie. Miinchen, 1888. 148 . The use of a 2 per cent. solution is too strong for all grains, even with a short application. A ¥% per cent. solution is about right for oats, and the treatment may be continued for as long as two hours without injury to the seed. For wheat a treatment with a 14-per-cent. solution for one-half hour is safe, while a 14 per cent. solution for the same time will not decrease the germinating power of the seeds to any considerable extent. Corn may be treated for two hours with a 1% per cent. solution without injury. Rye is injured in a 4 per cent. solution for one hour. When germination is slightly retarded by the treatment, the plants soon equal in their development those of the untreated seeds. A List oF THE MycrtozoA CoLLECTED NkAR CRAWFORDSVILLE, INDIANA. By KE. W. OLIve. The accompanying list comprises forty-three Myxomycetes, thirty-two of which are not reported in Dr. Underwood’s ‘ List of Cryptogams of Indiana,” in the Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 1893, p. 30. Duplicates haye been deposited in the herbarium of Prof. M. B, Thomas, Wabash College, Crawfordsville, and in the Cryptogamic Herbarium of Harvard University. The determinations have been made according to the descriptions in the Monograph of the Mycetozoa, by A. Lister. The collections were made mostly in August, 1897, and with few exceptions the species seemed to be comparatively abundant, several gatherings being made of many of them. The majority of the species were found upon decaying stumps and logs, while a few were fruiting upon living leaves and stems, and still others on moss and fallen leaves. Two instances were noted of a curious growth of the very abundant Physarum cinereum Pers. A circle about six feet in diameter was clearly outlined in both cases by the grayish sporangia fruiting upon the living leaves and stems of grass and Plantago. The border of the ring was pretty regular and five or six inches broad. Here and there within the ring were sinall groups of sporangia, but the most were confined to the outer border. he plasmodium had probably been feeding upon the dead grass stems lying clove upon the ground, and, as it grew 149 in size, crawled outward from the center, when a dry and hot day caused simul- taneous fruiting, thus resulting in a regular ring of sporangia. The formation is thus quite similar to the circles formed by the ‘‘fairy-ring mushroom,” or Marasmius. MYXOMYCETES. Arcyria albida Pers. Arcyria flava Pers. Arcyria punicea Pers. Badhamia hyalina, Berk. Ceratiomyxa mucida Schroet, var. genuina List. Ceratiomyxa mucida Schroet, var. flexuosa List. Chondrioderma michelit Rost. Chondrioderma reticulatum Rost. Chondrioderma testatum Rost. Comatricha typhoides Rost. Craterium leucocephalum Ditm. Cribraria aurantiaca Schrad. Oribraria intricata Schrad. var. dictyoides List. Diachea elegans Fries. — Diachea splendens Peck. Dietydiwm umbilicatum Sebrad. (a form.) Didymium clavus Rost. Didymium effusum Link. Enteridium (olwaceum?) Ehreub. with free spores. Fuligo septica Gruelin. Hemitrichia clavata Rost. Hemitrichia rubiformis Lister. Hemitrichia serpula Rost. Lycogala miniatum Pers. Oligonema nitens Rost. Perichena populina Fries. Physarella mirabilis Peck. Physarum bivalve Pers. Physarum cinereum Pers. Physarum contextum, Pers. Physarum leucopus Link. Physarum nutans Pers. Physarum (rubiginosum ?) Fries. Physarum variabile Rex. Physarum viride Pers. Spumaria alba DC. Stemonitis ferruginea Ehreub. Stemonitis fusca Roth. Stemonitis splendens Rost. Trichia afinis De Bary. Trichia favoginea Pers. Trichia persimilis Karst. Tubulina fragiformis Pers. ACRASIEAE, Chondromyces lichenicolus Thaxter. Myxococcus stipitatus Thaxter. Myzxococcus rubescens Thaxter. THE GERM OF PEAR Buicutr. By LILLIAN SNYDER. It is certainly an established fact that the well-known disease of Pear Blight, which causes such devastation among our pear, apple and quince trees, is caused by bacteria within the growing tissue of the tree. The germ which causes the disease was discovered by T. J. Burrell, and was first described and named by him in 1882.* The germ I have isolated from the pear tree, and which I think I can say without a doubt causes the disease of the tree, I shall designate by the name used by other writers, and originated by Prof. Burrell; that is, Micrococcus amylovorus. Whether the above germ spoken of is the same as the one handled and studied by Prof. Burrell, and also by J. C. Arthur,+ I leave to be gathered from the results of my experiments. Early in March, 1897, I attempted to separate the germ which causes the blight of the tree. Various methods were used, such as cutting pieces of diseased bark of pear, with a sterilized knife, and placing in bouillon; also by inserting a platinum needle between the bark and wood of dis- eased tissue and streaking upon agar. The latter proved the most success- * Eleventh Report of the Illinois Industrial University, p. 42. + Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy of Nat. Sciences, 1886, pp. 322-341. 151 Fig. 1.—Pear twig in water with the germ micrococcus amylovorus growing upon the I eut surface. 152 ful, and by this method a germ was obtained which I carried through a number of experiments and found to be in many respects like the germ described by Dr. Arthur in his History and Biology of Pear Blight. This germ was studied and kept alive until the latter part of May, when the pear was putting forth its new shoots, the young branches being then used for inoculation. Out of about ten inoculations, at different times, not one appeared to have any effect upon the tree. I concluded I was mistaken in the germ, which resulted in a second attempt to isolate the germ from the tree. By this time the trees were in all their foliage, thus making the dis- ease much more readily detected than previously. The same method was used as above described as successful, and out of six or seven attempts to transfer the germ from the host upon agar, five were successful. This germ thus obtained was then used to inoculate into the young growing shoots of the tree (Bartlett pear), and every inoculation that was made caused blight of the tree. This was during the month of June, the tem- perature being on an average of 70° F., the atmosphere moist, rainfall 5.16 inches, being 1.84 above normal, thus favorable for the increase in growth. At the end of a week after the blight first began to appear it was not unusual to see the branches blighted 10 or 12 inches from the point of inoculation. In inoculation only perfectly healthy pear and apple trees were used, the former taking the disease with much more readiness than the latter. The germ was taken from streak cultures upon agar, a sterilized platinum needle being used to transfer the germ to the surface of the young twigs. After the surface had been smeared over with the germ, openings were made through the bark layers at this point, enabling the germ to get well started to grow before it might be washed off by rain. Leaves do not take the blight when inoculated. Naturally, the germ appears to be confined to the branches, the leaves only dying when their nourishment has been cut off. GENERAL CHARACTERS OF MICROCOCCUS AMYLOVORUS. The cells are oval, very little longer than broad, being about .59u to .8&. wide by .894 to 1.2 long. Cells are colorless, very refractive and difficult to stain, resembling spores in their relation to stain. The best results in staining were obtained with carbol fuchsine. When grown 153 upon agar the cells are usually found single, very often in pairs and occa- sionally in chains of fours. When growirtg in bouillon or other nutritive wedia the germ exhibits independent movement, thus differing from the habits of the germ within the host. When sections of the diseased branches are placed under the microscope the bacteria show very little, if any, Movement. This germ appears to be aerobic, and increases in growth with an in- crease of temperature. Growth upon agar was most rapid during the months of July and August, the average temperatures for these months being 73.3° F. Later 30 the season the germ ceased to grow with the same rapidity, although exposed to a high degree of temperature. Spore formation was not observed, and I am inclined to believe spores are not formed. CULTURES WITH LIQUID AND SOLID MEDIA. Cultures with bouillon after 48 hours at 30° C. remained perfectly clear, the growth all settling to the bottom of the tube. Not in any case have I observed zoogloea formed. In a pure corn-starch solution inoculated with the germ, the germ sur- vived and multiplied, but the starch was not chemically changed. Two cellulose solutions* made from Swedish filter paper were used. In one glucose was used and the other sugar was not added. In these solutions I planted the germ, and at the end of a week no apparent change had taken place in either solution, but the one which did not contain sugar originally was tested, and it was found that cellulose had been changed into glucose. Various fermentation fluids were used, but this germ does not ferment under any conditions. The most convenient solid media for the cultivation is agar. Colonies are white, slightly opalescent, when vigorously growing raising like beads from the surface. In a streak culture the outline is slightly feathery. Agar which had not been titrated, but used as made up, slightly acid, was found to give the best results in the growth of the germ. * Cellulose solution was made upas follows; Peptone, 10 grams; Salt,5 grams; Glucose, 20 grams; Pure Cellulose, 20 grams; Water, 1000 C.C. 154 In a stab culture in nutrient gelatine the growth spreads over the surface and along the line of inoculation, but does not penetrate the gelatine, thus remaining for several weeks without any sign of lique- faction. Probably the most characteristic result is the growth upon pear twigs. The end twigs to a length of two or three inches were cut from the tree. These were placed in water, the upper cut surface covered with the growing germ, and the vessels containing the twigs then placed under a bell jar for 24 hours. At the end of this time about two out of every four of the twigs had a beautiful growth over the cut surface. This growth was in the form of globules, as many as three or four globules being on one twig. These bead-like colonies, being white and raised from the surface, were perfectly apparent to the unaided eye. (See Fig. 1.) This growth increases, turning yellow when old, until entirely destroyed by moulds. Another very important characteristic of Micrococcus amylovorus is the manner of growth within the growing pear fruit. A half-sized Bart- lett pear upon the tree was inoculated in about the same manner as the branches had been. The pear ceased to grow and soon began to shrivel. At the end of two weeks the pear was removed from the tree, and upon examination the whole interior was found to be composed of a soft, milky substance, which appeared under the microscope to be made up entirely of bacteria. Half-ripe pears were taken from the tree, cut in slices, inoculated with the germ, and then placed under a bell jar. Colonies were found in 24 hours, which resembled those already described upon agar. During the month of October cultures were taken from quinces which has been inoculated with M. amylovorus. This second germ proved to be entirely different from M. amylovorus, but alike in all respects to the germ separated from the tree in March. This germ, which I shall term No. 2, I feel convinced occurs within the tree. But what relation it bears to M. amylovorus, if any, I am not prepared to say. Germ No. 2 when transferred to pear twigs in water grows very well, but does not survive or grow with the same vigor as M. amylovorus does when placed under the same conditions. The growth of No. 2 is not raised in bead-like colonies, but grows in a continuous mass, over the surface, and instead of being white, is transparent. WN 5yd) Microscopically the two germs are so near alike it is impossible to separate them. They bear about the same relation to stains and the cells are of about the same size. The arrangement of the cells of the two germs differ some, but this is not constant. CULTURES WITH LIQUID AND SOLID MEDIA. Cultures with bouillon after 24 hours at 30° C. are very turbid, and a thick pellicle is formed over the surface of the liquid. The germ grows well in a corn-starch solution, but the starch is not broken down. Cellu- lose solutions made as above stated were inoculated. At the end of two days both had fermented, thus in the one without sugar, sugar had been formed. In this one in which sugar was formed the gas production was very slow. Germ No. 2 planted in Smith solution causes fermentation and gas forms very rapidly. Mr. A. H. Bryan, a student of Purdue University, who was so kind as to analyze the gas produced by this germ, has given the following results of his analysis: From germ No. 2, separated from the pear tree in March, 1897: LOR NST nga Bea eee PEO SAG aes Pan maar 45.0 per cent. ©). n.t8,c Bb 6 a0 ave DOES ale Witt Old cidio BrGpiOn Dione Damen ae .83 per cent. TRIPP ee Ae isin ania eo incor alate talatisr s eRe ete Aicve at byel ayo: seeieolists 26.3 per cent. QIET; “aS cl esid p10 Gr ceo agian DIM eter oreo ance 0.00 per cent. 73.13 per cent. TReroa NAO KIe: re. INR ee soto A eeitio bn olobia bin tam oGolg 26.87 per cent. From germ No. 2, separated from the quince in October, 1897: CO ae gerne apt atre Near ghatatee arsine s Hela uustayS onalehs) spel ale vettesei ts 50 per cent. Oe ae i reee es nurstiel erro lasteara Douetireneirclota tovemattchetieLst sieicartr axe None. (XO ical Gad: Said eee eae eee Soot PS LN RE DRA crea MiNi ach coal gee None. 1sL, done lee rolitobdle 5 Biolog o nla nea nod Gelso obemsoinieo dec mor 32 per cent. OLED We matics sy beers cent & Se pe Eee ERI ere: RoR Sesion mer eae 82 per-cent. TRYST HOA OVA POI LIN Gi praca Ric ROGGE Oe Dae oe Saari 18 per cent. It is presumed that the remainder in each case is nitrogen, but just what per cent. is nitrogen is not yet known. 156 es Gelatine was inoculated while liquid, then allowed to solidify. At the end of two days colonies appeared as small white dots beneath the sur- face of the gelatine. In gelatine thus inoculated with M. amylovorus such colonies were not apparent. Upon agar the only essential difference in the two germs that might be noted is that germ No. 2 grows much more rapidly than M. amylovorus does when exposed to the same temperature. This paper has been prepared under the direction of Dr. J. C. Arthur, to whom I am very much indebted for a number of suggestions which have been of great value in my experiments. WATER PoweER FOR BoTANICAL APPARATUS. By J. C. ARTHUR. In vegetable physiology a number of kinds of apparatus are required which must be run at an approximately uniform speed. Some of the most important of these pieces are used to influence the direction of growth, and as plant movements dependent upon growth are slow, the apparatus must often be kept in motion continuously from twenty-four to seventy- rwo hours or more. The chief reliance where the movement is very moderate, ranging as it does for clinostats between ten to sixty minutes for one revolution, has usually been some form of clock-work, regulated by escapement or fan. For comparatively rapid movement, such as a centrifuge requires, which ranges from fifty to five hundred revolutions per minute, recourse is gen- erally had to water or electric power. Both of these sources prove very unsatisfactory as a rule, for machines doing such light work as the physi- ologist requires, and especially when they must be run steadily and with- out interruption both day and night. Electric power from a commercial plant usually varies greatly, and, moreover, is rarely continuous for the twenty-four hours. If the power is taken from a battery of some form of cells, the difficulty of maintain- ing a uniform current is almost as great, beside the annoyance of caring for the cells. The potash cells, especially those sold under the name of Edison-Lalande, have given the best satisfaction for this kind of work of any so far tried in the laboratory of Purdue University. But even these are treacherous, and quite uneven. ; 157 Water power, if secured, as is customary, by connection with a tap in the laboratory, has some of the disadvantages of electric power in being inconstant. Every tap in the vicinity that is opened or closed varies the pressure, and even the initial pressure can by no means be depended upon. After many and vain efforts to obtain efficient power for my labora- tory the following plan was hit upon, and has proved wholly satisfactory. The method is very simple. It consists in providing a tank with an inlet valve operated by a float. As the water is withdrawn from the tank the float sinks and opens the valve, and the inflowing stream of water brings the water in the tank back to the full height. As the inlet valve permits a much larger stream of water to pass than the outlet valve does, the tank always stands essentially at the same level. The simplicity of my whole arrangement is one of its particular feat- ures. The tank consists of a vinegar barrel. It is set upon a platform in the story above my laboratory, and gives a fall of about fifteen feet. The water supply is taken from the city water that is piped throughout the building. The pipe conducting the water to the laboratory below is a small lead pipe and siphons the water over the top of the barrel. It is almost as easily put in place as rubber tubing, and can readily be changed to reach any part of the laboratory. It is closed at the lower end with a short piece of rubber tubing and a screw pinchcock, with which connec- tion can be made with a water motor or other apparatus. The float and valve in the barrel are such as plumbers usually furnish for dwelling houses. With this arrangement a practically uniform head of water is avail- able at all times, and although a fall of more than fifteen feet would be desirable, yet it has proven ample to run a centrifuge, using a Crowell water motor. A larger tank and more extensive plumbing might be used, but the arrangement as I have described it is so easily constructed and inexpen- sive as to be available in almost any laboratory. Many more uses of a small constant stream of water will come to mind than those mentioned. For instance, it is almost indispensable in running such an aspirator as is used for aerating seeds in a respirometer or for producing a regular alternating movement by filling a pair of buckets set on a pivot. The cheapness and uniformity of the power are its great merits. 158 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE FLORA OF INDIANA, No. V. By STANLEY CoULTER. Since the last report to the Academy, two plants worthy of note have been added to the State flora by Prof. Blatchley. Vitis rupestris Scheele-—On sand ridges in Lake county. The plant had first been called to my attention by Mr. H. C. Cowles, of Chicago University, and was doubtfully referred to V. cordifolia Michx. Later Prof. Blatchley sent me fruiting specimens from the same general region which proved that the plant could not be so referred. The specimens were sent to Prof. L. H. Bailey, of Cornell University, who determined them to be V. rupestris. This grape is essentially southern in its mass distribu- tion, its recorded range being from Missouri to Texas, Tennessee and the banks of the Potomac near Washington. It is difficult to understand how it could have wandered so far from its original range, although, as Prof. Bailey writes, “botanists have ceased being surprised at anything from that region.” ; Juniperus nana Willd., (=J. communis, L., var. alpina Gaud.).—From Lake county. This form has entered our flora from the north, its recorded range being from Maine to Minnesota and northward. Much work has also been done during the past year in the extension of the range of various species, largely through the labors of Dr. Hessler, Prof. Blatchley and Mr. W. W. Chipman. It is not, however, so much the purpose of this contribution to report upon the work done during the past year as to summarize the data now in the hands of the survey, in the hope that much needed information may be furnished before the final publication of the State Flora.* After excluding manifestly introduced forms, recorded as “escapes,’’ together with incorrect references due to a scarcity of material, 1,369 species have been passed upon by the State survey and admitted to the State flora. These species are distributed through 534 genera and 124. families. The list is doubtless far from complete, but under the rules of the survey no plant can be admitted unless verified by an herbarium spec- imen or one that has been passed upon by some recognized authority. For the most part the admitted species are represented by herbarium *Tn previous contributions to the State Flora, the nomenclature followed was that of ““Gray’s Manual,’’ 6th edition. This was done for the purpose of ready correlation of the facts.given in the contributions, with the records of observers. In this contribution it is thought best to use the nomenclature of the “ List of Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta,’” prepared by the Botanical Club of N. A. 159 specimens, although some forms recorded in Dr. J. Schneck’s “Flora of the Lower Wabash,” determined by Dr. Gray, have been admitted in the absence of verifying specimens. The same is true as regards a few forms contained in the ‘‘Alpine Flora of Indiana,” by Dr. A. J. Phinney,, which were submitted to Dr. John M. Coulter for determination. If un- verified forms, which have been reported from various parts of the State, were added, the number of species would reach at least 1,500. In the summarized statement which follows it will be noticed that the reports concerning many of the more widely distributed families are manifestly incorrect. This is notably true in the case of the grasses and sedges, and scarcely less evident in the case of the umbellifers and the crucifers. It is hoped that botanists throughout the State will examine this list care- fully and report needed corrections: 26 Salicacez Cy apaluhslla at evalielicl ajo le nie wa tals] © @ SO) @jellm 6) 4 6\6\e.0 (00 (sa 0.6166 (6 \c 27 Betula ea cetacean oie esas elo als hoe rics Shevexonesmake 10 OM MA A COB et Mpa tera nt nay Valea cua srs Slctrte habe siete ie sists ef, civce,e 18 29 Wiltiaacesre a eos ttat-tpeieraet ieee ek co ca teein hele obs 6 30 Mona ere irra iene rae rise ere ee eos Sine ote wile apa feta) ©) lial shiay/a) (eles sus! e)s (as \e)'e's\e a) =) om («eam vs) wees, 0 ¢ oe No. FAMILIES. Genera. | Species. 1 (Clare (eras 8 Py at ea er te Be St a ne ob rE Oe we ee ent 6 9 Puen Wee ley PUMAC Coe aretancyereialccfeveicls sicanterelsisieisi chattels aie elaperel taieisae 1 1 PM PS PAE acTaCede ne Fits sieista\ic, «i me cis eiciel= o> s cuoke =: wie a slcieie) ens lene ] 1 4 INES Cera Nees year pantie Siac otis Mh Tee oteraere | 2 8 AMEE ROMINA CAMINITA CEE rvencroitat cin tin erst ciaTs ciswis eet elcs ofa a eichejesete’st- | 2 | 2 6 BNE TIN COs SEIS acs et ee ee tee Re oyna ont ee 3 4 Mion lay dracharita Cex. <1 62. = sytrstsiacie + - scis s io isive oe ees o's 2 | 2 8 Gramine ry sae one ke ck Drea tes Sab wate be AH) 47 ae CViela Cee Sas cre Nore jo Saiayn ere ieleisails ott eteinte wa Seles s oisat ales 11 | 48 10 NT ACC ea nein ey Ane MORO rete hiss See) oh der moat Ve 4 | 5 slit LURETE DE CE ore RnR WAtS s P ee accee AEaRe IY GRA Rey Ane ete 2 2 ee |My EUG Cte ier «| tare cysiars. a leielmlaciere cise’ O sraieis wists slo aieanavareass 1 J 13 Br ocAlaceaa pao rn eet ae owt ee eae coe ee nee eas 1 1 14 Wome maces: ees ek eae ohare o cuca shire ero nie 2, 4 15 RONTCO CRIA Ces eon Hache oe maa talrat eno e aes Oe ora ear 2 eS 16 PMSA C CHASEN eR Mea PAR er ed Mae Ret cy nhac Geer a Sauene enenerere tare 2 6 Ay, Airaid re tee et pte ase ts ga arin Ee Sal ar oe steaeh Ses 20 35 18 UID ACCSEMe ern ee sa cae cuamearnn hisk c REST srcisih traein as arene i 5 TG Nirman Al bio lekeres Date er atc Sac OA OI cee ieee 3 3 20 IDTOSCOLE ACER a ea cr anatoR te ech eee epi cierellenlats Diss 1 il 21 beri levereteey ic Rats Nae eet tan Ai ty REO eC Rt a nT 3 4 22, Olive! sinca eyelet aks ah CSAS a ena ia Scale el te I ite Oe Pe a 14 36 2B} Saubunacessseserr ee, seas Bae waa sciiethicore a her cessor 1 i FUE | lle) aed bay aXe Wear oN. saa a aie ac anc: Re or Os Ce RA ea 2 9 Zona Myricaceesits< lars SERED SON iene ee OTA nets Sota 1 1 7 2 3 2 3 4 1 160 FAMILIES. Aristolochiaceraenss sees Seo Polygonacez Chenopodiaces.: :. 0... .5...55.- Aimarant acer ween ces 33 sock = PG te lapraeee rs tet a4 2s. 5 hee) NEGROES ie ap Ss, 505 8% sing =o 5 Caryaphy ieee os 25d nis oasis Nympheacee........... Fpet rene a Magnuoliacee TOC CLE Pa ea Sie 1 Pave faite owe wea Menispermace®.........26.2.05% Lauraceze Papaveracee Crucifer DATLACEN TALE. Ss a5 ssa < os Ueber PINORETACER Spey eee Ze arch ook Crassulaceze RRA CR as deb p's, ons» wae amt Hamamelidacese Simarubacez Polypalaces fia. otesee sacs 2 re Euphorbiacex Me iimnantiacere § 52.62 ote ke cel Anacardiace Aquifoliacez Colastracess) Uf. 0 eect se eo hieae > fiaphyleace®.../.). 6). sccseeksy een 1 \(QES Cs: Re ee aes oe Hippocastanacev Balsaminacez Rhamnaceze VITEACEIE ER ore gos, wicks a eis Tiliaceze Malvacex PAR ERICHCOE. 1.02.5 cee s bogs sve e ss Cistacez IVTONAC ETE tots tee oes OR litle ce ae te Passifloraceze CaCTAC ERA cc cr riatan tines oa «aks Sty Ie Aces x8 vse he tas aoe eine bre Eleagnacee Dyin cena ier tae vere ererne es =. oreo. ot eee teeta CO Oa MeN Ye Ie a gee Ti see eee eee eee ee eee esses Se nid Oe eel e. B65 we) a PIAS ranaCeEse iis <2 x sich eke bok RORACESO Ae eee le wee aaa ie Se i in a ar Be CRAY ANTACERO EE ela. |, eis oy cincend os Hite RMR AED) Sat Petes a Av srole's wine ks [VINA CeL Heer ore st. ote (Ee ee ae ee ee ee ed Wo) opie sm» sin slo. o's 0 uv sole fe see aie p\ 2s 6\s seins «ol, a «500 m/e 6) 16) ae fel al elem miele ters. = Cee! 6: eee! sew el eie eisin) aye aie PM SC tO ke ter fA iS a efolelp ina die eonyn 676 ju ie area Pee ec ea eke w*e\e).8) S AKO 6@)w 0,6 6.0, alle, 6,5 un ee ee ar oles e's) Sa» vd ww so uw ole, Ce ey We ee Te ae ae a eS DDC « B's 0) 6 60 ss Die,e 4 0. ote a STO w Ce ele 616 pe # eis"e lee 6s es Vevestrcevianceioce sis dod ate SC © Oe 6 ce » 6 OW oie 0.6 ee oT 6 eS aw we De se, eo) ee sw Sims 5, pela, @ Bys\ 5) 9 1a) Sere Ae te on ee ©. rw os sha.s, © Piero) s\n, op ow e's poly a6) 9) 0) so ols spe ee pie 2) 0 © #10. ane o's Ole Bin wine wie ee Cd ee ee ee ed Genera. = —" noe CH HHH WNORPN NEE EH N NH H ORE pee Dp “IDF NONRFRENANNN RE ROHN OOM Re Oo top bd Species. bo bo — (J) — “Tor _ NOWNN NH RWWA DOD ROH — het Oe ee TB 161 No. FAMILIES. | Genera. | Species. 86 IMelastomacesearn tee ate ee na eet nde coe aioe eas as 1 a ROME ROMA GTA CCE ear ox wi) 2 ce «a1 paid oh» ect io: Vere myer ahcliyene a.cheleiayoon ays 8 17 cos) || SIEM ssa Ta Bo ae ee ae Pn 3 fi 89 Nira laCAce oe MET are Sere SISO ah tad Big sais ae PIE ee oe 2 3 90 Wireless cry anys aes tye eae ee ret tiny sill uueem ie aig o eters ees 21 26 91 MOTT ACCT Ea oe epee Syed oe hs, Save we ical SOS area been 2 9 DM MULAVLOR ACORN AN cyclcfsuie ce Mae ns a Uolce e fic lachane steve ate ws ofc ws 2 6 Same MEVLOTYO LEO PACCHrsh is, crac steiceyas tas aete tio ays Preise) chops alias Ailes o> 2 2 94 Be CO eee ee oncy sie ee eae are aaa vet as Siac fale il 18 95 Jeb aoTiy PCr A A as Re i | Saeed ae tk ee PI 9 13 96 enacerar ec cee a Vr ence CN TSE). cto uaion tice Fecha ie auariet 1 1 SSE NCCE Mor helix sai OP Say al 202) Hf elosin pide ant ts Hu) Salorsniols ‘em0 1) 1 98 LO SCC ee ene Ta NN ce ae oe sacs Sor ee Pea eT aes D 6 99 Gemptaiac ene eer. bar eh ties im ira Acar ecParaie Sis ie ok Sea ee iret 5 13 ANSE PANT OG VAIL COPO0 oece es xolaiot-y aime tate ereyor | eRe real sbeiasehevs ios Sin 2 3 PME AS CLCUIRGR CER a aise laas tes don osc bbe siete oe ak ates iprers «6 4 14 102 Wisniv- Oliv acne, Mee w alt nsee srs eae nce eas eth aver eee nee 2 8 103 ( CAUILOUTUHE Er Sie RS A Ne an Dee a ne ee ee ee ne ee 1 5 104 IROLEnVO mA Cee erste Cr ee ere ne ee iat eee ataiee 2 10 GC Eeen ely. dire phiy Wace re 2 Sever thi ins. s hevsiray shove. th ech eva cs eqs) netttaols.cl= 3 if AGRE | SOLASINACCH las Stayin t/a do ache x cfeppiaje ©: ovcieimiayaketelerely a/c, she's 8 18 107 Verbenacez ............ “oa eres nea ee A hn) hare AL Root eS EA 3 if 108 ILE ONI SR ah nee SPE A, ae ec ene, WEE ia a Maar 24 56 109 CELA CCEA coarse Sener ya tiny thats oR e Masts sos erah aia Miobebey acienoaes 5 13 CoML PUL ATUACEHS te by. O'F's.5 ft usla lols Wet Ls ella ai Mew are ts ate be as 20 42 ital Weriibulamtaceser wo niy ony. at, Atcied octaves a lart 2 oye imet 1 4 112 OOM AN CHA CCH Fe trots tis crest ole Grate) Gis orate at pees 3 3 GIMP O OMAGH ekisnersItaish nats Aeicaee is okeweierel ais odo eich die whens 2 3 114 ) ayo PW eevee ibe a ae Ee OM Na We aie Rp ae ene RUE Te 1 1 115 DNC ATG A CORES ey etra, Sete leans ays od Tale coaeaa versie eeheretehe! oe 2 3 Guan beter fa ema Ce Rts cll ahl et ates aitee ota ALF ena ays setae sas 1 9 117 Ri La Carma ste ater eee tree, AM as oy Sete a ep ad ae 6 18 DUS OA DELO LILAC CLO sis yrs ssiare ig ieia cia LAST sisc ore Siete sees 6 18 119 Wislerianaceser ie area hed a i bce e eae San tae ee 2 dD ep a UOMBRHeCACH Mtetwa etn as cei uad olfh Secs deceit Se 1 1 eee OUCH DnbACee ty qevten tae ind cle teis Ses wesc chat ac caveaestel ate cverel | 3 % 122 Gampanwlaceesyye Tis hee seam ae e e glare che hig eerie 3 12 123 ( Glovian)y oyOTSiiL es Sen Bee Enis yet ee RN IDS ay Ce ee 48 189 124 MOT CHOMIACE HON Th Mes ciate eee Stan ena ek ee oie enieia he 7 25 Biot ies ee exseates ster i Nanueke sc aheisios hia othr eareiec acl ho ccevancre 584 1,369 An examination of the table shows that fifteen families are represented by twenty-five or more species, the composites leading with one hundred and eighty-nine. These fifteen families contain 772 species, leaving 597 species to be distributed among the remaining 109 families. Dominant families, such as these, are, of course, of general distribution throughout the State and have naturally been more closely studied than many of the 11—ScrIence. 162 others. It is probable that further study will place the sedges and grasses in the third and fourth places instead of the fifth and sixth, in which they are now found. Twenty-seven families are represented by a single species, so far as reports have come to the survey. Of the 1,369 species, about one hundred and fifty are hydrophytes, about one hundred xerophytes, the remainder being mesophytes. The hydrophytic area has its center in the lake region in the northern counties and in the marsh lands of the Kankakee River, though in a lesser degree occurring along waterways and in local swamp regions. The true xero- phytic flera is for the most part confined to the sand regions near Lake Michigan, although along the roadbeds of the older railways true xero- phytes are occasionally found. The mesophytie flora of the State is being largely modified and the hydrophytic flora is rapidly disappearing or assuming mesophytic adapta- tions because of the extensive drainage of swamp regions. With the drainage of the Kankakee marshes many forms, now a part of the flora, will disappear. Evident modifications of the flora are also occurring as the result of cultivation of the soil, and the removal of forest areas and undergrowth. The effects of these changes are especially noticeable in the virgin forest areas that still remain. In Marshall county such an area carefully preserved from the time of the entering of the land for set- tlement, has within the last few years shown a marked and rapid loss of value; the tops and larger branches dying, and in many cases the main trunk also showing signs of decay. It is estimated that within five years the timber has decreased in value at least twenty-five per cent. The apparent modifications of conditions are, clearing of adjacent forest areas leaving the virgin tract isolated, cultivation of the lands up to the borders of the area and an enormous increase in the number and carry- ing capacity of the tile drains. The timber of the area is ‘‘mixed,” as is the rule in Indiana forests, but no species seems exempt from the effects of these changed conditions. It is possible that the trees may haye ap- proached their normal life and that the changed conditions have merely served to hasten the decay properly chargeable to age. That this infer- ence can scarcely be true, is shown from the fact that in Jackson county and the lower stretches of the Wabash much larger and evidently much older forms of the same species maintain themselves in full vigor. In Hamilton county and in other localities the Beeches have been most seri- ously affected. This is possibly due to a lowering of the soil water line 163 resulting from tile draining. The root-habit of the Beech would lead us to expect that it would be among the first forms to be affected from this change of the water level in the soil. Such an explanation, however, would not suffice for the Marshall county case, where the deep rooting forms are as seriously affected as the beeches. The part played by the other factors mentioned in the production of this forest decay is yet to be studied. The subject is of such importance that it will be carefully studied before the issuing of the State flora. The floral regions of the State as indicated by Coulter and Thomson in the “Origin of the Indiana Flora,’* need some modification in the light of a more extended knowledge of the flora of the State. The seven floral districts of Coulter and Thomson were based largely upon geological hori- zons and altitude, factors which are quite subordinate in the limited area of Indiana in the determination of plant distribution. The effect of alti- tude must be very slight in an area in which the lowlands are about three hundred feet above sea level and the highlands only from 900-1,300 feet, above. The number of plants whose distribution is limited by geological horizons must necessarily be very small in a State so largely affected by the drift and in which the amount of soil derived from the country rock remaining in situ is so comparatively insignificant. It is not meant that these factors may not be of importance in other regions or when wide- spread areas are considered, simply that in Indiana they are not domi- nant and do not furnish the most natural basis for the division of the State into floral districts. Without doubt, within our area, waterways furnish the dominant factor in determining plant distribution. That this is true can be easily verified by checking the mass distribution of almost any abundant form upon a hydrographical map of the State. This is not the place to discuss in detail the proposed redistricting of the State, but during the coming season outline maps indicating approximately the boundaries of the proposed floral regions will be distributed to the work- ing botanists of the State for suggestion and criticism. The general movement, especially of our summer and fall blooming plants is toward the northwest. This was of course to have been ex- pected from the direction of the prevailing winds at the time of such dis- semination. This movement is quite marked and can be noticed in al- most every instance in the, case of plants accidentally introduced into the State through the agency of railroads. In the case of the Russian thistle *Tndiana Geological Reports, Vol. XIV., p. 255. 164 and other recently introduced forms this fact is very apparent. Local conditions may modify this movement somewhat. Thus in the north- western counties of the State the movement of the plants, especially those of the sand soils is to the south and southeast because of the winds from Lake Michigan. The very slight overlap of the characteristic prairie flora of Illinois into corresponding regions in Indiana is well known, and has its explanation in the above facts. An examination of the flora of the State, and a consideration of the mass distribution of the forms in- volved shows that a very large proportion of it is from the east and south- east, very little from the west. Marked overlaps occur with the true southern forms in the southwestern counties, and with northern forms in the Lake region, but this is to be expected from the topographical and hydrographical features of the regions. The weeds of the State have received much attention, and while a full treatment of the subject is reserved for the final report of this divi- sion of the survey, a few facts are here given in the hope of securing ad- ditional data bearing upon this very important subject. Salsola kali tragus (.) Moq., the Russian thistle has not spread to any great degree. As indicated in a former paper,* its appearance in Lake and Noble counties was reason for the belief that its distribution in the State would be limited, a belief happily justified by the facts. Its disappearance from the regions in which it is now found is but a question ci time. Lactuca scariola L., the prickly lettuce, is rapidly spreading through- out the State and is becoming one of our most dangerous forms. It spreads with extreme rapidity and by its rank growth shades out many smaller forms and takes sole possession of large tracts. In a piece of waste land covering about ten acres, I noted, three years ago, perhaps a half dozen plants. Last year the land was entirely taken by the lettuce. None of our weeds demands more vigorous measures for its repression, and its first appearance in any region should be the signal for the beginning of repressive measures. Solanum rostratum Dunal, widely heralded a few years ago as a dan- gerous weed, has not spread widely and is practically confined to the re- gions in which it first found lodgment. It was first reported from Vigo and Sullivan counties having come in from the west, and this position egies Ee ae i ae a eee * Noteworthy Indiana Phanerogams, Stanley Coulter, Proceedings Indiana Academy of Science, 1895, p. 192. 165 rendered the probability of any great spread over the State exceedingly slight. The plant should, however, be carefully watched, although at present not of sufficiently general distribution to take rank among the dangerous weeds of the State. Erigeron annuus Pers., white top, which had apparently been practi- cally eliminated from the list of weeds of the State, has during the past two years appeared in great abundance throughout the State. In many cases it has entirely taken meadows in which it had been practically un- known for years. Reports of its occurrence came to me from a large number of counties with requests for an explanation of its sudden reap- pearance. No satisfactory explanation has as yet suggested itself, but as the plant yields readily to careful cultivation it may be considered as an- noying rather than dangerous. Rumezx acetosella L., field or sheep sorrel, while not a conspicuous landscape feature is in many respects to be considered the most danger- ous weed in the State. It spreads rapidly and because of its early leafing and habit of growth supplants the grass and other desirable forms. It sets root deeply and resists successfully all of the ordinary means of weed eradication. Apparently so long as the smallest portion of the root is left in the ground there is danger ahead. I have records of many cases in which the farmer has given up what seems a hopeless contest and has abandoned his fields. In the light of to-day, the introduction of new weeds is not to be greatly feared. The persistence of our indigenous forms is, however, quite a different matter. The presence of these noxious weeds is not merely a constant disgrace, but also a constant menace. The passage and enforcement of wisely devised weed laws would prove of incalculable benefit to the State, and it should be the part of botanists to urge the passage of rational and workable laws upon this subject. ? EXPERIMENTS IN GERMINATION OF Composites. By STANLEY COULTER. [Abstract. ] A report upon one hundred experiments in the germination of com- posites, confirming positions taken in a paper presented to the Academy last year. These positions were as follows: 1. The achenes of composites show a low germination percentage. 166 2. The achenes of the earlier and later flowers are as a rule not viable. 38. The seedlings are especially sensitive to heat and temperature changes. 4. The period of the vitality of the achene is rarely more than two years. : = - Detailed report is reserved until more extended experiments are made. Tuer MycorHiz® oF APLECTRUM. By D. T. MacDoucat. Tue TENDRILS OF ENTADA SCANDENS. By D. T. MacDovuGAt. Tue ErIcAceE® oF INDIANA. By ALIDA MABEL CUNNINGHAM. In determining the distribution of the Ericacex in Indiana there is encoun- tered the same difficulty as in the case of so many other families. A complete and thorough botanical survey of the State would be a task involving untold labor, and, however enthusiastic the collector, the time and expense involved in such an undertaking will necessarily delay for some time the accomplishment of the work. As a result, comparatively few localities in the State have yet been fully reported. But it is a matter of still greater regret that so much of the work done in the past has been a mere waste of energy, the reports left so incomplete, and even the name of the worker, in many cases, is unknown. The last State catalogue * reported twenty species of Ericacee and six have since been added by various collectors. These species represent nineteen counties, and eleven have no collector named from any county in the State. The only species I have been able to find in Tippecanoe County is Monotropa uniflora L. In the summer of 1895 I found eight specimens. They were growing in a thick growth of timber, chiefly white oak and black oak, on a heayy~clay soil. The next year the same timber land was visited and they were found there of the most perfect character and in the greatest profusion all over the tract of * Of these twenty species, Oxydendrum arboreum, D.C., Kalmia angustifolia L., Rhodo- dendron nudiflorum Torr., and Pyrola secunda L. are not found in Monroe County, as re- corded in the State catalogue, and are to be excluded from State Flora. This leaves the number of known species twenty-two. 167 land; while last summer, 1897, but two specimens were discovered, and they very imperfect ones. It is probable that the difference in their occurrence was due to the varied supply of moisture. The summer of 1895 was unusually dry, while in 1896 there was an extremely heavy rainfall a few days prior to the appearance of the plants, and 1897 being again exceptionally free from moisture. - However, this species has a greater distribution than has any other one found in the State, being reported from fourteen different counties. The following list represents the different species reported as found in the State: Gaylussacia frondosa Torr. and Gray is reported from Clark county only. (Btand: tT); ; Gaylussacia resinosa Torr. and Gray. Reported from Jefferson county (C. R. B.), Monroe county (W. S. B.), Clark county (B. and T.), Noble county (Van G.), also in counties about Lake Michigan. Vaccinium is represented by seven species. Vaccinium stamineum L. is reported from Johnson county (C. R. B.), Clark county (B. and T.), Monroe and Lake counties. Vaccinium Pennsylvanicum Lam. Monroe and northern tier of counties. Vaccinium vacillaus Solander. Reported from Lake county. Vaccinium corymbosum L. is reported from Cass county only, by Mr. Hessler. Vaccinium corymbosum var. pallidum Gray. Reported from Noble county (Van G.) and from Lake county. Vacewnium oxycoceus L. Only record is in Lake county. Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait. Reported from Cass county (R. H.), Noble County (Van G.), Jay county (P.). Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi Spreng. Counties about Lake Michigan. Epigea repens L. is reported from Monroe county (W. 8. B.), Laporte County (McD.), ‘‘Montgomery and Lake counties.” Gaultheria procumbens L. is reported from Cass county (R. H.), Noble county (Van G.). ‘‘Counties about Lake Michigan.’’ Andromeda polifolia L. is a northern form, being reported from Cass county (R. H.), Noble county (Van G.). Cassandra calyculata Don. is another northern form, and is reported from Cass county (R. H.), Noble county (Van G.), and ‘‘counties about Lake Michi- gan.” Kalmia latifolia L. Reported from Monroe county only. Chimaphila umbellata Nutt. Reported from the following counties: Noble (Van G.), Jefferson, Monroe and Lake. 168 Chimaphila maculata Pursh. is reported from Putnam county (McD.), Frank- lin county (M.), Jefferson and Monroe counties. ‘‘Counties about Lake Michi- gan.” Pyrola chlorantha Swartz is reported from Lake county by E. J. Hill. Pyrola rotundifolia L. Found in Noble county by Van G.; also reported from Lake county. Monotropa uniflora L is reported from the following counties: Franklin (M.), Clark (B. and T.), Jay, Delaware, Randolph and Wayne (P.), Putnam (McD.), Monroe (W. S. B.), Jefferson (J. M. C.), Cass (R. H.), Noble (Van G.), Gibson and Posey (S.), Tippecanoe (A. M. C.). Monotropa “hypopitys L. is reported from the following counties: Clark (B. and T.), Noble (Van G.), Vigo and Monroe (W.S. B.), Cass (R. H.), Franklin (M.), Jefferson and Monroe. In the distribution of the Ericacex throughout the State we find the following species confined entirely to the northern part, i. e.: Vaccinium corymbosum L., Vac- cinum Oxycoceus L., Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi, Spreng., Andromeda polifera L., Cas- sandra calyculata Don., and Pyrola chlorantha Swartz. Gaylussacia frondosa Torr. and Gray is found only in Clark county (B. and T.). The remaining species, with the exception of Kalmia latifolia L., are of general distribution. InNDIANA’S GENTIANACES. By AxtiIpA MABEL CUNNINGHAM. / Gray’s Manual includes ten genera of Gentianacez, seven of which come within the range of Indiana; therefore, we might reasonably expect to find one or more species in nearly every county in the State. Unfortunately a compara- tively small portion of the State has, as yet, been thoroughly botanized, and we find reports from only nineteen of the ninety-two counties. As reported the range by counties is from Lake on the north to Clark and Jefterson on the south, and from Jay on the east to Vigo on the west. The reports show that six genera and fourteen species have been found in Indiana. Of these the genus Gentiana is represented by eight species, leaving the remaining six species to represent five genera. Of the different species named in the list below but four have come under my own personal observation, and in the reports of some of the others I find wanting much that is required to make them of any great value. For instance, those reported from Marion, Harrison and Washington counties fail to show when or by whom collected. Other counties, however, report the same plants with : 169 authority, except in the case of one, 7. e., Gentiana puberula Michx., which is not reported from any other locality in the State. Many do not show in what portion of their respective counties they were found, the character of the soil, the re- quirements as to moisture, or whether the plant is rare or abundant. If we may be permitted to draw a conclusion based upon these reports, we would say the length of the list indicates that the Gentianacexe are rare in the State; for, although a very small portion of the State has yet been systematically botanized, surely flowers of such exquisite loveliness as are the Gentians would scarcely escape the eye of the most casual observer, and even in those counties where the work has been most thoroughly and systematically done they are not represented by a large number of species. Doubtless the time is past for finding a great number of species of Gentianacez in Indiana, for the every appearance of this flower would indicate that it is too delicate a plant to withstand the encroach- ment of cultivation and would beat a hasty retreat before the march of improve- ‘ment. Hence the cause for regret that the work done by the early collectors is of so little real value to science; for unquestionably there were then to be found here many forms of plant life that have now forever disappeared from the State. It is to be hoped that all future collectors of plants, of whatsoever description, will see that their collections are properly accredited to them, and further that they make their reports full and complete, that the future student may know something of the distribution of the plant, whether rare or abundant, and whether he may reasonably expect to find it growing in a swamp or a gravel bank, in the valley or on the hilltop. The following is a list of all the Gentianacez of which I have been able to find even a trace in Indiana: Sabbatia is represented by two species: Sabbatia brachiata Ell. is reported only from Jefferson county by Dr. J. M. Coulter. Sabbatia angularis Pursh. is reported from Gibson and Posey counties (S.), _ Cass county (R. H.), Franklin county (M.), Jefferson county (J. M. C.), Clark county (B. and T.), Lauramie Township, Tippecanoe county, August, 1897. Only a few specimens were found growing in rich, black soil in the edge of timber. (A. M. C.). Gentiana erinita is reported from Cass county (R. H.), Noble county (W. B. Van G.), Wayne county (P.), Marion county. Gentiana serrata Gunner is reported from only two counties—Noble (W. B. Van G.), west central portion of Lauramie Township, in the southeast corner of Tippecanoe county along the Little Wea Creek. It was found growing in a 170 marsh adjacent to the creek in 1896. The area over which it was found was, per- haps, an eighth of an acre in extent, and this entire area might be truthfully described as a mass of the bright, rich purple of this magnificent flower. The same place was visited in 1897 and not a single specimen could be discovered (A. M. C.). Gentiana quinqueflora Lam. is reported from Franklin county (M.), Noble county (W. B. Van G.), Marion county, ‘‘ Happy Hollow,” one-half mile north of West Lafayette, Tippecanoe county. Common in rich, moist places along the foot of the bluffs. September, 1896 (A. M. C.). Gentiana quinqueflora Lam., var. occidentalis Gray, is reported only from the ‘‘Knob” region by Dr. Clapp. Gentiana puberula Michx. Reported from Harrison and Washington coun- ties. No authority. Gentiana Saponaria L. is reported from Vigo county (W. 8. B.). Gentiana Andrewsii Grieseb. is more generally distributed than any other species, being reported from twelve counties, i. e.: Jay, Delaware, Randolph and Wayne in the east; Jefferson, Gibson and Posey in the south; Vigo in the west; Monroe and Franklin in the central, and Noble and Cass in the north. Gentiana alba Muhl. is reported from Cass county (R. H.), Vigo and Monroe counties (W. S. B.), Noble county (W. B. Van G.), Gibson and Posey counties (S.), ‘‘Happy Hollow,” one-half mile north of West Lafayette, Tippecanoe _ county. But a single plant was found growing among a thick growth of timber on a gravelly clay soil on top of a bluff. August, 1896 (A. M. C.). Frasera Carolinensis Walt. ranks next to Gentiana Andrewsti Grieseb. in distri- bution, being reported from nine counties: Cass county (R. H.), Noble county (W. B. Van G.), Jay, Delaware, Randolph and Wayne counties (P.), Gibson and Posey counties (S.), Franklin county (M.). Bartonia tenella Muhl. is reported from Noble county only, by W. B. Van Gorder. Obolaria Virginica L., as far as our knowledge goes, is confined to the south- ern and central portions of the State, being reported from Gibson and Posey counties (S.), Clark county (B. and T.), Vigo and Monroe counties (W. S. B.), Jefferson county (C. P. V.). Menyanthes trifoliata L. seems to be an exclusively northern form, being reported from Lake county (E. J. H.), Noble county (W.S. Van G.), Cass county (R. H.), Kosciusko county (W. W. C.). VE INARCHING OF OAK TREES. By JoHN S. WRIGHT. On the western border of what is known as Cypress Swamp, or Pond, ip the “pocket” of Knox county, and at the side of the wagon road, about one-third of a mile east of the locks at the Wabash Rapids, I observed last September an interesting case of natural grafting of forest trees. The united trees were, judging from the leaves, there being no fruit obtain- able, specimens of Swamp, Overcup or Post Oak, Quercus lyrata Walt. The trees stood close together, so close in fact that a careful examina- tion only showed that the trunks were actually separate at the ground. The larger of the trees was about eighteen inches in diameter one foot — fi \ Hi NN y=, Dee Mey —~ ; an 5 pe) _—' 4 gu Hp eae ij ODN, WARE ip >t eal Di elaed SIRS eI * 172 above the ground, the smaller about nine inches. As shown in the photo- graph, the trunks were separate to a height of about eight feet, where they were united by a large protuberance which seemed to have its origin in the larger tree, as it partially enveloped its trunk. A section of this connection would be of an irregular oval shape, the longer dimension in line with the axes of the trunks. This longer diameter would measure about two feet. The union seemed to be of a healthy, woody growth, cov- ered with rough bark. : Below the graft the trunks were about seven or eight inches apart and nearly parallel; above they diverged slightly. The lack of measuring appliances at the time of the examination pre- vents anything but an approximation of dimensions. Norres ON THE Cypress SwAMps oF Knox County, INDIANA. By Joon S. WriGHt. It has been stated frequently that in Knox County, Indiana, are the northernmost cypress swamps. According to the manual of Britton and Brown, the range of the cypress (Taxodium distichum (L), L. C. Rich) is given as “Delaware (possibly in southern New Jersey), Florida, west to Texas, north in the Mississippi Valley region to southern Indiana, Mis- souri and Arkansas.” Gray’s Manual also gives this range. The latitude of the swamps of Knox county is about 38° 30’, so that if cypress ranges over any considerable portion of southern Delaware it is in a higher lat- itude than that of Knox county, since Delaware extends from about 38° 28’ toabout39° 50’. Cypress of New Jersey would also be above this latitude, since Cape May, the most southern point, is about 38° 50’. While it may be that the cypress swamps of Knox county are the most northern charac- teristic growths of this kind, they certainly do not mark the northern limit of the range of the cypress. The swamps of Knox county are located, so far as I could learn, almost wholly in the townships of Decker and Johnson, both southern townships, and bounded on the south by the White River. Decker Township, forming what is known as the pocket of Knox county, is the triangular tract included by the Wabash and White rivers near their confluence. (See map.) 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ee 58.48 Mee yale bw cll he ee) Orta HAS speeimions, ROO "9D°re <4. Yl! aster © = 02's 5248) 47 rae. 03]. eee 280: SPeeINEHS, DIGOG, 290°... 65a 0) 0 a earesela dana 0 4 ia 1 eS | eg or son oo MUGS pecitens, PLOW (IO. areas oops «ce spears. 62 6] oesidye «fovea senile 62.60 37.40 PALI BPOCIOLEOE, TOTOOD) DAS 5.35). so» sia Helps) oles 0.0 ele dio [wean lermen 65.32 34.68 BLS SPECUNENA \ LOOM y Gore haus Vie asin «intdleta'ar\a'o\oin| » aidetore dione: eaatatece 45.62 54.38 2. Squamation of Nape.—Table V represents the data for the squamation of the nape of 600 specimens from Turkey Lake and 300 specimens from Tippecanoe Lake. Eighty-eight per cent. have the nape naked in Turkey Lake and only 19 per cent. from Tippecanoe Lake. Twenty-eight per cent. from the latter lake have scales over the entire nape. TABLE V. From Teier Lake eee y : Lake. Per cent. of specimens having no scales on nape. . 88.00 19.32 Per cent. of specimens having few scales on nape.. . 8.00 23.87 Per cent. of specimens having several scales on nape 4.00 28.32 Per cent. of specimens having nape thinly scaled. . . 0.20 16.67 Per cent. of specimens having nape closely scaled..|............-. 11.74 In Tables VI, VII and VIII are given the counts for the anal, spinous dorsal and soft dorsal fins, respectively. The per cents. are based on 1,475 specimens of all ages from Tippecanoe Lake and 850 of all ages from Turkey Lake. C. Anal Rays.—From Table VI, it will be seen that the anal fin is somewhat larger in Tippecanoe Lake than in Turkey Lake. This is shown by the decrease in the per cent. of specimens having the prevailing number, 11, and the increase in the per cent. of specimens having the next lower number, 10, in the Turkey Lake specimens. The mean number of rays is 10.76 for Turkey Lake and 10.97 for Tippecanoe Lake. TasBLE VI. Tippecanoe Bushey lak ee urkey Lake. Per cent. of specimens having 7 anal rays... ...|............. 0.12 Per cent. of specimens having 8 anal rays.......|............-- 0.23 | Per cent. of specimens having 9 anal rays....... 0.75 1.76 Per cent. of specimens having 10 anal rays....... 21.92 31.87 Per cent. of specimens having 11 anal rays....... 58.23 53.40 Per cent. of specimens having 12 anal rays....... 19.66 12.23 Per cent of specimens having 13 anal rays....... 0.48 0.35 Micanmniunmberro trays ecisc crsccieeaaes coe eines 10.97 10.76 3. Dorsal Spines.—The dorsal spines in the Tippecanoe Lake specimens vary from 10 to 17. The prevailing number is 14, 61.44 per cent. having this number. The variation is slightly greater toward a higher number than toward a lower number of spines. In Turkey Lake specimens the spines vary from 12to 18. The prevailing numbers are 14 and 15, 42.57 per cent. and 43.48 per cent. respectively having this number. From these the variation is symmetrical in both directions. The mean is 14.20 for Tippecanoe Lake and 14.56 for Turkey Lake. 218 TaBLE VII. | Tippecanoe | puskey Lake. Per cent. of specimens having 10 dorsal spines. .. -069- = S42. eee Per cent. of specimens having 11 dorsal spines... O69) °° * |x Per cent. of specimens having 12 dorsal spines. . . 0.82 0.23 Per cent. of specimens having 13 dorsal spines... 11.85 5.17 Per cent. of specimens having 14 dorsal spines... 61.44 | 42.57 Per cent. of specimens having 15 dorsal spines... 25.21 43.48 Per cent. of specimens having 16 dorsal spines... 1.30 7.29 Per cent. of specimens having 17 dorsal spines... 0.27 0.94 Per cent. of specimens having 18 dorsal spines...|}.............. 0.23 ‘ | |e ne Meanennmber iol rays oe: oe sree ra 14.20 14.56 4. Dorsal Rays.—The dorsal rays vary from 10 to 20 in Tippecanoe Lake. The prevailing number of rays is 16, 51.03 per cent. having this number. There is a tendency to vary toward a lower number of rays. Thus, 35.55 per cent. have 15 and only 10.74 per cent. have 17. In Turkey Lake the soft dorsal varies from 12to18 rays. The prevailing number here is 15, with 53.98 per cent. of the specimens having this number. Here, too, the tendency to vary toward a lower number is quite marked, 31.40 per cent. having 14 and only 11.17 per cent. hav- ing 16. The mean number of rays is 15.66 for Tippecanoe Lake and 14.80 for Turkey Lake. Taste VIL. Ss enc at Turkey Lake. Per cent. of specimens having 10 dorsal rays..... OL07°) eo. 2 ci. ee Per cent. of specimens having»11 dorsal rays.....]...----0.+:2--|.eeeeeecnneee Per cent. of specimens having 12 dorsal rays..... 0.07 0.23 Per cent. of specimens having 13 dorsal rays.....|..........+--- 1.88 Per cent. of specimens having 14 dorsal rays..... 3.49 31.40 Per cent. of specimens having 15 dorsal rays..... 35.55 53.98 Per cent. of specimens having 16 dorsal rays..... 51.03 11.17 Per cent. of specimens haying 17 dorsal rays..... 10.74 1.29 Per cent. of specimens having 18 dorsal rays..... 0.69 0.23 Per cent. of specimens having 19 dorsal rays.....).........2+-0+|---20eeeceeoee Per cent. of specimens having 20 dorsal rays..... 0.07 ©.|p.s0 poeeenens =-Mean number oft ays.:s s swcls a vasvectror.~ 6 cis: 15.66 14.8 b. 1. Squamation of Nape.—The following Table IX, is based on 100 speci- ETHEOSTOMA NIGRUM. mens from each of the lakes, and is intended to show the occurrence of scales on the nape in thisspecies. Eighty-five per cent. of the specimens from Turkey Lake have their nape naked, and none have their nape completely scaled. Compared with this, only 50 per cent. of the specimens from Tippecanoe Lake have a naked nape, while four per cent. have their nape completely scaled. TABLE IX. Turkey Lake aOR eee : : Lake. Per cent. of specimens having no scales on nape.. 85.00 50.00 Per cent. of specimens having few scales on nape. 13.00 28.00 Percent. of specimens havingseveral scales on nape 2.00 18.00 Per cent. of specimens having nape thinly scaled .|.............. 2.00 Per cent. of specimens having nape closely scaled.|...........:.. 2.00 In Tables X, XL and XII are given the counts of the anal rays, dorsal spines and dorsal rays of Etheostoma nigrum from the two lakes. The counts are based on 100 specimens from Turkey Lake and 500 from Tippecanoe Lake. 2. Anal Rays.—Table X. The anal rays vary from 7 to 11 in Tippecanoe Lake, 61.60 per cent. having nine rays. There is a tendency to vary toward an increased number of rays, 25.60 per cent. having 10, and but 11.20 per cent. eight. In Turkey Lake the variation is from eight to ten; 58 per cent. have nine, 40 per cent. have a smaller number of rays and only two per cent. a greater number. The mean number of anal rays is 9.15 for Tippecanoe Lake and 8.62 for Turkey Lake. TABLE X. pecans Turkey Lake. | Rericent, of specimensihavime) (Grama raye jets ieee eof & A | FA |eAAl 5s SA | 5A | PAR GZ nee terete 31 feet. CUTITER SANG to hiletortiere atte. ciel ele sitetks ode Nedite ot taenstan othe tations 24 feet. TEV OLS 0 ate ce aheasenen ar oke eet a) oo erst ala Ae ha oes eee eine ere 16 feet. And may be represented by the following: y Might Fo which Water rises. 8 Z Ss = = Wt a PF — g ES, SASF Saas SOO SESS Ke ey oe. sooo BaGEE Crs) P Brus: iver SO MASECOF 258 ey VA Yost u) DIMA IS OY ery CP Day NOs BOSS Ow; SI8 foses A TERBLAHING 6 PAVEL Bo ae eae tere ee eee DIEZ, Bender YeopRees £ SBSUEE DS Cor Nee see ees Sees One INE POO GPSSECUS SoS ISLS OOO TINS 92 SSOLSA BOSRE SH BEE 565 DES SG. LOS NBL SION OG SSS ow SEES A—Surface soil sand. B—Blue clay containing “ quicksand pockets.’’ C—Quicksand. D—W ater-bearing gravel. a, a, a, a—Quicksand pockets. Both the clay and quicksand are entirely free from pebbles, so much so that notwithstanding they contain a large percentage of lime (10 to 14 per cent.), the ingredients are so finely pulverized that no damage has ever been known to occur from the formation of quicklime in burning wares made from them. The clay is almost entirely free from grit and the quicksand contains only extremely fine sand. These facts indicate that both have originally been deposited in quiet water. There is, how- ever, no indication of stratification to be found in the clay, but on the contrary the entire deposit (so far as it has been observed) has the appearance of having been greatly disturbed and subjected to a kneading process. Moreover, the presence of these detached masses of quicksand in the body of clay precludes the supposition that the mass as a whole remains as originally deposited. 236 Chemically the clay and quicksand differ much less than any one acquainted with their characteristics would imagine, as the following analysis shows:* Quicksand. Blue Clay. Per Cent. Per Cent. Water and carbonic acid........... 18.03 17.38 Riligal (SO ees | choc el Bane ae 49.48 45.89 d ame (Cae aes abc cle Hotere sete aie 10.66 13.44 Mba gmacnia (Mpt 2 sais cas Scio tele e 7.69 7.67 a Fprmmanicy (1g OR Ae Fees pecnree a ene 7.80 9.05 Ironioxid | (He, O a) See 2 tence estas: 5.30 5.68 bane ORE (Li OE) Were dc). 1-\ 3 aerate 227 21 99.23 99.32 In general appearance, also, the two are quite similar, yet, on close examination, the limits of the “pockets” are easily determined. Within these limits the material is distinctly ‘‘quick sand,’ while without the limits it is as distinctively clay. The clay deposit has been used quite extensively. It makes a fine white or cream-colored building brick, and when vitrified makes a good street paver. It is also used in the manu- facture of Portland cement. But manufacturers find that an admixture of the quicksand makes the clay difficult to mold by machinery, prevents the uniform vitrification necessary for good street pavers, and totally destroys its value as an ingredient in the manufacture of Portland cement. These quicksand pockets, therefore, injure the commercial value of the deposit. The presence of these pockets, filled as they are with material differ- ing from that which immediately surrounds them, but identical with that which underlies the deposit, together with the fact that the clay appears to have undergone much disturbance, suggests the possibility that their contents may have come from the quicksand stratum beneath the clay. The base of the clay has not been reached by any excavation and, therefore, no opportunity has been afforded to examine the lower portion of the deposit, but at the town of Mishawaka, four miles east of South Bend, I had an opportunity during the past season of observing somewhat similar phenomena. In a sewer trench on Second street, in that town, there appears a deposit of clay from one to four feet thick, overlying * Analysis by Wm. M. Whitten, Jr., B.S., M.8. ye ets } © ey -~2 clean sand. Six hundred feet of the trench passed threugh this formation and in this distance I saw quite a number of masses of sand embodied in the clay, forming ‘‘pockets” of sand in this clay deposit very similar to the “quicksand pockets” in the “blue clay” of South Bend. These masses of sand were compact, and as distinct from the clay as a boulder of granite or limestone would be, and their boundaries were almost as sharply defined. At the base of the clay there appeared what might be taken for sand pockets in different stages of formation. At one point there was a slight, but distinct upward curve in the clay, which was filled with sand, as at “a” of the following “section.” This might be taken as the beginning of a sand ‘pocket.’ At another point this was more pronounced, as at “b,” and may have been a sand pocket further developed; and at one point there was a mass of sand about one foot in diameter almost completely surrounded with clay, leaving a neck of only two or three inches of sand to connect it with the sand deposit below, as at ‘‘c.” SECTION OF SEWER TRENCH ON SECOND STREET, MISHAWAKA. SUPLACE OF STHELT. A—Surface soil, unstratified. t—Sand pocket further developed. B—Clay deposit containing sand “‘ pockets.’’ c—Sand pocket nearly coniplete. C—Sand, water laid. e,e,e and h—Sand pockets complete. a—Sand pocket beginning. At points where pockets were near the top of the clay there seemed a tendency to raise the clay above the level of the body of that deposit, asea tec ney’ Soon after the meeting of the Academy the excavation of the trench further east on the same street disclosed another clay deposit in which all the different phases of sand pockets were present and constituted a much larger percentage of the mass. 238 These facts seem to indicate that these masses of sand have been gathered up from the underlying strata and raised partly or wholly through the clay to the positions in which they were found. If so, the same force might be invoked to fill the “pockets” in the “blue clay” at South Bend with the quicksand underlying that deposit. It is difficult, however, to conceive of these detached bodies of sand retaining their distinctive character and a compact form while being trans- ferred from the underlying strata to the positions in which they were found, unless they were solidly frozen during the process, for otherwise they would have lost their identity and simply become mixed with the clay. The best explanation of these facts that I can think of is to assume that during a retreat of the ice the sand deposit has been uncovered and solidly frozen, and in that state has been overridden by the re-advancing ice, at the base of which the clay was transported, and that frozen frag- ments of sand have been detached from the main body of that deposit and raised to the position in which they were found, in the same manner that fragments of rock, over which glaciers move, are said to become detached and raised by the movement of the ice. Some plausibility is given to the above assumption by a study of the following section of a sewer trench excavated on Leland avenue, South Bend, in 1894. The trench runs north and south: ONY 6SSSSSSS A—Shows surface soil, sand and gravel. B—Clay deposit from 1] to 4 feet thick, unstratified. C—Fine sand, containing distinct horizontal stratifications or markings, g, g, 9, g, Which are faulted at H, K, Land N. o, 0, o—Are dyke-like masses of clay extending down from the main body of clay into the stratified sand a distance of from 4 to 8 feet. , 239 The dikes crossed the trench about N. 60 degrees EH. and 8S. 60 degrees W. They were from 4 to 12 inches in width and were nearly vertical from the clay down to a depth of 2 or 3 feet, and then curved to the north- ward more and more as the depth increased. At their junction with the main body the clay was compact and solid, but further down it became lumpy, the lumps haying the appearance of having been rolled and rubbed over sand, and intermingled with the lumps was an amount of sand increasing with the depth. The lower portion of the dikes had the appear- ance of having been filled by dry sand, and the clay lumps dropped in loosely from above. At the junction of the dikes with the main body of clay the angle on the south side was rounded off while on the north side the angle was sharp, and was less than a right angle and in some cases became quite acute. The line of contact at base of the clay indicated that a rubbing movement had taken place from the north or northwesterly to the south or southeasterly. The lower half of the dikes were so nearly horizontal that they could not have been filled by clay and sand dropping from the top. From the nature of the fine sand it would be impossible to open crevices, or cracks, therein, to be filled with the clay from above, unless the sand were frozen solid. From these facts I conclude that the strati- fied sand must have been deposited with the horizontal markings continu- ous across the dikes, where they are now faulted. That in this condition the sand was frozen during an interglacial period, or a temporary retreat of the ice. While so frozen some convulsion opened cracks or fissures in the frozen sand to the depth of the dikes, and probably produced the faults in the horizontal stratification at the same time; that when so opened the fissures were so nearly vertical that clay lumps and sand from the top could drop to the bottom; that while in this condition the sand with its open fissures was overridden by ice, the base of which transported or shoved the clay over the sand, rubbing off particles of clay and sand to fall to the bottom of the crevices until the dikes were formed (and in this connection it may be of interest to state that in the bottom, or toe, of one of these dikes I found well preserved bits of wood). That after the crevices were filled the sand, protected by ice and clay from the low temperature to which it had been exposed, gradually thawed out from below by the heat of the earth. That the movement of the clay was communicated, to some extent, to the sand beneath it, the . 