SSE NS 3 ee ee a itt So Sat Ses se ; ie Le lian ae Mu . MERE uy oh mah d ok a H. Hh i af Ay HA wae (art iad tf? 4 Sash i] tt i 14) H ite Hiatt ; Hit lt atte sauiton i hie ae i HOA i } pa ii, A ui nal Ha Nis Hi Patt 5 rat Hearn, vee Un alg tnt sa) Mh i - Bitty) Pil a a) ti ci i Be eit Warts ‘ ¥ nies Ne sr Uh eh oy Hides 4 tee ae tn ‘ , aie ay Hiya itt fate i na ¥ 4 ‘ ii : Hey! H Ady latath vie ¥) iN} ‘thn at Hi 4 i i ra He ae yi oe cae ty tiie tae i HH) uli! its 4nyhy! led "! Waite) iii hide re ial it ‘ JON Hy Ha finehatt iit us RATA I ee hi one Le a a a ae EB i A ae a ae Seti eaea ay % ities ny ei ts iit aah ‘ pat! pasha Wileitiy ANteashaatea th toh oo. iy Leah a sera 7 ae i 3 ate i sit i sent tical i i et fh aie ae mM ist iy 7 agiain ‘ rf i ie te it - it a = : it DET ic a we He iti ne ui Hi Ht . i i tie ae mits he fy at ne i i ih iach ‘ uae Wey Heep = : a : is oH a Sao $3 ons a 553 Soe FS >+ a eT SoH sty ei OCH Bat hed Baits He On BOR THESE EOREE FOR EDVCATION FOR TS CIENGE LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY ae ee vp aes ai) hy bi yi) Soe 64 ey PROCEEDINGS 9 Indiana Academy of Science 1910 Poles. tos dpes REUVM realy TOA EU A vil PROCEEDINGS OF THE Indiana Academy of Science 1910 EDITOR? . : é aie : : . : 5 Wr dige Ro DANI aa INDIANAPOLIS, IND. Ea 2 $ Tobie oie ny = THE STATE OF INDIANA, EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT, March 26, 1911. Received by the Governor, examined and referred to the Auditor of State for verification of the financial statement. OFFICE OF AUDITOR OF STATE, INDIANAPOLIS, May 5, 1911. The within report, so far as the same relates to moneys drawn from the State Treasury, has been examined and found correct. W. H. O'BRIEN, Auditor of State. May 5, 1911. Returned by the Auditor of State, with above certificate, and trans- mitted to Secretary of State for publication, upon the order of the Board of Commissioners of Public Printing and Binding. MARK THISTLETHWAITH, Secretary to the Governor. Filed in the office of the Secretary of State of the State of Indiana, May 5, 1911. L. G. ELLINGHAM, Secretary of State. Received the within report and delivered to the printer May 5, 1911. ED D. DONNELL, Clerk Printing Board. ST eee es TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE An act to provide for the publication of the reports and papers of the Indiana Academyjol Science: jas. 0. 3 ee a An act for the protection of birds, their nests and eggs................... 9 Officers, TOTO HUG Wie tees isan ene Pee ORE aa aii ln kl nl oe 10 Committeés, 1910=19 1 fo Nt Bes eae Ne Oa 11 Principal officers since organization... 2-20 ey) 2 0) a eee 12 Constitutions si)ie4) ee Rh ake Ae) SAU ONN No Sy ne Le Re ee a 13 Bye Wa wisi crcaa vier ye in cesons oan, LAE eo Ss. Oe a 15 Memibers,!Pellows. 2203). 5 220 RO er Ac Ce 16 Members; imon-residemtiis ia) ga eee UO Si Sen oe 17 Members: aiGtives cage cele Se MMe Oh ee 0/2 aa hh 18 Program of the Twenty-sixth Annual Meeting.................... eee 3l Report of the Twenty-sixth Annual Meeting of the Indiana Academy OP SCIENCE eh sane VE OMA SY CSUN slew Masta ln Lie a 25 Report of the Spring Meeting; of 1910.5) 20s 2 ee 29 Papers presented at the Twenty-sixth Annual Meeting...................... President's Address; cP Ni Hivans e205 eee) oe 35 Plants and Man: Weeds and Disease. Robert Hessler................... 49 An outline Review of Indiana Municipal Water Supplies. Charles Bross- TRVEAT see lst ee Nd lay coats tuclie okay anstone CONUS) Al MAR aN AIA Ale 71 A New Building for the Department of Practical Mechanics at Purdue Wniversity. Me J Goldens. akan, RUG Son aly aa 75 Features of Subterranean Drainage in the Bloomington Quadrangle. J. W. Beederiis sac eae ee a ae ee en ier) na le ie ca a 81 MheiShi-shiCigs Albert" Bs Reagan oye as Ne en eee 113 Notes on the Shaker Church of the Indians. Albert B. Reagan........ ls The Wreck of the “‘Suthern’’. “Albert Bo Reagan: ..). 0.02.02) Ss eee aes 117 The Bois Fort Indian Reservation in Minnesota. Albert B. Reagan..... 121 Conservation Problems, in Indiana. Frederick J. Breeze................ 125 Some Conglomerate Beds of Post Glacial Origin. Glenn Culbertson..... 141 A Physiographic Survey of the Terre Haute Area: Report of Progress. @harlestR Dryers oe iiage Aes ere ee: age a Men re ae OE eee c Baio 112!) oO PAGE. The Work Done by Normal Brook in Thirteen Years. Charles R. Dryer DING Ke lhvattaeeN ID) clever tick hes seat tese asain aes Careline CANCE shelt|U- Utes 2 aa eu 147 Paleolithic, Neolithic, Copper and Iron Ages of Shelby County, Indiana. FAV VP Gr Ottley haus ie etc one eaLnniem actual a etius, cnet ACNE Cella MSU UeT ae pea 153 The Effects of Ice in Lakes upon the Shore Lines of the Same. Albert B. J ROS EERE a INR GHNE oe Ae SE Le een BU PRE ET HeLa re ee eH a aS ay a ENT 119 AU Newsbedionurilopites: Andrew. bigney (ase. ac... .. see. ees gee 13 mhHeshaunavol the Brazil! hinestones) (il Cy Greene... 4.2500 ke ae 169 iesereparatonvon ther) |e a Ni ivansi ao.) on) TRE NO Pa aie 173 The Temperature Coefficient of the Surface Tension of Water. Arthur Wig [BONY 5 gts Gaeta Nearer ONE eS GU ah gah et aa Nats ee Mu Nceanta eS 175 iiamiacesmuhneony, of Capillaritya Arthur Weoley 2). iis ine. 181 The Value at Low Temperatures of the Specific Heats of a Gas. C. M. SSIES «5 a8 Suet Ne Me AEA eG On UE en ae MS BA ee 183 Investigations Concerning the Reichert-Meissl Number and The Relation of Butter Fat Constants in Butter Analysis. George Spitzer........ 195 Auconvenient, Laboratory Devices J: Ba Naylon, .. 232.4 4.gscec eds y aces 201 Some Anomalies in the Gametophyte of Dryopteris stipularis. Caroline Lhe, IBN BYOIE Ri AAs Ma ois Ba REL SEE la nso Ee eR Pe TA 321 lirddamayhiumedemee Wey Vian vil @ Okra wae wie esl spe cc leslie slays eh a ae clea ie, ae 205 Steccherinum septentrionale (Fr.) Banker in Indiana. Howard J. Banker. 213 Disease Resistance in Varieties of Potatoes. C.R.Orton................. 219 An Ecological Survey of the Lower Whitewater Gorge. L. C. Petry mind Ig) {Ss WIESEL Pa a ANNE SURI Arai sey SU Aergaeest ast duu 223 Report of Work on Corn Pollination II. M. L. Fisher ...... WEN ae Sh eae enh 245 Wnishacearol Winona Wake.) John. Houses.) i460 928 cade (see sies ene 129 A Method by which Cover Glasses may be used on Golgi Slides. D. W. 1D GPaTaTS heya caes BS te ie ee ri eT Aa ee en uM bd ay be ean agony ahaa 135 A Tropical Reptile near Richmond. D. W. Dennis...................... 137 HinGhers Notes, on dimothy Rust. A. Go Johnson). 4.55054 40e sae cee 203 An Investigation of a Point Discharge in Magnetic and Electrostatic INGElolss Osea Analg iSihyere cid Jeb caueeeen oes woteese 2S acess eee 247 The Preglacial Valleys of the Upper Mississippi and its Eastern Tribu- CALC S Mee ELT UNE A Lema sano cin at. mice apes acoepete maim ste! ac cient aeelon ta) JANE 335 Determination of the Ratio of Specific Heats of Dry Air. E. K. Chap- 6 The Huron Group in Western Monroe and Eastern Greene Counties, Indiana: y4F. Cor Greene iat. Uaioe ope ae a to ak 269 The Equipment of a High Temperature Measurement Laboratory. GQ. JsNewite 1KOY8) eas MaAN Ay MUaNisT saa lan ap en eRe RUE E NS oS os 297 A Convenient High Potential Battery. R.R. Ramsey.................. 295 Indiana Weeds, Their Control and Eradication. G. M. Frier........... 323 Gross Fertilization among Fishes. W. T. Moenkhaus.................. 353 The Mauna of a Solution) Ponds) “Wall! Scott.) .o5 4-4. a8 Miata 395 AN ACT TO PROVIDE FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE REPORTS AND PAPERS OF THE INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. [Approved March 11, 1895. ] WHEREAS, The Indiana Academy of Science, a chartered scientific association, has embodied in its constitution a provision that it will, upon the request of the Governor, or of the several departments of the State government, through the Governor, and through its council as an advisory board, assist in the direction and execution of any investigation within its province, without pecuniary gain to the Academy, provided only that the necessary expenses of such investigation are borne by the State; and, WHEREAS, The reports of the meetings of said Academy, with the sey- eral papers read before it, have very great educational, industrial and eco- nomic value, and should be preserved in permanent form; and, WHEREAS, The Constitution of the State makes it the duty of the General Assembly to encourage by all suitable means intellectual, scientific and agricultural improvement; therefore, Section 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Indiana, That hereafter the annual reports of the meetings of the Indiana Academy of Science, beginning with the report for the year 1894, including all papers of scientific or economic value, presented at such meetings, after they shall have been edited and prepared for publication as hereinafter provided, shall be published by and under the direction of the Commission- ers of Public Printing and Binding. Sec. 2. Said reports shall be edited and prepared for publication with- out expense to the State, by a corps of editors to be selected and appointed by the Indiana Academy of Science, who shall not, by reason of such sery- ice, have any claim against the State for compensation. The form, style of binding, paper, typography and manner and extent of illustration of such reports shall be determined by the editors, subject to the approval of the Commissioners of Public Printing and Stationery. Not less than 1,500 nor more than 38,000 copies of each of said reports shall be published, the size of the edition within said limits to be determined by the concurrent action of the editors and the Commissioners of Public Printing and Station- ee —e—EEEyE———_ ene SSS. 8 ery: Provided, That not to exceed six hundred dollars ($600) shall be expended for such publication in any one year, and not to extend beyond 1896: Provided, That no sums shall be deemed to be appropriated for the - year 1894. Sec. 38. All except three hundred copies of each volume of said re ports shall be placed in the custody of the State Librarian, who shall furnish one copy thereof to each public library in the State, one copy to each university, college or normal school in the State, one copy to each high school in the State having a library, which shall make application therefor, and one copy to such other institutions, societies or persons as may be designated by the Academy through its editors or its council. The remaining three hundred copies shall be turned over to the Academy to be disposed of as it may determine. In order to provide for the preservation of the same it shall be the duty of the Custodian of the State House to provide and place at the disposal of the Academy one of the unoccupied rooms of the State House, to be designated as the office of the Academy of Science, wherein said copies of said reports belonging to the Academy, together with the original manuscripts, drawings, etc., thereof can be safely kept, and he shall also equip the same with the necessary shelving and furniture. Sec. 4. An emergency is hereby declared to exist for the immediate taking effect of this act, and it shall therefore take effect and be in force from and after its passage. APPROPRIATION FOR 1910-1911. The appropriation for the publication of the proceedings of the Acad- emy during the years 1910 and 1911 was increased by the legislature in the General Appropriation bill, approved March 9, 1909. That portion of the law fixing the amount of the appropriation for the Academy is herewith given in full: ‘ For the Academy of Science: For the printing of the proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science, twelve hundred dollars: Provided, That any unexpended balance in 1909 shall be available in 1910, and that any unexpended balance in 1910 shall be available in 1911. AN ACT POR THE PROTECTION OF BIRDS, THEIR NESTS AND HGGS. Sec. GO2. Whoever kills, traps or has in his possession any wild bird, er whoever sells or offers the same for sale, or whoever destroys the nest or eggs of any wild bird, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction thereof shall be fined not less than ten dollars nor more than twenty-five dollars: Provided, That the provisions of this section shall not apply to the following named game birds: The Anatidze, ccom- monly called swans, geese, brant, river and sea duck; the Rallidae, com- monly called rails, coots, mud-hens, gallinules; the Limicolae, commonly called shore birds, surf birds, plover, snipe, woodcock, sandpipers, tattlers and curlew; the Gallinae, commonly called wild turkeys, grouse, prairie chickens, quails and pheasants; nor to English or Huropean house spar- rows, crows, hawks or other birds of prey. Nor shall this section apply to persons taking birds, their nests or eggs, for scientific purposes, under per- mnit, as provided in the next section. Sec. 603. Permits may be granted by the Commissioner of Fisheries and Game to any properly accredited person, permitting the holder thereof to collect birds, their nests or eggs for strictly scientific purposes. In order to obtain such permit the applicant for the same must present to such Commissioner written testimonials from two well-known scientific men certifying to the good character and fitness of such applicant to be en- trusted with such privilege, and pay to such Commissioner one dollar therefor and file with him a properly executed bond in the sum of two hundred dollars, payable to the State of Indiana, conditioned that he will obey the terms of such permit. and signed by at least two responsible citi- zens of the State as sureties. The bond may be forfeited, and the permit revoked upon proof to the satisfaction of such Commissioner that the holder of such permit has killed any bird or taken the nest or eggs of any bird for any other purpese than that named in this section. C. R. Dryer, A. J. BIGnry, E. A. WILLIAMSON, Miro H. Sruart, W. J. MoenKHAUS, P. N. Evans, A. L. Fouey, GLENN CULBERTSON, D. M. Mortier, Ropert HESSLER, BOTANY). 505) MCHTHY.OLO Git SE Ace AAT ee A aa RE HERPETOLOGY MaMMALOGY. Ne ORNITHOLOGY EXNTOMOLOGY..... Indiana Academp of Science. OFFICERS, 1910-1911. PRESIDENT CHARLES R. Dryer. VICE-PRESIDENT D. W. DENNIS SECRETARY A. J. BIGNEY. ASSISTANT SECRETARY E. A. WILLIAMSON. PRESS SECRETARY Mito H. Sruart. TREASURER W.J. MoENKHAUS EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE JoHN 8. Wriaut, A. W. ButLer Cart L. Mess, W. A. Noyes, W.S. BLAtcHLry, J. C. ARTHUR, H. W. Witey, M. B. THomas, D. W. DENnIs, C. H. E1GENMANN, C. A. WaLpo, STANLEY CouLtTEr, CURATORS O. P. Hay, T. C. MENDENHALL, J. C. BRANNER, J. P. D. Jonn, J. M. CotLrer, D.S. JorDAN. J.C. ARTHUR. C. H. EIGENMANN. A. W. Butter. .W.S. BLuATCHLEY. iat COMMITTEES, 1910-1911. PROGRAM. W. A. CoGsHAL., R. 8. HEessier, D. Bovine. MEMBERSHIP. M. B. THomas, R. R. Ramsey, W. W. BLANCHARD. NOMINATIONS. A. W. BuTLeR STANLEY COULTER, G. CULBERTSON. AUDITING. L. J. RETTGER, F. B. Wapbg, F. J. BREEZE. State LIBRARY. G. W. BeNnTOoN, W.S. BLaTcHLey, A. W. BUTLER. RESTRICTION OF WEEDS AND DISEASES. R. HESSLER, J. N. Hurry, A. W. BurTLER, S. CouLTER,’ D. M. Mortmr. DIRECTORS OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. STANLEY CouLTER, J. C. ARTHUR, M. B. THomas, C. H. EigENMANN, UNONCoxe RELATIONS OF THE ACADEMY TO THE STATE. M. B. Tuomas, R. W. McBripz, G. CULBERTSON, C. C. DEAM. DISTRIBUTION OF THE PROCEEDINGS. J. S. Wricut, H. L. Bruner, G. W. BENTON, A. J. BicNnry. PUBLICATION OF PROCEEDINGS. L. J. Rerrecer, Editor, D. Bovine, D. M. Mortier. SueTIMOOTAL =f 7M | arena) “TOTAL | WokureITTIA “WE [2 Aoustg “ty | °° aed “ey ‘O | TIGI-OTGT “‘snByYyUOOP “(AA |’ SuUBYpPOOM “AA UYOL |°°° °° ‘* KOUSE fL°V |2 uojuog "\{ “00% | * “sueAq "N “a _| O1GT-G06T SANE WN ee OCA EN 04)" = ee) ASUnter ( velae0 ma) ULOSUBNT Te) ae AO OnN mT Wy W606 I= S0GT “YOO, avi “M ial “VIOQGQCVy “WV me) pes * KOUSLEy ~{P WV eg ats PULL Of SUGYT “H ‘( e." UOS}.LO [NEY UUO]") SOGI-LO61 UPR VM | g90qqy “yD |" mosuByT Af |) UOTINAOW “Gf uUAT | -aorOWT “I CL | 206T-906T “TU POELOTAL : “M. a * yAGTC) msl SOLIS) Lenece “ULOSUB YT ‘H ote a Ud] [NYATé JW. “ uudry aa “ols OL] JLIGOY 9QO61-SO6L WHOM VOM fo moqqy “W"® [cc wosueyr HE “f |< wort “gy wud] FUSIIA “S UYOL | COGI-FOGI WPM “VMN | goqqy “vy “%) |" wosuey “Af |:° ay sItM “Quyor | “soot TS | FOGI-CO6T MORO VM | odd “WD |" oulpog uospyouog |°-*"- -aystaAy “g uyor | «*KoqoquIg “SAN | GOGI-ZO6T ‘JPPAOOG Ef | uOgueg “AA ‘OOr) |° oulpog J UOSpyBuOod | oo ASL AA “GQ UYyOr: | AOTIMA M ae ZOGT-LOGT TPAOOS LL | = UosUOg =\.;00%) | “ezginyoN sy a | Qu SIT “Ss eutor |: “SvULOU LT, “€ “IA | 1061-0061 TACOS Lf | woqUog “MA 005) | ezqnyog «yoy fo HYBLEM “G pyor | - -stuu0g ° i ie | 0061-668T W[NOOG T= WONG SAK 00) | as O20 RUSS Vite “QU LLAA SO uyor |": UUeUIUe STA H ) | 6681-8681 ‘TT9A00G Ef |) uoquog ANS 00") rae ENOUS IVC oa (Pi Vann aeunueees YSITMA “G UYOL |" ""* “OPTBAA “WV 'D | S68T-Z68T PUKONGNUAAUIS) SIE SANA 22 PR 2 Be ede Tae | ie Ve ROWS a (et Van| inn cone oN ATT Nea eULtT Olean eG ey ore WOU], | LOST-968T LO COKUNO GSH U TTS a PSU NUD Da ODD Oa aa Cea cay POSED gO = Housley SI ae Woaul cence JYGLEM “Quyor |" .toq[NOD, AIpUVIG | OGRT-GERT POKORTRORED KSI Sea pV ea rae ties i OOD ace Bin eA ULG LET Ina ( uae ale! }USIIM “SG Uyor |" *** -taTING “AA °V | G68T-PGST De OSC UME ANG setae) at ete seit ie) cl ee UCULLION PF \ee NUM ca ODI Gay Onlseae ou SoNONT ava Onn POST =e6el BULLONT "AA OYTO Sees ee a PaoDy Moraeae Po MOTEL “AA SOUL Jo -- ANGRY “Q “f | E68T-ZEST RO STAN V igh ©) liar nie uate Aerts couaeinin | eth ene na Wem eee Mh SST OT AT Ch au\A SR OLULLY “Teqdure) * I ‘£ | 268T-168T “SULyUOL gq "O See ge eres ( tel orc an ee ee LOL SORT MBOULY eee “AVY ° ye [681-0681 Re CIS eek clint ©) apatites tke tne eh McRae ic dn eal wa eR OT NCES SOUL Van leeaT CUO DOTA ae MO GST SOOT aS UUIES [UL (Src) iss (0) ie ew eee aera cece nant hen Se oes wer Os asa tee ia MIE as kc, LOT NEP AA SOUL fave LOUUBTEL, “CY UYOL | G8ST-S8eqt SACHS WS 3 Faeyr Ree eR PRR UO eel OE SSD NG ORU st Es olay ote inter M Soury |" “uyor ‘q ‘d ‘ft | S88I-Z88T pS TSUN estes (ya Meteo heats Pelee oy pean sas oes Rese Nace em are Re SE Lope, “AA SOULY |°* Loqg~Mog "yw uyor | ,8eT-QeeT BES CLUS TTULS [S e1N OM () tun stots deca ae ce Gnas [eke goss ence tryin) se Ry ese ca LOPE, "AQ SOULY | UBPLOL "SO PIAL CT | ORST-ERsT | | | | OMA S VORA TL, “AUVILAMOUG SS " WUOAG ISS Vy “RUV LPOG | | “SUVA HONUIOS LO ANHAVOV VNVICNI GHL FO SUMOLLAO NI bam 13 CONSTILUTION: ARTICLE I. SeEcTION 1. This association shall be called the Indiana Academy of Science. Sec. 2. The objects of this Academy shall be scientific research and the diffusion of knowledge concerning the various departments of science, to promote intercourse between men engaged in scientific work, especially in Indiana; to assist by investigation and discussion in developing and making known the material, educational and other resources and riches of the State; to arrange and prepare for publication such reports of inves- tigation and discussions as may further the aims and objects of the Acad- emy as set forth in these articles. Whereas, The State has undertaken the publication of such proceed- ings, the Academy will, upon request of the Governor, or of one of the sey- eral departments of the State, through the Governor, act through its coun- cil as an advisory body in the direction and execution of any investigation within its province as stated. The necessary expenses incurred in the pros- ecution of such investigation are to be borne by the State; no pecuniary gain is to come to the Academy for its advice or direction of such inves- tigation. The regular proceedings of the Academy as published by the State shall become a public document. ARTICLE II. SEcTIoN 1. Members of this Academy shall be honorary fellows, fel- lows, non-resident members or active