240 surface moving faster than the lower strata, thus producing the curved position of the dikes and rounded edges on one side and the acute angles on the other side of the dikes, where they join the main body of clay. I do not recall any “pockets” of sand in the clay in this trench, but at that time I probably should have given little attention to them had they been there, and this may be an instance of “‘seeing without perceiv- ing,” but the facts above stated clearly indicate that frozen sand may be expected to act as other rocks act under like conditions. No surprise would be occasioned by finding a sandstone boulder raised from its bed and incorporated in the drift clay. The grains of sand may be united as firmly by congealed moisture as by some of the cements that unite the grains of sandstone, and therefore, if it be conceded that frozen sand may be overridden by advancing ice, it is not unreasonable to con- clude that masses of the frozen sand might be detached from the main body and raised and incorporated in the drift in the same manner. THE Capy MarsH. By T. H. BAtt. Among the physical features of Lake County, Indiana, of interest to the scientific observer is one known as the Cady Marsh. It covers mainly what are now sections 28, 29 and 30, in township 36, range 8, west, and sections 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 and 30, in range 9, west, also in township 36. It is now crossed by the Chicago & Erie Railway, and, in part, by the Grand Trunk. Three wagon roads now cross it, and one large ditch, the Hart Ditch, cuts its western expansion. It was originally, that is, sixty-three years ago, when it was first seen by the white settlers, covered with water. It was considered dangerous for a man to undertake to cross it on horseback. It lies between two of the great sand ridges of Lake County. These two ridges coming together some five miles from the east line of the county, define its eastern limit, and as the northern ridge runs nearly west into Illinois and the southern passes south of west also into the State of Illinois, the western expansion of this marsh joins with other lowland’ which on an early map of Indiana was called Lake George. The water in that so-called lake is said to have been from about two to seven feet in depth. This early Lake George has been drained by the great Hart Ditch, which passes from Dyer on the State line, and running a little east of Se yee. 241 north across five sections of land, once water, into the Little Calumet, makes a broad, deep cut in the northern sand ridge one mile west from Highland. The Cady Marsh proper may now be best examined by passing along the road from the present town of Griffith to the old stage road along the north sand ridge. The distance across is little more than a mile. The road crosses section 26 and has a ditch on each side. It is not probable that the composition of this marsh, as to its surface, is uniform, but there is, first, a layer of peat, from ten to sixteen inches in depth, then four feet of sand, below this about sixteen feet of clay and then gravel or sand. The depth to rock no one as yet probably knows. In early times, when covered with water, of course fires did not run over this marsh, but since it has become comparatively dry fires get started in some way; they cannot well be extinguished; and they have destroyed large areas of the peat surface, burning sometimes through an entire winter. Several years ago quite a quantity of this peat was dug or cut out and prepared for market, but it could not compete with coal and the industry was abandoned. From the southern sand ridge, along the road mentioned, sand now washes in large quantities, filling up the ditches along the road for forty or sixty rods. The flow of the water is toward the north and west. The ridge along the north end of this road, where the east and west road is reached, is about forty rods. wide at the base and “about forty feet to the crest of the ridge, so that an immense bank of sand lies along the north of this marsh, and just north of this bank comes the Little Calumet bottom land, which, between Highland and Hessville, is often in the spring flood times covered with water for a mile in width. The Chicago & ‘Erie Railway crosses the Cady Marsh between Griffith and Highland. At present portions of this once wet, impassable marsh are cultivated and the land is quite productive. A few houses have been built on it, and it is becoming a valuable part of the cultivated area of Lake County. It was a great resort once for “‘bobolinks,”’ but they have nearly deserted it now. As to its formation, if, as seems probable, the water of Lake Michigan many years ago extended to the southern large sand ridge of Lake County and remained for quite a time stationary north of the great High- land, or old Stage Road ridge, then the sand now over this depression between the ridges, which depression was left full of water, was washed 16—ScrEencgE. 242 on probably from the southern ridge, as it is working on along the ditches still, as that ridge itself may have been washed up before the first reces- sion took place, from the depths of Lake Michigan. The peat on that marsh now is a quite new or fresh formation, having come from the roots of the vegetation that sprang up when the water had largely receded. But these operations of nature, of large interest always, and especially when we can observe them for a few years, are mostly speculative, rather than certain. The writer of this has had an opportunity to observe through the space of forty years, and therefore to know with certainty with what great rapidity, in some places, during heavy rainfalls, sand will be washed over a large area of bottom land. He has seen prodigious quantities of sand and gravel removed quite a distance by successive rain- falls. PRELIMINARY WORK FOR THE APPROXIMATE DETERMINATION OF THE TIME SINcE THE RETREAT OF THE First GREAT IcE SHEET. By GLENN CULBERTSON. It was with the desire of obtaining a close approximation to the time which has elapsed since the retreat of the Kansan or first great ice sheet that, during the past summer, the two most important waterfalls—Clifty and Butler—in the vicinity of Madison and Hanover, Jefferson County, Indiana, were visited by me and the work to be described was performed. The well-known Clifty Falls, over which the water leaps a vertical distance of seventy feet, was the first visited. Into drilled holes steel rods were driven vertically to the depth of twelve or more inches in the solid limestone of the stream bed at a distance from the precipice over which the water falls, and accurate measurements from the rods to the edge of the precipice were made and recorded. Butler Falls, which is located about one-half mile south of Hanover, and over which the water falls eighty feet, was also visited and similar measurements made and recorded. The falls in both cases are caused by the presence in the stream beds of very durable strata of limestone, chiefly of the Madison and Clinton formations, and which is of very uniform texture and hardness over the > region referred to. The rate of valley growth toward the head is governed by the erosion or undermining of these rocks. =" 243 A steel rod was also driven horizontally into a drilled hole in the even- textured but softer rock of the vertical or overhanging walls of the amphi- theater-like excavations beneath the falls, and in each case a mark was made upon the rod from which from time to time measurements can be made as the gradual weathering of the rock continues. The excavations beneath the falls are caused chiefly by the saturation of the rock by means of spray and mist carried by waterfall breezes or winds during winter floods, when frosts follow and complete the process. Better results will in all probability be obtained from the measurements of the weathering beneath the falls than from those upon the edge of the precipice, since the rate of weathering beneath is quite uniform and since the wearing away of the softer rock beneath determines largely the amount of breaking away and falling of the harder rocks above. _ By means of data obtained from such measurements during a period of years, a close approximation to the tate of valley erosion can be obtained. These data taken in connection with the length of the valleys from the Ohio River to the falls, which in the case of Butler ravine or valley is approximately 3,100 feet, and in the case of Clifty is 11,000 feet, will give us an approximation of the time since the streams began work on the valleys. The topography of these valleys and of the surrounding region, which gives every indication of the youthful stage of erosion, together with evi- dence of anothér character, indicates that these valleys have been eroded since the retreat of the Kansan or first great ice sheet. This ice sheet not only covered all the region referred to, but crossed the Ohio Valley, if the valley were there at that time, and advanced at least twelve or fifteen miles beyond in Trimble County, Kentucky. All the region was planed off to essentially the same level, and there are now within one and a half miles of the Ohio River undrained flats produced by glacial action. A close approximation to the time required to erode these valleys should, then, give a fairly accurate approximation of the number of mil- lenniums that have passed since the disappearance of the first great ice sheet from the borders of the glaciated region. This period, even approxi- mately obtained, will be of great importance in ascertaining the causes of glacial periods, as well as being of interest in the discussion of other prob- lems of import. 244 ‘ Notre on FAutt SrructuRE In INprANA. By Gero. H. ASHLEY. It has long been a prevalent idea with Indiana geologists that this State is practically without faults or fault structure. Prof. E. T. Cox, for many years State Geologist, says in his last report:* “Not a single true fault, or upward or downward break and displacement of the strata has. yet been discovered.” Prof. John Collett, so long a student of Indiana geology, says in describing Badger Bros.’ mine in Sullivan County :+ “An interesting feature of this mine was the discovery of a vertical dike or wall of inclusive clay, one foot wide, running a little east of north. This is the only fault, though here only a separation, that I have met with in the coals of Indiana,” etc. In view of such statements by the earlier workers, repeated by some of the more recent workers, it was not without surprise that the writer found that faults not only existed in the State, but were abundant and well exposed. It may be that this is truer of the coal measure area than of the rest of the State. Certain it is that the extensive mining of the coal gives a better opportunity for the study of these phenomena than is granted elsewhere, and further, the displacement of a coal bed is more readily noted when seen in a bluff or other exposure than a displacement in most other rocks. , The figures accompanying this note are selected from sketches and photographs made while engaged in a survey of the coal area of the State for the Department of Geology and Natural Resources. Time did not suffice for a detailed study of the faults, only such notes being ob- tained as were made incidental to the main work. In a general way it may be said that the phenomena observed con- sist of normal faults, either single, double, wedge or step faults, sometimes. accompanied with little or no notable crushing, or again accompanied by intense and extensive crushing, to be followed by the intrusion of clay or other substances; reversed or overthrust faults, crushed and thickened strata, due to tangential pressure, oblique jointing of strata due to the same cause, old surface crevices filled from above. Normal faults predom- inate, with down-throws varying from a few inches to forty feet or more. In number it may be judged from their abundance wherever extensive *1879. 8th, 9th and 10th Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. of Ind., p. 3. 41871. 2d Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. of Ind., p. 205. : 245 mining or good bluff exposures give an opportunity to observe them, that Indiana contains thousands of faults of appreciable down-throw. In some districts there is hardly a mine that does not contain from one or two to several dozen. In their relation to the general structure the normal faults divide themselves into four classes, as typified in figures 1 to 4, plate I. In the first type, which might be called the monochinal fault, the fault is simply a fractured monocline, the down-throw of the fault usually not being as great as the differences of level above and below the monocline. Such a fault may consist of a single break or of two or more breaks, known as a step fault. In some cases the same fault will show as a single break at one point and as a step fault at another point, as in the case illustrated by figures 6 to 8 of plate I. Figures 5, 9 and 10 further illustrate the same type of fault. : In the second type of fault the hade is in the opposite direction from the general dip. Figures 11 to 13 of plate I illustrate this type of fault. Such a fault usually occurs as a series of breaks, resembling a broken arch, a type of fault common in the western part of the United States. Faults of the two types mentioned constitute a class that appears to be due to the uneven settling of the Illinois basin area. These faults, taken as a whole, do not appear to have any uniformity in the direction of down-throw or of strike... However, if only the larger faults be consid- ered, a majority of them trend between northeast and northwest and have the down-throw to the west. There are so many notable exceptions that it can not be considered as a rule. Thus, in Martin County, from Shoals westward, the dip is nearly everywhere observed to be strongly to the west, yet so many faults with the down-throw to the east occur in that region that the strata are higher five miles west of Shoals than at Shoals. In the third and fourth types the faults appear to be due to quite local causes, as the strata a short distance on either side are on about the same level. Figure 14 of plate I and figure 2 of plate II illustrate the two types, respectively. The difference between the faults of the first two types and those of the last two are very well shown in the effect on the driving sof entries in the mines. Thus, a six-foot fault of the first type necessitates driving the entry up or down until it is at least six feet above or below its old level, according as the fault is approached. A. six- foot fault of the third type can be passed with little or no change of level “R46 in the entry. A possible cause of faults of the last two types is thought to be the uneaual subsidence of underlying basins of coals. In a basin where, as is usually the rule, the coal is quite thick in the center and very thin on the edges, the actual shrinkage is much greater in the center of the basin than on the edges. A certain percentage of this shrinkage is known to take place after the deposition of the overlying beds. Where a channel has been cut in the coal and filled with sandstone an irregular belt results which resists compression much more than the coal adjacent and might lead to a fracturing of the overlying strata, as the subsequent unequal settling takes place. This is suggested merely as one possible cause of such faults. These faults are very irregular as regard course and direc- tion of down-throw, frequently crossing each other, sometimes being very short and again traceable in two or more adjacent mines. In the Dugger Mine, Sullivan County, three faults cross each other in the same vertical line at one place. Considering the structure of the faults at the fault line, itis found that frequently the fault line appears sharp and clear cut, as in most of tne figures of plate I, and it is only on very close examination that any crushing can be detected. In other cases, however, the crushing effect has been intense for several feet, or even several yards, on either side of the fault line. This often occurs where the down-throw is hardly noticeable. At such a fault there is very apt to result an intrusion of clay or other material, making clay veins, sandstone veins, etc. Figures 3 to 9 of plate II illustrate this. The way the pressure has forced the clay out in irregu- lar streamers, as in figures 3 and 4,or simply forced it into the coal in irreg- ular masses, as in figure 5, give some idea of how completely pulverized the ’ adjacent coal often is. ‘Lhe sandstone veins, or “rock spars,” as they are usually called in the mines, are generally very hard sandstone. Appar- ently they are somewhat similar in origin with the clay veins, though we are not entirely satisfied that such is the case. In figure 14 a surface crevice has had coal washed in, making a coal vein of a certain type. If such a crevice be considered as probably resulting from fault action in the neighborhood it would indicate that some of the faulting took place during the laying down of the-coal measure rocks. This vein occurs about ten feet below the lowest worked coal in Indiana. Overthrust faults and accompanying phenomena are not Common, as compared with normal faults. They are met with in various parts of the field, but the amount of accompanying crushing often renders the structure Step Faults Section alongA-C #40 Yds, - Sestion along A-T PLATE I. 248 obscure and their study difficult. Illustrations of such faults are given in figures 11 to 13. In figure 18 the lower of two beds twenty feet apart has been forced an unknown distance over the upper bed. Some of the accom- panying phenomena consist of oblique jointing, induced in the strata, and in the vertical thickening of coal beds, as illustrated in figure 10. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Plate I—Typical normal faults: Lehited sal Type of monoclinal fault. See figures 5 to 10 inclusive. Broken arch type of fault. See figures 11 to 13, inclusive. Type of fault shown in figure 14. Type of fault shown in figure 2 of plate II. fault in Fairview Mine, Clay county. 3 Fault in B. B. C..Co.’s No. 10 Shaft. Map and sections. Fault on Otter Creek, 8 miles north of Brazil. From photo. Double fault in Peerless Mine, Vigo county. Double fault on Big Vermillion River, near Hanging Rock. Fault on north fork Otter Creek, near Coal Bluff, Vigo county. One of series of faults in Fairview Mine. Fault crossing shaft in Jackson Mine, Clay county. Plate Il—Irregularities due to faulting; clay, sandstone and coal veins; overthrust faults and crushed structure: Hig. 1 5 =] 11-12. 9 we , Combined fault and “roll,” Monarch Mine, Clay county. Fault of type 4, Dugger Mine, Sullivan county. Clay veins resulting from faults. P. Co. C. Co.’s No. 6 Shaft, Parke county. Clay in old fault plane, Winsett Mine, Vermillion county. Clay vein, Dugger Mine, 10 feet from and running parallel to large fault. Sandstone vein, Ray Mine, Vigo County. Shows displace- ment in another entry. Sandstone vein, Mecca No. 1 Mine, Parke county. Sandstone vein, B. B. C. Co.’s No. 8 Mine, Clay county. Showing structure of coal bed thickened to nearly four times normal thickness by lateral pressure, in region of overthrust faults, Columbia No. 38 Mine, Clay county. Coal bed greatly disturbed, Lee’s Mine, Vermillion county. Overthrust fault, Columbia No. 4 Mine, Clay county. WSS Section,as seen in entry. 60° ‘ 250 14. Coal vein, Gart. No. 5 Mine, Clay county. Figure 11 of plate I and figures 5, 11 and 12 of plate II are from sketches by Mr. E. M. Kindle, assistant on coal survey. With the exception of figures 1-4, 6-8, 10, 14, of plate I, and figures 13 and 14 of plate 11, all the figures are in the scale of 1 inch—10 feet. As it was the writer’s purpose in this paper merely to call attention to one of many interesting geological features of the coal regions which appear to have escaped notice, no descriptions of individual faults are given here, as they will be included in the monograph on the coal of Indiana, in preparaton. NoTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF MAmmMotTH Cave. By R. E. Catt. A GroLocicaL Section Across SourHERN INDIANA FROM HANOVER TO VINCENNES. By J. F. Newsom. [Abstract.] During the field season of 1896 a geological section was run through the center of the row of townships numbered 3 N, from Hanover on the Ohio River to Vincennes on the Wabash. The profile was run by means of the vertical arc and aneroid barom- eter. The dips of strata and elevations as shown may be depended upon within the limits of these methods. The geological formations and the topography crossed by this section are typical of almost the entire southern portion of Indiana. The lowest rocks to be found in the section are the soft beds of the Cincinnati group along the Ohio River. These beds are about 250 feet thick in the region near Hanover. Overlying the Cincinnati beds are the hard limestones of the Clinton, Niagara, and Corniferous. It is this combination of limestones overly- ing the soft Cincinnati beds that causes the bluffs along the Ohio River. and the waterfalls that are so common in that region. 2o1 THE EASTERN PLATEAU. Overlying the limestones is the Devonian black shale. The region un- derlain by the limestones, and the easternmost edge of the Devonian black shale is a high gently rolling plateau, sloping very gently to the west. This may very properly be called the eastern plateau region of southern Indiana. The dip of the rocks is westward, and varies from 20 to 46 feet per mile. The Devonian limestone (corniferous) passes beneath the drainage near the west line of township 38 north, 8 east. The Devonian black shale outcrops over a strip of country some twelve miles wide and forms for the most part low hills and flat plains. Its thickness at Scottsburg is 120 feet. THE EASTERN LOWLAND. The Knobstone Group, with the Goniatite limestone overlies the De- vonian black shale. The base of this group is easily eroded. These easily eroded strata, combined with the easily eroded black shale, have been largely worn away, leaving the low, comparatively level country to be found through southern Indiana, immediately east of the Knobs and hills of Floyd, Clarke, Washington, Scott, Jackson, Bartholomew, and Brown counties. This region may properly be called the eastern lowland. From the eastern edge of the eastern plateau (S00 feet above tide), to the center of the eastern lowland (570 feet above tide at Scottsburg) the country slopes gently to the west, the slope corresponding almost exactly with the dip of the rocks. THE MIDDLE PLATEAU. The top of the Knobstone group is made up of sandstones. These are overlain by the Lower Carboniferous limestones. These strata resist the action of the weather, and consequently are directly responsible for the “Knobs,” which are not a range of hills, but the more or less abrupt eastward face of a gently westward dipping plateau, which may be styled the central plateau. This plateau has been deeply cut by its streams. 252 : 3 THE SINK-HOLE REGION, Overlying the Knobstone group are the thick beds of Lower Carbonifer- ous limestones, in which are found the caverns of southern Indiana. This limestone region is completely pitted with sink-holes, and practically the whole of its drainage is by underground channels. This region has a gradual westward slope. It is the sink-hole region of Indiana. There is a noticeable increase in the size of the sink-holes in going from east to west as the limestone beds become thicker. THE WESTERN PLATEAU. West of the sink-hole region formed by the limestones, is the very rugged region to be found immediately east of the Coal Measures. The hills of this region are capped by the Mansfield sandstone or Mill-stone grit, to which formation they are in large part due. The region in which the Mansfield sandstone is the controlling formation may be termed the western plateau. This plateau has been very much dissected by its streams. THE WESTERN LOWLAND. Overlying the Mansfield standstone are the soft and easily eroded beds of the Coal Measures. These beds have been already worn down very near to their base level of erosion, if indeed they have ever been much above that level. CONCLUSION, (a.) In passing from east to west across southern Indiana, three prom- inent topographic features are crossed, and these features are the results of combinations of strata as follows: (1) the high eastward escarpment along the Ohio River caused by a thick series of easily-eroded calcareous shales overlain by thick and resisting limestones; (2) the high eastward facing escarpment with its outliers to the east, known as the “Knobs;” this escarpment is the result of a thick series of soft clay and sandy shales, protected by sandstones and resisting limestones. Along the line under discussion this escarpment is 28 miles west of the escarpment along the Ohio; (8) the high hills of Martin County, which are the result of a series of limestones and sandstones capped by more resisting sand- stones and which do not rise as an escarpment from the east, but become 253 eradually higher, owing to the resisting nature of their lowest beds. The distance from the Knobstone escarpment to the highest hills capped with the Mansfield standstone is about thirty miles. (b.) The structure of each of these topographic features where crossed by the section is essentially the same in different stages of development; j. e., that of a dissected plateau, sloping gently to the west. In the east- ern, or Devonian limestone plateau, in the region of the Ohio, dissection has scarcely begun, as none except the streams flowing directly into the Ohio have deep gorges, and these are only from one-half to one and a half miles long; in the middle, or Knobstone plateau, dissection has pro- gressed much further than in the eastern one, while the western or Mans- field sandstone plateau has been completely dissected by its streams. It is possible that this peculiarity in the amount of erosion that has taken place in these different plateaus is the result of the character and former upward extension of the overlying formations in each case. (c.) The top of the eastern plateau where crossed by the section is _800 feet above the sea, that of the middle is 820 feet, and that of. the western 880 feet above tide, while but a short distance to the north or south the topographic sheets show the elevations of these plateaus to cor- respond even more closely. These closely corresponding elevations point strongly to the conclu- sion that the present topography of southern Indiana has developed from an old base-level. The present topography, however, might have been de- veloped from a plain of deposition, or a combination of the two. THE KNOBSTONE GROUP IN THE REGION OF NEw AtpBany. By J. F. Newsom. During the field season of 1897 the Indiana University Geological Sur- vey undertook the delineation of the upper and lower limits of the Knob- stone group, and working up of the general geology of that particular formation. Work was begun in the extreme southern part of the State. It is with only a few of the points of interest that were developed in that region that this paper deals. 254 HEIGHT AND CHARACTER OF KNOBS, The knobs of the extreme southern part of Indiana do not form & range of hills, strictly speaking, but are the irregular eastern escarpment of a plateau, ranging in height from 200 to 400 feet. From the top of this escarpment the slope to the west is very gradual, while to the east there are often numerous sharp outlying hills, almost as high as the main plateau. The general course of the eastern face of the Knobstone escarpment from where it is cut through by the Ohio River, in township 6 S., is but little east of due north for about 30 miles, where, in township 1 §., 6 E.,. it turns to the west around the headwaters of Muddy Fork of Silver Creek. In the region immediately west of New Albany there are many high eastern outliers, which make the country very broken and rugged. A short distance northwest of New Albany there is a noticeable decrease in the number of outliers. The escarpment in this region is typical, with a high plateau to the west, an abrupt eastward slope with a descent of 200 to 400 feet, and a comparatively low level country to the east. GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE KNOBSTONE GROUP. The Knobstone group in Southern Indiana is made up of a thick series. of clay shales, sandy shales and sandstones. The shales predominate at the base of the group, while the sandstones predominate at the top. The series of rocks was originally called the Knobstone by Owen because of their peculiar ‘“‘knobs,” or, as their name implies, knob-like hills that are often left by its erosion at a greater or less distance east of the main escarpment. Overlying the upper sandstone layers of the group are the Lower Car- boniferous limestones, which, with the sandstones below, form a protect- ing cap for the thick underlying shales. When the streams cut through this overlying cap of limestone and sandstone they quickly cut down through the underlying soft shales and form deep gorges. Because of the slight westward dip of the strata the eastward flowing streams always cut ihrongh these shale beds. DIP. The knobstones and overlying limestones dip gently to the west or southwest. The westward dip, in sections 1 and 2, township 3 S., 5 E.. was found to be 41 feet per mile. This dip is very gentle, but it is suf- 255 ficient to entirely control the drainage. Thus it is noticeable that the water-shed between waters flowing east directly into the Ohio and those flowing southwest and reaching that stream after many miles is at the very eastern face of the plateau. In Floyd and Harrison counties it :s often no more than one or two miles from the Ohio. The streams flowing to the west have a gentle fall. following in the main the dip of the strata. The resulting topography is of the gentle rolling type common in many limestone regions. The streams flowing to the east, on the contrary, are short. and flow through deep, narrow gorges that have been cut down through the soft knob shales. These valleys are often from 250 to 300 feet deep. . THE UPPER LIMIT. The parting between the top of the Knobstone group and the overlying Carboniferous limestones crosses the Ohio River near the east side of township 6 south, 4 east. The line of parting in the extreme south is low in the hills and is covered by cliff debris and alluvium, consequently it cannot be continuously traced in going northward until township 4 south, 5 east, is reached. From the point where it enters Indiana the upper limit of the group runs northward along the eastern face of the escarpment on the west side of the Onio, seldom extending more than two miles back from that stream. On account of its dip it is carried successively higher in the hills, reaching their very tops in township 2 south, 6 east. From here northward the base of the limestone is found at the tops of the hills. The line of parting from its southernmost exposure, runs northward in a very sinuous line through townships 6, 5, 4, 3 and 2 south, 5 and 6 east, until it reaches section 31, township 2 south, 6 east. At this point, which is four miles west of New Albany, the outcrop turns westward and follows along the south side of Indian Creek until it is carried beneath the drain- age level and crosses to the north of that stream in section 20, township 2 south, 5 east. There are low dips showing a very low anticlinal fold in the southeastern part of 2 south, 4 east, and the southwestern part of m7 south, 5 east, and it may be to some extent due to this structural feature that Indian Creek and its tributaries have cut through the limestones, ex- posing the underlying Knobstone. through these townships. After crossing to the north side of Indian Creek the upper parting be- tween the Knobstone and limestone turns again and runs to the north- east in a yery sinuous line. It gets higher in the hills until it again 256 reaches their tops in section 17, township 1 south, 6 east. Here it turns: to the west and passes west of Borden and on across Blue River. A glance at the accompanying map will show that the continuous line of outcrop as here described makes a bend to the west and then to the northeast, causing the knobstone to form the principal rocks in the yal- leys, at least nine miles from the true eastern face of the knobs in town- ship 2, south. It is seen, also, that by no means all of the rocks of this immediate locality belong to the Knobstone, but that there are, included within the main line of outcrop, some large outlying limestone areas. These out- lying limestones are, of course, only the remnants of the beds that at one time covered the entire region. As the process of erosion continues these limestone areas will gradually disappear. It will be noticed that to the south of the area of exposed Knobstones (in township 1 south) just de- scribed, there is a smaller area where the limestone has been cut through,. but where it still completely encloses the exposed underlying sandstones. To the north, in the region of Borden, there is also a large area in which the overlying limestones have been almost completely removed, leaving but one small limestone area to the east of the main outcrop. These three areas illustrate very well three different stages in the process of the dissection and removal of the topmost strata of a plateau. In conclusion, attention should be called to the distribution of springs. Since the rocks composing the Knobstone group are of such a nature as to prevent the free circulation of water, springs are by no means com- mon in that formation. At the top of the formation, however, the line of parting between the limestones, which do permit the free circulation of water, and the underlying impervious sandstones, is a natural spring hori- zon. Along this line of parting springs are very common, and except at the extreme eastern edge of the Knobstone escarpment, where the lime- stone has been eroded to a very thin edge, they are to be found in almost every small side ravine. 8E 2N Fgh? UNIVERSITY ICAL SURVEY "'WSOM, Director '—1897— SSISTANTS A. C. VEATCH L. F. BENNETT E. MITCHELL -E: 1 INCH, 3 MILES stone niatite Limestone at its base | Underlying Formations Oye KS Crandait oe a GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE KNOBSTONE GROUP IN THE REGION OF NEW ALBANY, INDIANA (NEW ALBANY SHEET) INDIANA UNIVERSITY GEOLOGICAL SURVEY J. F. NEWSOM, Director —1897— ASSISTANTS A.C, VEATCH L. F, BENNETT F, £. MITCHELL bobust Point 20. SCALE: 1 INCH, 3 MILES [Lower Carboniferous Limestone [) Knobstone Group, with Goniatite Limestone at its base [9] Devonian Black Shale and Underlying Formations Pie, SHEAR WAT al —. ee a wy RANGE & ENST LOWER CARBON/FEROUS LIMESTONE NWOBSTONE ano GOMATITE LIMESTONE (3 Wy <' aev DEVONIAN BLACK SHALE ma Ey is GEOLOGIGAL MAP OF THE KNOBSTONE IN THE VICINITY OF BORDEN ano MEMPHIS, INDIANA, a ble iS ~ by LEE H JONES ano LEE f BENNETT. INDIANA UNIVERSITY GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 1897 ig = at u = - dy X fp 4 1 Mile PEN eo ae 5 /e et ee E pf NSS 257 Tue Upper Limit oF THE KNOBSTONE IN THE REGION OF BorDEN. By LEE H. Jones. During the last field season of the Indiana University Geological Sur- yey the line of parting between the Lower Carboniferous limestone and the Knobstone group was traced through township 1 south, 4, 5, and 6 east, and 1 north, 4, 5, and 6 east. In this locality there was found to be an interesting distribution*ef the knobstone group; and it is with this feature that this paper deals. In general, the upper limit of the knobstone has a trend of north slightly east, keeping within a short distance of the Ohio River from the point where it crosses that stream in township 6 south until a point five miles west of New Albany is reached. Here it turns to the northeast and runs to section 22, 1 south, 6 east, where it turns directly northwest. This line is continuous, with but slight deviation to the east or west, except in 2 south, 4, 5 and 6 east, where the overlying limestone is entirely eut through by the westward-flowing streams, leaving many isolated lime- stone areas capping the Knobstone hills. From the point where the line of parting between the top of the Knob- stone and the overlying Harrodsburg limestone (Lower Carboniferous) turns west, in section 22, it runs northwestward in a continuous line until it passes west of the headwaters of Muddy Fork of Silver Creek, in town- ship 1 south, 5 east, one and one-half miles south of Pekin. From this point it runs westward and a little to the south on the south side of Blue River, until it reaches section 33, 1 north, 4 east, where it passes beneath the drainage level and crosses to the north side of that stream. Again the line of parting turns to the northeast, and owing to the elevation of the rocks in that direction, it is gradually brought back to the tops of the hills. At the northeast corner of section 4, township 1 north, 5 east, it again turns to the west. A glance at the map will readily show that the upper limit of the knobstone in the area under discussion forms a westward indentation, with its wider part to the east. The overlying Harrodsburg limestone in the vicinity of section 22, township 1 south, 6 east, is very thin at its eastern and northern edges, running out to a feather edge along the line of parting. In this immediate locality the line of parting is from one to two miles from the eastern and northern face to the knob escarpment; to the west, in section 18, same 17—ScIENCE. 258 township, the parting runs out nearer the bluffs along the south side of Muddy Fork of Silver Creek. From this point westward it is carried lower and lower in the hills by the general westward dip of the rocks until it passes beneath Blue River. It will be noticed that the head waters of Muddy Fork of Silver Creek and Blue River overlap by some ten miles, and that the line of parting passes to the south of Muddy Fork of Silver Creek and to the north of Blue River. - The region between these two streams has had its limestone removed by their combined erosion. It is interesting to note that this is the only locality in the Knobstone region where there is such an overlapping of east and west flowing streams. The knobs of this locality are formed by a high plateau sloping gently to the west, with an abrupt slope to the east,and north on the south side of Muddy Fork of Silver Creek, and a steep south slope on the north side. The hills immediately north and south of Blue River are less rugged. In a general way the lower limit of the group runs in a direction somewhat parallel to that of the upper limit, making a slight westward bend from block 182 to block 192 of the Illinois grant, where it crosses Muddy Fork of Silver Creek and turns to the northeast. It will be noticed that the lower limit does not make as great a bend to the west as does the upper limit. This is due to the fact that the lower limit is very near to the drainage level of the country. In this region the lower limit of the Knobstone shale is marked by the greenish Rockford Goniatite limestone, which has a thickness of from ten inches to three feet. Immediatey below the Goniatite limestone is the Devonian black shale. Four CoMPARATIVE Cross SECTIONS OF THE KNOBSTONE GRouP OF INDIANA. By L. F. BENNETT. In connection with the geological work of the State University in 1897 several cross sections of the Knobstone group were made in order that its width and the distribution of the rocks forming it might be dis- covered. It is. with four of these comparative cross-sections that this paper deals. The elevations were obtained by means of the aneroid bar- ometer and the locations by placing and inquiry. As the main object FOUR WHITE PIVEF. = z = e S$ 8 5 : gg s as 38 Nh S Sy w Neo ae ¢ x : & aN 88 ue N wy Sy BN N 8 weeo pac HULL NN RN N NS x p>. ~ ER ny N ER & = Rt N SECTION ALONG THE NORTH LINE OF 8 WORTH. SEA = m < m = PRWIE 5 EAST BBNCE 6 ERSTE RANGE 6 EAST ANGE F ERST S@errsaunen | SCaTTaSI RESEDA: a weve Mooi nents ee FOUR COMPARATIVE CROSS-SECTIONS OF THE KNOBSTONE GRouP OF INDIANA By L.F.BENNETT ano OTHERS OF THE INDIANA UNIVERSITY GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 1897. RANGE 5S EAST RANGE 6 ERIT PANGE 6 ERST RANGE 7 ERST UNoERWooD LEGEND: COU) LOWER CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE HWOBSTONE GROUP (==3 COMATITE LIMESTONE ZA PEVONIAN BLACK SHALE ST JOSEPH SECT: SE en VMILIYTAL SOME: CME 7 rranh TION om ENTIAL SEALE [ROO FEET TWP SOUTH 6 EAST. ° 400 zee ———— Thee : D 2. —eEeEeo7~—3O— — 259 was to work out the topography, not so much attention was paid to the geology, but in most places it was worked out with some degree of ac- curacy. This formation is made up of sandstones and shales. Above it is the Subcarboniferous limestone; below, the New Albany black shale. In the south the shale predominates; in the north, the sandstone. At the base of the formation is a layer of hard greenish-blue limestone, called the Rockford Goniatite limestone. This layer is very persistent and varies from ten inches to three feet in thickness. In the southern part of the State, north to where it is covered by a glacial clay, the eastern limit of this limestone is but a few feet below the general surface of the country, being covered by soil and clay to the depth of eight to twenty feet. None of the sandstone is pure. It is mixed with considerable quan- tities of muddy shale and also contains small quantities of iron, which is shown in the weathered rock. The shale is muddy, easily eroded, and con- tains large quantities of iron nodules. In most places there is a gradual] transition from the shale to the sandstone; just where one leaves off and the other begins it is difficult to tell. This is especially true in the south- ern part of the State. Farther north there are alternating beds of shale and sandstone, but the beds of shale are much the thinnest. The formation shows an entirely different topography in the south from that in the north. It makes up the knobs of Floyd, Clark, Scott, Washington and Jackson counties dnd the hills of Bartholomew, Brown and Morgan counties. In the south, in Floyd and Clark counties, the knobs present a bold face toward the east; they are steep and vary from 200 to 400 feet in height. Hast of the knobs the country is comparatively level and farther north outlying hills are found. These outliers in northern Jackson and in Bartholomew counties extend eastward from the main range of hills five or six miles. In the four cross-sections under discussion the dip of the rock was not determined, but it was measured in other places and found to be 26 feet to the mile to the west. The southernmost of the four cross-sections was run in township 1 -south, range 6 east, a short distance south of St. Joseph, a small town on the J.. M. & I. R. R., six miles north of New Albany. The Subcarbonifer- ous limestone is found on the top of the easternmost knob or hill and is 250 feet above the Goniatite limestone to the east. This is about the 260 narrowest place in the formation. It is two miles wide. Here the sand- stone is 90 feet in thickness and the muddy shale over 200 feet. Both the sandstone and shale have been worn away as fast as the limestone has receded. For this reason the hills are steep and the country to the east is low and flat. This is not quite a typical section for this region, because limestone is seldom found on the hill farthest to the east. It is usually found a mile or more west of the eastern face of the knobs. The next section to the north, the Underwood section, was run along the middle line of township 2 north. It begins on the west side of the Illinois grant and runs west 13%, miles. On the east are found low hills called the Guinea knobs, none of which are over 150 feet above the sur- rounding country, and most are much lower. On the tops of some glacial gravel is found, on others clay, due to the decomposition of muddy shale. Fifty feet above the Goniatite limestone there is a layer of muddy shale containing iron nodules, and higher up there are layers of blue shale, much bluer than is the usual color. For four and a half miles west of the Guinea knobs the country is generally level; then the outliers of the western knobs are reached. They are made up entirely of shale and clay, except the last hill to the west, which contains sandstone at the top. The country continues rough for three miles and only one valley of any consequence is crossed; it is the valley of the Big Ox Fork. The last ascent is 250 feet where sandstone 190 feet in thickness is found. Typical of this formation, the sandstone at some depths is much muddier than at others; and in this hill, at the top, the sandstone is much muddier than about 100 feet down, where for a few feet it is comparatively pure, then it gradually grows muddier until it grades into a sandy shale, and still farther down into a nearly pure shale. For the next two miles the country is nearly level; it then becomes more broken until the limestone is reached, four and one-half miles west of the first sandstone hill. Just beneath the limestone there is a layer of blue shale; below this is the sandstone. The next section, the Scottsburgh section, was run along the middle line of township 3 north. It begins in the vicinity of Scottsburgh and con- tinues westward 131% miles. It is comparatively level for 10 miles, the country being covered with alluvium and glacial and residual clays. The first hill of any consequence is capped with muddy sandstone, the second by the Subcarboniferous limestone. 261 A comparison of this section with the Underwood section shows a con- siderable difference. In the latter there is but little level country; the Guinea knobs are on the east; the outliers of the western knobs are four and a half miles to the west, and it is several miles farther before the lime- stone is reached. In the Scottsburgh section there are no outliers, and limestone is found on the second hill. The knobs make a great bend to the west in running through township 2 north and township 3 north, hence the difference in the two sections. The Weed Patch Hill section was run along the north line of township 8 north. It is 30 miles long. It begins at the White River, two miles south of Columbus, runs across Brown County over Weed Patch Hill and ends in Monroe County. For two miles and one-half the country is level and is covered to a depth of 30 feet or more with alluvium. The next four miles is rolling, the first two miles of which is covered with glacial clay, the latter with resi- dual clay. A well section in the first hill shows the Goniatite limestone to be 40 feet above the surface; this is its eastern limit. The higher hills begin six and one-half miles west of White River. The first hill rises almost abruptly 150 feet and is almost entirely made up of muddy sandstone. Throughout the rest of the section the hills are steep and high. In many places it is but 300 or 400 yards from one hill to the next, and the hollow between is 150 feet deep and sometimes deeper. Shale is found in the deepest hollows for the first six miles. Farther on no shale is found except in thin layers at various heights in the sandstone. This is one peculiarity of the rock in this section. : The sandstone greatly predominates; in fact, it is 22% miles wide, and through it there are these thin beds of muddy shale. All gradations between the nearly pure sand- stone and shale are found and in several places the sandstone is nearly blue. Weed Patch Hill was made 1,135 feet high by the barometer; the correct height is 1,147 feet. Sandstone is found all the way to the top. It is much higher than any of the hills on either side. Seven miles farther west Salt Creek valley is crossed; it is one-half mile wide. Still farther west, a mile and a half east of the west end of the section, there is a layer of fossiliferous limestone. It is found at the base of the hill in the sandstone, and is 15 feet thick and is made up al- most entirely of crinoid stems. One-fourth of a mile farther west, at the base of the next hill, there is a fifteen-foot layer of blue shale. 262 It would naturally be supposed that the watershed is at the highest point, namely, at Weed Patch ‘Hill, but this is not the case. It is about two miles west of the eastern face of the hills. Most of the streams crossed east of Weed Patch Hill flow to the southeast and empty into Salt Creek several miles below the place where it is crossed by this sec- tion. The location of the watershed, perhaps, gives a clue as to the posi- tion of the rocks that once covered this region, which is now an excellent example of a completely dissected plateau. This last section is typical of the Knobstone north of White River. The limestone has pushed farther to the west, leaving a wide area covered by the Knobstone, most of which is the muddy sandstone. The sections south of White River are also typical for that region. The St. Joseph section has very little sandstone exposed and the shale greatly pre- dominates. A glance at the map will explain why it is there are so many hills in _the north in the Knobstone group; it is because of the thickness and wide distribution of the sandstone. Nores on InpranAa GrEotocy. By J. A. PRICE. In connection with the field work in geology at Indiana University during the last season the distribution of a strip of limestone, usually sur- rounded by outcrops of the Knobstone group and lying east of the main mass of the Lower carboniferous limestone of Indiana, was in part out- lined. It is with this unconformity that this paper deals. } In the Report of the State Geologist for 1896, page 391, a strip of limestone commencing at Limestone Hill, eight miles southeast of Bloom- ington, and extending east of south through Heltonville to and probably beyond Fort Ritner, Lawrence county, is referred to. Without attempting to solve the conditions under which this lime- stone was laid down, it is desired to touch upon the extent and relative position of this limestone strip and the Knobstone north and south of the points referred to in the report. In sections 26, 27, 34 and 35, township 4 north, 2 east, Washington County, between Twin Creek, which flows north through sections 35, 36 and 25, and the East Fork of White River, which flows south through 263 sections 22, 27 and 34, lies a point of land one and one-half mile long and one mile wide. The top of this point is formed of limestone, which varies in thickness at different places around the point. Near the center of section 34 the line of parting between the limestone~ and knobstone is 150 feet above the bed of the river. Farther north, near the south side of section 27, the line of parting is 140 feet above the river. At the north end of the point of land_in section 22 the line of parting is only 110 feet above the river, with 40 feet of limestone above, and at the, northeast corner of the land the line of parting is only 60 feet above Twin Creek. At this point the overlying limestone is 100 feet thick. At the south side of section 26 the knobstone is only 40 feet thick and is overlaid with 160 feet of limestone, while at the corresponding point on the west side the knobstone is 140 feet thick, with only 20 feet of lime- stone. Near the bridge across Twin Creek in the northeast quarter of the northeast quarter of section 35 the line of parting is only 20 feet above the creek, and is overlain with 150 feet of limestone. A well section near the northeast corner of section 27 shows the fol- lowing strata: Soil, 35 feet; limestone, 10 feet; knobstone, 88 feet. On the west side of a tributary of Twin Creek, at the east center of section 35, the line of parting is only 20 feet above the creek bed, while on the east side the hill is 190 feet high, without limestone. From the line of parting on the west side of the branch to the school house at the center of section 35 there is 150 feet of limestone, but from the school house west there is only a descent of 50 feet to the line of parting at the west side of the section. Fig. 4. On the east side of the point of land between White River and Twin Creek the upper ledges of limestone form a cliff some 12 or 15 feet high. On the west side there is no cliff, and the exposures are covered over largely with debris. In the center of section 26 is a point that extends to the southwest some 400 yards from the high sand hills east of the creek. The average height of this projection is about 100 feet. With the exception of 20 feet of knobstone at the base of this projection, the rocks are all limestone. The adjoining hill to the northeast rises 150 feet above the projection and is formed of knobstone. On the north side of the projection and west of the wagon road are two ditches some 30 yards apart. In the ditch farthest east there is an 264 exposure of knobstone and in the other an exposure of limestone, the line of contact coming somewhere between these two ditches. Farther south, in section 1, township 3 north, 2 east, occurs the same unconformity. From the road through the west side of section 1 to the line of parting in Clifty Creek is a descent of 150 feet. In going east to the head waters of one of the side branches of Rush Creek there is only a fall of 50 feet to the line of parting. The two points where the line of parting was observed are not over one-half mile apart. Farther north, in 5 north, 2 east, the limestone occurs on the west side of Guthrie’s Creek. The line of parting is 25 feet above the creek bed, and from the line of parting to the top of the hill is 100 feet. All the exposures are limestone. Near the top of the hill there is exposed a thick ledge of limestone which forms a small cliff corresponding to the cliff on the west side of Twin Creek. Farther west, where the streams have cut through the limestone and exposed the edges of the strata, no such cliffs are formed. Farther west the lighter the deposit for one-half mile or more, where it begins to thicken and dip gently to the west. A cross-section of the body of limestone is triangular in shape, with the base jutting against the knob- stone, the altitude along the surface and the hypotenuse bedding upon the knobstone. (Fig. 2.) Farther north, near the center of section 10, township 9 north, 1 east, the division between the knobstone and limestone crosses the road about 150 yards west of where the road turns to the north. The knobstone does not occur in the hill to the east, although this hill is 50 feet higher than the road. In a gully 250 yards northwest of the road, where the line between the pale-colored clay of the knobstone and the red clay of the limestone crosses it is the line of contact between the two formations. One hundred yards southeast of the center of the southwest quarter of northeast quarter of section 10 the displacement is found. (Fig. 1.) In general this belt of limestone seems to extend north and south, or north 10° west, and has been observed from near Mount Carmel, in sec- tion 1, township 3 north, 2 east, Washington County, to near Unionville, in section 10, township 9 north, 1 east, Monroe County. At all points of observation the limestone had the same general shape— thick on the east side, with but slight modifications in going west for a short distance, then gradually thinning out, and connected or disconnected with the limestone west of it. FOWN 4N. RANGE 2 E. OSL GLE >) 1» Wawa Woe SZ ee I LAND LN Y SS ASN A SS LZ SSS NY A WS S\N LZ SNS ‘A — Creeks RSs Bran ta which Way canoe be crea > Drepes Fig. 2. SECTION SHOWING FILLING OF CHANNEL IN LAK' E PLAIN ALONG LINE A-& MAP OF DRIVEN WELL AREA. “zoe Homrewras Sea ——_ Venn: Sere 320 —— EQ crnsomrerous sranra, ALLO FSS c0ess ano resiounry Exp. i i § = SECTION EMIS PIGEON PLAIN. LEGEND samt AS F762. NORLOWIA SthLE ae a0%r Vernal S0He + “C90 fP = ——— 26% river bottoms. Near Grandview the bottoms are about a mile wide. At Rockport the river strikes against the bounding bluffs, so the Indiana portion of the valley is here reduced to zero. The river then rebounds toward the bordering hills in Kentucky, which it strikes at Bonne, Harbor Hill, a few miles below Owensboro; Ky. This makes the plain north of Owensboro three and a half miles wide. At Enterprise, seven miles below Owensboro, the plain is only half a mile wide. Three and a half miles below Enterprise the river plain merges into Pigeon Plain. The third portion of the plain enters the river plain between Grandview and Rockport, its southern portion including part of the town of Rockport. it is here three miles wide. Narrowing down to two miles, it extends westward three miles, where it turns abruptly northward and enters a gorge a full mile wide. After going three miles in this direction it turns westward again and enters Pigeon Plain two miles east of Richland, in section 31, township 7 south, range 6 west. The narrow part of this plain was occupied by a shallow pond of water when this country was first settled. This pond was called “The Lake” by the early settlers. For this. reason this division will be called Lake Plain, although, as will be shown later, the lake is a result and not a cause of the plain. These three plains so merge into one another that it 1s impossible to tell where one begins and the other ends. The difference in levels of all three is very slight, not being over 25 feet except in four places, where Honey Creek, Lake Drain Creek, Enterprise Creek and Little Pigeon Creek have cut narrow, deep channels in the yielding alluvium. The surface is so nearly level that large portions either are or were swampy. In Lake Plain is Swan Pond, covering portions of sections 5, 8 and 32; township 7 south, range 6 west, drained by Swan Pond Ditch; a marshy place, near Silver Dale Church, drained by Kennedy’s Ditch, and the Lake covering sections 5, 8 and 32, township 7 south, range 6 west, drained by a ditch constructed in 1896 and emptying into Lake Drain Creek. In Pigeon Plain is a series of ditches draining the ‘“‘black land” north of Midway; Sweezer’s Ditch, draining Sweezer’s Pond; Lake Ditch, drain- ing a Swampy area in sections 24 and 25, township 7 south, range 7 west, and sections 19, 30 and 31, township 7 south, range 6 west; Cow Pond and Hoop Pole Ditches, draining land near Richland, and Shoptaugh and Wil- low Pond Ditches, draining land farther south. In the river plain there- are many small ditches draining low tracts. 268 The hill region occupies all land not occupied by the plain. It will be seen from the location and interconnection of these plains that the hill land is divided into two parts. One, a roughly triangular portion, has its apex at the meeting of the Lake and Pigeon plains and its base roughly a little below the southern line of township 7 south. This region is char- -acterized by a great number of hills rising on an average from 40 to 60 feet above the plain. The highest part of the triangular hill land is in Rockport, near the junction of Lake and River plains, where the hills rise 120 feet above the plain. The next highest is at the junction of Pigeon and River plains, where the hills reach the height of 90 feet. The ‘bordering hills are in general higher than the interior hills and the hills on the south and east higher than those on the west. The other portion of the hill land is higher and more irregular. The highest point measured is in the northwest quarter of the northwest quar- ter of section 3, township 7 south, range 6 west, where the ‘knobs’ rise 240 feet above the mean level of the plain. It is probable that the Cen- terville knobs, three miles to the north, are higher. Pigeon Plain is naturally divided into two parts by a terrace (Fig. 1) about 15 feet high, which begins near the point where Lake Plain joins Pigeon Plain and extends in a general northwesterly direction past Midway to Little Pigeon Creek. The plain north of this line is about 15 feet higher than the portion south. The soil to the south is the same as that which covers the river bottoms; that to the north is entirely different, being a sort of reddish clay in some parts of the region and a very black peaty soil in others. This black portion is locally known as “black land.” Other differences between the northern and southern parts of Pig- eon Plain will be mentioned later. All the hills on the border of the triangular hill land, the hills along the southern boundry of the northern hill land from Grandview as far as the point where Lake and Pigeon plains meet, and the hills from that point to Little Pigeon Creek, along the line of the terrace, are covered with typical river bluff loess. The region in the interior of all the triangular hill land and for a short distance north of the southern boundary of the northern hill land is coy- ered with typical interstream loess. In all the plain region bounded by the loess-capped hills; that is, all the River Plain, Lake Plain and that portion of Pigeon Plain south of the terrace, except a narrow strip in a few places along the base of the hills, 269 wells reveal a great trench filled with an irregular series of clays and water-bearing sands and gravels. This is the region of the driven wells (see map of “Driven Well Area”). In the hill region and most of the region in Pigeon Plain north of the terrace all wells strike rock at comparatively shallow depths. As the name would imply, in the region of driven wells all wells are driven. This method of sinking wells makes accurate well sections hard to obtain. The only thing that can be obtained accurately is the depth or depths of the water-bearing strata and in a general way something of what was passed through before water was found. Only a few open wells’ are found in this region, and they were dug so long ago that less can be learned from them than from the driven wells. The depth of the driven wells varies considerably, in one place a differ- ence of 10 feet having been noticed betwen two wells on level ground not 40 feet apart. The deepest wells found are near Rockport. One is 70, the other 65 feet. Neither struck rock. The normal depth of wells in middle Lake Plain and Northern Pigeon Plain south of the terrace range from 17 to 40 feet. Very few wells are deeper. One well, 56 feet deep, in the nar- rowest part of Lake Plain, did not strike rock. In River Plain they range from 30 to 60 feet. From these wells we learn something of the griginal depth of this filled valley. If all these sands and gravels, which underlie Lake, River and a portion of Pigeon Plain could be removed, a valley extending at least 56 feet and probably more than 70 feet below the present plain level, and hay- ing its sides of middle carboniferous formation, would be revealed. (See Fig. 2.) This valley is the same depth as the half-filled Ohio gorge, of which it is a continuation. It is filled with the same materials. The hills on each side are covered with typical river bluff loess in the same manner as those on the erosion scarp of the Ohio. The levels of the Plains are so nearly the same that a portion of the waters of the flood of 1884 rushed through the Lake Plain, and entering Pigeon Plain, one part followed the terrace and then turned southward to meet the other part and join the waters of the Ohio again where Pigeon and River Plains meet. This stream was four feet deep, and flowed with such swiftness along the base of the bluff where Pigeon and Lake Plains meet that a man could not have stood up- right in it. All these facts lead to the conclusion that the Ohio River at one time flowed through Lake Plain and down through Pigeon Plain, entering the 270 Ohio Valley again between Enterprise and the eastern part of Warrick County. . To the erosive power of the river is to be attributed the greater part, if not the whole, of the valley now occupied by Lake Plain. In Pigeon Plain the worx done was simply the deepening, and it may be a little broadening, on the eastern side of a broad valley, extending from the northeast, which the river entered after cutting through the rock in Lake Plain. = ¥¢ Se » at EDITOR, -- - GEO. W. BENTON. ASSOCIATE EDITORS: C. A. WALDO, W. A. NOYES, C. H. EIGENMANN, STANLEY COULTER, V. F. MARSTERS, THOMAS GRAY, M. B. THOMAS, JOHN S. WRIGHT. INDIANAPOLIS, IND. 1399, INDIANAPOLIS: Wo. B. BURFORD, PRINTER, 19. 189 TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE. An act to provide for the publication of the reports and papers of the IAiNApeRe RMON ys Gl SCIONCe: on. 2 aHace hanes yee aie Sete Cetin bad 4 An act for the protection of birds, their nests and eggs................... By) METRO SO eae syne Ree Lace eee ee Aare ee caw ER AAs Pibeg Dia or mee TS 8 Pe PRPSE ECCS IRL SOB Uo pean Sa eae forte weer oki dtn cactenyewies hed aw ewes 9 EPBCUALOMICELS SINCE OTFAUIZALION aa wie.0.6 wen eyed eeldw eves ceceeeenee es 10 SURECREEL TL NOSE CS esse en cess cons dasta easse 8 eee aee Hie Se Sisksie a dios spaced a 11 LE PLDI ae Athi te Gis Gece Eig Sa. 5. he tO EM GES oe ae nea eae aE 3 SPPaaRE NL CLL WS Net Merete are ei eee Tee ici Sih oc See Sake o-8 ohn cee codecs e Hees 14 LDL OSS TERETE GS S10 PENT fp Bake opts el RO a a 15 MRO OLE ULV CDI PA ee aroieianet ea tet ay slog nis aha's ahs iecieod, Soi Huibiain eodeieiee dupe main ees 15 WE RLLORitt ig Ns U5 SCO ea en 20 PRSEMIDEEC IO Us COLLCSDONGENIS: <2. sife ce cce ce ebb o se Sande sbaeee bee cannes 21 Program of the Fourteenth Annual Meeting ....................00. 00 eee 27 Report of the Fourteenth Annual Meeting of the Indiana Academy of RAE EMRE te ed oictete Nd Salsa e, Sarer ayes lata diae ae woe Seach tle de eek lays 33 Eaporeorethericld Meeting’ of 1898 2.0.0.2 5... )s.55 lec cas ewes cs asec sees 34 2 Fv) LEE 2 resi 2a a Vo Ue peat 35 Papers presented at the Fourteenth Annual Meeting..................... 53 An Act TO PROVIDE FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE REPORTS AND PAPERS OF THE INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. [Approved March 11, 1895.] WHEREAS, The Indiana Academy of Science, a chartered Preamble. scientific association, has embodied in its constitution a pro- vision that it will, upon the request of the Governor, or of the several departments of the State government, through the Governor, and through its council as an advisory body, assist in the direction and execu- tion of any investigation within its province, without pecuniary gain to the Academy, provided only that the necessary expenses of such investi- gation are borne by the State, and, WHEREAS, The reports of the meetings of said Academy, with the sey- eral papers read before it, have very great educational, industrial and economic value, and should be preserved in permanent form, and, WHEREAS, The Constitution of the State makes it the duty of the Gen- eral Assembly to encourage by all suitable means intellectual, scientific and agricultural improvement, therefore, SrecTion 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the Publication of the re- State of Indiana, That hereafter the annual reports of the orts of the eee meetings of the Indiana Academy of Science, beginning with of Science. the report for the year 1894, including all papers of scientific or economic value, presented at such meetings, after they shall have been edited and prepared for publication as hereinafter provided, shall be pub- lished by and under the direction of the Commissioners of Public Printing and Binding. Sec. 2. Said reports shall be edited and prepared for pub- aeret lication without expense to the State, by a corps of editors to be selected and appointed by the Indiana Academy of Science, who shall not, by reason of such services, have any claim against the State for compensation. The form, style of binding, paper, typography and manner and extent of illustration of such reports, shall aes regs be determined by the editors, subject to the approval of the EevOny Commissioners of Public Printing and Stationery. Not less than 1,500 nor more than 3,000 copies of each of said reports shall be pub- lished, the size of the edition within said limits, to be determined by the 5 concurrent action of the editors and the Commissioners of Public Print- ing and Stationery: Provided, That not to exceed six hundred dollars ($600) shall be expended for such publication in any one year, and not to extend beyond 1896: Provided, That no sums shall be deemed to be appropriated for the year 1894. Proviso. Src. 3, All except three hundred copies of each volume of said reports shall be placed in the custody of the State Libra- Despostha rian, who shall furnish one copy thereof to each public li- brary in the State, one copy to each university, college or normal school in the State, one copy to each high school in the State haying a library, which shalt make application therefor, and one copy to such other insti- tutions, societies or persons as may be designated by the Academy through its editors or its council. The remaining three hundred copies shall be turned over to the Academy to be disposed of as it may de- termine. In order to provide for the preservation of the same it shall be the duty of the Custodian of the State House to provide and place at the disposal of the Academy one of the unoccupied rooms of the State House, to be designated as the office of the Indiana Academy of Science, wherein said copies of said reports belonging to the Academy, together with the original manuscripts, drawings, etc., thereof can be safely kept, and he shall also equip the same with the necessary shelving and furni- ture. Src. 4. An emergency is hereby declared to exist tor the immediate taking effect of this act, and it shall therefore take Emergency. effect and be in force from and after its passage. An ACT FOR THE PROTECTION OF BIRDS, THEIR NESTS AND EGGS, {Approved March 5, 1891.] Section 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Indiana, That it shall be unlawful for any person to kill any wild bird other than a game bird, or purchase, offer for sale any such wild bird after it has been killed, or to destroy the nests or the eggs of any wild bird. Src. 2. For the purpose of this act the following shall Bird:. i j ; Ge birds. be considered game birds; the Anatidse, commonly called 7°" swans, geese, brant, and river and sea ducks; the Rallidee, commonly known as rails, coots, mudhens, and gallinules; the Limicole, commonly , 6 known as shore birds, plovers, surf birds, snipe, woodcock and sand- pipers, tattlers and curlews; the Gallinze, commonly known as wild tur keys, grouse, prairie chickens, quail, and pheasants, all of which are not intended to be affected by this act. Sec. 3. Any person violating the provisions of Section 1 Renal. of this act shall, upon conviction, be fined in a sum not less than ten nor more than fifty dollars, to which may be added imprisonment for not less than five days nor more than thirty days. Src. 4. Sections 1 and 2 of this act shall not apply to any Ss person holding a permit giving the right to take birds or their nests and eggs for scientific purposes, as provided in Section 5 of this act. Piemita to Sec. 5. Permits may be granted by the Executive Board Science. of the Indiana Academy of Science to any properly accredited person, permitting the holder thereof to collect birds, their nests or eggs_ for strictly scientific purposes. In order to obtain such permit the ap- plicant for the same must present to said Board written testimonials from two well-known scientific men certifying to the good character and fitness of said applicant to be entrusted with such privilege and pay to said Board one dollar to defray the necessary expenses attending the granting of such permit, and must file with said Board a Bont. properly executed bond in the sum of two hundred dollars, signed by at least two responsible citizens of the State as sureties. The Bond tir bond shall be forfeited to the State and the permit become feited, yoid upon proof that the holder of such permit has killed any bird or taken the nests or eggs of any bird for any other purpose than that named in this section and shall further be subject for each offense to the penalties provided in this act. ‘ Sec. 6. The permits authorized by this act shall be in La force for two years only from the date of their issue, and shall not be transferable. Sec. 7. The English or European house sparrow (passer Birds of prey. aomesticus), crows, hawks, and other birds of prey are not . included among the birds protected by this act. Sec. 8. All acts or parts of acts heretofore passed in con- Acts repealed. 4:4 with the provisions of this act are hereby repealed. Src. 9. An emergency is declared to exist for the imme- Emergency. diate taking effect of this act, therefore the same shall be in force and effect from and after its passage. TAKING FIsH FOR SCIENTIFIC PURPOSES. Section 2, Chapter XXX, Acts of 1899, page 45, makes the following provision for the taking of fish for scientific purposes: “Provided, That in all cases of scientific observation he [the Commissioner of Fisheries and Game] shall require a permit from the Indiana Academy of Science.” C. H. EIGENMANN, D. W. DENNis, JoHN S. WRIGHT, E. A. SCHULTZE, G. W. Benton, J. T. ScovELL, C. A. WALDO, i 3) 6s a Se ieee ae a ICHTHYOLOGY HERPETOLOGY MAMMALOGY ORNITHOLOGY ENTOMOLOGY ... OFFICERS, 1898-99. PRESIDENT, CARL H. EIGENMANN. ViIcE-PRESIDFNT, D. W. DENNIS. SECRETARY, JOHN S. WRIGHT. ASSISTANT SECKETARY, E A. SCHULTZE. Press SECRETARY, GEO. W. BENTON. TREASURER, J. T, SCOVELL, EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, O; B. Har, T. C. MENDENHALL, THOMAS GRAY, STANLEY COULTER, Amos W. BuTLEr, W. A. NoYEs, J. C. ARTHUR, JoHN C. BRANNER, J. 2. D; Jou; JoHN M. Coulter, J. L. CAMPRELL, Davin S. JoRDAN. CURATORS. a a. Fe be eee hee J. C. ARTHUR. ON es a, ER PE Seer ee C. H. EIGENMANN. COMMITTEES, 1898-99. PROGRAM. M. B. THomas, C. R. DRYER. MEMBERSHIP. D. W. DENNISs, R. J. ALEY, E. A. SCHULTZE. NOMINATIONS. W. A. Noyes, J. C. ARTHUR, A. L. Foury. AUDITING. J. L. CAMPBELL, W. E. STONE. STATE LIBRARY. A. W. BuTLEr, W. A. NoyvEs, C. A. WALDo, A. W. Durr, J.S. Wricut. LEGISLATION FOR THE RESTRICTION OF WEEDS. J. C. ARTHUR, STANLEY COULTER, J. S. WRiGcuHr. PROPAGATION AND PROTECTION OF GAME AND FISH. C. H. E1i@ENMANN, A. W. BurLer, W.S. BuatcHLey. EDITOR. GEO. W. BEnTON, 525 N. Pennsylvania St., Indianapolis. DIRECTORS OF BIOLOGICAI, SURVEY. C. H. EIGENMANN, V. F. Marsters, J. C. ARTHUR. RELATIONS OF THE ACADEMY TO THE STATE. C. A. WALDO, A. W. BUTLER, R. W. McBripe. GRANTING PERMITS FOR COLLECTING BIRDS. A. W. Butier, C. H. Eri@enMANN, W.S. BLATCHLEY. DISTRIBUTION OF THE PROCEEDINGS. A. W. But Ler, J. 8. Wricut, G. W. Benton . 10 ‘[]2a00g Lf []PAoog +L “¢ ‘uouueyg ‘d “MA “uouuRYg ‘d “M “HOUUBYS ‘d “mM -uouuRYyg “gq “AA “OPIZM “V 'O ‘OPIZM “V ‘0 ‘suryuer “qd “O suryuer “q “O ‘suryuer “d “O ‘suryquer “d ‘O z0) 0 ‘suryuar "qd “sulyue “q uojuag “AA *0ar) “++ OyMag “AA ‘08x a ahha -* + azynyog -y “A ‘Aousig “( °¥ Se ena ge ear = oe eee fous “p °¥ Ronen Les fousig “pV UBUIION “AA “AL f ‘UBUIION “MA “MA \L-raynog apurig ete sUSIEM “g BOL ae WSIIM “§ UYyoLr Ree ISI “S UYOL Sort IPSUM “S UYyor USI “§ UYyOL sae eae OpIeAK °¥ "9D “"* reapyng “A souly + ¥oqqnig “Ah SOUNY + aaTang +A soury + -a9Tang “MA SOUTY + s+ zoryMg "AA soury “* uURMUUesIG “ET ‘O are wrene . “OpleEM af 26) eee e eee Ava) sevuroy T "ts raq;no0g AapuRyg se ee eee rapyug AK ‘Vv [poo ROLONT ‘Vv “M ‘2'0 co Tpeqaopueyy 9 1, "e"* L9UUB I 2.0) uyo f* ee ccees uyor ‘q‘d ‘ff | *** az[NOD “PA uyor ""** UBplop *g prAaeg "“6-8681 “*S-1681 “*1-9681 “"9-C68I “"C-F68T “F-€681 “"$-Z68I “*Z-6881 “T-0681 “06-6881 “"6-8881 “Bpee ** 2-988 ““9-C881 “MAM ONSVAA T, “RUVLEAMONS ssaud "AUVLANOAG “LSSY “AUV IAMS “LNAGISau dg “AONAIOS dO ANAC VOV VNVIGNI AHL AO SHAOIHO 11 CONSTITUTION. ARTICLE I. Section 1. This association shall be called the Indiana Academy of Science. : Src. 2. The objects of this Academy shall be scientific research and ‘the diffusion of knowledge concerning the various departments of science; to promote intercourse between men engaged in scientific work, especially in Indiana; to assist by investigation and discussion in developing and making known the material, educational and other resources and riches of the State; to arrange and prepare for publication such reports of in- vestigation and discussions as may further the aims and objects of the Academy as set forth in these articles. Whereas, the State has undertaken the publication of such proceed- ings, the Academy will, upon request of the Governor, or of one of the several departments of the State, through the Governor, act through its council as an advisory body in the direction and execution of any investi- gation within its province as stated. The necessary expenses incurred in the prosecution of such investigation are to be borne by the State; no pecuniary gain is to come to the Academy for its advice or direction of such investigation. The regular proceedings of the Academy as published by the State shall become a public document. ARTICLE II. Section 1. Members of this Academy shall be honorary fellows, fel- lows, non-resident members or active members. Sec. 2. Any person engaged in any department of scientific work. or in original research in any department of science, shall be eligible to active membership. Active members may be annual or life members. Annual members may be elected at any meeting of the Academy; they shall sign the constitution, pay an admission fee of two dollars, and there- after an annual fee of one dollar. Any person who shall at one time 12 contribute fifty dollars to the funds of this Academy, may be elected a life member of the Academy, free of assessment. Non-resident members may be elected from those who have been active members but who have removed from the State. In any case, a three-fourths vote of the mem- bers present shall elect to membership. Applications for membership in any of the foregoing classes shall be referred to a committee on applica- tion for membership, who shall consider such application and report to the Academy before the election: Src. 3. The members who are actively engaged in scientific work, who have recognized standing as scientific men, and who have been members of the Academy at least one year, may be recommended for nomination for election as fellows by three fellows or members personally acquainted with their work and character. Of members so nominated a number not exceeding five in one year may, on recommendation of the Executive Committee, be elected as fellows. At the meeting at which this is adopted, the members of the Executive Committee for 1894 and fifteen others shall be elected fellows, and those now honorary members shall become honorary fellows. Honorary fellows may be elected on account of special prominence in science, on the written recommendation of two members of the Academy. In any case a three-fourths vote of the mem- bers present shall elect. ARTICLE III. Section 1. The officers of this Academy shall be chosen by ballot at the annual meeting, and shall hold office one year. They shall consist of a president, vice-president, secretary, assistant secretary, press secre- tary, and treasurer, who shall perform the duties usually pertaining to their respective offices and in addition, with the ex-presidents of the Academy, shall constitute an executive committee. The president shall, at each annual meeting appoint two members to be a committee which shall prepare the programmes and have charge of the arrangements for all meetings for one year. Sec. 2. The annual meeting of this Academy shall be held in the city of Indianapolis within the week following Christmas of each year, un- less otherwise ordered by the executive committee. There shall also be a summer meeting at such time and place as may be decided upon by the executive committee. Other meetings may be called at the discretion 1 Oo of the executive committee. The past presidents, together with the officers and executive committee, shall constitute the Council of the Academy, and represent it in the transaction of any necessary business not specially provided for in this constitution, in the interim between general meetings. Sec. 3. This constitution may be altered or amended at any annual meeting by a three-fourths majority of attending members of at least one year’s standing. No question of amendment shall be decided on the day of its presentation. BY-LAWS. 1. On motion, any special department of science shall be assigned to a curator, whose duty it shall be, with the assistance of the other members interested in the same department, to endeavor to advance knowledge in that particular department. Each curator shall report at such time and place as the Academy shall direct. These reports shall include a brief summary of the progress of the department during the year preceding the presentation of the report. 2. The president shall deliver a public address on the evening of one of the days of the meeting at the expiration of his term of office. 3. The press secretary shall attend to the securing of proper news paper reports of the meetings and assist the secretary. 4. No special meeting of the Academy shall be held without a notice of the same haying been sent to the address of each member at least fifteen days before such meeting. 5. No bill against the Academy shall be paid without an order signed by the president and countersigned by the secretary. 6. Members who shall allow their dues to remain unpaid. for two years, having been annually notified of their arrearage by the treasurer, shall have their names stricken from the roll. 7. Ten members shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of busi ness, 14 MEMBERS. FELLOWS. te SPAILCY ita totus cre keeeey See PISO SW aes ease RUG, PAIL TNAT ep 85 th 1D otaunshe oko le Nts SOS Wipeieti ne, oflerters Pee WON sata a tle ene oo, weet CME it Screg Mole & Georpe W. Benton’. 27.20. 622 2o28 SOG ese ieee eval RRO tas ile Metta e vara ente DBO Sie eect e ate EEN OD MULERIO DS, to Me tas nk Gee 5 USOT tae Serer et. Sate e. cntite ea eel ares S93 ois Al ce oe ee JC ABranner we ostsc ove he ation DSO S ee ane eee Wer cbowe Bryans soc oo. ee WSO Oia Shears tee Severance Burrare ij. 5,5 5.5 ees. TEOS Syke mee ater AGRON s UTHER. ound eas: @ aeiwie seem FTE aioe ea oe eg oa G4 UP a a Rag a GR Pa ak) MAS ER Rea Net ec into, deENEY, Coylit d. cc ree SOS ar Seiscnce nee eobna DE. Camilo ole riwk os eee oe BOS Se eitay -eeeerte Blaney Coulter .20.'20004.5. 00.500! TSGS> She ees wir a) AR ae a 1895 els De uN VOR. tet Rees ee ey Lae SO TERL, cas ee cece i phy Lo) il D7: a a a ee SUG Cea eca se Cr El abipeninaiine 7): ie Gt ABO ene coh ene ene Aas Boley tie peace ies eas ee WSO ater toons Katherine E. Golden.............. S95 eee Wik. Mi Googe. oa) 4. SOS sheer a: PHOTIUS Mama poche scr ee ee ree MS OS TE FAS she eaters Bes Set EMOUNRWAY sce) See sr weet hae 1SODG 2 en oete s OE NEREY sre oi Se eee so) eee USSG es areas tes 1 ee. el Ls 1) se RR pT A BOS Nee ete iste ste Tew aohin 5-1/4)... ee eee USO. Nee, eine Greece. ele OY! eh eee TSGS SSS Vee PISUM UR MOGUTION’. 23224). seate ee WSO Sa este Robert E. Lyons. 5 Bata Ses, oa eS SOG Me ye eee Veni Milarsters@rs tc. eo coe onc eee SOS Saee eens ee ee Bloomington. Lafayette. Greencastle. Indianapolis. Moore’s Hill. Lafayette. Indianapolis. Stanford University, Cal. Bloomington. Lafayette. Indianapolis. Brooklyn, N. Y. Crawfordsville. Chicago, Ill. Lafayette. Richmond. Terre Haute. Lafayette. Bloomington. Bloomington. Lafayette. Lafayette. Terre Haute. Terre Haute. Washington, D. C. Lafayette. | Greencastle. Stanford University, Cal. Terre Haute. Bloomington. Bloomington. * Date of election. Joseph Moore D. M. Mottier Joseph Swain M. B. Thomas fT. C. Van Nuys C. A. Waldo F. M. Webster H. W. Wiley John S. Wright syle) e)isi's) sie eile) ais’ ev ells) ¢ ee leNen a RFE Be ee es 0.0 0 06 » pL avie\el {mice (e's! s'iese, is, 6, B\e)/pl isl we) ASEM 9\i8)'s! 6) (6/0. 0| is! 08) e 15 Terre Haute. Worcester, Mass. Richmond. Bloomington. Terre Haute. Terre Haute. Terre Haute. Chicago, Il. Lafayette. Lafayette. Bloomington. Crawfordsville. New York City. Bloomington. Lafayette. Wooster, O. Washington, D. C. .. Indianapolis. NON-RESIDENT MEMBERS. ERO ai OM et i wn. ohensd igs akinned esas Stanford University, Cal. Spare BIViCL UNA ME ertasee sre cestsicse fg 2 2s) oi Seren acces . Washington, D. C. Ghaniesyres Gallbenti ee mercial naniss eer ecen 2 ofl maroon s Stanford University, Cal. aN TE COIN SAP SE IR fiat oo sa als) o's ay Suivi wd adele e Stanford University, Cal. (OMG 8 BTCA ea ae a Syracuse, N. Y. RMR AC CHIMES.) eats PA ales Sines woauaeons od fe ave Stockton, Cal. O), Tes IGT ete oa Aah a cone er eer Stanford University, Cal. J. S. Kingsley Alfred Springer ... Robert B. Warder Ernest Walker silo (wilalia’ eke! e) sie eile’ 6,110) 6)'s)e! o's ae) oe ee) & sa a)(e)16).6 0 Bi 4] etre valle (ayia oils) ta) @)/«)\4)el Biel sie] se) s\(a\'a) s).6\,ee\"s) «1s 0/6,» ©) m0 8 Tufts College, Mass. Cincinnati, O. Washington, D. C. Clemson College, 8. C. Evansville. Bloomington. * Date of election. + Deceased, August 1, 1898, 16 Oi y aT AY a 1120) | ee gag NARS See CGE SS 5 CRE Se MES Bloomington. eoree Mailers oes cat. te eerie 2 echoes Bone Indianapolis. PW AEA AUTON 7 y 7 Te Je hone Mate eaten aad ae eee Lafayette. Wametny Wie Ball 5. pen aaa suyats ar eee ewes eee Crown Point. ee SOCTORLTONN S gitler a. paneer eee Bloomington. OPAC CE: DIAG) Sires 505 ht. Be eee eeeEe itn Ae Greencastle. Di 0 BS 630 7 es, oe Lafayette. DEC aB OUL Fe Oarock ath Moin vic» 5 GSR ate Valparaiso. Monaldbont BOdINes 1.) i5.c-0a2. sin oasien Hergdale ote eek es Crawfordsville. Re Oo eramleynre, | oc wba female Ah agen ce Ser Bloomington. eae ESE RINOIN xc tsito pod soo .nt s aoee Suee eme Aee Grand Forks, N. D. LSS) Ls 7 er re Pere cee Peri ees fe Pittsburg. ee OP EAGER rit aL y: Men sissies bun bod Gk Bere eee apiece Be oe Se OOHEGD 9.55 eet nt, 5 on GEO ees uM Las ACE Indianapolis. RN ci ERO WNP tot hs ek OE: Oot Ha deci eon, ick S nak ea) SAM 1 eae ee ee RL ea een ace Bloomington, Hl. Ene Baie Wk Le tO, eel art oe | Irvington. Ue TAS ASE Se hn Baa ie Syiaie od peak eo eee Lafaye te, PoE INDIO Me shod gland Or Ft oo ARE cs i OEE Cloverdale. NP es RAED DINE Poh sia dk avhege od aia ia soe ey.g ti ane South Bend. Ie MANES Soe. pr che O° se Soinin te Soa otis Bicknell. apeay Bhs AMA OK ANE hoi cs 5 Lit. sc ale ay ge de oe co Bloomington. Walter. W. Chipmany. 02. ...5... NP ete Warsaw. AR NOUNCED Lila feces FS ley WO Coa wc oie lus Crawfordsville. Ra Ne MMPTABIIUGN Pet Ph cxtclote's scone 345k Ee icks Oh Meigs Washington. Wha tles CMCROREK rx. leche 22 dg Dus a Ba tan ve ha oe Tangier. Mol Caok None oo. RES BaF Oe ee Greencastle. TAO OG: ts tad nls Ac de exe ee Ae Mankato, Minn. BABES Mai NOEO MO Bod 5s 27407 F'n ek dil dea Ra ae ee tenets Ft. Wayne. AE Cre Ne £uaF iF bo cists 9 ate oS cals RR ee Indianapolis. iedeun rm pprisot iis duly. 2.2. eee ey eee mi eae Hanover. Pe OTHE OK 0S echoed x~ ain Se etek Bice ane Greensburg. Bums Sh. Oripningham o,..': sy.sued co tetas one oso Lafayette. ETO MMO SHAM: 2: 5 hdtv oe he a i eo Indianapolis. ELS, Oe reece eee rns Sn” gent MN) ek Los Angeles, Cal. Miri Moga S50 Feiss cal od eR ce Westfield. AS sR glk ea NONE ceo Goof Dag oe Syracuse. RABIOS ME Mra orgies Sfx) oss 1 oF LA Re Ae ee Indianapolis. 17 MERMIADAM UMN fee Se Sirol scales oe ooo cas ors sos Indianapolis. TPES) S iis PO 7 | ee ee ee Sea Indianapolis. 1 TEE SSN Ss ee gene a ey oa Columbus, BH ONG et ra ee Na eta 2h ako pte ohne ohsip nlm aeteriie’s Morgantown, W. Va. eM M ORION BIN ATB oaks a Rae soins dale «patoinc ace reed Lafayette. MBRETR CMT oP INANIG ssl ig. 8 echo chasinte' so) lv ea, os wae a eas Evansville. RMML AINA BR CEEIG oC cipie Fic vice ole ecins « cteis ale Sado orl we Big Rapids, Mich. le Mee MISO Iy oe cine Bese a mise eras isye {7 esa te Sea wlourbeje brat we Urmeyville. SNR yal oie Sabi pio sides Aka ialole wre Ake re bc ne wees Indianapolis. ES TUIS TITY LETT SB rate ie, coe ancl Ot rete ene ELEC ce es Ce New Albany. RENN OR pc i are hg Maye =o) a3 0-2) 2 id, = Swi sin aie: iw Crawfordsville. 1Palereioie Gabel Gall Nh 1 te pa ade ne ee aaa nn reg er ie Ce rare Terre Haute. EMER GOLDS Wi eo a accciers 6 feted Sasa ane cnc 2 oe Ray elte: Rea LONDOROUDI. is -)2 oars 5-2 oe eae sd oe a Rn ep Lafayette. Sh Se, CENCE OG Mer ca RRS Dare eR Oe nn ee ees Franklin. BRE ITOUI COLL tg eee esther pba tay eis isctees Tacs Wet erelee a toys .... Rochester. TGC NR pe ie ee .. 1 prazil. saNlics Vaya) 8 [eed IG SS ea os Oc a _...-Melbourne, Fla. ERE RMANS esc, Oh iia oa © Fie alos Sk itp ais He's 5 o's Bloomington. Gian ACE CliviO rw circr tcp rettieculis seciod eves aC eis sO Chicago. Filer teb lente pee Syne eitccae Gs os Gao ties Stelels Bloomington. OD SSPE SS9) UF Se en a eS ee Indianapolis. co EA LES as A SO eae een tea en J OTELELUR DS [FC Seg ie a a Sar Eae a Terre Haute. Peer MEDIO AEG, FRc ccore ors e.cieis gis oe oe Secon ow Sb obs South Bend, Peer MOO MEME ire ae ato ta tuo cs Bots Soe eee se Ft. Wayne. MEE OUBEO Mota e otra 2 Fok Sika tay st woe nee oes Franklin. SRBRRGEM NIN Ameo yeits ae yee ahr etal Sires ba ee ela ayo es Bloomington, Berta teil, Karelaleess cits Seine sia oes wis aye e Cains oe Irvington. ee ROMO ce tart cae heina a chee oh aas wiatelens, ein Jeffersonville. CO) UG LE Behe ene Oct echt sae ee em Pg Terre Haute, ep ICOHV OR. 55,206 niet cach o3p wick om aye ate ante Lafayette. STR TRAN LOS SE oe A aloy aan alec RET ct Scag sialarn See oe Bloomington. TPES LS ego eae South Bend. meaarles: T. Knipp. «fi: +2 OR tanner Bloomington. ELITES DEN fo gam In re CREED, Slay ate RS a a Evansville. METER CTIN Sy. his x Ao latsette e isags gorges: Gialens ay 4s wmis'sr els Lafayette. EPP ATE W ODE Indianapolis, . 2--SCIENCE. 18 SV altia na Ay DLAC DEEN) sono «ces. oe een een Terre Haute. Cora March rear so onthe dese oe pate eee ee Lawrenceburg. Hobert- Wesley, McBride. cc t2 5144 5. xe etee e Indianapolis. HOUsseAlL MeCleEMAN.. s.9..o8 clean nt tar tpt wean Indianapolis. DAE, Mie Diaupadls 2 50's: a2 aaa, «aa ape AS Re Poe 33 Minneapolis, Minn. Mees ANNs NMA EL ER crt ct orc cht tet re eae ee tars be isha Indianapolis. IIR ES MLO VEE (i mie tae acc att Merce tna tees Got nets Lafayette. OMe MC VNG Kerra ae cok a) an Net rshee broek ite Se eto cloeiaes Brookville. Boerrniclarg es NEWER 35) a.'e\c.05% nv viaccess eee ae Leen es Brockville. Doane VOU LOD ss ary ais write se mic he ee ae ae Gahtae Bote Tae ee Bloomington. Me IMORREMAU ooh ea hard sirens ate bagstars ta eee San Paulo, Brazil. ie Ue Mout MIN y <2, poet. ciss int Sats Se cade teh South Bend. Dees MAMIE: Senet PLEA as oe SOS SE Ce eta cect Greencastle. Charoev i NGWHE ee or cess os ane Lee a Ree PONE CUR es Irvington. OUNED . NOWAEN sss 7 cee NG aioe a wirel peed agers Stanford University, Cal. RIVE OUEVE:. id f pia aw ate oRaetota BU Ca At Re Phe re Racecar Indianapolis. PMR MOWERS Les sey sie aic tin ashe Seige eee nd Soe laa as oes Franklin. Eelacusber PCINCE cc ne cus chsrek cw bod ae mena. outs Sarees ey Martinsville. Nee bhsc RIDGE a ghee Aa oi aad AL a Rd Zl tularensis Chicago, Ill. Rains itis, OE o'25.o%)s hic, ake S heirs coals Riles eee Greenwood. RIRCR AG NE TIOR, 2 concn 7 a6 nid tS Sys haw soa ae Bloomfield. RET RAGE ETON UOT gat oi ist Kies efor Waal Overt VeRO Indianapolis. Paes SERGE SCINENLE SS, sie tec Saris Ai ee a Ses a aiako Min weet ein Fayetteville, Ark. MUERTE URGLUL Sto gaat cls con es wee he ts noha Ne aes Fairmount. EYER Gr VEG GK aye ete oee overt. cis lstaoe sc stansaaketra sone Staton Bloomington. Glatt evRQ alles sarc: cs nisi don ean roleyedane ter eee eek ee Lafayette. SCSSLOI ORIOL OY sccm tae ais ec ec alesse hres crete ree reine Chicago, III. PSAs ECMCMIEL rac, Matty «iors» ou Ris, oat Sain alte tors Be area eee Chicago, II]. ACI DIST Ay ME WIIR OU reins oth ttre = yee eee maa eee oe ta ee Bloomington. GilespBe UP ley Maco heies tie here trae eee .. Lafayette. Gearee Vi. MORONS. 7 5< vl. nes heed oe Sa pee ceu ies Greensburg. PGLON PIR: ROC SCIN: S55 cig ta 3 Die ci ale eae Wey als. os Bates New Castle. DD PACHINOUHEOC Ks ere cart averere cree eer tee Tt atiatcr ers iene ite Bloomington. Ao ae) SC soe Tl ee eee Gar chen oie woee Lafayette. CE SCOALCR oo :o.5, ait aos avasePteiele doctor ete PETE Huntington. By PAP SCIUNUZ so. cre cerns eae nrsolee oaek TET cee See eae Ft. Wayne. POW SEO PC OUIEIVATIE 5.5555: 254 oo oss crolgmba in ah teeanonees Indianapolis. John W. Shepherd ALE Noes ed Rare cat Sy ee era ree Terre Haute. F. P. Stauffer H. M. Stoops William Stewart George A. Talbert... Frank B. Taylor COO Oy teat COC ACIBC RE wees Theo. W. Smith..... Lillian Snyder. .... sileitaje/ al die) ele isie e's) es)», sales ele) vee 0 ele (6) 06 8 Gilet a/aliti ve, efte talk, Ww b ire’ 8) w\eie,'s) ceed) ale .evelevelm oa Cy piien el ajle/'s; 6) B\ (8) (801 0; )8' wile, S) s) m),e| 9/8, Mie! le sielis 6.8 Sie) (6) b) 1D ©) he: 01 @ 6), 2) 0 Ww (0) ,e! |e! 818! 6 161 (0), ete) e, 6 Bw ee mY ia) (eis ws ee) eue he) eas (¢ 6/16) wpe) tsit6 lls) Le (v.16) (6 af lO» Bloomington. Indianapolis. Bloomington. Lafayette. Worcester, Mass. Indianapolis. Lafayette. Logansport. Brookville. Lafayette. West Superior, Wis. Ft. Wayne. 2 GN CLUES ZS ARS a ee ee ee .. West Lafayette. PEMA Gass ti rie nh saad os Ase aisle fale decks wae aete Lafayette. RC mebest rye covets eo tea Sie i eater art ork Nd sah te Bs Chicago, Ill. SEB DITO PI PSOM ler, 2 Ac a oyc ate oles eis en Sse etn Ae es Richmond. Amore readiwielllentamciqere sie tiecieie eo orks maith we Steve teve Oxford, Ohio. rere Pen COMER ron th a NE BNO Aaa shee aevete ie a Tera's Sayelo re © Goshen. UOTE RCTS PRG EeePC IO =e ree mee eke ee Lafayette. BME ONO ras ues lchsnPaieee fan oY nsw loke sucesso woe 2 iemeyes North Manchester. Samba aN ATNS GOLGI acu oletsterarerncreve a She Serie see aie aw eus avs tonal Knightstown. zxTtilntnie (OS AVGRITO NG eS Sct chaa cOBISIEI RL” cles Beet tec ements A Rockport. PePMMAN LO RIELICEN OR ricer CPt ait enc che ton ule Glee) Aeon aoerete ate Brookville. BREEN OTIS ot rarane fey Hise ctl (os! derdle agi sie da se occ aneiehs Huntington. ORES EN So DEES ease ue la ee ee Anderson. RaPOU MO AMV RCCOMN , 23.08 tity oo 5 2 od evig sot Ss Ra ees Delphi. VOTES 3 CR MT om Rec Se aa South Bend. MEU MN NGM rence crast ifs sere Gc aera een my Ge eMC OR Se F aedl Aoe na Irvington. Ry eal NW OCA tate hitnate tat. Bin Wate clan ware ales Wo Saale Oa Covington. Sibir! NV atson Woollen .cp.cocc frum ales aco le- ap Gena ole Indianapolis. SeeeeN ANN OOMIAAT ORT ree, RENIN. ot oe ne Duluth, Minn. MEME OOUREY 5 tices Monty Ra Sto ts Scio sh Ree Indianapolis. sc KOLETS ACT GS SR ator SR ge Vincennes. NPC: in) te ta ERG, Haein sh socks cis ahh x phe 9 Clinton. Melhoweirransepiet: sorte tue occ care co cmekiesiea ees 49 Non=resident) memberss 2c) 22's. usa ces Fe 11 Active Memiperast rp mi ios ss te set sass ards 141 Watalsrren ce ser erin when oteks Seas eter ee 201 - Dest hsetiracr sate eA rT Ne ae lols tomsrola ciel Sab Wesel 2 19 20 gu Memoriam. JOSEPH W. MARSEH, Died, Indianapolis, December Third, 1898. gn Memoriam. THOMAS C. VAN NUYS, Died, Charlotteville, Virginia, August First, 1898. 21 LIST OF FOREIGN CORRESPONDENTS. AFRICA. Dr. J. Medley Wood, Natal Botanical Gardens, Berea Durban, South Africa. South African Philosophical Society, Cape Town, South Africa. ASIA. China Branch Royal Asiatic Society, Shanghai, China. Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta, India. Geological Survey of India, Calcutta, India. Indian Museum of India, Calcutta, India. India Survey Department of India, Calcutta, India. Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Natur-und Vélkerkunde Ostasiens, Tokio, Japan. Imperial University, Tokio, Japan. Koninklijke Naturkundige Vereeniging in Nederlandsch-Indie, Batavia, Java. Hon. D. D. Baldwin, Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands. EUROPE. V. R. Tschusizu Schmidhoffen, Villa Tannenhof, Halle in Salzburg, Austria. Herman von Vilas, Innsbruck, Austria. Ethnologische Mittheilungen aus Ungarn, Budapest, Austro-Hungary. Mathematische und Naturwissenschaftliche Berichte aus Ungarn, Buda- pest, Austro-Hungary. K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt, Vienna (Wien), Austro-Hungary. K. U. Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft, Budapest, Austro-Hungary. Naturwissenschaftlich-Medizinischer Verein in Innsbruck (Tyrol), Austro- Hungary. 22 Editors ‘“Termeszetrajzi Fuzetk,” Hungarian National Museum, Buda- pest, Austro-Hungary. ; Dr. Eugen Dadai, Adj. am Nat. Mus., Budapest, Austro-Hungary. Dr. Julius von Madarasz, Budapest, Austro-Hungary. K. K. Naturhistorisches Hofmuseum, Vienna (Wien), Austro-Hungary. Ornithological Society of Vienna (Wien,) Austro-Hungary. Zoologische-Botanische Gesellschaft in Wien, Wien, Austro-Hungary.: Dr. J. von Csato, Nagy Enyed, Austro-Hungary. Malacological Society of Belgium, Brussels, Belgium. Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts, Brussels, Belgium. Royal Linnean Society, Brussels, Belgium. Societé Belge de Geologie, de Palaeontologie et MHydrologie, Brussels, Belgium. Societé Royale de Botanique, Brussels, Belgium. Societé Geologique de Belgique, Liége, Belgium. Prof. Christian Frederick Lutken, Copenhagen, Denmark. Bristol Naturalists’ Society, Bristol, England. Geological Society of London, London, England. Linnean Society of London, London, England. Liverpool Geological Society, Liverpool, England. Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, Manchester, England. “Nature,” London, England. Royal Botanical Society, London, England. Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, Penzance, England, Royal Microscopical Society, London, England. Zodlogical Society, London, England. Lieut-Col. John Biddulph, 43 Charing Cross, London, England. Dr. G. A. Boulenger, British Mus. (Nat. Hist.), London, England. F. DuCane Godman, 10 Chandos St., Cavendish Sq., London, England. Hon. E. L. Layard, Budleigh Salterton, Devonshire, England. Mr. Osbert Salvin, Hawksford, Fernshurst, Haslemere, England. Mr. Howard Saunders, 7 Radnor Place, Hyde Park, London W., England. Phillip L. Sclater, 3 Hanover Sq., London W., England. 23 Dr. Richard Bowlder Sharpe, British Mus. (Nat. His.), London, England. Prof. Alfred Russell Wallace, Corfe View, Parkstone, Dorset, England. Botanical Society of France, Paris, France. Ministérie de l’ Agriculture, Paris, France. Societé Entomologique de France, Paris, France. L’Institut Grand Ducal de Luxembourg, Luxembourg, Lux., France. Soc. de Horticulture et de Botan. de Marseille, Marseilles, France. Societé Linneenne de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France. La Soc. Linneenne de Normandie, Caen, France. Soc. des Naturelles, etc., Nantes, France. Zoological Society of France, Paris, France. Baron Louis d’ Hamonville, Meurthe et Moselle, France. Prof. Alphonse Milne-Edwards, Rue Cuvier, 57, Paris, France. Botanischer Verein der Provinz Brandenburg, Berlin, Germany. Deutsche Geologische Gesellschaft, Berlin, Germany. Entomologischer Verein in Berlin, Berlin, Germany. Journal fiir Ornithologie, Berlin, Germany. Prof. Dr. Jean Cabanis, Alte Jacob Strasse, 103 A., Berlin, Germany. Augsburger Naturhistorischer Verein, Augsburg, Germany. Count Hans von Berlspsen, Miinden, Germany. Braunschweiger Verein fiir Naturwissenschaft, Braunschweig, Germany. Bremer Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Bremen, Germany. Kaiserliche Leopoldische-Carolinische Deutsche Akademie der Naturfor- scher, Halle, Saxony, Germany. K6niglich-Siichsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch- Physische Classe, Leipzig, Saxony, Germany. Naturhistorische Gesellschaft zu Hannover, Hanover, Prussia, Germany. Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein in Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany. Verein fiir Erdkunde, Leipzig, Germany. Verein fiir Naturkunde, Wiesbaden, Prussia. Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, Belfast, Ireland. Royal Dublin Society, Dublin. 24 Societa Entomologica Italiana, Florence, Italy. Prof. H. H. Giglioli, Museum Vertebrate Zoblogy, Florence, Italy. Dr. Alberto Perngia, Museo Civico di Storia Naturale, Genoa, Italy. Societa Italiana de Scienze Naturali, Milan, Italy. Societa Africana d’ Italia, Naples, Italy. Dell ’Academia Pontifico de Nuovi Lincei, Rome, Italy. Minister of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, Rome, Italy. Rassegna della Scienze Geologiche in Italia, Rome, Italy. R. Comitato Geologico d’ Italia, Rome, Italy. Prof. Count. Tomasso Salvadori, Zojlog. Museum, Turin, Italy. Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences, Throndhjem, Norway. Dr. Robert Collett, Kongl. Frederiks Uniy., Christiana, Norway. Academia Real des Sciencias de Lisboa (Lisbon), Portugal. Comité Geologique de Russie, St. Petersburg, Russia. Imperial Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia. Imperial Society of Naturalists, Moscow, Russia. The Botanical Society of Edinburg, Edinburg, Scotland. John J. Dalgleish, Brankston Grange, Bogside Sta., Sterling, Scotland. Edinburgh Geological Society, Edinburgh, Scotland. Geological Society of Glasgow, Scotland. : John A. Harvie-Brown, Duniplace House, Larbert, Stirlingshire, Scotland. Natural History Society, Glasgow, Scotland. Philosophical Society of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland. Royal Society of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland. Royal Physical Society, Edinburgh, Scotland. Barcelona Academia de Ciencias y Artes, Barcelona, Spain. Royal Academy of Sciences, Madrid, Spain. Institut Royal Geologique de Suéde, Stockholm, Sweden. Societé Entomologique 4 Stockholm, Stockholm, Sweden. Royal Swedish Academy of Science, Stockholm, Sweden. Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Basel, Switzerland. Naturforschende Gesellschaft in Berne, Berne, Switzerland. La Societé Botanique Suisse, Geneva, Switzerland. Societé Helvetique de Sciences Naturelles, Geneva, Switzerland. Societé de Physique et d’ Historie Naturelle de Geneva, Geneva, Switzer- land. Concilium Bibliographicum, Ziirich-Oberstrasse, Switzerland. Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Ziirich, Switzerland. Schweizerische Botanische Gesellschaft, Ziirich, Switzerland. Prof. Herbert H. Field, Ziirich, Switzerland. AUSTRALIA. Linnean Society of New South Wales, Sidney, New South Wales. Royal Society of New South Wales, Sidney, New South Wales. Prof. Liveridge, F. R. S., Sidney, New South Wales. Hon. Minister of Mines, Sidney, New South Wales. Mr. E. P. Ramsey, Sidney, New South Wales. Royal Society of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland. Royal Society of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia. Victoria Pub. Library, Museum and Nat. Gallery, Melbourne, Victoria. Prof. W. L. Buller, Wellington, New Zealand. NORTH AMERICA. Natural Hist. Society of British Columbia, Victoria, British Columbia. Canadian Record of Science, Montreal, Canada. McGill University, Montreal, Canada. Natural Society, Montreal, Canada. Natural History Society, St. Johns, New Brunswick. Nova Scotia Institute of Science, Halifax, N. 8. Manitoba Historical and Scientific Society, Winnepeg, Manitoba. Dr. T. MclIlwraith, Cairnbrae, Hamilton, Ontario. The Royal Society of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario. Natural History Society, Toronto, Ontario. Hamilton Association Library, Hamilton, Ontario. Canadian Entomologist, Ottawa, Ontario. Department of Marine and TFisheries, Ottawa, Ontario. 26 Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, Ontario. Canadian Institute, Toronto. Ottawa Field Naturalists’ Club, Ottawa, Ontario. University of Toronto, Toronto. Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario. La Naturaliste Canadian, Chicontini, Quebec. La Naturale Za, City of Mexico. Mexican Society of Natural History, City of Mexico. Museo Nacional, City of Mexico. Sociedad Cientifica Antonio Alzate, City of Mexico. Sociedad Mexicana de Geographia y Hstadistica de la Republica Mexicana, City of Mexico. WEST INDIES. Victoria Institute, Trinidad, British West Indies. Museo Nacional, San Jose, Costa Rica, Central America. Dr. Anastasia Alfaro, Secy. National Museum, San Jose, Costa Rica. Rafael Arango, Havana, Cuba. Jamaica Institute, Kingston, Jamaica, West Indies. SOUTH AMERICA. Argentina Historia Natural Florentine Amegline, Buenos Ayres, Argen- tine Republic. Musée de la Plata, Argentine Republic. Nacional Academia des Ciencias, Cordoba, Argentine Republic. Sociedad Cientifica Argentina, Buenos Ayres. Museo Nacional, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. ° Sociedad de Geographia, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Dr. Herman yon Jhering, Dir. Zoél. Sec. Con. Geog. e Geol. de Sao Paulo, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Deutscher Wissenschaftlicher Verein in Santiago, Santiago, Chili, Societé Scientifique du Chili, Santiago, Chili. Sociedad Guatemalteca de Ciencias, Guatemala, Guatemala, ae ee ROG RAM ors. e 5 OF THE FOURTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE Indiana Academy of Science, STATE HOUSE, INDIANAPOLIS, December 28, 29 and 80, 1898. OFFICERS AND EX-OFFICIO EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. C.A.Watpo, President, ©. H.E1Genmann, Vice-President, JonnS. Wricat, Secretary. A.J. Brianery, Asst. Secretary, G. W. Benton, Press Secretary. J.T. Scove.r, Treasurer. THOMAS GRAY, W.A.Noyss, O.P. Hay, J.P.D.Joun, STanLey CouLter, J.C. ARTHUR, T.C.MENDENHALL, JOHN M.CouLTER, Amos W. BurLer, J.L. CAMPBELL, JouN C. BRANNER, Davin Starr JORDAN, The sessions of the Academy will be held in the State House, in the rooms of the State Board of Agriculture. Headquarters will be at the Bates House. A rate of $2.00and up per day will be made to all persons who make it known at the time of registering that they are members of the Academy. Reduced railroad rates for the members can not be obtained under the present rulings of the Traffic Association. Many of the colleges can secure special rates on the various roads, Those who can not do this, could join the State Teachers’ Association and thus secure the one and one-third round trip fare accorded to them. D. W. Dennis, A.J. BIGNEY, Committee, GENERAL PROGRAM. WEDNESDAY, DECEMBER 28. Meeting of Executive Committee at the Hotel Headquarters .........2...-..., 505.0 eee 8 p.m, THURSDAY, DECEMBER 29. RET ESTNOR IU SORS LOM foie carci etre RT eee era are fei rare ora eke ofa oe ores sieve wressre siete at orelaiehe 9a.m.to12m. STOUT GNI GIT anda eck orp Ecamnoe Dour RAID SOS Bor Core: Sea OaSmanamnacmncie 2p.m.to5p.m, Madaness|byieresident: CovAcaWial GOnepere cite tence een cela cere ets tele « aieeiolelsieys weletelajeeleisie.- 7 p.m, Fripay, DECEMBER 30. General Session, followed by Sectional Meetings ...............-.0. 0.02 eee eee 9a.m.tol2m. dreneralSeSsiOW. .<2. 22.00. bets thew case Hoes ene cs RE I eas Achy ee eicieeeee alee 2p.m.to4 p.m. bo (9 0) LIST OF PAPERS TO BE READ. ADDRESS BY THE RETIRING PRESIDENT, PROFESSOR C. A. WALDO, At7o’clock Thursday evening. Subject: ‘‘The Services of Mathematies.’’ The address has been placed at this early hour in order that other engagements for the usual hours of evening entertainment may not keep the members of the Academy and their friends from being present. The following papers will be read in the order in which they appear on the program except that certain papers will be presented “pari passu’’ in sectional meetings. When a paper is called and the reader is not present, it will be dronped to the end of the list, unless by mutual agreement an exchange can be made with another whose time is approximately the same. Where no time was sent with the papers, they have been uniformly assigned ten minutes. Opportunity will be given after the reading of each paper for a brief discussion. N. B—By the order of the Academy, no paper can he read until an abstract of its contents or the written paper has been placed in the hands of the Secretary. On GENERAL SUBJECTS. Woollen’s Garden of Birds and Botany, 10m........ W. W. Woollen. Plans for the New Buildings of the Biological Station, 10 m. C. H. Eigenmann and A. C. Yoder. Explorations in the Caves of Missouri and Kentucky, 15 m. C. H. Higenmann. Notes on Indigestible Structures in Articles of a Vegetable DIOR COE. coAihs it arate ecoregion aioe a eas ale ae eee John S. Wright. The Action of Mercury and Amalgams on Aluminum, 10 m. G. W. Benton. Field Experiments with Formalin, 8 m............ M. B. Thomas. Resistance of Cereal Smuts to Formalin and Hot Water, 15 m. Wm. Stuart. The Cell Lineage of Podarke, with considerations on Cleavage dmpwemerals VO. Wy... esis avtyesey ate abe spas a se, o05) a teens eis eee OO OS Ce De wake. Maxinicuckee): LO camisn sere yd: inn sete ete: rari eye te J. T. Seovell. 10. ial 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. if 18. *19. 20. 21. *22. 23. 24, 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. i) (lew) An Hlevated Beach and Recent Costal Plain, near Portland, MeanTeS ONMNs Same Aes cte Site ssc ce tie Teen eee es Wim. A. McBeth. Nias ved shmenssys 1 Omen. os ate ast elet oe ah vic ro wrest abe Ore J. L. Campbell. PAV IES UEDA Mery CL Ove (MIM mmaenteicrsrebcocteie tates ane cle a cietays’s flee os C. A. Waldo. Reaver DranSPAaLeney- MOMs seuycm ccs oie ss eles ees Arthur L. Foley. The Trouble with Indiana Roads, illustrated with lantern slides, OMIA EA EOE PETS OO OS TS NOS SE OE omen D. B. Luten. MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SUBJECTS. Somenlests one allebearings) lay meso eo eee ee M. J. Golden. Further Studies in the Propagation of Sound, 20 m..A. Wilmer Duff. The Intensity of Telephonic Sounds, 5 m........... A. Wilmer Duff. The Distance to which Small Disturbances Agitate a Liquid, IS) Teng Alec ata btiesoene ot 8 be RCRA DEE cS eens ea rea A. Wilmer Duff. A Case of Diamond Fluorescence, 5 m..........:...... A. L. Foley: The Evaporation of Water Covered with a Film of Oil, 10 m. A. Wilmer Duff. A Note on Temperature Co-efficient of Electrical Conductivity One etrolyses eelORM cy. coe ciara ore ka dee wis ae were we Arthur Kendrick. MEV AV Selle SULLY. Vol OUMMexs ct ene o ten aie eee tess A. L. Foley. A Common Text-book Error in the Theory of Envelopes, 10 m. Arthur S. Hathaway. A New Triangle and some of its Properties, 10 m........ R. J. Aley. Note on Angel’s Method of Inscribing Regular Polygons, 8 m., Ree Alley, Concurrent Sets of Three Lines Connected with the Triangle, PAD: TOD) yt SCR PSE ROPELSTAIC Ici Ga EC ICONS ark thee aPC NR Ae Atak ie hl a R. J. Aley. Note on ‘Note on Smith’s Definition of Multiplication,’ 1 m., A. L. Baker. The Geometry of Simson’s ine, 25 mis... .2.4.0.....5. C. E. Smith. A Bibliography of Foundations of Geometry, 5 m....M. C. Bradley. Point Invariants for the Lie Groups of the Plane, 10 m. . D. A. Rothrock. Differential Invariants Derived from Point Invariants, 10 m., D. A. Rothrock. Mathematical Definitions. 10 smisemas se cee & oes te - Moses C. Stevens. 50 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 52. 53. Performance of the Twenty-Million-Gallon Snow Pumping Fn- gine of the Indianapolis Water Company, 5m...... W. F. M. Goss, Tests to Determine the Efficiency of Locomotive Boiler Cover- INES. He Te Noi 's ok cis abs ose le wee ees oes oe bata aaa W. FE. M. Goss. Phesbeonids' of 1898.5.1..; hae cee cee ara ees , John A. Miller. A Linear Relation between Certain of Klein's X Functions and Sigma Functions of Lower Stufe, 10 m............ John A. Miller. A Formula for the Deflection of Car Bolsters, 10 m....W. K. Hatt. CHEMICAL SUBJECTS. Camphoric Acid: Reduction of the Neighboring Xylic Acid, DES ATID Sc 8G ew cco stein teva She jolobicke tele care tetoeesdaetebtoregead miele © Enea tare W. A. Noyes. Alpha hydroxy-dihydro-ciscampholitic Acid, 10 m. W. A. Noyes and J. W. Shepherd. Iodine Absorption of Linseed Oil, 5 m...P. N. Evans and J. O. Meyer. BOTANICAL SUBJECTS. Some Desmids of Crawfordsville, 10 m..............M. B. Thomas. Karyokinesis in the Embryo-sac, with special reference to the pehavior ot the Chromatin, 10m... e.)-e eees eee D. M. Mottier. Nuclear Division in Vegetative Cells, 10 m...........D. M. Mottier. The Centrosome, in Diciyola,.5 2 ..29s-- ecu oper D. M. Mottier. The Centrosome in Cells of the Gametophyte of Marchantia, By SIM oe aude solis vey s wo dite eS ocd Mees ahahe She eaclsie de tents abe ee ohare fe D. M. Mottier. Endosperm Haustoria in Lillium Candidum, 5m...... D. M. Mottier. The Effect of Centrifugal Force upon the Cell, 10 m..D. M. Mottier. Absorption of Water by Decorticated Stems, 15 m...Giles E. Ripley. Indiana Plant Rusts, Listed in Accordance with Latest Nomen- CIACUES P10 se av eyerecmseis Ses cs eee Go) oh ore hc See enone J. ©. Axthuz The Uredineae of Madison and Noble Counties, with additional Specimens from Tippecanoe County, 10 m.......... Lillian Snyder. Aspergyllus oryzee (Ahlburg) Cohn, 20 m......Katherine E. Golden. Asien Moles) 05s oc te noite. scenes teers Ralph Gibson Curtis. The Affinities of the Mycetozoa, § m.........:5..5.. Edgar W. Olive. 55. 56. 64. 65. 66. 67. The Morphological Character of the Scales of Cuscuta, 10 m. Alida M. Cunningham. Geographical Distribution of the Species of Cuscuta in North FAMINE GaleeL TTIM Be eae tee cua cyaiorchareue wisi ere cnalte ere Alida M. Cunningham. Notes on the Germination of Seedlings of Certain Native Plants, RIND TY Mepee -seyeh seas are tates Welesfove sy oaysyoun en nadie bs, so-v niwiin eracaudi ore ero, 9 6 Stanley Coulter. Re-forestration Possibilities in Indiana, 10 m....... Stanley Coulter. ZOOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. Formalin as a Reagent in Blood Studies, 5 m.......Ernest I. Kizer. Species of Diptera, reared in Indiana during the years 1884-1890, EM CBU erence one ates Peto ein: avo veroycus Gece ge ler secuausveys> Speers ave rsl eye .e K. M. Webster. Distribution of Broods XXII, V and VII, of Cicada Septen- decim, in lHovolieiae ean (Olea wie ee A ate os Ai narnetoeyces IF. M. Webster. Some Insects belonging to the Genus Isosoma, reared or cap- UT Ce tiraeelord eT ae eal) Merete etched) vias tie es = aera eller els H. M. Webster. Aken County aCrowaxOOStss lO) Mls ea: ssc acl ces 6
  • + SEE EEE EEE EEE IN [| HH a Hf FA FF 4 ate N\A SSeReEEse PH SuEtEE Beaman [ TET O) aeons © eee Ole Be | mi A0I 80 60 A e = OC sae he Pee Ceeee JURY TTT | 7 reece i rAY) E | aad 500 A00 Soh TT Ons Deceeca..C. 88 A Common Trext-Book ERROR IN THE THEORY OF ENVELOPES. By A. S. Hatwaway. The cause of this communication is the recent appearance of several text-books on the calculus that embody an error in the theory of envelopes that dates at least as far back as Todhunter’s calculus, and is now repro- duced in all text-books under the impression, apparently, that it has ac- quired the sanction of authority, although Cayley pointed out the error nearly forty years ago, while the subject matter is presented in all text- books on Differential Equations in its correct form. The error consists in defining the envelope of a moving curve as the locus of its self-inter- sections, and then proving that the envelope touches the moving curve in every position—i. e., proving as true that which is often false—for the locus of self-intersections of a moving curve may cut the curve at any angle, as at right angles, wherever the two meet. A simple example is the curve (y—m)’*=(#—3)*, whose locus of self-intersections, as m varies, is the straight line 7=3, which cuts every curve of the given system at right angles. The fact is, that the envelope should be defined as the curve that touches every curve of a given system. It can then be shown it is a locus of self-intersections of the curves of the system, provided such self-inter- sections are not the singular points of the given system. The locus of such singular points is always a locus of self-intersections, but it is not in general an envelope of the system, and may cut every curve of the sys- tem at any constant or varying angle. The text-book blunder referred to is of the same logical character as would be the attempt to prove that a quadruped is a horse. To be sure, a horse is a quadruped, but not every quadruped is a horse. Thus a curve that touches every curve of a given system is a locus of self-intersections of the system, but not every locus of self-intersections of the system will touch every curve of the system. The error in the proof arises out of the assumption that if two points of a curve approach coincidence, the limiting position of the chord joining the two points is a tangent line at the point of coincidence. This is all right if the point of coincidence is not a singular point of the curve. But at a singular point, as a sharp point like the bottom of a letter V, the limiting position of two points that approach the point on opposite sides is absolutely indeterminate, and is not necessarily a tangent line at that point. EE ee 89 A New TRIANGLE AND Some oF Its Properties. By Ropert Jupson ALEY. Explanation of Figure. — ABC is any triangle, of which M is the circum- center, O the incenter, H the orthocenter, and @ Nagel’s Point. A’A’”’, B’ B’’” and C’C’” are diameters perpendicular to the sides BC, CA, AB, respectively. ENA lp . é ut I. If AY, BY, CY are the middle points of AA’, BB’, CC’, respectively, then OM is the diameter of the cireumcircle of AY BY CY. Since AY is the middle point of AA’, MAVY is parallel to AA’”’, But AA’” is perpendicular to AA’, .. MAY is perpendicular to 4A’. 90 Hence MAY O is a right angle. Similarly MBY O, and MC¥ O are right angles. ... a circle upon OM as diameter will pass through AY, BY, CY. ll. The triangle AY BY CY is similar to Nagel’s triangle A’’ B’C”. Z BY CY A* is the supplement 7 BYOAY. ZL BUOAY == AOD: —=7—($A+4B). =A+tB+C—4(A+ B). == @-+-4(4-_ 8): z— £ BY OAY—=x—[C+3(A-+ B)]. =A+ B+ C—[C+4(A+ B)]. =34(A+ B) aie De OAT FCA APB). MA* is perpendicular to AA’. MC’ is perpendicular to CC’. PCM At MO y= AAS OC). be Oxy Lo AY MCV A’ OC. =3(A+C). Bat: 7 4* CY. AY BY Ce. Sa AB OY = FCA G,) Similarly 7 BY AYC’Y=3(B+(C). The angles of the triangle A” B’C” (Nagel’s triangle) are 4 (B+ (C), 3 (A+C), } (A+B), respectively. (Schwatt’s Geometric Treatment of Curves, page 39.) .'. AY BYC’ is similar to A” B’C”. It is also similar to A’B’C’, for A’ B’C’ * and A’ B’C” are similar. ; III. O is the centre of perspective of AY BY CY and A’ B/C’. IV. J, the centroid of ABC, is the internal center of similitude of the cir- cumscribing circles of d’”B’’C” and AY BY CY. OM is parallel to HQ. It is known that H, F, M, are collinear, as are also O, E, Q. .. HM and O@ intersect at EF. .. Fis the internal center of similitude. V. Lis also the center of perspective of AY BY CY and A” B’C”, For, consider the triangle AA’ A’, A” A¥ is a median and so is A Ma. .. A” AY passes through L. Now consider the triangle Bb” b’. 91 B”’ BY is a median and so is BM). .. B’ BY passes through E. In the same way we can show that C’’CY also passes through FL. .*. Eis the center of perspective of A’ B’C” and AY BY CY. VI. All the lines in AY BY CY are just one-half the corresponding lines in A” BY C0”. This is an immediate consequence of the fact OM —}3 HQ. (Schwatt, Geomet. Curves, page 40.) _ VII. The sides of the triangle AY BY CY are oppositely parallel to the cor- responding sides of A’’ B’’C”’, i. ¢., AY BY is parallel to B’ A”, ete. OM is parallel to HQ. HA” is perpendicular to AA’. MAY is perpendicular to AA’. AC OR OMA S. In the same way Vogts O=—-, OMB™ ZO IO = A OME ; This shows that the points AY, BY, CY are located with respect to O, just as A’, BY’, C” are located with respect to Q. Z (OM, BY AY) is measured by 4 (are OBY + are AY CY 4 are CY M). Z (HQ, A’ B’’) is measured by 4 (are B’Q + are A”’C’ + are C’H). But arc OBY measures the same angle in the circle on OM as diameter, that the are B’’(@ measures in the circle on HQ as diameter. The same is also true of the arcs AY CY and A’’C”, and CY M and C’ H. ee COMME AY ) =" (HO) AB). But since OM is parallel to HQ, we have at once A’ B” parallel to BY AY. In the same way we may prove that B’C” is parallel to CY BY and C’ A” parallel to AY CY. .*. the sides of A¥ BY CY are oppositely parallel to the corresponding sides of A” BY’ OC”, VIII. The triangle AY BY CY is Nagel’s triangle for the triangle Ma Mp Me. It is known (Schwatt, page 41) that O is Nagel’s point in the triangle M, My M., and that M is the orthocenter. The circle on OW as diameter is Nagel’s circle for the triangle MaMpMc. We know that the sides of MaMpMc- are oppo- sitely parallel to the sides of ABC, and we have proven that AY’ BYC’, inscribed in the Nagel’s circle of MaMy Me, has its sides oppositely parallel to the sides of Nagel’s triangle for ABC. .. AY BYCY is Nagel’s triangle for Ma My Me. 92 Note oN ANGEL’Ss METHOD oF INSCRIBING REGULAR POLYGONS. By Rospert JupDsoN ALEY. On page 47, “Practical Plane and Solid Geometry,” by Henry Angel, the following method of inscribing a regular polygon in a circle is given: “Let ACB be the given circle, and let the required figure be a hep- tagon. Draw the diameter AB, and divide it into seven equal parts. (The number of parts is regulated by the required number of sides.) With A and B as centers—radius AB—describe two arcs intersecting in D. From D draw the line D 2, passing through the second division of the diameter, and produce it, to meet the circle in E. The distance, AE, will divide the circle into seven equal parts; and if the points of division be joined, a hep- tagon will be inscribed in the circle.” \ vA oh re A au sl NN The method has the merit of seeming to succeed. When applied to circles of short radii, no noticeable error is found in the drawing. I have not attempted to give a geometric demonstration of the error which arises in this and all similar rule of thumb methods of inscribing regular poly- gons. Let the diameter AB, for convenience, be fourteen units in length; then, by obvious trigonometric processes, we find AE to be 6.09212 units in length, while in a true heptagon the side would be 6.07436 units long. 93 Take a circle whose diameter is thirty-six units; Angel’s method makes the side of a 36-gon equal to 3.33982 units, while the true length is 3.15776 units. The larger number of sides makes the error of the method more apparent. ConcuURRENT SETS OF THREE LINES CONNECTED WITH THE TRIANGLE. By Rogpert Jupson ALEY. To the student of the pure geometry of the triangle, few subjects are more interesting than the concurrency of lines. The following collection of concur- rent sets of three lines has been made in the hope that it may prove of value to geometric students. No claim is made to completeness. The list is as complete as the author could make it with the material to which he had access. Many of the notes, and a large number of the propositions have been taken from the pub- lished papers of Dr. J. S. Mackay, of Edinburgh, perhaps the foremost student of the geometry of the triangle. No classification of the propositions seems possible and so none has been attempted. 1. The median lines of a triangle are concurrent. The point of concur- rency, usually denoted by G, is called the median point or centroid. 2. The in-symmedian lines of a triangle are concurrent. The point of con- currency is called the symmedian point or Grebe’s point, and is generally denoted by K. (Fora history of this point, see J. S. Mackay, in Proceedings of Edin- burgh Mathematical Society, Vol. XI.) 3. The altitudes of a triangle are concurrent. The point of concurrency, usually denoted by H, is called the ortho centre. (This proposition occurs in Archimedes’s Lemmas and in Pappus’s Mathematical Collection. ) 4, The internal angle bisectors of a triangle are concurrent. The point of concurrency is the center of the inscribed circle and is usually denoted by J. (Euclid LV, 4.) 5. The internal bisector of any angle of a triangle and the external bisectors of the other two angles of the triangle are concurrent. The points of concur- rency, denoted by I,, J,, I, are the centers of the three escribed circles. 6. The perpendiculars to the sides of a triangle at the midpoints of the sides concur at the center of the circumscribed circle. This point of concurrence is usually denoted by O. (Euclid.) 7. Lines drawn from the vertices to the points of contact of the in-circle with the opposite sides are concurrent. (The point of concurrency, I’, is called the Gergonne Point. It was named by J. Neuberg after J. D. Gergonne.) 94 8. Lines drawn from the vertices to the points of contact of the escribed circles with the opposite sides concur at Q, Nagel’s Point. (For a number of interesting properties of this point, see Schwatt’s ‘‘Geometric Treatment of Curves.’’) 9. Lines drawn from the vertices making equal angles with the sides AB, BC, CA, respectively, concur at 2 and 2’, the two Brocard points of the triangle. 10. If A,, B,, C,, is Brocard’s first triangle, then AA,, BB,, CC), concur at D, the point isotomic conjugate to K. 11. If L, M, N, be the midpoints of the sides of the triangle ABC, and L/, M’, N’ the midpoints of the sides of the triangle A, B,C,, then LL’, MM’ and NW’ concur at 8S. 12. AI/, BM’, and CN’ concur at S’. S and S’ are isogonal conjugate points. (Schwatt’s ‘‘Geometric Treatment of Curves,” p. 5.) 13. Perpendiculars from A, B, C upon B,C, C,A,, A, Bj, respectively, concur at N, a point on the circumcircle of the triangle ABC, known as Tarry’s Point. 14. Lines through A, B, C, parallel to B,C,, C,A,, A, B,, respectively, con- cur at a point on the circumcircle of the triangle A BC known as Steiner’s Point. 15. Parallels to AB and CA through Cand 8, respectively, concur with the median through A. There are evidently three such points of concurrency. These points are sometimes called the ezternal median points. 16. If three lines through the vertices are concurrent, their isogonal conju- gates with respect to the angles of the triangle are also concurrent. (Steiner’s Gesammelte Werke I., 193, 1881.) If the ratios of the distances of the first point from the sides are / : m:n, those of the second point are oh ea Cn, th 17. Perpendiculars to the sides of the triangle ABC from the midpoints of the sides of the orthic triangle of ABC are concurrent. (Edouard Lucas in Nou- velle Correspondance Mathématique II, 95, 218, 1876.) 18. The ex-symmedians from any two vertices and the in-symmedian from the third vertex are concurrent. There are evidently three such points of concurrency. They are sometimes called the external symmedian points. 19. If three lines drawn from the vertices of a triangle to intersect the oppo- site sides are concurrent, the lines isotomic conjugate to them are also concurrent. If the ratios of the distances of the first point of concurrency from the sides are 1: m:n, the ratios of the second point are 1 1 1 a2l ° b2m~ c?n 95 20. If the three perpendiculars from the vertices of one triangle upon the sides of another triangle are concurrent, then the three perpendiculars from the vertices of the latter upon the sides of the former are also concurrent. (Steiner, Gesammelte Werke I[., 157, 1881.) (Lemoine calls such triangles orthologous and the points of concurrency centers of orthology. 21. Brocard’s Triangle and ABC are orthologous. Perpendiculars from A,, B,, C,, upon BC, CA, AB, respectively, are concurrent. (See No. 13.) 22. If three points be taken on the sides of a triangle such that the sums of the squares of the alternate segments taken cyclically are equal, the perpendicu- lars to the sides of the triangle at these points are concurrent. (T. G. de Oppel, “Analysis Triangulorum,” p. 32, 1746.) 23. If on the sides of a triangle ABC, equilateral triangles LBC, MCA, NAB be described externally, AL, BM, CN are equal and concurrent. 24. If on the sides of a triangle ABC, equilateral triangles I/BC, M’CA, N’AB be described internally, AL’, BM’ CN’ are equal and concurrent. (Dr. J.S. Mackay gives 24 in Vol. XV of Proceedings of Edinburgh Mathematical Society and attributes 23 to T. 8. Davies in Gentleman’s Diary for 1830, p. 36.) 25. If A” B’C” be Nagel’s triangle, then perpendiculars from A, B, and C upon B’C”, C’ A’, A’ B”, respectively, are concurrent. 26. Perpendiculars from A’’, B’, C’ upon BC, CA, AB, respectively, are concurrent. 27. If A’, B’, C’ be the midpoints of the arcs subtended by BC, CA, AB, respectively, then perpendiculars from A’, B’, C’ upon B’C”, C’A’, A” B”, respectively, are concurrent. 28. Perpendiculars from A’, B’’, C’ upon B’C’, CA’, A’B’, respectively, are concurrent. 29. If distances equal to 2r (diameter of the inscribed circle) be laid off from the vertices on each of the altitudes, three points Ai’, Biv, Civ are obtained. Perpendiculars from A, B, C upon Biv Civ, Civ Aiv, Aiv Biv, respectively, are con- current. 30. Perpendiculars from Ai’, Biv, Civ upon BC, CA, AB, respectively, are concurrent. (Nos. 25, 27 and 29 are given in Schwatt’s ‘‘Geometric Treatment of Curves,” pages 40, 43 and 44. Nos. 26, 28 and 30 are direct consequences of the orthologous relation of the triangles. See No. 20.) 31. The perpendiculars from the middle points of the sides of Brocard’s first triangle upon the corresponding sides of the triangle A BC are concurrent. « 32, The lines joining the middle points of the sides of a triangle with those of the segments towards the angles of the corresponding altitudes meet in a point and bisect each other. 96 33. The straight lines which join the midpoint of each side of a triangle to the midpoint of the corresponding altitude concur at the symmedian point. (Dr. F. Wetzig in Schlémlich’s Zeitschrift, XII, 289.) 34. If two sides of a triangle are divided proportionally the straight lines drawn from the points of section to the opposite vertices, will intersect on the median from the third vertex. 35. Every two perpendiculars to the sides of a triangle at points of contact of escribed circles external to the same vertex are concurrent with the perpen- dicular. to the opposite side at the point of contact of the inscribed circle. There will be three such points of concurrency. 36. If the three sides of a triangle be reflected with respect to any line, the three lines through the vertices parallel to the reflexions of the opposite sides are concurrent. : 37. The vertices of ABC are joined to a point O, and a triangle A’B’C’ is constructed haying its sides parallel to 40, BO, CO respectively. Lines through A’, B’, C’ parallel to the corresponding sides of the triangle 4 BC are concurrent. 38. If XYZ be any transversal of the triangle ABC, and if AX, BY, CZ form the triangle PQR, then AP, BQ, and CR are concurrent. 39. If D, £, F’be the feet of the altitudes, then the lines connecting A, B, C to the middle points of EF, FD, DE, respectively, concur at the symmedian point. 40. The perpendiculars from A, B, C upon EF, FD, DE are concurrent. 41. Through the vertices of the triangle ABC lines parallel to the opposite sides are drawn, meeting the circumcircle in A’, B’, C’. B’C’, C/A’, A’ B’ meet BC, CA, AB in P, Q, BR, respectively. AP, BQ, CR are concurrent. 42. With the same notation as 41, A’P, B’Q, C’R are concurrent. (41 and 42 occur in St. John’s College Questions, 1890.) 43. Three circles are drawn each touching two sides of the triangle ABC and the cireumcircle internally. The points of contact with the cireumcircle are L, M, N, respectively. AL, BM, CN are concurrent. 44. If in 43 the circles touch the circumcircle externally in L’, M’, N’, then L’/A, M’B, N’C are concurrent. (48 and 44 are given by Professor de Longchamps, Ed. Times, July, 1890.) 45.. If a circle touch the sides of the triangle ABC in X, Y, Z, then the lines joining the middle points of BC, CA, AB to the middle points of AX, BY, CZ, respectively, are concurrent. 46. If a circle cut the sides of the triangle ABC in X,X’; Y,Y’; ZZ; if AX, BY, CZ are concurrent, so also are AX’, BY’, CZ. 97 47. lf X, Y, Zbe three points on the sides of the triangle ABC such that the pencil D(AC, EF) is harmonic, then AD, BE, CF are concurrent. 48. lf tangents to the cireumcircle at the vertices of the triangle ABC, meet in L, M, N, then AL, BM and CN are concurrent. 49. If on the sides of the triangle ABC, similar isosceles triangles LBC, MCA, NAB be described, AL, BM, CN are concurrent. 50. If the ex-citeles touch the sides to which they correspond in D,, E,, F3, the perpendiculars to the sides through these points are concurrent. 51. If D, EH, Fare the points of contact of the incircle with the sides of the triangle ABC and if DJ, EI, FI meet EF, FD, DE in L, M, N, respectively, then AL, BM, CN concur. 52. If DD’, EE’, FF’ are diameters of the incircle through D, E, F, the points of contact with the sides of the triangle ABC, then AD’, BE’, CF’ concur. 53. If P, Q, R be collinear points in the sides BC, CA, AB of the triangle ABC, and if P’, Q FR’ be their harmonic conjugates with respect to those sides then AP’, BQ’, CR’ are concurrent. 54. If squares APQB, BUVC, CXYA be described upon the sides of the triangle ABC (all externally or all internally) and if QP meet XY in a, PQ meet VU in 8, UV meet YX in y, then aA, 8B, yC concur in K the symmedian point. (Halsted, “El. Synthetic Geometry,” p. 150.) 55. A’B’C” is the pedal triangle of 2, and A’ B’C” is the pedal triangle of 2%, B’ CU’, C” A’, A” B’ form the triangle X YZ, whose sides are parallel to the sides of ABC. PQR is the pedal triangle of ABC. PX, QY, RZ concur at the cireumcenter of X YZ. 56. The Simson lines of the median triangle LMN of the triangle ABC, with respect to the vertices P, Q, R of the pedal triangle, concur at the center of Taylor’s circle. 57. The Simson lines of the pedal triangle PQR of the triangle ABC, with respect to the vertices L, WV, N of the median triangle concur at the center of Taylor’s circle. 58. If BW, CV be perpendicular to BC; CU, AW perpendicular to CA; AV, BU perpendicular to AB; then AU, BV, CW concur at the circumcenter of ABC. (C.F. A. Jacobi, ‘De Triangulorum Rectilineorum Proprietatibus,” p. 56.) 59. If triangles A, B,C, and A,B,C, are circumscribed about the triangle ABC in such a manner that their sides are perpendicular to those of ABC, then A,A,, B, B,, C,C, concur at the circumcenter of ABC. (Probably known 7—ScIENCR. 98 by Jacobi, but not explicitly stated by him. Lemoine stated it in 1873 to the Association Frangaise pour l’Avancement des Sciences. ) 60. When three lines through the vertices of a triangle are concurrent, the six bisectors of the three angles they determine intersect with the corresponding sides of the triangle at six points, every three of which on different sides connect concurrently with the opposite vertices if an odd number of them is internal. 61. When three points on the sides of a triangle are collinear, the six bisections of the three segments they determine connect with the corresponding vertices of the triangle by six lines, every three of which through different vertices are concurrent if an odd number of them is internal. 62. When three points on the sides of a triangle are collinear, their three lines of connection with the opposite vertices determine an exscribed triangle whose vertices connect concurrently with those of the original to which they cor- respond. 63. H,, H,, H, are points of intersection of AJ, BI, CI, respectively, with the inscribed circle. The perpendiculars from H,, H,, H, upon BC, CA, AB, respectively, are concurrent. 64. The twelve radii from the incenter and the excenters of a triangle, per- pendicular to the sides of the triangle, meet by threes in four points which are the circumcenters of the triangles IZ, J,, IJ, J,,7,14,, 1,1, I. (J, 1,, I,, I, are the incenter and excenters. See note, p. 99, Vo]. I, Proceedings Edinburgh Math. Soe., Dr. Mackay). 65. D, EB, Fare points of contact of J-circle with the sides of the triangle ABC, D,, E,, F, points of contact of J,-circle with sides, D,, E,, F,, of F,-circle, D,, E;, F, of I,-circle. AD,, BE,, CF, concur at T, AD,, BE,, CF, concur at T, AD,;, BE,, CF, concur at T, The points l',, l',, l', are called the associated Gergonne points. See No. 7. 66. AD,, BE,, CF, concur at Q, AD,;, BE,, CF, concur at Q, AD,, BE,, CF concur at Q; Q,, Qo, Qs, together with Q given in No. 8, are called the Nagel points. 67. AQ, BQ,, CQ, concur at T,. AQ;, BQ, CQ, concur at T,. AQ,, BQ,, CQ concur at T,. 99 as. AT, BL,, Cl, concur at Q;. AY,, BY, CT, concur at Q,. AY,, BY,, CT concur at Q3. 69. AB, DE, D,E, concur at x. BC, EF, E,F, concur at y. CA, FD, F,D, concur at z. x, y, 2 lie on a line n, say. 70. AB, D,E,, D,#, concur at x3. BC, E,F;, E,F, concur at y,. CA, F,.D,, F,D, concur at z,. 11, Yi, 2, lie on a line p. (ime as, NP ist; concur at a. BC ae, to J,;coneur.at 45. CA, QN, I,1, concur at z.. (N, P, Q are the feet of the interior angle bisectors. ) Loy Yo, 22 lie on a line q. 72. The three lines n, p, g are concurrent. 73. A’, B’, C’ are the midpoints of the sides of the triangle ABC. Lines drawn through A’, B’, C’, respectively, parallel to the triads of angular trans- yersals. which determine I, T,, T,, I, concur at I’, 1,%,,T,’ 3’. Then I’, r,T,’, TT’, 0;1,’ are concurrent at the centroid of the triangle ABC. 74. IT’, 1,7,’, 1,0’, 131”, concur at the symmedian point of the triangle ABC. 75. IQ, 1,@,, I,@2, I;Q, concur at the centroid of the triangle ABC. (The propositions 65 to 75 inclusive are taken from Mackay’s ‘‘ Euclid” and his ‘‘Symmedians and Concomitant Circles.’’) 76. If DEF be the triangle formed by joining the inscribed points of contact of the triangle ABC; D,£, F, the triangle formed by joining the inscribed points of contact of the triangle DEF; D,E,F, the triangle formed by joining the inscribed points of contact of the triangle D, HZ, F,; J, I,, I,, I, are the inscribed and escribed centres. J, D, I, HE, I,F concur at the homothetic centres of the tri- angles DEF and I,1,1,. ID,, I,E,, I,F, concur at the homothetic centre of the triangles D, EH, F, and IJ,J,, and so on. (Dr. Mackay, Proceedings Edinburgh Math. Soc., Vol. I, pp. 51-2.) 77. If three straight lines drawn from the vertices of a triangle are concur- rent, the three lines drawn parallel to them from the midpoints of the opposite sides are also concurrent; and the straight line joining the two points of concur- rency passes through the centroid of the triangle and is there trisected. (Frigier in Gergonne’s Annales, Vol. VII, 170.) 100 78. If ABC be any triangle and O any point whatever, and A,, B,, C, be points symmetrical to O with respect to the midpoints of BC, CA, AB, then AA,, BB,, CC, concur ata point P. The centroid G lies on the line OP and divides it in a constant ratio. (M.d’Ocagne in Nouvelles Annales, Third Series I, 239.) 79. It through K (Grebe’s Point) parallels to the sides BC, CA, AB of the triangle ABC are drawn, meeting these sides in D, D’; E, E’; F, F’, respectively, and if EF and E’F’ intersect inp; FD and F’D’ ing; DE and D’E’ int, then Ap, Bq, Cr are concurrent. (Dr. Mackay, ‘‘Symmedians of the Triangle,” etc., p- 39.) 