members. Sec. 2. Any person engaged in any department of scientific work, or in original research in any department of science, shall be eligible to active membership. Active members may be annual or life members. Annual members may be elected at any meeting of the Academy; they shall sign the constitution, pay an udmission fee of two dollars and thereafter an annual fee of one dollar. Any person who shall at one time contribute 14 fifty dollars to the funds of this Academy may be elected a life member of the Academy, free of assessment. Non-resident members may be elected from those who have been active members but who have removed from the State. In any case, a three-fourths vote of the members present shall elect to membership. Applications for membership in any of the foregoing classes shall be referred to a committee on application for membership, who shall consider such application and report to the Academy before the election. Sec. 3. The members who are actively engaged in scientific work, who have recognized standing as scientific men, and who have been members of the Academy at least one year, may be recommended for nomination for election as fellows by three fellows or members personally acquainted with their work and character. Of members so nominated a number not exceed- ing five in one year may, on recommendation of the Executive Committee, be elected as fellows. At the meeting at which this is adopted, the mem- bers of the Executive Committee for 1894 and fifteen others shall be elected fellows, and those now honorary members shall become honorary fellows. Honorary fellows may be elected on account of special prominence in science, on the written recommendation of two members of the Academy. In any case a three-fourths vote of the menibers present shall elect. ARTICLE ITI. Section 1. The officers of this Academy shall be chosen by ballot at the annual meeting, and shall hold office one year. They shall consist of a President, Vice-President, Secretary, Assistant Secretary, Press Secretary and Treasurer, who shall perform the’ duties usually pertaining to their respective offices and in addition, with the ex-presidents of the Academy. shall constitute an Executive Committee. The President shall, at each an- nual meeting, appoint two members to be a committee, which shall prepare the programs and have charge of the arrangements for all meetings for one year. Sec. 2. The annual meeting of this Academy shall be held in the city of Indianapolis within the week following Christmas of each year, unless otherwise ordered by the Executive Committee. There shall also be a sum- mer meeting at such time and place aS may be decided upon by the Ex- ecutive Committee. Other meetings may be called at the discretion of the Executive Committee. The past Presidents, together with the officers and oO. Executive Committee, shall constitute the council of the Academy, and represent it in the transaction of any necessary business not especially pro- vided for in this constitution, in the interim between general meetings. Sec. 3. This constitution may be altered or amended at any annual meeting by a three-fourths majority of the attending members of at least one year’s standing. No question of amendment shall be decided on the day of its presentation. BY-LAWS. 1. On motion, any special department of science shall be assigned to a curator, whose duty it shall be, with the assistance of the other members interested in the same department, to endeavor to advance knowledge in that particular department. Each curator shall report at such time and place as the Academy shall direct. These reports shall include a brief sum- mary of the progress of the department during the year preceding the presentation of the report. 2. The President shall deliver a public address on the morning of one of the days of the meeting at the expiration of his term of office. 3. The Press Secretary shall attend to the securing of proper news- paper reports of the meetings and assist the Secretary. 4. No special meeting of the Academy shall be held without a notice of the same having been sent to the address of each member at least fifteen days before such meeting. 5. No bill against the Academy shall be paid without an order signed by the President and countersigned by the Secretary. 6. Members who shall allow their dues to remain unpaid for two years, having been annually notified of their arrearage by the Treasurer, shall have their names stricken from the roll. 7. Ten members shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. 16 MEMBERS. FELLOWS. Tsk Waele] 0) O10) 8 ee ncentnry cognate aang ceis, wear ba F190S RA eee Fargo, N. D. ee eA eyes dees. Seicalsem eat eee ee OOS her rere Orono, Me. JAG Anetra rte EU Nees Sone SOAS eh a rere aie Lafayette. JEL, 10 IBehAMeNNOls 6 S's.6 oc < AUS AVP TARA tas MONO aie ccc rc tee Indianapolis. JFOWIMB eed ee Sia Os cdodese magn eral: GTO Gesell see eebs teal cee Bloomington. GeorceWinbBentoniya. ecco saa SOG Ao iain rae Indianapolis. JNA A fal BIHAR Mareen Sleians ain eae Ree een thg USO Zapato ceca eee Moores Hill. Katherine Golden Bitting. 2. 4. USO Genoese Lafayette. Wo tsis IBilennelmieghins 28 selena ccaas cone < ee, SOS reiena secs ain een Indianapolis. Donalidsontis odie serene eee SOO Siete roe Crawfordsville. PA IBreeze tires ats sonia ea ae LOU ck ker eee Lafayette. eed es SHUN CL ee athe ney ee sae eee eae 390 Pea eee Indianapolis. Sevierancewburrage, wwe ae iea ae SO Sirisaest cane euriek hte Lafayette. ACRES UGC Ter tags ieee atin a martes et Ifo Mera mate aalgaia Indianapolis. Wits Cogsiralilseys cytes mente ener KO OGRE Ss cae se tale Bloomington. Vie eas Cooks eer cia ianh hee einer LOO Zire NG hire tne egyes Newark, Del. jJolhmnUMni Coulter cw ruse neg erates USO By cry gee ieee Chicago, Ill. StanleyaC ouliteret:-ce. sean aa mone SO Sines ire eras Lafayette. WRONG Oe aise ad eae ae once een arn ae LOO Sica ee eee Terre Haute. GlenniCulbertson@ses serena ee SOO RE ee rotenone. Hanover. Joh] Rent Olpiacnl a fassteneden s mnpey etal ee merge cree SNS L90G Ree ce hanes Bloomington. KS) Choe DEIN AISYoYo) 01 erste at eadie tnecdiaie tient serie QO Si eer erect te gee Bloomington. CRED earn ne nas iy ee tn em neunte IKE Oey Sabena beste eats Indianapolis. DSW eMennisess easck sees. outan She ie teats BOD peau ee seen wera Richmond. CORA ED Taye Te ate, Han cena ee tate eee eet noe ILO ei eect nye ee te gic Terre Haute. ° C@eeHeaBiie cnmilanneeys seer ame ec aee: SO Siete nena eee te Bloomington. Percy, Norton Hvans 3 a8 ees TOO Trier etaigct Mike West Lafayette. PARA SHO Ye vce arte. teneee eer aeons ae USO San ean Bloomington. Mie JIG Olden esau hae tices aemeeeace SOO Cai, Aerie Lafayette. Tee cIVL (Goss. va 2s tess meet rene: S93 si iaoueaae mes Urbana, Il. ihhomas Gray. (Died Decw19 908) hems loose neers Terre Haute. *Date of election. +Non-resident. INCH SMM GEV AVERLY) 8 cic oc sai ctsteig ein nis Goole wee *1895 Wo, UX: IRIE bis Scher tices an ne eer 1902 TRO, IBIS Kei aire wn Rie enie aie eM 1899 dlc IN 6: LBNUTE GAY ere eh arene aR UReDRRD Taare 1910 “PB Le Zale 1 SIGRSIU(C) ale a tn rs en En Coan ane 1893 HidwantionvOWonnott-..42sn.8. 2+ oe 1904 LODE TP UE ViONS io. c¥0. ais fo ae Oa Sea 1896 WP AtHIVICIS@tnS hts sic 2ihe eS nes i arede 1904 Wo lite IMMERSES. 5 boa nesdaeboeneeeoae 1893 Gi, Ie, INCE es aa a 1894 To, HXg: IN Gil ese ea ee eer ee er 1904 \Wio'dlo IMI@einl eID See oes bea maaan: 1901 Richards bee MiOOKesj.o. sacle se se 1910 1D) 5, Mts ICT RRICIE Sy eee eee ns ae ee 1893 dio IPs ING Al Gree eget Ware ars Centar ee 1903 HVAC INOIVESH thas scion stele siaccuesiths 1893 IRON 18%. INeNOOISeN eo ulog ae cme eemoeee 1906 Pea SOMMe sss Sesistle ho sauces 1902 Jy Ux JRYSREEEREN Pie et nae aoa ec ee gene 1896 Wawid evo thnocke rh. .95 2.5 se. 1906 Jos SOW See ara ee ee ee oe 1894 AN Moers SNTTUN GI OU, Ac els ice a a 1908 AWexaomiibhee iy se aes rue Ne 1893 WW, [Bhs TSHROLNGS 210 ea em 1893 OSSOIN. SWANN eweerts oe Aen Ree eee 1898 IPE OMVASS --1 05.0 cr hl so vetoes 1893 RO PAGINA CLO: hl ranvtyece actus dod ale sos oo 1893 ae Vibe Wielbster. o2)..2 cies o edt sie 1894. JACOOMWEStIMNG . 3 case ts ce eee es 1904 IMB WROTE Yc Soccer ees 1895 WHY. NAY.o: NY Coro MKS a Te a ea mr au 1908 Ji@lavn Sis, \AVTECA oT eteaee teas eee ieee Aol 1894 *Date of election. t Non-resident. 17 stoi anon hares Terre Haute. SEB ae Sais Lafayette. Rien a Sooners Logansport. eae paren. Indianapolis. mena Ute AAA Baltimore, Md. San cN atten Sanath Terre Haute. ais at ene eat Bloomington. PE lee Mecca a Terre Haute. ee Pe ec el a Santiago, Chili. be eT) Gece LSPS Terre Haute. AIS Sie S AN Bhar: Swarthmore. bee bak te inne Bloomington. LMS 8 OE a Indianapolis. Seda on eaten Uae Bloomington. BM eee UR a LY rat Greencastle. Pea crt eae hats Urbana, Ill. SPS R ec Mayer ears Bloomington. Sule Praietah Soe Lafayette. SIE her ea UREN L es Terre Haute. ae eee crate Bloomington. sae Denyse Terre Haute. eet ayy em ae a Lafayette. SB ie Mau ee te) Chicago, III. 2 ee Nea nL Lafayette. Prey hel ee Swarthmore, Pa. REN a een ev at tone Crawfordsville. es ee ean St. Louis, Mo. Ree ARG TARE Washington, D. C. ieee ewes Lafayette. AE ene ee Washington, D. C. 1 OE Lease ai ate Indianapolis. See eas Meee Indianapolis. NON-RESIDENT MEMBERS. George H. Ashley........ ie enna PRP a JaCabrannerses.. Bc ies Ae He ein aR Aes aiee [2—26988 ] Hehe Washington, D. C. rere Stanford, University, Cal. 18 IME AU AB rani Onesie toa ibaa inc nets tlt iia altro aa nan Grand Forks, N. D. DEE d@ amp bo elite Aaya erg ate! coals ase mn a ree Nd) eracape Stanford University, Cal. ET Wiles © Vets Kea eaten ata iis tia al ales Kia en paceman eaten tse kT Washington, D. C. Teta] aya D Xo) BaLeh peetaet tats Meni st sS sha P Rave thes aha it aR Deere Urbana, III. Ae Walmer sD Uti ann cee ena een eee Wie uaa Sha Worcester, Mass. Ba We eH e Rimiemanya (us coeaele Cpls AU) Peat ii eas eee ant Washington, D. C. WEAR Eis cedi eno einen at ua okty teauuiamme te alle wecag tone, Los Angeles, Cal. COW IG ATE Lite ke tere inrc ns pamelor cara y, iseat Pittsburg, Pa. CharlessHiGullbertie: si te Cron eee nso om 0 Stanford University, Cal. CPW! NGreener esata ale na He OMI ABS a Ao a Columbia, Mo. CONV ET air cra Gee he i slay cleat Oh ee ian a aie Ieper eal alin Syracuse, N. Y. OUT AN epee PUAN EN fet Nitrate oe Mal eee See MEERUT ALL toa 2 Washington, D. C. VEC batten eo el Died gVetcr shaun sila lam alg a teenest elena Oma Was Stockton, Cal. OM PacJerikains tas Oeriee seve reacts ah ts MBRIMNR s Gi SUN ENS Stanford University, Cal. (Oe Reged Sao) ot eats s(t en Pee ane eG aa Sr Re nN Urbana, II. OAS Or ClamueAea ceils eo neared bat seater tenes soit teay MCs Stanford University, Cal: Bas ald GTO VeRSUN ER ea tle ses ian pelea nea a vaca esa Ni AD any Ne ona Tufts College, Mass. DSA IMCD Gum alMaiNe yates act ops i ceele Mantua aN. Tueson, Arizona. Mipgeel Ba ONY Rey Goi (=) oO Ra aoe ee tl MUNA see EE Valley City, N. D. Ep @ sie m cl emikvel ers ey Nau gc titles SEN nears Dacia Worcester, Mass. JRGH MING WS OMNI ks asa teckel ci mye eee Water amati Stanford, University, Cal. YeN eel Wl eB Xa NUKe nee AM eA ait eers th ee ws ee una EGA cau ete Fayettesville, Ark. PASSA OR CAG aI eet Lannea nc oacg hie Nie kien ec NU soe ARE, A nrarai re Orr, Minn. JMR a Slonalwenk en ect icone Nan, weeny igen cl bare Stanford University, Cal. NU aaCeXG bike) ORO =e) ON Pees CED o rae one ein Bee AR ae ce ale Cincinnati, Ohio. Robert: B: Warder (Deceased)........... So Meee Washington, D. C. FTTIES CAVE Keene fey ita oie pu en mela Rene ay eta Fayettesville, Ark. Ga WEE Wall orb hee tee UB RAN scat UMA ee MAG Tepe Ve uun sar este Favette, fa. Gee Ey Aon erwiparae asc hege ian. ae Ole a, POR RTE IA rS e Delphi. TTarase BS ANI S OTE PENI sent abs aes yay linea eee OM DAN West Lafayette. IE aWVerAnGersonim sel sapes cs daub eer tetaene es ei Ladoga. PaulPAMCERS Omer asks amet sari sty: renee ye Buena na a Crawfordsville. SEEN ee BEV olpeapar ities Me, . eee ANA Esme NAGE eee eet i San Francisco, Cal. Wall: ter Die ake rine ciep i iifony derthuen alia iei enacts ermal ae Indianapolis. Wrallters VIM Aker asin piscine elke eat ah poate imeeds Redkey. lBelwainel Jbl IANS. s, kccocooccedoeaboeaccoousss Indianapolis. HAO Warr Ine AMM a.-. 4) sas sa ee See ue ah oars innle oo aus Greencastle. TEL JEU, TESTO Sc aesytee SRE ee ere tera anette rg ie ere Indianapolis. AWRRIIPMIS ESI eee srl cP ioe Lor cs eth eases Suelo on Gea) sence West Lafayette. Graemcl@ JB . SG Se eRe re Prey nt Indianapolis. Raya le lillenmayypenestr ys sea rusts secissils inca aval dinste elie ae Moores Hill. Ree REPMIS Crameniinmey evi ys ne eres ee tne eee a gene Valparaiso. Aphommaswon Mesa coy. ieee wes aon Starve utensils ewok West Lafayette. aryelomidoewDIShOpl. ..\ 00.2456 cceesca ones el Indianapolis. IL@miGir 1BAGICS 1 aca ie inn arenes ee a MERLIN Matra yeaa ae Bloomington. WatllitananeN pes lameWard.. 2 cas. 6 Sao) bd ee Greencastle. @hans ese Ses OMCs teh eects cers cv es ays nnn eeed esas Gone Richmond. PAU ACB I OU OMPE Hcl ticks cance tiie Whirnineio cet lesbain *.Edinburg. Ormera GMs OVieincrss cutis he ea ace Moi alc ke Lebanon. Pa CAME TAN ON at cots eos eh Se anes tials Menace Daleville. hrs SROSSMMAMM eo esos aus. Fb lve Savane! edges ye ata « Indianapolis. RM VIGBES UIC Chey eats ie: she BSE Riga lst taala ee Sea einus ores Terre Haute. VOD eMT eM UG eT er. 4 Ron sti. os ued oe a We ysl Indianapolis. TD GR EUEC! INT on CEN CTS aetna ne Indianapolis. 15), 1X exte@ (Coaicianiny aya eect pementiaas tee Nene Sia tae ei Indianapolis. Mewise@ limbon\ arson so 2 ii. foielh vgs oes oes Detroit, Mich. Herman 8. Chamberlain (Deceased)............... Indianapolis. TE. dic Clinaims ere sis caticars ey meee i piers te eu i UG RPE PD Bicknell. Jk. (Gia. WW 5, Cis 1G a eae eRe a ae Kokomo. (Cis LD). (CLOTS ier Bie cle pte eg inene ae RL a A Cincinnati, O. aipaplelemn @ lenis pene era re ces Matern es lates? SRC NCB bald. fa. Connersville. OtiaOrClaytony--5....-- SRI eS RP Se ae Portland. HsTpmlVIOR@ erin esa ot Merced on fetal anny ard Nara IN Chicago, Ill. Ciramlest@ licker anne ean tie ke Ae or eee Nene Silverwood, R. D. No. 1. SO eMC Sp Aly © OLE C Vier a. .i- sft. eae anne one Merk Petersburg. Wallireman @latford Cox. os. 2 yh ol Ge eed uae ier ke ae ees Columbus. J, AN, (CiRa ay Pel as ie Rene areal ne yi ne me td Crawfordsville. AV Teese Oss wie lle is ce eae ere) aC NOAe gestion MURS Ok YEN So Franklin. Cliagin ML, (Ciibaimninnvalnevities J oaiooee ob eaee sen aecusewsee Indianapolis. One ZOpE a) AMTEIS ss tae eae as pean eo ciniere alone Laporte. TBio Vel, IDEN SISOS as ois ecm te tele eH moon nas ir np Eee reed West Lafayette. INNS lame) AVA Site ga arse Grae tn atmos o autetinete a aire: Terre Haute. Charlesi@ Dean... oi cacktn es ala aoe Bae oR Abate Indianapolis. 20 1 TINY See Yer 2) 0 op eae elas oe? en anes RMR Ogee cee ke Frankfort. larry shee Dieta. see ene ey ces hia) aN TES WY ai Indianapolis. James JP. eDimiond syed wae rc le Menta pi erie arena aan Indianapolis. Miarthiale) oairie ee eiees tne ferences We nee Num cey ol Westfield. lJ.) e/a EY K0} ah ap thes He tay SUR ae eo ne ATR Sy ote AOA heirs Syracuse. iD anvaclitAe Dre wien ous hs ees cel aces ecu til Reuuerae Bloomington. vasa ul chem yes cue eae Une ein meen hea ace Indianapolis. /Nvgie] VON PA) DV Bh havaView aia 4 5 tues arien cee wanes ial SMe sic hte Logansport. Herbert As Dunn yer etcoets ore tate oe ae oedoees Logansport. IMG 1G3 (Dior ov ny Ag) Mba ol ene ele Bloomington. JB csD wt cere tye mew niece ge ean aN isu ne nae y Manet Bloomington. Samuels HH Alp eerr ene pea rans con mr eC uM a Hn Indianapolis. TAD ASTARG Dery any acrtne tater amare y Cet nese tea na tee a eee oe Nowata, Okla. CRAIN CK Rap Ween clot yr eid seta meien et or anne Nea Indianapolis. Miax¥ Mapes iEsn ssi secs ei ual oa ee Sait se on Bloomington. 1a Up Die) Da 0 2 asta ey le aC ean pL) era me West Lafayette. Samuel Cr MeV ANS essed canes Same Welt a LiNee) nergy tak Evansville. Witlivamage Meliverisn, Ans tes te cesten cin Rs tine te listens oe Logansport. COs fd al Gee aes alee beeeies 4 SRS SH daeliels bet muda RRS Lu eee eld a Crawfordsville. MEST GSO reeeieses Santa eae me Nan ise oimuietue ntact ba _...West Lafayette. Miarey eA tab it Claes arteei st tr onion tdce Sanceaet Lafayette. PACE Sp Toren le yes shea ee he wm p cet ae chante vee aa Be Linden. Georges Mh onive ney crits eo Nene Nae ees SiN rs veal West Lafayette. THESIS) SENT ere aie sia ea elena Ns lene aces arin cteg amano) tere West. Lafayette. Arig Gum Phu e aie eas cane ae GPa ener noes Riana Ree Jeffersonville. John) SiGalbelesegets cei mae aeie ten het as eee North Madison. JesseiGallowayue weet cette ss Acces ont ae Ue Bloomington. Andrews Gamnlbbles ayn ea ont irc .t aa nine ene Logansport. ENON Gia rina inelcstee bs te sae bee eh eree aiee tt ONE are ae Indianapolis. JESB RG ATM OTe Wing. Seni aa termeee eae ae tak gobs ele ae ere Crawfordsville. BPlorencerA Gates amps cele ig Aula Wears ahaa Toledo, O. Robert. Ge. Guill ae bat ee ey la etc Pee Terre Haute. I pal aesik Ge Kaal MURR a uel: «SU NeeO Anemia Pay Rule DD NMR tAs| i en Brookville. EireclericaWiss Go. Guile bys en eae eet ree ae Morristown. WernoniGoul diss: iaiaee cum ei uiaeiamtbor san nares mai Rochester. Brank CookiGreem emi ck eno vee etcgs ce elena ane New Albany. 1 DE Wea C religaVetsiappes mee Wiese a Ohad oie Pumice? stream ttre Oe inlet ie Russellville. Walter IL. Hahn (Died May 31, 1911)........:..... Springfield, 8. D. (Gly Lite: TELIA Na 22 sale em eau en cent ir eS West Lafayette. Nileareyy “10'S 1B tay aoa Pah oleae esp new aN es le Mc i Salsa oe ag Bloomington. WiiiGeraepblart:. Saereyeretirti ole Oy amines Indianapolis. Wacronllenanicksii sites Sinise cect salam ein. com St. Louis, Mo. Ip Te LEIGSSIC TEE a Seat ee sone Peet Ua ane let Pe cad Crawfordsville. Jonnie eee thenin atone. an. s.sen, see ey ae ene Logansport. (Gia, LBis TRUE HAE ale a a ne ae es FcR een Philadelphia, Pa. AOlnin 1B. JEU exe Korave sees are Ame Mraate ateke iy Man uate (ua laa en ndianapolis. em elvembineroingei Jos Jue. Bo ee ee Ra oe Terre Haute. Slo LOXeIN ey 1S UU 0V0 Faye ieee ate a a a Ren Uae Madison. VolmOesbinidebramditiaes ih. >) 5 ke se abe Logansport. (GiS@_ IN g TALC GIES LPB ee eae ee ee oC aarp Lafayette. (Gig 1Bis’ LEL@IaiaINe fale, 5 Rae eee ane a Recah IAD se Logansport. Aniliier TO), LEU@G es Po eR AS em eee een ee UP Pane RE Richmond. LL AUC HgsS) ML, TUT 0) O25 2 Uae ne a South Bend. MIP, 15 LUN een Ne eo On A Ce Indianapolis. Qa JB, Telnaes ee saree ee ar A a PO as West Lafayette. EOS COCBE UMM CE ah sak Sieh ated eos. end We ta Terre Haute. Helepistayally ep TS OWN ue. ap ls bf is dete Palencia) hse Na ates Marion. J1, USGiRL OST 5 SO ete aes ee tae tn era Te aan Louisville, Ky. CPPEPRIACKS ODN -) 4) 615000042 %- USE a ee Ss Ree Durham, N. H. 1D), 12, JaelSOn. see eouryeneee PAG Ria leiiieat atitey ok a ea St. Louis, Mo. Av. (Cis dICII OI 3 Re gaat a eae eae R re aa ee UR Lafayette. TEL, TE, dI@ VRE OTD Ye Aa en ee em ta Pi Greenfield. Ane “Is UO OS e165 SRS eS eee a a tate SSE reer West Lafayette. Wyo dy: LOGS, UTA ere oe eas ere alien PERE eve ina Suave West Lafayette. > dLy TELBIIS@)g 6 hole rei Ale oars Ne soi Coens Terre Haute. ‘vc WML, LESGINAO) DS dete ae a oh thes MURR Deiat ues RY ara oN he West Lafayette. Eames Do erneiysy esiuiie i eet aay. ede, aE mR cer To! Lafayette. Lin We, LLRUIG Lie iP atemateraee Ree ante meet ic dei tces Sam A Neen re West Lafayette. FESPA VME CIES LCG 35 Sr hit gus Se Rk OE so Mla S ea Indianapolis. RichandeC sw MicCloskeyis. skeet noe eee Chicago, III. MP Seve Cull Ochi sn eee Ne ree es a OE hae, Crawfordsville. INP UCT LOO ag heinit Oe ey ey aes igus mies ialayes Masih ae Boryends Gre Vlalaimis: 4 ae tote Chacas trance a8 ret ineiee = West Lafayette. UEMDES Wie IMU MCAHWEPS. Sop ocwedbooseees ooo EHF oe cc Minneapolis, Minn. Wiltireder.sManwarinesstepeaci ssc se es... se New works City: VIPR Sep Vitarlcl ema ige sacs etiea) aA teOy airiettek hs. Wun ae lta Richmond 99 af \WVMUingi aay /Bokernie IMAGO Seas bb! AAS hee ewan ooeoase Borden. (Oar VEC ke ee SEC ea eae LAS i OT Indianapolis. Aer a Vinddletoniee ern etsy. PERERA Me etka! teats West Lafayette. (Gy IRuCloloin MUNI oc pes bsoa ces ons Gaaenawance _. Indianapolis. Epes cr eres anes eatin ll Ieee ear eon tnte AU at Indianapolis. Chass AMO One eee ere 2 tite os ey te een ea West Lafayette. GeosewNlOOreeetee aes eeON tees eal at Nae Adan eeeete St. Louis, Mo. Richards ish opyVlconreree se vest ee eee Indianapolis. Herbert Vlorni Sone ge ape ee ye ane on han Indianapolis. Prank Kee Vio wire Teva te oa see a tipree UO NaneG ala ee Mea Marion. PeOWeMiIn Gler ein ten Seren No ie ea enh Ora wiOnc svpllley MredaViutehle recipe am a hrctvsya eerie etn ria tere Ne aniy Bowling Green, Ky. Weslie:@-wNannevar meme o toy kp rem AU DC a Muerte Bedford. @harlessio New hime net res heart cng mena) areas Indianapolis. JepcASS Nive uw ainda Nhe Coa Oe titoteaals ee NiO Lney amines Clay.compRAOrconmn te ul rae ter: Seen West Lafayette. GACH OSG enters meen meee tase On NING seen Wik race Ieee reeae Crawfordsville. DEANE Owietitstee cere hen ent as Sb Ah men reanalysis Franklin. Vere tboWVie Owens sae thes Uenicherehy A NUCUG hn Niwa ree Cian Indianapolis. Herman PiCke cities meee cystine ae ee een acer wae Bloomington. RolloreyRrercetcteday arom. le tee ae teva eel nae Richmond. al phi Be Ro likes Ma reste aioe caterer emi ar aura na Greenwood. VATYESWAC UR ICE sort ihr Ara pes marennel yy reer eny Una Lintner lt Ft. Wayne. VV vss DR ea 1a Karak co ay eee etn pace Pao gel Rep hone yah Ithaca, N. Y. CRACHEVECLGIC Krueger tener on Na sium serps gei meant elas Crawfordsville. (Crea JUN Bent tec iirc a mA HO es copy rere Ue se Syracuse. AlentI Rey Mold sm Ware ere n ne reinpustcn ently vein ac AR RU vee: George L. Roberts.............: Sah bara cet A EN NS Lafayette. PS C lnireermian ra ee aegis Nene Pema tyr sHah rhea uy (ute Uananen orrant et St. Louis, Mo. BWA S Chuhtze sonata ih lame seme ach A viet ok SEU Ron RN Laurel. WiTUES COG Ge aster Chere emee ete ap Rt Nee get eck wlan Tee ey Bloomington. CharlesmWins Sivan ones e ae eee ae een eee Brazil. Bred Sill ery suey hae hee ear ayy Hennes confoy ane Mala iap bent tera Indianapolis. OscariwWASilweyie wee cee ea ee Cae rae West Lafayette. C@harlesp Mins rant hie See eats Dalen eM EN ahaa ga, Lafayette. CMPipert Smilies seerees se teas Nera ae ae eng Logan, Utah. HssiewAllm asmaith' sh anmontwy site ona te eee Bloomington. YD ppd eae) Oar] seas a i ee ae ed OO ay a abt Indianapolis. (Ghe@. | AYDINIASIP « ‘i i GONSULTING ENGINEER. Cis \ R INDIANAPOLIS,IND. 71 WatEerR SUPPLIES OF INDIANA. By CHARLES BROSSMANN. More than 60 years have passed since the first Municipal Water Works of the State were installed at Madison, Ind. Since then, many plants have been erected. Our complex life and increasing population has neces- sitated new methods of living and caused new demands; the most impor- tant among them being good water. At present there are few towns of any size that do not have public water supplies. In the vear 1890 there were about 50 plants in this State and at the present time there are over 150 plants. It has not been possible to get information en all plants, but the figures represent a very healthy erowth. The town pump and historic oaken bucket are being abandoned, and the more convenient and usually safer public supply is being gradu- ally adopted. The supplies for public use as a rule are more carefully selected and situated and taken from a source less liable to contamina- tion than are the individual surface wells of the householder. The installation of a water works plant usually is followed by the in- stalling of sewers, which is a great asset to the sanitary conditions of any locality. Of the water works here charted approximately 65% are well systems, 15% viver, and the balance springs, flowing wells, lakes, open wells, ete. About 60% of the plants are municipal plants and the balance operated by private companies. The arrangement and method of charting the supplies has been under- taken with the hope that it may be the start of a more complete investiga- tion and record, and that such contributions or additions may be made from time to time as will increase its value as a water supply record of the State. The author’s studies in this line have taken into consideration the mechanical equipment of the plants using these supplies, but it is not the intention to go into this part other than to show on the map the method of procuring the subterranean supplies of water. The map of the State before mentioned shows the various sources of supply, the method of pro- 72 curing same, and how they are prepared for use. The well supplies are shown, giving the depth of well, the level of the water (where it has been possible to secure same), and roughly the depth of glacial drifts as found in that section; the drift depths are as given by the United States Geo- logical Survey. North of the Wabash river the depth of drift is approximately 100 feet or over, the best wells being usually in this material. Quite a por- tion in the western part is the region of extinct lakes. An interesting comparison occurring in this extinct lake region, is the supply of Kent- land. This town formerly had its supply from a well about 1,200 feet deep, the water having a strong odor of sulphur. The water in this well stood 72 feet below ground about six years ago. Last year it was 120 feet below ground when pumping, and owing to this great lift caused muck trouble and expense in pumping same. This year a new plant was installed at Kentland. A new site was selected about one-half mile from the old well. The wells were drilled to a depth of 87 feet when rock was encountered. The Inst 15 feet of the well was in white sand, and produced a clear sparkling water without taste or ador. This installation is of interest as it shows such a difference in the two weils and their product. From the south of the Wabash river to the Ohio the drift varies from 5 to 100 feet in depth, except for a triangular shaped section, with the apex below Martinsville, which is practicaily in the rock section. The water works of English in this region are of more than passing interest, as the supply of the town is secured from an elevation high enough to give pressure without pumping. It will be noted on the map, that of supplies shown in the rock country, the majority are springs or viver supplies. The procuring of water in quantities sufficient for public use is in some parts of this district a very difficult problem, especially in dry seasons. The water of the State can be divided inte two main classes, surface and subterranean supplies. The surface supplies comprise the river, lakes and large surface wells or reservoirs and may be divided into the filtered and unfiltered classes. The subterranean waters consist of the deep wells, flowing or unflowing, and springs. The most noteworthy characteristic of the surface waters is that they are as a rule softer than the well waters and after filtration usually make- a very satisfactory supply. The well waters as a rule are harder and in 73 numerous places give trouble from tiis cause, often making it impossible _to use them satisfactorily for steam purposes. Muncie uses well water. The raw water is heavily impregnateé with iron which is treated by aeration, which puts the supply in a Satis- factory condition. ee et An important cendition found in the well supplies has been the in- formation secured showing the lowering of the water level at various places. This occurs in a number of localities, some of which are herewith mentioned. Towns. ; Kkentland (old gas well)...... 4S feet drop in 5 years. TINY OOG eo es aee oe aoe oS 40 feet drop in 12 years. GREENS) WEES se secre care oer 40 feet drop in 10 years. AYO - “5 So OOO SER EES Bins ‘28 feet drop in (time nct given). FVEMMMOTOME es opens acc eve Soca phele S feet drop in 10 years. NMIG\TENOIN: 1.85 ete Sher eRe ESE eae 6 feet drop in 20 years (cause of the fall at Marion is given as due to waste from other wells). IBWUKEP ecg 8 Sa EE eons 4 feet drop in 10 years. ES OUD OM gee ea cay cua sys oes 3 feet drop in S4 years. ILFUCL ESTED SS gee cnn One ce Ie eeeencne Eocene Some wells show 30 feet drop in 6 years. EMO OTM Om eres ath eens cue esta Some wells have dropped 15 feet since i895. It is a long step back to the time when there was nothing but water over what is now Indiana; but now, over that same area the procuring or water is an engineering problem of some importance. The gradual receding of the water from the inundated area took place, of course, through a great length of time, but even after the waters be- came confined to their individual channels, such as our present day rivers, the point of saturation of the earth has been lowered by natural and arti- ficial causes, such as deforestation, large drainage and reclamation works and the drainage of farm lands. Records from the weather bureau show that the rainfall for the past twenty years has not decreased. The ques- tion of run-off, however, is more important, as this undoubtedly has been, and is becoming more of an important factor each year. A systematic method of recording all supplies in the State and tabu- lating ail data pertaining to old as well as new supplies would be of great value. This could be best undertaken by one of the departments of the State and this information is here presented as a nucleus for the same. A BUILDING FOR THE DEPARTMENT oF PracticaL MrecHANIcs at Purpvur UNIVERSITY. By M. J. GoLpren. The building was designed fer the purpose of providing laboratories in which to teach students of engineering, shop practice and mechanicat drawing, and is meant to accommodate three hundred students in the shops and three hundred students in the drawing rooms at one time. The me- chanical drawing taught is the usual elementary drawing that precedes engineering design, and includes descriptive geometry. The shop practice includes manual training and practice in the methods employed in manu- facturing where special tools and labor saving devices are used; this in- yolving arrangements in the shops for demonstration work before groups of students. The principal conditions necessary for the proper carrying on of such work are ample light, proper ventilation, and careful regulation of the temperature. The building is of common brick with stone trimming and the design Was purposely made to be as simple as possible, as befits a structure for such purpose. The general appearance is shown in Fig. 1, 16 Forge Shop | == | i =| <9) li : aon. 0. d 6 i £4 i Eee yt I = x } 06 0 g i 3 i pe Museum. 36» 195° SECOND Drawing Room FLOOR | Off: | See gL oe Ii Eg i Class 7 O F mej C l Room a isie Rica s ef if uf 435 mal L£ ! 0 Dw | me) rye i " 4 i: o | THIRD FLOOR LABORATORY oF . . PracticAL MECHANICS | Drawing Rom Purbue UNIVERSITY Lafayette, Ind ae It consists of a three story front in which are the drawing. rooms, lecture and class rooms, and offices, and a series of one stery rooms for the shops; the separate shops are bound tegether and to the front by a large corridor that serves also for museum purposes. LIGHTING. Considering the lighting first, the effort was to have as much lighting from the sky as possible; and as the large area of the roof made a trouble- some accumulation of snow probable at times, a sloping roof with small pitch was taken and large skylights used to give the desired openings. These openings are glazed with a maze glass that is reinforced with wire netting, and this has heen found to give a light distribution that is satis- factory. The saw-tooth form of roof was discarded in the design because of the possible snow accumulation in the valleys. The skylights are used in all the shops and for the drawing rooms in the third story of the front. In the rooms in the front whore skylighting cannot be used, the windows are made to extend to the ceiling and to be as large as safe wall construc- tion will permit. The artificial lighting is principally by 60 C. P. incandescent lamps. In the drawing rooms these are arranged in groups of four close under a whitened ceiling. This arrangement is used also in the lecture rooms, the forge shop and foundry. Jn the machine shop the arrangement is supple- mented by individual lights at the ends of arms made of flexible tubing, and in the wood-working room, mercury vapor ares are used for the ceiling lights, with the individual lamps at the benches and lathes. In the wash and toilet rooms the light is distributed by individual ceiling lamps. HEATING AND VENTILATION. It was considered desirable that the heating and véntilating be by separate systems. The heating is done by radiation from steam heated radiators that have automatic control. These are coils of pipe that are suspended from the ceiling in some portions of the shops and wall radiators in other parts, and in the front portion of the building. The steam is generated in the central heating plant of the University, and is brought to the building in covered pipes in 2 tunnel. The ventilation is accomplished by taking air from outside the build- ing and after passing it over steam heated pipes in a chamber in the base- ment, where it is tempered to 67° F., forcing it through ducts in the walls ic and distributing it over the building. In the shops the distribution is through sheet metal pipes that are suspended against the upper portion of the side wails. The temperature is contrelled by a regulating device in the heating chamber. By this scheme the ventilating apparatus can be closed to any portion of the duilding not in use. It may be used also as a supplementary heating system in severe winter weather. POWER. The electric current used for power and lighting is generated in a plant that is about three hundred yards away from the nearest point in the shops. It is of the alternating kind and is brought to the building at a tension of twenty-two hundred volts and is then stepped down to two hundred twenty volts in a transformer that is placed just outside of, and in the rear of the shops. The portion used for power purposes is carried to a nuimber of small motors that run groups cf the machines or that run indi- vidual machines: there are seventeen groups in all besides the individually driven machines. In the wood working shop it has been possible to piace the motors in the basement, and this is especially desirable in weod working, as it tends to freedom from dust. This was not possible in the machine shop, because of the design of the driving heads of ordinary machine tools. The general arrangement of the building is shown in Fig. 2, where the floor area devoted to the various purposes is shown, «also. Adjacent to every one of the shops there is a room for demonstration purposes. This is arranged so that a machine may be conveyed from its place on the shop floor and used during the exposition of its purposes. Power for this purpose is brought to these class rooms; and to furnish current for the projection lantern in the large tecture room, there is a separate set of wires from the power house, bringing 2 direct low tension current. This low tension current is carried at one hundred ten volts. CONVENIENCES. The basement under the main corridor has the locker and toilet rooms ; a battery of forty wash basins supplied with hot and cold water, and rows of metal lockers are arranged at each end. There are individual lockers for eight hundred fifty students, in which they keep their work clothes. In the shops there are also separate lockers for eight hundred fifty stu- dents, in which the material ou which they are working is placed when not in use. Ue) The drawing rooms are furnished with cerresponding lockers and other facilities for the apparatus used in drawing. In the third story are two rooms for blue printing and corresponding work. One room is arranged for sun printing and has sheets of plate glass in an exposing wall on one side. There are the usual printing frames. The other room bas no out- side wall and is fitted with a plue-printing machine in which exposure is made to a rise and fall electric are. The washing and drying of the prints are done in the sua printing room. There are two dark rooms for photographic work. 81 Tie Cycle or SUBTERRANEAN DRAINAGE AS ILLUSTRATED IN THE BLoomincton, INDIANA, QUADRANGLE. By J. W. BEEDE. The Bloomington, Indiana, quadrangle’ is the first topographic map te be completed in the cave region of Indiana. It is fifteen minutes square with contour interval of twenty feet and scale of 1/62,500, or about a mile to the ineh. Careful inspection of the field shows it to be remarkably full and accurate in detail. While the cycle of subterranean drainage, as here presented, had not been discussed between us, yet all the various phases of it have been dis- cussed and similar conclusions independently reached by both Professor Cumings and the writer as the result cf tramps and class excursions over the cave regions of Indiana. The cycle has also been given as lectures, illustrated with lantern slides, in our classes. This paper has also had the penefit of Professor Cumings’ criticism. The physiographic history of the Bloomington region is such as to make this map very interesting, both for the remarkable preservation of the older geographic features and for the recent modification of them. Not the least interesting, nor the least important of these, is the subter- ranean drainage. Indeed the fine preservation of the older features is due to the fact that the water has, figuratively speaking, soaked into the old peneplain much as it would into a sponge, confining its work to the solution and honeycombing of the rocks beneath the surface instead of coneentrating its energies cutting it into ridges and valleys. The whole of the quadrangle, excenting, perhaps, the northwest corner, lies in the driftless area of Southern Indiana. The larger streams, except 17The title of the paper as shown in the program was “Ireatures of Subterranean Drainage in the Bloomington Quadrangle.” After the title had been sent in it was realized that it would be impossible to treat the subjects in mind intelligently without outlining the cycle of subterranean erosion. This outline, of course, overshadows the minor details intended to be covered in the paper, and hence the change in the wording of the title. * Price five cents. Apply to The Director, U. 8S. Geological Survey, Washington, 1D). (Ou [6—26988] 82 Clear creek, were effected by glacial waters which were one of the potent factors in producing the beautiful terraces of Beanblossom, Salt, Richland and Coon creeks. However, it is with the subterranean drainage that we ; wish to deal at this time. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. Before discussing the details of the wnderground drainage of the Bloomington vegion it is necessary to discuss some of the general features of the development of subterranean drainege under various conditions. Underground drainage is developed in two ways: 1. In a region of very soft, povous rocks. where jointing and bedding nay play a somewhat minor role, the channels are determined to some ex- tent by the varying degree of porosity of the rocks through which the water percolates. Under such conditions the caves are apt to be less regular in their forms and their courses less angular than would otherwise be the ease. This also has a marked effect upon the origin of the sink-holes and sive openings. Under these conditions the sinks may be formed where the rock is somewhat more porous or where there was a slight depression originally. Tnoese factors are modified by the proximity of channels be- aeath the surface. In such cases, as has been pointed cut by Sellards’, the sinks fiest appear as “cave-ins” of. the soil and rock structure, the sink being first a hole of greater or less size, sometimes being larger below than nf the surface. That is, the hole may be conical or “jug-shaped,” as sug- gested by Eigeanmani’. The caves of Canas, Cuba, are of this type. Sinks of this kind are formed most abundantly where the surface of the region is but little elevated above tide or general drainage level and the caves or channels are close to the rock surface so that it is easily undermined. In cases where the caves are far beneath the surface the sinks will be de- termined—ii the absence of surface irregularities—by the location of the more porous spots in the rocks near the subterranean channels and will be developed by solution from the top downward. It may be remarked here that the joints in some of the Cuban caves are inconspicuous.. 