80. A’, B’, C’ are the midpoints of the sides of the triangle ABC, and I, I,, I,, I;, are the in and ex centers. I, A’, I, B’, I,,C’ concur at the symmedian point of the triangle J, I, J;. IA’, I, B’, I,C’ concur at the symmedian point of the triangle J J, /,. I, A’, IB’, I,C’ concur at the symmedian point of the triangle J, I/,. I,,A, I, B’, IC’ concur at the symmedian point of the triangle I, 7, I. 81. If AK, BK, CK cut the sides of the triangle ABC at the points R, S, T and the circumcircle of the triangle ABC at the points D, E, F, then AK, BF, CE are concurrent. BK, CD, AT are concurrent. CK, AE, BD are concurrent. 82. X, Y, Z are the feet of the perpendiculars in the triangle ABC. If H,, H,, H, be the ortho-centers of the triangles AYZ, ZBX, XYC, then the lines H, X, H, Y, H,Z are concurrent. 83. If H,’, H,’, H,’ be the ortho-centers of the triangles HYZ, XCZ, XYB. H,”, H,’’, H,/ be the ortho-centers of the triangles CYZ, X HZ, XYA. H,’’, H,’”, H,/” be the ortho-centers of the trianglas BYZ, XAZ, XYH. And if 7’; be the homothetic center of the triangles XYZ and i ieee T., be the homothetic center of the triangles XYZ and H,” H,” H,”. T., be the homothetic center of the triangles XYZand H,’’77,/”H,””. Then AT,, BT, CT, concur at the centroid of the triangle X YZ. (Nos. 80, 81, 82, 83 are extracted from the work of Dr. Mackay in the Pro- ceedings of the Edinburgh Math. Soc.) 84. If through K parallels be drawn to BC, C/A, AB, they intersect the cor- responding altitudes in A,, B,, C,, respectively, which are the vertices of Bro- card’s first triangle. BA,, CB,, AC, concur at 2; BC,, CA,, AB, concur at ’, and thus the two Brocard points are determined. 101 Note on ‘‘ Nore on SmitH’s DEFINITION OF MULTIPLICATION.” By A. L. BAKER. The rule should be: To multiply one quantity by another, perform upon the multiplicand the series of operations which was performed upon unity to produce the multiplier. This does not mean, perform upon the multiplicand the series of suc- cessive operations which was performed upon unity and upon the suc- cessive results. Thus, to multiply b by Va: If we attempt to consider Va as derived by taking unity a times and then extracting the square root of the result, we violate the rule. To get Va by performing operations upon unity, we must (e€. g., a=2) take unity 1 time, .4 times, .01 times, .004 times, etc., and add the results. Doing this to b, we get the correct result, viz., V2 b= 1.414...b. The rule is thus universal, applying to all multipliers, complex, qua- _ternion and irrational. THE GEOMETRY OF Simson’'s Line. By C. E. Smirn, [NprIANA UNIVERSITY. 1. If from any point in the circumference of the circumcircle to a /\ ABC 1s to the sides of the /\ be drawn, their feet, P,, P,, and P;, lie in a straight line. This is known as Simson’s Line. (a) First proof that P,, P,, and P, lie in a straight line. Since 7s PP, Band PP, B (Fig. 1.) are both right / s, P, P;, P; and B are concyclic. Likewise P, P,, A, and P, are concyclic. INoweA,PP. PB) --*Z PBR. — 80: and Z PAC+ Z PBP, = 180°. wee ees by PAG: But 2 PAC-+ Z PAP, 180°. a/b. Pye A 380: But Z PAP, = Z PP, P, (measured by same arc of auxiliary circle) Ae Poe yj bP 1802 nor arsiraghte7- .*. P, P,; and P, lie in a straight line. 102 (b) Second proof that P,, P,, and P, lie in a straight line. Draw PC and PA (Fig. 1). Now /s PP, Cand PP, Care right Zs. .*. P, P,, Cand P, are concyclic with PC as diameter. 2 tARB= 7 PCB y PCP; and YO PE, Py 7 OPE, vit PAB—/ PAP ==PP. Ps Now P, P., A, P, are concyclic. See ig ee ee Sot Hee ib ee ea es .*. P, P, passes through P, and the three points are collinear. 2. If PP, be produced until it intersects the circumcircle of (, ABC, at the point U,, then AU, is || to Simson’s line of P. (Fig. 14 Now the points P, P,, P,, and © are concyclie. Snes ae ete Py Pate: But Z P, PC— Z U, AC, (are CU, common to both) and 7 PP, 6=U,-ACc; 103 If two angles are equal and have a pair of sides in coincidence, then the other sides must also either coincide or be parallel. Hence AU || P, P, Ps, or to Simson’s line. Thus we can show BU, and CU, parallel to Simson’s line of P and therefore AU,, BU, and CU, are parallel to each other. 3. Let AT (Fig. 1) be isogonal conjugate to AP. Then Simson’s line of Pop AT. Also Simson’s line of T | AP. Now, AU, is || Simson’s line of P, and Zot 7 PAC 180° — 4. PU,C. Aiso.7- BAU, = Z BCU. -, Z BAT— Z PAU, =180°— 2 PU,C— Z BCU,. .". U,AT = 180° — 90° = 90°. for Z PU,C is measured by 3 arc PC and Z BCU, is measured by 3 are BU,. But PP,C, which is a right /, is measured by 3 arc ( PC + BU,). ... U,A | AT and so Simson’s line of P must be. In like manner we can prove Simson’s line of T | AP. Now, if Q is the point on the cireumference opposite P, then AU, and AQ are isogonal conjugate lines, for Za A == / QAP = 90° and Z TAC= Z BAP with Z U,AQ common. , Z U,AT— Z QAU, — Z TAC= Z QAP— Z U,AQ— Z BAP. eA == 7 CAQ. 4. If P and Q are opposite points on the circumference, their Simson’s lines are | to each other. Now, the isogonal conjugate of AP is | to isogonal conjugate of AQ, and, therefore, since the Simson’s line of P | AU, and the Simson’s line of Q | AT, the Simson’s line of P will be | to Simson’s line of Q. 5. A side, BC, and its altitude in a triangle are the Simson’s lines of A” and A, respectively, where A’ is the point on the circumference opposite A. ( Fig 4.) Since the feet of the | s from A to AB and AC coincide with A, and the foot of the | from A to BC is Ha, therefore the Simson’s line of A is AHg. Again, the feet of |. s from A’ to the sides AB, AC, and BC are B, C, and A/a, respectively ; hence BC is the Simson’s line of A’. Since AHa, BH» and CH¢ are the Simson’s lines of A, B, and C, respectively, their Siftson’s lines concur in H, the ortho-center. 6. Let A’, B’ and C’ be the points on the circumference opposite A, B and O, respectively, and Ha’, Hy’, and H-’ be the points where AHa, BHa and CHa, produeed, cut the circumference, then the 104 Simson’s lines of A, B’ and C’ concur in A, Simson’s lines of B, C’ and A’ concur in B, and Simson’s lines of C, A’ and B’ concur in C, Also, since the Simson’s line of Ha’, Hy’ and He’ must pass through Ha, Hy and He, respectively, we have the Simson’s lines of A, A’ and Ho’ concurring in Ha, Simson’s lines of B, B’ and Hy concurring in Hy and Simson’s lines of C, C’ and H-’ concurring in He. Since the point of concurrency of the Simson’s lines of the extremities of a chord | to BC is the point where tbis chord intersects BC, it follows that the Simson’s lines of the extremities of all chords | to BC are concurrent with Sim- son’s line of A’; the Simson’s lines of extremities of all chords | AC are concur- rent with Simson’s line of B’; and the Simson’s lines of the extremities of all 105 chords | AB are concurrent with Simson’s line of C’. Thus there is a triple in- finity of sets of three points on the circumcircle, the points of concurrency of the Simson’s lines of which lie in the sides of the fundamental triangle. 7. Since, in the cosine circle (Fig. 6), F’ EDD’, FEE’ D’, and FF’ E’” D are all rectangular, it follows at once that the Simson’s line of D’, with regard to rt. A, DEF, is FD, of E’, DE and of F’, EF. Also Simson’s line of D, with re- gard to rt. \ D’E’F’, is D’ B’, of E, KH’ F’ and of F, YD’. 8. In Fig. 2, Ma, Mn, Mc are the midpoints of the sides of fundamental triangle opposite A, B, and C, respectively. Ha’’, Hp’, He” are the midpoints of AH, BH and CH, respectively, where H is the ortho-center. Now MpA = MpHa. * £ MpHaA= Z MpAHa. Likewise 7 McHaA = Z McAHa. - Z McHaMp= Z A. We also know Z McMaMp=Z A. *. Mc, Mp, Ma and Ha are concyelic. In the same way we can show Mc, Mp, Ma and Hy and Me, Mp, Ma, and H¢ to be concyclic. .*. Since three points determine a circle, these six points are all concyclic. Now Ha, Hp, He are the feet of the altitudes of (. AHB. But we have just shown that, in any triangle, the feet of its altitudes and the midpoints of its sides are all concyclic. . Ha, Hp and He and Ha”, Hp”, and H-” are concyclic. 106 Then, since three points determine a circle, Ma, Mp, Mc, Ha, Hp, He, Ha’’, H,’” and H.’ must all lie on the same circle. This circle, since it passes through nine definite points, is called the nine-point circle. A | to the midpoint of Ha Ma meets HM at its midpoint, say F. So Js to Hp Mp and He M¢ at their midpoints meet HM in F. .’. F, the midpoint of HM, is the centre of the nine-point circle. Since it is the circumcircle of rt. “, MaM»Me, which has just half the dimen- sions of /\ ABC, its radius will be just half the radius of the larger circle. 9. The nine-point circle bisects any line drawn from H to the circumcircle of the fundamental triangle. Let MX and FY be any two | radii of the two circles. Now, since F is the mid-point of MH and FY—4MX, HYX is a straight line with Y as its mid- point. 10. Simson’s line of P bisects PH. (Fig. 7.) Let us suppose that D is the midpoint of PH. Then D lies on the nine-point circle. Then we must prove it lies on P, P,. Since PP; and AH are | to BC, they are||. Also since D is midpoint of PH, /\ P, DHa is isosceles. Let E be midpoint of AH. Then DE=—3 AP. D, E, and Ha are on the nine-point circle. A, P, and C are on the circumcircle. Then since DE = 3 AP and radius of nine-point circle = 4R, Z EH, D, inscribed in nine-point circle, = 4 ACP, inscribed in circumcircle. 2 Be D7" ACP = 2 DE. re, Let the intersection of P, D and AC be P,, Then: 7 P) D7 ACE == 7 ECP: 107 fee. and bb osare concyclic and. 4 PPO 72 PP) C= 902 and Bee LAC: .*. P, Dis Simson’s line of P. The point where PH cuts Simson’s line of P is called its center. 11. The line joining A’, the point opposite the vertex A of /\ ABC (Fig. 4), with H, the ortho-centre, bisects the side BC. For, the Simson line of A’ is BC, .*. BC bisects A’ H, and, as we have shown, this bisection is on the nine-point circle. But the nine-point circle cuts BC at two places only, at Ha and Ma; hence it is obvious that A’ H passes through Ma, and thus it bisects BC. 12. S, the intersection of the Simson lines of P and Q, the extremities of any diameter of the circumcircle, lies on the nine-point circle. (Fig. 3.) 108 Take W as the midpoint of QH and D of PH. Then they are both on the nine-point circle and WD must be its diameter, since it is || and equal to 4 QP. Then, as 7 Sisaright /, S must also lie on the nine-point circle. S is called the vertex of either Simson line. 13. H’, H”’ and H’”” (Fig. 7) are the points on the circumcircle through which AH, BH and CH, respectively, pass. U is the point where PH’ cuts BC. V is the point where PH” cuts AC, W is the point where PH’” cuts AB. Now, U, V, H and W lie on a straight line || to the Simson line of P. Z VHB» = Z VH” Hy, (Hp is midpoint of HH”.) == 7 PE" B = 7 PCs. 7 UR, UE y= 7 Pn 7 POA: Also H, Ha, C, and Hp are concyclic. > Z BaHHp 4 C= 180%. But we have just proven 2 VHH»+ Z UHHa= Z C. ‘. Z HaAHHy»+ Z VHA» + UHHa = 180°, and .'. U, H and V are collinear. Now, 2 WHH’”’ = WH’’H = 180°— 2 PH’’C. = Z B+ Z UW’H. = / B- 4 DAH": Also B, Ha, H, and He are concyclic. -. Z B+ Z HaHHe=180° and Cee Bee 7 Un 7 rice UI 1808: So then 7 WHH’”’” + 4 H-eHU = 180°, which proves W, H and U collinear. Therefore all four points, W, V, H and U must be collinear. Now, PP, is || to HH”, for both are | to AC. . A\ PVX is isosceles, and PP, = P,X. Now, Z P,XV= Z PCP, and P, P,, ©, and P,; are concyclic. ees ECR == eee eo Pr Pek is to Oly Ww. From this we can also see that Simson’s line of P bisects all lines from P to the line WVHU. 14. The angle between the Simson lines of two points P and P” is equal to an Z inscribed in the circumcircle with PP’ an are and also to an angle inscribed in the nine-point circle with arc equal to the part of the circumference included between the centers of their Simson’s lines. 109 Draw P’H’ ( Fig. 7), letting it cut BC in U’. Then, from above proposition, HU’ | to Simson’s line of P’.. Also HU || to Simson’s line of P. .. Z (S, 8S’)= Z (HU, HU’). Now, H is the center of similitude of the circumcircle and the nine-point circle. Draw P’H, letting it cut the Simson line of P’ at D’. Then P and D, P’ and D’ and H’ and Ha are corresponding points. .°. HaD and HaD’ and H’P and H’P’ are || lines, whence 7 DHaD’ = mene — / UU. 15. If P and Q (Fig. 1) be the extremities of a diameter and R and KR’ two other opposite points such that PR and QR’ are | to Simson’s line of P and PR’ and QR are | to Simson’s line of R, then the Simson’s line of R is parallel to PQ and Simson’s line of R/ is | to PQ. Since the angle between the Simson’s lines of two points is equal to an angle inscribed -in the arc between them, we know that 2 ZXY = Z YQZ. Also ZX || QY. .. QZXY is a parallelogram, and XY, the Simson’s line of R, is || to PQ. Then it follows that Simson’s line of R is | to PQ, since it is conjugate to Simson’s line of R. 16. If ES and FS ( Fig. 3) are the Simson’s lines of opposite points on the circumcircle, and EF be any other Simson’s line, then T’/E—=T’F = T’S, where T’ is the center of the last named Simson’s line. Z T’ED= Z T’SD (a previous proposition ). eek hos, In like manner we can show 1’F TS. .:. ’E=T’F: The Simson’s lines of opposite points on the circumcircle are said to be conjugate. 17. The are between the vertices of two Simson’s lines (not conjugate) is twice as large as the arc between their centers. For ET’S is an isosceles / endef S == 2 750. =) Bat bl’ Ss 871"8. .°. are SS’=2 are TT, Now suppose T’S is less than R (it never can be greater), then S” could be another point on the nine-point circle such that T’S’’—T’S and 4 ES’ F would also be aright 7. It is thus evident that there are always two pairs of conjugate Simson’s lines passing through E and F. The limit of EF is 2R. For when S and 8” coincide at'8’”, T’S’’”—T’E=T’F=r. In this case we have but one pair of conjugate Simson’s lines. 18. If two Simson’s lines, SD and S’D’, which are not conjugate, cut a third Simson’s line, T’S’, at equal distances, E and F, from its center, T’, then 110 the line joining the point of intersection, K, of SD and S’’D” with S’, the vertex of T’S’ is a Simson’s line conjugate to T’S’. Let ES and FS” intersect at K, and ES” and FS intersect at N (Fig. 3). Since the pair of lines, ES, FS and ES”, FS” are conjugate Simson’s lines, they 4 are | to each other, or ES” and FS are altitudes in the (\ EKF. Therefore KN is the third altitude, and we may prove S to be the foot of this altitude on EF. The nine-point circle of the /\ ABC passing through the feet, S and 8S”, of the two altitudes, and through the middle point, T’, of one side of the (\ EKF, must BD be also the nine-point circle of the /\ EKF, and therefore the second intersection of the nine-point circle with the side, EF, must be the foot of the altitude to EF, or KS’. Hence S” is the foot of the altitude KN. But any side and its altitude is a pair of conjugate Simson’s lines, and since EF is a Simson’s line of a point on the circumcircle of ABC, KN is the Simson’s line conjugate to EF. Any triangle like EKF formed by three Simson’s lines, the altitudes of which are Simson’s lines conjugate to the sides, and haying the nine-point circle in common with the triangle ABC, we shall call 2 Simson Triangle. Since the nine-point circle is common to both triangles ABC and EKF, the radius of the nine-point circle is one-half the radius of the circumcircle of either triangle; therefore the radius of the circumcircle of any Simson triangle is equal to the radius of the circumcircle of the original triangle. 19. The common vertex S’” of the pair of limiting Simson’s lines belonging to TS is on the same straight line as K, N and 8’. For, since T’S’” is a diameter of the nine-point circle, 7 T’S’S’’” — 90°, or S’8’” | to EF. .°. S’” is on the altitude KS’. 20. A’, BY’ and C” are points on the circumference opposite Ha’, Hp’ and H-’ respectively. (Fig. 5.) Prove that the Simson’s lines of A’’, B’’, and C” are || respectively to AA’, BB’ and CC” and that they are | respectively to B/C”, A”’C’, A’ B’. Now the angle between the Simson’s lines uf A and A” will be equal to an angle measured by 3 arc AA”. But the angle between AA’ and AHa, the Simson’s line of A, is measured by an are equaltothis. Therefore Sim- son’s line of A” is|| to AA’. So the Simson’s line of B” is|| to BB’ and Simson’s line of C’’ || to CC’. Now are HH,’ CB” =are H-’ BC” = 180°. 2, Ato JB GY (OOH Ss pire, 18a) B38 ae oly? Hes || BC”, also Ep? His’ || A’ Band H,’ H-’ || A’C’’. Therefore (A, A” BY’ C” is equivalent to /\ Ha’ Hv’ He’, being inscribed in same circle and having sides equal and parallel. Z H’jCA = Z Hy’ BA. (From similarity of (Ais ABH» and ACH). -. are AH)’ —arc AH,’, .*. since AA’ is a diameter it must be | to chord H.’ Hp’ and therefore to B’ C’. So we may prove BB’ | A” C” and CC’ | A” B”. 21. The Simson’s lines of Ha’ Hi’ He’ form a Simson’s triangle XYZ of which the Simson’s lines of A’, B’’, C’ are the altitudes, A”, C’, B” being points opposite Ha’, Hy’, He’ respectively. 112 Let Simson’s lines of Hy’, He’, and He’, Ha’ and Ha’, Hy’ concur in X, Y, and Z respectively. The Simson’s lines of A” and H4’, of B’ and Hp)’, and of C’ and H.’ are con- jugate, therefore their intersections, u, vy, and w will lie on the nine-point circle of rt (, ABC. The Simson’s lines of Ha’, Hp’ and H-’ must pass through Ha, Hn, H_- respectively and therefore rt /\ XYZ must have the same nine-point circle as /\ ABC. Now since Ha, Hp and He can not be the feet of altitudes they must be the midpoints of the sides and therefore u, vy and w must be the feet of altitudes. Thus the four points of concurrency are established, namely X, Y, Z and 8S”. /\ XYZ, is the ortho- 8S”, being formed by the intersection of the altitudes of center of the same. 22. If R, Pand Q (Fig. 8) be taken as the midpoints of ares BC, AC and AB, respectively, and R’, P’ and Q’ be the points on the circumference opposite R, P, and Q, then the Simson’s lines of R, P, and Q will form a (A XYZ, the altitudes of which will be the Simson’s lines of R’, Q’ and P’. It may be assumed that X YZ is the triangle formed by the intersection of the Simson lines of R, P and Q. That the Simson’s line of Q’ is the altitude on side XZ may be established thus: Z AQv Qe= Z A— Z AQce Qn. 113 But, since Q, Qc, A, and Q» are concyclic, Z AQnQe— Z AQQe, which is measured by 4 are AQ’. : Also, since Q, B; Qa, and Qe are concyclic, Z BQQc—=180°— 7 BQaQe. -. Z QeQaC= Z BQQc, which is measured by 4 arc BQ’. But arc BQ’ = arc AQ’. | (A.) .*. Z AQnQec= Z CQaQe. But Z AQpQc= Z A— Z AQ-Qpd, and Z CQaQe= Z B+ Z BQcQa. = Z B+ Z AQcQp. Now the Simson’s line of Q’ is | to QnQa the Simson’s line of Q, at Qc, and Z AQcPp = Z Band Z BQ-Ra= Z A. And from (A.) we know that Z QrQcPr = Z QaQcRa, .*. Z ProQeH’, = Z RaQ-H’ and thus Simson’s line of Q’ is proven to be the internal bisector of Z Qe in rt. A, RaPpQe. In like manner the Simson’s line of R’ may be proven to be the internal bisector of 7 Ra, and Sim- son’s line of P’, the internal bisector of 2 Pa of same triangle. Since the Sim- son’s lines of Q, R, and P are | to these internal bisectors at the vertices of the Z\, they must be the external bisectors of the same angles. But we know that the internal and external bisectors of the /s of a triangle concur in four points. Thus X, Y, Z and H’ are each points of concurrency of three Simson’s lines. H’, of course, is the ortho-center of (A XYZ. 23. /\ XYZ has the same nine-point circle as /\ ABC and is therefore inscribable in the same sized circle as rt. /\ ABC. That it has the same nine-point circle follows easily from the fact that three points that must lie on its nine-point circle, the feet of its altitudes, are coincident with three points on the ABC nine-point circle, the midpoint of its sides. Since three points determine a circle, their nine-point circles must be identical. 24, The Simson’s line of P is || to RQ, Simson’s line of R is || to PQ, and Simson’s line of Q is || to RP. The Simson’s line of R will be | to Simson’s line of R’, so let us prove Sim- son’s line of R’ | to PQ’. Now, the Simson’s line of R/’ will be | to the line isogonal conjugate to AR’ which we call AT. Then let us prove AT || to PQ. To be || Z ADP must = Z CAR’. Z ADP is measured by 3 arc (AP-+ BQ). Z CAR’ is measured by 3 are CR’. Arc AP=arc CP, and 3 are BQ measures 3 / C. 8—ScIENCE. 114 Now, Z PRR’ — 90° — PR’R. 0° = 1A 2B) = -4'C. *. arc BQ=arc PR’, and so 2 ADP= / CAR’. Hence AT is || PQ and .*. Simson’s line of R is | to PQ. In like manner we may prove Simson’s line of P | to RQ, and Simson’s line of Q | to RP. 25. The Simson’s lines of Ha”, Hv”, He” (Fig. 9) with respect to -/\ HaHpHe, inscribed in the nine-point circle, form a rt. /\ XYZ, the altitudes of which are the Simson’s lines of Ma, Mp and M.- with respect to the same rt. /\. H, the orthocenter of /, ABC, is the incenter of (| HaHpHe, for 7s AH-H and AH»pH being right 7s, A, He, H and Hp» are concyclic with AH as diameter. 115 H.”, being midpoint of AH, is the center and therefore chord Ha’”’Hp — chord H.’’He. Therefore HaHa” bisects 2 Ha, HpHv” bisects 7 Hp, and H-H-” bisects 7 He. H.”’, Hp” and H-” are points on the nine-point circle opposite Ma, Mp, Me, respectively, for, since MMa and HaHa” are | and the center of the nine-point circle is F, the midpoint of MH, a line from M, through F, will meet AHa on the circumference of the nine-point circle, necessarily at H,’’. In like manner H)/” can be shown to be opposite Mp, and H” opposite Me. This proves Ha’’H»” || to MaMp and equal to it, and therefore || to AB, Hy’H-’ equal to MpMc and parallel to both MpMe and BC, and H.” Ha” equal to McMa, and parallel to both MceMa and CA. Now, the Simson’s line of Ma will be | to BC and | to AHa, for HaC is isogo- nal conjugate to HaMa since AH, bisects 7 HpHaHe, thus making 7 CHaHy = Z MaHaHe. Therefore the Simson’s line of Ha”, since it is conjugate to Simson’s line of Ma, is | to MeMp, Hp’ He and BC. In like manner we can prove the Sim- son’s line of My | AC and | to BH» and, therefore, the Simson’s line of Hy” | to MaMce, He’ Ha” and AC; and Simson’s line of Mc | AB and | to CHe and, therefore, the Simson’s line of He” || to MaMp, Hp” Ha” and AB. Now (A MnaMupMuc is oppositely similar to (A) HaHpHe. Also, from what we have proven before, the Simson’s lines of Ma and Ha” must both pass through Mua. Then the Simson’s line of Ma being || to AHa, will bisect 7 MurMua Mue. In like manner we can show that the Simson’s lines of Mp and Me bisect /s MuHa Map Mae and MuaMuceMup. Now the Simson’s lines of Ha’’, Hp’ and He” are | to Simson’s lines of Ma, Mp and Mc, respectively, and therefore they are the exter- nal bisectorsof the /sof thert. /\ MHaMupMne. Since the internal and external bisectors of a /\ meet by threes in four points, we may conclude the Simson’s lines of Ma, Hp”, and H-” concur in X, Simson’s lines of Mp, He’, and Ha” concur in Y, Simson’s lines of Mc, Ha”, and Hy” concur in Z, and Simson’s lines of Ma My Mc concur in S’”. 8”, we see, is the orthocenter of (| XYZ and in-center of A. Mua MupMuce. A\ XYZ has its sides || to sides of (\ MaMpMc and oppositely || to /\s Ha’ Hy” H.” and ABC. 26. Let us prove /\ XYZ equivalent to (js MaMpMe and Ha” Hp He” and, therefore, inscribable in the nine-point circle. A\ MuaM pM ue bears the same relation to /\ XYZ that (\ HaHpHe does to A ABC. Therefore, since (\ MaaMupMuc is } the size of (\ HaHpHe, /\ XYZ must be } the size of rt. (\ ABCand thus equivalent to (\ MaMpMe, and rt. /\ Ha” H)”H-” and hence inscribable in the nine-point circle of the fundamental ING 116 27. If Ha’’ Hi’” He” are the points on the nine-point circle opposite Ha Hp and He respectively, then the Simson’s lines of Mc, H-’”’, and He’ concur in Muc, for Ha Hp» is Simson’s line of H-’”. Likewise the Simson’s lines of Mb, Hy” and Hy” concur in Mp» and the Simson’s lines of Ma, Ha’’, and Ha’” con- cur in Mya. 28. Now considering Ma Mp Mc as the reference /\ in the nine-point circle, let us prove that the Simson’s lines of these same points, 7. e., Mc, Hc’ and H-””, ete., concur. Chord Me H-’”” is|| He Hc’ and.*. | toMaMp. This is true because Z He M. H-”” is a right Z. The Simson’s line of M- will be this chord Mc H.’”’, the Simson’s line of H¢’’” will pass through E, the foot of this altitude, and the Simson’s line of H-% will be side Ma Mp» since it is a point opposite the vertex Me. So, also, the Simson’s lines of Mp, Hp’ and H»’” will concur in R, and the Simson’s lines of Ma, Ha’, and Ha’” concur in S. 29. Now by noticing the lettering and arrangement of (Fig. 17) it will be seen that H.’”, Hp’ and H.’” correspond to Ha’, Hy’ and H_’ of that figure, and that Ha, Hp, and He correspond to A”, B’, and C” of that figure. There- fore we know at once that the Simson’s lines of Ha, Hp» and He and of Ha’, H,’” and H-<’” concur just as in that case by threes in four different points, the point of concurrency of HaH» and He being the ortho-center S’” of the triangle formed by the intersection of the Simson’s lines of the other three points. 30. Also since /\ Ha” Hp’. and points Ha, Hp and H¢- bear the same re- lation to the nine point circle that /\ ABC as points Ha’, Hy’, and H-’ do to the circle in Fig. 5, it follows at once that what was true of the Simson’s lines of those points is also true of these. Depending upon this same comparison between Figs. 5 and 9 it follows that the Simson’s lines of points A, B and C in Fig. 5 concur at in-center of rt. A Ma’ Mp Me. 31. Now let us prove that 8S” (Fig. 5), the point of concurrency of Simson’s lines of A’, B’’, C’, is also the in-center of (\ Ma MyMev. We have already proven that the Simson’s lines of Ha’, Hy’ and H.’ form a Simson triangle X YZ, of which the Simson’s lines of A’, B’ and O” are the alti- tudes, and that /\ XYZ, is equivalent to /(, A” B”’C” with their sides respect- ively |. Now, since Ha, Hp and He are the midpoints of the sides of /(\ XYZ, /\ HaHpHe will be equal in every respect and similarly placed to /\ MayMp-Mey. We have also proven H to be the in-center of this /(\ HaHpHe. Again, since the Simson’s lines of A”, B’ and C” bisect A” H, B’” H and C” H, respectively, it is gly clear that if /\ X YZ were to be given the rank of rt. 7 A” B’C” and a new one were to be formed from it, as it is formed from 2 A”B”’C”, then the point S” would fall upon H. ‘Therefore, since H is the in-center of /\ HaH»He, 8S” must be the in-center of /(\ MayMp Mev. i Therefore we see that the six Simson’s Jines, three with reference to one /\ and three with reference to the other, meet in the same point. 32. This, at the same time, establishes another even more interesting propo- sition, namely: If the Simson’s lines of the vertices of a first /\ with reference to asecond /\ concur in a point 8”, then the Simson’s lines of the vertices of the second /\ with reference to the first /\ concur in the same point S”. “The broad scope covered by this proposition would enable me to double in number the points of concurrency of Simson’s lines, but there would be little benefit in merely pointing them out, as the interested reader can easily see them for himself. A BrBLioGRAPHY OF FOUNDATIONS OF GEOMETRY. By Morton CLARK BRADLEY. Euclid’s treatment of parallels and angles and his definitions and axioms—particularly his twelfth—are the points of controversy that cause the most discussion. For nearly twenty centuries Euclid’s work remained unquestioned. Since John Kepler’s day, however, there have been new theories constantly advanced, theories built on axioms and definitions, a part of which, at least, are different from those of Euclid. The most important of the non-Euclideans are John Bolyai, Lobatschevski, Helm- holtz, Riemann, Clifford, Henrici, Caley, Sylvester and Ball. The most prominent exponent of the non-Euclidean ideas in this country is Prof. Geo. Bruce Halsted, of Texas University. These mathematicians hold that Euclid’s twelfth axiom is not, strictly speaking, an axiom—that it is not “a self-evident and necessary truth,” but that it requires demonstra- tion. They claim, too, that his definitions are not sufficient nor necessarily intelligible. Some of these men have built up new theories upon their substituted axioms and definitions, retaining those of Euclid that fit their theories. A few of these “reform’’ works are mere quibbles on words, but others deserve the serious consideration of all interested in pure geometry. The list following is a complete list of English references to be found in the mathematical library of the University of Indiana or in the private 118 library of Dr. Aley. Chrystal says the bibliography credited to Mr. Hal- sted contains all the references up to its time, save one, giving the non- Euclidean arguments. The list is not complete in arguments for Euclid, it being impossible to enumerate all the editions of Euclid, edited and up- held by the different mathematicians. The list is complete enough, how- ever, to assure the reader that there are arguments for Euclid as well as against him. aff 1 10. cha 12. T. S. Aldis: “Remarks on the Teaching of Geometry.” Isaac Barrow: “Mathematical Lectures,’ London, Stephen Austen, 1734. - Arthur Caley, Collected Papers of, Vol. II, pp. 604-6; Vol. V, p. 471; Vol. VIII, XX XIII-V, pp. 409-13; Vol. XII, pp. 220-38; Vol. XIII, p. 480. H. W. Challis: “A Letter to John Stuart Mill on the Necessity of Geometry and the Association of Ideas,’ Oxford and London, James Parker & Co., 1867. G. Chrystal: ‘“Non-Euclidean Geometry,” Edinburg, David Douglas, 1880; “Presidential Address,” Bedford, W. J. Robinson, 1887. Thos. Cullorin: “A paper on Parallels,’ Quar. Jour. of Math., Vol. 27, pp. 188-225. Edward T. Dixon: “The Foundations of Geometry,’’ London, Geo. Bell & Sons, 1891. Charles lL. Dodgson: “Euclid and His Modern Rivals,’’ Supplement to “Euclid and His Modern Rivals,’ London, Macmillan & Co., 1885; “A New Theory of Parallels,” London, Macmillan & Co., 1890. Geo. B. Halsted: ‘A Bibliography of Hyper-space and Non-Euclidean Geometry,” Amer. Jour. of Math., Vol. I, pp. 261-276, 384, 385; Vol. II, pp. 65-70; “Elements of Geometry,’’ New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1885. (See Lobatschewski.) Henrici: ‘‘Presidential Address,’ Bedford, W. J. Robinson, 1887. J. Larmor: ‘On the Geometrical Method,” The Math. Gazette, No. 7, April, 1896. Nicolai Ivanovich Lobatschewski: ‘‘New Principles of Geometry,” translated from the Russian by G. B. Halsted, Austin, The Neo- mon, 1897; “Geometrical Researches on the Theory of Parallels,’ translated by Halsted. 119 18. J. N. Lyle: “Euclid and the Anti-Euclideans,” St. Louis, Frederick Printing Co., 1890. 14. F. S. Macaulay: “John Bolyai’s ‘Science of Absolute Space,’’”’ Math. Gazette, Nos. 8 and 9, July and October, 1896. 15. Simon Newcomb: “Elements of Geometry’ (appendix), New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1894. 16. Francis Wm. Newman: ‘Difficulties of Elementary Geometry,” Lon- don, Longman, Brown, Green & Longmans, 1841. 17. Riemann: ‘On the Hypotheses which Lie at the Bases of Geometry,” translated by Wm. K. Clifford, Nature, Vol. VIII, No. 183, pp. 14-17; No. 184, pp. 36, 37. 18. A. W. Russel: ‘The Foundations of Geometry,’ Cambridge, Univer- sity Press, 1847. 19. Robert Simson: ‘Euclid,’ Philadelphia, Conrad & Co., 1810. 20. W. BE. Story: “On the Non-Euclidean Trigonometry,” Amer. Jour. of Math., Vol. LV, p. 332; “On Non-Huclidean Geometry,” Amer. Jour. of Math., Vol. V, p. 80; “On Non-Huclidean Properties of Conics,” Amer. Jour. of Math., Vol. V, p. 358. Pornt-INVARIANTS FOR THE LIE GROUPS OF THE PLANE. By Davip A. RotHRocK. Among the many interesting and important applications of Lie’s Theory of Transformation Groups none deserves more prominent mention than the applica- tion to invariant theory. Whether the invariants dealt with be functions or equations, surfaces and curves or points, equally interesting results are obtained. The present paper has to do with the determination of the point-invariants for the finite continuous groups of the plane as classified by Lie in Vol. XVI. of the Mathematische Annalen. In the first part of the paper is sketched a brief outline of the Lie theory leading up to the point-invariant, then follow the calculations of the invariant functions. An infinitesimal point-transformation gives to x and y the increments Oxo & (x, y) ot, dy ai (x, y) ot, 120 respectively, where ot is an infinitesimal independent of x and y. Such infinites- imal transformations move a point x, y through a distance Vix? $ by? = Fa at, and in a direction given by dy Ox ae: The variation of any function ¢ (x, y) by this infinitesimal transformation is given by dé dé do a9} * 66——? bx 4 © by — be dO) 5 3 - The variation of a function f (x, y) may be taken as a definition of an infin- itesimal transformation; in the Lie notation we have an infinitesimal transforma- tion defined by eek di di AE SSF py) Ge ty) = If a function ¢(x, y) is to remain invariant by the operation Xf, then the variation : b¢ (x, y)=X¢.dt must vanish. Hence, a function % (x, y) invariant by the infinitesimal trans- formation Xf is determined as a solution of the linear partial differential aa Xf=f Gy) Tin (sy) 20. The infinitesimal transformation X f may be extended to include the increments of the co-ordinates of any number of points xi, yi, (i—=1,2....n). We shall write this extended transformation thus: 7 a | 7 (i) me . | end dt df W f = SiX Of = diff (xs yd) ae, +7 (x6 ¥1) = 2, ef eee 1 1 i Yi The functions of the co-ordinates of n points invariant by Wf will be the 2 n—1 independent solutions of Wfi=0. n of these solutions may be selected in the form (xi, yi), where ¢ (x, y) is a solution of X f—0; the remaining n-1 solutions will in general differ from ¢ (x, y) in form.T r infinitesimal transformations X,f, X,f .... Xrf are called independent when no relation of the form c, &, fe, KAI sa kee + erXrf=0, (ci=const.), exists. If r independent infinitesimal transformations Xxf, (k—1...r), be so related as to form a group, then will Tr he (X,f)— X, (X,f)===s ciks Xf, (Ciks—constants) . . . (3) 1 “Throughout this paper df df are employed to denote partial differentials of f with re- dx’ dy Spect to x and y. + Lie: Theorie der Transformationsgruppen, Bd. I., 259. 121 The transformations of the 7-parameter group Xxf may be extended according to the method of (2) above, giving r W,f == SiXOF, (ie—L7 2: E); 1 which determine the increments of a function f (x,, y,; X2, Yo; .... Xn, Yn). Since the relations (3) exist for Xif, Xxf, they must also exist for Wif, Wuxi, that is W,(W,f) — W,( W;f) —— >; Ciks W =. ik Hence, W,f{—0, W,f—0, ... Wrf—0 are known to form a complete system of linear partial differential equations in 2n variables xi, yi, with at least 2n —r independent solutions. These 2n —rsolutions are the invariants of the co-ordi- nates of n points by the 7-parameter group Xxf. These solutions we shall call pownt-invariants. According to the method here outlined we shall determine the point-invariants of the finite continuous groups of the plane. In Lie’s classification these groups are divided into two classes: (1) Inprimitive, or those groups which leave invariant one or more families of «’ curves; (2) Primitive, or those groups leay- ing invariant no family of »” curves. Subdivisions of the imprimitive groups will be indicated in the text. Nore.—The results of the present paper were worked out early in the spring of 1898. Since that time there has appeared a short article by Dr. Lovette, June number, 1898, of Annals of Mathematics, upon the same subject. Only a few of the projective groups are considered, however. Among these are the special linear, and general linear groups. SECTION I. INVARIANTS OF SUCH IMPRIMITIVE GROUPS AS LEAVE UNCHANGED MORE THAN ONE FAMILY OF &’ CURVES. The groups of this category have been reduced by Lie to such canonical forms that they leave invariant: (A) @” of families of ,,’ curves: @ (x) -+-(y)—constant, (B) A single infinity of families of ,’ curves: ax + by —constant, (C) Two families of ,.’ curves: x = constant, y—constant. (A) The totality of curves $ (x) + (y) =constant remains invariant. lg q é * Lie employs this symbol to enclose the members of a continuous group; he dif == i= ; p dx? 1 dy 122 This is the only group of the class (A), and furnishes us when eztended the linear partial differential equation n VW/ Lou he dyi The invariants of the co-ordinates of n points by this group will be the 2n —1 independent solutions of Wf—0, i. e. Xe —— Ve lh — le ge 1] - B. All families of curves of the form ax +- by — constant remain invariant. oe Nia 3: as The complete system corresponding to this group is Wi ate 5 = _ Seg dt 1 dyi =—i()5 with solutions ; $j =x, — Xj, i= yi. — yi, (J=2.... n). The functions ¢, / are the required invariants. 3. | q,xp+yq |. From this group we have r >. di pees dt df ee ee eee eae Ww, S dyi ’ of } 1 et ngtl These two linear partial differential equations evidently have as solutions _ yi—yk,,_ yi— 2, G25 se ore UL) J Xy yl—y2 Xl Ge. which are the invariants sought. 4. | p,q, xpt yx |. This three-parameter group furnishes us the complete system n n nD dt =. at = di dt >i =— = di — = + —— +> =—0. Gan = dyi Bi [ag eg dy 4 The first two of these equations have solutions = x1— Xj, i= y1— yi, (j= 2 .. n), which as new variables reduce the last equation to the form n Sele, Mle aay well dO ma ) 1 a0, Vi aij Hence, the invariants are Ti cee tee ee a eee d2 x1— xe’ we -yi— yea’ X1 — x2 123 (C.) The families of curves x = constant, y = constant, remain invariant. 5. lq, yq |. The complete system corresponding to this group, ede ey ats Ef ayiee ‘ dyzt a? has as solutions xX, and i — (yi— yx): (yi — yo), (11)... Dy kK==3).... 0). Hence. xi and x are the invariants. 6. |q, ya, y’q). This is the general projective group in one variable, and leaves invariant xi and the cross-ratios of any four ordinates. yi dyi == \()} n n n ahi Sys pea _ vd . — tent eaane 5 The first two equations of this system have solutions xi, {x of 5 above. In- troducing these solutions as new variables in the last equation, we have n = dt >k Vi (We —1) did, Ue 3 k whose solutions are —— jl We, — == ee Ws betiay yl Sal yi (Ae 2.6 Gil : = : ; i Ws Ye gt = Ye 5 30))p 7. {a ya pl. This group leaves invariant tie —'(¥, — yu): (¥1 —y2), and ¢4;=x, — x, (k=3 ....n, j=2....n). 8. q, Ya, ¥2q, Pl. The invariants of this group are clearly rs 7277, yu= 7 as in 6, and Yo hee Vite ary ture 068 oj = x, — Xj, as in 7. J" |g, pe xpem evan | The solutions ~j = yi — yi, ¢i — x1 — xj of the first two equations obtained from this group, when introduced in the last one, give n df df ee ey 1 0. at \° ddj 4e Cc Uj nt 124 The required invariants of the group may now be chosen as ee ee X1— X2 yl— y2 yl—ye2 (k=3....n). 10. q, YG, P, XP Comparing this group with 7, we have at once the invariants ig ey ae (k= t3 ean) RAO Bye ANT = FF 11. | q,yq, y7q, Pp, Xp By comparison with 8 and 10, it will be seen that this five-parameter group leaves invariant = Gi 2S re y we we, Ur = — VA Sale eile mame x) Lore) AG eee dak Sr Bae Comparing with 6, it will be seen that this group leaves invariant the cross- ratios of any four abscissas, and ordinates: ae Marca 2 Neath sl] = 2S 2 Ges — : — — eH beset pia) y2—ys yi — ys x2— Xs, Xj — X8 Bee ol) ay es Dt ele This group furnishes the complete system =— S {x a + yi = fa Si {xe 2 +ye 5} ==\(), A ee Ls) ri dxi dyi pans gj=x1— xX}, W=y1— yi, >= 1 — y1 as solutions of the first equation, we have the remaining equations in the form n Fy ee ee Le Wms W, me ke Trak ee? a n . 5 aS 2 at wo ot at __ W.f —— J " oj doy + Wj dij \ =F 0 do —— 0. Solutions of Wit 0 may be taken in the form o Ik bo 2 Yh me i — Y ee — Bice — Lk Qo Wo o Expressing Wef — 0 in terms of these new variables, = df df ». df df 2k {um (1 — ux) se t ve(1—vx) 5 +- w1 (1 — 01) Ae ee ae 125 We may choose the solutions of this last equation as the cross-ratios ul (1 —us) «x2. — x1 _ xX, — XI i IN A A Ere _yl—yl we =: . Se i eee Ahoy, ae 3 (1 — w1) eke) ok xs vs (1 — vi) 2S yal = Ve (a) and the ratios Ot (le =a) a = WD == — . ’ w2 (1 — a1) Wil = VO SS yh Ue) (1 = Wa) Oo i == : j Weil == Wey) 39 SS as } aus. (lor). ae ks a — Xe ~ @1(l1—us) xe—x3 yi— x2 SECTION II. INVARIANTS OF SUCH IMPRIMITIVE GROUPS AS LEAVE UNCHANGED ONE FAMILY OF 0’ CURVES. The remaining groups of the imprimitive type leave invariant one family of o’ curves, and have been reduced by Lie* to such canonical forms that this invariant family is x = const. 14. >. hee. Cc ae. 0 Pa Xrq In this group Xx is a function of x alone, and r>1. Each curve of the family x —const. remains singly invariant. The complete system of linear partial differential equations Wy f= Si Xy(x). 4 <0, (k= k Wits So es ) ( = seu Es corresponding to this group, has as solutions x1, x2, ... xn and n—r other independent functions Ds, (s =1, 2... n —r), which we shall define as the n — r determinants of the matrix ine al va oer nat DA (M,) e7 (ele! wp lefin, io ee) e <3 “Lie; Math. Annalen, Bd. XVI; Contin. Gruppen, Chap. 13. 126 formed by filling the (r + 1)-th column successively by the (r +1), the (r+ 2), .., the n-th column, The invariants are clearly xi and Ds, (i= 1.... n, Sl, e.~ UT); 15, | Xia X2q. Xoq, ---. Xraq, ya | aa This group furnishes the complete system W (ae he (xi) 1 Seer == >; Vi dt —— k —— 5 k 1 . dyi —_— , =—= a a l. dyi — . The solutions of Wxf—0 are clearly xi and the determinants Dz, (s—0,1... n—r), of a matrix (Mr—1) constructed similar to (Mr) in 14. Yf—0O requires the ratios yi: yx to appear in the final solutions. Hence, we may write as invari- ants x; and fe— DE (t = ee —) | e%Fg, xe%=Xq, x"e%Xrg, .... xke™*q, p 16. m Kooi em, 2k ¢,+m=r—l,r>2 From this group we obtain yr . ue di z) = dt ¥ \W kt = Si (xi)tk eMXi, == "0; KES SiS = Oth == 0 te eee 1 dyi 1 dxi The solutions o;=xj— x, of the last equation are also solutions of the system. By dividing the remaining equations, respectively, by e'K*1 the expo- nents of e bacome functions of 9. The independent determinants D., (s=0, 1... n—r), of the matrix (M;,— ,), formed as indicated in 15, will be solutions. The invariants are, therefore, 9; and D.. > - | CEQ, KONG sk Cg. < .s RC ap a7 24) ee ‘ | k=1....m, x¢é,+m—r—2,r>3 1 The complete system given by this group is D n q n Wt f= di (x1)*. oo z = 9 YT Fi On BG fae ee k 1 dyi 1 ayi 1 dxi i a ae NE ea) 127 Asin 16, the functions 4; = xj — x, are solutions of Xf —0 and of the system. If a matrix be constructed as indicated in 14 and 16, from the coefficients of the first r—2 equations, it will be observed that the independent determinants Ds, s=— 1,0,1....n—r), will be linear and homogeneous in yi with coefficients composed of functions of ¢j. Ds will then be solutions of all equations except Yf—0, which requires the ratios of yi to appear. Hence, the invariants may be written Oe Ce Dee Doe. (Jia 2 ony b= 0), 13. 5 an — rr). 18 q, xq; x?q, .... x'q, p, xp-}cyq | ; 13 : Here the complete system is Kee fs 1 at eh 7 fi xi ==" (ic—0)1 £23). Xx Si m= 1 ; 1 ; Vis: fix df - Le Sade = a lesa i rere — The solutions of W,f—0, Xf —0 are Yj =Y1— Yi, (= X1 — Xj Yf expressed in terms of 1), @ becomes with solutions Uk = $x:65, Vij: (¢;)°, (kK=3...n). The functions ux are solutions of the system. We find on introducing ux and vi as new variables in Wf, the partial differential equations Bi po Sie ee ode ee ede = 0) (=e Tr 3), whose solutions may be expressed as determinants D, of the matrix. ai eal lay ely eco) ventel elie” a) (640) 10 2 16,0). '0| Seka) ie (omreiat em sonia l sib 16) ers ais ie '@ Tee. 6% "ee is ie Kee, .@ S.e\ o,fe) (ei) 6) Sy we le) Snes Cen a! Sena) with ses el 6 |. es) @)- 6) ©) 0.0/0 «2 © mine N@, ie\) she. (On 0) e/\s/ ans e 128 Hence, the point-invariants are Xj = Xk X, — X2 Ug = ee 1D} (k= Fs. 2 aa ne ee Gx, X20, Se ED oe) eee . ro The solutions of the complete system = df at Wyf= 2 x SO (k=0, ti Sey Ki — we Lo: r a on df Yr= 2 {x i TIGA +ar—A] b=, may be obtained in a manner similar to 18. The solutions Oi, yj of Xf—0, Wi = 0, introduced as new variables in Yf, give = df df Uf ele ee ° ae Ns i pee jy lpmreaestacain) (CS Y 2s { 94 Ti eae }. ay b= with solutions Wj P td Uk = 9k : $2, Vi = log 9i—- 7 @ 700 3 eto hei p= ees, 12) Introducing ux, vj as new variables in Wf, and reducing, we find } 4 ’ ) Te df =e (t= 2) ar / = te Ss — — Wit = aye t 2H Uk ; Jace (t= et 3) ‘ whose solutions are ux, and the determinants D; of a matrix constructed as in 18. The invariants are, therefore, ie D,, (hk 3. 51 ht oe X,— Xo. 2%). *| q, Xq, X°q, ..---. x*—4q, yq, P, XP |, r>3 For this group a i df W f= di xt — =0, t=0,1,...r—4), 1 n n e n Yf= diy: ey Xx f= el Xf = >i ee 1 dyi 1 dxi 1 dxi The last two equations show that the ratios of the differences of the x’s, say X, —Xk uk —= ———’ (k=8, .... n), XX) Xz 129 shall appear in the final solutions. The n —r--3 independent determinants Ds, (§ = 0,1.... n—r-+ 2), of the matrix Vi Vo Wag 44 3s Vee cae tel TH 1 it Poca! Paras saa a ate ahs 1 Xy Xo See kas ya Lay REO. ee ae Novae Mae Set onis = chs 2, are solutions fof the first r—3 equations Wif—0. These determinants are, at the same time, homogeneous in yi and in xi— xx; their ratios will, therefore, satisfy the requirements of ux and Yf—0. Hence, we may write our 2n—r invariants as Ux— (x, — Xx) :(x,; — x.) and Rt: = Dr: Do, (k= 3...n, t=1... n—r- 2). - 91. | % *4 x°q, .... x*—4q, p; 2xp-+- (r—4) yq, x*pq- (r— 4) xyq . r>4 | From this group we obtain the differential equations n * Ww if : eats eb 0) (V0) Le ==) Kfsi# =o, t dyi J : 1 axi ae ere BS ge pe XxX rer ears sig Chae ee mo” Xf = Si § x32 a = (r— 4) xi yi | ==\)- rt eh bg eh dyi The solutions of Wof = 0, Xf—0 are ¥j—y, — yi, 4; =x, — Xi, respectively. X,f when expressed in these new variables becomes n It ——= Ss; a2 af — = aps a —— AX,i= 2: {4 doi + (r 4) $j Yj ade 0, whose solutions may be selected in the forms 1 1 ; ae es —— w=, (k=8... An os — df x i232 Sem ge +O NG, =O du ‘dvi has solutions oli: ug, %& = Ve: un @—, 6, =v,:u, %—-%, (k= 3.... n, 1=4....n), 9—SCIENCE. 130 The remaining equations W f may be expressed in terms of «, ¢ in the follow- ing forms: df df fig aac Tos +3 PA (Gi) so i Hes og = 0 [d=3 —4)} Phare (a) a, Fo, (eet Ses hy Sen oF The solutions of these equations may be expressed as the determinants Ds, (s=1, ....n—r-+ 3), of the matrix ama A ahem TEM NTE n ea = iil —id 1 Oy O;_345 n —d Gil fad Geis: Ahiacl- spk aecwareielars ache Ge ee) ete W cae eR) Fe Lee) were) ie! tule (6) te, Seem, ee ae Oe Ww OY ere 6. 18) 6 4G) eye) Be me wee. Ve Ke) lau @ Pie) ie The required invariants are, therefore, 2.) > SI Xo 0) =>— : mesh *) Ds, (I= 4. nj s=1) 26 m2 3) X,—Xl X,—x 29 GyexGh xed dneni =a yq, Pp, Xp, x*p + (r— 5) xyq c r>o 7 di sis dt W,f — Di xit — = 0, (t= 0, 1.... r—5), Vis — > dyi ayi 1 1 = es i re o df xX ——— = ax ==(), A, i — om 1 Xi AES — 0, Ser ie es te = = ae iad (r— i») XiVi dy; ‘ The solutions of Wof =0 are Wj—y, those of X,f=0, Xfi=0 are Ux = (x, — xx): (x, — x,.). Xf expressed in 7, u is n * . aie ae Yt Re aie df 1. f == a | Uk (uk 1) dux af (x 5) Uk. dw sr (r == 0)! 9) Wo Z = 0, whose solutions are us (u)—1) - Wik -. SS eee SKS FO es Se Ti (lls al) (ux —1)t-® vw ( = ‘ae (l=4...n,k=3...n). us — 1 131 The remaining equations expressed in these new variables are 11 ae Sau iy gr a ae vise (01) . Fann, ) te (1) W bf 2 4 Si (ay, S=0, =1....r—5), dl, 4 dQ n o 3 hi Y'f ——— >i Sie Fen —— D) iF) The determinants D, (s—0,1.... n—r-+3), of the matrix formed from equations (1) as in 21 will be solutions of (1). Ds will be linear in ¢, but Y'£— 0 requires the ratios of (’s. We may write our invariants as o) = =2 >; ey 18; = ID): 6 Dig (Secon ty HET coon WP apa) Ky 1 XS X38 23. p, 2xp-+ yq, X?p +-xyq- This projective group, leaving invariant the x-axis, furnishes us the com- plete system n . n n : ae =i {2 nua i \= ai {xe Gh + xiyi EN Sasi 1 il ay i Ades dxi | > dyi J ” axi ly: J The first of these equations has solutions yi and 4; = x, — xj. The last equation then becomes n ye APE df } 0 = l j dj sain YiPi dy; ’ with solutions 1 i 63 UW = a == Ox (= ; De Vel ghey dt = df ae Sel epee SOUS: — 7 dy, a ee v3 dv; z aa eda whose solutions we may choose in the forms ul ee eG ete eee — a. = EOS Wes (Gas ean kei... Bie Our inyariants are xX, — Xk k eng b b-€5) —— 2.8 — : Pe te I ee, C= es, 2, 25 2.55 Sh 2. Gi 9S) NG: YiYe 255 ee SEVP ne! whose geometric significance is apparent. 24. | yq, p, Xp, X7p + nyq |. 132 This herd projectivelgroup yields the complete system n Qn n = df , » af ~~. hai 3 yin a ae a. |x ae +- Xiyi zt ===) se we ae the ae Serif ee yi’ of the first two equations in the last two, and have af df df ) ea —- — | — 3 Pi aan =3: }0° 2 : 06; ?j% i Ou; f 0. The last of ne new ee is satisfied by eee Hs i uf] (k= 6 252. Rp 2 a O, OK 5” the first now becomes 3k u — 3 «du The solutions of this equation are the requred invariants: el a ee Fk an SECTION III. INVARIANTS OF THE PRIMITIVE GROUPS. The remaining finite continuous groups of the plane leave no family of .,” curves invariant, and may be reduced by a proper choice of variables to some one of the canonical forms known as (1) special linear, (2) general linear, (3) general projective.* 25. The special linear group | P, 4, Xq,; XP — Yq, yp | « The invariant functions of the codrdinates of n points will be the 2n — 5 inde- ate solutions of the complete system . n n > ° n df df { dt i df —_—_ = i »—— di . Fase Apes CCE — 33 iz a Ovi — 7 dyi ae Fae 2 dyi J ri Yt xi Oe *Lie: Math. Annalen, Bd. XVI, p. p. 518-522, also Contin. Gruppen, p. 351. 133 The first two equations show the solutions of the system to be functions of i —— ey — Va 2 es 1) The remaining equations then take the forms n M n ‘a ° n = df f df df dt Sigs =2i 445 -— vy —- } = divs =o. ........ 2 gee hig |e ae dys “y * dos 2) The second of these equations has solutions uj = $j Vj, Vk = 0, Vx, (K=38.... n) With u and vy as new variables, the first and third of equations (2) become ig ee 2 df - df JESS i= el eae gee | ee ee (3) du, Vi? dux vk dv J EA se iE) ive di fee di Se Se Se Gye en (4) ahs U2 5 Uk Vs 3 dvx The solutions of (3) are found to be Vk VK? 7 —— oo — 1 — Uk : Uk Equation (4) then reduces to n = if Ubi oes cats) a Coe ee are whose solutions may he written vane Dy == 4 eerl\)s 1 16 a— an : OK $1 23 Since any functions of I’, J will be the solutions of (1), we may choose Ox a | = = [12k | and Dy= Hy ty =|182/, k = oO 4 Xj yi l where | ijk |=J| xj yjl|, Xk Yk 1 as solutions, and, therefore, as the 2 n — 5 invariants of the group. The forms of I’ and D show that the special linear growp leaves invariant all areas. 26. The general linear group P, 4) Xq, XP—Yq, YP, XP+-yq) - This group furnishes a complete system of six linear partial differential equa- tions, the first five of which are identical with equations (1) of the preceding sec- tion. Hence we need only determine the functions of I’ and D which satisfy n “of df di i ~ Xxi—— isz—-,—0. = i ‘dx, 1 dyi ). 154 This equation requires x, y to enter in the final solutions to the degree zero. Hence, we may write at once the invariants in the form Di Jp p= 1131) 21128], (l= 4... m). I and J show that by the general linear group the ratio of areas remains constant. 27. The general proejctive group P, qd, X4, XP — Yq, YP, XP + Yq, X°p + Xyq, Xyp+y’q |. The members of this group extended and equated to zero furnish a complete system of eight linear partial differential equations, the first six of which are identical with those of the general linear group, and therefore have solutions I, J, defined in 26. The last two equations, a r : n gt RS an iri LSS BO pe Bi fat tg Ja at alae when expressed in terms of I, J, become somewhat complex, 'viz.: df if - Q) Ty Gy —“Ie—V) Gp + Sm | Tw CFn Ind Fe $F) gt Jm (Le Jm— In Jig —Jm—+ i :;—1) aa=0 n I, (J, —1I, +1) = -+3m4 Jim (1, Im— In’, —ImHT) eh 5 m 9 (2) ( Im (I, Jm—ImJ, —In+J,+1 — Loo. After considerable manipulation, the solutions of (1) are found to be zs m a Im J4 l, __ 9m I I (Is ? 1) (Mm —Oies.5 1) Sra ORE 5 gest 77 (Ou — W421} With Iy, om, vm as new variables, equation (2) becomes df May, an + ime = dom = 0, with solutions Qn = — — Wm 135 il + wm ead restoring the variables Selecting as invariants Qm and Hm = aa Xi yi, we have 2 mal tS mn | [124° | 23-4 ae ira les aa ey oe Pee a | The forms of Q and H show that the general projective group leaves invariant the cross-ratios of five points. DIFFERENTIAL INVARIANTS DERIVED FROM Pornt-INVARIANTS. By Davin A. RotTHrock. In an accompanying article concerning Point-Invariants, the writer has shown how a group s lf di Xf = &(x, y) 5+ mx, y) > (K=1.... 0), may be eztended to include the increments of the codrdinates of n points. members of a group may be eztended in a different manner, and indeed so as to The include the increments of dy, d’y dy dx dx? dx? For example, the group Xxf gives to x and y the increments = &y ot" oy =r ot" =) COUN) Ss the increment — ) 2a] Wl Bye dx . ddy aes . Odx ie Aix — yds Bf i. dx? dx ais d?y ; : Similarly, y’” = —- receives the increment dx a 7/7 ia dy” = i ea ALTE eae i Ot, dx and.in general ss (Geni) an dy™) — dn dx aes Ot = mn ™ bt. 136 The group Xxf so extended ee: 7 — Dee Mi a a dy * > © Lie has Mss that the extended lt i cai form an r— parame- oe Re) dy™) F ter group since the bracket relations (Xi. 3 Xy™) = —— Xf (X at) — XK ™ f) = — Seieee Re , ealsire eel ; exist. But when relations (1) hold, the equations di ages te df ease os a ee Ss; (i) =— q vs ae a = T's dy® are known to form a complete system of linear partial differential equations in 2--m variables. This system has at least 2--m-—r independent solutions which are defined as the differential invariants of the group Xxf. In Lie’s paper cited above it is shown that if two independent differential invariants be known, all others may be found by differentiation. For example, if the two fundamental differential invariants be ,, 0,, then p, do t= Ft b= Bt oles Tous The fundamental differential invariants 0, (x,y, y,, Yo, ----Yr—1), %» (x, Y, Yi, Y2,-- Yr), of an r-parameter group may, in general, be obtained from a somewhat different point of view, and indeed without a knowledge of the form of the group itself, provided the point-invariants of the group be known. Let us suppose the points of a point-invariant 0 (x, y, x/), y(!....) to lie upon a curve x = f, (t), y =f, (t), where f,, f, are analytic functions of the parameter t. Weseek the nature of the invariants when two or more points upon this curve approach coincidence. If x, y be a point for t= to, then a point x ®), y ™, ultimately coincident with x, y, will be given by 2 2 x(2) = x—+x’dt+ x Op Lon YOmy tye py” SM ee *Lie: Ueber Differentialgleichungen, die eine Gruppe gestatten. Mathematische Annalen, Bd. XXXII. +Throughout this paper we shall employ the following notation : (a) x,y; x(2), y(2); x(3), y(3); .... are points of the plane. ,__ ax nf Loy SALy. Prat ch f (b) x eS res = de eee Vy ma | ae vo dt (ec) y= dy a vy, ; hence, we have y’ = y, x’ 71 dx 72 ~~ dx? EAR, ’ ’ Ya ’ ¥’ = yo (x)? + yx, Y= ¥o(x)? + By ex’ x” + ik «sss 137 and similarly with other parameters for any number of consecutive points. On substituting these series expansions of x(i), y(i) in 9, we shall evidently obtain an invariant function. If now 9 be capable of expansion in a power-series with regard to dt, dr, ..., we shall have the coefficients, I, (x, y, x’, y’, ...), I, (x,y, x’, y’,...), ..-, of the powers of dt, dr, ... separately invariant, since the para- a, meters t, rf, «... are arbitrary. In I,, I,, I; .... we may express y’, y’’, y’””,... AR MUNCHONSIOL, yrnse Yast ete Kg Ky, Xp statins ma Livthen. ly 0 hss... mayaue so combined as to eliminate the differentials Xxx (ee wer shall obtain MivArlanin tUMCtLONS: Oy) (XS) Ys Va5 Yay ee ee ), $2) 93, ---., Which are differential invariants in the sense already defined. The calculation of differential invariants by the method just outlined is sometimes quite laborious. Below is given a consideration of some of the more characteristic groups. SECTION I. DIFFERENTIAL INVARIANTS DETERMINED BY TWO POINTS. In the present section are computed the differential invariants for some of the more simple groups of the plane, and indeed for such as have point-invariants for two distinct points. Only two differential invariants have been determined for each group; all others may be found from these by differentiation.* 1. The group Lala | has the point-invariants x(i), ~, —y—y(2). Expressing y(2) in terms of a para- meter t, we have ultimately / Ble eee ye vb, =y —(y i y dt eh i 2 “= area) Since dt is arbitrary, y’, y”, .... are singly invariant. y = x’y,, but x’ as well as x is invariant, hence y, is invariant, and our differential invariants may be written 2. The group Pa | has the point-invariants u, =x — x(2), v, =y — y(2). Hence, we have ee dee ae dt? Hye (Xe he ee Vn yy — (yb y dt y ame a *Lie: Math. Annalen, Bd. XXXII, p. 220. 138 which show x9 507/p.0.50. py oY 52 i«e, to. be invariant: . But Y=yix, y”= y2(x’)?-+y,x’”’; hence, y,, y. must each be invariant. ete ——F ty Pa Yai 3. The point-invariants of the group \ a xpt+yq | x (2) — y®) are ge are Boy 2 x P 4 Introducing the series expansion of x(2), y(2), uy — (x x/dt-} x” Bo) foxss dt? = {y—(ytyat+y” > + wile oo ecg eda | aed ao ’ x x hence y, is invariant on account of (1). ty Za x’ / 2 y fey +y,x x == = Ya His a els poral. — 0, = XxX} eg F >< D4 x x Therefore, ¢, = y;, $, = xyz. 4, The group Pq, xp+yq | has the point-invariants x — x) x—x@ One differential invariant may be computed from u, alone, but a second cam not be had on account of impossibility of the elimination of the parameters. We therefore consider three points determined by t, r. ] dt? ws =jy-(ytyat+y”4 ie —4+. minal ai a y’ dt yy” y’ x” dt2 y’ (x/’)2 y’ x’ lor 4 T DN aro ne (rhe )+ 2 CAGES oe rat BD) 139 2 2 v3= [x—@+x/ dr px” + eo} : Jx—x(4x/dtpx7S + eat dr rs rd x Ne (pi tees aN 2 x44 Te wa (S) +aede | (G7) —4}+ Pe tepad : These functions show x’ y’ y yy yx’ a I, = yi, 1,= a (x2 = Jo x’, and fe yi’ a y/ CG ot yx” ‘y/ (x//\? y; (x’) ; yx” 3 83x’ 2x’)? 3 (x’)? 9 (x4)8 3 = UE 9 to be invariant. Eliminating the parameters x’, x’’, we have 2 ti cer ets a }is-+1,— 35} -I,= CA SECTION Il. DIFFERENTIAL INVARIANTS DETERMINED BY THREE OR MORE POINTS. In the case of the more complex groups it is necessary to bring into consid- eration three, four, five, .......... points, and consequently employ additional Paramevers, Ty So... « 5. For three points, the group |p a xp + eyq | | possesses the point-invariants y — y(2) x — x(3) Se ST EEO) ae ean en Or Expressing u, in series expansion for x(2), y(2), we have y—(y-ty/dt-iy” 22 +.) LS = 7 77 At2 c 13 (x+x’dt +x a+ ate eon pi SES Ry , x7 ~ lyst (vB) + 140 The series expansion of v, is identical with that of v, in 4 above. Hence, the invariant functions may be written x’ x// xiv I en y’ AS Yi ,% // 4/ x’? ee ee 1 (x’)e (x’je-1 ext a (xe (x’)er1 Van 5 kG (@wyee TB G7 SSS Sed // v // 2 S// I,= 2 7 a 7° es Ts = pe Bt Oe er oe (CxO) x Ee rx 6 x x” x rx) 2) yi yen thar Ge (bo et ke er) fee From these relations follows at once the invariance of Bde Y2 Y3 (x Kea? (x)= 2 (x )e— 8: By eliminating x’, we have y— y”) —y" fe 6. | q, yq | leaves invariant x and vy, = Expanding v, in series, f dr? ees dt? ) Vg =34yY—(y+y’ dr+ vy” —— Jrisy—(y+y’ dt ees ey dr gir: yr” Or i AGP ee — — ———dr? | — + dt 2. 9 Qy’ J : y” se which gives invariant functions —,—, ..... The functions x, x’, x” .... 7 ay, are also invariant. we) y: 7 ig h == 5 ee tga ee Y2 y= x eo — a 7. The group q, ¥9; P has point-invariants y — y(3) u, = x— x(2), v, => _ . pap 141 We have, as in 6, the invariant functions Za / yy x6 Vox >.< vA f/f SSS 2 J 2 Xe ex: soon Ly = 7 = a ) b] ? > ’ 1 y’ Yi x’ yy Y; (x’)2 : Jax’ e da I, = = =F : 7 I 7 M/ Yi yi x Vv ee ae Y3 ft Yai 8. The point-invariants of the four-parameter group i eS yq x — x) y y?) eae a3 x — x’)? oy y— yo The series expansion for u,;, v, in powers of dt, dr will be identical with those for v, in 4 and 7, respectively. Hence, we have the invariant differential functions : > A Map 24 QI) GT) GP Crete t eee eens Pai) | and tf jae Sf 1f / / ff et eR Ee aR 9, gYaw A ee SS 2 SS a 1 oe" r 4) iy y1 x yi Yi yy me I Eye Vax SG Oval Ee)? en Y2X’ (= omy ocd ss : x Ya . Y1 ae Wai = x’ my Hence, on account of (1), we have the invariant functions / Vk yin (x) eS ] ? ? Yi Van Yi from which it is only necessary to eliminate x’ in order to obtain our required differential invariants: 9. The general projective group in one variable a ¥4) ¥74 y® == (4) y?) — y) y—y® * y—y® Using t, r,s as auxiliary variables, R takes the form, for ultimately coinci- dent points leaves invariant x and R= Be bt ...), 142 where « = (y’ dt + y” ao gas hy ase). and } 2 2 po~aty’S see eg dey ey Arranging R according to positive powers of dt, dr, ds, and omitting super- fluous terms, we find c R= 45 dtd f r) ia ( mera pen * ai iv SS et lS 4/ 3 seat dee tau) Se ee SD (ese yY y” ye" ( oe i } 2 iM a y/// t (ds? — dr? aa Apes spate id i Q4(y’)? By” J l Qy’ J —— “By? le From these coefficients we may determine the differential invariants. $, =x. I ie x, pais ) 2 - (x’)? 274 Y3— 3y2” a: x’ ae Ee 2 7 rT en ae 12 ¥i2 6x’ Det ee ‘6, = 2¥1 Ys — 3Y2” Yi2 4 cally fae dyn V3 by 2° eat > He Aa 24 te 7, a AW Bs yi? J 24 $2 + 1, (x), $= ts 472% ses 1 Yi (x* 75 = Vora Ya Vins Vios is = _ == — 4 = 1 —-— 9 —— : 120 | yi Yar ya vie 5 A ses (x yee (x’)* nets ai 24 ?3 720 2% +- 72 , +1, (x); y Yay a AN Pe Yo" 3 Vig Sp ee Op aa aah esl 7 22 Ys gf Ye 1* ‘ va Ly, J ie Ya Ly, J In some of the following paragraphs we shall need the forms I,, I,, here computed. Incidentally we have computed the differential invariants ¢,, $4. 10. The group | 4, ¥4, ¥7q, P has the same differential invariants as 9 above, with the exception of ¢,, which must be omitted. We shall have, therefore, ¢,, 03, 04, as defined above. 148 11. By the group q, YG, Yq, P, xp the functions I,, I,, I, of 9 remain invariant, also —, —, —, .... as in’8. > CI AR These invariant functions must be so manipulated that the x’s are either elimi- 4/ x’ nated or made to appear as ratios Sh eae tack Since: i (x), I5Ge) . are tf SI, F x? 1x : PRN already functions of a7) gf? we may omit these, and write simply t)38 + ¢, 0 ee J, =46,(x’)’, J L / Boe J, = $4 + a(x) "x" + 4? Sone Eliminating x’, x ; Yaues SVawWieens (alle ( 5 fe ae a Ps Yi Vie ram Neisite oa {Je 1 7} iI y= (0,)3 lee aa 1 tn) te DP (ee (fe me poe by Ga ard, ! © go. fax? ob, (%’) ( SO Gaara Jr 5 le Rts so Oe sae oo” ox Hence, A =— (x’)? is invariant. 2 s { y. 2 a2 3 4 da ig Maas Ea 417327 ¥a_g evze) pie ete PU ga Yi Wat) Yi Yai) see og cron ae aa 2 vf aot J ®,, ®, are the two fundamental differential invariants. 12. It has been shown that the group DS Gig) Nem... Aokrg, 7). Xiang 1c cal | leaves invariant x and the determinant Nf ye ye eh Seale ENG; Gey ee ee) het) YOK Ge tD) | X@ XG BGO of KGET D) 144 We shall denote the parameters for x(2), x(3) .... by t, s,..... , respectively, and have series expansion for Xi(x(2)) in the form dt? Xj(x@) = K(x 4 xatp x” 4 2” go met? = X.(x ) + X;(x) x/at + {Xj (x). x/2 + X (x). Ale jee + {Xj'(~).x + BX (x).x’x” + Xx)” | + + [ Xyr(x).x* + OXY (x).x/2x” + BX j(x).2? + ada aN F dt* A ey aa KGa) a |e. as 1 Dee with like expansions for Xj(x(3)),... in parameters s,...... Substituting these series expansions for Xi in the above determinant and subtracting vertical columns in a proper manner, we have V Wak seine Vole )P 5. Wo(x’)® oe. Ve ge) By Age ees Dep)? +. Ky e+... .. KET epee CA CRIS Vos @ OM V6 .€ 4 EO Seas OO ULOCC CO SHED OVC HOTT ESERD ER SD rad dso ess 6 Oa @ 6 4 a Sa EnEiS Siw eid) tie > woe» oe «ves 6S SS Wise 6p bd new Oe Se we 8 ew ee we wl we 8 ee 5 ale a ein YS Dial eTne Or disregarding x’, x’, ... which are invariant, and retaining only the ele- ments of lowest degree in dt, ds, ...... , we have Since x is also invariant, ~” a= aes, which would be the above determinant with x the last column changed to Vy 40 xrt 2 Saket Geet 145 13. X14 Xa, secrete Doel ¢ yq | leaves invariant x and the ratio Po : Py where dy, dy are determinants defined in 12. Since x also remains invariant, we may write our differential invariants 14. The special linear group |_P, 4 xq, XP—yq, YP | has the point-invariant x y 1 =x y" 1 x?) y°” 1 Expressing x), y x) y”) in series expansion in terms of t, s, x y 1 7 ee die yy Py dts Sa acy E 2 2 rex! dae yty’ds+y” ce Sea tek dt ds? dt ds* dt ds* | dt? ds? dt ds® = Eps — EN fe pees Eo NL ane OAT, aman a ine eas 2 4 oa dt? ds 48 De Ye XN — Yo) aia Xt PE”, Pr ng ees (Ela eee yom =| overs Ce ty (a)? x7, i; — x/// y” — x y//’ =y, [ (x’)2 x’ — 3x’ (x’’)?] =. (x’)8 x I, = x’ yY— x’ y’ =y, (x’)® + 10y, (x’)* x” + 15 (x’ x”)? + 10y, (x)? x” + =P ly; xxx (e- by es" I, =x” yiv— xiv” = y, (x’)* x” + by, (x x”)? + yo [3 (x)? + 4x! x” x — x5 (4) xiv i 5 10—ScIENCE. 146 From these six invariant functions we eliminate the differentials x’ x”, ...- obtaining the differential invariants: 1 = (3 Ll, — 12, —5 1,7] : (11)3 = Bray, — Sys?) t ys! do= [15 Lal, 8 El, eo eS (1, — 3 1,)| :1,4 { 8y2?75 — loysysya +4 y athe 15. The general linear group _P, 4) Xq, XP — Yq. YP, XP + yq | leaves invariant the quotient x y 1 | a y 1 Q =| x@ y® 1]:} x@) ye) 1 x(3) y(3) 1 | x(@) y(4) 1 ee y i x y 1 Q=|x+x/dt+... yty/dt+...1 >| x+x’ds+... y+y’ds+... 1 | x+x’ds+... yt+y’ds+... 1 x+xdr-+... y+ydr+...1 Ned fet 1 | dt ds? | + k,I, | dtds* | +-k,I, | dtds* | +k,I, | dt?ds? | +) ~ tks I, | dt ds® | +k,I, | dt?ds*|+-k. ‘I, | adtde® | + k.I, | dt? ds® | + Ls | +] k,I, | at? dst | J ; { Similar expression in ds, dr. o : __ | dta dtb : : where kj are constants, | dtadsb | — dsa dsb |» 20d Ii are functions de- fined asin 14. The form of this expansion for Q shows at once the invariance of the quotients I,:.1,, 1,:1,,....:.. . Denoting these ratios by R, we have R, = il Sty =(x"y LI Py x’ y’): (x’/y¥/% — x yt). R, =1, :1, =x’y” — xivy’): 1, R, a+ I, : 1 — (xy — x’ ae Oe Les BE, = 1:1, =«2’y' —x’y’) : 1, BR, = 1, 21, = (x“y"— xi"y”) : L,, RB, = 1,21, = (x4 — x"y’) 2h, R, = 1, : 1, =(x”y"—2"y”) : 1, R, =1,:1, = (x’y'¥ — xy”) : I. 147 In these eight functions we must express y'in terms of yi and x‘, and then eliminate the differentials x’, x’, .... This work of elimination is quite tedious, but may be briefly indicated. We construct three functions. 3Y2¥4 — OY 37 ay Yea oie — i (CMEC 40 B= 15R, +3R,+-> BR,’ —15 R, R, + 30R, R, 3y27¥; — ldyeysya + ys? - ioienys ae ieee a; (x’)3, C=18R, + 3R,—60 R, —21 R, R; — 3? R,* + 35 R,?R,+70R,?R, + 210R,? 3Y2° Ve —2ly2*¥s¥s + 992 Vs" Ys —*s' Ya" (5, — 4 (x ile Y2 and eliminate from these x’, giving the differential invariants 3 ®,= (8y2*ys —l0 yoysys +42 3°) : (8y2¥4 — dys”) @, = (3y2°y6 —21 ya’ Ya¥s + S0Va¥s"¥4 — 3s Ys") : (8y2¥4 — OY37)”. MATHEMATICAL DerFinitions. By Mosss C. STEVENS. PERFORMANCE OF THE TWENTY-MILLION-GALLON SNow Pumprine ENGINE oF THE INDIANAPOLIS WATER Company. By W. F. M. Goss. The fact that a pumping engine recently installed within the State of Indiana has given a duty performance higher than that previously re- ported for any pumping engine in any country is deemed of sufficient moment to merit the attention of the Academy. This engine was built by the Snow Steam Pump Works of Buffalo, N. Y., and its installation at the Riverside station of the Indianapolis Water Company was completed in season for an acceptance test in July, 1898. It is a triple-expansion, fly-wheel engine, having a single acting pump below and in line with each of the three steam cylinders. Its principal dimen- sions are as follows: Diameter of cylinders: Inches. High pressure ..... eh atclctsletslereratctereretaraac cs) sla sis ss 6 ee ee)'s «.° 29 AN TErMeCIAtE) Fo se. 02 6 Ho Bio Oop cect ceciehaitactn? iC Ina Cacao 52 NFO WW PUCSSULOD ola nelsvercter a eicieteicis © cee civv.F c\r epee arate atenere le. si'e 80 148 Diameter of piston rods: Inches. HF CH PLESSUTe )Ae.. 1 28s wi siats She hate apne Soyo! alapexe eee Me peta ate 6 Intermediatey < St26u sat Re eit be os. deltas seers 7 HOW DLESSIre "mee | Pe Re ee oS occa el ea nek ceaeae 8 Diameter of pump plunger (three single acting)........... 33 Sizoke. of fall opistonsyand splungers. 2 cise sods oss ee oe 60 The more important conditions prevailing during the test of July 5 were substantially those of every-day service, and were as follows: HevoliHons? PermInGLe ye ~ 50. oss as eine bee aes OS eer. ce oe 21.5 SLCATHY DPESSUER *h cee er bie te cine ae epee te eneee te ale wate 155.6 Total pressure against which pumps were operated (water pressure against which pumps delivered, plus suction LET) OO UNO Rates cases Acts, ates eta oP ee oc Pee ee ee $3.7 PNCICATERH HOPS WIO WEL. scree wists sic a ows ois aie oe Come ota 115.5 Under these general conditions it was found that the engine performed 11,725,000,000 foot-pounds of work at the pump, on a consumption of 79,- 093,000 British thermal units, giving a duty per million B. T. U. of 150.1 million foot-pounds, a performance which, as already noted, exceeds by a liberal margin that obtained in any test, the results of which have thus far been published. A comparison of the performance of this engine with that of two other famous engines is as follows: Name of designer or builder......... E. P. Allis Co. ....E.D. Leavitt, Jr. Snow Steam Pump Works. locality. .