2. The other condition under which caves are formed and free under- ground drainage developed is in the firmer limestones, usually well above sea leyel and the major drainage lines. The denser the limestone the 3 Science, XXVI, p. 417, 1907. More fully, Bull. I, Fla. Geol. Sury., pp. 49-57, L9OS8,. Bull. U. S. Bish Comm., 1902, pp. 211-236: ihe See ; 83 smaller the percentage of pore space, and the thinner the beds the greater is the tendency to form sinks and caves and the more sharply angular are the subterranean drainage courses. This is excellently illustrated in the cave region of Indiana. The Mitchell limestone is very dense, thin bedded and impervious for a limestone and is broken into small joint biocks. Here the subterranean flow is largely confined to the joints and bedding planes, thus concentrating the solution effected by the water to the immediate channels through which it flows. tn this way channeis are produced and emlarged with maximum rapidity. On the other hand we may contrast this condition with that of the Salem limestone lying immediately beneath the Mitchell limestone. The Salem is nearly d@yvoid o: bedding planes, a rather soft and quite porous limestone, through which the water percolates with relitive ease The re- suit is that caves in the Salem limestone are very rare. When they occur, Fig. 1. Diagrammatic illustration of incipient subterranean drainaze. The main stream is entrenched and the tributaries out of adjustment pitch over rapids te join it. Underground drainage has started through the joints. The vertical dotted line a b represents the original unbalanced static water head which started the circulation. as at Mays cave, they may be formed by a cave passing down from the Mitchell limestone into it to reach the surface nearer the drainage level. The lack of frequent bedding planes is a strong coutributory factor to this condition. Aside from its structure the ofportunities for the formation of supterranean channels are as good as in the Mitchell limestone. Again, the Harrodsburg limestone, lving immediately below the Salem limestone, is harder, less porous, more highly jointed and thinner bedded than the Salem and shows a correspondingly greater tendency to develop underground water chaunels. The Mitchell limestone possesses the ex- treme of these conditions and the extreme development of underground channels. PME SUBLERRANKAN DRAINAGE CYCLE. In either a coastal plain or an interior region which has been thor- oughly baseleveled and reéleyated, what drainage there is to begin with is Catia 84 aie ij surface drainage. It remains surface drainage until the rapids of the larger streams have deepened their valleys well across the plain, leaving their tributaries out of adjustment with them. At this stage underground drainage first takes place to a considerable degree. The rocks are satu- rated with ground-water and at the level of the larger streams is under an unbalanced static head equal to the differeuce in elevation of the surface of the See Blatchley, 21 Ann. Rep. Ind. Dept. Geol. Nat. Res., p. 133, 1896. ® For a discussion of the solution of the Indiana limestones, see Cumings, Proc. this Acad., 1905, pp. 85-102, 1906. Caves, F. C. Greene, idem, for 1908, pp. 175-183, 1909. “This does not seem to apply to the caves of Florida and some regions of Cuba where the channels are very near the surface and the roof soon becomes so weakened that it gives way, and the extreme porosity of the rocks does not concentrate the solution to the joints to produce solution sinks. 86 sinks and slightly Geveloped underground drainage may be considered as characteristic of the youth of subterranean drainage. There will be uo collapse sinks at this stage. In the course of time the water of some of the streamis may all pass below the surface and issue as great springs or subterranean streams in the channels of Jatger steams or in their own channels below whete there may have been rapids cr considerable fall in the beds. As time goes on this sinking of the water progresses headward along the stream, reducing big. 5. Abandoned bed of Lost River, near Lost River station, north of Paoli, Ind. During floods this channel contains water. It is twelve miles long. The yal- ley is very broad, with indistinct bluffs. more and more of its course to underground drainage. The distance which streams may flow underground before reappearing at the surface depends upon the physical conditions in which they are pliced. The distance that they are now observed to flow beneath the surface depends also upon the stage in the cycle of erosion in which they happen to be. Thus, in the Bristol-Standingstone region of Tennessee and neighborivg country the dis- tance seems to be about « mile. Jost river, in Indiana, flows about six miles in a direct line, or about double that distance by the old channel, be- fore reappearing. Perhaps Lost river shovld be regarded as being in a somewhat later stage in its cycle than those of the region just mentioned, , 87 since there is evidence that collapse has brought the present stream to the surface for some distance below the “Gulf” where it now escapes. The collayse of the mouth of the cavern is brought about by the in- creased width and height due to solution and abrasion, the fall of slabs a. Pas Tig. 6. Stony Spring, Bloomington waterworks. During freshets the water flows out all around the foot of the hill shown in the picture and even farther to the left. The cavern containing the stream is here collapsed, blocking the outlet. When the cave fills with water it breaks out wherever it can find an opening. The water comes from the former drainage basin of Indian Creek and now enters the head of Clear Creek. from the roof and by the lowering of the channel until the roof, unable to support itself, finally falls. This collapse of the lower portions of caverns bringing more and more of the subterranean stream to light may be, and frequently is, going on at the same time that the upper reaches of the stream are being converted from surface into subterranean drainage. ‘This is true of nearly all the largest outlets of subterranean drainage in the Bloomington region. Stone spring at the Water Works, Shirley spring and Leonards spring, southwest of the Water Works, and Blairs spring, just northwest of Stanford Station, all show this phenomenon, while the upper 88 parts of the streams feeding them are still being more thoroughly taken under ground. A good example of this is seen in the sinks just east of the County Farm. The old sink is Iccated in the angle of the road, while the stream now passes beneath the surface fully a quarter of a mile upstream to the northwest. Only the flood water now finds its way into the deeper siak below. The coliapse of the mouths of caverns is excellently exhibited Fig. 7. Shirley Spring (East Spring), S. E. of Leonard Schoolhouse. The cutlet of the stream ertering ihe sinks east of the Poor Farm and the intervening sinks. For abandoned, higher cave, see Fig. 30. The condition of collapse is similar to that shown in Fig. 6. in the Shawnee caves east of Mitchell, Indiana, while Lost river shows it still better. In both cases the roof has collapsed back for considerable distances and in each there are cases of collapse above the mouths of the caverns where either the cave or the stream is brought to light. . When this stage of the drainage has been reached sinks have developed over most of the region on the interstream spaces as well as near the streams and most of the drainage is subterranean in the stricter sense of the word. This stage shows the large sinks near the larger drainage lines, 89 surface or subterranean, snd the smaller ones farther from them, as is illustrated in the piain scuthwest of Bloomington. When this stage has been reached—with sinks well developed over most of the region and col- lapse has begun at the exits of the cave streams—a region may be re- garded as in its maturity. It is only after the mature stage of the cycle has been reached that sinks, due to the collapse of cave roofs, begin to ap- pear in considerable numbers, and natural bridges, due to collapse of the cave roofs above and below a given point, begin to be developed. Solution Fig. 8. Spring at Leonards Mill (house in deep gulch south of Leonards school), showing similar features as preceding. Note water escaping all around the foreground. A portion of the water from the main spring is shown in the extreme lower left corner of the picture. The outlet for the sinks south and northwest of Leonards school. sinks that happen to pe located above caverbDs may be, and frequently are, transformed into collapse sinks in the latest stages of subterranean erosion. When these features of collapse become prominent and much of the drainage has been brought to the surface again and collapse sinks are numerous, old age has been reached. The valleys produced by the collapse of caverns and the transforma- tion of subterranean drainage to surface drainage have a characteristic form that at once distinguishes them from ordinary drainage valleys. They are rather sharply U-shaped, with steep sides like a young valley 90 but with a fairly wide bottom and a blunt, steep termination at their heads. In these respects they resemble miniature glaciated valleys. When well de- veloped they may be shown on accurate topographic maps. Surface erosion — begins modifying them at once and finally obliterates the evidence pointing to their origin. The final result of the subterranean drainage cycle is thus a surface drained peneplain. There is a lack of subierraneéan drainage in the old age stage of the cycle in the Blosmingten region. The whete sink hole plain of Indiana Fig. 9. More distant view of Leonard’s Spring. ‘The main spring is seen back of the stone dam. ‘The water is issuing from a hole in the dam in the middle fore- ground. Notes the steep, biunt end of this collapsed-cave valley. may be considered as in its maturity. Tlowever, there are exposed in the sides of the monadnocks west of Harrodsburg certain old solution channels which probably represent the very heads of the subterranean channels of the preceding cycles of erosion. JIndeed it is not improbabie that the streams tributary to Clear creek on the west and north of Harrodsburg owe their present position in some degree to the location of former sub- 91 terranean ereeks. These in turn were prefoundly influenced by the position of the previous Tertiary (?) surface streams. In 2 coastal plain the details of the cycle wiil be scmewhat different, but the essential fentures will be similar. The differences will be due to the physical characters and structure of the rock, the lack of previously establisued drainage lines and the relatively low elevation above sea level. Vig. 10.. Leonard’s Spring, 8. W. of Bloomington, showing valley with spring in distance. PIRACY. At the time when the subterranean drainage is at the maximum it is subject to the same accidents as surface drainage, except that the modus operandi is different. Subterranean piracy falls under two distinct heads, the capture of one surface stream by another through subterranean drain- age, the easiest form to observe, and the capture of one subterranean stream by another. Ip each case there are minor varieties of capture such as one tributary by another, and self capture. Indeed these are probably much more common than the capture of one surface stream by another. 92 If a surface stream flows a long distance over a rather gentle grade to reach a certain level while a competitor flows a short distance to reach a similar level it may capture the headwaters of the former through sub- terranean drainage, leaving the divide between the valleys intact. This Tig. 11. Emergence of cave stream, mouth of Shawnee cave east of Mitchell, Indiana. The roof of the cave at its mouth is well supported. Just back of this there are two large rooms connecting with the main cave, leaving a large area of roof unsupported. It has faulted down about six inches. The completion of this collapse might, in time, leave a natural bridge at the present mouth of the cave. The valley is a typical collapse valley. tendency is accentuated when the pirate is favored by the dip of the rocks, but frequently occurs in spite of the dip in cases where the dip is gentle. It is probably true that the only essential of such capture is that two streams lie one higher than the other in a region of soluble rocks sufficiently close to each other to permit the final entrance of some of the water of the one to the other. Examples of such piracy are by no means wanting in the Bloomington region. Pig. 12. A distant view of the Leonards Mill locality (Figs. 8 and 9), showing the form of the valley. The water from the Shirley Spring (Fig. 7) crosses the foreground. In order to make these specific cases fully intelligible it is necessary to refer to some length to the physiographic history and conditions of the region. ‘The well preserved plain west of Bloomington appears to be a very early Pleistocene peneplain. This plain extends at about the same altitude throughout the extent of the map, exeept that it is visibly beveled toward the major drainage lines, as will appear later. The peneplain is much dis- sected in the nertheastern, southeastern, and western parts of the quad- rangle. There are many monadnocks to be found along the old divides or near the headwaters of some of the minor streams, rising from a little over a hundred feet to two hundred feet or more above this old plain and 94 reaching elevations of from a little under 900 feet to 1,000 feet A. T. The ones south of Kirksville are the best preserved and appear to bé remnants of the very old Tertiary peneplain or, perhaps, base level. It seems prob- able that the whole regicn covered by the map and the higher, rougher parts of southern Indiana are a part of the Lexington plain of Campbell, reaching from the Cumberlaid Plateau westward to the Tennessee river, Fig. 13. A monadnock southwest of Bloomington. It rises 115 feet above the surrounding plain. It is surrounded by sinks, especially on the north, west and south. the Indiana portion being a spur extending northwest frem the type region at Lexington. It will be noticed that the elevation of the old plain and monadnocks (catoctins) is materially lowered as the western edge of the map is approached. This is due to the surface dip into the West Fork of White river busin. %o. In regions of low elevation the sinks may be largely collapse sinks, and, in soft, porous rocks, the channels rather irregular. 4. The cycle of underground drainage may be stated as follows: It begins with surface drainage and in its youth develops subterranean drain- age near the points of easy escape for the water. In its maturity there is the maximum of subterranean dvainage and the lower parts of the caverns have begun to retreat by collapse while in the uppermost reaches of the stream the transforination from surface to subsurface drainage may still be in progress. Old age is shown by the more general condition of ecol- 103 lapse and the return to surface drainage. Briefly, it may be stated that the cycle is: surface drainage, partial subterranean drainage, and a re- turn to surface drainage. The final state is peneplanation or base leveling. 5. In youth and maturity nearly all the sinks are solution sinks. 6. In old age many of the sinks ave formed by collapse. Solution sinks may finally be transformed into sinks ef collapse. 7. Surface streams resting on a plain of soluble rocks with streams at lower levels bordering them may have their waters diverted by subter- ranean capture. 8. Piracy probably takes plince between subterranean streams and between parts of the same stream. Bloomington, Indiana. Iteferences to the “carly pleistocene”’ peneplain in this paper should read “late tertiary (?),” since the cycle was interrupted at about the close of the tertiary or beginning of the pleistocene period. 104 Fig. 21. Hamers Cave east of Mitchell, Ind. The water from this cave fur- nishes the supply for the two Lehigh cement plants at Mitchell. The picture shows the overflow from the dam. Water higher than usual. Ivig. 22. The “Guilt” of Lost river at Orangeville, Ind. Here the roof of the eave in which the river flowed has collapsed and the stream comes to the surface. 105 Tig, 25. A “Guli’’ of Lost river above its outlet at. Orangeville. The water vises to the surface at the right of the middleground of the picture and flows to the right and left, forming two streams, for a very short distance which sink and finally rejoin the subterranean channel. ‘The little pond on the left side of the picture is one of the plazes where the water sinks. Just above the heads of the group in the middle background is a large cave, one of the abandoned subterranean channels of the river. The second, or present channel is considerably below the water shown in the foreground. Here a large area has collapsed blocking the lower channel and foreing the water to the surface, when it again finds new channels around or through the obstruction to its main channel again in which it continues. 106 Fig. 24. Abandoned channel of Lost river mentioned in explanation of pre- vious figure. Fig. £5. Phantom lake, near Toyah, Texas. pk —- = kpv = 4n?2?, (3) v Let equation (38) refer to the tube B, Fig. 1, in series I, which contains air, and is at 0° C., and let a similar equation with subscripts apply to the tube A in the steam both. WR ee 40m Diy SOS ee no (4) ky Dividing (4) by (8) and solving for the ratio eae O : (5) k ee v» From Gay Lussac’s law specific volumes are directly proportional to absolute temperatures, whence k, Ao OP (6) ee eons From (6) the results given in table I are calculated. For series II however, using nitrogen at liquid air temperature, the p-v-T relation to Bestelmeyer and Valentine was used, p v=0.277T4 T—(0.03202—0.000253 T') p (7) Substituting in the fundamental equation ©).-(2) awJQ. \aJt for constant temperature, as determined by differen- (”") kp (9) JQ vt (h,—h, T) and substituting this in (1). op oo the value of tiating (7), 187 vekp kp2v? (10) aN, TD in IE é Writing equation (10) with subscripts referring to the tube B Fig. 1, = as used in series II with nitrogen, at a temperature of liquid air, 2 2 Lit HE Ae ee (11) h, T, Dividing (11) by (3), ky p*, 07, 4n?,4,h, T, ky pvh, T,%*, (12) = = whence ne k pv 4n? 7)? k D9 O84 a For normal conditions pv=-76 (1+at), whence fee liz Ihs (18) -_-= 76 (1 + a t) == k {2 D5 v7 4 The product p,v~, referring as it does to nitrogen at liquid air tempera- ture, must be computed from the empirical equation (7). Equation (18) is used for the calculation of results for series II, given in table IV. DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS AND METHop.—A general view of the ap- paratus as mounted for use is shown in Fig. 1, the essential features of which are shown in Fig. 2. Two glass tubes, A and B, Fig. 2, about 3.2 emi. in diameter, were bent at right angles, about 30 cm. from the ends, the horizontal portions being about SO cm. long. These were mounted on a rectangular frame of wood, aaaa. This frame was hung with its plane vertical, and was capable of rotation about a pivot at the point O. The entire structure could be tilted forward slightly about an axis XX’. A glass rod e f g, 100 cm. long, with enlarged ends, was clamped at points 4 and 2 of its length from its ends, the supports for the rod at these points being of rubber, and serving at the same time to close the ends of the tubes. Through these rubber stoppers were passed small delivery tubes, for introducing the gas used. Adjustable pistons. were inserted through similar rubber stoppers at c and d. The upper tube was surrounded by a double walled vessel made of tinned copper, and covered with a layer of heavy felt. This vessel had a closely fitting double cover, provided with mica windows through which the thermometers were read. It was also provided with inlet, outlet and drainage tubes, so that steam could be passed in and the temperature of boiling water indefinitely maintained about the enclosed tube A. A long trough was made of such dimensions that it could be raised up about the lower tube B, and when filled with 188 melting ice the temperature of B could be held at 0° throughout the neces- sary time interval. For the series il, a trough of special design to contain liquid air was used. This was made of three layers of thin sheet tin, with Fig. 1. a U shaped cross section, nested together with thick layers of felt be- tween. This is shown in the lower part of Fig. 1. A small quantity of anhydrous quartz powder was placed in the tubes A and B, and uniformly distributed im a thin line along the bottom of the tubes by rocking the frame about O, and gently tapping the tubes with a 189 pencil. After this linear distribution of the powder the entire structure was tilted forward slightly about XX’, and the line of the powder was made to seek the lowest part of the tubes by gentle tapping. On tilting the frame back to its vertical position, the line of powder was raised slightly along the side of the tubes, and when the glass rod e f g was rubbed at its middle point with a piece of moistened flannel, its longitudinal vibra- tion was communicated to the gas in both tubes, setting up systems of p---- >a nrr cc A x Figs Z stationary waves, and causing the powder to fall down at the points of maximum disturbance as shown in Fig. 3. These festoon like figures were sharp and uniform, and capable of accurate measurement, the inter-nodal distances giving the wave lengths of the standing waves within the tubes. Each of the tubes carried near the ends of the horizontal portions, a pair of felt covered brass rings. To the under side of these rings could be quickly attached by means of set screws, the brass meter scale for measur- ing the figures. A sliding sleeve which could be slipped over the tube was provided with a vernier reading to one-tenth mm., which played over the 190 brass scale beneath, and on the sleeve was a fiducial line, in the form of a fine black wire. Three independent settings were made on each nodal point, the mean being taken as the position of the node. Since the figures were. formed at temperatures different from those at which they were measured, the corresponding corrections for the expansion and contraction of the glass tubes were applied. From such a series of measured inter-nodal distances the most proba- ble value of the wave length was calculated from the formula, (n—1) (a.—a,) + (n—3) (Qai—a,) :............ n (n?— 1) ; see} where # is the number of settings, and a,-d.-a, are the respective settings. The writer is indebted to Mr. P. P. Koch fcr a complete calibration of the brass scale used, in terms of the standard meter bar belonging to the Institute. Corresponding corrections have been computed and applied to all the measurements of both series. WOT PROCEDURE, SERIES I.—F or this series of measurements the tube A was kept at steam temperature, while the tube B was packed in melting ice. The tubes were first carefully cleaned, washed with acid and alkali solu- tions, rinsed and dried, then mounted in place as in Fig. 2. Dry air free from CO, was drawn through them for some time, meanwhile gently warming them with bunsen burners. A small amount of the quartz powder, previously heated and cooled in a dessicator, was introduced, and the dry air suction continued for some time. The apparatus was then rocked and tilted as described above in order to effect a proper distribution of the powder, steam was admitted about A aud the ice bath placed absut B. After a period ranging from one to two hours, with both tubes open to the atmosphere through the drying train, the glass rod was rubbed, the temperatures and atmospheric pressure were observed and the steam and ice baths were withdrawn. After some hours the figures were measured in the manner above described. The thermometers used were frequently compared with standards, and the temperature in the steam jacket was constantly checked from standard barometer readings. One complete set of average wave Tength measurements is given in table I, and the data for eight such experiments, together with calculated values of Ko are ky 00 given in table II. Tube A, in Steam. Tube B, in Melting Ice. 55.43 y) | 63.73 i 93.50 38.07 96.47 32.74 132.13 38.63 129.23 32.76 170.37 38.24 162.03 32.80 208.80 38.43 194.50 32.47 246.80 38.00 | 227.60 33.10 285.13 38.33 | 260.80 33.20 323.47 38.34 293.77 32.97 361.60 38.13 | 326.03 32.26 399.95 38.35 358.97 32.94 438.17 38.22 391.63 32.66 476.23 38.06 424.93 32.30 514.33 38.10 457.87 32.94 553.10 38.77 490.50 32.63 591.20 38.10 | 523.10 32.60 | 556.00 32.90 | 589.17 33.17 Most probable value of | Most probable value of A = 38.262 mm. + 0.01, | A= 32.838 mm. + 0.01, e — 0.225 mm. || e = 0.279. Vable 1. 192 From the mean value of 4 from table II, it would appear that the value does not vary from unity by more than one-tenth of cne per cent. An unfavorable combination of errors could affect the single values by three-tenths of one per cent. Tube A, in Steam. Tube B, in Ice Bath. | k Exp. i meas. A cor. T. abs. A meas. A cor. T. abs. | ree 1 38.287 38.325 370.80 32.862 32.867 | 272.5 1.000758 2 ey 38.262. 38.299 370.76 32.838 in 32.842. : 1.000485 a 3 38.303 38.339 371.12 32.860 32.864 | 1.000707 4 38.234 38.271. 370.49 32.846 32.851 | 1.001770 5 ia 38.252. 38.288 370.67 32.843 | 32.848 1.001180 Le 6 38.275 a 38.312 ne 370.87 32.807 32.811 | 0.998216 7 me 38.231 38.268 370.84 32.863 A 32.869 | eas 1.003972 8 | 38.201 38.328. E 370.91 32.865 7 32.869 | 1.001020 e : mean 1.001013 a == 0.000376 Table 2. Procedure, Series II. For the second series of measurements the pro- cedure was substantially the same as that for the first. Carefully dried and purified nitrogen was introduced into the tubes. .The upper tube sur- rounded by cotton and enclosed in the double walled jacket, was allowed to assume the temperature of the room, its thermometer being read through the mica windows. ‘The lower tube, 2.2 cm. in diameter, was immersed in the liquid air bath, the top of the tube being 2 or 3 cm. below the surface. Temperatures of the liquid air were read by means of a constantan-iron thermo-junction and a sensitive millivoltmeter, which was provided witb a calibration curve from the Reichsanstalt. These temperatures were checked by evaporating samples of the liquid air, mixing with hydrogen and exploding by means of an electric spark in a eudiometer tube. From percentages of oxygen thus found temperatures were interpolated from Baly’s curves.” 1 Phil. Mag. 49, June 1899. 193 Tube A, at Room Temp. Tube B, in Liquid Air. A 179.12 A 44.88 34.30 196.75 17.63 79.38 33.69 215.03 18.28 113.07 34.83 233.33 18.30 147.90 34.55 251.37 18.04 182.45 34.70 270.20 18.83 217.15 34.72 | 288.27 18.07 251.87 34.35 306.15 17.88 286.22 33.63 324.37 18.22 319.85 34.72 342.60 18.23 354.57 35.03 360.18 17.58 389.60 34.10 378.80 18.62 423.70 33.45 396.72 17.92 457.15 35.02 415.43 18.71 492.17 34.30 433 .32 17.89 526.47 34.95 451.18 17.86 561.42 469.55 18.37 487.75 18.20 505.75 18.00 524.03 18.28 541.97 17.94 559.82 17.85 587.15 18.35 Most probable value of , Most probable value of A = 34.421 + 0.016, A = 18.152 — 0.007, e — 0.44. e) 0:32) Table 3. Tube A, in Liquid Air. Tube B, in Room Temp. S k Exp. Vm. T. abs. | 4 meas. A cor. T. abs. A meas. A cor. p. in 1 7.21 83.46 18.152 18.133 293 59 34.421 | 34.433 |72.55| 1.0477 2 7.23 | 82.85 18.096 18.076 294 84 34.502 34.514 |72.4 1.0498 3 7.285 81.18 17.988 17.917 295 . 24 34.555 34.572 172.1 1.0553 4 7.225 83.00 18.011 17.994 296 . 84 34.704 34.706 |72.0 1.0336 5 7.200 83.76 18.195 18.176 296 , 04 34.593 34.606 |72.0 1.0464 6 7.200 83.76 18.237 18.118 296 .64 34.608 34.623 (72.5 1.0523 mean 1.0475 + 0.002 Table 4. [13—26988 ] 194 About five liters of liquid air were required for an experiment. Tha tube was left in the bath for about one hour before the glass rod was sounded. Corrections were applied for scale errors and for the expansion of the tube prior to measurement. ‘The coefficient of expansion” for glass at liquid air temperature was taken as 0.0000073. One complete set of average wave length measurements for an experi- ment is given in table III, and the assembled data together with the caicu- > lated values of are givep in table IV. The subscripts relate to liquid k air temperatures. All temperatures are referred to —273°.04 as the abso- lute zero’. : , ki. . - Any change in YT will alter ee inversely in about the same ratio. k Temperatures were probably accurate to one-fifth of one per cent. An un- favorable combination of errors might invest ‘with an error of one- k half of one per cent. From the results in table IV it would appear that k for liquid air temperature is something more than four per cent greater than for ordi- nary temperatures, about 22° C. ‘12 Phil. Mag. 49, June, 1899. 13 Ann. der Physik 9, p. 1149. Purdue University, Dee., 1910. 195 INVESTIGATION CoNCERNING THE ReEICHERT-Meisst No. AnD THE Rate oF DISTILLATION OF THE VOLATILE Acips in Burrer Fat. By GEORGE NSPITZER. In 1906 J. Delaite and J. Legrand (Bul. Soc. Chim. Belg.) investigated the determination of the volatile acid. He found the R. M. No. to increase when saponification was continued from one-fourth to six hours. This they claimed was due to depolymerization. In the regular work of the laboratory no such variation was ob- served in the routine work of determining the volatile acids. The time of saponification varied from one to one and ene-half hours. To determine the effect of continuing the saponification on the per cent. of volatile acids obtained by the Reichert-Meissl process, 10 determinations were made using the same butter fat and following the A. O. A. C. method. (p. 189, 1908), the saponification being carried out under method (a), under pressure with an alcoholic solution of potassium hydrate: The saponifica- tion flasks were conipletely submerged in a steam bath at a temperature of 105° C. This was done to insure a more uniform temperature during the time of saponification. The time of saponification varied froin 15 minutes to two and one-half hours. The quantity of butter fat taken was as near five grams as could be weighed accurately. The result calculated on the basis of five grams. In distilling the volatile acids the conditions were kept as uniform as it was practical, the rate of distillation being so regulated that 110 cc., the required amount was distilled in 30 minutes. Ten determinations were made. 'The results are shown in the follow- ing table. TABLE I. Showing the Effect of Time of Saponification. | | | 30 45 | 60 75 | 90 105 | 120 , 135 | 150 28 .28/28.35|28.32 28.28/28 .31 3 8.25 /28.35 28.29|28 29 4.97 4.99 4.98] 4.98 4.97| 4.99] 4.98 4.97) 4.98 | | | RSME GESM NOsnsccnsedoensoccoeousasne 28 .32|2 | 196 Some allowance must be made in the time factor, slight saponification taking place before placing in the steam bath, also during the time of cool- ing after removing the flasks. But it will be observed that this factor was uniform for the 10 determinaticns. From the figures in Table I. no such variations are indicated as re ported. Some of the factors which influence the Reichert-Meissl No. Rate of distillation. Failure to remove alcohol (when used). Size of distilling flask. Absorption of carbonic acid and quantity of fat taken. All those factors are under the centrol of the operator and constant results are obtained by observing uniform conditions. The rate of distillation of the volatile acid by the Reichert-Meissl process, also the rate of distillation of the volatile acids by distillation with steam. In determining the rate of distillation of the volatile acids by the Reichert-Meissl process, the distillate was collected in fractions of 10 cc. and titrated with N NaOd. 10 N The number of cubic centimeters of —— alkali required to neutralize 10 each fraction are tabulated in Table LI, also the per cent. acid calculated as butyric acid based on five grams of butter fat taken. TABLE II. Showing Rate of Distillation by the R. M. Process. Now eect ean erat Ta roe News iva? a 6. | Th a: 9. | 10. | 11. | Total CNG NaOHe nee 4.6 | 4.2 38 34 eae 1.3 | 1.0 |.29.50 1 Per cent. vol. acid as butyric....| .81} .74) 67 5) on PB sill Boi) | From Table II it will be seen that the first fraction of 10 ec. of the distillate contains 15.6 per cent. of the total volatile acid, uniformly de- creasing to the 11th fraction, which contains only three per cent. of the total volatile acid. UIC Plotting the above results, the volume distilled as abscissa and the N number of c.c. of — alkali used to neutralize the distillate, we obtain the 10 following graphical representation of the R. M. process of distillation. ca Neon Fe ose 12.6 16 49 ee 25.8 272 2EST os oF oF On oF of LT FALRND SESDIC( LV “LY +7 PFN TI DID as (-F-) ols The total number of c.c. required to neutralize the volatile acid was 29.5 c.c. corresponding to 5.19 per cent. of acid calculated as butyric acid. 198 By the Reichert-Meissl process, we obtain only a certain fraction of the total volatile acids and which is fairly constant if carried out under stand- ard methods. To determine the relation of the volatile acids obtained from the R.- M. process of distillation to the total volatile acids, distillation was made with steam. By this means it is pcssible to estimate the total volatile acids. The usual method of saponification and precautions were taken as in the R.-M. process. One thousand c.c. were distilled with steam and an alignment por- tion titrated which gave a total of 6.03 per cent. volatile acid as butyric acid. In the R. M. process, 5.19 per cent. of acid was obtained from the same butter fat. Thus we see that only 86 per cent. of the total per cent. of volatile acids were obtained by the R. M. process. The Rate at which the Volatile Acids Distill by Means of Steam. The same methcd was used as in the previcus experiment in determin- ing the total volatile acids. The distillation was collected in portions of : N 50 «ec. and titrated with z NaOH. Jwenty fractions were titrated and 10 the result shown in Table II. TasBLeE III. Notre Se Neto. teal es | 22], 3.| 4 | 8. | 6. | 7.1 Selonn Reto CnC ENaOH ae he ene 12.7 | 3 4a 5.581 3.6012.4 | 1.52; 1.00] .70] .60| .45| .30 Per Bae volwacid:as/butyrie)....5.....4-. | 2 08] Ae 9 59 a a 16 ut ue 06) .047 TN oe res oe eee 12.) 132/142 | 15-9) 16.9) 17 || 18 a Ora a 20e Total Gace: NAOH aes _...] 30 | .25 | 20 20 1g] 15 | 14] 13 | 10 | 38.74 Beare oltacil au buiie bah ee | 047} .04 | .03 | .03 | ‘oes! .023| .022| .o21| .o17] 6.22 | | | | The weight of butter fat taken for the experiment as shown in Table II was 5.50 grams. The per cent. of volatile acid and distillate is based on five grams of fat. From Table II it is seen that the first fractions contained the greater part of the volatile acids, decreasing rapidly after the second fraction, and that the volatile acids are practically all distilled when 1000 ce. have been collected. 199 N Plotting the cc. distilled as abscissa and the ¢«e¢. of —— alkali re 10 quired to neutralize the distillate as ordinates, we get a curve quite differ- ent from the one obtained by the Reichert-Meissl process. co Neo Tora coc G4.79 WL FAaMND waeals 49 pel/Usi 22 97 coos In distillation by the R.-M. process and distillation with steam, we meet with different conditions. 200 In neither case is the vapor saturated with the volatile acids of butter fat during the period of distillation and the liquids in the still are made up of water and the insoluble fatty acids. The vapor pressures of the volatile acids differ and their solubility in water and fatty acids influence the water of distillation. Of two acids having approximately the same vapor pressure, the one which is least soluble in the mixed liquid will distill the faster. Combining the factors, solubility in water and in the fatty acids, a mathematical expression for the rate of distillation becomes only ap- proximately true. Theoretically,’ if we do not keep the volume constant as is the case in the R.-M. process of distillation, that is by making no addition to the liquid in the still during distillation, gy, = ane and integrating we get dx x Log y=a Log x+e or y=x?. The equation is y equals amount of volatile acids left in solution and x amount of liquid left in still, the original amount being taken as 1. On the cther hand, if the volume is kept constant as is the case in steam distillation x becomes constant. In this case we consider the quantity of water removed to the quantity of volatile acids left in the still. : s d : ‘ We then write equation — nae = AY Integrating we get the equation dx —Log y=ax+e, or y= . ax y = amount of volatile acide left in solution, original amount being taken as 1; x = amount of water and volatile acids distilled. The above equations do not take into account the condensation in the still. 