> Prof. E. F. Miller. Prof. W.F.M.Goss. Capacity—million gals. in 24 hours..18.................. Sascha sone eee 20. indicated horke: power, L/P s.8, 22.010 Oo ae nes See 1D Lav cwomelcs een Dees Duty based on 1,000,000 heat units, expressed in million foot-pounds. .137................. LEN RL BES eee BA Sea es (be le The work incident to the test was advanced by careful, painstaking and conservative methods, and it was believed at the time that the results obtained were as worthy of confidence as those ordinarily derived from such work. In view, however, of the remarkable performance obtained, and to avoid any possible questioning concerning the performance of the 149 engine, the Indianapolis Water Company, with great liberality, arranged for a second test which should be so complete as to admit of a thorough analysis of its action. This second test was run early in the present month (December 3, 1898), and, while all the facts to be derived from it have not yet been determined, enough is known of them to make certain the accuracy of the previous work. The exceptional performance of the engine having, therefore, been carefully established, it is evident that the engine represents a very high standard of engineering practice. It marks the engineering progress of the day. This makes it not only a machine in which its owners may take just pride, but one which lends lustre to the whole State. Tests TO DETERMINE THE EFFICIENCY OF LocoMOTIVE BoILER COVERINGS. By W. F. M. Goss. The extent of heat losses occurring by radiation from a modern loco- motive boiler under service conditions has long been a matter of specula- tion. There have been many investigations to determine the radiation from pipes and other steam heated surfaces, usually within buildings, but until recently no tests have been made which would disclose the effect of the air currents which, at speed, circulate about a locomotive boiler. During the past summer (1898), however, Mr. Robert Quayle, Superin- tendent of Motive Power of the Chicago and Northwestern Railroad Com- pany, in co-operation with manufacturers of boiler coverings, and, with the assistance of the undersigned, undertook to determine both the heat losses from a boiler and the relative value of several different makes of boiler coverings designed to reduce such losses. The following is a brief abstract of a report of results submitted to Mr. Quayle: In carrying out the tests, two locomotives were employed; one to be hereafter referred to as the “experimental locomotive’ was subject to the varying conditions of the test; the other being under normal conditions and serving to give motion to the experimental locomotive, and, also, as a source of supply from which steam could be drawn for use in maintain- ing the experimental boiler at the desired temperature. The experimental locomotive was coupled ahead of the normal engine, and, consequently, 150 was first when running to enter the undisturbed air. The action of the air currents upon it, therefore, was in every way similar to those affecting an engine doing ordinary work at the head of a train. The boiler of the experimental locomotive was kept under a steam pressure of 150 pounds by a supply of steam drawn from the boiler of the normal engine in the rear. There was no fire in the experimental boiler, which at all times was practically void of water. Precautions were taken which justified the assumption that all water of condensation collecting in the experimental boiler was the result of radiation of heat from its exterior surface. This water of condensation was collected and weighed, thus serving as a means from which to calculate the amount of heat radi- ated. The dimensions of the experimental boiler are shown by Table I: TABLE I. Dimensions of Boiler. PpaMeters inl CHES! fs ey pein b-cistee betas dele eatavale ata tomy ciate selene 52 Heating surface: (Sqttare feet). ccs ciciec ccs owe calsictee, crate 1,391 Total area of exterior surface, not including surface of RIO eee MOE. Si cesisectds seer eee nies eee ales Steere sis o Gistanee stceuats \é 358 Area of surface, covered (square feet) 2... ews cece wales 219 Area of steam heated exposed surface not covered........ 139 Ratio of surface covered to total surface................. 61 The results of the tests, briefly stated, are shown in Table II: TABLE II. Pounds of Steam at 150 Pounds Pressure Condensed per Minute. Bare: belleriat Test... toeh a oe eee seiner ses Meee ete 6.8 UST Nach ays fos oin wis ea laze edetataie ote tete a viele tecs cle tele ane, aie tisuate ere omen tems 14.3 Boiler covered in the usual way with approved material— 61 per cent. of the total surface only being protected—at TM Se eye as aistetnelevsia salolererate-d ie air \sis a stx'eys tines onaetsl eae a at sche 3.0 Boiler covered in the usual way with approved material— 61 per cent. of the total surface only being protected— moving at a uniform speed of 28.3 miles per hour ....... 5.38 Lot Assuming a rate of steam consumption by engine, and an evaporative efficiency of the boiler which represent results obtained in fair, average practice, the heat losses disclosed by the preceding figures may be trans- formed into power losses, which are as follows: TABLE III. Horse- Power Equivalent of Heat Radiated from Boiler. BALM UOMeI a OCOMOLMVE Wa ba LES Gers creer ereycere ciel sie) sissies -ici aeisie. © 12 Bare boiler, locomotive running 28.3 miles per hour...... 25 Boiler covered with approved material in a manner com- mone to sood practice, locomotive at TeSt: 2... .2cs. +06. oe 4.5 Boiler covered with approved material in a manner com- mon to good practice, locomotive running 28.3 miles per ligne. non oogsnpene se arrarahieouel o\ex a) sheiaeraiaialisiiate atch miage tate ete stateherelse’« 9.3 Again, the results obtained afford a basis from which calculations may be made to show the extent of losses which will occur when the locomo- tive is run at higher speeds and under lower atmospheric temperatures. For example, it can be shown that had the boiler tested been run at a speed of eighty miles an hour under a steam pressure of 200 pounds, when the atmospheric temperature is 0 degrees, it would, if bare, have radiated an amount of heat which is the equivalent of sixty-seven horse power, and if covered in the most approved manner it would have radi- ated an amount of heat which is the equivalent of twenty-five horse power. It will be seen that the radiation losses are quite sufficient to merit the earnest attention of those interested in improving the performance of locomotives. Tue Leonrps or 1898. By Joun A. MILuEr. As the results of the observations of the Leonid shower of 1898, made at various places in the United States, are accessible, this note shall only have to do with the observations made at Bloomington, Indiana. We limited ourselves chiefly to two classes of observations. First, the determination of the number of Leonids that fell during certain periods of time between November 12 and November 19. We hoped from this data 152 to determine the density and the width of the stream at this point in its path. We had prepared a circular map of the sky with a radius of about 32° and a center near y Leonis, and confined our watch to this portion of the heavens. The following table exhibits the results of these observations. It should be added, however, that these observers were making their first meteor observations and that their judgment as to whether a given meteor was a Leonid or non-Leonid was probably in many instances pre- judiced in favor of the former. Hence I am inclined to believe that about eighty per cent. of the meteors observed were Leonids; the remainder be- longed to other streams. wm pate, | Beried | Bare jee] Copan Remar AF November 12. | 4.00a.m.| 4.30a.m.! 15 | Cloudless ..... Nodistinction as to class of meteors November 12..| 4.30 Sent 5.00a.m.) 21 | Cloudless ....| No distinction as to class of meteors November 12. ./11.00 p.m.|12.00 m. |......| Cloudy 5. .<: November 13../11.00p.m./12 00m. |...... | Cloudy ....... November 14../12.01 a.m. 4.00 a.m.|...... | Cloudy ....... | Not a break in the sky. November 14. -| 4,00 a.m. 5.00 a.m. 2 Clondy.-.-..-: | Only a small patch of sky visible. November 14.. 11.00 p.m.12.00p.m.) 41 | Cloudless ....! November 15. ./12.11 a.m.|12.30 a.m.| 20 | Cloudless ....| November 15. ./12.30 a.m.12.45 a.m.| 18 | Cloudless.... November 15. ./12.45 a.m.) 1.00 a.m.| 14 | Cloudless ....| November 15. | 1.00 a.m.) 1.15 a.m.| 14 | Cloudless .... November 15..| 1.15 a.m.) 1.30a.m.| 22 | Cloudless .... i] bo November 15..| 1.30 a.m. 1.45 a.m. Cloudless .... November 15..| 2.00a.m. 2.15a.m.) 20 | Cloudless ....| November 15..| 250 a.m. 3.05a.m.) 27 | Cloudless ....| November 15..| 4.10 a.m.) 4.30a.m.) 28 | Cloudless.... | Of these, 25 were certainly Leonids. November 15. .|10.30 p.m./11.20 p.m.|None Cloudless ....| Noy. 15-16..... )11.50 p.m.12.25a.m.) 1 | Cloudless e. This was a Leonid. November 16..|} 4.30a.m.) 5.00a.m.| 6 | Cloudless a These were Leonids. November 19..| 1.00a.m. 1.30a.m.) 1 | Cloudless ....| This was a Leonid. It was as bright a __| _asRegulus. On November 15, at 3:02 a. m., a green point of light appeared in the sickle at about right ascension 10h and declination 22°. Gradually the point of light seemed to spread until it covered an area. In a few seconds 153 this area faded slowly and disappeared. It was the only stationary meteor that we observed. Many meteors were observed that appeared outside the region covered by the map. These are not included in the foregoing table. For example: I watched the region surrounding Orion (not in the map) from 1:45 to 2:00 a. m., November 15. Fifteen bright Leonids were observed. The meteors were rarely as bright as the first magnitude stars. The longest trail that we saw was about 110° long, but the average length was not more than 20°. The accompanying figure is that of a normal Leonid as I saw them. The head of the brightest meteors seemed globular, and to be slightly separated from the tail as if it were surrounded by an envelope of non- luminous gas. The globular appearance was doubtless due to irradiation. The color of the head was generally yellowish red, a little more yellow than Mars, suggestive of a heated iron passing from a white-hot to a red-hot temperature. The tail or train was blue or green. The brighter the tail the greener it appeared. It seemed to me, also, that the brighter trains had a bright, narrow, perfectly straight streak or spine, exactly in the middle of the tail, and in the path described by the head. That whatever cause produced the tail was more intense in the broad part, is shown by the fact that the broad part faded out last, and in case of a very bright meteor some seconds after the head had disappeared. Our second object was to obtain a permanent record of the paths de- scribed by the meteors, and to determine the radiant. To this end we platted the paths on the maps as the meteors fell. In all about 225 paths were platted on four different maps. The paths were then produced. Many of them intersected in a comparatively small area. The average of four determinations for the radiant gave Right ascension=9h, 45m; Declination=21°, 40m. The number of Leonids that fell during the last shower was not so large as anticipated. This augurs well for a large shower November 13-16, 1899. The observations also show that the stream is wider than formerly supposed. 154 A Linear RELATION BETWEEN CERTAIN OF KLEIN’s X FuNcTIONS AND SIGMA Functions oF LowErR Division VALUE. By JoHn A. MILLER. Professor Felix Klein has defined a system of interesting functions by the following equation* : m— 1 es (aya, EE a arora. ys (So. Net (1) m p—0 ing TY Seal ct m m Where « — 0, or 3, according as m is odd or even, and (77, +42, |) (u— 40, + now, ) Crepe a eal 2m Jo (UAW, + Meg | 01, @3)..(2) m u is the fundamental variable of the elliptic functions, ©,, », the periods of an elliptic integral of the first kind, 7,, 7, the periods of an elliptic integral of the second kind, Cy, a quantity independent of u and c(u|,,©,) is the ordinary Weierstrassian o-function and where /, and m are integers. I shall now prove that in the case m is a square number, 7. e., m —n? that ed (u) can be expressed as a linear homogeneous function of G (nu | @,, 2). he Lt n? eo n? 1 To do this, we need the so-called Hermite Lawt which, when specialized to meet our needs, is as follows: Suppose we are given n quantities defined as follows : n m= Ci, I o(u—ai, 3) (Aa such that the sum of the zero points in the period parallelogram of the 1-plane is, = Xai, j = 0, And, suppose that we are given a o-product, 20 - a Uw 7? Il (wu— um) i=1 Such that the sum of the vanishing points of Pin the period parallelogram of the u-plane is Pp flo)e™ + wns) ( wut n By i=1 9 ! —— 70) 4 T He, *See Felix Klein: ‘‘ Vorlesungen iiber die Theorie der Elliptischen Modulfunctionen,’’ Zweiter Band, p. 261, equation 1. +F. Klein, Elliptische Normal-Curven und Modeln nter Stufe, p. 355, or Crelle’s Journal, Band XXXII, Hermites, Lettre i Mr. Jacobi. 155 Then P can be expressed as a linear homogeneous function of xi. Proof: m, ®, +M,0, *o(nu|o,; ©,)—f(@,, o,) Lo(u— = @1, @5)- 1] 7] ——— Ra (Os Wh) Ue cecppaesoaleys cpsiele siaeceys\s) elare eas (3) e m,,m,—0...1—1 ( | Ree e(™ aL 02 ) (nu— Ao, + po, Ne (nu — hoy + po, | 0, 02) aD if n 2n n hn’ nm [From (2) “6 (nu | @, 0) Lael aoa iy an 9 (Amy yng ) (nu — 20; + mo) QM». (n—1) (u— 20, + Hey) n 2n 2 7" n—1 ~ if (@), @g) II o( Aw, + Lo 6) ) Ma Da) 1 Daisey ae U — AW, + HO, — MO; + Mp0, why eins lg Cece 2 ae 0 n n from equations (2) and (3). Whenceco (nu | @,, @,) 2 « isac-product of n? factors. n’n Whose residue sum, : n—1 n—1 S= 401 + wo, +n ii @, +n (ee) Ws 3 moreover there are n? different quantities io (mu) | or, o))- Nye 2 n on If now, m define n? quantities n?—1 wia= OF.) ML er GUS UiNl)oo tooo ooebabocen bees oMOcncpODU DO ob dina GEBincr toc (4) = n,—1 Such that > a; j = (i=0....n?—1) i=0 *Jordan: ‘‘Coursd’Analyse,’’ Tome 2, p. 388. + Klein: ‘“ Vorlesungen iiber die Theorie der Elliptischen Modulfunctionen,’’ Vol. DS pe26: 156 then by Hermites Law, each of the n? ¢ (nu | ©,, ©.) 4 u —— n n can be expressed as a linear homogeneous function of xi. We must now divide our discussion into two cases (a) n=1 (mod. 2) ort. fe | 1, 9) X a (u) =f, (1,2) II «eq u n p=0 BP a ie { n2 =| { ee U] — j| =f, (0,, o,) Ppa Las ae | 5) UP ‘be (a0, + == 2) | ase it ao, — HO, IT o(u——Fa— | 41, &2), as) Whence X , (u) is a o-product of n? factors whose residual sum n2 ; ea — aw, + — Oz And hence can be expressed as a linear function of x; defined in equation (4). * There are n? quantities X g (u). n2 We have now shown that we can express the n? quantities X , (u) as linear n2 homogeneous functions of xi, and also the n? quantities o (nu | ©,, ©,) as linear A pb homogeneons functions of xj, whence we can express X _ (u). as a linear homo- n? a ED (b) n = 0 (mod. 2). In this case, nei ( X ,, (a) = (0, 4) iW ‘a thee) , (Equation (1) a Ll pws n2 -E=0 no >? Te 2 f a 1 a her { a rm: ) Yn as files ne] SU Wea ek ee me th Oe 2 i ee 2 *Klein: Vorlesungen, etc., Vol. II, p. 264, i | 7 = “Tl c(u—4£%7 #22 | w,, 02) i 0 nN, Whence X a (u) is a o-product of n? factors whose residue sum, n?2 S—awo, +n? —1o, and hence can be expressed as a linear homogeneous 2 function of x i defined in equation (4) By repetition of the argument made in case (a) it follows that X @ (u) can be 2 n expressed as a linear homogeneous function of ¢ (nu | ©, ©,). A bb peas a 0 Hence our proposition is proved for all integral values of n. A ForMULA FOR THE DEFLECTION OF Car Boustrers.* By W. K. Harr. The body bolster of a car is a beam which carries the weight of the car and its loading and transfers this weight to the center of the truck bolster, which, in turn, transfers the weight to the wheels. The bolsters are either of trussed form or of beam form. In the latter case they are of I section or else with one flange and web plates. It is quite important to construct the body bolster so that it may be stiff enough to prevent contact at the side bearings. These side bearings are placed between the truck and body bolster to limit the oscillations of the car, Evidently if the side bearings come into contact the consequent friction will offer additional resistance when the car goes around curves. The problem is to compute the deflection of a beam of variable depth. In case of beam bolsters the moment of inertia of the cross section may be taken to be a linear function of the distance of the cross section from the free end of the beam. Referring to Fig. 1, let AB be one-half of a body bolster and OB the curve into which the half-bolster is bent. Any point of this curve is located with refer- ence to O by its co-ordinates x y; mn is a section of the bolster distant x from O; Fig. 4. Fig. 1. *The following is an abstract of a paper which is given in complete form in the Railroad Gazette for December 23, 1898. 158 1 is half the length of the bolster. Let I, be the moment of inertia at A, I’ the moment of inertia at B and I the moment of inertia at the invariable section mn. Assume the boister to be uniformly loaded, to be supported at a point and also assume that the moment of inertia I at mn i a I 5 E SEAR Es: aoe te that is, the moment of inertia increases directly as x increases. E is the modulus of elasticity of the material. Equating the moment of the elastic forces to the moment of the external forces about the neutral axis of section mn, we find d? y w x? TE Tq a. | hee a yes Ww sa ae tl or, BT x? eee a | ee ee fae —I,)x. ae fe Dividing the enumerator of the fraction by the denominator, integrating twice and determining the value of the constants, we find 25, Mes, f ER pee ey Ey=tn—-(2[#-C+0¢ 1 1 + log. ( +E) a ei = nies C n? n° + C® log. e one t ay ier =} Nein aw ele aebedalsteiee (A) I, where n = > and C = (i? —I,) To obtain the deflection at the side bearing,.it would be necessary to substi- tute for n its proper numerical value along with other values, and compute the The deflection at the side bearing is not equal this value of resulting value of y. y; but is equal to the end deflection minus this value of y. <: + C? + C8 [log.e 1, — log-e I*] i - When n = 1, wl* ellis aay | a When n — 1 and I, — 0, 4 Ey= ee and when n = 1 and I, — I’ the expression becomes indeterminate w l4 and evaluates to E y = 31 The truck bolster may be treated as a cantilever, with a terminal load equal to one-half, the center load and a length one-half the length of the bolster as shown in Fig. 4. f= Te) wreyse| 4 159 d?y ex, | 5-< aoe ss eal pe [ Ra then, E Integrating this equation twice and determining the value of the constants, it becomes we Pi, Cis ees eS ras ee Lae Marrero jetta)! C 2 —C? loge Gp —*,! Se eee aD seh Me (B) 7 1 it Where n = —— and C= 74 When n 1, JES fel uy Sees or eo tO loge og el)) 2 hid, == (Oanchrvsal 5 Bal Eel Bs ue rage When I? = J, and n=1, the expression becomes an indeterminate form : Lys bas Lewpotan <8. 555 (es which evaluates to y = 3 hI,’ Which isa well-known formula. 0 Applying formula (A) to a body bolster, uniform load, when I? = 115, J, = 28, 1 — 53 in.; n for side bearing = 2%, E = 30,000,000, w — 750 pounds per run- ning inch, we find that the deflection of side bearing below center = 0.117 inches. This same bolster subjected to actual test showed a deflection at side bearing, under above conditions, of 0.115 inches. In this case, a close approximation to the deflection at side bearing will be given by the expression Lp awile hs) 381 d= or The method of loading a body bolster for the purpose of a laboratory test used in Purdue University laboratory, may be worth noting. A wire is stretched between the side bearings, and the bolster is loaded near the ends. The movement of the wire with reference to the center is noted. The bolster is next loaded at points between the ends and the center. Successive loadings are thus applied and the consequent deflections of side bearings noted. Since the deflections are all elastic deflections, the sum of the individual deflec- tions for part loadings may be taken without error to be the total deflection under the sum of the loadings. 160 CamMPHoRIC AcID: REDUCTION OF THE NEIGHBORING XyLic ACID. By W. A. Noyes. {Abstract.] An account of the preparation of the neighboring xylic acid has been recently given by the author in the American Chemical Journal. The acid has now been reduced to the corresponding hexahydroxylic acid. The latter boils at 250°—252°, while dihydrociscampholytic acid boils at 244°. The a-brom derivative has also been prepared and treated with alcoholic potash. The resulting acid is not ciscampholytic acid. This proves that Collie’s formula for camphor cannot be true. a-HYDROXY-DIHYDRO-CISCAMPHOLYTIC Acip. By W. A. Novres AND J. W. SHEPHERD. {Abstract.] After many ineffectual attempts to prepare the acid by usual methods, it was finally obtained by shaking the ethyl ester of a-brom-dihydro-cis- campholytic acid for a long time, at a temperature of 40°—50°, with a strong aqueous solution of barium hydroxide. When the hydroxy acid is warmed with phosphoric acid and lead peroxide (a reaction for a-hy- droxy acids, recently developed by Baeyer), it gives a ketone which is probably identical with that prepared by Mr. E. B. Harris, under the direction of one of us some years ago. We hope to secure the ketone in larger quantities and that a study of its derivatives will throw new light on the structure of camphor. ‘ IopINE ABSORPTION OF LINSEED Orn.* By P. N. Evans ann J. O. MEYER. The following statement concerning the necessary excess of iodine and the duration of the reaction, in determining the iodine absorption of oils, occurs in the 1897 edition (German) of Benedikt’s “Analysis of Fats and Waxes” (page 152): *This paper is an abstract of a thesis presented by Mr. J. 0. Meyer, for the degree of B. Sc., and placed in the library of Purdue University. 161 “The [iodine] numbers are quite constant if the iodine solution is pres- ent in sufficient excess; the excess, according to Ulzer, when the reaction eontinues for six hours, must be at least 50 per cent. of the iodine used. Fahrion uses an excess of 100 per cent. of the absorbed iodine (i. e., also 50 per cent. of the iodine used) with a reaction of only two hours, and Holde recommends for this period of reaction the use of 75 per cent. ex- cess of iodine. * * * With a sufficient excess of iodine the results ob- tained are the same after two hours, six hours, and longer periods.” This refers to the use of the ordinary Hiibl’s solution of iodine and mereuric chloride, and in the experiments to be described the determina- tions were carried out in the usual way, varying the two factors—(1) excess of iodine, and (2) duration of reaction. Excess of Iodine.—It is stated in the passage above quoted that the iodine in excess must be at least 75 to 100 per cent. of the iodine absorbed, and that a larger excess will not affect the results if the reaction is not less than two to six hours in duration. To test this statement the writers made twenty determinations with a linseed oil, the mixture being allowed to stand six hours, and the excess of iodine ranging from .008 to 3.658 per unit of iodine absorbed. The ex- periments were made in three series, each series being carried out under as nearly as possible identical conditions, and in spite of two slight dis- erepancies in the twenty experiments, there was unmistakable evidence that the iodine number steadily and materially increased with the excess of iodine, the increase being nearly as marked between an excess of 1 and of 3.6 as below 1. The iodine numbers obtained varied from 131.2 to 175.3, those with an excess of over 1 from 161.9 to 175.3. Benedikt gives as minimum and maximum results for commercial lin- seed oil, according to twenty authorities, 148 and 181, with an average of 170. Duration of Reaction.—In the above citation from Benedikt, a duration of two hours is said to be sufficient if the excess of iodine is equal to that absorbed (Fahrion), or 0.75 times as great (Holde), while six hours is said to be enough for an excess of 1 according to Ulzer. The writers carried out eighty experiments to test this point, the ex- cess of iodine varying from .5 to 1.4, and the duration of the reaction from two to eight hours. The eighty experiments were made in six series, and only three of the eighty experiments failed to confirm the conclusion that 11—Scrence. 162 six hours is not long enough to yield satisfactory results. The iodine numbers obtained ranged from 131 to 184.3. These results seem to show that the figures given by Benedikt for excess of iodine and duration of reaction are too low, and point to those as preferable which are elsewhere recommended by Schweitzer and Lung- witz, Holde and Dieterich, summed up by A. H. Gill in his “Short-Hand- book of Oil Analysis,” as follows: ‘The excess of iodine recommended is from 150 to 250 per cent.; some observers recommend from 400 to 600 per cent. * * * Two hours is sufficient for olive oil, tallow and lard, while for linseed oil, balsams and resins, twenty-four hours should be allowed. TABLE I. Showing Effect of Excess of Iodine. | Number of Average Excess : Average . Nearly Iden- ae Duration of : Series No.| 4---7 a of Iodine rf Iodine Number at a per 1 Absorbed. Reaction. Found. | 3 | 009 6 hours. te cas dceos 131.2 1 2 341 aie BsoPrees, aodot 147.9 3 737 OWN OMTBy .idadd.- econ 151.6 5 3 2.888 GMOUTS sae GawAee cows 161.9 3 3.648 GiROUSis. > 2c..n eee. 162.4 | 2 1.503 | G hours ..... 002.0000. 172.3 3 | 2 1.954 IO uHOMES ssl hee eee 175.3 | 2 3.075 BiIhOULS 54 ek ese aks 173.3 TABLE II, Showing Effect of Duration of Reaction. 3 589 iMOWES is. secwiaeuec ate 165.0 3 566 BU NOULB coerce tese tees 168.0 1 } 3 540 WGiOULS 2.0.5 scenes 170.7 3 526 SONS <2 ek oneee 172.3 3 740 2 ROULE,...stney ceatarse 155.4 3 624 DB MOUEB.. seere'ons canine 156.4 2 3 638 | OMT Sas heeieb asd 158.3 2 AM |G Reuineig 24 co. de sepece 159.8 3 A98 \SRUOMES,Scseoh oases 160.8 TABLE II—CONTINUED. 3 637 2NROUTS ie. 5, eerie: 162.4 3 601 ANOUTSiae ae ac dacs sis 166.4 : 3 584 Gliourets frees! is, 167.9 3 557 SOURS «cmon soneten 170.9 3 655 ZiHOUNS AIM adele ee 175.3 3 618 A Wounsiy. sees alse 179.1 a 3 610 Gru OUTS sc taeeco eas 182.9 3 089 SUMOUES |. see cers cnet ses 184.3 3 951 DG UTE fe oterestetonss <8 toe hg 3 940 S HOURS }-n-bee cere 133.4 5 3 951 ANOUTS otc esate 131.0 3 896 [nGioUT Stas ce eee 134.4 3 .889 Sihouns*es. aoe eeer 134.6 mia | 3 | 1.535 ZVROULE = Ro sie onion 165.8 3 1.495 DO MOWESH.i5 dans ccs scvercrsicte 168.2 6 3 1.493 AMO UTS osc oers ayapoi arses 168.8 3 1.453 GUHOUTS 5. cies cernsye mise 170.8 | 3 1.396 SUBIOUES feet) Ropes 171.5 SomrE DrEsmips OF CRAWFORDSVILLE. By Mason B. THomas. In looking over the bibliography of Indiana cryptogams we have been greatly surprised at the very meager representation of our Alge. This we believe to be in some measure due to the lack of correlation of work already done in different parts of the State and upon which no report has been made. The past spring one of our students, Mr. F. Corey, in working on some Alge made a list of Desmids that we believe worth while to record. Nothing need be said about the list except that the determinations were carefully made and mounted specimens preserved of each form, together with notes on distribution, etc. It is the intention to prepare as complete a list as possible of Crawfordsville Alge with a view to some studies on distribution. Permit us to suggest that 164 other records of such work should be presented for the benefit of those working on this group. Personally we should appreciate any such contribution as bearing on some work now in hand. Clostervum lanceolatum, Kg., Closterium moniliferum, Ehrb., Closterium Leibleinii, Kg., Var. curtum, West. Staurastrum muticum, Berb. Staurastrum botrophilum, Wolle. Calocylindrus Thwaitesii, Ralfs. Penium Berbissonii (Mengh), Ralis. Penium margaritaceum, Berb. Cosmarium pseudobroomei, Wolle. Cosmarium granatum, Berb. Cosmarium speciosum, Lund. Cosmarium Holmiense, Var. integrum, Lund. Cosmarium polymorphum, Nord. Cosmarium Naegelianum, Berb. Cosmarium Cordanum, Berb. KARYOKINESIS IN THE EmBRYO-SAC WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE BE- HAVIOR OF THE CHROMATIN. By D. M. Morrtier. [Published in Jahrb. fiir wiss. Botan., Bd. XXX, 1897.] Nuc.LeaArR DrvisioN IN VEGETATIVE CELLS. By Davin M. Morrier. [Abstract.] In my paper “Ueber das Verhalten der Kerne bei der Entwickelung des Embryosacks und die Voriinge bei der Befruchtung,’’* I gave a brief account of karyokinesis in the vegetative cells of Lilium. My remarks there are confined largely to the behavior of the chromatin, the formation of the spindle being only incidentally referred to. As regards the latter process, however, it is stated that the kinoplasm is present in a much 1 Jahrbiicher fiir wiss. Bot., Bd. XX XI, 1897. 165 smaller quantity than in the sexual cells of the same plant. SUA ee ae hee os are nl see ee ee ee ee ‘ These are taken from over 200 experimental cards and are fairly typical of the series, Experjm nts with ordinary germinating apparatus confirmed these results. 219 These percentages are not exceptional, having been repeatedly ob- tuined. I have not been able to secure germination in Chenopodium, a fact possibly due to the late collection of the material. Srconp.—In most cases the achenes show the highest germinating percentage vf col- lected at about the midd’e of the flowering season. If, for example, the flowering period is from July to October, achenes collected in the latter part of August or first of September will give a higher germinating per cent. than those collected at any other season. This is true in all forms studied, with the exception of Arctium. The non-viability of the later achenes may be explained as due to the action of frost. That of the earlier achenes is not so readily explained. In Arctium the achenes show a ready viability at all seasons. In the case of Bidens it is possible that the later achenes might show a fair percentage of viability, as no late collections of this genus were made. The difference in viability at different floral periods does not seem to exist in the other families studied. On the contrary, in the case of Abutilon and Solanum, the high- est percentages were obtained from the seeds collected very early in the season. Tutrp.—For the most part the central achenes of the head are not viable, and the same condition 1s frequently found in the outer rows. In all cases the largest germination percentage was obtained from achenes taken about midway between the center and periphery of the head. An exception to this statement is perhaps found in Helianthus, in which, in a single experiment, the central achenes were found to show a high germination percentage. A consideration of the order of maturing of the flowers in the composite head taken in connection with the mode of pol- lination furnishes the probable explanation of this fact. Fourtu.— The seedlings of all composite forms studied, were found to be particu- larly sensitive to both temperature and moisture changes. Very slight changes in either of these conditions, especially if sudden, proved fatal almost without exception. An increase in temperature of 5° U., brought about in thirty minutes and continued for three hours, killed all the seedlings of Bidens, Cnicus, Lactuca, Solidago and Anthemis, the only composite seedlings escaping being those of Arctium. In the case of the other forms, Scrophularia alone succumbed, Abutilon, Malva, Solanum, Datura and Capsella not being visibly affected nor apparently retarded in their growth, . 220 A similar temperature change, brought on gradually (three hours) and continued for three hours, only produced about a 40 per cent. fatality among the composites. Changes in moisture, either in the soil or in the air, found a ready response in the behavior of the composite seedlings. A diminution of moisture, which would not even produce wilting in the seedlings of other families, would not infrequently prove fatal to those of the composites. The effect of moisture increase was not so readily seen, although there exists under such conditions a tendency on the part of the stem of the seedling to rot near the ground, a tendency apparently shared by Abutilon, and which seems about the only check put upon the increase of this latter form. As might be expected direct sunlight works against the seedlings of composites, as, indeed, against all others, but with a peculiarly fatal effect in these sensitive forms. It has been found necessary in all cases to pro- tect them from the direct sunlight for several days, usually until after the development of the first foliage leaves. Such extreme sensitiveness was rare, if at all present in the other families studied. Freru.— Cotyledon leaves of nearly related forms closely resemble each other, a resemblance often carried on in the earlier true leaves. The cotyledon leaves of Arctium, Cnicus lanceolatus and Cnicus mu- ticus are almost exactly alike. The only dissimilarity observable being that in Arctium the green is a trifle darker than in Cnicus. The re- semblance is so exact that I discarded the first germination experiments with Cnicus, supposing that through inadvertence Arctium achenes had been planted. With the appearance of the first true leaves Arctium is plainly marked off from Cnicus, but the two species of Cnicus are not to be separated until the appearance of at least the third foliage leaf. By this statement I mean that I think that at this point I can detect the be- ginnings of the leaf characters of the forms. The same conditions are found. in the Lactucas. Scariola cannot be separated from Canadensis in any of the seedling stages so far as my observations go, indeed, though I carried the seedlings through the development of the seventh foliage leaf I found no marked indication of specific foliar differences. I think, without multiplying instances, that in very many cases supposed rela- tionships between the species of a large genus, and certainly between many genera, might find corroborative evidence in a study of the early foliage of the seedlings. 221 SrxtH.—Jn most cases the highest germination percentages in composites are obtained from surface planting in leaf mold. Arctium is the exception to this statement also. By surface sowing upon leaf mold, under the three conditions of moisture, Arctium gave an average germination percentage of 22.2 per cent. In sandy loam, where the achenes were covered by sifting earth over them, the percentage rose to 93.3 per cent. In all other cases, however, the leaf mold gave much the larger per cent. This was especially marked in the case of Cnicus lanceo- latus, in which in sandy loam the percentage was 12.5, while in leaf mold the average percentage was 89, rising in one case to 100 per cent. The experiments indicate strongly that successful germination in composites is more closely dependent upon the character of the soil than is the case in the majority of our native plants. In other words, their soil range is so narrow that a slight modification in its character may practically pre- vent germination of the achenes and thus very effectually limit distri- bution. SeveNntTH.— The water content of the soil does not (so far as is indicated by these’ experiments), affect the germination percentage to the degree that might have been ex- pected. While differences in the water content of the soil affects the seedlings in a marked way, germination is unaffected under a wide range in water: content of the soil. In extreme cases, some forms show marked varia- tions. Arctium, for example, which gives a germination percentage of 93.3 under ordinary soil moisture conditions, falls to 3.3 per cent. in the case of extreme dryness. Cnicus lanceolatus, on the contrary, rises to 100 per cent. in extremely dry soil. In the forms studied the highest per- centage of germination is found under moderately moist conditions, and the lowest under extremely dry conditions, save in the case of Cnicus lanceolatus, where the reverse seems to be true. Extreme soil moisture in many cases leads to the moulding of the achenes. A careful dissection of material used in these experiments showed that there was nothing in the character of the achenes themselves to which this low germination percentage could be attributed. The material was collected with care expressly for these experiments, and dissection demonstrated well formed embryos in more than 80 per cent. of the achenes examined.? I am, therefore, led to believe the low germination 2? The achenes thus examined were taken from the portion of the head indicated in con- clusion three, swpra. 222 percentages to be due to changes in external conditions, to which, per- haps, the forms are peculiarly responsive. The ease and certainty with which high germination percentages were secured in other families cer- tainly lends support to the view. ; The experiments are still in progress, as there are still many points to be worked out in detail. Among them are the effects of varying soil tem- peratures, of a wider range of soils, of progressive experiments for the determination of resting periods in the various forms, of duration of via- bility, of the effect of freezing, and others self-suggestive to the experi- mentalist. Until these are worked out in detail the question as to the causes of the relatively small distribution of any given composite form must remain open. So far as the experiments go they point to this limita- tion being due in a very large degree: 1. To a low germination percentage, largely due to an extreme sensi- tiveness on the part of the embryo to external conditions, to which should perhaps be added imperfect pollination, due to causes already given. 2. To an extreme sensitiveness of the seedlings to temperature and moisture changes, either in soil or atmosphere. This necessarily brings about a peculiar sensitiveness to direct sunlight. When the habits of most of our native composites are considered it will be seen that this extreme sensitiveness in both achene and seedling proves an effectual limitation to their distribution. Other factors than these here emphasized enter, but none are of such general application. FoRMALIN AS A REAGENT IN BLoop Stupres. By Ernest I. K1Zer. Among the most common reagents used in the demonstration of blood corpuscle structure, are found osmie acid, salt solutions, picric acid and acetic acid. But all of these cause distortions of the corpuscles, so they are imperfect fixing agents and preservatives. The method of drying blood on the coverslips is seldom successful in the hands of beginners. Formalin has been found very useful in this connection, both as a fixing agent and as a preservative, because it produces no appreciable dis- tortion of corpuscles, does not interfere with staining, is easily operated and preserves blood perfectly, at least, for several months. The method consists of the following steps: 1. Mix one volume of perfectly fresh blood with three volumes of a two per cent. solution of formalin. 2. Allow the mixture to stand at least an hour; then draw a small quantity from the bottom of the vessel with a pipette, by which a drop is transferred to a clean coverslip; spread evenly over the coverslip and allow the liquid to evaporate. The method of pressing the coverslips to- gether, as in sputum analysis, is to be preferred. 3. Pass the coverslips through the flame, films uppermost, in order to cement the corpuscles to the glass. 4. Dip into a five per cent. solution of acetic acid once or twice. 5. Remove the acid with water. 6. Stain. Perhaps the best stain for non-nucleated corpuscles is Gen- tian violet (a two per cent. solution; time of staining, about two or three minutes). For nucleated forms, contrast stains, as Methyl blue and Gen- tian violet, or Hzematoxylin and Eosin, or Methyl green and Safraum, give very good results. Ehrlich’s Triple stain may be used for human cor- puscles, 7. Wash out excess of stain with water or alcohol as the stain re- quires. 8. Remove alcohol with clove oil or xylol, and 9. Mount in Canada Balsam. This method proved very successful in the laboratory of Purdue Uni- versity, and was used in studying five different forms of corpuscles. They were those of the cat, the ox, the pigeon, the chicken, and man. The hu- man corpuscles were the only ones which resisted the stains, but this difficulty was overcome by the use of a weak solution of acetic acid. Be- sides making the stains effective, it also clears the films considerably. Al- though this method may be of no chemical value it promises to be success- ful for general laboratory purposes. 224 _ Species oF DiprERA REARED IN INDIANA DURING THE YEARS 1884 TO 1890. By F. M. WEBSTER: The following species of Diptera were reared by me while located in Indiana, as Special Agent of the U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., and are given here as finally determined by Mr. D. W. Coquillett in Bulletin 10, N. S., and Bulletin 7, Tech- nical Series, both of the Division of Entomology. FAMILY TACHINID. Euphorocera claripennis Macq., reared at Lafayette from caterpillars of Datana contracta Walk. On one of these larve were 213, and on a second 228 eggs of these flies. Frontina frenchii Will., reared at Lafayette, from caterpillars of Ichthyura inclusa Hueb., and also from the larve of Pyrameis cardwi Linn. FAMILY BOMBYLIID, Anthrax hypomelas Macq. This was reared in numbers from the larve of Agrotis herilis, catworms, that were excessively abundant in a cornfield near La- fayette, in 1889. See Insect Life, Vol. II, pp. 353-4. FAMILY OSCINIDZ. Meromyza americana Fitch. This occurs throughout the entire State, the larvee attacking wheat and rye. I reared it from material secured at Oxford, and also from New Harmony. Chlorops ingrata Will. This species was reared from gall-like swellings on tipsof Muhlenbergia mexicana. The galls were collected at Oxford, in August, and the adults issued the following May and early June. Elachiptera longula Loew. This was reared from the stems of Panicum crus- galli, within which the larve feed, at Oxford, in 1884, and also from fall wheat at Lafayette, in July, 1890, and also from oats, in 1886. E. nigricornis Loew. and E. costata Loew. were also reared with the above in the fall wheat. E. nigriceps Loew. was reared from Panicum crus-galli at Oxford, in Septem- ber, 1884. Oscinis trigramma Loew. Reared at Lafayette in Jul y, from volunteer wheat plants. 0. coxendix Fitch, was reared also with the above. 225 O. soror Macq., was reared at Oxford, from Panicum erus-galli, in October, 1884, and also from the stems of Poa pratensis, at Lafayette, in June, 1887. Oseinis carbonaria Loew., was reared from young wheat plants at Oxford, September, 1884, and from wheat plants at Lafayette, in August, 1886, and again in August, 1888, and in July, 1890, among these last there being also specimens of O. wmbrosa Loew. FAMILY AGROMYZID®. Leucopis nigricornis Egger. Reared from larve preying upon Siphonophora avence, at Vincennes, June 26, 1889, the adults issuing in July, 1889. This is an imported species, as it occurs all over the United States, and has been reared from Pemphigus in France. Ceratomyza dorsalis Loew. Reared from larvee mining in the leaves of timothy, at Lafayette, in 1888, and also from lary mining in the leaf sheaths of wheat. Agromyza wneiventris Fall. Reared from larve burrowing in the stems of white clover, Trifolium repens. See Report Commissioner of Agriculture, U. S., 1886, p. 582. : DISTRIBUTION OF Broops XXII, V anv VIII, oF CicADA SEPTENDECIM, IN InpIANA. By F. M. WEBSTER. It was my good fortune, while located at Lafayette, Indiana, during the years 1884-90, as a special agent of the United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Entomology, to have an opportunity of study- ing the distribution of these three broods of the periodical cicada. On consulting the accompanying map and explanation thereto, it will be observed that Brood XXII, 1885, covers the entire State, except a small area around the lower extremity of Lake Michigan. This strip of country is much narrower at the Michigan line than it is at the Illinois line, including as it does only the extreme northwest corner of Laporte county, the dividing line between this and Brood V being, here, between the village of Otis and the city of Laporte, crossing the line of Porter county about Wanatah, and passing across Lake county, in the vicinity of Orchard Grove. This is the strongest of all the broods in Indiana and covers by far the greatest area. Its next recurrence will be in 1902. Brood V covers only the area over which Brood XXII did not occur and does not, so far as I was able to learn, overlap that brood. It covers a 15—Scrence. 12 CLINTON 8 GRAW EOD na if PEABLO kos 16 DECATUR. 17 DeKALS. is DELAWARE 19 DUBOTS. 2” ELEHART fl FAYETTE 2 23 FOUNTAIN & FRANKLIN 3 FULTON SAS 227 small portion of Laporte county and the greater portion of Porter and ‘Lake counties, and will reappear next in 1905. Brood VIII is almost entirely confined to the southern counties and was really very abundant in 1889 only in Harrison county. I have indi- cated by a dot on the map the localities where I know from personal knowledge the insect occurred, to which localities Mr. C. L. Marlatt, in Bull. 14, N. S., U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., has added others which I have indicated by aO. The occurrence in Tippecanoe county was at Lafayette, a single female haying been found by one of the sons of Dr. E. Test of Purdue University. This is the weakest in point of numbers of the three broods, and will in time become totally extinct, largely, at least, owing to the attacks of the English Sparrow, Passer domesticus. It will next appear in 1906. Some Insects BELONGING TO THE GENUS IsosoMA, REARED OR CAPTURED, IN Inprana. By F. M. WEssTeER. Isosoma grande Riley. This was reared from wheat at Oxford and Lafayette, and was the first proof secured of the presence of a dimorphism, and alternation of generations in Isosoma tritici, as it was then known, the latter being now known as minutum, the wingless spring and winter generation; and the former as the winged, summer generation, the one having been bred from the eggs of the other by myself. Isosoma captwum Howard. Captured from Poa pratensis at Lafayette. Type. Isosoma maculatum Howard. Captured with the preceding. Type. Isosoma tritici Fitch. Reared at Lafayette and elsewhere, and collected on grass at Lafayette. Eurytomocharis eragrostoidis Howard. Reared at Lafayette from the stems of Eragrostis pocoides. Type. For descriptions of these species, as well as illustrations of them, see Bulletin No. 2, Technical Series, Division of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr., by Dr. L. O. Howard. LAKE County Crow Roosts. By T. H. Batu. [Abstract.] The main roosting places in these later years, so far as ascertained, are two. One is five miles south of Crown Point, in a’pine grove covering an area of about four acres on a large farm well out, in what was once 228 a wide and open prairie. For several years the crows were there in large numbers, but some three years ago boys shot into the roost and drove them away. They have returned. Mrs. George Schmall estimates the number roosting there at one thousand. This grove is a ‘wind breaker,’ the trees, Scotch and Austrian pine, were set out very thick many years ago. It makes a grand shelter in the winter time. Many of these crows from this pine grove go in a south- easterly direction to-find food in the Kankakee marsh region. The second crow roost of the county is nine miles northwest of Crown Point on both sides of the ‘‘Panhandle’”’ railroad, in groves of small oak trees, and one evergreen grove. I visited this locality Tuesday, December 27, 1898. About one mile from it I saw, at 2 p. m., two or three hundred crows feeding in a corn field. Reaching the farm house I learned that two or three pairs of crows selected these groves in 1875. The number of individuals in this colony now may be placed at two thousand. Many of them pass into Illinois to get food, passing in a southwesterly direction over Dyer, on the State line, mornings, sometimes two hundred in a flock. THe DistrrBpuTiIoN OF BLoop SINUSES IN THE REPTILIAN HEAD. 3y H. L. Bruner. | Abstract.| The principal blood sinuses of the reptilian head are the following: 1. The intra-cranial sinuses, which were first described by Rathke’ in 1839. 2. The nasal sinus, which surrounds the external naris and the nasal vestibule; it was observed and described by Leydig? in 1872. 3. The orbital sinus, which lies between the eyeball and its orbit. This sinus was first investigated by Weber® in 1877. The development of the above-mentioned sinuses has been worked out by Grosser and Brezina‘ in the snake (Tropidonotus natrix). ‘Rathke: ‘ Entwicklun sgeschichte der Natter (Coluber natrix).’’ Koenigsberg, 1839. * Leydig: ‘‘ Die in Deutschland lebenden Arten der Saurier.’’ Tiibingen. 1872. *Weber: “ Nebenorgane des Auges der Reptilien.’’ Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte, 43 Jahrg., Band I. ‘ Grosser und Brezina: Morphologisches Jahrbuch., Band 23, 1895. - 229 On THE REGULATION OF THE SUPPLY OF BLOOD TO THE VENOUS SINUSES OF THE HAD OF REPTILES, WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPHINCTER MUSCLE ON THE JUGULAR VEIN. By H. L. BRuNER. [Abstract.| The remarkable development of blood sinuses in the reptilian head has received no explanation at the hands of earlier investigators. The work of the writer shows that the origin of these sinuses is due to periodical constriction of the jugular vein by a ring-like muscle, whose contractions thus lead to an increased blood pressure in the region drained by the vein. In Phrynosoma this ring-muscle, which is composed of striated fibres, is attached to the lateral end of the ex-occipital bone, beneath which the jugular receives the posterior cerebral vein. Immediately behind the mouth of the latter vein, the ring-muscle embraces the jugular. The muscle occurs also in turtles (Hmys) and snakes (Tropidonotus). According to the observations of the writer on lizards, the distention of the extra-cranial blood sinuses is of great importance at the time of moulting, when the removal of the old epidermis is greatly facilitated by it, particularly in the region of the eyes and nasal openings. Under or- dinary circumstances, such distention probably serves to express emotion of various kinds. The above-mentioned facts furnish a basis for an explanation of the habit of ejecting blood from the eye (orbital sinus), for which Phrynosoma is noted. For additional details, the writer refers to the paper itself, which will be published in full elsewhere. Nore oN THE ABERRANT FOLLICLES IN THE OVARY OF CYMATOGASTER.* By GrorGce L. MircH eu. The thickness of the ovarian follicle varies in different vertebrates in- versely with the size of the egg. In species containing large eggs the thickness of the follicle decreases relatively with the growth of the egg. In the bird and frog it is only in the smaller eggs that the single layer of follicle cells may be distinguished in sections. The rapid growth of the egg soon stretches this layer of cells so that it becomes finally indistin- *Contributions from the Zovlogical Laboratory of the Indiana University, No. 25. 230 guishable. In species containing relatively small eggs the thickness of the follicle increases with the growth of the egg. Examples of this are found in fishes, but the extreme is found in the Graafian follicle of mammals. The Graafian follicle, whose structure is well known, offers some pecu- liar features which may be explained in connection with the reduction of the size of the ovum in the mammalian phyllum. Suggestions as to how any why the many layered follicle of higher mammalia has arisen from the single layered follicles of monotremata are furnished by the viviparous fish Cymatogaster. The egg in this species is much below the average in size. It has in fact lost nearly all of its yolk. It is significant, therefore, that among many individuals with normal follicles there are occasionally found individuals containing a small number of many layered follicles. It is to call attention to these and to compare them with the mammalian structures that the present article is prepared. In order to fully appreciate the conditions, follicles of various mam- mals and yarious stages in the same mammal may be briefly mentioned. Poulton has found that in monotremata the follicular epithelium remains a single row of cells. The follicles of the cat, after moving from the surface toward the deeper parts of the ovary, begin to thicken from the single layered stage to the many layered stage. Fig. 1 represents the single layered stage. Fig. 2 represents the many layered stage in which the follicular cavity is beginning to be formed. The egg in the many layered stage is usually imbedded in the portion of the granulosa nearest the surface of the ovary. The first traces of the follicular cavity are seen in the thicker part of the granulosa. As the egg grows the follicle cells still multiply and the liquor folliculi filling the cavity distends the latter. Fig. 3 shows the follicle with its now nearly ripe egg imbedded in the discus proligerus. This figure represents the typical Graafian follicle. The follicle of the rabbit differs from that of the cat (Fig. 4). Columns of granulosa cells connect the outer mass of cells with that surrounding the egg. In such follicles as many as four stalks are found in a single section. On examining other sections of the same follicle other stalks may be found so that a single follicle may contain as many as seven of these. In both the cat and rabbit the thickness of the follicular wall is not reduced with the growth of the egg, but rather increases proportion- ally with the growth. In the opossum both types of follicles of Figs. 2 s Gf 02 .000% 4a == 23 — 232 3 and 4 were found. The two varieties were about evenly divided. Of the stalked variety there seemed to be few follicles with more than two or three pronounced cavities. The normal follicle of Cymatogaster presents no novelties. As the egg ripens the granulosa cells become very high and narrow columnar, but remain ip a single series. As before stated, occasionally there are found, in this species, follicles in which the granulosa is made up of a great many layers. of flattened and polyhedral cells. Such a one is represented in Fig. 6. Those cells immediately surrounding the ovum and those next the follicular wall are noticed to be somewhat flattened, while those intermediate are more rounded and polyhedral. The ovaries, which contain such follicles, are -comparatively few, but where one such follicle is found, usually two or three more may be found. No indication of follicular cavities has been observed, but the similarity of such follicles to certain stages of the mam- malian follicle is at once evident. Compare Fig. 6 with Fig. 2. If, now, follicular cavities should be formed and filled by an accumu- lation of follicular fluid we should have conditions similar to those of Figs. 2 and 3. In oviparous fishes, in batrachians, in birds, in monotremes and in the early stages of mammals, we find the follicles one layered. In the adult stages of marsupials and higher mammals, where the eggs are very small, we find the many layered condition. The occasional multilayered follicle in the ovary of Cymatogaster, whose egg is but .2-.8 mm. in diameter, seems to bridge the condition found in normally large yolked eggs and the minute eggs of the higher mammals. The material examined was collected by Dr. C, H. Eigenmann on the . coast of California. EXPLANATION OF FIGURES. Vig. 1-3. Three stages in the development of the follicle of the cat. Vig. 4. Follicle of the rabbit. Fig. 5. Normal mature follicle of Cymatogaster. Fig. 6. Abnormal follicle of Cymatogaster showing the small egg in the center of a many layered granulosa. Iig. 7. Part of the granulosa layer of Fig. 6, enlarged. 233 MATERIAL FOR THE STUDY OF THE VARIATION OF PIMEPHALES NOTATUS (Ra- FINESQUE), IN TURKEY LAKE AND IN SHOE AND TIPPECANOE ILAvcnss* By.) <)) ke) VORIS. As a part of the general plan of the Indiana University Biological Station to study the variation of the same vertebrates in two contiguous lakes belonging to different water systems, I collected during the summer of 1895 a large series of Pimephales notatus in Turkey Lake and the Shoe and Tippecanoe Lakes. Shoe Lake is a small body of water perfectly land locked, but which has but recently become cut off from communica- tion with Tippecanoe Lake. Tippecanoe Lake is a long narrow sheet of water near the head waters of the Tippecanoe River, a tributary of the Wabash. Turkey Lake occupies a corresponding position in the St. Law- rence system. At different points in Turkey Lake 536 specimens were collected in the months of June, July and August. In Tippecanoe, seventy- two specimens were taken, and in Shoe Lake, forty-three. : The species is much more abundant in Turkey Lake than in the other two lakes. Many individuals are found along the shallow rocky shores, and their eggs are found in abundance plastered on the under surface of boards and other submerged objects near the margin of the lake where the water is not more than one or two feet deep. The fry were seen in quiet, warm weather along the shores by the laboratory. A large number of characters were examined at the beginning of the study, but as many of these, for one reason or another, were found not available for the purposes in hand, the data were finally limited to the number of dorsal and anal rays and to the scales of the lateral line. While this fish has the reputation of being very variable, the characters ex- amined are remarkably constant, and in the number of dorsal and anal rays the species may be said to have reached a stage of stable equilibrium, as the following pages will demonstrate. Since it was not possible in every case to determine absolutely those scales in the lateral line which had and those which had not spores, this character is omitted from the paper. A miscellaneous lot of 5386 specimens from Turkey Lake range in length from 25 mm. to 73 mm. The largest number of individuals of a given length is 37 and these have a length of 47 mm. A curve constructed to show the relative number of specimens of a given length shows that they do not fall into distinct groups of different ages. *Contributions from the Biological Laboratory of the Indiana University, No. 19. 234: The dorsal fin has one spine-like ray, eight rays, the last one of which is double, and one very small or rudimentary ray before the spine. The variation from this is very small indeed. Of the 536 specimens from Tur- key Lake, 97 per cent. have this number of rays, which may be designated thus: II 84, the “II” standing for the rudimentary ray and spine, the “8” for the eight rays, and the “1%” for the double of the last ray. The aver- age number of rays is 8.0037. The table shows the results obtained. DORSAL FIN. No. of Rays. No. of Specimens. No. of Rays. No. of Specimens. TS ie ea i Ae ees: 519 DOM sitet A Ca Eel. ee 1 LUBY ee ene See ee TS aad RR DR ec 4 TOR: oc neds aaeathye acer tase ee sail Ve aed eet eee, hate ee ee eerennts. 9 II6 1 1 HL Ys yap ey Woe Ore Os Dk a eg 1 It will be seen from the table that over one-half of those that vary from II 8% are different only in the absence of the very small rudimentary ray. This is so small and lies so close to the base of the spine that it cannot be seen unless especially looked for. Only five specimens have nine full rays, one with seven and one with six, making in all but six specimens that have a variation of one full ray, and one a variation of two rays from II 8%. : ‘ The variation in the anal fin is a little more than in the dorsal, 92.91 per cent. have II 74% rays. The anal fin has one less ray than the dorsal, and the average for the whole is 7.0037. The greater per cent. of varia- tion in this fin is due to the absence of the rudimentary ray. Only four specimens have one complete ray more, and two one less than II74%4 The table shows the results obtained. ANAL FIN. No.of Rays. ees No. of Specimens. No.of Rays. No. of Specimens. Pas. cadsiad os wee War dev ness aA ee ad 498 Gate sce rc ensa cas hare, SoG.s cies bee TOTO ieee ane s.r grains wd oie nies /iacea TAPES CT eee WSGOG 4.22 oties-2 Pascov ihe tiecceteateat ie crs tee ab 1 fe aes Seta aeeahe Rie pr PA SS git Ry Oe 30 MBG ees) eae Bika Suet tcc ae ee 1 UG Wah ated eas ceed a cee 2 The following table shows the dorsal and anal fins, together with the number of specimens that each combination contains. It will be seen from this table that there are but three specimens in which there is a variation from the prevailing number in both the dorsal and anal fins. Each of these has the small rudimentary ray absent, and one specimen has one complete fay more than the prevailing number. It seems that 235 there is no co-ordination in the variation of these two fins. The per cent. of variation above or below the prevailing number in each case is so small that it may be regarded as purely accidental. At least it can be said that this fish in Turkey Lake has reached a stage of stable equilibrium as re- gards this character. DORSAL AND ANAL FINS. Dorsal. Anal. No. Dorsal. Anal. No: BLESS ge ee ae this caries Gee eee eoeeerte Pee ARAN oe [ODO Ua aie Seer ot rat JONAS ober a BOSebe 4 TR Bae cece See Ii Anaccena saa seats DAPI G Gs eee eee: TG Retee nes iH il CEA ve apes Sones 1 WS SAP Saree OE aee (ME OT pete ea iG iets} owe, Sane ee 3 ee Tira cote ee soar %° INt Bee I 6% 1 lt UA eae TSG e chon se eon od as 1g Bethe Sia hme ce eee 1 i Oy Ana eA ane 1 it Cs ee eS eaee i Ul reo Arata Bey Pa D lt Giger. ocaoeemacmane 1 Halig Sofetee Ps 5 cea TRF ESS cea skesee 2 The dorsal and anal fins of seventy-two specimens from Tippecanoe Lake were examined and the results obtained are shown in the following tables: DORSAL AND ANAL FINS. Dorsal Fin. No. Specimens. Anal Fin. No. Specimens. TUT Oe hs oe a a 64 HINES (erate nt sears gene mews eR Pi cas See 69 ITT GRE dale vthern Limits LOGANS PORT FRANKFORT “cLgn TON a oy » ——_ I | ——— grewp take7: nhyst map of B79. by JubaiNie waor ide J.A.Price vzare ts OF from Go Tudtiane ‘c = i/ R = 2. lod a u gE 9 ~ ) = 3 rp wa rts oF Group mes. Approximate Lion e2 07 1977, 40 & a6 determin 5 eee WILUANS PT gy GCovinaton es SSS See SRN INS Nee YENS OES ‘Y \ Nie Ole SST ° : NS GREENcAS TLE gy by jew YW a oA: TERRE HAUTE f 291 to show that the Crawfordsville crinoid beds, which have been regarded as belonging to the Keokuk, are the statigraphical equivalents of the Knobstone strata farther south. The accompanying map shows the area covered by the Knobstone group, north of Morgan County, as that area is given on Gorby’s geo- logical map of 1893. It shows also (approximately) the area in and north of Putnam County as the field work of 1897 indicates it to be. It will be noticed that (as worked out by the University Sais of 1897) no Knobstone is represented as occurring north of Montgomery County, while by far the larger part of that county is underlain by it. Small isolated areas of the Knobstone may exist north of Montgomery County, but these will in all probability be found to be only outliers. The limits of the area, as changed from Gorby’s map of 1893, are only approximate. The whole region being covered over by glacial drift, except in the deepest creek valleys, makes it necessary to trace the con- tacts largely by well sections. It is consequently impossible to trace them more than approximately. Some InpranaA Mruprews.* By M. A. BRANNON. Four years ago a paper on ‘“‘Mildews of Indiana’’ was presented to you by Mr. J. N. Rose, of Wabash College. His was the first step toward determining the various species of Indiana mildews. The few species, and their hosts, named in this paper are the second attempt, I believe, in this State in the direction of determining these interesting parasites, which are everywhere abundant. To Rose’s list, containing the names of eleven species and twenty-nine hosts, are added several hosts for some of the species mentioned by him, also nine species and ten hosts not found in his list. Bessey’s ‘‘Erysiphe of the United States; Cook’s ““Hand-Book of Brit- ish Fungi;”’ Bull. of the Ill. State Laboratory of Nat. History, Vol. II., and Rose’s ‘‘Mildews of Indiana’ were the guides used in determining and describing the following species. Spherotheca Castagnei Léy. *Paper read before the Indiana Academy of Science, 1889, and heretofore unpublished. 292 Found on leaves of Preenanthes altissima. Rose’s additional notes to Cooke’s description of this form do not state that some perithecia contain two asci. Such a case was observed in two or three perithecia of this species found on an Erigeron. In these unusual forms one ascus was much larger than its companion, but not as large as the ascus existing alone in a perithecium. A few of these unusual forms might lead to the question- ing of what has, heretofore, been considered a strong generic difference between a Spheerotheca and an Erysiphe. Podospheera oxacantha DC. was found on cherry leaves. This species was named Podosphera Kunzei by Dr. Bessey, but the reasons for chang- ing to P. oxacantha are detailed in Bot. Gazette, Vol. XI. page 60, 1886. Phyllactina suffulta Reb. (P. guttata Léyv.). Found sparingly on leaves of a Desmodium. Uncinula flexuosa. Occurred abundantly on leaves of the buckeye. This is a beautiful species and is characterized by wavy outlines of appendages at their extremities. It is amphigenous, appendages are hyaline, varying from thirty-six to fifty-six in number; asci, seven to twelve; spores, six to ten, and strongly pedicellate. Uncinula Ampelopsidis Pk. was found in abundance on leaves of Ampelopsis quinquefolia. In the Trans. Albany Inst., Vol. VII, page 216, Peck includes U. Americana, U. spiralis and U. subfusca under the one name of Uncinula Ampelopsidis. Uncinula adunca Lévy. Found very abundantly on willow leaves. It is amphigenous; has six to eight asci, and usually from four to six spores, rarely eight, in our species, though Bessey describes it with only four spores. Uncinula circinnata C. and P. On silver maple leaves. Microsphera Ravenelii B. On leaves of honey locust. The repeated forking at the apices of the appendages makes the determination of this species very easy. It has from eight to sixteen appendages; asci, four to nine; spores, six to eight. Microsphzera extensa C. and P. Found on the upper surface of red oak leaves and on both sides of leaves from a young oak; the species was somewhat doubtful. Both speci- wens had very long appendages; from four to five asci; four to eight ee | 993 spores. sax viet neue adie ceases 19 Erogram of the Fiiteenth Annual Meeting <.............0.2ec0cseclene- 26 Report of the Fifteenth Annual Meeting of the Indiana Academy of STEVES AL ORS Aries > oe ee Aug Sat Ee Sed a a 30 eperot the: Mield Meeting af 1899: % ou... 5.0. ie k ees ce dews esc eees moe 30 ere HORACE Tb Bid AOS oes inlays ao, Ave?) n alajoo nieve doi ss adem je Selean alee « 31 Papers presented at the Fifteenth Annual Meeting...................... 46 Rae Rf Nn eo ancy o's Aer dv ts AiG oi radi aS accecs al Wlahen bret Oe Salas 183 AN ACT TO PROVIDE FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE REPORTS AND PAPERS OF THE INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. [Approved March 11, 1895.] WuereEAs, The Indiana Academy of Science, a chartered scientific association, has embodied in its constitution a pro- vision that it will, upon the request of the Governor, or of the Preamble. several departments of the State government, through the Governor, and through its council as an advisory body, assist in the direction and execu- tion of any investigation within its province, without pecuniary gain to the Academy, provided only that the necessary expenses of such investi- gation are borne by the State, and, WHEREAS, The reports of the meetings of said Academy, with the sey- eral papers read before it, have very great educational, industrial and economic value, and should be preserved in permanent form, and, WHEREAS, The Constitution of the State makes it the duty of the Gen- eral Assembly to encourage by all suitable means intellectual, scientific and agricultural improvement, therefore, Srecrion 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the Publication of g7qte of Indiana, That hereafter the annual reports of the the reports of the Indiana’ jy eetings of the Indiana Academy of Science, beginning with Academy of Science. the report for the year 1894, including all papers of scientific or economic yalue, presented at such meetings, after they shall have been edited and prepared for publication as hereinafter provided, shall be pub- lished by and under the direction of the Commissioners of Public Printing and Binding. Sec. 2. Said reports shall be edited and prepared for pub- as lication without expense to the State, by a corps of editors to be selected and appointed by the Indiana Academy of Science, who shall not, by reason of such services, have any claim against the State for compensation. The form, style of binding, paper, typography and manner and extent of illustration of such reports, shall ih a of he determined by the editors, subject to the approval of the reports. Commissioners of Public Printing and Stationery. Not less than 1,500 nor more than 3,000 copies of each of said reports shall be pub- lished, the size of the edition within said limits, to be determined by the 5: concurrent action of the editors and the Commissioners of Public Print- ing and Stationery: Provided, That not to exceed six hundred dollars ($600) shall be expended for such publication in any one year, and not to extend beyond 1896: Provided, That no sums shall Browiag. be deemed to be appropriated for the year 1894. Src. 3. All except three hundred copies of each volume of said reports shall be placed in the custody of the State Libra- Uisbostiion rian, who shall furnish one copy thereof to each public li- brary in the State, one copy to each university, college or normal school in the State, one copy to each high school in the State having a library, 'which shall make application therefor, and one copy to such other insti- tutions, societies or persons aS may be designated by the Academy through it editors or its council. The remaining three hundred copies shall be turned over to the Academy to be disposed of as it may de- termine. In order to provide for the preservation of the same it shall be the duty of the Custodian of the State House to provide and place at the disposal of the Academy one of the unoccupied rooms of the State House, to be designated as the office of the Indiana Academy of Science, wherein said copies of said reports belonging to the Academy, together with the original manuscripts, drawings, etc., thereof can be safely kept, and he shall also equip the same with the necessary shelving and furniture. Sec. 4. An emergency is hereby declared to exist for the immediate taking effect of this act, and it shall therefore take Emergency. effect and be in force from and after its passage. AN ACT FOR THE PROTECTION OF BIRDS, THEIR NESTS AND EGGS. {Approved March 5, 1891.] Secrion 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Indiana, That it shall be unlawful for any person to Birds. kill any wild bird other than a game bird, or purchase, offer for sale any such wild bird after it has been killed, or to destroy the nests or the eggs of any wild bird. Sec. 2. For the purpose of this act the following shall be considered game birds; the Anatidze, commonly called swans, geese, brant, and river and sea ducks; the Rallide, commonly known as rails, coots, mudhens, and gallinules; the Limicolze, commonly known as shore birds, plovers, surf birds, snipe, woodcock and sand- pipers, tattlers and curlews; the Galline, commonly known as wild tur- keys, grouse, prairie chickens, quail, and pheasants, all of which are not intended to be affected by this act. Game birds. Sec. 3. Any person violating the provisions of Section 1 of this act shall, upon conviction, be fined in a sum not less than ten nor more than fifty dollars, to which may be added imprisonment for not less than five days nor more than thirty days. Sec. 4. Sections 1 and 2 of this act shall not apply to any person holding a permit giving the right to take birds or their nests and eggs for scientific purposes, as provided in Section 5 of this act. reat Sec. 5. Permits may be granted by the Executive Board Science. of the Indiana Academy of Science to any properly accredited person, permitting the holder thereof to collect birds, their nests or eggs for strictly scientific purposes. In order to obtain such permit the ap- plicant for the same must present to said Board written testimonials from two well-known scientific men certifying to the good character and fitness of said applicant to be entrusted with such privilege and pay to Penalty. Permits. said Board one dollar to defray the necessary expenses attending the granting of such permit, and must file with said Board a properly executed bond in the sum of two hundred dollars, signed by at least two responsible citizens of the State as sureties. The ee bond shall be forfeited to the State and the permit become forfeited. yoid upon proof that the holder of such permit has killed any bird or taken the nests or eggs of any bird for any other purpose than that named in this section and shall further be subject for each offense to the penalties provided in this act. Sec. 6. The permits authorized by this act shall be in force for two years only from the date of their issue, and shall not be transferable. Bond. Two years. Sec. 7. The English or European House Sparrow (Passer Birds of prey. qomesticus), crows, hawks, and other birds of prey are not included among the birds protected by this act. Sec. 8. All acts or parts of acts heretofore passed in con- flict with the provisions of this act are hereby repealed. Acts repealed. Sec. 9. An emergency is declared to exist for the imme- diate taking effect of this act, therefore the same shall be P™mergency. in force and effect from and after its passage. TAKING FISH FOR SCIENTIFIC PURPOSES. Section 2, Chapter XXX, Acts of 1899, page 45, makes the following provision for the taking of fish for scientific purposes: “Provided, That in all cases of scientific observation he [the Commissioner of Fisheries and Game] shall require a permit from the Indiana Academy of Science.” OFFICERS, 1899-1900. PRESIDENT, D. W. DENNIS. VICE-PRESIDENT, M. B. THOMAS. SECRETARY, JOHN S. WRIGHT. ASSISTANT SECRETARY. E. A. SCHULTZE. Press SECRETARY, GEO. W. BENTON. TREASURER, J. T. SCOVELL. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. DENNIS, C. H. ErigeENMANN, OME ELAN, THOMAS, BENTON, ScovVELL, . W. 2 D. IN A. SCHULTZE, . WwW. 4 bp A. WALpo, 8. WRIGHT, THOMAS GRAY, STANLEY CoULTER, Amos W. Bur Ler, * W. A. Noygs, J. C. ARTHUR, J. L. CAMPBELL, T. C. MENDENHALL, JoHun ©. BRANNER, J.P. D. JOHN, Joun M. CouLter, Davip S. JoRDAN. CURATORS. BOTNAINE 6G Ae ae eae Be ot el Bm ce eared SEN Gn gmt J. C. ARTHUR. ICH TE YVOLOG Ye sete co kc eracke tere ewe are oislsii ts nate C. H. EIGENMANN. HERPETOLOGY AE CRT AO PA i ens ee ee ee Amos W. BuTier. ORNITHOLOGY ! PNTOMOLOGIN 7s coat eo eee eer ee ee W. S. BuaTCcHLEY. COMMITTEES, 1899-1900. PROGRAM. L. J. RETTGER, SEVERANCE BURRAGE. MEMBERSHIP. DonaLpson BopIne, J. F. THompson, Met. T. Coox. NOMINATIONS. KATHERINE E. GOLDEN, J. L. CAMPBELL, D. M. Mortimer. AUDITING. W. A. Noyss, W.S. BLATCHLEY. STATE LIBRARY. A. W. BurLeEr, W.'A. NoYEs, C. A. WALDO, J.S. Wrieut. LEGISLATION FOR THE RESTRICTION OF WEEDS. J. C. ARTHUR, STANLEY COULTER, J.S. WRiGHT. PROPAGATION AND PROTECTION OF GAME AND FISH. C. H. ErgenMANN, A. W. BuTLER, W.S. BLATCHLEY. EDITOR. Gro. W. Benton, 525 N. Pennsylvania St., Indianapolis. DIRECTORS OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. C. H. E1IGENMANN, V. F. MARsrers, J. C. ARTHUR. RELATIONS OF THE ACADEMY TO THE STATE. C. A. WaLpo, A. W. ButLEr, R. W. McBripe. ? GRANTING PERMITS FOR COLLECTING BIRDS AND FISHES. A. W. ButuLer, STANLEY COULTER, W.S. BLATcHLey. DISTRIBUTION OF THE PROCEEDINGS. A. W. BurLer, J.S. WriGuHrT, G. W. BENTON. 10 ‘194008 1 “f enooe Tree ‘T19A008 “I, “f “mOUUBYS “dd "M ‘uouueYys “dq “MAM ‘mouueys ‘qd “M ‘uouuryg ‘dq “MA PIE MSV — 0) OPTRA VO ‘ao |": ‘ol ‘suryuor ‘suryuer ‘suTyUO/ ‘suTyuor suryues “q ‘suryuer “d “O eieuetoitseye azynyog “Wy “ay means akeuetcls souSsig oa ietaMioh slayer sousig TOY * fousig “f °V¥ Fixyata at Skee sausig POW “7 ***"UBUIION “AA “MA aa { “UBULION “AA AV ‘1aq[NOD Aapueig fastens Wy SIA : cera WSL A, 4 Seats WS AA "= GLE AAS oo" 9USEIAA ” [-*+> goSrr Aa * “apng “+++ yarng “gang --ganng § uyor g uyor ‘SB 29or S yor g uyor S uyor OPIF A “V “OD cc repng “\y souy "AM sOwLW "MM souly “M S0ury "MA Souly ss ‘raping "Ay somy “""*Ta1qngq “AA souLy “oping “Ay somy tt *raqynog “J uyor “eo BEPC ap ae ‘UMUOASVAYY, ‘AUVLEAWOAG ssaug “AMVLGHOUS “LSS y ‘AUVLEYOEG “++ -srumeq “MA “ "* uuemUueslg "fT ‘Oo OPIZM “Vv ‘O sosess Kerry) seu0qy, | “****JapN0D AapuRIG “sess Jarng “A, ‘Y See soon “V “MA Wo senansrets inmay ‘9 ‘¢ ah Treqduey “T “f tresses Ker ag ~~ Teqqepueyy "OD ‘L “"* yauuBIg “‘O UyOr “-uu0r ‘qa ‘f "006 1-668T oe T-0681 ***" 06-6881 “LNGGISaud ‘HONGIOS JO ANAGCVOV YNVIGNI WHHL AO SHUAOIMAO th CONSE ULION: ARTICLE I. SECTION 1. This association shall be called the Indiana Academy of Science. Sec. 2. The objects of this Academy shall be scientific research and the diffusion of knowledge concerning the various departments of science; to promote intercourse between men engaged in scientific work, especially in Indiana; to assist by investigation and discussion in developing and making known the material, educational and other resources and riches of the State; to arrange and prepare for publication such reports of in- vestigation and discussions as may further the aims and objects of the Academy as set forth in these articles. Whereas, the State has undertaken the publication of such proceed- ings, the Academy will, upon request of the Governor, or of one of the several departments of the State, through the Governor, act through its council as an advisory body in the direction and execution of any investi- gation within its province as stated. The necessary expenses incurred in the prosecution of such investigation are to be borne by the State; no pecuniary gain is to come to the Academy for its advice or direction of such investigation. The regular proceedings of the Academy as published by the State shall become a public document. ARTICLHE II. SEcTION 1. Members of this Academy shall be honorary fellows, fel- lows, non-resident members or active members. Sec. 2. Any person engaged in any department of scientific work, or in original research in any department of science, shall be eligible to active membership. Active members may be annual or life members. Annual members may be elected at any meeting of the Academy; they shall sign the constitution, pay an admission fee of two dollars, and there- after an annual fee of one dollar. Any person who shall at one time 42 contribute fifty dollars to the funds of this Academy, may be elected a life member of the Academy, free of assessment. Non-resident members may be elected from those who have been active members but who have removed from the State. In any case, a three-fourths vote of the mem- bers present shall elect to membership. Applications for membership in any of the foregoing classes shall be referred to a committee on applica- tion for membership, who shall consider such application and report to the Academy before the election. Sec. 3. The members who are actively engaged in scientific work, who have recognized standing as scientific men, and who have been members of the Academy at least one year, may be recommended for nomination for election as fellows by three fellows or members personally acquainted with their work and character. Of members so nominated a number not exceeding five in one year may, on recommendation of the Executive Committee, be elected as fellows. At the meeting at which this is adopted, the members of the Executive Committee for 1894 and fifteen others shall be elected fellows, and those now honorary members shall become honorary fellows. Honorary fellows may be elected on account of special prominence in science, on the written recommendation of two members of the Academy. In any case a three-fourths vote of the mem- bers present shall elect. ARTICLE III. SEecTion 1. The officers of this Academy shall be chosen by ballot at the annual meeting. and shall hold office one year. They shall consist of a president, vice-president, secretary, assistant secretary, press secre- tary, and treasurer, who shall perform the duties usually pertaining to their respective offices and in addition, with the ex-presidents of the Academy, shall constitute an executive committee. The president shall, at each annual meeting appoint two members to be a committee which shall prepare the programmes and have charge of the arrangements for all meetings for one year. ‘ Sec. 2. The annual meeting of this Academy shall be held in the city of Indianapolis within the week following Christmas of each year, un- less otherwise ordered by the executive committee. There shall also be a summer meeting at such time and place as may be decided upon by the executive committee. Other meetings may be called at the discretion 15 of the executive committee. ‘The past presidents, together with the officers and executive committee, shall constitute the Council of the Academy, and represent it in the transaction of any necessary business not specially provided for in this constitution, in the interim between general meetings. Sec. 3. This constitution may be altered or amended at any annual meeting by a three-fourths majority of attending members of at least one year’s standing. No question of amendment shall be decided on the day of its presentation. BY-LAWS. 1. On motion, any special department of science shall be assigned to a curator, whose duty it shall be, with the assistance of the other members interested in the same department, to endeavor to advance knowledge in that particular department. Each curator shall report at such time and place as the Academy shall direct. These reports shall include a brief summary of the progress of the department during the year preceding the presentation of the report. 2. The president shall deliver a public address on the evening of one of the days of the meeting at the expiration of his term of office. 3. The press secretary shall attend to the securing of proper news- paper reports of the meetings and assist the secretary. 4. No special meeting of the Academy shall be held without a notice of the same having been sent to the address of each member at least fifteen days before such meeting. 5. No bill against the Academy shall be paid without an order signed by the president and countersigned by the secretary. 6. Members who shall allow their dues to remain unpaid for two years, having been annually notified of their arrearage by the treasurer, shall have their names stricken from the roll. 7. Yen members shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. 14 MEMBERS. FELLOWS. RE Ee MA ey @/% 21. Sh ame ieee La FUCOS Tse ee PRC Arthur 6 ce Nes eter ak OS eines IPAS ROR he ora rete svete chek eae SOS Meck pete es George W. Beriton 7 ae es PSIG. Sis eeeekee Br AES DCY .. = ciiie mee wiry aie he tse me USGA tice hae, fier A SWN sf AL CANES 9 oA byt lap OG mae ack SOT Le eee Wonsldson Bodine. a: so est: octets BOO tom eice oe Wits wislatchiley tras svete kete S98 Tie teins Je aBranner oo ee. cece tee ee CN Bums ar ten exes Fisso bruner. ast eine ee ee LS OOK sy tekescte tate Wants owe (Bryans) !- eta ngaok: SOD Weedon ts atoteras Severance Burrage...............- BOSS eran ehaeiaeces IACMNY AO ESIGLO Ns eerie ae eter in sien US9SP ewer ae ens, Canty elles ace ee sexist: Pearce Me Bens OB ee. John iM: Coulters. cee. tence ee ee 1898! Sescyeeeee Sranieys@oulterce ecm se cites es W808 pare risne. SoM Glenn! Culbertsomse scsi os.. «oe veers 1 lfeit ee leg ed ee OMY. OTIS ecient tie coin dies oe SOD ah Nate stein O51 PA Ban a eI eae ALL aca ERS reer NSO TN cect (AVON SUM ET EL te aeetetoyetat ore eles ee 1896: 2s. oe es C#E Bicenmantne tr. s tacteebe se ore L893) Seeker ACME MOLE aceivns sos tele eee eek WSO Ces base Katherine E. Golden .....:...:... GOD Btn ce eee IME ATs COLGEMC <0 6c ete scoala mate D899 a enteh ances AW RG ossii sekots oi: eects SO Oe e ccasts Se ThomasiGrday 622% -Gcors ne eee BOS ae a on sete ASS) PURO WRG ccna t nataeitue ae S95 Gascen churns OE PAWEL ay. 4), Asta eicietns aeons sere eee ISOS Mice ns Need Robert‘ Hessler cinco oie es MS OO ater 55 ih feds ore Sed IE AS Easton: nck sec teaser eee IESE Bn Saige, Mone ae Pek sO) ODN eek Sere eee BOS ay feces tees DuSadordans pec ees eae SOS Srv ate ee Arthur Kendrick. :..s-5-. seen RS OS ives Reta: fie ee Bobert sD. Diy ans so. o00s sf apeet MS OOD ri sc. .toe ee ets Ni. .Bi. Marsters’. a6 5553 eee BOS Mars Sraee eee Cis Meese tae connie oteaice SOS S Sion p ene TAC, Mendenhall) 37 ...5 2 eeree ee S93): e i Sees Joseph: Moore i) oc6 suns? nn DBO Gioia tardon ae *Date of election. Bloomington. Lafayette. Greencastle. Indianapolis. Moore’s Hill. Lafayette. Crawfordsville. Indianapolis. Stanford University, Cal. Irvington. Bloomington. Lafayette. Indianapolis. Crawfordsville. Chicago, I. Lafayette. Hanover. Richmond. Terre Haute. Lafayette. Bloomington. Bloomington. Lafayette. Lafayette. Lafayette. Terre Haute. Terre Haute. Washington, D. C. Connersville. Lafayette. Greencastle. Stantord University, Cal. Terre Haute. Bloomington. Bloomington. Terre Haute. Worcester, Mass. Richmond. 15 Meme MOULTON. < ii5--eleecee wena averesa a peo pcterpseretrs St Bloomington. IWWARPA NOYES). sc: feats ies ayeeaia wire LUCIE} . Set icrccpetemende Terre Haute. emrvett oer: 2... Asatte e.cicve isis oiosnelers NS 9 Grete sty 5 crocs Terre Haute. em SCOVEL porn sara ictatpeisie: sraretein sis 1S OAT yeletons seevslewevets Terre Haute. LIE Se SIS ICI ee, Ai aA IESE) Gaodoon 0 onOr Chicago, Ill. RUVESME TSS CONG) as «oe cist Mic eicile ere! eases TRS}. lem ao a eoreeer Lafayette. SOMA WS WHE ols. c6 oof al o.e wel e ojessi 0 Mee SOS rss croetlv es ae Bloomington. Wi f, 1B}, HUG cE 3 He ee OE coe ene creer 8 OS te eer apseepene takers Crawfordsville. rein Wnderwood) csieis) csr ence ss SOS atoveies spel tore New York City. ORPACIVVAG OS, Weis cia tacensieis are ood elena Bi ae Sen ee meee e Lafayette. VV COSUCT. fn lovie care ec cise aiclecniele MSO A oat tiersraes|ckevers Wooster, Ohio. IEIEPAVVicn WILLY? aioe vs syste -.< dic os/ett-elacere LS OOM. icd ertaraccats Washington, D. C. REM IVELONG fe WilS a6 stecs ones assis o's SOA chess echo Indianapolis. NON-RESIDENT MEMBERS. NIRPAMEIS ATT OMG Meyer rnstsccys ae cates sieseagos cic ale ersten Grand Forks, N. D. HB ETem@ curity De Ute et ores er onsseiaie eueresdlente, #xelet ove. dala melee, sine Stanford University, Cal. AW ERE VEL OVA oo etx Savalas hos cao ee me weezer Washington, D. C. Whramlesmrlen Grllbertatrscie mis scce cee Sacre) ox ausbesciste cee eect on Stanford University, Cal. Gi, Nao: GHataET CT be eR ei celeste Si ee ere as Oe Re Stanford University, Cal. ROA VieweLlieans oni Gee eee ceeye sss Suc cS ckeleiioiets sie epee syste aim sia vanaerer ons Syracuse, N. Y. echwaMe Cle eM Ou GS Meine neh che acre Susie areca cd -.cle, 404 sled ois lo ere Stockton, Cal. O. P. Jenkins J. S. Kingsley D. T. MacDougal Alfred Springer .. Robert B. Warder 000 0.0 GH OUnG Choro Geb) Orced Oded crorc Dan OllNG oO ail sMnelpalisl te leher.e)\a| «unlinlie|'e),(s)\ei >) ©) e)\e:'ajenve)le\_e)\s\e)»|/e 16 Ernest Walker G. A. Abbott Stanford University, Cal. Tufts College, Mass. Bronx Park, New YorkCity. Cincinnati, Ohio. Washington, D. C. Clemson College, S. C. Duluth, Minn. Me erielkes WV wAMONEWS tcc G)s06 sanate nid ss zit ge Seas sme Bloomington. Creonmey Ele eAtG lil eyammyersmten: ete iaictcpsie steers «cs. sree ace wase'e Soke Indianapolis. BidiwieamdAtyiren wasemuae se legaeys toes eels cvellole ovsis Siele\aiele ctdueness Lafayette. ‘(Minmayotliny’ Jeli orl liiamo 5 mobo dee blo cnte etinc en noeivee ais Crown Point. NEPAL MCT OSETOMI ee scemtreets ie asec stacleteoileis 4,00 508e ee Bloomington. dyin Mp UAC Za. rerc er terry a se cute ees) 5S ere male el orale Lafayette. UEESIRG ISIN Bee aldo coe cnig he DEO OC er oer ere Valparaiso. MIRC MB rAGL Gy nye renieha ace cists cickareleic ene ecoralsioeislore ote eis'6 Bloomington. Hee eM Beez eves wate, Man ttevesalsy elon sattielonave rae chains occas Pittsburg. ean kale Ss CONSOMb- Nein che otras eras eerie cease = eet nave steels Indianapolis. * Date of election. 16 O. W. Brown A. Hugh Bryan E. J. Chansler Walter W. Chipman George Clements Charles Clickener Mel. T. Cook U. O. Cox Mie sita ls sketeky cule’ n 9) «. ce @ = Sf ele le= it wile wie» ms wis = 0 0 =)'e ei teie. al, 4) n/.aue ela e)clede ei mie uta 6) 24s ale) o'ei6's)\/s) exe) fs, © aie) 6 ele as we (6, ses io a a © 0 #96 H46 (oe 208) Rs 0 1m 9 6 & (B® ain le te kee @ 6 m0 pe \6 0 (0's! se elem 6s lee ip sep ise jo lo Jelpie a) ® ©) = eve pe) s 6 sb 8» 6a we») sis 0.6 = a 010) ia te Shel pial a wi bia teljal ase) aie (ava) s 6 Oa. Cie Mate alee ote wiwhs, we hers ale niefele @lmtsl ciao) 6 oa © 2,0 © o.6) 540) » 0 oke S © 8 [010 lee) oe Albert B. Crowe M. E. Crowell Walls Gum ackestemeierer. tre eas ou crete etoeeyeete Edward Roscoe Cummings Alida M. Cunningham Martha Doan Rie we wf¥ sige © oS. 6 fe ea.e 0 nls ep ee aie © \6, 6) es 5156 a) po O savee) vlelele sim 66.6 a e's @0) v1 96g) elves » w wie s see aes Joseph Eastman E. G. Eberhardt M. N. Elrod Bes BIER ek Be cially a SIO b's ai ka ARS. OE ws eee He Percy Norton Evans...... Samuel G, Evans J. E. Ewers Bie sete ole ete ase we 6 aia ete eos ws, ee Bee ‘@ils)le Robert G. Gillum Vernon Gould J. C. Gregg Alden H. Hadley oS. ERA TOT As cc ses 2 ee sc calelena Ree orate te cle siarnlats ake William M. Heiney Robert Hessler =] hae = ha (1) Uae ao Para deh BS Fc oe | De en ae ee Krams, PELL SOUT «sth ser, acs ai gle ecto a CR ate ee ase hehe Lucius M. Hubbard Alex. Johnson Wiisbz) OTSOii tear d ee oe et ere ole ska wiven he BPH eSt iis. I OUMGS'. eect sd ee orc Ghancey, HUGAyN acme was Fees CORAM cvtec Free William J. Karslake D. S. Kelley GO); Tin Kielaoec yen ced 10 oe eT. ata pUphcate eee Richmond. Lafayette. Bicknell. Warsaw. Crawfordsville. Tangier. Greencastle. Mankato, Minn. Columbus. Ft. Wayne. Franklin. Greensburg. Bloomington. Alexandria. Westfield. Syracuse. Lafayette. Indianapolis. Indianapolis. Indianapolis. Columbus. Morgantown, W. Va. Lafayette. Evansville. Big Rapids, Mich. Urmeyville. New Albany. Terre Haute. Rochester. Brazil. Richmond. Bloomington. Huntington. Connersville. Terre Haute. South Bend. Ft. Wayne, Franklin. Kokomo. Bloomington. Irvington. Jeffersonville. . Terre Haute. A. M. Kenyon Ernest I. Kizer Charles T. Knipp Thomas Large John Levering V. H. Lockwood William A. Macbeth Robert Wesley McBride TRramsseenel, I fre(Civat Way 225 0 9 ee mE G. W. Martin Julius B. Meyer O. M. Meyncke W.G. Middleton H. T. Montgomery Rap expe Nicisva lo rePeeecnrs tar fey ais, bytes ete ays fete nveueioencu crea erie oe sche Charles EH. Newlim....../..... John F. Newsom E. W. Olive aliphyB: Polk... 2. James A. Price Frank A. Preston A. H. Purdue Ryland Ratliff Claude Riddle .. Fayetteville, Ark. NDC pbuld Cile yan etsice facets crores. sles Sates ata obei e812 ole Curtis A. Rinson Giles E. Ripley Creonviey We sRObeNtS pie acerbic als ciel sie als) stokes ahecar ess D. A. Rothrock John F. Schnaible E. A. Schultze Howard Schurmann John W. Shepherd Claude Siebenthal J. R. Slonaker Richard A. Smart Eailliamisny dense sce. eee deisel sas ares William Stewart J. M. Stoddard Charles F. Stegmaier ........ 2—Science. .. Crawfordsville. 17 Lafayette. South Bend. Bloomington. Urbana, Ill. Lafayette. Indianapolis. Terre Haute. Indianapolis. Indianapolis. Nashville, Tenn. Lafayette. Brookville. Richmond. Bloomington. Huntingburg. South Bend. Greencastle. Irvington. Stanford University, Cal. Indianapolis. Franklin. Logansport. Chicago, Il. Greenwood. Ft. Wayne. Indianapolis. Fairmount. Lafayette. Chicago, Il. Bloomington. Muncie. Greensburg. Bloomington. Lafayette. Ft. Wayne. Indianapolis. Terre Haute. Indianapolis. Bloomington. Lafayette. Lafayette. Lafayette. ys) “t Greensburg. 18 Bran (Bi Taylor nity sees spaces oie stile am ehectae on ees Ft. Wayne. Sel baydons oti Catia tepeiceee oe Ce re eae av ek 2 West Lafayette. rasttis (Lest yu. Suan pyecion cietiias Sree heh See Seco ns Lafayette. EO gL est; pn ihar eee ee Ceeence ee oe Manes Fae Chicago, Ill. Jeet RiGiMpson’s cn sere eens Fe oA Rees Sine te ne Richmond. Aer As EL REA CWOLLGANS; kitty Cen oe eters Care Rs, o Sane Atte Oxford, Ohio. Daniela: Troyerti.: semnataee a Sener eee ence koe es Goshen. PAP UREN 2.3 cect hues sant cia ahd ale x SUG Mee Cone outs North Manchester. IBIS NV aii sr un rio aud nly Gy, Sp secseraaeee rahe eto chal ete xis fuaieiete does Crawfordsville. ND ee Visi Orden veer thsi ge otek thre einai ane ae oaks Worthington. PAT CIES: AV CALCH: La ior kare tiivg.lsl shia ora bm seen Rockport. HieiSc VOGThees: Ws Reet ac em codiok vane vee oa een Brookville. teem DAGP es area Sk he ote tc cee Axed deen Cones Huntington. Brean Ce sy hitcomib tree este: cincles era hcvcten Reeee ioe Delphi. abies WE: SWikaiteit sere wieslelve ae eae aan le eae South Bend. SELVA LIB DINE «scar tack Rta ee ene ee a ee PONS Oo nee ote Greencastle. WLC ENY Clits, a Peed ce ete ki eave oA tOee caevaan eee Indianapolis Waltham Watsom- Woollen, 0c... 35.00.46 ie coast fae Indianapolis. em ce MOUUAT scMeens Meet ad owaccn she THe econo te Duluth, Minn. Si-clMNGO ROY Are Leech a Meachis Meee Ge fae de tomes Indianapolis. Ag SCN OGL zi then MEET ae cient ge eatin’ DEN ene boa Vincennes. OL TBM LUA cet ete eRe tb ei ichs ohn ath weir Ae Cacia ae e's Clinton. led Mo peceters teacere Oise ee a ee ees aoe trate Sue Boe eps o Ge 52 Womreseene mae mi DEYN vy, 6 ee sicta/ sou Dena ee ace 4 13 CHV IMEMTICEE s 210k wists irre ite alone v Nie iy eee eed Ma 121 19 LIST OF FOREIGN CORRESPONDENTS. AFRICA. Dr. J. Medley Wood, Natal Botanical Gardens, Berea Durban, South Africa. South African Philosophical Society, Cape Town, South Africa. ASIA. China Branch Royal Asiatic Society, Shanghai, China. Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta, India. Geological Survey of India, Calcutta, India. Indian Museum of India, Calcutta, India. India Survey Department of India, Calcutta, India. Deutsche Gesellschaft ftir Natur- und Volkerkunde Ostasiens, ‘Tokio, Japan. Imperial University, Tokio, Japan. Koninklijke Naturkundige Vereeniging in Nederlandsch-Indie, Batavia, Java. Hon. D. D. Baldwin, Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands. EUROPE. Vv. R. Tschusizu Schmidhoffen, Villa Tannenhof, Halle in Salzburg, Austria. Herman von Vilas, Innsbruck, Austria. Ethnologische Mittheilungen aus Ungarn, Budapest, Austro-Hungary. Mathematische und Naturwissenschaftliche Berichte aus Ungarn, Buda- pest, Austro-Hungary. 20 Ix. IX. Geologische Reichsanstalt, Vienne (Wien), Austro-Hungary. K. U. Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft, Budapest, Austro-Hungary. Naturwissenschaftlich-Medizinischer Verein in Innsbruck (Tyrol), Austro- Hungary. Kditors “Yermeszetrajzi Fuzetk,’ Hungarian National Museum, Buda- pest, Austro-Hungary. Dr. Eugen Dadai, Adj. am Nat. Mus., Budapest, Austro-Hungary. Dr. Julius von Madarasz, Budapest, Austro-Hungary. Kk. K. Naturhistorisches Hofmusewmn, Vienna (Wien), Austro-Hungary. Ornithological Society of Vienna (Wien), Austro-Hungary. Zoologische-Bontanische Gesellschaft in Wien, Vienna, Austro-Hungary. Dr. J. yon Csato, Nagy Enyed, Austro-Hungary. Malacological Society of Belgium, Brussels, Belgium. Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts, Brussels, Belgium. Royal Linnean Society, Brussels, Belgium. Societé Belge de Geologie, de Valaeontologié et Hydrologie, Brussels, Belgium. Societé Royale de Botanique, Brussels, Belgium. Societé Geologique de Belgique, Liége, Relgiun. Prof. Christian Frederick Lutken, Copenhagen, Denmark. Bristol Naturalists’ Society, Bristol, England. Geological Society of London, London, England. Dr. E. M. Holmes, British Pharm. Soc’y, Bloomsbury Sq., London, W. C., England. Jenner Institute of Preventive Medicine, London, England. Linnean Society of London, London, England. Liverpool Geological Society, Liverpool, England. Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, Manchester, England. “Nature,” London, England. Royal Botanical Society, London, England. Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, Penzance, England. Royal Microscopical Society, London, England. Zoodlogical Society, London, England. Lieut.-Col. John Biddulph, 43 Charing Cross, London, England. Dr. G. A. Boulenger, British Mus. (Nat. Hist.), London, England. F. DuCane Godman, 10 Chandos St., Cavendish Sq., London, England. Hon. i. L. Layard, Budleigh Salterton, Devonshire, Hngland. Mr. Osbert Salvin, Hawksford, Fernshurst, Haslemere, England. Mr. Howard Saunders, 7 Radnor Place, Hyde Park, London W., England. Phillip L. Sclater, 3 Hanover Sq., London W., England. Dr. Richard Bowlder Sharpe, British Mus. (Nat His.), London, England. Prof. Alfred Russell Wallace, Corfe View, Parkstone, Dorset, England. Botanical Society of France, Paris, France. Ministérie de l’Agriculture, Paris, France. Societé Entomologique de France, Paris, France. L’Institut Grand Ducal de Luxembourg, Luxembourg, Lux., France. Soc. de Horticulture et de Botan. de Marseille, Marseilles, France. Societé Linneenne de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, Irance. La Soc. Linneenne de Normandie, Caen, France. Soc. des Naturelles, etc., Nantes, France. Zoological Society of France, Paris, France. Baron Louis d’Hamonyville, Meurthe et Moselle, France. Prof. Alphonse Milne-Hdwards, Rue Cuvier, 57, Paris, France. Pasteur Institute, Lille, France. Botanischer Verein der Provinz Brandenburg, Berlin, Germany. Deutsche Geologische Gesellschaft, Berlin, Germany. Entomologischer Verein in Berlin, Berlin, Germany. Journal fiir Ornithologie, Berlin, Germany. Prof. Dr. Jean Cabanis, Alte Jacob Strasse, 103 A., Berlin, Germany. Augsburger Naturhistorischer Verein, Augsburg, Germany. Count Hans von Berlspsen, Miinden, Germany. Braunschweiger Verein ftir Naturwissenschaft, Braunschweig, Germany. 22 Bremer Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Bremen, Germany. Kaiserliche Leopoldische-Carolinische Deutsche Akademie der Naturfor- scher, Halle, Saxony, Germany. Koniglich-Sichsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch- Physische Classe, Leipzig, Saxony, Germany. Naturhistorische Gesellschaft zu Hannover, Hanover, Prussia, Germany. Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein in Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany. Verein fiir Erdkunde, Leipzig, Germany. Verein fiir Naturkunde, Wiesbaden, Prussia. Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, Belfast, Ireland. Royal Dublin Society, Dublin. Societa Entomologica Italiana, Florence, Italy. Prof. H. H. Giglioli, Museum Vertebrate Zodlogy, Florence, Italy. Dr. Alberto Perngia, Museo Civico di Storia Naturale, Genoa, Italy. Societa Italiana de Scienze Naturali, Milan, Italy. Societa Africana d’ Italia, Naples, Italy. Dell ’Academia Pontifico de Nuovi Lincei, Rome, Italy. Minister of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, Rome, Italy. Rassegna della Scienze Geologiche in Italia, Rome, Italy. R. Comitato Geologico d’ Italia, Rome, Italy. Prof. Count. Tomasso Salvadori, Zodlog. Museum, Turin, Italy. Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences, Throndhjem, Norway. Dr. Robert Collett, Kongl. Frederiks Univ., Christiana, Norway. Academia Real des Sciencias de Lishoa (Lisbon), Portugal. Comité Geologique de Russie, St. Petersburg, Russia. Imperial Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia. Imperial Society of Naturalists, Moscow, Russia. The Botanical Society of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland. John J. Dalgleish, Brankston Grange, Bogside Sta., Sterling, Scotland. Edinburgh Geological Society, Edinburgh, Scotland. Geological Society of Glasgow, Scotland. John A. Harvie-Brown, Duniplace House, Larbert, Stirlingshire, Scotland. Natural History Society, Glasgow, Scotland. Philosophical Society of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland. Royal Society of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland. Royal Physical Society, Edinburgh, Scotland. Barcelona Academia de Ciencias y Artes, Barcelona, Spain. Royal Academy of Sciences, Madrid, Spain. Institut Royal Geologique de Suéde, Stockholm, Sweden. Societé Entomologique & Stockholm, Stockholm, Sweden. Royal Swedish Academy of Science, Stockholm, Sweden. Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Basel, Switzerland. Naturforschende Gesellschaft in Berne, Berne, Switzerland. La Societé Botanique Suisse, Geneva, Switzerland. Societé Helvetique de Sciences Naturelles, Geneva, Switzerland. Societé de Physique et d’ Historie Naturelle de Geneva, Geneva, Switzer- land. Concilium Bibliographicum, Ztirich-Oberstrasse, Switzerland. Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Ziirich, Switzerland. Schweizerische Botanische Gesellschaft, Ziirich, Switzerland. ' Prof. Herbert H. Field, Ziirich, Switzerland. AUSTRALIA. Linnean Society of New South Wales, Sidney, New South Wales. Royal Society of New South Wales, Sidney, New South Wales. Prof. Liveridge, F. R. S., Sidney, New South Wales. Hon. Minister of Mines, Sidney, New South Wales. Mr. E. P. Ramsey, Sidney, New South Wales. Royal Society of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland. Royal Society of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia. Victoria Pub. Library, Museum and Nat. Gallery, Melbourne, Victoria. Prof. W. L. Buller, Wellington, New Zealand. 2) He NORTH AMERICA. Natural Hist. Society of British Columbia, Victoria, British Columbia. Canadian Record of Science, Montreal, Canada. McGill University, Montreal, Canada. Natural Society, Montreal, Canada. Natural History Society, St. Johns, New Brunswick. Nova Scotia Institute of Science, Halifax, N. 8S. Manitoba Historical and Scientific Society, Winnepeg, Manitoba. Dr. T. Mellwraith, Cairnbrae, Hamilton, Ontario. The Royal Society of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario. Natural History Society, Toronto, Ontario. Hamilton Association Library, Hamilton, Ontario. Canadian Entomologist, Ottawa, Ontario. Department of Marine and Fisheries, Ottawa, Ontario. Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, Ontario. Canadian Institute, Toronto. Ottawa Field Naturalists’ Club, Ottawa, Ontario. University of Toronto, Toronto. Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario. La Naturaliste Canadian, Chicontini, Quebec. La Naturale Za, City of Mexico. Mexican Society of Natural History, City of Mexico. Museo Nacional, City of Mexico. Sociedad Cientifica Antonio Alzate, City of Mexico. Sociedad Mexicana de Geographia y Estadistica de la Republica Mexicana, City of Mexico. WEST INDIES. Victoria Institute, Trinidad, British West Indies. Museo Nacional, San Jose, Costa Rica, Central America. Dr. Anastasia Alfaro, Secy. National Museum, San Jose, Costa Rica. Rafael Arango, Havana, Cuba. Jamaica Institute, Kingston, Jamaica, West Indies. SOUTH AMERICA. Argentina Historia Natural Florentine Amegline, Buenos Ayres, Argen- tine Republic. Musée de la Plata, Argentine Republic. Nacional Academia des Ciencias, Cordoba, Argentine Republic. Sociedad Cientifica Argentina, Buenos Ayres. Museo Nacional, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Sociedad de Geographia, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Dr. Herman yon Jhering, Dir. Zodl. Sec. Con. Geog. e Geol. de Sao Paulo, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Deutscher Wissenschaftlicher Verein in Santiago, Santiago, Chili. Societé Scientifique du Chili, Santiago, Chili. Sociedad Guatemalteca de Ciencias, Guatemala, Guatemala. 7 2» PROGRAM OF THE FIFTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE Indiana Academy of Science, STATE HOUSE, INDIANAPOLIS, December 27 and 28,1899. OFFICERS AND EX-OFFICIO EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. C. H. E1genMAnn, President, D.W.Dernnis, Vice-President, JounS. Wricut, Secretary. E. A. Scuuutze, Asst. Secretary. Gro. W. Benton, Press Secretary. J. T. Scove.t, Treasurer. C. A. WaLpDo, W.A. Noyes, 0. P. Hay, J.P.D.Jonn, Tomas GRay, J.C. ARTHUR, T.C. MENDENHALL, Joun M. CouttEr, STANLEY COULTER, J.L. CAMPBELL, JouNn C. BRANNER, Davip S. JorRDAN. Amos W. Butter, The sessions of the Academy will be held in the State House,in the rooms of the State Board of Agriculture. Headquarters will be at the Bates House. A rate of $2.00 and up per day will be made to all persons who make it known at the time of registering that they are members of the Academy. ; Reduced railroad rates for the members can not be obtained under the present ruling of the Traffic Association. Many of the colleges can secure special rates on the various roads. Those who can not do this, could join the State Teachers’ Association and thus secure a one and one-third round trip fare. M.B. THOMAS, C.R. DRYER, Committee. GENERAL PROGRAM. WeEDNESDAY, DECEMBER 27. Meeting of Executive Committee at the Hotel Headquarters .................-.-... 000 8 P.M. TuurspAay, DECEMBER 28. AL GSWOTHL] SSSRLOTE CS sede oc cave ae eee SEARED Lene IE ER a, Sn ee Me 9a.m.to12m. Sectional Meetings..................... le Sea a node Pred reac tree Wnt 2p.m.to5p.m. LIST OF PAPERS TO BE READ. ADDRESS BY THE RETIRING PRESIDENT, PROFESSOR C. H. EIGENMANN, At 10 o’clock Thursday morning. Subject: ‘“‘ Degeneration Illustrated by the Eyes of the Cave Fishes.’’ The following papers will be read in the order in which they appear on the program, except that certain papers will be presented “part passu’’ in sectional meetings. Whena paper is called and the reader is not present, it will be dropped to the end of the list, unless by mutual agreement an exchange can be made with another whose time is approximately the same. Where no time was sent with the papers, they have been uniformly assigned ten minutes. Opportunity will be given after the reading of each paper for a brief discussion. N. B.—By the order of the Academy, no paper can be read until an abstract of its contents or the written paper has been placed in the hands of the Secretary. GENERAL. Pee HO oh Origa GOMHery oO. syete.c.cuets ache hee. orsyaley's sete. = W. B. Fletcher 2aelibraries, of Microscopical Slides, 5 Mie. >. ..2..2.252-00. A. J..Bigney 3. A Method of Registration for Anthropological Purposes, 10 m., som there Pree ee eS ctor ele oor aie eiereterain ee eile Sieh teioto eat Ae We. UGE *4. A Vacation Trip to the San Marcos, Texas, Caves and Springs, 1S) 08 oie Ao werd b tho DOE Be OCU E Aree One Ir on Ce oe C. H. Higenmann 45. AWNew Pathogenic) Yeast, 12)m:... 5 01. 2s. cc R. Lyons and L. Rettger 6. Aids in Teaching Physical Geography, 10 m.......... V. F. Marsters 7. Some Preliminary Notes on the Hygienic Value of Various Street Pavements as Determined by Bacteriological An- UV SES ol OMT a ereds tess cons eletes fe =r Severance Burrage and D. B. Luten 8. Insects as Factors in the Spread of Bacterial Diseases, 20 m., 1 Uo CO RGD Ai Cie Oto Bi Ca REE ELON eels ee nea a Severance Burrage 9. House Boats for Biological Work, 10 m................... U. O. Cox MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 10. Tests on Some Ball and Roller Bearings, 12 m.......... M. J. Golden 1. Bearine-Resting Dynamometer, 10 Mm. ..22.40-..-522.6- M. J. Golden 12. The Toepler-Holtz Machine for Roentgen Rays, 5m...J. L. Campbell * Author absent, paper not presented. 28 13. 14. 15. AG. “Al *18. 19. 20. 21. 22. A Proposed Notation for the Geometry of the Triangle, 5 m., a ene eee RUE ER cee WR Le NCTE Lt Roe Sod MGR, See MPS ee Sah ENE evar es R. J. Aley Some Circles Connected with the Triangle, 8 m........... R. J. Aley The Point P and Some of its Properties, 8m.............. R. J. Aley Applications of Group Theory, 5 m.................. D. A. Rothrock Singularities of Certain;Continuous Groups, 5 m...... EK. W. Rettger On a Family of Warped Surfaces Connected by a Simple Functional Relation, 20 m...C. A. Waldo and B. C. Waldenmaier MTAMOnN dH TUOTESCEM GEN MOMMA erereteleesye wiles cuss tereua lene ieker ene os A. L. Foley Some Experiments on Locomotive Combustion, 10 m..J. W. Shepherd CHEMISTRY. Some Ionization Experiments, 10 m.................s.. P. N. Evans Synthesis of the 2-3, 3-Trimethyl cyclopentanone, a cyclic derivative ot OCamphory VOC ej. svete charters ors ensjenl eel ‘.W. A. Noyes BOTANY. Contributions to the Flora of Indiana, VI, 10 m...... Stanley Coulter Some Unrecognized Forms of Native Trees, 10 m....Stanley Coulter Seedlings of Certain Native Herbaceous Plants, 10 m........ ...... stanley Coulter and Herman Dorner The Resin Ducts and Strengthening Cells of Abies and Picea, STAT “faye tarcecsoichartitatetae store es clones Onecare oath Ste eatertietepeye ae Herman Dorner Karyokinesis in Magnolia with Special Reference to the Be- havior of the Chromosomes, 10 m................ ¥. M. Andrews A Proteolytic Enzyme of Yeast, 15 m.......... Katherine E. Golden Saccharomyces anomalus Hausen (7), 10 m..... Katherine E. Golden Some Problems in Corallorhiza, 8m.................. M. B. Thomas Disappearance of Sedum ternatum, 5m..............M. B. Thomas ZOOLOGY. The Kankakee Salamander 5 mie. tej. 2 se eevee ate cne tT. HH: Bail The Bye -ok the: Mole, rms. tte nierisie wicrcstae cierevohetsiersnee J. R. Slonaker Notes on dmaisinsh Bimids. Omi ae vices sie terete eels che eae ore A. W. Butler Biological Conditions of Round and Shriner Lakes, Whitley County, Timid tania, sl'Os Ws Feet cle sac ovecele ies siete dai eee E. B. Williamson * Author absent, paper not presented. *26. The Arthropods of the San Marcos Caves and Springs, 10 m., Pa i re Bre oe bd eee Ris ee cis ky Slacks ooh eraiepaitel dof otorite Carl Ulrich ‘27. The Retinal Pattern of Single and Double Cones in the Eyes Mir AMevSss alOande meme coop Oe oo ceo C. H. Kigenmann and G. Shafer *28. Some Notes on the Blind Fish Caves at Mitchell, Indiana, ESTIMA eich cieccicrche rs iaroue es ese ata e Clo evave smoneya ts C. H. Higenmann 39. The Eyes of Cambrus pellucidus from Mammoth Cave, 1) di) 3S edeid ard GD URS CO aS MeO nO CRD Oia MEOID Ditee clot: OBsor B. M. Price *4(). The Optic Lobes of the Blind Fish, Amblyopsis, 10 m. .E. E. Ramsey *41. The Cold-Blooded Vertebrates of Winona Lake and its Vi- IMMA AOE TIN ay np arses de arece cates sy sy alee eve te aren oes eters) ay sifokon “consent scetons EK. HE. Ramsey 42. Cortex Cells of the Mouse’s Brain, 10 m............... D. W. Dennis +43, Cocoon Spinning in Lycosa, 5 m.................. W. J. Moenkbaus silat. orders 1S hyora(o huis) ese abbots go simgn 6 tomo naod an oDoOS W. J. Moenkhaus GHOLOGY. 45. The Physical Geography of the Region of the Great Bend of HAV alo aise ON mals sys sera wretch eves! cnets svete e's teres os Ww. A. McBeth AeA MM CErestim oy IO wal enya s ID). cay aso) isresercsek-l c= wie -)a nel slat a Ww. A. McBeth 47. ‘The Headwaters of Salt Creek in Porter County, Indiana, aA ister operas isa eee earch arch oy nichoheasereyc a ayers ct oieie/ecte ele verlevelectie L. F. Bennett 48. Weathering and Erosion of North and of South Slopes, 8 m., RA NT MATT Rev ets rssh eke eal nee: whale ayeteleievet ss lef oka G. Culbertson 49. A Cranium of Castoroides found at Greenfield, Indiana, 5 m., SPorar et uaiedena ae ateneeleie che) whe Soko sldcaveehy calor erate ern anys hare OSE D Mew I OORe 50. On the Waldron Fauna at Tarr Hole, Indiana, 10 m..H. R. Cumings 51. The Stream Gradients of the Lower Mohawk Valley, 10 m., SPRUNG Sete p a chet edokene res facet n) va rei ave, duahates aw iee e veils Gas Oren cka tone H. R. Cumings 2. Skull of Fossil Bison, 10 m...... W. G. Middleton and Joseph Moore *Author absent, paper not presented. 30 THE FIFTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. The fifteenth annual meeting of the Indiana Academy of Science was held in Indianapolis, Thursday, December 28, 1899, preceded by a session of the Executive Committee of the Academy, 9 p. m., Wednesday, De- cember 27. At 9 a. m., December 28, in the absence of the President, C. H. Higen- mann, Vice President D. W. Dennis called the Academy to order in general session, at which committees were appointed and other routine and mis- cellaneous business trausacted. After the disposition of these affairs, the address of the retiring President, Dr. C. H. Higenmann, was read by the Vice President, Dr. D. W. Dennis: subject, ‘‘Degeneration Llustrated by the Eyes of Cave Fishes.” Following this address, until adjournment at 12 m., the Academy was engaged with the papers of the printed pro- gram under the title, “General Subjects.” At 2 p. m. the Academy met in two sections—biological and physico- chemical—for the reading and discussion of papers. Vice President Dennis presided over the biological section, while G. W. Benton acted as chair- man of the physico-chemical section. At 5 p. m. the section meetings adjourned and the Academy was assembled in general session for the transaction of business. Adjournment, 5:30 p. m. THE FIELD MEETING OF 1899. The Field Meeting of 1899 was held at Crawfordsville, Thursday, Friday and Saturday, May 25, 26 and 27. At 8:30 p. m. Thursday, the Executive Committee met for the trans- action of business. Iriday the 26th was spent in the field. Leaving Crawfordsville early in the morning, the party traveled by carriages to Pine Hills, a district which afforded excellent field opportunities to the botanists, zoologists and geologists. The return to Crawfordsville was made by way of Alamo and Yountsville. In the evening the Academy was given a reception at the residence of President Burroughs, of Wabash College. On Saturday the members made field excursions to the north of Craw- fordsville, visiting the well-known crinoid beds along Sugar Creek. The Academy is greatly indebted to the local members for their generous and thoughtful hospitality, which was a prominent feature of the meeting. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. DEGENERATION IN THE EYES OF THE COLD-BLOODED VERTE- BRATES OF THE NORTH AMERICAN CAVES. By C. H. E1rGENMANN. “Degeneration,” says Lankester, “may be defined as the gradual change of the structure in which the organism becomes adapted to less varied and less complex conditions of life; whilst elaboration is a gradual change of structure in which the organism becomes adapted to more and more varied and complex conditions of existence.” Degeneration may affect the organism as a whole or some one part. I propose to speak not on degeneration in general but to give a concrete ex- ample of the degeneration of the parts of one organ. The eyes of the blind vertebrates of North America lend themselves to this study admirably, because different ones have reached different stages in the process, so by studying them all we get a series of steps through which the most degenerate has passed, and are enabled to reach conclusions that the study of an extreme case of degeneration would not give us. I shall confine myself to the cave salamanders and the blind fishes (Amblyopsidae) nearly all of which I have visited in their native haunts. The salamanders are introduced to illuminate some dark points in the degeneration of the eyes of the fishes and to emphasize a fact that is forcing itself forward with increasing vehemence; i. e., that cross-coun- try conclusions are not warrantable; that the blind fishes form one group and the salamanders other groups, and that however much one may help us to understand the other, we must not expect too close an agree- ment in the steps of their degeneration under similar conditions. There are three cave salamanders in North America. 1. Spelerpes maculicauda is found generally distributed in the caves of the Mississippi Valley. It so closely resembles Spelerpes longicauda that it has not, until more recent years, been distinguished from the latter, which has an even wider epigzean distribution. There is nothing about the structure of the salamander that marks it as a cave species, but its habits are conclusive. 52 2. Typhlotriton is much more restricted in its distribution, being con- fined to a few caves in southwestern Missouri. I have taken its larvae at the mouth of Rock House Cave in abundance. In the deeper recesses of Marble Cave I secured both young and adult. This is a cave species of a more pronounced type. The very habit that accounts for the presence of salamanders in caves has been retained by this one. I found some in- dividuals hiding (?) under rocks, and in the aquarium their stereotropic nature manifests itself by the fact that they crawl into glass tubing, rub- ber tubing or under wire screening. In the eye of this species we have some of the early steps in the process of degeneration. 3. Typhlomolge has been taken from a surface well near San Marcos, Texas, and from the artesian well of the U. 8. Fish Commission at the same place. The artesian well taps a cave stream about 190 feet from the surface. It has also been.seen in the underground stream of Hzel’s Cave near San Marcos. It was also reported to me from South of San Antonio, Texas. ‘This is distinctly and exclusively a cave species, and its eyes are more degenerate than those of any other salamander, including the European Proteus.* The Amblyopsidae are a small family of fresh-water fishes and offer exceptional facilities for the study of the steps in the degeneration of eyes. There are at least six species and we have gradations in habits from permanent epigsean species to species that have for ages been es- tablished in caves. The species of Chologaster possess well developed eyes. One of them, C. cornutus, is found in the coast streams of the southeastern States; an- other, C. papilliferus, is found in some springs in southwestern Illinois, while the third, C. agassizii, lives in the cave streams of Kentucky and Tennessee. The other members of the family are cave species with very degener- ate eyes. They represent three genera which are descended from three epigzeesan species. Amblyopsis, the giant of the race, which reaches 135 , *Tt may be noticed that the eyes of the western Typhlotriton are more degenerate than those of the cave Spelerpes of wider distribution. Further the eyes of the Texas Typhlo- molge are more degenerate than those of the Missouri Typhlotriton. Similarly the Missouri blind fish Troglichthys has eyes in a much more advanced state of degeneration than the Ohio valley blind fishes. It is possible that the explanation is to be found in the length of time the caves in these regions have been habitable. During the glacial epoch the caves of the Ohio valley were near the northern limit of vegetation. The Missouri caves, if affected at all by glaciation, must have become habitable before those of the Ohio valley, while those of Texas were probably not affected at all. Oo mm. in length, is found in the caves of the Ohio Valley. Typhlichthys is also found in the Ohio valley but chiefly south of the Ohio River. Buta single specimen has been found north of the Ohio, and this specimen repre- sents a distinct species. Troglichthys, which is found in the caves of Missouri, has been in caves longer than its relatives, if the degree of the degeneration of its eyes is a criterion. Before dealing with the degeneration of the eye a few words are in order on the normal structure of the organ under consideration. In the normally developed eye we may distinguish a variety of parts with different functions. These are: A. Organs for protection like the lid and orbits. B. Organs for moving the eye to enable it to receive direct rays of light. In the cold-blooded vertebrates these consist of four rectus muscles and two oblique. C. Organs to support the active structures, the fibrous or cartilagi- nous sclera. D. The eye proper, consisting of: 1. Parts for transmitting and focusing light; the cornea, lens and vitreous body. 2. Parts for receiving light and transforming it to be transmitted to the brain; the retina. 8. A part for transmitting the converted impression to the brain; the optic nerve. Some of these, as the muscles, retina and optic nerve, are active, while others, the dioptric, protective and supporting organs, are passive. A. In the Amblyopsidae the skin passes directly over the eye without forming a free erbital rim or lid. The skin over the eye in Chologaster is much thinner than elsewhere and free from pigment. In the other genera of the family the eye has been withdrawn from the surface. In these it lies deep beneath the skin, and the latter, where it passes over the eye, has assumed the structure normal to it in other parts of the head. In the salamanders we have a perfect gradation in the matter of the eye lids. In Spelerpes a free orbital rim is present in every respect like that found in epigzean salamanders. In Typhlotriton the lids are closing over the eye. The slit between the upper and the lower lid is much shorter than usual, and the upper lid overlaps the lower. The con- junctiva is still normal. The eye of this species is midway between the 3—Se’ence. 34 normal salamander eye and that of Typhlomolge in which a slight thin- ; ning of the skin is all there is to indicate its former modification over the eye. B. The muscles to change the direction of the eye ball show complete gradations from perfect development to total disappearance. In the species of Chologaster all the muscles are normally developed. In Ambly- opsis the muscles are unequally developed, but one or more are always presént and can be traced from their origin to the eye. In Troglichthys the distal halves of the muscles, the parts nearest the eye, have been re- placed by connective tissue fibers; i. e., a tendon has replaced part of the muscle. Here we have a step in advance in the degeneration found in Amblyopsis and no instance was noticed where all the muscles of any eye were even developed in the degree described. In Typhlichthys the muscles have all disappeared. In Typhlomolge the muscles have disappeared; in the other sala- manders they are present. C. The sclera is indifferently developed in Chologaster and there is but little modification in the species with more degenerate eyes, except that in Amblyopsis and Troglichthys where cartilaginous bands were evidently present in the epigzean ancestors these bands have persisted in a remarkable degree, being much too large for the minute eye with which they are connected. In Troglichthys they form a hood over the front of the eye and various projections and angles in their endeavor to accommo- date themselves to the small structure which they cover. This is in striking contrast to the condition in Typhlotriton where but a single slight nodule of cartilage remains. Even this is frequently ab- sent in the adult, while in the larvae of the same species a cartilaginous band extends almost around the equator of the eye. The different effect of degeneration in.the Amblyopsidae and the salamander could not be more forcibly illustrated than by the scleral cartilages. The presence of a eartilagenous band in the young is, possibly, a larval character, and its absence: in the adult has, in that case, no bearing on phylogenetic de- generation. D. The eye as a whole and its different parts may now be considered. 1. The dioptric apparatus. The steps in the degeneration of the eye in general are indicated in the accompanying figures. f ET 2 ee fig ~ SS | SS Ss SHYT SS I EL]S=| SS -C EXPLANATION OF FIGURES. A.—I. Diagrams of the eyes of all the species of the Amblyopsidae and of Typhlomolge. A—C, the eyes of Chologaster cornutus, papilliferus and agassiz1i drawn to scale. D, E, G, H, I are drawn under the same magnification. D.—The retina of Chologaster cornutus. E.—The retina of Chologaster papilliferus. F.—The eye of Typhlomolge under lower magnification. G.—The eye of Typhlichthys subterraneus. H.—The eye of Amblyopsis spelaeus. I.—The eye of Troglichthys rosae. The most highly developed eye is that of Chologaster papilliferus. The parts of this eye are well proportioned, but the eye as a whole is small, measuring less than one millimeter in a specimen 55 mm. long. The pro- portions. of this eye are symmetrically reduced if it has been derived from a fish eye of the average size, but the retina is much simpler than in such related pelagic species as Zygonectes. The simplifications in the retina have taken place between the outer nuclear and the ganglionic layers. The pigment layer has not been materially affected. These facts are exactly opposed to the supposition of Kohl, that the retina and the optic nerve are the last to be affected and that the vitreous body and the lens cease to develop early. In Chologaster papilliferus the latter parts are normal, while the retina is simplified. That the retina is affected first is proved beyond cavil by Chologaster cornutus. The vitreous body and the lens are here larger than in papilliferus, but the retina is very greatly simplified. Cornutus, it must be borne in mind, lives in the open. The eye of the cave species Chologaster agassizii differs from that of papilliferus largely in size. There is little difference in the retinas except the pigmented layer, which is about 26 per cent. thinner in agassizii than in papilliferus. There is a big gap between the lowest eye of Chologaster and the highest eye of the blind members of the Amblyopsidae. The lens in the latter has lost its fibrous nature and is merely an ill-defined minute clump of cells scarcely distinguishable in the majority of cases. The vitreous body of the latter species is gone with perhaps a trace still remaining in Typhlichthys. With the loss of the lens and the vitreous body the eye 38 collapsed so that the ganglionic layer formerly lining the vitreous cavity. has been brought together in the center of the eye. The layers of the retina in Typhlichthys are so well developed that could the vitreous body and lens be added to this eye it would stand on a higher plane than that of Chologaster cornutus exclusive of the cones. It is generally true that at first the thickness of the layers of the retina is increased as the result of the reduction of the lens and vitreous body and the consequent crowding of the cells of the retina, whose reduction in number does not keep pace with the reduction in the dioptric apparatus in total darkness. If we bear in mind that no two of the eyes represented here are mem- bers of a phyletic series we may-be permitted to state that from an eye like that of cornutus, but possessing scleral cartilages, both the eyes of Amblyopsis and Troglichthys have been derived and that the eye of Amblyopsis represents one of the stages through which the eye of Trog- lichthys passed. The eye of Amblyopsis is the eye of C. cornutus minus a vitreous body with the pupil closed and with a minute lens. The nuclear layers have gone a step further in their degeneration than in cornutus, but the greatest modification has taken place in the dioptric arrangements. In Troglichthys even the mass of ganglionic cells present in the center of the eye as the result of the collapsing after the removal of the vitreous body has vanished. The pigmented epithelium, and in fact all the other layers, are represented by mere fragments. The eye of Typhlichthys has degenerated along a different line. There is an almost total loss of the lens and vitreous body in an eye like that of papilliferus without an intervening stage like that of cornutus, and the pigment layer has lost its pigment, whereas in Amblyopsis it was retained. The salamanders bridge the gap existing between the Chologasters and the blind members of the Amblyopsidae. But even at the risk of monot- onous repetition I want again to call attention to the fact that the sala- manders do not belong to the same series as the Amblyopsidae. The dioptric arrangements of Typhlotriton are all normal; the retina is normal in the young, but the rods and cones all disappear with the change from the larval to the adult condition. In Typhlomolge the lens and largely the vitreous body are gone and the eye has collapsed. The vitreous body is, however, much better represented than in the blind Amblyopsidae and the iris is, especially in the young, much better developed than in the fishes. ' ‘ny ‘ 39 2. The retina. (a) There is more variety in the degree of development of the pig- ment epithelium than in any other structure of the eye. Ritter has found that in Typhlogobius this “layer has actually increased in thickness con- comitantly with the retardation in the development of the eye, or it is quite possible with the degeneration of this particular part of it. * * * An increase of pigment is an incident to the gradual diminution in fune- tional importance and structural completeness.”’ There is so much varia- tion in the thickness of this layer in various fishes that not much stress can be laid on the absolute or relative thickness of the pigment in any one species as an index of degeneration. While the pigment layer is, relative to the rest of the retina, very thick in the species of Chologaster, it is found that the pigment layer of Chologaster is not much, if any, thicker than that of Zygonectes. Exception must be made for specimens of the extreme size in papilliferus and agassizii. In other words, primarily the pigment layer has retained its normal condition while the rest of the retina has been simplified, and there may even be an increase in the thickness of the layer as one of its ontogenic modifications. Whether the greater thickness of the pigment in the old Chologaster is due to degenera- tion or the greater length of the cones in a twil‘ght species, I am unable to say. In Typhlichthys, which is undoubtedly derived from a Cholo- gaster-like ancestor, no pigment is developed. The layer retains its epi- thelial nature and remains apparently in its embryonic condition. It may be well to call attention here to the fact that the cones are very sparingly developed, if at all, in this species. In Amblyopsis, in which the degenera- tion of the retina has gone further, but in which the cones are still well developed, the pigment layer is very highly developed, but not by any means uniformly so in different individuals. The pigment layer reaches its greatest point of reduction in rosae where pigment is still developed, but the layer is fragmentary, except over the distal part of the eye. We thus find a development of pigment with an imperfect layer in one case and a full developed layer without pigment in another, Typhlichthys. In the Chologasters the pigment is in part prismatic; in the other species, granular. The rods disappear before the cones. (b) In the outer nuclear layer a complete series of steps is observa- ble from the two-layered condition in papilliferus to the one-layered in cornutus to the undefined layer in Typhlichthys and the merging of the 40 nuclear layer in Amblyopsis, and their occasional total absence in rosae. The rods disappear first, the cones long before their nuclei. (c) The outer reticular layer naturally meets with the same fate as the outer nuclear layer. It is well developed in papilliferus, evident in cornutus, developed in spots in Typhlichthys, and no longer distinguish- able in the other species. (d) The layers of horizontal cells are represented in papilliferus by occasional cells; they are rarer in cornutus and beyond these have not been detected. (e) The inner nuclear layer of bipolar and spongioblastic cells is well developed in papilliferus. In cornutus it is better developed in the young than in the older stages where it forms but a single layer of cells. There is evidently in this species an ontogenic simplification. In the remaining: species it is, as mentioned above, merged with the outer nuclear layer into- one layer which is occasionally absent in Troglichthys. (f) The inner reticular layer is relatively better developed than any of the other layers, and the conclusion naturally forces itself upon one that it must contain other elements besides fibres of the bipolar and gan- glionic cells, for, in Amblyopsis and Troglichthys, where the latter are very limited or absent, this layer is still well developed. Horizontal cells have only been found in the species of Chologaster. (g) In the ganglionic layer we find again a complete series of steps from the most perfect eye to the condition found in Troglichthys. In papilliferus the cells form a complete layer one cell deep, except where the cells have given way to the optic fibre tracts which pass in among the cells instead of over them. In cornutus the cells have been so reduced in number that they are widely separated from each other. With the loss of the vitreous cavity the cells have been brought together again into a continuous layer in Typhlichthys, although there are much fewer cells. than in cornutus even. The next step is the formation of a solid core of ganglionic cells, and the final step the elimination of this central core in Troglichthys, leaving but a few cells over the anterior face of the retina. (h) Miillerian nuclei are found in all but Amblyopsis and Troglichthys. In C. cornutus they lie in part in the inner reticular and the ganglionic layer. Cells of this sort are probably also found among the ganglionic cells of Typhlichthys. 3. The optic nerve shows a clear gradation from one end of the series of fishes to the other. In Chologaster papilliferus it reaches its maximum 41 development. In cornutus, which possesses an eye larger than papillif- erus, but in which the ganglionic layer is simplified, the nerve is measur- ably thinner. In Typhlichthys the nerve can be traced to the brain even in specimens 40 mm. long; i. e., in specimens which are evidently adult. In Amblyopsis the nerve can be followed to the brain in specimens 25 mm. long, but in the adult I have never been able to follow it to the brain. In Troglichthys it has become so intangible that I have not been able to trace it for any distance beyond the eye. We thus see that the simplification or reduction in the eye is not a horizontal process. The purely supporting structure, like the scleral car- tilages have been retained out of all proportion to the rest of the eye. The pigment layer has been both quantitatively and qualitatively differently affected in different species. There was primarily an increase in the thick- ness of this layer, and later a tendency to total loss of pigment. The degeneration has been more uniformly progressive in all the layers within the pigment layer. The only possible exception being the inner reticular layer which probably owes its retention more to its supporting than to its nervous elements. Another exception is found in the cones, but their de- gree of development is evidently associated with the degree of develop- ment of the pigmented layer. As long as the cones are developed the pig- mented layer is well developed or vice versa. We find, in general, that the reduction in size from the normal fish eye went hand in hand with the simplification of the retina. There was at first chiefly a reduction in the number of many times duplicated parts. Even after the condition in Chologaster papilliferus was reached the de- generation in the histological condition of the elements did not keep pace with the reduction in number (vide the eye of cornutus). The dioptric apparatus disappeared rather suddenly and the eye as a consequence col- lapsed with equal suddenness in those members which, long ago, took up their abode in total darkness. The eye not only collapsed, but the number of elements decreased very much. The reduction was in the horizontally repeated elements. The vertical complexity, on which the function of the retina really depends, was not greatly modified at first. In those species which took up their abode in total darkness the de- generation in the dioptric apparatus was out of proportion to the degen- eration of the retina, while in those remaining above ground the retinal structures degenerated out of proportion to the changes in the dioptric apparatus, which, according to this view, degenerates only under condi- 42 tions of total disuse or total darkness, which would necessitate total dis- use. This view is upheld by the conditions found in Typhlogobius, as Ritter’s drawings and my own preparations show. In Typhlogobius the eye is functional in the young and remains a light-perceiving organ throughout life. The fish live under rocks between tide water (Higenmann 90). We have here an eye in a condition of partial use, and the lens is not affected. The retina has, on the other hand, been horizontally reduced much more than in the Amblyopsidae, so that should the lens disappear, and Ritter found one specimen in which it was gone, the type of eye found in Troglichthys would be reached without passing through a stage found in Amblyopsis; it would be simply a horizontal contracting of the retina, not a collapsing of the entire eye. The question may with propriety be asked here, Do the most degen- erate eyes approach the condition of the pineal eye? It must be answered negatively. ONTOGENIC DEGENERATION. The developmental side of this question will be taken up with the de- velopment of the eye in Amblyopsis. The simplification of the eye in cornutus has been mentioned in the foregoing paragraphs. It may be recalled that the nuclear layers are thinner in the old than in the young. There is here not so much an elim- ination or destruction of element as a simplification of the arrangements of parts, comparatively few being present to start with. The steps in ontogenic degeneration can not be given with any degree of finality for Amblyopsis on account of the great variability of the eye in the adult. While the eyes of the very old have unquestionably degen- erated, there is no means of determining what the exact condition of a given eye was at its prime. In the largest individual examined the eye was on one side a mere jumble of scarcely distinguishable cells, the pig- ment cells and scleral cartilages being the only things that would permit its recognition as an eye. On the other side the degree of development was better. The scleral cartilages are not affected by the degenerative processes and are the only structures that are not so affected. The fact that the eyes are undergoing ontogenic degeneration may be taken, as suggested by Kohl, that these eyes have not yet reached a condition of 43 equilibrium with their environment or the demands made upon them by use. Furthermore, the result of the ontogenic degeneration is a type of structure below anything found in phylogeny. It is not so much a reduc- tion of the individual parts as it is a wiping out of all parts. . PLAN AND PROCESS OF PHYLETIC DEGENERATION. Does degeneration follow the reverse order of development, or does it follow new lines, and if so, what deteimines these lines? Before discussing this point I should like to call attention to some of the processes of ontogenic development concerned in the development of the eye. There are three processes that are of importance in this connec- tion. 1.—The multiplication of cells. 2—The arrangement of cells, in- cluding all of the processes leading to morphogenesis. Frequently the first process continues after the second one has been in operation. 3.