1H. D. Richmond, Analyst, 1908. S. Young, fractional distillation. A ConveENIENT JiaABporatory DEVICE. By J. P. NAYLOor. For the last year we have been using a little device at Minshall Labo- ratory that has proven serviceable in so many ways that it is thought that it might be of sufficient interest to other members of the physics Section to merit bringing it before you. Used in connection with the ‘Universal Sup- ports,’ now so common in physical laboratories, the piece is so contrived as to be adapted to a large number of experimental purposes. The apparatus consists of a four and one-half inch circle divided to half degrees, and supported by a hollow spindle or axle. The spindle is carried by a sleeve, about three inches long, having at one end a strong erossbar. This crossbar is fitted at one end with a vernier reading on the divided circle to three minutes of arc and at the other end with a slow motion screw and clamp arranged to act upon the circle. The hole through the spindle will take a ten millimeter rod which can be clamped, by means of a screw, at any desired point. To this rod are attached the various pieces that make it possible to use the device in so many different ways. In fact, it is in the hollow spindle that the adaptability and genera! usefulness of the apparatus lies. Perhaps merely mentioning a few of the purposes for which it can be used will best suggest its adaptability in laboratory or investigation work. It can be used for measuring the torsion of wires by twisting, for the torsion head of an electro-dynamometer, for measuring the indices of refrac- tion of plane parallel plates, for measuring the angles of prisms, for mak- ing up a Kohlrausch total-reflectometer, for measuring the indices of liquids by Wallaston’s method, for arranging a Wallaston’s goniometer, for making up a simple polariscope or sacharimeter, as a support for meas- uring the angular aperture of a microscope objective or photograph lens, and for many other purposes. In fact, the apparatus can be used in a large majority of cases where the measurement of an angle is an essential part of the work. The figure shows the use of the apparatus in making up a IKohlrausch total-reflectometer. ee: FurtHEerR Notes on TrmotHy Rwst. By A. G. JOHNSON. At the last two annual meetings of the Academy, papers on timothy rust, [Puccinia poculiformis (Jacq.) Wettst.], were presented by Mr. Frank D. Kern, and it is of interest to note at this time the present known distribution of the disease over the State as well as to record here the extension of its range into other States and provinces from which it has not been previously reported. As was predicted in Mr. Kern’s papers, the distribution of the rust has become more zeneral. In this State it evidently occurs wherever timo- thy is raised. During the past season the writer has collected it at widely separated points, as follows: Mount Vernon (Posey Co.) on the south- west; Wirt (Jefferson Co.) to the southeast; Richmond (Wayne Co.), east central; Columbia City (Whitley Co.), Laketon (Wabash Co.), and Logansport (Cass Co.), nerth central; LaFayette (Tippecanoe Co.), west central. Besides these collections, specimens of the rust have been re- ceived from Mr. Guy West Wilson and Mr. C. D. Learn, both collections from Carmel (Hamilton Co.), central; and it was reported last year from Columbus (Bartholomew Co.). This covers the State in such a way as to lead one to be reasonably certain that the rust occurs throughout the State wherever its host does. In addition to the states and provinces from which the rust has been previously reported, specimens have deen received from Dr. E. W. Olive, collected at Brookings, S. Dak., who reports it as commen there this year, although not previously seen; from Miss Irma A. Uhde, collected at Lake Okoboji, Iowa; and from Prof. W. P. Fraser, Pictou, Nova Scotia. These localities in addition to those noted in Mr. Kern’s paper last year make the known distribution of this rust in North America as follows. SS. Da- kota, Minnesota, Iowa, Wisconsin, Indiana, Ontario, New York, Maine and Nova Scotia. In most of the specimens seen, especially those from Indiana, the sum- mer spores (urediniospores) were much the more abundant. Winter spores (teliospores) developed in some cases but not abundantly. In certain 204 places in Jefferson County, the rust in its uredinial stage was abundant this year. ‘The rainy seascn in the southern part of the State favored the development of the fungus. At LaFayette, on the Experiment Station farm, the uredinial stage of the rust is abundant in a timothy meadow, which was sown down this spring. The rust is most abundant in the low parts of the meadow, and even as late as at this writing (Nov. 22nd') the rust sori are abundant on the green blades. The vitality of the urediniospores, collected at LaFayette, Ind., Noy. 22nd, 1910, was tested by means of hanging drops in Van Tiegham cells. Spores were taken both from the green blades and from those that had been killed by the frost. While the former showed much the more vigor- ous germination, the vitality of the spores in both cases proved to be high. This shows that they have withstood the cold weather, thus far, very well, and points to the probability that the rust may be able to pass the winter here in the uredinial stage, as it is thought to do in Europe. From the above conditions it seems evident that timothy rust is in North America to stay, and its abundance will doubtless vary with the varying conditions that favor or check its development. Some of the conditions that seem to favor the development of the fungus are a heavy, luxuriant growth of the host on ground that tends to hold moisture, along with rainy weather with cool nights and moderately still, warm, but not hot, days. Obviously, the opposite set of conditions tend to be unfavor- able for the greatest development of the rust. While the best possible attention to both air and soil drainage will no doubt lessen the attacks of the disease to some extent, yet its ultimate control doubtless lies in the field of the plant breeder. The production of a strain of timothy having a high resistance to rust, as well as having at the same time the best forage qualities, would be of vast importance. Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station, Lafayette, Ind. 118 F. is the minimum thus far (Nov. 22d) at Lafayette, according to the official reading of the U. S. Weather Bureau at this station. 205 Inpiana E'unGI. By J. M. VAN Hook. For many years fungous specimens have been collected at Indiana Uni- versity and from time to time a few have been added to the herbarium. During the past four years, many more of these have been identified, while still others have been collected and determined. It occurred to the writer that a preliminary list of these might be of importance to certain members of the Indiana Academy of Science. It is our intention to add to this number as rapidly as possible, with the view of obtaining ultimately as complete a list for the State as possible. So far, previous lists have not been consulted. No species is included, which has not come under my per- sonal observation. In a future paper, it is the writer’s intention to revise and extend the list with dates of first mention in Indiana, or, the possible time and method of introduction into the State. Practically all of the specimens have been collected in Monroe and Brown counties. The latter offers a fine field for mycological study, as some of the original forests still stand. A considerable number of speci- mens have been obtained in my home county—Clark. Its knobs with their deep hollows between, offer probably the best collecting ground in the State for fleshy fungi. So far, about 1,500 specimens have been classified. These contain some 500 species distributed through approximately 175 genera. I am under obligation to Professor G. I’. Atkinson, Dr. C. H. Peck and Dr. W. A. Mur- riil for identification or verification of some of the fleshy and woody forms. No effort will be made to secure a long list of the rusts, as that work is already so thoroughly done by Dr. J. C. Arthur. The Myxomycetes will be studied in connection with the fungi. In order to facilitate the work of a fungus survey of the State, we would kindly solicit specimens (especially of the Fungi Imperfecti group) accompanied with date, place of collection and host or substratum. 206 PHYCOMYCETES. Albugo bliti (Biv.) O. Kuntze. S eandida (Pers.) O. Kuntze. “ ipomoea pandurane (Schw.) Swingle. Mucor cucurbitarum B. «& C. Phycomyces nitens (Ag.) Kze. Plasmopara cubensis (B. & C.) Hum- phrey. . viticola (B. & C.) Berl. & De Toni. Rhizopus nigricans Ehbg. Sporodinia grandis Link. Synchytrium decipiens Farl. USTILABINE. Doassansia sagittarie (Westend.) Fisch. Ustilago, levis Kell. & Swing. UREDINE. Aécidium dracontii Schw. Cxoma nitens Schw. Gymnosporangium macropus Link. Melampsora populina (Jacq.) Lev. Puecinia asparagi DC. coronata Cda. i graminis Pers. Me helianthi Schw. x malvacearum Mart. podophylli Schw. sorghi Schw. x violacese (Schum.) DC. a xanthii Schw. Uromyces appendiculatus (Pers. ) Link. Gs caladii (Schw.) Farl. «“ euphorbie Cke. & Pk. eS howei Pk. «“ trifolii (A. & S.) Wint. AURICULARIINE. Auricularia auricula-jude (L.) Schroet. TREMELLINE:. Exidia glandulosa (Bull.) Fr. Guepinia spathularia Fr. Tremella albida Hud. “ mycetophila Pk THELEPHORACE. Aleurodiscus oakesii (B. & C.) Cke. Corticium coerulium (Schrad.) Fr. z scutellare B. & C. Craterellus cantharellus (Schw.) Fr. 4 cornucopioides (L.) Pers. Hymenochaete ferruginea (Bull.) Mass. Peniophora cinerea (Fr.) Cke. Sebacina incrustans Tul. Stereum bicolor (Pers.) Fr. y complicatum Fr. fasciatum Schw. frustulosum Fr. hirsutum Fr. sericium Schw. sowerbei Mass. versicolor (Schw.) Fr Thelephora palmata Fr. schweinitzil Pk. CLAVARIACEA. Calocera cornea Fr. Clavaria fusiformis Pers. oh mucida Pers. é pistillaris Linn. “ pyxidata Pers. Sparassis crispa (Wulf.) Fr. HYDNACEA. Grandinia granulosa Fr. Hydnum adustulum Banker. adustum Schw. arachnoideum Pk. caput-meduse Bull. carbonarium Pk. combinans Pk. coralloides Scop. erinaceus Bull. laciniatum Leers. mucidum Pers. ochraceum Pers. pulcherrimum Pk. repandum L. septentrionale Fr. spongiosipes Pk. zonatum Batsch. Irpex cinnamomeus Fr. “ obliquus Fr. “ tulipifera Schw. Phlebia radiata Fr. Radulum orbiculare Fr. Tremellodon gelatinosum (Scop.) Pers. POLY PORACE. Boletinus porosus Berk. Boletus affinis Pk. se alveolatus B. & C. auriporus Pk. : bicolor Pk. castaneus Bull. 207 conicus Rav. 5 edulis Bull. " felleus Bull. frostil Russell. indecisus Pk. s luridus Schaeff. magnisporus Frost. i. modestus Pk. nigrellus Pk. ornatipes Pk. pallidus Frost. purpureus Fr. 3 retipes B. & C. scaber Fr. separans Pk. speciosus Pk. subsanguineus Pk. subtomentosus hL. subvelutipes Pk. vermiculosus Pk. Dedalia ambigua Berk. “ confragosa (Bolt.) Pers. “ quercina (L.) Pers. . unicolor Fr. Favolus canadensis KI. Fistulina hepatica Fr. Fomes applanatus (Pers.) Wallr. conchatus (Pers.) Fr. connatus (Pers.) Fr. fomentarius Gill. graveolens Cke. igniarius Gill. “ ribis (Fr.) Gloeoporus conchoides Mont. Lenzites betulina (L.) Fr. be flaccida (Bull.) Fr. 2 sepiaria Fr. - vialis Pk. 208 Merulius lacrymans (Jacq.) Fr. : rubellus Pk. iy tremellosus Schrad. Polyporus adustus (Willd.) Fr. arcularius (Batsch.) Fr. brumalis (Pers.) Fr. cinnabarinus Fr. dryadeus Fr. « fissus Berk. flavovirens Berk. & Rav. focicola B. & C. frondosus Fr. fumosus (Pers.) Fr. ‘ gilvus (Schw.) Fr. perennis Fr. perplexus Pk. picipes Fr. pilote Schw. pubescens Fr. radicatus Schw. § resinosus (Schr.) Fr. % spraguei B. & C. sulphureus Fr. unicolor Schw. Polystictus abietinus Fr. s biformis Klotzsch. cinnamomeus Sacc. i conchifer Schw. hirsutus Fr. pergamenus Fr. versicolor (L.) Quel. Strobilomyces strobilaceus (Scop.) Berk. Trametes peckii Kalchbr. AGARICACE. garicus campestris Schaeff. “ placomyces Pk. Amanita cothurnata Atk. s floccocephala Atk. fe phalloides Fr. rubescens Fr. solitaria Bull. : strobiliformis Vittad. verna Bull. 3 Aminitopsis vaginata (Bull.) Roz. i é “ var. alba. Armillaria mellea Vahl. Cantharellus aurantiacus Fr. cibarius Fr. cinnabarinus Schw. infundibuliformis Fr. minor Pk. if wrightii B. & C. Claudopus nidulans (Pers.) Pk. Clitocybe candida Bres. laccata Scop. e illudens Schw. infundibuliformis Schaeff. 4 monadelpha Morg. se multiceps Pk. ochropurpurea Berk. odora Bull. Clitopilus abortivus B. & C. Collybia atratoides Pk. rs confluens Pers. My dryophila Bull. “ maculata Alb. & Schw. - platyphylla Fr. “ radicata Rehl. velutipes Curt. Joprinus atramentarius (Bull.) Fr. is comatus Fr. é ebulbosus Pk. . micaceus (Bull.) Fr. Cortinarius alboviolaceus Pers. e obliquus Pk. Craterellus cantharellus (Schw.) Fr. 5 cornucopioides Fr. Crepidotus applanatus Pers. : calolepis Fr. a dorsalis Pk. * mollis Schaeff. a versutus Pk. Entoloma griseum Pk. iy strictus Pk. - subcostatum Atk. Flammula betulina Pk. Galera tenera Schaeff. Hygrophorus ceraceus (Wulf.) Fr. s coceineus (Schaeff.) Fr. a conicus (Scop.) Fr. eburneus Bull?” laure Morg. ~ psittacinus (Schaeff.) Fr. pudorinus Fr. puniceus Fr. - sordidus Pk. Hypholoma appendiculatum Bull. s lacrymabundum Fr. sublateritium Schaeff. Inoeybe fibrillosa Pk. - geophylla (Sow.) Fr. var. lilacina Pk. i rimosa (Bull.) Fr. Lactarius chrysorrheus Fr. corrugis Pk. ‘ deceptivus Pk. deliciosus Fr. Y distans Pk. gerardii Pk. = hygrophoroides B. & C. [ 14—26988 ] “ «“ “ Marasmius candidus (Bolt.) Fr. “ “ “ insulsus Fr. lignyotus Fr. piperatus (Scop.) Fr. plumbeus (Bull.) Fr. pyrogalus (Bull.) Fr. rufus (Scop.) Fr. scrobiculatus Fr. serifluus (DC.) Fr. sordidus Pk. subdulcis (Bull.) Fr. theiogalus (Bull.) Fr. trivialis Fr. uvidus Fr. vellerius Fr. volemus Fr. Lentinus lepideus Fr. ursinus Fr. vulpinus Fr. Lepiota angustana Britz. americana Pk. asperula Atk. cepestipes Sow. granosa Morg. morgani Pk. naucinoides Pk. procera Scop. rubrotincta Pk. coherens (Fr.) Bres. rotula Fr. siccus Schw. Mycena epipterygia Scop. galericulata Scop. hemotopa Pers. leajana Berk. leptophylla Pk. pura Pers. Naucoria semiorbicularis Bull. 209 210 Nyctalis asterophora Frost. Omphalia alboflava Moy. « campanella Batsch. Paneolus campanulatus L. e retirugis Fr. _ solidipes Pk. Panus stipticus (Bull.) Fr. “— rudis Fr. Paxillus panuoides Fr. Pholiota adiposa Fr. i zeruginosa Pk. caperata Pers. flammans Fr. marginata Batsch. squarrosoides Pk. togularis Bull. unicolor Vahl. Phylloporus rhodoxanthus (Schw.) Bres. Pleurotus applicatus Batsch. abscondens Pk. dryinus Pers. ostreatus Jacq. petaloides Bull. y sapidus Kalchbr. serotinoides Pk. ulmarius Bull. Pluteus cervinus Schaeff. ‘ leoninus Schaeff. var. coc- cineus Cke. Russula alutacea Ir. basifurcata Pk. compacta Frost. crustosa Pk. decolorans Fr. densifolia Secr. emetica Fr. foetens Fr. furcata (Pers.) Fr. granulata Pk. mariz Pk. nigricans Fr. pectinatoides Pk. variata Banning. veternosa Fr. virescens (Schaeff.) Fr. Schizophyllum commune Fr. Stropharia semiglobata Batsch. ¢ viridula Schaeff. Tricholoma equestre L. ‘ fumescens Pk. personatum Fr. « russula Schaeff. sejunctum Sow. Volvaria bombycina (Pers.) Fr. is pusilla Pers. PHALLINEA. Dictyophora duplicata (Bosc.) Ed. Fisch. < ravenelii (B. & C.) Burt. Mutinus caninus (Huds.) Fr. LYCOPERDINEA. Calvatia eccelata Bull. ve cyathiforme (Bosc.) e gigantea (Schaeff.) Batsch. Lycoperdon gemmatum Batsch. pyriforme Schaeff. NIDULARIINE. Crucibulum vulgare Tul. Cyathus stercorius (Schr.) De Toni s striatus (Huds.) Hoffm. PLECTOBASIDIINE. Scleroderma tenerum B. «& C. i vulgare Hornem. ASCOMYCETES. Anthostomella ostiolata Ell. Bulgaria inquinans (Pers.) Fr. Chlorosplenium zeruginosum (CHd.) de Not. Cordyceps herculea (Schw.) Sacce. “ militaris (L.) Link. Daldinia concentrica (Bolt.) Ces. & de N. Diatrype albopruinosa (Schw.) Cke. x stigma (Hoffm.) Fr. « virescens (Schw.) E. & E. Diatrypella prominens Howe. ‘Dicheena ferruginea (Pers-):Fr- Dimerosporium collinsii (Schw.) Thuem. Erysiphe cichoracearum DC. a graminis DC. Exoascus deformans (Berk.) Fckl. Gleeoglossum gelatinosum (Pers.) Durand. Gibberella saubinettii (Mont.) Sacc. Glonium simulans Gerard. Gyromitra gigas (Krombh.) Cke. Helotium citrinum (Hedw.) Fr. Hypomyees lactifluorum (Schw.) Tul. 4 rosellus (Alb. & Schw.) Tul. Hypoxylon annulatum Schw. sf atropunctatum (Schw.) Cke. " coccineum Bull. “ coherens (Pers.) Fr. “ fuscum (Pers.) Fr. howeianum Pk. investiens (Schw.) Berk. of petersi B. & C. turbinulatum Schw. Hysteriographium gloniopsis (Ger.) E.& C. Lachnea erinaceus Schw. i scutellata L. Lestadia bidwelli Ravaz. (Ell.) Viala & Leotia lubrica (Scop.) Pers. Microsphera alni (DC.) Wint. elevata Burr. Morchella conica Pers. esculenta (L:.) Pers. is semilebra DC. Nectria cinnabarina (Tode) Fr. « ipomoex Hals. Nummularia bulliardi Tul. discreta (Schw.) Tul. : tinctor (Berk. ) Otidea aurantia (Pers.) Mass. Peziza repanda Wahl. “ succosa Berk. “ ~ vesiculosa Bull. Phyllachora graminis Pers.) Fckl. Phyllactinia suffulta (Reb.) Sace. Plowrightia morbosa (Schw.) Sacc. Podosphera oxycanthe (DC.) De By. Pseudopeziza medicaginis (Lib.) Sace. 3 trifolii (Pers.) Fckl. Rhytisma andromade (Pers.) Fr. Rosellinia aquila (Fr.) De N. ss medullaris Ces. & De N. Sclerotinia fructigena Pers. Scorias spongiosa (Schw.) I['r. Sarcocypha coccinea (Jacq.) Cke. Spherella fragarize (Tul.) Sace. 212 Spherographium fraxini (Pk.) Sacc. Spherotheca pannosa (Wallr.) Lev. Tuber rufum Pico. Uncinula salicis (DC.) Wint. Urnula craterium (Schw.) Fr. Ustulina vulgaris Tul. Valsa leucostoma (Pers.) Fr. Venturia pomi (Fr.) Wint. Xylaria castorea Berk. hypoxylon (L.) Grev. s polymorph (Pers.) Grev. FUNGI IMPERFECTI. Spheropsidales. Actinonema ros (Lib.) Fr. Ascochyta pisi Lib. Cicinnobolus cesatii De By. Cytospora persice Schw. Diplodia zee (Schw.) Lev. Entomosporium maculatum (Cke.) Sacce. Darluca filum (Biv.) Cast. Leptothyrium pomi (Mont. «& Fr.) Sace. Phoma polygramma, (Fr.) Sacec. var. Plantaginis. Sacc. Phyllosticta ampelopsidis Ell. & Mart. prunicola (Op.) Sacce. Septoria graminum Desm. lycopersici Speg. piricola Desmz. podophyllina Pk. * rubi West. 4 trillii Pk. Sphzronema fimbriatum (Ell. & Hals.) Sace. Spheropsis grandinea E. & E. is malorum Berk. Vermicularia circinans Berk. Melanconiales. Colletotrichum lindemuthianum (Sace. & Magn.) Bri. & Cav. Cylindrosporium padi Karst. Marsonia brunneum E. & E. a ochroleuca B. & C. Hyphomycetes. Acrostalagmus cinnabarinus (Pers.) Cda. Alternaria brassice (Berk.) Sace. var. macrospora. Sacc. cs isolani (HE. & M.) Jones & Grant. Botrytis vulgaris Fr. Cephalothecium roseum Cda. Cercospora apli Fres. . beticola Sace. tf condensata Ell. & Kell. Gi viticola (Ces.) Sace. Cladosporium carpophilum Thuem. Fumago vagans Pers. Helminthosporium carpophilum Lev. sf inconspicuum C. & Ell. Piricularia grisea (Cke.) Sace. Polythrincium trifolii B. & C. Streptothrix atra B. & C. Stysanus stemonites (Pers.) Cda. Tubercularia vulgaris Tode. Zygodesmus fulvus Sacc. Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. 213 STECCHERINUM SEPTENTRIONALE (F'r.) BANKER In INDIANA. By Howarp J. BANKER. The fungus here considered is perhaps better known as Hydnum sep- tentrionale (Fr.). Although a large and conspicuous plant it appears to have attracted very little attention if we are to judge by the references to it in literature. In the entire series of Just’s Botanischer Jahrsbericht covering a period of more than twenty years I did not find a single refer- ence to this species. As to size it possesses the unique distinction of being by far the largest representative of the family of the Hydnacee, if not in- deed being able to lay claim to the first place in this respect in the entire fungal world. A specimen that recently came under the writer’s observa- tion and which is the occasion of this paper, after being damaged and a portion of it lost, weighed 35 lbs. The whole mass measured 30 cm. long, or in its projection from the substratum, 58. cm. wide, and 40. em high. I should not be surprised if specimens were to be found considerably ex- ceeding this in size. The formation of the sporophore is somewhat peculiar. The mycelium emerges from the main trunk of the tree through some small opening such as the hole formed by a dead limb. In the case of the plant here shown it emerged under the base of the tree in a crevice formed by the diver- gence of buttress-like roots and where there was a small opening apparently into the heart of the tree. In every case that I have observed, the opening has not been over ten centimeters in diameter and is out of all proportion to the size of the sporophore. On emerging from the hole the mycelium apparently grows radially, spreading in close adhesion to the substratum and forming outwardly a series of overlapping or imbricate pilei. The first impression is that the mass is thoroughly rooted in the tree at all points and can be removed only by breaking it in pieces or by cutting out a portion of the tree. However, it will be found that no stronger implements than one’s fingers are sufficient to remove the specimen intact, for its at- tachment to the bark is very slight and the fingers can easily be forced between the fungus and the tree, pushing it off until the small cord of mycelium which forms the real point of attachment is broken. Teeall N ‘UiJy-9u0 poylusvu ‘sarmpop jae Aq ydvasojvoyg ‘pur ‘opSkouooly YR Ooo Suraryy Jo oseq avou oodTAddo woay Surmoas ‘oypuorpuaydos WNULAOYIIILS T For weeks after the removal of the fungus the spot on the tree where it had been can be detected by its lighter color, looking as if it had been cleaned. There are, however, no other external marks of the effect of the fungus and the tree appears to suffer little vital injury. Some six years ago a fine specimen was found growing on a beech at a height of 12 or 15 feet from the ground in the dooryard of Dr. Edwin Post in Greencastle. The tree is still living and apparently thriving. The top of the tree has been cut off or broken out, apparently many years ago and certainly prior to infection by the fungus. The plant does not seem to kill the tree, but such a fungal mass could hardly be produced without considerable injury. The fungus has been observed only on large trees a foot or more in diame- ter. The writer has not been able to examine the wood of a tree attacked by the fungus, but it seems probable that the mycelium may be confined to the heart wood, which would account for the little injury done to the growing tree, as well as the fact of its confinement to old trees. It seems probable also that the sporephores are produced from small openings, because these offer a suitable path of exit through the sap-wood. It may appear, therefore, strange to speak of the plant as a parasite; but while its mycelium may be confined in its vegetative state to the non-living heart-wood, it is also true that the fungus appears to be confined to living trees and is never found on dead trunks, whether standing or fallen. The plant seems to prefer the beech as its host. It has been reported as growing on maple and perhaps hickory in the East, where beech is not very abundant. I have never seen the plant in situ on the latter hosts, and illustrations suggest the possibility of the plant’s being more or less distinct in character from the one found on beech. The original descrip- tion and figure by Fries was from specimens found on beech in Sweden. These are in every respect typical of specimens found here in indiana. i have seen no entire specimens of the European form on beech. At Upsala there is in the herbarium an eptire specimen of extraordinary size that was found growing on Linden in the Botanical Garden of the University. Although the specimen is dried, it is evident at sight that the plant pre- sents some striking differences from our Indiana plants. The pilei are much smaller, thinner, more numerous and more distinct, the color cinereous rather than creameus, and the teeth somewhat shorter. It is only after closer examination that one hesitates to pronounce it a distinct species. Fries makes mention of the plant’s being found on elm in the same Bo- 216 tanical Garden, and names a variety, hortense, found on the latter host. So far as I know, the plant has never been observed in this country either on linden or elm. It is possible that the influence of the host may affect somewhat the growth of the plant, if these are all one species. This is a point that needs further investigation. The immense sporophore is a single season’s growth and it seems probable is produced very rapidly in the course of a few weeks in August and September, reaching maturity about the first of October. The form found on maple in the east has been observed to fruit several years in suc- cession, and Fries speaks of the plant as growing annually on elm at Up- sala. The beech in Dr. Post’s yard two years later produced a small fun- gal growth, but too high up to be sure of its character, since which time no further growth has been observed. The tree on which the present growth was found gave no indications of any previous growths. Other observations lead me to believe that it is not usual for the beech fungus to fruit annually for a series of years. How long the mycelium lives in the tree is unknown. The spores are produced in enormous numbers, but seemingly for only a few days. On my first visit to this plant, October 17, no spore fall was observed, but the matter was not especially tested. Two days later, on visiting the place, spores were observed rising from the mass in small clouds. These frequently streamed out from parts of the fungus like a puff of smoke for 10 or 15 seconds, then ceased and after two or three minutes began again. Such streams were emitted from different parts of the plant irregularly, so that from some part spores were escaping almost constantly. The day was pleasant and the air very quiet, yet occasionally a light puff of air passed over the plant. The streaming of the spores, however, appeared to be no more marked when the air stirred than when it was perfectly quiet. The plant was carefully removed from the tree, but being found too heavy to carry was left propped against the base where it had grown. Five days later the fungus was brought to the laboratory and found to be in good condition, but the outer edges of the pilei were beginning to darken and curl. Faint spore prints were obtained, but such as to indicate that spore discharge was practically over. Whether the re- moval of the plant from the tree shortened the time of spore discharge is not certain, but it is doubtful if the plant gives off its spores naturally for a period of more than a week or ten days. 217 According to Buller, visible spore-discharge in the hymenomycetes is a rare phenomencn, and he cites the observations of Hoffman, Hammer, and von Schrenk. My own observation on Steccherinum septentrionale con- form to Von Schrenk’s description of the spore-discharge in Polyporus schweiniteii. Buller accounts for the intermittent clouds by tiny irregular air currents, and thinks the spores were in reality ‘falling continuously and regularly by their own weight.” In the case of his own observation on Polyporus squomosus this view appears to be confirmed, and he likens the appearance to the steam arising from a cup of tea in irregular eddies or the curling of tobacco smoke from the bowl ot a pipe. Had he observed the discharge in Steccherinwn septentrionale I believe he would not have felt so confident of his explanation. The cloud-like discharge was more as the curling smoke of the tobacco when one breathes at intervals through the pipe. I doubt if the discharge is due to any propelling force as hinted by Von Schrenk, but it seems to me probable that over certain restricted areas there is a simultaneous liberation of great quantities of spores followed by a period uf rest. That such intermittent spore release occurs in all hy- menomycetes is improbable, but it seems to account for the phenomenon as observed in Steccherinum septentrionale and Polyporus schweinitzii. Whether the present fungus is to be regarded as an edible species can not be stated. No one appears te have tested its qualities. It would prob- ably be found somewhat tough, especially when mature, but not more so than many forms that are recommended. In drying it gives off a very strong odor which would lead one to expect it to have a pronounced flavor. The taste of the raw plant is not inviting, and yet not particularly of- fensive. If any preparation of it would make it really comestible, a single plant is sufficient to furnish an abundant feast. The plant is not rare and yet cannot be said to be common. It ap- pears to be most abundant in Indiana and Ohio, perhaps because of the prevalence of the beech in this region. When the writer came to Indiana six years ago, he had not been in the State more than a couple of weeks when his attention was called by one of his students to the specimen previously mentioned in Dr. Post’s yard. As there were three or four dried specimens observed lying about the laboratory, the impression was given that specimens could probably be readily obtained almost any time in season. Being at the time unusually busy organizing a new work, the opportunity for study of the plant was allowed to pass with a casual ex- 218 amination and the securing of the specimen. From that time until this fall, however, no more were seen except one or twe old and badly weath- ered specimens. The plant is, therefore, not so abundant as was thought. Press of other work has again made it impcssible to conduct as thorough an investigation of the problems suggested by this plant as one would like, but it has appeared worth while to eall attention to this seemingly little noticed fungus. DePauw Univ., Greencastle, Ind. bo — to) DisbasSE RESISTANCE IN VARIETIES OF POTATOES. By ©. R. ORTON. This report is the result of experiments conducted by the author, under the direction of Dr. L. R. Jones, while in the coédperative employ of the Vermont Experiment Station and the United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, during the fall of 1909-107. In general, the work was the outgrowth of a series of experiments carried on by Professor William Stuart at the Verinont Station for several years previous to 1909, the results of which may be found in Bulletin 122, Ver- mont Experiment Station. In particuiar, if was the development of some research work of the previous winter on late blight. Professor Stuart conducted his experiments in the field upon over 150 varieties, with the ‘idea of determining, if possible, the disease resistant qualities of both American and European varieties of potatoes, to the late blight, Phytoph- thora infestans (Mont) Bary, a fungus which causes the loss of many thousands of bushels of potatoes yearly in New Wagland, especially in Maine and Vermont, and periodically the loss of one-half the entire crop or more in that section. European potato growers have for years been breeding and testing potato varieties for the disease resistant quality, until they have developed a series of varieties which have proved by field trials to be highly resistant to fungous diseases. ‘The processes as carried out by them necessitated growing the tubers for several years in succession and noting the amount of inrection each year. This, of course, is at best a tedious operation, giv- ing slow and often unsatisfactory results. In 1908 Mr. N. J. Giddings, then of the Vermont Experiment Station, found that resistance to the late blight could be determined with some degree of accuracy by artificial inoculation of the tubers, with pure cul- tures of the fungus, under sterile conditions in the laboratory. The vatue of the laboratory method for testing varieties of potatoes for disease re sistance is easily seen when we consider that it would permit us in two or three weeks to test the resistance quality of any variety, a process which 1The full results of these experiments are to be published in a forthcoming bulletin of the United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry. 220 heretofore by laborious field experiments has taken as many years. The purpose in the trials of 1909 was to determine more fully the reliability of this method and its applicability for comparative trials with a large num- ber of varieties. In all, 76 varieties of potatoes, 46 of which Dr. Jones collected in Europe, were tested. Practically all of these were varieties of economic value in their respective localities. Most of the European varieties were of reputed disease resistant qualities. All had been grown on the Vermont Experiment Station grounds under as similar conditions as possible, for four years previous to these experiments. The method used was, first, to prepare sterile test tubes by placing a small absorbent cotton wad in the bottom of each tube and adding to each one cc. of water. ‘The tubes were then plugged with ordinary cot- ton and sterilized in the autoclave. The next step was to place in each such tube a small sterile block cut from a raw potato. Considerable care was necessary to avoid contamination in this process. The work was all done under a transfer hood freshly washed out’ with corrosive sublimate solution. The potato tubers were first washed then immersed for about five minutes in a corrosive sublimate bath. They were then peeled with sterile knives and the sterile interior flesh was finally cut into several small blocks of such size, about 1x 1x44 cm., as would drop easily into the tubes. These tubes were then held 24 hours at about 22° C., in order that any contaminated tubers might be detected and discarded before the in- ocnlations were made. The inoculations were made from pure cultures of Phytophthora infestans growing on lima bean agar and about 15 to 18 tubes of each variety were inoculated. About twelve varieties were run in each series, two of these varieties used as checks, being the same in all the series. For these checks Professor Wohltmann and Green Mountain varieties were used because they showed a very uniform growth all through and stood at the two extremes, the former being one of the most resistant varieties, the latter one of the most susceptible. or each inoculation, a small piece of the fungus was transferred with a platinum needle from the agar to the block of potato and scratched into it to prevent its drying up before infection could take place. If proper care was taken in making this inoculation, a uniform growth was obtained on all the blocks of the same variety. After inoculation the cultures were placed for incubation and growth in a temperature of about 15° to 16°C. It was found that at this tem- 221 perature they developed a fair growth of the fungus in about six days, and this reached a maximum on about the tenth day. All the tubes of each variety were then assembled and compared with the checks as to their relative amounts of growth. ‘These results were judged by two or three observers independently of each other, and each judgment recorded. For purposes of comparison the relative growth was expressed in per- centages. Although this was a somewhat arbitrary standard its useful- ness is shown by the fact that these independent observations rarely varied more than five to ten per cent. For the final results all these tests were made in duplicate and all the observations on any one variety were averaged. These uverages may be grouped into three main classes. First, a highly resistant class, those exhibiting a growth of from 1-35 per cent. Second, a middle class, those exhibiting a growth of from 35-66 per cent, and third, a susceptible class, exhibiting a growth of from 65-100 per cent. It was found that those fall- ing into class one were in every case those which were of tested disease- resistance and were practically all of Huropean origin. Those falling into class two were largely of reputed disease-resistance and were also largely of European origin. Those falling into the third class were practically all of American origin and included many of our most important commercial varieties. Since these results, in the main, correspond to those obtained by Professor Stuart, in his field trials, we feel safe in drawing the con- clusion, that thus far our American breeders of potato varieties have been developing types which stand for yield and quality regardless of disease- resistance, while European breeders have been developing disease resistant varieties. This, we believe, explains in a measure, the heavy loss occa- sioned by fungous disease in our American potato crop. Unfortunately the most resistant of the European varieties are not of the best quality and color for the American market. It therefore remains for the potato breeders of this country to develop varieties which combine the desirable qualities of the best American potatoes with the disease-resistant qualities of the hardiest Huropean potatoes. In connection with this it will un- doubtedly be the laboratory method here explained which will be used largely in testing the disease resistant qualities of new hybrids and seed- lings in the attempts to develop this new ideal potato. Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana. Aw EcotocicaL SuRVEY OF WHITEWATER GORGE, By L. C. Petry and M. S. MARKLE. At Richmond, Indiana, the east branch of Whitewater River runs through a narrow rock gorge for a distance of about three miles. This miniature canyon is commonly called the Whitewater gorge. It varies in Neuen ce A ee Main ST reer | Yi ELE! Orid9 e VY, Fig. 1. depth from 60 ft. to 120 ft. and in width from 200 ft. to 800 ft. on the floor. The gorge terminates rather abruptly at Test’s Mills, about two 224 miles below Main street, Richmond, and from that point to its mouth the valley is generally broad. This gorge was formed as a direct result of the glacial phenomena of - the region. There is evidence that at the close of the Early Wisconsin ice sheet period, the river occupied a channel much to the eastward of its present course. Wells to the south of Glen Park, nearly three miles east of the present river channel indicate at that point an old channel now filled with drift. The streams in Glen Park seem to occupy this same old chan- nel. From this and other evidence it seems probable that this old channel passes to the east of the city of Richinond, and connects with the present river valley somewhere below Test’s Mills. The advance of the Late Wisconsin ice sheet resulted in filling up this old channel with drift. There is evidence that this ice advance was from two directions, north-west and north-east, and that the terminal moraines of the two lobes did not come together. The river, forced out of its old channel, took up a new course between the two moraines. With the melt- ing of the ice sheet, the volume of water discharged by the stream would be very large, and erosion of its channel correspondingly rapid. Since the retreat of the ice, it has carved the present gorge. The rock of the gorge is Hudson River or Cincinnati limestone. This is a favorite collecting ground for paleontologists interested in this par- ticular portion of the Lower Silurian beds. Trilobites are not numerous, though several species are found. Calymene senaria is commonest. Ryn- chotrema capax, Zygospira modesta, Platystrophia biforata and Lepteena rhomboidalis are the characteristic brachiopods. Streptolasma is extremely common. The character of the rock is of extreme importance in the considera- tion of the ecology of the region. The rock is soft and very thin-bedded, and is rendered still more unstable by the alternation of thin beds of shale of a soft calcareous nature with the layers of limestone. The lime- stone itself is shaly and weathers very rapidly. Three inches is probably the average thickness of the rock layers. ‘The amount of shale varies greatly, even within limited areas. In general, the shale makes up about one third of the total rock. As a result of the nature of the rock, steep cliffs are maintained only where active erosion of the base is going cn. As soon as river erosion ceases, the slope becomes gentler at once. There is a considerable amount 225 “UOTSSODONS Juvld Ul os5u4S AyARO Uy ZS 6988] 2 [15 296 of seepage and slumping is frequent. A large talus quickly collects. This is composed of angular fragments of the limestone, embedded in a matrix of the fine mud produced by the weathering of the shale. The stream through the gorge has a very high gradient. From Main street to Test’s Mills, a distance of about 9,000 feet, the total fall is 47 feet, or about 1 foot in 200. This gradient is not at all uniform throughout the distance. In general the stream consists of a series of alternate ponded stretches and rapids. At some of the fall lines a difference of level of six or eight feet may occur. This condiition is produced by a slight dip of the rock strata toward the up-stream end of the gorge. This dip is small, not more than a few inches to the hundred feet. Where a portion of the rock, harder than the surrounding rock or with less shale, comes to the surface, a fall line is produced. Fragments of rock carried down by spring floods accumulate at this point, and the portion of the stream immediately above becomes ponded. Some of these ponds are as much as 1,200 feet in length. The annual rainfall in this region is about 40 inches. The average flow of the river is about GO cubic feet per second. Bulletin. Bureau of Standards, Vol. 3, p. 287. 