— Lastly, we have the growth and modification of the cells in their respec- tive places to adapt them to the particular functions they are to subserve— histogenesis. Since the ontogenic development of the eye is supposed to follow in general lines its phyletic development, the question resolves itself into whether or not the eye is arrested at a certain stage of its de- velopment and whether this causes certain organs to be cut off from de- velopment altogether. In this sense the question has been answered in the affirmative by Kohl. Ritter, while unable to come to a definite con- clusion, notes the fact that in one individual of Typhlogobius, the lens, which is phyletically a new structure, had disappeared. But this lens had probably been removed as the result of degeneration rather than through the lack of development. Kohl supposes that in animals placed in a condition where light was shut off more or less some of the developmental processes are retarded. In successive generations earlier and earlier processes in the development of the eye are retarded and finally brought to a standstill; thus every suc- ceeding generation developed the eye less. Total absence of light must finally prevent the entire anlage of the eye, but time, he thinks, has not been long enough to accomplish this in any vertebrate. The cessation of development does not take place at the same time in all parts of the eye. The less important, those not essential to the percep- tion of light, are disturbed first. The retina and the optic nerve are the last affected; the iris comes next in the series. Because the cornea, 44 aqueous and vitreous bodies and the lens are not essential for the per- formance of the function of the eye, these structures cease to develop early. The processes of degeneration follow the same rate. Degeneration is brought about by the falling apart of the elements as the result of the introduction of connective tissue cells that act as wedges. Abnormal de- generation sometimes becomes manifest through the cessation of the re- duction of parts (p. 269) that normally decrease in size, so that these parts in the degenerate organ are unusually large. Kohl’s theoretical explanation here given somewhat at length is based on the study of an extensive series of degenerate eyes. He has not been able to test the theory in a series of animals living actually in the condi- tion he supposes for them, and has permitted his erroneous interpretation of the highly degenerate eye of Troglichthys to lead him to the theory of the arresting of the eye in ever earlier stages of ontogeny. The eye of Troglichthys is in an entirely different condition from that supposed by him. The mere checking of the normal morphogenic development has done absolutely nothing to bring about this condition, and it could not have been produced by the checking of development in ever earlier and earlier stages of ontogeny, for there is no stage in normal ontogeny re- sembling in the remotest degree the eye of Troglichthys. The process of degeneration as seen in the Amblyopsidae is in the first instance one of growing smaller and simpler (not more primitive) in the light, not a cut- ting off of late stages in the development in the dark. The simplified con- dition, it is true, appears earlier and earlier in ontogeny till it appears along the entire line of development, even in the earliest stages. The ten- dency for characters, added or modified at the end of ontogeny, to appear earlier and earlier in the ontogeny is well known and there is no inherent reason why an organ disappearing in the adult should not eventually dis- appear entirely from ontogeny. The fact that organs which have disap- peared in the adult have in many instances not also disappeared in the ontogeny, and remain as so-called rudimentary organs, has received an ex- planation from Sedgwick. In his re-examination of the biogenetic law he came to the conclusion that “the only functionless ancestral structures, which are present in development, are those which at some time or an- other have been of use to the organism during its development after they have ceased to be so in the adult.” The length of time in such cases since the disuse of such an organ in the young is much shorter than that since its disuse in the adult. 45, All organs, functionless in the adult but functional in the early on- togeny, develop in the normal way. Organs no longer functional at any time dwindle all along the line of development. In Typhlogobius, where the eye is functional in the young, it develops in full size in the embryo, and it is not till late in life that degeneration is noticeable. In Ambly- opsis, on the other hand, where the eye has not been functional at any period of ontogeny for many generations, where the eye of both young and adult lost their functions on entering the caves and where degenera- tion begins at an early period and continues till death, the degenerate con- dition has reached the early stages of the embryo. It is only during the first few hours that the eye gives promise of becoming anything more than it eventually does become. The degree of degeneration of an organ can be measured as readily by the stage in ontogeny when the degenera- tion becomes noticeable as by the structure in the adult. The greater the degeneration the further back in the ontogeny the degenerate condition becomes apparent, unless, as stated above, the organ is of use at some time in ontogeny. It is evident that an organ in the process of being per- fected by selection may be crowded into the early stages of ontogeny by post selection. Evidently the degenerate condition is not crowded back for the same reason. How it is crowded back I am unable to say. A satisfactory explanation of this will also be a satisfactory explanation of the process by which individually acquired cnaracteristics are enabled to appear in the next generation. The facts, which are patent, have been formulated by Hyatt in his law of tachygenesis (Hyatt IX). Cessation of development takes place only in so far as the number of cell divisions are concerned. The number of cell generations produced being continually smaller, result in an organ as a consequence also smaller. In this sense we have a cessation of development (cell division, not morphogenic development) in ever earlier stages. That there is an actual retardation of development is evident from Amblyopsis and Typh- lichthys in which the eye has not reached its final form when the fish are 35 mm. long. Histogenic development is a prolonged process and ontogenic degen- eration is still operative, at least in Amblyopsis. Degeneration in the individual is not the result of the ingrowth of connective tissue cells as far as I can determine. It is rather a process of starving, of shriveling or resorption of parts. 46 From the foregoing it is evident that degeneration has not proceeded in the reverse order of development; rather the older normal stages of ontogenic development have been modified into the more recent phyletic stages through which the eye has passed. The adult degenerate eye is not an arrested ontogenic stage of development but a new adaptation, and there is an attempt in ontogeny to reach the degenerate adult condition in the most direct way possible. Tue FLorIDA GOPHER. By Wo. B. FLETCHER. If there is any one animal peculiar to the United States and limited in its habits to a very small section, it is the Florida Gopher (Testudo Polyphemus (Daudin) Zerobates Carolinus Ag.), which is found in all the pine barrens and sandy uplands of Florida, and, but rarely, in parts of Alabama and Georgia; never north of the Savannah River. The word gopher comes from the old French, and means to honey- comb, make numerous holes or burrow, and by the early French settlers was indiscriminately employed to designate all burrowing animals. To nearly all persons living outside of the three States mentioned, the word gopher indicates one of the pouched rodents, rats or squirrels which burrow in the ground and are found from Illinois west to the Pacific coast, and all over the southwestern States. What we call gophers in the North are called salamanders in the South. Had nature intended to put into any one animal the characteristics of all that is harmless, patient, kind and non-resistent, it is found in the gopher. Possessing greater strength in proportion to its size than any of the vertebrata, yet it never attacks other animals or defends itself from them except by withdrawing its head and legs within the protection of its shell; the horny fore-arms and hands, as it were, placed over the head and face, making a complete armor against the foe, no matter how sharp the teeth or claw may be, or how powerful the jaw of the attacking animal. The habits of the gopher are those of peace and quietude, except in the rare instances of personal contests with its kind. While it is true 47 that they are frequently seen in numbers of ten to twenty grazing in the same locality like so many cattle, it is rare to see them close together, and there is seemingly no bond of communication between them, for the gopher is an animal of almost perfect silence and the only approach to yocal sounds is a slight hiss as the head is suddenly drawn in, compres- sing the lungs and forcing the air quickly through the chink of the glottis; and I have sometimes thought I recognized a faint “mew” like that of a kitten. The gopher is a most strict vegetarian in his native State, but, under domestication, will learn to drink milk, to eat salads of various kinds, prepared with dressing of eggs, condiments, etc. He heartily abjures all kinds of flesh or insects, and would starve before eating either. He does not seem inclined to social life with his own kind, and invariably lives alone, save for the companionship—either by accident or from choice—of the white and mottled frog, or cricket, that is almost always found in his home, and which is known to the native Floridian as his “familiar.” The gopher is thus an example of absolute independence, each dwelling alone in his or her own home; never have I found two in one house, and I know of none having calling acquaintances. The female deposits her eggs, from one to two dozen in number, in the sand at the entrance to her burrow, covers them up to the depth of four inches, and then her domestic duties to her family are ended; she may sit at the doorway and chew her cud when the weather is agreeable, that is, not raining, or too hot from the direct rays of the sun. She may at times cover her deposit with her im- penetrable shell to keep them from the opossum or meandering coon; but one thing is certain, when the eggs are hatched by the heat of the May sun, each little gopher—an inch in diameter—goes for itself, finds its own food, makes its own house and is recognized as an independent citizen from the very shell. When driving through the pine barrens one will sometimes pass a dozen or more of these animals grazing within a few hundred feet of one another. They swing along with heads thrust forward much as if the neck were a cable and the head the motive power, drawing a heavy in- verted basin behind. Coming to a tuft of wire grass or other crisp or ten- der herbage they draw it in by the tongue, cut it off sharply by the triple row of sharp, serrate teeth-like edges of this horny layer of the jaws and swallow it down without mastication. The animal will give little heed to your presence or that of your dog, unless quite near his hole, but will 48 draw himself within his shell and remain perfectly quiet for from one to five minutes, and then proceed with his journey or browsing, provided you keep still, even though you are within three feet. After feeding he returns to his abode and proceeds to masticate the coarse herbage in- jested. It is almost comical to see him sitting beside his doorway, his black skinny head thrust out, chewing with great satisfaction the morn- ing’s repast. It looks like a caricature of a Florida cracker sitting at the open window of his cabin chewing tobacco; but the gopher doesn’t expectorate. The average size of the full-grown gopher is twelve and one-half inches in longitudinal, and fourteen in transverse measure of the shell, the latter measurement being greater because the enameled shell bends underneath to join the plastron, or breast bone, as we might call it. When the head and legs are drawn in (the animal has no tail) from every aspect there is an arch, compressed, it is true, at the base, and, in the very old, slightly so on the top. It is from this peculiar structure that a gopher in good condition, weighing eight and one-half pounds, can lift two hundred pounds when balanced centrally. I have seen two small gophers, weigh- ing four pounds each, attached to a cart as oxen, draw two lads weighing together one hundred and twenty pounds. On December the third, last, I took Henry Jordan, a very intelligent native colored man, with me, and went out to get some gophers for dis- section. About a mile from Palm Springs, Florida, there is a tract of country, which, eight years ago, contained most valuable orange groves, as the long rows of big dead stumps of orange trees testify. It has been abandoned and the tenantless, decaying villas, with pine and palm trees shooting up through their rotting porches and roofs, and mats of climbing roses and jasmine creeping through the open doors and windows plainly show. In these abandoned fields the gopher has taken up his habitation. On a space of ten acres I counted some fifty gopher holes. The soil is typical of Florida uplands—yellowish brown, or like white salt, is the sand through which some coarse weeds and grasses emerge in tufts. Wherever you see a pile of sand, apparently as much as two flour barrels would hold, slightly spread out in front of an arched.doorway, and in that sand see the prints of the dragging shell and toe points going inward to the door, you can safely say that Mr. or Mrs. Gopher will receive callers at home. The character of the soil or sand in which the gopher loves to delve 49 much resembles a very light brown sugar, containing so much moisture that you may thrust your cane into it, and withdrawing, leave a hole. We find an entrance to the burrow, which has a hallway perhaps three feet wide and tapering in eighteen inches, with a downward slant to the opening proper; here we come to an arch, one-third of a circle, over a horizontal base which measures fourteen inches; we take a long rod and thrust down the incline and find it goes eight feet at an angle of forty- five degrees and then turns; we lay the rod on top of the ground in the same direction, and dig a foot or two beyond our measure, then down, and strike the hole; from this point the burrow changes direction twice, but always an easy incline downward, the sand gradually becoming more damp as we proceed. After we had made a trench some twelve feet from the entrance large enough to stand and work in, and six feet deep, I asked Henry how far he thought we must go before we got the gopher. ‘‘Well, we must jist go on dis road till we git him, if it takes a hundred yards.” After digging four feet more and still down, Henry handed up a bleached cockroach, remarking, ‘““We’s most’ got um; here’s one of his ‘familiars,’ and when we come to de white frog we’s got um shore.’ Sure enough it was so, for the spade went four feet more and we could hear it grate on the shell; at the same time a white frog jumped out. It was a bright- eyed little fellow, with transparent legs and toes. A few black specks about his head made a pretty contrast to his sparkling gold-ringed iris. “Hold on, Henry,’ I said, “let me pull out that gopher; I fear you will seratch him with the spade.” ‘You can’t pull him out wid an ox team,” was the reply. ‘Well, get out of my way and I will show you; he can have no purchase in this wet sand.” So in I went, ‘belly flat,’ as the boys say when coasting, squeezing myself into the hole until I got my hand on the shell. There were no hind legs to be found, and the wet oval shell was so slippery I had to give it up and be drawn out myself by the legs. “ll show you how to get ’im widout scratchin’ de shell,” said Henry, and he proceeded to make a cave under the gopher. Into this he dropped, was scouped out and handed over. We had dug twenty feet, making the gopher’s hole twenty-eight feet long and eight deep. In Indi- ana soil we would have had a half day’s job to make this excavation, which, in this soft moist soil, required one hour and a quarter. The pointed, scouped spade used can be pushed into the soft sand without using the foot to propel it. 4—Science. 50 We dug out four other gophers and found there is no particular rule in the builder’s mind as to how far he will tunnel or in what direction. They go into the ground for protection, for comfort and for water. A popular error exists among the natives here that the gopher does not require water because he goes only in dry places and hides from the heavy dews, or even the lightest rains; but I find that he invariably stops his digging when he has reached a sand so moist that he can suck particles of mois- ture through the sieve-like serrations of his jaws, which, when closed make openings of one fiftieth of an inch. If particles of sand should enter they settle in the deep groove between the serrations of the lower jaw. If you dig a little hollow six inches beyond the lower end of a gopher run you find it soon filled with water oozing up from below. The gopher makes burrows for the purpose of regulating the tempera- ture to a degree most fitted to his comfort and well being. When he has browsed to his satisfaction and the sun is too hot, he retires to the shade of his cave. If his shell is uncomfortably dry he retires deeper, and if he is thirsty he drinks in the filtered water from his own well. I have taken a gopher out of the ground, stopped up the entrance to his burrow, except the first foot or two, and then watched his puzzled look as he endeavored to enter. He looked curiously about as if taking in certain land marks, then, having got his bearings in mind, would make another dash at the place where his entrance had formerly been. After a half-dozen trials he threw up his head in disgust and marched off. I have put one gopher in another’s hole, but it will back out and go away. At this time I have a gopher in a little chicken coop, which has the sand for its floor. He has been there a week but has made no effort to free himself by digging out. He has buried himself all but about an inch of the rear of his shell, and from there he makes no attempt to go deeper. I have never seen two gopher holes very close together; sometimes one burrow will cross another, but never into it; the nearest being about eigh- teen inches. The anatomical peculiarities of the gopher are the head, which, from the rear view, much resembles that of a frog, but is covered with a hard, black, adherent skin or scales; the jaw and tongue quite angular, looking into the mouth it seems a perfect triangle; the tongue has villi much like that of herbiverous animals; it has three well-defined stomachs. The in- testine from the third stomach is very large, with muscular arrangement that the herbage injested may be brought up at will, thus the animal is D1 able to go for weeks using up the stores of provision laid up within the large intestine. A gopher weighing six pounds had a reserve of two and one-half pounds within. I removed one and a half pounds of meat from the shell and legs, leaving the rest of his weight in the skeleton. There are forty-six laminated sections in the shell of the full-grown gopher; these laminae are about one-fortieth of an inch in thickness and readily seale off after the animal dies, leaving under each section a segment of true bone of the same shape and size. The brain of this animal (weighing six pounds) weighs but 40 grains; the spinal cord unusually large. The sympathetic and solar plexus largely developed. The heart is larger than in other testudo of like weight, having two auricles and a large, strong, half-divided ventricle. The lungs are attached to the dorsum of the thorax. The diaphragm is stronger than among the turtles. The ovaries long and broad, containing ten to twenty mature eggs, three-eighths of an inch in diameter, and perfectly spherical. When deposited they have a hard calcareous shell. In my specimen there were three hundred immature ova in the Fallopian tubes and ovaries; the tubes open into a short vaginal sheath an inch from the common outlet. The sex may be distinguished by the males having a concave form of the lower third of the sternum, while in the female it is slightly convex or flat. The upper part of the sternum (plastron) is a solid piece, projecting beyond the shell an inch and a half. The eye is covered with a nictating membrane as in birds. The general intelligence of the gopher is quite limited. It remembers localities, but I do not think it remembers friends or enemies. I have one that has had the run of my office, house and yard for several months. It has gained in weight and is healthy. She likes a warm, snug corner by the fire when the days are cool; when outdoors she wanders about to cer- tain places where she formerly found good pasturage. She knows where the gate is, and likes to get on the street for a promenade, where she walks on the tips of her strong fore claws; her blunt hind legs and club feet giving her the appearance of a miniature elephant. The gopher, when turned upon the back, can not return to its natural position, and when one fights another it is to use its projecting sternum as a battering ram, striking his antagonist amidships and throwing him over on his back; then, as the vanquished foe thrusts its head and neck out to regain position, it receives various blows upon the neck from the same source. I have witnessed but one fight of this kind and that was 52 between two female gophers. The punishment given by the larger one caused the death of the smaller one. In- evidence that there is a necessary transpiration through the under shell or plastron a gopher will die if that part of the body is vanished. The gopher is eaten and much esteemed as food by the colored people. It is popularly supposed to contain portions of all kinds of meat and fish under its different segments. My experience is that it is more palatable than any other testudo, and it contains but one kind of meat, and that tough. I must be pardoned for not referring to the literature of my subject. It is because I have found almost nothing, and that brief and incomplete in ‘“‘Wood’s Natural History,’ and I write this far from libraries and reference books. Orlando, Florida, December 23, 1899. LipraRies ©F MicroscopicaL SLIDES. By A. J. BIGNEY. Since the earliest times it has been the custom of educated people to have libraries. No line of thought has received more attention in the past few years than the biological sciences. Probably the world has re- ceived more physical good from such work than from any other source. What the next generation will bring forth can hardly be imagined. Every one who owns a microscope is adding a little to the world’s stock of knowl- edge in biology. Not only does such a worker need books, but he should make another kind of library, a collection of slides. To the teacher in biology this is almost a necessity. To make the slides of greatest use they should be classified in some systematic way. It has been my experi- ence and observation, in small as well as large colleges and universities, that the slides are packed away without any or very little system, and the teacher must depend upon his memory in finding them. This causes very much annoyance and much loss of time. Last fall I classified my slides in a simple way and it has been of so much value to me that I feel 53 it is important to call the attention of other workers to this, or at least Suggest something that will cause them to do the same thing. The slide box or tray is marked with Roman numerals. The places for the slides are usually marked with the Arabic numbers by the manu- facturer of the boxes. On the label of each slide are marked the Roman numeral, which indicates the number of the box in which the slide is to be placed and the Arabic number, which indicates its position in the box. All the slides are now catalogued on cards or on sheets of paper. In cataloguing, the name of the specimen on each slide should be given and following in the Roman and Arabic numbers on that particular slide. The ecards should be arranged alphabetically and kept near the slides. Since the slides are used by the different students, they will have to be replaced, and by this method any one can tell in an instant where they belong. If, for instance, you desire a section of liver, look for same on card. The ref- erence may be XII—24; hence, find box XII, and the slide will be found at “24.” A Meruop or RE@IstRATION FOR ANTHROPOLOGICAL PuRPOSES. By Amos W. ButTLer. The Board of State Charities has undertaken a registration of the in- mates of the various benevolent and correctional institutions of the State. The work began by an enumeration of the inmates of poor asylums, or- phans’ homes and insane hospitals, some years since, and has been elab- rated so as to give the individual and family history of each person. This is now being extended to the prisons, reformatory, reform schools, school for feeble-minded youth, and institution for the education of the deaf. The information to be obtained includes the name, age, color, date of admission, physical and mental condition, together with information con- cerning education, home influences, religious influences, character of train- ing, whether possessed of a trade, and other facts that are thought will have a bearing upon the individual. Family history includes the names of both parents, the place of their nativity, their pecuniary condition, whether intemperate, criminal, insane, epileptic, feeble-minded or con- 54 sumptive, whethe1 living together, or dead. It also is intended to obtain whatever collateral information is possible relating to other members of the family. It is the purpose to extend this investigation, eventually, so that it will include the names of the inmates of all institutions coming under the supervision of the Board of State Charities. The information obtained is being registered upon cards, which are arranged after the manner of a library catalogue, so that everything known about each individual will be readily available in concise form. The purpose of this work is to learn, so far as possible, the causes of dependence and crime and the conditions under which they exist. The value of such statistics, either when one considers the case of the individual or of his descendants, can not be cal- culated. When fully covering the whole field and extending over a series of years, it will give the State the data from which to arrive at the most important conclusions regarding the treatment of its unfortunates and delinquents. Arps IN ‘TEACHING PuysIcAL GEOGRAPHY. By V. F. MARSTERS. For a number of years physical geagraphy has barely received recog- nition in the high schools of this State. From the standpoint of accumu- lating useful knowledge, as well as achieving mental discipline, it is to be regretted that the subject has received so little attention. It would seem that it has been tolerated or simply permitted to exist, while the sister sciences have been fostered and developed in a manner commen- surate with the means at hand. The past few years, however, have wit- nessed pot only a remarkable advancement in geographical science, but also the introduction of new and rationalized methods in teaching the sub- ject. The large accumulation of geographical facts accompanied by an increasing demand for rational explanation or interpretation furnishes the key to the recent interest in this subject. The importance of geography as an educative science must be con- ceeded when it is known that the most progressive universities have SEWANEE MODEL. CHATTANOOGA MODEL. Carr Cop MopeE.. 56 placed the subject on an equal footing with the other sciences which have for years found a respected place in the college curriculum. That this fact is being recognized beyond the walls of the university must be ad-. mitted when we see a number of the larger cities of the country employing specialists to instruct their teaching force and familiarize them with a rational method of teaching. I am informed that the city of Indianapolis has employed a well-trained man for this specific purpose. This is a step taken in the right direction. Moreover, about all the commissioned high schools of the State have placed physical geography on the schedule of studies, although in many cases but a short period is devoted to the subject. These facts point to the conclusion that physical geography has gained a deserved place in the public schools, and, moreover, with due recognition, it is destined to play as important a role as any of its allies as an educative science because of its recognized disciplinary value. Let us look for a moment at some of the recent methods of teaching the subject. Ten years ago it was all sufficient for the student to describe a geographical element, or simply to accumulate facts. If the student knew all the capes oh the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and their locations, nothing more was to be learned about them. The question was not asked why any geographical element should appear here or there, why this or that territorial limit of topographical expression should exist; it was suffi- ecient to be able to know the fact of its existence, location and general features without calling for an explanation. Such knowledge is empirical. The serious student is no longer satisfied with empirical description, but he demands explanatory description. It is in this particular phase that marked advancement has been made. Empirical description is rapidly giving way to rational explanation of geographical phenomena. The absence of an educative discipline in the former, and its necessary inherence in the latter, fully accounts for the recent growth of the so- ealled new geography. ‘Thus, rational geography demands not only the collection of facts by personal observation, but it also calls for an erplana- tion of the observed facts; such a process must employ comparison and deduction. Moreover, the conclusions reached or the method of explana- tion derived by comparison and deduction must explain not only all the facts at hand, but they must also account for many other related facts yet to be collected. It is only by the employment of these broad and fundamental principles that the accumulation of useful knowledge and, above all, a valuable mental discipline can be attained. 57 There are many aids towards this end. It is, however, only within ‘recent years that much of this material so useful to the geologist, as well as to the geographer, has come within the reach of the secondary schools. The apparatus, which should be found to some extent at least in all schools and colleges purporting to teach geography, may be described under the following headings: 1. Photographs and lantern slides. 2. Maps. 3. Models. 1. Photographs.—The collections of photographs, made by the usual dealers, furnish very little material that has any special geographical sig- nificance. Such collections are usually made with reference to depicting some artistic expression in a landscape, and invariably fail to bring out such topographic outlines as would be of significance to the student of geography. A fairly useful selection can be made from a collection made by various members of the Geological Society of America, and placed in the hands of a committee for classification and distribution. Further information may be obtained by applying to G. P. Merrill, Washington, D. C., or to Prof. F. L Fairchild, Rochester, N. Y. Lantern slides are even more useful than photographs because they present a more vivid picture, and details more easily discerned. Moreover, the relation of parts are more clearly brought out because of the enlarge- ment; in fact, it is the next best to seeing the actual thing illustrated. In the use of the lantern, however, care should be taken not to introduce this method of illustration as simply a species of entertainment, but rather as an essential part of the course to be absorbed by the student as well as text or lecture. What has been said of the insufficiency of the dealers’ photograph collections is equally true of their lantern-slide collections. An examination of the stock of a number of dealers furnished but little useful material. This long-felt want has in part been supplied by Prof. W. M. Davis, who has made a very excellent collection of about one hundred and fifty slides, illustrating the prominent and essential features of the forms of the land, rivers, lakes, glaciers, shorelines, waves, etc. The entire collection may be obtained from E. E. Howells, Washington, D. C. In the interest of Indiana geography, it is proposed to make a collec- o8 tion of photographs and lantern slides during the coming year, which may illustrate the most common and prominent topographic features of the State. It would, of course, be desirable to have both series in the schools, but when the purchase of a lantern is not possible, photographs, of course, may be substituted. It is hoped that such a collection of laboratory ma- terial may create and stimulate further interest in the subject and help to place it on an equal footing with the other observational sciences ob- served in the school system. Maps.—There are a number of sources from which many selections of useful illustrations of topographic types may be obtained. The United States Geological Survey has prepared a large number of topographical and geological sheets covering portions of the United States. It is to be regretted that this national organization has not published a single sheet covering any portion of the State of Indiana. A part of this neglected work is being done by the Geological Department of Indiana University. In addition to the series of sheets mentioned above, the National Survey has lately prepared a large number of folios, forming a part of the “Geologic Atlas of the United States.” Vhese have been made to serve educational purposes in partictilar, but strange as it may seem, a large number of the best equipped high schools of the State have failed to make use of the opportunities offered. The folios contain a topographic sheet, a second showing the areal geology, a third illustrating the geology in cross section, and sometimes a fourth devoted to the economic geology. Each folio is accompanied with an explanatory text. From the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey may be obtained a series of maps giving the minutest details of shore-line topography. For a list of the maps address this department at Washington, D. C. It is gratifying to learn that in a few of the high schools of this State the daily weather maps are being used with a considerable degree of suc- cess. These may be obtained by addressing the local forecast official, Cc. F. R. Wappenhans, Majestic Building, Indianapolis. Another source for information of meteorological interest is the United States Hydrographic Department, which issues each month a series of pilot charts of the North Atlantic and North Pacific oceans. On these charts are shown the storm tracks, the date of their occurrence and the direction of their course (from which can be determined their rate of movement), calms and prevailing winds, derelicts and wrecks, icebergs and field ice, regions of frequent fog, ete. 59 The most available source for information on all these publications, and offering assistance in the selection of types from each group, is a little manual entitled “The Use of Governmental Maps in Schools,” by Messrs. Davis, King & Collie, and published by Henry Holt & Company, New York. For information concerning foreign maps, the teacher is advised to consult an article by Prof. W. M. Davis on “Large Scale Maps for Geo- graphic Illustrations,” published in the Journal of Geology. A reprint of this article may possibly be obtained by addressing Prof. T. C. Chamber- lain, Chicago University. Models.—One of the most novel and still most effective means in the teaching of geography as well as geology, is supplied by models illustrat- ing the topographic form and the rock structure upon which the topog- raphy is made. Models are of two kinds: One may represent the actual topography of a surveyed section of country and the other may be an idealized land form, depicting the essential and expectable features. The latter may be called “types of land form.” Of all the materials mentioned, as forming equipment for a geographical laboratory, models may be regarded as of special value. It is indeed unfortunate that the cost of models in general is so excessive that a large number of the secondary schools may not be able to purchase the larger and most expensive illustrations of land forms, but still there are many that come within the reach of schools with but meagre appropriations. During the past year the Department of Geology and Geography, Indi- ana University, has given a course in physiographic geology. Practice in the construction of relief maps may be taken as part of the laboratory work required in the course. It is of course evident that a knowledge of the various methods of making relief maps is of great advantage to the teacher who may be called upon to accumulate material for a geographical laboratory. Asa result of this course, the following relief maps have been constructed, the data having been obtained from the topographic and the geologic atlas sheets, published by the United States Geological Survey: Chattanooga and Sewanee Sheets, Tennessee, horizontal scale, 1”=1 mile; vertical scale, 1”=1,600 feet. Harper’s Ferry Sheet, Baltimore, Md., horizontal scale, 1”=1 mile; vertical scale, 1”=1,600 feet. 60 Martha’s Vineyard Sheet, horizontal scale, 1”=1 mile; vertical scale, 1”=400 feet. Cape Cod, horizontal scale, 1”=1.5. miles; vertical scale, 1”—600 feet. Amsterdam Sheet,* New York, horizontal scale, 1”=1 mile; vertical scale, 1”=1,000 feet. The following models are in process of construction: Boston Harbor Sheet, Mass., and the Sun Prairie Sheet, Wisconsin. These models will show some very excellent types of glacial topography. The completed series of models illustrate some of the most common and conspicuous types of topography and geological structure. It is, indeed, just the kind of material that should be found in the laboratories of the secondary schools. In order that some assistance may be given in this direction, the geological department has preserved the negatives of the models men- tioned. From these any number of positives may be prepared; and it is proposed to supply copies of one or more of these to any high school de- siring to establish a geographical laboratory. Copies will be sold at the cost of construction, so that the school with but meagre appropriations. can at least make a beginning by adding one model each year to the labo- ratory equipment. It is hoped that the high schools of the State will not be slow in taking advantage of the opportunity here offered. Effective work in geography can not be done without a laboratory; and of the kinds. of available material mentioned, maps and models should form a promi- nent part of the equipment. The writer will gladly correspond with any one desiring further information. Geological Laboratory, Indiana University. “Constructed by E. R. Cumings, Instructor in the Department of Geology, Indiana University. 61 Some PRELIMINARY NoTES ON THE HyYGIENIC VALUE oF VARIOUS STREET PAVEMENTS AS DETERMINED BY BAo- TERIOLOGICAL ANALYSES. By SEVERANCE BuRRAGE AND D. B. LUTEN. In many of our large cities, and small ones, too, the question of pave- ment is a very important one. The government looks largely upon the question of economy, the life of the particular pavement being perhaps the most important factor in assisting them to a decision for or against it. Some pavement companies in pushing their own work, will claim that their pavement is more sanitary than this or that one. Have they any data, any facts that will permit them to make such statements? It was partly for the purpose of settling this question that the foregoing experi- ments were undertaken. In working on this subject, it has been found that the sanitary or hygienic value of a pavement depends almost entirely on its power to col- lect, retain or give up dust, although there are other factors, such as reflection of heat, etc., that must be considered. But this dust leads to a discussion of the point as to whether a strictly sanitary pavement is one that will remain moist the longest time, thus holding on to the dust, and at the same time, perhaps, permitting the multiplication of bacteria; or whether the sanitary pavement is the one that dries the quickest, and with the assistance of traffic and the winds, scatters the dried dust broadcast. Street dust is always laden with bacteria, and it was thought that possibly some bacteriological analyses under different conditions might assist in the solution of this problem. It is not necessary to state that aside from the bacterial contents of dust, hygienically speaking, it in itself is an irritating factor to the mucous membrane of the nose and throat, as well as to the delicate membranes of the eye. And thus, without taking the bacteria into account at all, the pavement permitting the least dust would be regarded as most sanitary. But the bacteria usually occur in proportion to the amount of other dust, so the measure for one will serve fairly well as an indicator for the amount of inorganic dust. The experi- ments herein reported were undertaken on the Lafayette, Indiana, pave- ments, including macadam, brick, wood block (not creosoted), and sheet asphalt. 62 There is almost no reliable literature on the subject, and what little there is seems to universally condemn the uncreosoted wood block pavement. From Byrnes Highway Construction, 1893, Dr. O. W. Wight, Health Officer of Detroit, in a report to city council, says: “On sanitary grounds, therefore, I must earnestly protest against the use of wooden block pave- ments. Such blocks, laid endwise, not only absorb water which dissolves out the albuminous matter that acts as a putrefaction leaven, but also ab- sorbs an infusion of horse manure, and a great quantity of horse urine dropped in the streets. The lower ends, resting on boards, clay or sand, soon become covered with an abundant fungoid growth, thoroughly sat- urated with albuminous extract and the excreta of animals in a liquid putrescible form. These wooden pavements undergo a decomposition in the warm season and add to the unwholesomeness of the city. The street in fact might as well be covered a foot deep with rotting barnyard manure so far as unwholesomeness is concerned. Moreover, the interstices be- tween the blocks and the perforations of decay allow the foul liquids of the surface to flow through, supersaturating the earth beneath and con- stantly adding to the putrefying mass.” M. Foussagrivs, professor of hygiene, at Montpelier, France, objects to wooden pavements because they “consist of a porous substance capable of absorbing organic matter, and by its own decomposition giving rise to noxious miasma which, proceeding from so large a surface, can not be regarded as insignificant. I am convinced that a city with a damp climate, paved entirely with wood, would become a city of marsh fever.” An article by Amat in the Bull. Gen. de Therapeut, is of some interest in this connection. He compares the advantages and disadvantages of wood pavement with those of granite blocks and asphalt. In regard to cleanliness he places then in the order of merit—asphalt, granite, wood. In regard to quiet—wood asphalt, granite. In regard to cheapness—gran- ite, wood, asphalt. Durability__granite, asphalt, wood. Ease of repair— asphalt, wood, granite, and safety—wood, asphalt, granite. Miguel tested bacteriologically some ten-year-old wood pavements, and found from a million to a million and a half germs in a gram of saw- dust from the surface, and from five hundred to four thousand in a gram of the sawdust taken two inches below the surface. These same experi- ments were repeated by Rolst and Nicoles, giving the same relative results, but the numbers of bacteria being twenty times as large. 63 Professor Brown, of Yale College, says that ‘‘even in the free air and full sunlight, along with the putrescence, a white fungous growth begins on the surface of the wood, which rapidly becomes slimy. This forms much more rapidly on the ends of the grain of the wood than on the radial or tangential sides. The fungous growth goes on, modified of course by the temperature and the degrees of concentration and it continues for an unknown period, or until decay has become complete. Heartwood ana sapwood act alike in this matter; the difference is one of degree rather than character.” The Legislature of New South Wales (Australia) appointed a board to “inquire into the alleged deleterious effects of wood pavements upon the public health. The board examined specimens of wood pavements as laid in the city of Sidney, taking up blocks at different points. In all cases the concrete bed underneath was moist; in three cases a large amount of slimy mud was found, giving off an ammoniacal odor. The blocks were chemically examined to determine whether they had absorbed organic matter, with the result that some were found impregnated with filth to. the very center, while.others were comparatively free from it. The board comes to the conclusion that wood is a material which can not safely be used for paving unless it can be rendered absolutely impermeable to mois- ture. * * * So far as the careful researches of the board go, the porous, absorbent and destructible nature of wood must, in its opinion, be de- clared to be irremediable by any process at present known; nor were any such processes discovered, would it be effectual unless it were supple- mented by another which should prevent fraying of the fibers. Still less can the defects of wood be considered of less consequence than the de- fects of other kinds of materials. * * * Your board therefore recom- mends that the paving of the streets of this city with wood should be dis- continued, and desires to add that this recommendation is extended to ap- ply not to the particular mode of construction here adopted alone, but to: the material itself and to every known method of construction.” On the other hand, a comparison of the death rate in cities using wood pavements with that in cities where little or no wood is employed seems to show that wood pavements do not cause an increase in the death rate, i. e.: Macadam. Sheet Asphalt. Brick. Sheet Asphalt. Brick. (64) City. INEM MCI 35650 oc SGSCOMS cocoon cas Philadelphia ..... Nashyille -........ PAULAINGA) 21s oevcieis aid & Milwaukee ....... C@MEMO.% 2 is cae DESETOUG S73. << «= ID cece icine 65, Percentage of Death-rate. Wooden Pavements. Amid Bits ot hich CIO eee 25.19 0 9:10 ora Rate. 0b a aes Sine ea ee 23.00 0 J ase hel io Gore oD aCe 19.74 0 ain. OBS GU reS Solo Gaia ieNeRT IR eIr 23.70 0 eyetetete ne Recs poEse oie eetereiecs ook. LOOM 0 ot cane Gore on ee 16.90 48 5 HA Stip sco 1, enc ne eae Ro erage 17.48 80 dna opicnniees aoc nino ae 14.70 91 SSE Canad Toma occ earn 99.17 vd If there were not so many other conditions this might be convincing in favor of wood block. All these data were collected about 1890. lane, Ue The two latest books on pavements (1893 and 1894) contain nothing better. As far as technical journals are concerned, the matter seems to be considered satisfactorily settled by such arguments as the preceding; no further investigations along these lines seem to have been made. 5—Science. METHODS OF ANALYZING AIR OF PAVEMENTS FOR BACTERIA. The bacteriological examinations were carried on by means of using the agar plate exposure, four-inch Pasteur dishes being used. These agar plates were exposed (always in duplicates) on an ordinary sur- veyor’s tripod, as shown in Fig. 1. This made the exposure about five feet above the pavement. Half way between the exposed plates and the pavement hung the anemometer, which had to be used to determine differ- ences in wind velocities from minute to minute. These plates were al- Ways exposed for exactly ten minutes, and careful notice taken of the amount of traffic, direction of wind, and anything that would affect the amount of floating dust. Great care was taken to see that the wind was blowing as nearly parallel to the street as possible, so that the analysis would surely be of the street dust, and not of the dust from the adjoining lots. One set of exposures was made between 12 and 2 o’clock at night when the life on the streets would be at a minimum. The results of this set of plates were as follows, the numbers indicating the number of bacterial colonies on each agar plate that had had an exposure of ten minutes: Wood block (umerecosoted) VPlare INOM a. or csr e ee, creer 50 Brick PIG INOW eee ooo etaa ey Sites ote oh area sii Venere Lan ee ee 16 Sheet asplialt,, PlateiNow Ze cece ois, wince. solu aleyer sev oloteee oie eter stenees 14% Macadamt, (Plate NOM dics ute oe cctools tie ech. eines Sets ene 915 The numbers indicate the average number of bacterial colonies on the two plates that were exposed side by side over each pavement. Another interesting set of exposures was made at a time when the macadam street was muddy, the brick pavement was fairly dry, except for moisture in the interstices, and the sheet asphalt was dry. SC PIANO Dots Le AOS enn nate mere tty: ECOL rsp levers tsetse Uns eueneialae veto te al siecle slniSYF st 2 2 nape acre 1084 JST G SS 2 A tah Satie BR PeR Ie OILS CACCRD OR ROR DIR AR SORE Hn PRA ERE 960 AVOCA MUM CreOS OLE) rs eewsievcisth ance velo sign. atere-< otaier Couele) © Gravee ane 561 Therefore, if the amount of dust floating over any given pavement is a measure of the sanitary value, these pavements in question will take the following rank: wood, brick, sheet asphalt and macadam. The above averages include exposures under all kinds of varying conditions. While we do not feel that we can conclude anything very definite from these experiments, they seem to point to possible conclusions of value if pursued to the proper extent. Previous opinions commending or ¢con- demning any pavement from the sanitary standpoint lack scientific found- ation, and therefore are not to be seriously considered. In the experi- ments herein reported there are a number of factors that need to be more earefully determined, such as, that the bacteria that are caught on the agar plates actually come from the pavement ana not from the surround- ing lots and buildings; and furthermore, that these bacteria are of a patho- genic nature or not. These uncertain features are receiving careful atten- tion in our future experiments, and it is hoped that in their study will be found the key to the solution of these pavement problems. 68 Insects AS Factors IN THE SPREAD OF BacTERIAL DISEASES. By SEVERANCE BURRAGE. From the earliest times theories have been advanced relative to the spread of disease by insects. Just what part the insect played of course was unknown, and naturally must have remained unknown until the discovery of bacteria and their relations to diseases firmly established. But since the germ theory has been established the subject of insects and disease has received much attention, although not all that it may have deserved. The bibliography on the subject, collected by Dr. George H. F. Nuttall, numbers nearly four hundred papers and articles, many of them representing exhaustive experimental work, and others are of gen- eral interest, and of practical value. Books on hygiene and sanitary science, even the latest editions, do not mention insects as disease-spreading factors, yet they go into detailed discussions of many less important subjects. Undoubtedly many epi- demics of contagious and infectious diseases have been caused directly or indirectly by insects, and then laid at the door of the water supply, infected food, or bad drainage. While water or milk may have been the immediate means of spreading the disease among large numbers of indi- viduals, one insect may have caused the infection of the water or the milk. As a disease carrier, we must regard an insect in one of two classes. - He may be either the simple carrier of the bacteria, transporting the germs of disease on or in his body from an infected person to some healthy person’s environment, the bacteria being wiped off from the insect’s body or deposited in his excreta on the food or clothing of the susceptible healthy person; or the insect may be an intermediate host, in which the parasite or germ undergoes a part of its life cycle, and then the germ is transmitted to the healthy individual through the sting of the insect, the insect’s fang acting as the inoculating needle. In the latter class the mosquito and cattle tick are the best known, the mosquito carrying the malarial plasmodium, and the tick the organism of Texan cattle fever. Notwithstanding the importance of these diseases from the hygienic standpoint, they do not come under the head of bacterial diseases, as they are caused by animal parasites. It would, perhaps, be well to mention, however, in passing, that the theory connecting mosqui- 69 toes and malaria has been established beyond a doubt. More research work has been done in this connection than along any other line of the subject. : While not overlooking the importance of the mosquito theory, this paper must deal more with the strictly bacterial diseases. HISTORICAL. We are indebted to Dr. G. H. I’. Nuttall, M. D., Ph. D., of Johns Hop- kins Hospital, for collecting the facts along these lines and publishing them in one pamphlet... There is much literature quoted on anthrax and its connection with various insects, particularly the fly. There are but few positive cases recorded, although scientists do not hesitate to say that insects probably do play an important part. Experimental work was car- ried on with anthrax and biting fiies in 1869 and 1870, independently, by Rainbert and Davaine. The bodies and the proboscides of the flies, such as tabanus, haemato- pota and stomoxys, were infected with anthrax material, and after a defi- nite time, such as two, twelve or twenty-four hours, parts of these infected animals were inoculated into healthy animals. In nearly all cases of this kind the animals died of anthrax. Railliet sums up these and other experiments with anthrax and biting flies by saying that it is conceivable that the proboscides of stomoxys and Similar flies may inoculate septic organisms, having previously become contaminated on cadavers or diseased animals; “nevertheless no direct proof has been given as yet in favor of this view.” Nuttall goes on to say that it seems ‘perfectly absurd that any value should have been attached to such experiments. When the insect sucks blood it injects uninfected saliva, and sucks up the bacteria that may adhere to its proboscis; and while it is conceivable that infection may occur, it is more probable, when we consider the process, that infection is the exception and not the rule.” Some forms of beetles are supposed to have been active agents in spreading anthrax. Proust and Hien made examinations of skins that had been supposed to cause anthrax in persons handling them. Living dermestes vulpines and various larvae were found. All the living insects ‘were found to have spores of anthrax on their bodies and in their excreta. Nuttall carried on a valuable series of experiments with the bed bug 1 Johns Hopkins Hospital Reports, Vol. VIII, Nos. 1 and 2, Baltimore, Md. 70 and flea and anthrax, but all his experiments gave negative results, and he concludes that ‘infection through the bite of a bed bug either does not occur or is exceptional; and further, that infection might occur if this bug were crushed, and the part scratched, is self-evident.” And in regard to fleas, the anthrax bacilli die off rapidly in them, and the conclusion appears justified that they can not play much of a role, if any, in the spread of this disease. The plague is supposed to be spread in some measure by means of flies and other insects. Nuttall’s conclusions, as far as the biting insects are concerned, are the same as under anthrax, namely, that infection through their bites is exceptional and not the rule, but, ‘ton the other hand, it is quite possible that a person crushing an infected bug, and scratching the spot where the insect has bitten, may thus inoculate himself with the plague bacillus. This, however, would not take place if a sufficient in- terval of time had elapsed after the bug had sucked blood containing the bacilli.” But Nuttall’s experiments with flies infected with the plague bacilli, by which he determined that infected flies could live for several days, point to the possibility as he rightly concludes, that they play no incon- siderable role in the spread of the plague, for they have plenty of oppor- tunities to gain access to food into which they might fall and die, or on which, in again feeding, they would deposit their excreta laden with plague bacilli. Nuttall was satisfied that the flies themselves could die of the plague. A few experiments are recorded with hog erysipelas, mouse septicaemia, recurrent fever, chicken cholera, and yellow fever, which result in very positive conclusions. Experimental and other evidence points coneclu- sively, however, that Asiatic cholera is disseminated by flies. Tubereulo- sis and leprosy are undoubtedly spread in this way. Particular attention was called, during the recent war with Spain, to the spread of typhoid fever through our camps. In fact, it was well dem- onstrated that the fly played a most important part in the spread of dis- ease throughout the camps, making due allowance for the other factors, such as poor food and bad water. All the conditions about the camps seemed to favor the fly in his dirty work. Flies are attracted alike to food material and to filth. Fecal matters, fresh from the bowels of typhoid patients, and oftentimes without even an apology for disinfection, lay ex- Ge posed in open trenches, and in sultry weather millions upon millions of flies swarmed on and about this material. Short distances away from these trenches were the cooking and din- ing tents, and between these two sources of fly attraction the insects were continually passing. Thus it was made only too easy for the flies to trans- fer infectious material from the trenches to the food; and as much of the food is not cooked at all, there is no chance for the germs to be killed. To show the condition of affairs in the camps, as described by an eye witness, I will quote from a letter of Dr. I. W. Heysinger, of Philadelphia, to one of the medical journals: “In the hospitals, the vessels used by the patients beside their beds, were black with them (flies), and they only disappeared when the dinners were brought along, and the attendants went back to the cook house to chase off the invading inhabitants there, and bring up milk to complete the menu. The open sinks are also black with these buzzing scavengers, which rise in clouds when the surface is disturbed, and their feet loaded with fecal debris rise to seek new pastures at breakfast, dinner and supper and all through the day, intermittently around the cook house. “Into these sinks go the discharges of the typhoid patients, and patho- genic bacteria that can not make an effective culture there on a most majestic scale are ‘simply not in it.’ “Can anyone wonder that a single case of typhoid will thus infect a a whole camp and increase the virulence of a mild case to the point of a necessarily mortal result? Ingenuity could not devise any plan so simple, so efficacious and so widespread as this for scattering a pestilence. Every fly leg is good for a large number of almost any required sort of patho- genic bacilli, and some flies are nearly all legs, and the rest snout and wings, which also play their part with regularity and despatch.” Dr. M. A. Veeder, of Lyons, N. Y., describes the conditions around a pri- vate house. He says: ‘‘Even in a private house, not at all uncleanly, lL have seen typhoid dejections emptied from a commode, and the latter thoughtlessly left standing, without disinfection, within a few feet of a pitcher of milk just left at the door, both the commode and the pitcher attracting the flies, which swarmed about and went from one to the other. Is it strange that there were numerous cases of the disease in that house, and in the house next to it? I have seen a shallow, old-fashioned water- closet fairly buzzing with flies on a hot day, and all around it open win- 72 73 dows and doors leading into kitchens, pantries and dining rooms. A single case of typhoid would start a severe local epidemic under such conditions.” Summer work in a bacteriological laboratory would convince anyone of the flies’ liking for pathologic material of any kind. They are sure to light near and crawl over slides being prepared for stains, which makes it necessary to cover everything with bell-jars to prevent laboratory infec- tion. Moreover, flies are always more attracted toward diseased persons than toward the healthy ones. The whole subject is of great interest to the sanitarian, because it opens up a comparatively new field in preventive medicine. It applies to the home as well as to the community in regard to general cleanliness and methods of garbage disposal. STRUCTURE OF HOUSE FLY. Any one who has examined the fly’s foot under the miscroscope can not fail to see how perfectly it is constructed for the retention of dirt and filth. The fine hairs and the suctorial discs afford magnificent opportuni- ties for infectious material to be lodged in and thus transported from one spot to another. In fact, in making a microscopical examination of several flies’ feet for the purpose of making a photograph, it was next to impossi- ble to find one that did not have considerable dirt attached to it. The proboscis of the fly also affords an excellent resting place for dirt of any kind, and the wings and body also serve to retain material. Thus the fly seems to be made for the purpose of carrying small quantities of dirt around with him all the time, a circumstance that is quite alarming if we could follow in the wake of the fly in his daily and hourly travels, instances of which have been cited above. LABORATORY WORK. While laboratory experiments are not always satisfactory in a subject of this kind, yet I take the liberty of describing here some that were undertaken in the Purdue laboratories during the past year. While the experiments, in part at least, have been done in other laboratories, the results obtained here were very satisfactory, and the plates were so well marked that I deem them well worth the attention of the Academy. Experiment No. 1. Typhoid Fever and Fly.—The fly was placed under the bell-jar with filter paper saturated with fresh boullion culture of B. typhi abdom., twenty-four hours old. The fly was closely watched, and after he had been observed to walk over the filter paper several times, the bell-jar was carefully moved from the filter paper. After twenty minutes had passed, a Petri plate containing a thin film of sterile agar was placed under the jar, and the fly again watched. He did not seem to be attracted to the agar, and after waiting perhaps half an hour, it was decided to force the fly to walk over the agar film. So he was carefully caught be- tween the agar film and the Petri dish cover, and he then walked over the agar beautifully. The agar plate was incubated for twenty-four hours and the result was very significant. It is shown on plate No. 1, on which the clearly defined fly path, marked by bacteria colonies, is clearly shown. A further examination determined the presence in these colonies of the typhoid bacilli. Experiment No. 2.—A similar experiment with some filter paper, sat- urated with typhoid fever, using another fly, somewhat less time elapsing between his inoculation, and being made to walk over the agar. This fly did not enjoy walking on the agar and jumped around over the plate con- siderably, as shown by the large number of colonies; plate II. Once or twice he made a fairly straight track, however, as may be seen. These colonies were also proved to contain typhoid fever. Experiment No. 3. Prodigiosus.—Large fly. After one-half hour walked over gelatine; too lively to make tracks; infected whole plate; plate III. Experiment No. 4. Prodigiosus.—Ily’s wings removed, and then he was allowed to walk over infected paper and agar plate; plate IV. Experiment No. 5. Prodigiosus.—After eighteen hours fly, that had been infected with prodigiosus, was allowed to walk over plate; plate V. CONCLUSIONS. It is evident that the fly can become infected with bacterial filth and hold on to it for sufficient time to inoculate food materials or other ma- terials surrounding human lives. They must always be regarded as a menace to health as long as they have access to filth in the neighborhood 75 of human dwellings, be they temporary or permanent. All evidence points to the strong need of disinfecting or destroying all the wastes from ourselves and other animals, destroying all excreta in which the flies deposit their eggs, and to do all to eliminate this factor in the spread of infectious and contagious diseases that heretofore has received so little attention. House Boats For BroLtocican Work. By Utyssrs O. Cox. House boats for pleasure are not at all uncommon on the Mississippi River, but one built and equipped for scientific purposes was, until the past summer, entirely unknown'on that stream, and, I am told, on most streams in this section of the country. Last March the writer was called to Minneapolis by the director of the State Zoological Survey, Professor Nachtrieb, and asked to suggest plans for further study of the fishes of the State. Among these suggestions was the one that a house boat, or rather, in this case, a floating laboratory, be built at Mankato to float down the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers, at least as far as the State line. There were a number of things to be taken into consideration. It had been several years since the Minnesota River had been navigated by any craft larger than a row boat, and just how large the floating laboratory could be made and still float and be manageable was a question. There were numerous bridges to pass, many sand and gravel bars to interfere and hundreds of snags to be avoided. It was finally decided to build the barge portion of the boat twelve feet wide, twenty-two feet long, two feet deep and with a flat bottom. It was estimated that a boat so built would draw, when empty, no more than five or six inches of water, which esti- mate proved later to be correct. On top of the barge was built a cabin twelve feet wide, fourteen feet long and six and one-half feet high. The roof of the cabin was covered with boards and then with canvas. At each end of the cabin a door opened out on the platform, which was as long as the width of the boat, and four feet wide. On each side of the 76 cabin there were two long, movable windows. In one corner of the cabin there was a well equipped dark room for photographic work. Along one side of the room was a laboratory table fitted with drawers and shelves, and in another part were numerous shelves for specimen jars and dishes. A common cooking stove adorned one corner of the room, and in the floor were two large galvanized-iron tanks in which eatables were stored. Be- sides a complete cooking outfit, cots and bedding, we had various kinds of seines, gill nets, hooks and lines, microscopes, dissecting tools, injecting apparatus, and all other things needed for preserving any material that we might find. Besides a large number of jars and bottles, two large galvanized-iron tanks served for storing preserved material. Formalin was used altogether for preserving museum and anatomical material, and it worked exceedingly well, except when left in the sun. Under the latter conditions, the formalin seemed to decompose and the material would spoil. We guided our boat, which we named ‘‘Megalops,” by means of two large oars that worked in oar locks placed on each end of the boat, and we found no difficulty whatever in directing the boat just where we wished, except when the wind was blowing. At such times it was fre- quently necessary to anchor until the wind ceased. Our speed was seldom rapid, but it was usually very satisfactory. We would move a mile or so and then probably stop a day or two to investigate the ground, and would remain at one place as long as the collecting was profitable. During the four months we were out we traveled from Mankato on the Minnesota River to Red Wing on the Mississippi, and did not meet with a single acci- dent of any consequence. It will be remembered, also, that much of this distance is frequented by steamboats, rafts and floating logs. At times there were as many as six persons in the party, but usually only five. During the four months that the Megalops was in commission, the following persons were on her for work: Prof. H. F. Nachtrieb, of the State University of Minnesota, and Chief of the Zoological Survey; Dr. D. T. McDougal, of the Bronx Park Botanical Gardens, New York City; Dr. W. S. Nickerson, of the Minnesota State University Medical School; W. S. Kienholtz, J. BE. Guthrie, and Charles Zeleny, students of the Uni- versity; George Hinton, the “boy” and “‘cookee,” and the writer, who was dubbed the ‘“‘captain.” In every way the trip was a success. We discovered a number of (or what may prove to be new species of fishes, certainly new to Minnesota; collected a great many insects, some of them new, and a number of rep- tiles. Besides these, extensive data were secured concerning a number of fishes, valuable histological and embryological material was preserved, and a number of anatomical preparations were made. There is no better way, it seems to me, to study the fauna and flora of a river than by such a‘ floating laboratory, and I wish to strongly commend the plan to any persons who are considering plans for such study. The Megalops now lies anchored at Red Wing Minnesota, on the Mis- sissippi River, and it will likely continue on down the river the coming season, after which it may become a part of the equipment of a permanent biological laboratory on the Mississippi, which it is hoped will soon be established by the University of Minnesota. Tests on Some Batt anp ROLLER BEARINGS. By M. J. GoLpen. These tests were made to determine the comparative friction of ball and roller bearings when used for shafts under ordinary shop conditions, so the simplest forms obtainable were used, and they were tested at such speeds as usually occur in shop practice. When used in shop practice two or more of these bearings are placed side by side and in this way an ordinary hanger or other such piece of apparatus is built up. In the test the unit of the maker was taken for the size tested and no effort was made to establish any relation as to comparative sizes. The bearings selected were for shafts one and fifteen-sixteenths inches in diameter, and as the shaft turns in direct contact with the rollers, the spindle used was a piece of regulation, cold-rolled, shop shafting of this- size. This piece of shafting broke down before the bearings were affected. The ball bearings, of which three were used, were of the form shown in fig 1. Im this figure the full form for a shaft is shown. In the test the bearing at one end was used. This consists of an inner ring of case- hardened steel fitted closely to the shaft and having a V groove cut around the outside. The balls travel between this groove and a corresponding 78 outer. groove. The sides of the outer groove are separate rings that are held in a frame, one fixed and the other adjustable by means of a screw thread cut on the inside of the frame, and a corresponding one cut on the outside of the ring. Adjustment of the bearing to the balls is gotten by means of this ring. This gives a four-point bearing in which the balls travel in planes perpendicular to the axis of the shaft. The balls were .5 inch in diameter. The roller bearings used were of the form shown in fig. 2, in which, however, is shown a bearing having four sets. In the test, only one set Fig. 1. was used, as this was the unit in building the bearing. This consists of a cage holding fourteen small rolls, of hardened steel, each .315 inch in diameter and .625 inch long. These are separated from one another in the cage by brass bars. During the operation of the bearing the only friction between the cage and rolls ought to be that induced by the weight of the cage. It was found that the heavier loads caused the cage to become badly worn where there was contact between the ends of the rolls and the cage. The cage and rolls are held in a cylinder of steel that is carefully bored, Bee ia Sass Fa a eo Sanaeegusueecsenseseeccescescseteecas ooo e009 200g . 4 . ab Bele ov EHenar iy oe Hl 9 Zaealee BESIa2e2ns: | 4 of ea aati Paes e Sele 5 rs ee ea fe AES Ll eae pests] eee Pane eas Sess Semcon Ere aiaeses é sora s SVs Sess enwere POE EE EEE EEEEEEEEECEEEEEEEEEEEEE EEE 1 See eee eee ee eee eee °o0/ SaDNn0 Vo00¢ awe 7 4s 81 ’ = os 9 | | 4 | eoee Q S R C5 °9 7 | ; + | | y 4 = + + | 2 ° <2) eoc¢ [200% goog = 2 et cogs = pred 452% 4aH/9y Ste, 82 then case-hardened and ground. No further grinding or other treatment to produce a greater degree of accuracy was given to any of the bearings used. Four tests were made at each of four speeds for every load, so that sixteen tests were made for each load. With some of the roller-bearing tests, where the results varied markedly, a greater number were made. In the curve of tests showing the comparative friction, each point is the average of four tests, so the position of the line is the result of sixteen tests. The loads were varied from fifty pounds to five hundred pounds. It was found that while the friction increased with the load in a nearly constant ratio for the balls, for the rolls there was a great variation at and after three hundred pounds. This is shown by the points on sheet 2. An examination of the shaft showed that it was being tor away in small flakes under the 300-pound load, and this tearing increased as the load was made greater. At 500 pounds the shaft was torn away quite rapidly, especially at the higher speeds, and after a few minutes’ operation, a ridge was formed on the outside edges of the path of the rollers. This ridge had to be filed down on one side before the cage and rollers could be removed from the shaft. Neither the rolls nor their hardened steel race were affected, though, as already mentioned, the sides of the cage were cut by the ends of some of the rolls. Of the fourteen rolls in one cage, this wearing oc- curred at both ends of four of them. In making measurements on the dynamometer, a scale reading to fractions of ounces was used, so in plot- ting curves the unit used was the ounce. The diagram of the friction curve for the roller bearings shows the points for the measurements taken at each load to be within spaces that increase slightly until the 250-pound load is passed, when the spaces be- tween points increase in such manner as to show that the pull on the seale was due to more than the friction. It will be seen, however, that most of them seem to fall below the line made by the curve up to that point, if the line were produced. The points were so distributed that a curve drawn through the average position would not mean much. Why they fell so low in some cases I was unable to determine. The diagram for the friction of the ball bearings shows the points within small spaces up to the 500-pounds load. How much farther this would continue with the kind of bearing used I did not determine, though I found on another test made on smaller balls and bearings, that both balls and bearings began to pit soon after the load exceeded 500 pounds, 83 and that this pitting was very marked at 700 pounds. The small pieces torn from the balls and races were very different in shape from the flakes torn from the shaft by the rolls. The diagram giving a comparison of the friction line of the two kinds of bearings shows the friction of the roller bearing to be more than twice as great as that of the ball bearing. Calculations from the figures taken during the tests gave the co-efficient of friction for the ball bearings used to be .00475, or less than one-half of one per cent., while that for the roller bearings was .014, or nearly one and one-half per cent. I have no doubt that if the shaft used was of steel, hardened and ground, as the rest of the parts were, that the friction would be reduced. As the shaft was torn by the rolls, new parts were brought into contact and a marked drop of the pull occurred. Bearina-TeEsting DyNAMOMETER. By M. J. Goupen. In making some tests to determine the amount of power lost by fric- tion in different forms of shaft bearings, so much trouble was experienced in separating the loss in other parts of the apparatus used from that in the part being tested, when the regular transmission type of dynamometer was used, that the apparatus described here was devised for that purpose. It was tried in various forms experimentally before the present form was adopted. One of the rougher forms was described here last year in con- nection with a report then made on some bearing tests. In such tests the whole friction is so small that it is difficult to separate the friction due ; to the part being tested from that of the rest of the apparatus. The machine as now used consists of a cast iron frame, made heavy enough to be stiff and to absorb a large portion of the vibration due to the rapidly moving parts. To the top of the frame is bolted a cast-iron table with planed surface. On this table are bolted two carriages, shown in the illustration at (a), that are fitted with ball bearings, in which a spindle or shaft revolves. These bearings are used because of the ease of alignment with them, and by fastening a set collar on each side of 84 one of them end thrust is provided for. Different sizes of spindle may be used by having spare sleeves to be slipped on the smaller sizes and into the bearings. The special features of the machine are the way in which the load is applied and measured. This is accomplished by having a stiff, cast-iron yoke (b), through the center of which the spindle passes. The ends of the yoke project over the ends of the table and are provided with hardened steel knife edges (c) on which rods are hung, and the weights used for the load are suspended on these rods (d). The knife edges on which the weights are hung are on a line that passes an eighth of an inch above the center of the yoke, and as the rods are free to move on the edges, a nice balance of the yoke can be maintained. The bearing to be tested is placed in a cage that is fitted in the center of the yoke, and the shaft or spindle is revolved inside of it. The tendency of the yoke to revolve 85 around the spindle, due to the friction of the bearing, is met in this way: At nine inches from the center of the yoke, and on the line of knife edges for weights, is an inverted knife edge (f). Above this a sensitive scale {e) is suspended and a link connection is made between the scale and the knife edge. The tendency of the yoke to revolve is met by the pull of the seale and the amount of the pull is registered on the scale. Variation in speed is arranged for by placing on the end of the spindle that passes through the yoke a cone pulley of four steps (g), and this is driven by a belt from a corresponding cone pulley on a shaft (h) in the lower part of the frame. On this shaft is another cone pulley of three steps (j) driven from one on a countershaft. So a wide range of speeds can be gotten, and from a countershaft driven at 300 turns in a minute the spindle in the yoke has been made to revolve at speeds varying from thirty turns in a minute to 9,000 turns in a minute. On the assumption that in some forms of bearings the suspension of thé yoke on the spindle would be from some point near the top of the bear- ing, a yoke was made in which the knife edges for the weight rods could be raised and lowered, and some tests were made on different types of bearings with the edges at places above and below the center of the yoke; but though the suspension varied from the top to the bottom of the spindle no measureable change could be found. To overcome the difficulty of finding the zero point for any test, a slightly greater weight was given to the scale side of the yoke than to the other side; and any one reading was made by driving the spindle first in one direction and then in the other, as this would give the amount of pull due to friction on the scale, as from the point found when driving one way to the corresponding point found when driving the other would be twice the amount that would be gotten when driving in either way alone. Tue TorpLter-Houtz MacHINE For RoENTGEN Rays. By J. L. CAMPBELL. 86 A Proposep NoTATION FOR THE GEOMETRY OF THE TRIANGLE. By Rost. J. ALEY. Everyone who has studied geometry very long has felt the need of a uniform notation. Much time is wasted in getting acquainted with the notations of dif- ferent authors. This is especially true in modern pure geometry, where the figures are necessarily complex. The notation here proposed has been success fully used in the schoolroom. It is partially used by several well-known writers on modern geometry. It is hoped that its simplicity and system will commend it. Let the triangle always be lettered ABC and in the usual positive direction of mathematics, i. e. counter clock-wise. Designate the sides, opposite the angles, a, b, c, and when necessary to refer to them by number, use 1, 2, 3. Particular points are made the basis of the notation. An example will make the method clear. Suppose Z is some particular point. In studying such a point we usually need the points of intersection with the sides of the lines from the vertices through Z, and also the feet of the perpendiculars from Z to the sides. We designate the first set of points as Z/a, Z’», Zc and the second as Za, Zn, Ze. For the particular points, the symbol most frequently used has been im general selected. A 3 C = vertices of the fundamental triangle. M = centre of the circumeircle. Ma Mp» Mec = mid-points of the sides of the triangle. I = centre of the inscribed circle. li Ie Is = centres of Ist, 2d, 3d escribed circles. TI, I» Ice = points of contact of;sides with inscribed circle. VY’. I» Ve = points of intersection of AI, BI, CI with the sides. Ihe =i» Sie = points of contact of sides with Ist escribed circle, and so on. G = centroid of ABC. Ga Gp» Ge = feet of perpendiculars to the sides from G. K = symmedian point (Grebe’s). Ka Kv Ke = feet of perpendiculars to the sides from K. K’, K’» K’e = points of intersection of AK, BK, CK with sides. Ki Ke Ks = Ist, 2d and 3d ex-symmedian points. Kia Ki» Kic = feet of perpendiculars to the sides from K, and so on. K’1a Ks» K“ic = points of intersection of AKi, BKi, CKi with sides, and so on.. H = ortho centre. | 87 feet of altitudes of triangle. the Brocard points. Bocard’s Ist triangle. Brocard’s 2d triangle. centre of the nine points circle. Nagel’s point. associated Nagel points. Nagel’s triangle. Schwatt’s triangle. Tarry’s point. Steiner’s point. mid-points of the arcs of the cireumcircle subtended by the sides of the triangle. opposite points from A’B/C’ on circumcircle. Gergonne point. the associated Gergonne points. the sides of the triangle. the three altitudes. the medians. radius of incircle. radius of excircle. 2 (a+b-+c). s—a,s—b, s—e. radius of circumeircle. area of triangle. 88 SoME CrIRcLES CoNNECTED WITH THE TRIANGLE. By Rost. J.,ALEY. In my study of the geometry of the triangle I have frequently felt the need of an available collection of the circles connected with it. So far as I know, no such collection is extant. The following list, which is by no means complete, is offered as the beginning of what it is hoped may grow into an exhaustive collection. 1. Cireumcirele.—The circle that passes through the vertices A, B, C of the triangle. Centre at M, the point of concurrence of perpendiculars erected at the mid-points of the sides. R, the radius = “4 2. Incirele.—The circle which is tangent internally to the three sides of the triangle. Centre at I, the point of concurrence of the three internal bisectors of the angles of the triangle. r, the radius = Ss 3. Erxeireles. The three circles which are tangent externally to one side and internally to two sides of the triangle. Centres are I,, I,, I,, the points of con- currence of the external bisectors of the angles with the internal bisectors of A, : eo A A A B, C, respectively. The radii are r; —=———, r, = —— ‘and r, = s—a s—hb s—c 4, Nine Points Circle.—The circle which passes through the midpoints of the sides of the triangle, the feet of the perpendiculars, and the midpoints of the parts of the altitude between the orthocentre and the vertices. Centre is at F, the midpoint of IM. The radius is} R. It is tangent to the incircle and to each of the excircles. 5. Brocard Circle.—The circle whose diameter is the line joining the circum- centre M, to the symmedian point K. It passes through the two Brocard points Q,Q, and through the vertices of Brocard’s first and second triangles, Centre at midpoint of MK. 6. Cosine Circle.—The circle which passes through the six points of inter- section of antiparallels through K with the sides. Centre is at K (Symmedian point). 7. Ex-Cosine Circles.—The three circles which have K,, K,, K,; (ex-sym- median points) for centres, and which pass through B, C; C, A; and A, B, re- spectively. 8. The Lemoine Circle.—The circle which passes through the six intersections of parallels through K with the sides of the triangle. The centre is at the mid- 89 point of MK. The centre coincides with the centre of Brocard’s Circle. The radius is equal to 4 VR? + p2 where p is the radius of the Cosine Circle. The segments cut out of the sides of the triangle by the circle are proportional to the cubes of the sides of the triangle. For this reason the circle is sometimes called the Triplicate Ratio Circle. 9. Taylor's Circle.—The circle which passes through the six projections of the vertices of the pedal triangle on the sides ot the fundamental triangle. 10. Tucker’s Circles.—The circle that passes through six points determined as follows: If on the lines KA, KB, KC, points A’, B’, C’ are taken so that KA’: KA — KB’: KB= KC’: KC =a constant, then the six points above referred to are the intersections of B’C’, C’A’ and A’P’ with the sides of ABC. The centre is at the midpoint of the line joining M and the circumcentre of A’ BC’, The circum-, Lemoine, Cosine and Taylor Circles are particular cases of Tucker Circles. 11. Orthocentroidal Circle.—The circle of similitude of the circum and nine- points circle. Centre at the midpoint of HG. Radius is 3 HG. 12. McCay’s Circles:—The three circles which circumscribe the triangles B,C,G, C,A,G, and A,B,G, respectively. (A,B,C, is Brocard’s second triangle and G is the centroid. 13. Polar Circle.—This is the circle with respect to which the triangle is self- conjugate. Its centre is at H. It is real when H is outside the triangle, evanes- cent when H is at a vertex, and imaginary when H is within the triangle. 14. B;, C;, which are the midpoints of AA’, BB’, CC’, respectively. (Proceedings Circle.—The circle on IM as diameter. It passes through A;, Indiana Academy of Sciences, 1898, page 89. ) 15. Adam’s Circle.—The circle which passes through the six points determined by the intersection with the sides of the triangle of the lines through the Gergoume Point P, parallel to Ialb, Talc, Icla, respectively. The centre is at I. 16. points), parallel to the sides of ThalipIc, IzalapI2c, and IsalspIsc, respectively, de- Circles.—Lines through P,, P,, P, (the associated Gergoume termine sets of six points on the sides which are concyclic. The centres of these three circles are at 1,, I,, and 1I,. These circles might be called the associated Adam’s circles. 90 Tue Pornt P anp Some oF Its PROPERTIES. By Rogsert J. ALEY. P is the point of concurrence of the lines drawn from the vertices of a triangle to the points of contact of the inscribed circle with the sides. It has been called the Gergonne Point. The ratios of the distances of the point P from the sides are ws : me y is (Aley, Contributions to Geom. of the Triangle, p. 10 (10) ). From these ratios the actual distances of the point from the sides is easily found to be 2A (s—b)(s—c) rts ~ ad (s—a)(s—b) __-2A(s —c) (s—a) hdcae Sate Te =H} PP. __ 2A4(s — a) (s — b) c= (s —a)(s— hb) P and Q (Nagel’s Point) are isotomic conjugates and they are collinear with Z, the isotomic conjugate of I (incentre) (Ibid., page 8, III). P, (the isogonal conjugate of P), Z, the isogonal conjugate of Z and K are collinear (Ibid., page 13, IV). P,, I and M are collinear. The ratios of P, are a(s— a) : b(s —b) : e(s —c) (Ibid., p. 3, 81). From these the actual distances of P, from the sides is readily found to be > cao oar a) Pair la — S=a == Sas 2Ab(s — b) PiPi» = Sya? Sai 2Ac(s — Pi Pic = ee | Ibid. » page 14, (7) | . It is well known that fa s 1 ee 8 eee 8 The ratios of M are a(— a?-+- b? + c?) : b(a®? — b? +c?) : c(a® + b? — c?). : 91 From these ratios it is easily found that ry, _. 2( — a? + b?+ Cc?) MM.za= 3A b a? — b? + @? MM) = 8A __ e(a? + b? — c?) IAT, — Pi Pia A 24a (S—a) LS 5 Sn? — 2,8 — A ( 2 538 ) 5 eee [8 =a* — 2.2 — 2aS(S—a) | = ff oe ; ; : A = S(SE2— 3a) | ab tate + be + be? — 2 abe — b? — 3 j IX=II,— MMa _ A a(—a?—b?-+ c?) cas 8A 1 = ga (84? — a S(— a? +b? +c’) | Bal NMS ee Sol = 358A | 8(S —a) (S—b) (S—c)—a Ce ee) =o [ab fate + b¥e + be?—2abe—b?—c?| VAR) b (ab + a?c + b2c + be? — 2abe — b? — 3) : s(sta? — Xa?) : = (a*b +- ac + b%e + be? — 2abe — b? — c3) = = 8A? :s(s¥a? — Ea’), 92 93 Similarly IZ, : 1X, = 8A? : s(sza? — Za?) And the same is true of IZ, : 1X. The points are therefore collinear. Wy SID Be SIGE IP, : IM = 8A?: §(SzZa? — Za?) IP,:P,M=IP, :IM — IP, = 84? :s(sta? — 2a?) — 8A? = =(—a+b+c) (a—b-+-c) (a+ b—c): ska? -- Za? —(—a+b+ec)(a—b-+c) (a+b—c). The ratio of division is too complex for ordinary use. If upon the lines PPa, PP», PPc equal distances from P be taken the triangle A,B,C, thus formed is similar to Nagel’s triangle A,B,C,. For ZA,PB, =H—C And PAB, == 7 PBA, =34(1l — ZA, PB,) #4 C. Similarly the 7PB,C, = A. And hence 7A,B,C, = 3 A+3C=3(A+ C). Likewise 7R,C,A, — 4 (A+ B) And £B,A,C,=3(B-+C). But these are the angles of Nagel’s triangle and therefore A,B,C, is similar to A,B,C. P is the symmedian point of the triangle IaIpIc. (Proc. Edinburgh Math. Soc., Vol. XI., page 105), If through P lines are drawn parallel to the Ialp, IbIc, Icla respectively, the six points of intersection with the sides are concyclic. The circle is call Adam’s circle. 94 DIAMOND FLUORESCENCE. - By Arruur L. Fouey. [Abstract.] Some three or four years since, I had occasion to cut a large number of photographic dry plates to smaller sizes. They were cut in the usual way with a diamond, and on the side of the plate opposite the film. In developing it was noticed that the film, to a breadth of a few millimeters along the edge of the plate, turned dark, as if exposed to light. Several possible explanations suggested themselves: 1. The breaking of the glass might produce momentary fluorescence and a fogging of the film near the break. 2. The breaking or tearing of the film might result in some sort of change in its character. 3. The scratching of the diamond might set up mechanical disturb- ances or vibrations in the glass and these might affect the film. 4. The friction between the diamond and the glass might cause a mo- mentary fluorescence along the line tracéd by the diamond, and the radia- tion might penetrate the glass and fog the film on the other side. A Yo MR 8 The last is the true explanation. The first and second suggested explanations were thrown aside at once, for the dark line in the film was found to appear along the diamond- scratched line, whether the plate was broken or not. That the third explanation was not the true one was shown in several ways. The breadth and intensity of the dark lines did not appear to depend upon the depth of the cut or the rapidity with which it was made. The line was always of the same breadth on the same plate, but of different breadths on differ- ent plates. Moreover, the film always developed first on the side next the glass, which would not have been the case had the effect been due to any sort of strain or mechanical disturbance. The effect was noticeable on the most rapid plates only. Seed’s “Gilt Edge’ were used in most cases. 95 _Let f represent the film on a section of the glass plate g, perpendicular to the diamond scratch s. Let us regard s as a source of radiation. All rays (as s ¢) lying outside the critical angle i are totally reflected and hence do not affect the film. Those having an incident angle less than i penetrate the film and fog it if they are of sufficient intensity. The breadth of the fogged line is therefore— =2 AB=2 t. tan. i. where t is the thickness of the glass plate and i is the critical angle for glass and the film substance. Taking the indices of refraction of glass and gelatine for violet light, it was found that the equation is correct to within the degree of accuracy with which the various measurements could be made. It was thought that the light produced by the friction of the diamond and glass might be sufficient to affect the eye. Nothing could be seen when the experiment was tried, although the observers had taken the pre- caution of staying in an absolutely dark room for an hour to render the eye as Sensitive as possible. But this does not prove that no light resulted from the friction. A very feeble light would be sufficient to fog the plate when coming from a point so near the film. Besides, the fluorescence might have consisted of waves too short to affect the eye. In the formula I used the indices of refraction of violet light in order to obtain the value of the critical angle. For shorter waves the indices would be different, but their ratio probably would not be greatly different from the value used. Later experiments have shown that fluorescence does not always occur when a diamond is drawn across a dry plate. I am not yet ready to say whether it is due to differences in different diamonds, to differences in the nature of the glass, or to changes in temperature, electrification, ete. I hope to be able to report more definitely at a future meeting. 96 Some EXxpeERIMENTS ON LocoMoTIVE COMBUSTION. By J. W. SHEPHERD. Through the courtesy of the T. H. & I. Railroad officials, a study of the combustion in a locomotive while in operation was undertaken, the study being made from the analyses of the stack gases. The analyses were made with a modified Orsat apparatus. The experiments were conducted on the large Schenectady passenger engines and on fast runs between Terre Haute and St. Louis, and Terre Haute and Indianapolis. The apparatus for sampling the gases consisted of a half-inch gas pipe extending eight or ten inches into the center of the stack and bent uni- formly following the outside of the stack to near its base, where another bend led it back to the cab on the fireman’s side. Through this pipe, with the proper connections inside the cab, the gases were drawn into bottles by means of a steam jet. The bottles were fitted with ground-glass stoppers. The end of the gas pipe within the stack was fitted with a thimble, the lower end of which was solid steel and the sides perforated. This particular fitting was found to be essential to the successful operation of the apparatus. Samples were taken in three different ways: (1) For periods of one to two minutes by displacement of water; (2) for continuous samples, from Terre Haute to terminals of road if desired, by displacement of water, and (3) for any period of time (brief as desired and whenever desired) by air displacement. In methods Nos. 1 and 2 the water displaced was acidulated with sulphuric acid. In method No. 3 the gas was passed five times before the bottle was disconnected from sampler. Method No. 1 was not satisfactory, because the fireman did not fire normally during the sampling. Method No. 2 showed that the value of a fire does not always vary directly as the increase of carbon dioxide and decrease of free oxygen in the stack gases. Samples Nos. 1 and 10 in the following table will serve as an illustration. No. 1 was taken continuously from Terre Haute to Effingham, Ill. (sixty-eight miles), and No. 10 from Effingham to East St. Louis (100 miles), both on same train, but different crews. No. 1 required less coal per car mile than No. 10. It is to be observed that No. 10 shows a percentage of carbon monoxide, which means that the rapid evolution O7 of hydrocarbons resulted in a fuel loss, and is largely attributable to the kind of firing. No. 9 was also a continuous sample, between Terre Haute and Indianapolis, and showed the least coal consumption per car mile of any. This must mean that more volatile matter escaped in No. 1 than No. 9. Carbon monoxide was not determined in sample No. 1, but No. 9 was analyzed for it. : Samples Nos. 2, 38 and 4 furnish an interesting study on the evolution of the volatile-combustible matter. Samples Nos. 5, 6, 7 and 8 show more strikingly the rate of volatiliza- tion. While the percentage of carbon dioxide in samples Nos. 5, 6 and 7 remains the same, it is to be noticed that the percentage of free oxygen decreases, which means increased volatilization. As a rule samples show less uniformity than shop tests on account of the jarring motion of the locomotive. It is intended to make other tests in conjunction with temperature determinations with a view of determining percentage losses. Bese ; 1} Interval During Which Sample No. | CQ2z | CO O Kind of Firing. Was Taken From Time Fire Was Built. 1 Doll dh sere S60.) Mediums: tice. 2. a. Continuous. 2 | 14.0 0.8 AOR | CRLOA Ya eran ot shots ois oc 20-30 seconds. 3 | 13.7 0.5 AGW MEL CA VV; aii toretsiois eyets) obs 35-45 seconds. 4] 12.6 0.0 OM eRe yavaeaes «ack. 50-60 seconds. EO: O! | esto. So) One shovel...c%. 3.5 « 2-3 seconds. Ol MOON oeecoe 8-4 Onershovells. ne. 3-4 seconds. MOI OLON i 52 oot | Oneishoviels:. ic... § 4-5 seconds. 8 Dae areca art S77 |(One:shovel 2... 0.0: 5-6 seconds. 9 eo (40) MOE |) ete eee on dnemooe Continuous. LO LEO 0.7 uA | lle aveyines .inedsrest ne Continuous. Medium fire, 2-3 scoops. Light fire, 1-2 scoops. Heavy fire, 4-5 scoops. 7—Science. 98 Some JIonizaTION EXPERIMENTS. By P. N. Evans. The proportion existing between the ionized and un-ionized motecules - of an electrolyte in (aqueous) solution, is represented by the equation a. b=k.c,in which a, b, and ¢ are the concentrations of the anions, kathions and un-ionized molecules of the electrolyte, respectively, and k a constant depending on the nature of the electrolyte and independent of the concentration for moderately or highly dilute solutions. Supposing this equilibrium to have become established, which is the case in an exceedingly brief time, if not instantaneously, any addition of either kind of ion concerned, the quantity of solvent remaining the same, must result in an«increased value for its concentration and produce a corresponding increase in the number and concentration of the un-ionized molecules; for, k being a constant, any increase in the value of a or b will involve an increase of that of ¢ if the equilibrium is to be maintained. If to a saturated solution of an electrolyte’ there be added a second soluble electrolyte having an anion or kathion in common with the first, there must result a state of supersaturation with regard to the first elec- trolyte or a separation of a portion of it in insoluble form. Many examples of this are familiar to all. For instance, a saturated solution of sodium chloride is instantly precipitated by the addition of concentrated hydrochloric acid, in spite of the water that is added at the same time; on the other hand, the case is complicated and the precipita- tion assisted, probably by the chemical union taking place between the hydrochloric acid and some of the water, made evident by the evolution of heat, thus increasing all the concentrations by removing (chemically changing) some of the solvent. The same result is obtained and the same reasoning applies when calcium chloride is added to a saturated sodium chloride solution. The precipitation of sodium chloride is brought about without this complication of causes by the addition of crystallized potas- sium chloride (XCl) or anhydrous sodium sulphate (Na.SO,), and even crystallized sodium sulphate (Na.SO,.10H,O) gives the same result in spite of the water added in the crystals. Similarly, potassium chloride can be precipitated by hydrochloric acid, sodium chloride (NaCl), or potassium sulphate (IX.SO,); and copper sulphate (CuSO,.5H.O) by cupric chloride (CuCl..2H.O), copper nitrate (Cu(NO,).. 99 6H.O), or sulphuric acid; barium chloride (BaCl,.2H.O) by hydrochloric acid, or sodium chloride; calcium sulphate (CaSO,.2H.O) by sulphuric acid, potassium sulphate, calcium nitrate (Ca(NO,)..4H.O); lead chloride (PbCI.) by hydrochloric acid, sodium chloride, potassiuin chloride. In this list we have a very wide range of solubility: 100 parts of water dissolve NaCl 35, KCl 32, CuS0,5H,.O 40, BaCl,.2H,O 33, CaS0O,.2H.0 .20, PbCl, .74 parts. It is not evident Whether easily or difficultly soluble substances should respond more readily in the yielding of a precipitate under these conditions, for the much greater degree of supersaturation attainable with an easily soluble substance may be offset by the greater difficulty in disturbing this state of supersaturation. The greater the solubility of the electrolyte added to the saturated solution, the more readily a precipitate should be obtained; and the higher the dissociation constant of the second electrolyte, the more probable is a marked result. In spite of the apparently favorable conditions in this respect, all at- tempts to precipitate lead chloride from its solution by means of lead nitrate were in vain. A saturated solution is very readily prepared by warming the solution in contact with an excess of the salt, and then cool- ing, owing to the great difference in solubility in hot and in cold water. The immediate and copious precipitate produced in this solution by the addition of sodium or potassium chloride or hydrochloric acid seemed to indicate that the tendency to remain in the supersaturated condition was very slight in the case of this salt, yet the addition of lead nitrate crystals: to the solution (saturated), even in the considerable quantity made possi- ble by the ready solubility of the nitrate (48 parts in 100), failed to cause: any precipitation, either immediately or on long standing, or even on adding a crystal of lead chloride to induce crystallization from the solu- tion, Supposing it to be supersaturated. Lead nitrate, like most normal salts, has a high dissociation constant, more than half that of the strong- est acids in a .1 per cent. solution (calculated by Arrhenius from conduc- tivity experiments by Kohlrausch). This fact, and its high solubility, should be most favorable to the precipitation of the lead chloride, on ac- count of the considerable increase in the concentration of the lead ions. made possible thereby. In harmony with the usual similarity of barium to lead, a saturated solution of barium chloride showed no sign of precipitation with barium nitrate (Ba(NO,).); as already stated, a precipitate was produced by the 100 addition of hydrochloric acid, or sodium or potassium chloride to the satu- rated barium chloride solution. Similarly, potassium sulphate, though precipitated from its saturated solution by the addition of potassium chloride or sodium sulphate, gave no precipitate with sulphuric acid; and calcium sulphate was not thrown down by either sodium sulphate or ammonium sulphate but did separate slowly on the addition of potassium sulphate and more quickly with sul- phuric acid. Apparently, then, in these cases, the number of un-ionized molecules of ‘the first is not increased by the addition of the second electrolyte, and the only plausible explanation seems to be that in these cases double salts are formed; e. g., lead-chloride-nitrate (PbCINO,), barium-chloride-nitrate (BaCINO,), hydrogen-potassium-sulphate (HIXSO,), calcium-sodium-sul- phate (CaNa.(SO,).?), and calcium-ammonium-sulphate (Ca(NH,).(SO,).?). Taking the case of lead chloride as an example, the addition of the lead nitrate must immediately increase the number of lead ions, but at the same time diminishes both this and the number of the chlorine ions by permitting the formation of lead-chloride-nitrate, so that the value of the product of the concentrations of lead and chlorine ions is not thereby increased, thus causing no rise in value of the concentration of the lead chloride, and, therefore, no separation of this substance as a precipitate. It does not follow that this peculiarity of behavior must accompany the formation of a double salt under similar circumstances, however, for it may be that the increase of the concentration of one kind of ion concerned may more than counterbalance the simultaneous decrease in this and that of the other kind of ion involved; this is simply a question of the value of the dissociation constants of the electrolytes present. It seems probable that double salts exist in solutions whenever there is a polyvalent acid in presence of two or more bases or a polyvalent base in presence of two or more acids, though other evidence of the existence of most of these compounds is at present lacking. Since, however, we know and recognize the existence of only those double salts which sepa- rate out from solutions of their constituents rather than these constituents in distinct crystals, the evidence so far accepted for the existence of such compounds is of a very limited kind, namely, only their solubility relative to that of their constituents. In other words, if these separate in prefer- ence to the double compound, the latter does not exist so far as this kind of evidence is concerned. 101 Now, supposing that in a solution of equivalent quantities of the con- stituents the dissociation constants of these and the double salt are such that approximately equal numbers of molecules of the three kinds exist un-ionized, and the solution be concentrated, the double salt will separate if its molecular solubility (solubility divided by molecular weight) is less than that of either constituent, but not otherwise. Of.course, it is not probable that the constants are such as to even approximately produce a condition like that imagined in the example just described, but inasmuch as normal salts do not differ very widely in their dissociation constants, the facts may be nearly enough in harmony with the supposition to make a study of these molecular solubilities not without interest in this con- nection, though the data availabie are not so numerous as might be desired. An examination of the solubilities of twelve double salts selected at random showed the facts to be in accordance with this theory without a single exception. The figures are given in the following table, the formulas selected being those of the substances separating out as crystals from their solutions. Formula. Ss Aan raat ne b+aX 100 [SL ed ee a 174 12.5 7.2 PS LONGO! ws Gb as Saw es + sees 665 85 12.8 KEAT(S Ome ile Orie enacts cine eae 474 9.5 2.0 (ON LR ASSL 6 ie ae BENS Al ret ca 132 ak 57.6 EMS) a) gu VS Liha Os renee cys oo esare enc aiese 665 85 12.8 OND AUS Oven tt Oma ora ce 452 9 2.0 PIO Tce siasiersiin ue ae Secret eM as a ola 174 12.5 7.2 Sens OM mISEOe no cer ease ace 717 120 16.7 CHGS SA: GO ie 500 20 4.0 RRA Orta rire shes arte tTiogs sis metry 3 132 ii 57.6 EN SOn) sel Sle OU, aoade os eee Ss 717 120 16.7 CNG CrysO) ood On re a aeeernn =, 478 over 12 over 2.5 ES SOA ga ate MR See he ea 174 12.5 7.2 Ber S On) an Qlis Oe weetiel tenses or 562 over 80 over 14.1 PET SOs IIHS OL. 2 aac horasc ences 503 20 4.0 102 a. Molecular Formula. weipht. (NH,),SO, akaeteterre, oye aiietrts tresmetetererhenn cake 132 Reso THLO.. Vee ae ee 278 (MH) Fe(SO). 6H.One ee. 392 DEEL, hacia ee ee Bie iy Ses 53.4 SnCl,.5H,O SU OD Css 20.0 haoeko Se Cerne 350 (NH,),SnCl, BOBO CUD OCGA COPPA 366 K,SO, PEN CA PERN CPL OR EG FEE RTA SMe Ne 174 CASO: 0 Mee ee ee oe 172 CaK,(SO,),.H,O sions toNene xa Siete See 328 PAO str s ee eee ee ciee ee 174 CoSO,.7H,O eal tstthteato a eter ere etehe Fonte 280 K,Co(SO,),.6H,O in atarehs ve tote citer Ree 437 K,SO, ale brs tel aicats Weae iat hiatesute) orate) mints Maoh ee 174 NiSO,.7H,O aft ot Nessie otebeel atte teste a ete D 281 K,Ni(SO,),.6H,O isnecs Radavie 'ecatie sake ets ate 437 16 als ge A RR ee ail ah ols Pa a a 75 MgCl,.6H,O RIAN Suave CNS, Soa SES Ltn 203 KMgCl, OEE Olsnccstacisc cece ener: 278 eeu, Sette nae SE eee 8 138 Na,CO,.10H,O aya hele Heelan d arc cheb ate ec 286 RINACOU ICH Oi, v, aime ant 230 b. Solubility in 100 parts water. 77 60 Wf 33 over 1900 b+a X 100 57.6 21.6 4.3 61.8 over 543 9.0 Them 0.12 0.08 7.2 20.7 4.3 7.2 23.9 1.21 42.6 64.0 23.2 80.0 7.34 5.6 103 SYNTHESIS OF 2.3,3—TRIMETHYL CycLo-PENTANoNE, A CycLIc DERIVATIVE OF CAMPHOR. By W. A. Noyes. When a solution of the sodium derivative of methyl malonic ester and of the ethyl ester of y-bromisocaproic acid in absolute alcohol is boiled on the water bath, about six per cent. of the brom-ester is converted into the ethyl ester of 2.3,3, tetramethyl-hexanoic 1, 2!, 6-acid, CO,C,H, CH, —C<¢o0,c.H. | CH = ‘ Y ) CH? > C— CH,CH,CO,C,H,. The free acid, obtained by saponification of the ester with caustic potash, loses carbon dioxide when heated to 200° and is converted into c—-33-trimethyl- adipic acid, CH, — CH —CO,H ois > C— CH, —CH,CO,H. When this acid is mixed with lime 3 and distilled, 2.3,3-trimethyl cyclopentanone, CH, — CH — CO | CH, | cH 0 CMe defosmedt uRne oxime of this ketone was proved to be identical with the oxime of the ketone ob- tained by J. W. Shepherd and myself from c—hydroxydihydrocis-campholytic acid. This synthesis establishes, beyond reasonable doubt, the correctness of Bouveault’s formula for camphor. CO— CH, | | CH“ 0)-6Hi | CH, | lala cH? > e — CH,. The details of the investigation appear in the American Chemical Journal, Vol. 23, p. 128. 104 CoNTRIBUTIONS TO THE Fiora oF InprAna. VI. By SranLeEy COULTER. In view of the publication in the near future of a catalogue of the phanerogamic flora of the State, this contribution is limited to a diseus- sion of a few families, concerning which we have need of further knowl- edge. Each of these families, despite its familiarity, presents especial difficulties in the discrimination of species, difficulties which, as a rule, are not appreciated by the botanist who works remote from herbaria. Scant material and all too brief descriptions are responsible for a large propor- tion of the errors which have found their way into local lists. POLYGONACEZ. Perhaps the greatest uncertainty exists in regard to the species of Rumex within the State. Of the eight species reported in the State, the following are undoubted: R. Acetosella L., R. Britannica L., R. crispus L., R. obtusifolius L., and R. verticillatus 1. Rumex altissimus Wood, reported from Jay, Delaware, Randolph and Wayne counties by Dr. Phinney, and from Dearborn County by Dr. Collins, is probably R. Britannica L., under mesophytie conditions. I have had several collections of the form referred to, R. altissimus Wood, for examination, and they take their place so naturally in a series of R. Britannica 1.., collected to show the effect of differing conditions upon the species, that it is impossible to avoid the suspicion that in many cases, at least, the forms referred to altissimus are really Britannica. I am un- willing to exclude the form from the State flora, not having seen the specimens of Dr. Phinney. I request, however, that if in any of the her- baria in the State there are forms referred to altissimus, they be examined with care and report made to me before the publication of the flora, in- stead of after its appearance. R. occidentalis S. Wats. Reported from Jefferson County by J. M. Coulter, and from Clark County by Baird and Taylor, is probably to be excluded from the State list. There are no verifying specimens, and in fairly full collections of the genus made from those counties during two seasons the form does not appear. There is no especial reason why it should not be a member of our flora so far as its geographical distribution 105 goes, and I should not be surprised if it were found in some of the her- baria of the State. If soa prompt report should be made. Rumex sanguineus l.., reported from Jefferson and Clark counties, shows itself, upon an examination of the specimens, to be FR. crispus L., with the veins of the foliage leaves of a somewhat reddish cast. The outer characters are evidently those of R. crispus L. In the absence of further data R. sanguineus must be excluded from the State list. It may be suggested at this point that few forms respond in so marked a manner to changed conditions as the docks. These changes involve the general habit, venation, inflorescence and markings of the valves. The collection of a single species under varying conditions will sufficiently explain the doubt felt in admitting to the State flora, without further evidence, the three forms just discussed. The genus Polygonum is represented by nineteen species in our bounds. The specimens examined show a number of incorrect references, which serve to render doubtful some statements as to the distribution of these forms. Among the more common errors of reference are the following: P. lapathifolium L., for P. incarnatum Ell. The larger and more erect forms of P. aviculare L., for P. erectum L., while very often P. Hydropiper L., and P. punctatum Ell. =(P. acre H. B. K.) are found associated upon a single herbarium sheet. An examination of the ordinary descriptions of these species will show how easily such errors in reference may be made, and how small is the likelihood of their subsequent correction unless especial attention is called to them. P. Careyi Olney is reported only from Noble County by Van Gorder. This is to my mind a very doubtful reference. The recorded range of the species is northern Maine and New Hampshire to Pennsylvania and On- tario, which militates somewhat against the accuracy of the reference, while the wide range of variation in the nearly related species P. am- phibium L., and P. emersum (Michx.) Britton, (=P. Muhlenbergii Watson) suggest its proper reference is to one of these forms. My own experience in the collection of Polygonums in the same region leads me to believe the form to be P. emersum. P. Careyi Olney is, therefore, to be omitted from the State list unless other data are available. P. ramosissimum Michx. is reported only from Vigo County, by W. 8. Blatchley. The recognized range of the plant includes the whole State. It is probable that it is of fairly general distribution and has been mistaken 106 for P. erectum L., from which it differs chiefly in its reduced and bract-like upper leaves. P. tenue Michx., reported only from Tippecanoe County and Lake County. is in much the same case. It is probable that in most instances it has been mistaken for P. aviculare L., which it closely resembles in habit of growth and general aspect. Since recognizing it in Tippecanoe County I have been greatly surprised to find how abundantly it occurs. It would be well to examine herbarium specimens with some care for these two forms. Generally speaking, the species of this genus can not be satisfactorily distinguished unless collected in fruit, a fact which seems to have been lost sight of in most of the herbarium sheets which have come to my notice. GERANIACEZ. In this family, as at present limited, there are but the two genera Geranium and Brodium. So far as I am able to determine the only species of geranium within our bounds are G. Carolinianum L. and G. maculatum L. Both seem of general distribution, although perhaps maculatum extends farther north and is everywhere much more abundant. G. Robertianum 1... reported from Dearborn County, by Dr. Collins, is probably Carolinianum. There is no apparent reason why G. Robertianum should not occur within the State, but as yet I have failed to find it in any collection. Several unpublished lists that have come into my hands have included G. dissectum lL. The plants so referred are in every case depauperate forms of G. Carolinianum IL. Prodium cicutarium (.) L’Her. is reported only from Gibson and Posey counties, by Dr. Schneck. It is to my mind very improbable that this rather rare, adventive plant, reported only from New York and Pennsyl- vania. should have found lodgement in these counties as a permanent member of our flora. Dr. Schneck preserved no specimens, but doubtful forms were passed upon by Dr. Gray. In my opinion the plant is not a member of the State flora, its admission in all probability being based upon a temporary escape. Unless additional data are at hand it will be dropped from the State list. 107 POLYGALACE.®. Hight species and one variety of the genus Polygala have been re- corded in the State. Of these Polygala Senega .., Polygala Senega latifolia Torr. & Gray and Polygala viridescens L. (=P. sanguinia L.) are of general distribution and fairly abundant. The following are reported from a single station: P, ambigua Nutt. =(P. verticillata var. ambigua Wood), from Gibson and Posey counties, upon the authority of Dr. Schneck. P. cruciata l., from Cass County, by Dr. Robert Hessler. P. Nuttallii Torr. & Gray, from Jefferson County, by J. M. Coulter. P. verticillata L. is reported from only two stations, Jefferson County and Noble County, while P. polygama Walt. is also reported but from two counties, Vigo and Elkhart. The difficulty of discriminating the species of this genus, because of their great variability and because of the fact that nearly related forms tend to become confluent, makes the inclusion of these forms reported from a single station a matter of some doubt. The material examined verifying the references has been so scant that critical study has been impossible. There is, however, in no instance any range improbability in the record. The well-known accuracy of the botan- ists reporting these forms is sufficient to justify their inclusion in the list. It is especially desirable that those in charge of herbaria should examine their Polygalas in the hope of both extending the range of these forms and justifying their inclusion in the State list. VIOLACE®. Sixteen species of the genus Viola have been recorded from the State, at least four of which seem questionable, so much so, indeed, that without additional evidence they should be excluded from the State list. Viola hastata Michx., reported only from Clark County, upon the au- thority of Baird and Taylor, is a mountain form. It occurs in the Alle- ghanies in Pennsylvania and follows the system southward. It has an additional station in the extreme northeastern part of Ohio, but apart from this is confined to the mountain regions. It is closely allied to V. pubescens, Ait.,, from which it differs essentially in the size of the stipules. The halberd-shaped leaf often passing into an oblong to heart-shaped, while the broadly heart-shaped leaves of pubescens as frequently narrow. 108 The reference is undoubtedly incorrect. the plant being a narrow-leaved, rather glabrous form of the V. pubescens Ait. V. primulaefolia 1.., reported as rare in moist soil in Gibson and Posey counties, by Dr. Schneck, I am forced to regard as a form of V. blanda Willd. V. primulaefolia is an eastern plant, ranging from New England to Florida near the coast. A glance at the descriptions of blanda and primulaefolia will serve to show how, with slight foliar changes, it might be possible to mistake the two forms. I have examined for intervening stations so far as I was able, but have found none that indicate even the slightest western movement of the species. V. rostrata Pursh, reported from Jefferson County (“Clifty Ravine’), by C. R. Barnes, and from Noble County, by VanGorder is a rather rare northern form, extending southward along the Alleghanies. Of the two stations, that in Noble County would be the more probable. I have seen no specimen verifying either citation, but because of the known range of the form am inclined to refer it to a form of V. striata Ait. The most constant difference between rostrata and striata is in the spur. In the former it is slender and longer than the petals; in the latter it is thickish and shorter than the petals. It may, however, be a form of V. Labradorica Schrank (—V. canina var. Muhlenbergii Gray). I feel confident, however, that V. rostrata Pursh is not a member of the State flora. Viola rotundifolia Michx., reported from Dearborn County, by Dr. Collins, and from Jefferson County, by Professor Young, is another eastern mountain form, whose presence in our territory is scarcely possible and certainly is very improbable. The recorded range of the plant reads: “Cold woods; Maine to Minnesota and southward along the Alleghanies.” The form is so characteristic that it is difficult to understand with what speciés it may have been confused. The range probabilities, however, are so strongly against its presence in the State that in the absence of verify- ing specimens it must be excluded from the catalogue. The admitted forms of the genus are as follows: V. blanda Willd. V. Canadensis L. V. Labradorica Schrank (—V. canina var. Muhlenbergii Gray) a form not recorded north of Monroe County. V. lanceolata L. V. obliqua Hill (~V. palmata var. cucullata Gray). 109 V. palmata L. V. pedata L. V. pedatifida Don., reported from Wayne County, and also from Gibson and Posey. The form is western and is probably confined to the western tier of counties. The Wayne County reference is probably V. pedata. V. pubescens Ait. V. sagittata Ait., apparently confined to southern counties. V. striata Ait. ' V. tricolor L. PLANTAGINACE 2. An examination of a large number of specimens from various localities referred to Plantago major L., showed the majority of them to be P. Rugelii Dec. The only character that readily separates the two forms is the num- ber of seeds in the pod. In the case of major, running from eight to eigh- teen, and in Rugelii from four to nine. As the pods are of practically the same size, the difference in the size of the seeds is easily recognized. It is probable that in almost every region of the State P. Rugelii Dec. will be found in fair abundance closely associated with P. major L. The two forms run into each other in leaf, spike and bract characters, but may apparently always be separated by the number and size of seeds. COMPOSIT 2. Vernonia gigantea (Walt.) Brit., =(V. altissima Nutt.) is of much more general distribution than indicated in my Contribution to Flora of Indiana, IV, page 5. In the northwestern counties of the State it seems more abundant than JV. fasciculata Michx., to which it is usually referred. In almost every collection thus far examined, gigantea is the prevailing form. I am inclined to believe it much more abundant in the State than I. fasciculata Michx. As suggested in Contribution IV (supra), there are many reasons which lead to the belief that gigantea is really a hybrid and should be written V. Noveborascensis x fasciculata. FEXxperiments are now under way for the determination of this point. Through the courtesy of Dr. Eigenmann, I have received a list of plants of the northern lake regions of the State, which fairly represents 110 the flora of such restricted areas in the months of August and September. The list is herewith published in the form in which it was received, with thanks to Mr. Deam for the use of his notes. Comments upon some of the species are reserved for the forthcoming report upon the flora of the State. A LIST OF PLANTS COLLECTED AT CEDAR, SHRINER AND ROUND LAKES, By C. C. DEAM, BLUFFTON. The following species are represented in my herbarium by specimens collected by Mr. Williamson and myself. The number here recorded by no means repre- sents the rich flora of the region. Dryopteris Thelypteris (L.). A. Gray. September 2, 1897. Shriner Lake. Typha latifolia L. September 2, 1897. Round Lake. Potamogeton, four species. August 3, 1896. Shriner Lake. Sagittaria rigida Pursh. August 6, 1896. Round Lake. Panicum capillare L. August 6, 1896. Round Lake. Panicum Crus-galli L. August 2, 1896. Round Lake. Zizania aquatica L. August 6, 1896. Round Lake. Homalocenchrus oryzoides (L.).. Poll. September 2, 1897. Cedar Lake. Muhlenbergia Mexicana (L.). Trin. September 2, 1897. Shriner Lake. Cyperus Engelmanni Steud. September 1, 1897. Shriner Lake. Cyperus rivularis Kunth. September 1, 1897. Round Lake. Dulichiuwm arundinaceum (L.). Britt. September 1, 1897. Round Lake. Eleocharis interstincta (Vahl.). KR. andS. September 1, 1897. Round Lake. Eleocharis mutata (L.). KR. and 8. September 2, 1897. Round Lake. Scirpus Americanus Pers. August 3, 1896. Shriner Lake. Scirpus atrovirens Muhl. August 2, 1896. Shriner Lake. Scirpus lacustris L. August 1, 1896. Shriner Lake. Scirpus lineatus Michx. August 1, 1896. Shriner Lake. Rynchospora glomerata (L.). Vahl. August 2, 1896. Round Lake. Cladium mariscoides (Muhl.). Torr. September 2, 1897. Shriner Lake. Carex comosa Boott. September 1, 1897. Shriner Lake. Carex lupuliformis Sartwell. September 1, 1897. Shriner Lake. Eriocaulon septangulare With. September 2, 1897. Round Lake. Pontederia cordata L. August 1, 1896. Shriner Lake. Juncus Canadensis J. Gay. September 2, 1897. Shriner Lake. Pogonia trianthophora (Sw.). B.S. P. August 2, 1896. Shriner Lake. 1A Corallorhiza odontorhiza (Willd). Nutt. August 8, 1896. Round Lake. Rumex verticillatus 11. September 2, 1897. Cedar Lake. Polygonum incarnatum Ell. August 6, 1896. Round Lake. Polygonum punctatum Ell. September 2, 1897. Round Lake. Polygonum sagittatum L. September 2, 1897. Cedar Lake. Amaranthus blitoides 8. Wats. September 2, 1897. Round Lake. Silene stellata (L.) Ait. August 6, 1896. Round Lake. Brasenia purpurea (Michx.). Casp. August 3, 1896. Shriner Lake. Nymphea advena Soland. August 6, 1896. Round Lake. Castalia odorata (Dryand). Woody. and Wood. August 3, 1896. Round Lake. Acta alba (L). Mill. August 3, 1896. Round Lake. Hamamelis Virginiana L. August 1, 1896. Cedar Lake. Spirea salicifolia L. August 4, 1896. Cedar Lake. Cassia Marylandica L. August 1, 1896. Round Lake. Meibomia Dillenii (Darl.) Kuntze. September 1, 1897. Round Lake. Meibomia Michauxii Vail. September 1, 1897. Round Lake. Meibonia nudijflora (L.). Kuntze. July 30, 1896. Round Lake. Lespedeza frutescens (L.). Britton. September 1, 1897. Round Lake. Lespedeza Virginica (L.). Britton. September 1, 1897. Round Lake. Euphorbia corollata L. September 3, 1897. Cedar Lake. Celastrus scandens L. August 1, 1896. Round Lake. Impatiens aurea Muhl. July 29, 1896. Shriner Lake. Decodon verticillatus (L.). Ell. August 6, 1896. Round Lake. Myriophyllum, one species. August 3, 1896. Round Lake. Cicuta bulbifera L. September 2, 1897. Round Lake. Cicuta maculata L. August 3, 1896. Round Lake. Scutellaria galericulata L. August 2, 1896. Round Lake. Scutellaria laterifolia L. September 3, 1897. Round Lake. Monarda fistulosa L. August 4, 1896. Round Lake. Lycopus rubellus Moench. September 1, 1897. Shriner Lake. Mentha piperita L. July 31, 1896. Round Lake. Gerardia paupercula (A. Gray). Britton. September 1, 1897. Shriner Lake. Utricularia resupinata B. D. Greene. September 2, 1897. Round Lake. Utricularia vulgare L. June 24, 1898. Shriner Lake. Cephalanthus occidentalis L. August.3, 1896. Shriner Lake. Lobelia cardinalis L. July 31, 1896. Round Lake. Lactuca villosa Jacq. September 2, 1897. Cedar Lake. Hieracium scabrum Michx. September 1, 1897. Round Lake. 112 Empa'orium purpureum L. July 31, 1896. Round Lake. Solidago, one species. August 6, 1896. Cedar Lake. Euthamia graminifolia (L.). Nutt. August 1, 1896. Cedar Lake. Aster macrophyllus L. August 6, 1896. Round Lake. Inula Helenuum L. August 6, 1896. Round Lake. Silphium trifoliatum L. July 31, 1896. Round Lake. Rudbeckia laciniata L. September 2, 1897. Cedar Lake. Bidens Becki: Torr. August 6, 1896. Round Lake. Bidens trichosperma (Michx.). Britt. August 6, 1896. Round Lake. Erechtites hieracifolia (L.). Raf. September 2, 1897. Cedar Lake. Cardwus muticus (Michx.). Pers. September 2, 1897. Cedar Lake. SomE UNRECOGNIZED Forms or NatTIvE TREES. By STANLEY COULTER. In the case of certain of our familiar forests there is a popular or com- mercial recognition of certain well-marked forms which have either es- caped the attention of botanists or have been considered of such slight im- portance as to receive no mention in descriptive works. Some of these forms are so distinct and so persistent as to raise the question as to whether they may not be entitled to varietal rank. Certainly in a study of our forest flora they must be taken into account. I desire in this paper to call atention to some of these botanically unrecognized forms, hoping by this means to receive added information upon this point. ASIMINA TRILOBA DUNAL. The papaw has two easily distinguishable forms, which may be char- acterized as— 1. A large-fruited form, becoming a rich yellow upon ripening. 2. A small-fruited form, remaining white upon ripening. Among the evident fruit differences the following are to be noted. In the large-fruited form the pulp is much softer and more yielding than in the small-fruited form; it possesses a much stronger flavor and odor; the 113. seeds are less numerous, although somewhat larger. The color of the outer skin changes to black under the action of frost, while in the small- fruited type it remains green. Form 1 furnishes the really edible fruit. The larger form is also in cross section, almost circular, while the small- fruited form is elliptical, being compressed dorso-ventrally. In habit, form 1 is the taller plant, the branches are more appressed, and the bark is a decided brown. In form 2, the branches are spreading and the bark much lighter in color, being gray rather than brown. The inner bark of form 1, after maceration in water, is used in making rough ropes and withes; that of number 2 can not be so used, being much more brittle, or rather of much less tensile strength. As compared with form 2, the leaves of form 1 are larger, more acute, a deeper green and much more highly odorous. The leaves of the papaw are popularly supposed to possess preservative properties and are used to cover meat, dressed poultry and fish, butter, etc. For this purpose only the leaves of form 1 are used. Large areas of the other forms wilt be passed over in the search for the highly odorous leaves of the large-fruited form. In histological features, the leaves of the two forms differ chiefly in the palisade layer and the relative thickness of the outer walls of the epidermis. This later, in form 2, being from two to four times thicker than in its larger leaved relative. The date of flowering differs slightly, form 2 opening its smaller, less deeply colored flowers from a week to ten days later than form 1. In our area form 2 has much the wider soil range. While always. associated with form 1, it also thrives in a much thinner, lighter soil and in drier situations. When growing together, the two forms are easily separable, never by any chance becoming confluent. While not of the opinion that these differences are sufficient to create a new species, I am inclined to think that in our area form 2 should have recognition as a distinct form, and suggest that it be known as alba. JUGLANS NIGRA L.—Black Walnut. Of this familiar tree there exists in Indiana two if not three easily separable forms: 1. Fruit spherical, nut following shape of hull; hull thick, bright green in immature state, tuning black upon ripening; pulp becoming 8—Science. 114 black and very soft under the action of frost; kernel very oily, of some- what rank flavor. 2. Fruit ovoid, much smaller than in number 1. Nut following shape of hull; hull relatively thin, bright green in immature state, turning yellow upon ripening or under the influence of frost; pulp drying up and harden- ing at maturation; kernel dry (not markedly oily), and of an agreeable flavor. This is the form which the wood-wise boy gathers for his winter supply. The leaf of form 2 is much smaller than that of form 1, the leaflets being smaller, more sharply acute and finely serrate; they are also much less vividly green than those of form 1, a difference in color that seems due to the thicker epidermis. Form number 2 grows in drier situations than form 1, though occa- sionally extending into the regions of the latter. In these cases there seems to be no blending of forms. The two forms are sharply distinet wherever associated. 2 Lumbermen assert that the wood of form 2 is much lighter in color and of much less commercial value than that of form 1. Whether or not there is difference in the period of flowering and maturation of fruit I am unable to state. Form 1 is that of ordinary descriptive botanists, form 2 not being noted or indicated. In our area it is of general occur- rence and is known by the boys as the “‘little black walnut.” Form 8, so far as I know, is found only in a few localities near La- fayette. The fruit closely resembles the English walnut in some particu- lars, while in others it resembles the butternut. The hull is thin and without appreciable pulp at any season. The shell is very thin, the nut cracking as easily as the English walnut. The kernel is not at all oily and is very sweet. Some few trees are found upon the west bank of the Wabash River near Lafayette, and a few others near the Purdue campus. This form I described before the Academy of Science in 1890 under the title of “An Aberrant Form of Juglans nigra.’ In that paper I suggested the fruit peculiarity was due to an early defoliation of the trees which occurred that year. Observations continued from that time until the present convince me that the opinion there expressed is not borne out by facts. The form has maintained itself in the stations indicated through these years from 1890 to 1900, its fruit always presenting the features given above. Dr. Schneck suggests that it is a hybrid of J. cinerea x J. regia in which he follows J. Robinson in “Our Trees” (published by the Essex 115 Institute), in which a similar form is recorded. I am inclined to doubt the fact of the hybrid nature of the form for reasons that need not be considered in this connection. Whatever the origin of the form, it is definitely established in the two stations indicated. I hope during the coming season, in the case of both the papaw and walnuts, to discover whether or not these variations show a tendency to a “‘place mode.” LIRIODENDRON TULIPIFERA L.—Tulip Tree. Yellow Poplar. White Poplar. Lumbermen distinguish between “yellow poplar’ and “white poplar,” a difference based upon the color of the wood. So far as I am able to judge, this difference is dependent upon the age of the tree and the soil conditions, being associated with no structural differences. In my opinion, it will be found that trees of this species, growing in tenacious clay soils, have the denser structure and darker color characterizing the yellow poplar, while in light, dry soils and loam, the white poplar is found. In both conditions the wood of the older trees is of a darker color, in some cases approaching brown. I hope that a series of observations now in progress will make it possible to determine the relation between the soil character and these alleged commercial varieties. If there is any method by which the two forms are to be distinguished by flower, fruit, leaf or bark characters, it has escaped my attention. DIOSPYROS VIRGINIANA L.—Persimmon. This tree shows at least two, perhaps three, sharply distinct forms existing in the same area without becoming confluent. ecicvots Gals, sere) wisl sielapels #leersie m6 108 CASIOLOI ES wrAw Oram SOL + avvegehers sis bute leat siesee acd oe ceer/a.y ote re es ee eae 171 Ciclesseonnecved swith: the. Priangles os 5. ccc. ose ceed sel celeces asweee 88 ICOTMMTMIGLE CS ee SO OAL OO ea a ets cane ene alah ce sto otey tele roan lee cisve ets a. « Sie crane 9 COMSAT, 5.61616 dtre ibn RO aatotoIc DEIe Sees OIG eI IS HIG RR nh care iil OMEN Sem NCO LEC w Olleep sy corer cit seis neve aie Sieiehe G atlonalsie. gas eh oneralie oo s wiara oi aietel sor sahenene ¥ CoOrAMlOrhi 7am rOWlENIS sieas, gp oxerorene stoke ec soc euatere: rereion ate) ole ara scale) Gravaiens 145 ASOT GETS cell yar err hie skaters srctete cueverone, wleree ee Semele. einige lee wiahe 104, 112, 116 ‘CHOBE, TONAASEIEST Ole tain pias oo rota e CRORE RO Ee OCIS Oe Cie EIGN ChcnOns ace has arr 75 (CiiMl a Berson: Cem tata toate cw Ste Sloe CO SIG SOLS 6 Bs GREE OBS BIE oe rercis Hisreir Eton 167 enim Geeta hues are ceweisicaeters ctetete sieyelabcries: sas coverette wisi sre Oe La Sees 174, 176 Degeneration Illustrated by the Eyes of Cave Fishes................ 31 DY ASTANA Sop) Bam Viney Secche tates ersceyenshegc sewer rere ay eater e) «01 oi ctr crate vol eros al aise, het onele weed tages 157 PATNI LEN OLESCENCCma se... 2 eerie sien elere os Se Dies tha Diare ion oe Bianow neva one 94 BO) Cp TeIN ES Hee TET AT ree as eo Scotayeca sy key ell cints Sieue tel ay ordis ayers) 218 SB phevesaie a rials Sigte 116 ERS SUIT TAT koe BEL reves ieaserceusi- ee eeeeersdemsi ate, Seons aie @ as srsketes cies arabe eerare oceeeys 31 TUTE Sh TERI os Sc eR os cic, CRRA as Re A pn a 98 MieLasMeE tine S9O MRE pPOrt. Olaaersrenoie cuss eon cai o Sale Gib ieleiaye Gis aleeleis one 30 HY ORG Veep Atres iricrevey ars taeracertad cn oie venep crererete oho eks oikrone ie cl ees sys eis) aiewid oils @ ersielanalreee te eietene 94 MORES COLLESPONGEHUSs IStROL Amc oleic re cies cieiele ss) clels) cis cece sieve dela 19 SECT Mae VV peeninee race cel erat meee ciel « enol ae po cotta eran everel eine areisve cies ealtue «4 46 Mora OL indiana CONEEIDUGONSHtOe st. teee cee een) aaee ecko s tess ose 104 OT el ee GOD Weer piste tesa, Ae tekerern aoe cuaeeen enter ch es rehccolsielers. ers ni eis ate teuaue 46 Geometry of the Triangle, A Proposed Notation for the.............. 86 184 PAGE. CERO) Ko ev abl kta) Oa ie een te OL ce runic Se SSAct as a Seto, cd o.n + 129, 141 GOLESI IME ros 6 Sige peg aos ere aay ov's dc Chane CEAI CL AIC SIS 3) OO ae Ten Oe tt, 83 Herbaceous Plants, Seedlings Of. 0% 2.5.06 es eo cee ae eee ee 116 Eouse Boatsitor Biological Work. «-2 6 s-c..cloee ossicles 75 Indianay Birds Notes One i304 lest Sackecls cee ise sa nie a no ere 149 Lonizabion EeeperimMents: 2.0 3 t0.>.c6l octecpasels clesetnie ec rs oly ae cee ne ee 98 WMocomotiver Combustion, «<6. 5.0.5 gies som at ss Sle ocho ete «Sey een ete 96 PEAVECTU SO aver oto, aioe srepava lars Be egenetter'o gs han ote, MRC ek e MIE KS io Robotica nie tote een en 61 IMIATSTELSE Vise lB: b.c.ac sic0s clei; oot keene em sire SOS BIS Ge eleiae ba bt eee 54 INT CR Ct Wie A anace oo Se icc, 6S ane titel acter dont aac on SAS cee Seneca eae alsyr(s alloy Members, Active ........ PR eo oo eee Moe cn 15 Members? HeMOWS c..51oecek caches csieue & cites ooo 0! 4 atetexoeitronceaedon eves er nee 14 Members, INOD=resiGent: soci o0.6.9 ce Stews ooo siee elon ces Deena e ee 15 Microscopical Slides; Wuibraries:ofs... 1... 4+ soce +s s scene tence 52 VET Term W =.” Gre) e458. 5 cere Ge crerere ore alela) chadeice «anette iat ay ree cen S a eee 178 Mohawk Valley, Stream Gradients of the..........5......4 7. eee 176 MolermBrye sOf Che... 0.5 co napctecetarets cesaictele ueragmn teks ole be eae A ene 10 EBhysical Geography; Aids ‘n Teaching... 5. se ate .s ce « steer 54 Pont «<1. « «+. + shale nenee 53 Report of Hifteenth Annual Meetings a. ccc os © 00.016 ches © cet elas 30 Round and Shriner Lakes, Biological Conditions of.................. 151 Saccharomyces Anomalus Elansen) ((2)5 se + ose = ce tere oleln ein tive ee 141 Salt Creek, Plead WatersiOl. . 2/o.ssictewicn.sccls wuls isles d woven creche eee 164 séedum Termatum, Disappearance of. 2.6.5... oes + steno ae eee 145 Shepherds Is Weiss cies, ok see Aim nye piv covarv sen ew alm eleueebe. 9) on Spe gap eons (ence 96 LOMAS TY Dis. Ryo, wisi ecevere oles nies od kin olateh we te jewbcaca aid Maelo’, Gna anietlene dat oka cs Cie aaa 146 Slopes; Weathering of North ‘and! South... 4. 95..205 32 Joe ee 167 Street’ Pavements; Hygienic Value Of... 0.05555. .4 s< 6 oases eee 61 EDOM: Mi ES Sioa. wane te cai ero verdva un soar sceae suet, oeereca ye Pere bole code aa teh 7 deel ee Ree 145 Toepler-Holtz Machine for Roentgen Rays. .............5-4+04) se 85 Wabash, Physical Geography of the Great Bend of the.............. 157 Waldron'Hauna at Tarr Tole: .. cs... 29.2 wie aries cleesucisy a. ee coe eee 174 Williamson; Bi: Byes ccs.3 "Siem 5 + aco ais, nin pote endiyas opie aye lee Greys wpe teen ae 151 Yeast, A Proteolytic Hnzyme of. 3. o222 2 eee eee ve ee 129 ay ty iia!) Hs it it Ue That! i tite i ; Hai Nh Hi Watt NT nf i ay Ayah » Mi ait nt i ah Hn i aa i Bi o NRA SARI IY AA Has ray AR Pa ae (hs aie ah iy ‘A Ste I } ; f { . ‘ | i, 1 } u {iter 4 men Wis anica pases" a 1c eer ry fr» | a . “aE ar a ke . , ; nae TRY Ms Rep Br Cel. * ay veh ’ R x ~ eH Fy . + 1 we ~ ~ “° A *- pet ke vet Se oe ye x wy ty : P ty 2 * — 2 re, oi A “8 oe. oa x % - ~~* a ites. ” Pe = y Po oh oe Co