300 of thermodynamics. Consequently the ‘temperature’ which occurs in the equations is the absclute thermodynamic temperature. The standardization of pyrometers is generally made by means of cer- tain fixed points, such as the fusion of platinum, palladium, gold, ete. and the ebullition of water, aniline, naphthaline, sulphur, etc., which have been carefully determined by means of the gas thermometer. ‘The platinum thermoelectric pyrometer, on account of its ease of manipulation, conveni- ence, and accuracy, has come into general use for temperature measure- ments between 1200° C., the upper limit of the gas thermometer, and 1600° C. The thermo-couple may be directly compared with the gas thermometer up to 1200° C., but beyond this we must rely on extrapolation up to 1600° C., which is the limit of the thermo-couple. Beyond this range, the scale must depend upon radiation laws which have some theoretical support and can be tested within the range of the gas scale. It is seen from the above that high temperature measurements may ‘tbe made in terms of the thermodynamic scale, but that the actual precision 1s entirely subordinate to that of the various intermediate steps, which lead from the perfect gas thermometer to the radiation pyrometer. APPARATUS. Electric-resistance Pyrometer.—Pyrometers of this type are more or less familiar to persons who have had any experience whatever in Heat or Electrical Measurements’ laboratories. To illustrate the application of resistance thermometry, in the laboratory, a number of pure metals such as nickel, iron, silver, and copper may be used for temperatures up to 300° C., and there are several types of cheap, compact, serviceable instruments now on the market. For practical use and calibration the coil of wire used should be inclosed in a tube or stem of some suitable material, such as glass, iron, or porcelain, depending upon the temperature to which it is subjected. This stem should terminate in a head provided with binding post for making connections to lead wires. As the resistance of the, lead wires will vary with the depth of immersion it is necessary to provide com- pensating leads which are put in the adjacent arm of a Wheatstone bridge. For all temperatures, from the lowest obtainable up to 1000° C., and espe- cially for the higher temperatures, platinum* is the most satisfactory. When used for high temperatures (up to 1000° CG.) the platinum coil is generally wound over a mica frame and inclosed in an infusible porcelain stem, 301 Thermoelectric Pyrometer.—Numerous materials have been used around the laboratory for thermo-couples, but the cheapest and at the same time the most reliable is the copper-constantan. The latter metal is known in this country as Advance, or Ia Ia. This couple can be used up to about 900° C. An extended investigation of this thermoelement has been carried out by White,’ who recommends it as a precision thermometer. For temperatures between 300° C. and 1600° C. platinum and some alloy of platinums must be used. The choice of a couple depends entirely upon the conditions under which it is to be used. For high temperatures the platinum couple (Pt——Pt+10%Rh) is perhaps the only one that is used with success, but fer low temperatures, say up to 1000° C., a number of alloys are used in in- dustrial processes with good success. For low temperatures it is necessary to choose metals that will produce a higher P.D. than that used at high temperatures. For temperatures below 100° C., the couple may be cali- brated by direct comparison with mercury thermometer, but for high tem- peratures fixed points are necessary. The method of measuring the P.D. depends upon the accuracy required. For precise work the cold junction should always be kept at constant tem- perature (generally melting ice) and the P.D. should be measured on a potentiometer, using a standard cell. For work when great precision is not necessary, a d’Arsonyal galvanometer or even a sensitive millivoltmeter is sufficiently accurate. In industrial practice the outfit must be as portable and compact as possible so that a direct reading instrument is generally used, which is substantially a millivoltmeter calibrated to read direct in temperature °C. or °F. The cold junction in such cases is generally main- tained at 25° C. or 75° F., and the instrument is calibrated to be correct at that temperature. Any slight variation will not cause a great error, but all approximate correction can always be made by adding to the indicated temperature the difference between the temperature of the cold junction and 25°, when the former exceeds 25°, and subtracting the difference when it is less than 25°. Correction can also be made by means of an automatic 4 Bulletin Bureau of Standards, Vol. 6, p. 149, 5 Phys. Rev., Aug., 1910, p. 138, 302 compensator as shown in Fig I. It consists of a fine platinum wire A, which is partially immersed in mer- cury B. When the bulb is heated the mercury in the capillary tube expands and short circuits the platinum loop, thus diminishing the resistance of the circuit. This balances a change in e.m.f., due to a rise of temperature of the cold junction. All the contacts of the different parts of the cir- Fig. 1. cuit should be carefully made, and wherever possible this should be done by soldering. The hot junction of the wires used in the couple should be fused together. For easily fusible metals, such as copper, this can be done in the Bunsen flame, but for platinum oxygen is required. Platinum may also be fused in the electric are. At the cold junction the lead wires should be soldered to the thermo- element wires. The wires composing the couple, which are subjected to high temperatures, should be insulated throughout their entire length by glass tubes or pipe stems. Asbestos thread may also be used for tempera- tures below 1300° C. Small fire clay tubes pierced by two holes may also be procured and are very conyenient. For industrial work the couple should be inclosed by an iron or porcelain tube. The former should not be used for temperatures over 800° C. Radiation Pyrometry.—F rom the fact that the intensity of light emit- ted from a body increases very rapidly with rise of temperature the op- tical method is well adapted to the measurement of high temperatures. Tor example, the luminous intensity of the red part of the light emitted by a body of 1500° C. is 130 times the intensity of 1000° C., and at 2000° C. it is more than 2100 times as great as at 1000° C. It thus appears that a comparatively rough measurement of the luminous intensity of an incan- descent body would give a pretty accurate measurement of its temperature. This conclusion, however, is modified by the fact that different bodies at the same temperature emit very different amounts of radiant energy. The radiating power of a body depends not only upon the temperature but also the composition and nature of the surface. In order that the radiation and optical methods can be used for comparison of temperatures it is necessary that the effect of differences of surfaces be eliminated. This can be done by reducing the radiation from all surfaces to the radiation that would occur from some ideal surface arbitrarily taken as a standard of com- parison. 303 A body that would absorb all the radiant energy imecident upon it is called a perfectly black body. From a consideration of Prevost’s theory of exchange it can be shown that a body inside an inclosure all parts of Which are at the same temperature is a perfectly black body. JXirchoff has shown that the radiation from a perfectly black body depends only upon its temperature. For this reason the radiant energy emitted by a perfectly black body is taken as the basis for the comparison of high temperature. Radiation and optical pyrometers are calibrated by comparing a series of actnal temperatures of a perfectly black body with the amounts of energy radiated at the respective temperatures. Two bodies are at the same black body temperature when they emit equal amounts of radiant energy. Two! bodies at the same actual temperature, determined by means of a gas ther- mometer, will not be at the same black body temperature unless their sur- faces have the same radiating power. For example, a piece of iron and a piece of porcelain each at an actual temperature of 1200° C., if examined by means of an optical pyrometer calibrated in terms of the red rays emitted by a perfectly black body, would indicate 1140° C. and 1100° C. respectively. If, however, two bodies be placed inside a uniformly heated inclosure they will not only attain the same temperature, but they will also emit radiant energy equally. That is, they will have the same black body temperature. In other words, the actual temperature of a body inside a uniformly heated inclosure equals the black body temperature. A pyrometer then, which has been calibrated by comparison with a black body, when sighted upon an incandescent body, reads not its true temperature (thermodynamic temperature), but its black body, which will be somewhat lower than its true temperature. The difference will depend upon the emission power of the body. If, however, the body sighted upon is a black body, for example a heated inclosure, then the pyrometer indicates its true or thermodynamic temperature. A few substances such as platinum black, carbon and iron oxide radiate approximately as black bodies, but as yet there is no known substance which is absolutely black. In using the term in this sense we must remember that the temperature must be involved as well as the emission and absorption powers. ‘Thus, any body whose radiation is proportional to that of a black body, for all wave lengths, is considered black if its temperature is the same as a black body. If its true temperature is higher (it could never be lower) it is considered gray. A carbon lamp filament is gray because its spectral distribution is the same as 304 a black body, but not black because its true temperature is slightly higher than a black body. A uniformly heated inclosure is the nearest approximation to our ideal black body. fa les 2 Consider a body A within a heated inclosure B, Fig. 2, both at the same temperature throughout. A receives a certain amount of thermal radiation from the wall of the envelope C and radiates to C an equal amount if they are in temperature equilibrium. Also A radiates a certain amount to D and receives the same amount, if D is at the same tempera- ture. Since A, on the whole, neither gains nor loses it radiates to D the same amount it receives from C, consequently the radiation from A towards D is the same as that from C towards D. Not only is the quantity the same but also the quality, for the coefficient of absorption depends upon the quality (i. e., it is different for different parts of the spectrum), so that if C and A radiate the same amount they must radiate the same qual- ity. If the spectral distribution of A were different from C its coeffi- cient of absorption would be different and therefore it would not radiate the same quantity. Hence any other body within B and at same tem- perature would radiate the same as A so that no detail could be detected, i. e., the objects could not be distinguished from one another or the walls of the inclosure. Moreover any body outside of B at the same true temperature could not radiate more energy than A, consequently, A is a complete radiator or a perfectly black body when within B, and it also follows that the interior of B radiates as a perfectly black body. Argyrosumus artedi . Argyrosomus artedi 2 > Coregonus clupeiformis <. Cristivomer namaycush 2 & Salvelinus fontinalis toydoyyuvoy IIOUBLGTULO LT _ Woydoyyuvoy Loydoyyuroy Loy qoyyuvoy oy doyyuroy to doy quvoy UYOUBAGTULO FY TITPOURAG TUL FT LLYOURAG TUL FT ItpOuv.ALG LOFT MOURA LUO EF loydoyquvoy TuLO] dv TT Loydoyyuvoy rode yy oydoyyunoy uo] deyy lo, doyyunoy TULO] AV TT Tuo dv yy 1oydoyquroy toydoyyuroy rur0/ de yy oydoyqunow TuUo[ dey] RPV] ®Wplojsosoysery BPLgery Rpuwoyyy Bplay, y BPLgery RPLQuey KPO] SOLIISVL) BPlOJSOLI JSC") BpPloJSOLO] SCL) Bpto JSOLOISCY BPIOJSO.OYSVL) BPMPOLVLYUOS) HP I]LOM ef BP TUAaBlog BPMN [190 1aRdg BPU[LOD J BPIu Ty VpPUpLowM | wepuyplow BpPUqe'y] BPLquy BPI|LoM BPloleryuory) wpryl9e gf “ P sijtuo vsoqne J, a Snsourdsiq sno}sos0}sexy WP siqtuo vsoyney, 3 BpYOU Bipuoy YP Bye4OU BIP Ue; A, stqtuo vsoynv y, 2 snsdedspe snaqevjosoyne J, & snsourdsiq snoqso10}ser) ye snsourdsiq snoyso.104str) & snovapenb soyjody Y showipenb soqjedy A, snsourdsiq snoyso1oyser) 2 snsoqqts s1yourodngy ro) snuvydeip snpnpuniy P SI[esel UOTOSOUAD A Ssnyrpoo1ojoy snpnpunyy PP sdosA1qo snuloysoud}g A, snypoosoyoy snpnpunyy YP siytuo vsoqney, A, sngtpooreyoy snynpuny 2 sngIporoyoy snynpunyy] (5 snsuodspv snaqulodoqne y, yp snsiodspe sniqvjosoyne J, A, snyypoorojoy snynpuny P snsoqqis srourodngy A, snqpoosoyoq snpnpunyy 3 Goa yApuodsosy Rp uowyey P SI[VUIQUO} SNUI[AABS = BAUTLOz UY OF: Doweel DUS Pe MOISES | Wee see ened t 1Apuodsosy BpPUOUWpeVg ra) YsnoAvulvu JOWIOATISUID ae) ; ; ; ee yApuodsosy Bpwuowlyes Pp sturroyiednjo snuose10(+) PeTOieHG eoueo tom onr ea g yApuodsosy Bpimuowyeg 3 Ipayie snuroso1As1y ; : e 1Apuodsosy w#BpiuowlyTg LP Tpayie snuloso1As1y Deusre Ea | alen Lod ease E 1Apuodsosy Bpuouryes 4 sturzojtednyjo snuose109), wo\doyyuRoy eBpuqgey p snsiedspe sniqejosoyne J, Yee l 1y}BUS0}99] J epipoyousyeg A neq snuvsd¢: woydoyyuBoy xepuweyyy LP vYvjOU RIP UOT, ee l IY4VUGO}IO] J BVPIpPloyoRlyveg, 4 ney snuesd¢, 5 119ydoyyuroy RpPUsoy 7) V P ¥VRIOU VIPTUS TL 408 l 1q4eus0W9] JI Bpriployorsjve, A ney snuvsd¢g TTOUBIG TUS FT Pl }SO19 SVr) P snsourdstq snoyso1a}sery, oor u 19eydoyyuroy Rp uly yy 3S BYe{OU VIPIUSTA 00T-02 7 1oydoyyuBoy Rp unio yy ve 2IVLOU LIPUITL = TYOuBvAg [Wd FL ®BPI9SO19}Svr) snsourdstq stiajsodeqsery: wWoydoyyuRBoy Bpweqe’y O siyiuo esoyne fT : d oo." ; : V4 aes eu ! 110 doy yurvoy Bpiqey A snsiedspv snaqvjosoqyne y, WoydoyyUBOy Rp] P snsiodspv sniqevjosoyne J, se c 1193 doyyuroy RpPlwqv'y 4A stytuo vsoyney, 00T-08 ¢ 11a} doyjuLroy Bpunoyyy ; we ST[IOVIO BIPTUO TLYOUBIGTULO TT BPlo}SO19jsvry A, snsourdstq snojso104ser) ‘NOILVNDAUdN] | ‘aavy, Sassou ; “SMUVWAY I W a rricceG: (@) “ATW “ssouy) JO INTD wad tO Ute N “ponuluo0j— "6 ATAV J, 378 SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTS. INTRODUCTORY. In the preceding detailed account of the various crosses effected are included combinations between forms of teleosts. ranging from closely re- lated species within the same genus to species belonging to widely separated orders. ‘Their relationships are summarized below, the figures set opposite each indicating the number of different combinations made in each group :' Between different species of same genus................ 2 Ce “e genera of same family.-............- 4 s “s families of same order............... 1 us ss orders of same class........-.-5-.2: 17 A number of interesting facts appear from the above table and from a closer inspection of the more detailed Table 9. In all the crosses attempted with the exception of the cross in which Opsanus tau was used as the male. impregnation was possible. The sperm of the single Opsanus tau specimen used was not ripe in the three combinations attempted, so that it is impossi- ble to say whether these crosses are possible. CUOARACTER OF IMPREGNATION. In many of the crosses the impregnation was wholly normal. In some there was in addition to the normally impregnated eggs, a varying number of dispermic and polyspermic impregnations. Among the abnormally im- pregnated eggs the dispermic was very much more common than the poly- spermic condition. In the dispermic eggs the protoplasmic disc, as is well known, falls at once into four cells. Sections of these conditions show that two male pronuclei fuse with the egg pronucleus ; whether additional spermn- tozoa enter such eggs, but remain functionless so far as early cleavage is concerned, I am not able to say. In the polyspermic eggs the protoplasm falls at once into six or more celis. The cases coming under my observa- tion in which many cells at once appeared, have been rather rare. PERCENTAGE OF FERTILIZATION. A striking fact is the large percentage of eggs impregnated. In fully two-thirds of the crosses this ran above 50 per cent., and in many of the Gh cembinations it ran above 75 per cent. A glance at Table 9 will show that this is not in any way correlated with the nearness of relationship. 1 This is represented in more detailed form in Table 9. 379 The low percentage of impregnation, on the other hand, must be re- garded in most cases, I feel sure, as due to unfavorable conditions of the milt, and in some cases to the unripe condition of the eggs. Males that have passed the height of their breeding season, or which may have been less able to endure the conditions of confinement in aquaria usually show a reduced fertilizing power compared to'perfectly fresh and ripe individual. The testes. were in all the experiments cut out, so that it is quite probable that in many cases imperfect milt was used. I was, furthermore, not able to establish any constant difference in the percentage of impregnations in re- ciprocals. Allowing for the infiuence of the condition of the milt in deter- mining the percentage of impregnation, in all cases where a fair trial was made in reciprocal crossing of two species it was approximately as high in one direction as the other. It is interesting to note here that Kammerer ‘OT using fresh water fishes, found, »among the few forms he used, two crosses, Perea fluviatilis x Acerina schraetser and Lucioperca sandra x Perea fluvia- tilis, in which it was possible to impregnate when the first named in each case was the male, but not if female. It is also impossible to fertilize the eggs of Aspro zingel with the milt from the following nearly related forms: Perca fluviatilis, Lucioperca sandra and Acerina sp?, but was able to fer- tilize them with the milt from the distantly related form Cottus gobio. It would seem from these experiments that fresh water fishes lend themselves less generally to hybridization than the marine species. Kammerer’s statement that the eggs of Aspro zingel are fertile to the sperm of the distantly related form Cottus gobio when they were immune to the three nearly related forms above indicated, because Cottus had a similar habitat, and had with this also acquired the power to fertilize this species is, of course, a mere fancy. If he had tried to cross this form with other distantly related forms he would probably have found that they, too, would fertilize the eggs regardless of their habitat relationship. DEVELOPMENT. In my study of the development of these various hybrids I have not attempted to get a complete morphological picture, nor have I paid much attention to the inheritance aspect. I have regarded development rather from a physiological standpoint. The main points of interest, therefore, have been, first, how generally and within what limits can the sex-products of the various forms of teleosts be grafted upon each other, so to speak, 380 and start development. Second, How far will development proceed in the various combinations, and in what respects are the processes normal and abnormal? In every combination effected the earlier phases of cleavage are passed through in a perfectly normal manner. The same is true of the later stages of cleavage excepting the rate of development. This will be further consid- ered below. From the late cleavage on, the history of the different hybrids becomes much more varied. In those hybrids resulting from species nearly related—belonging to the same genus or to closely allied genera—most of the embryos may complete their development to the point of hatching, or beyond. Even among these, however, a number variable but much greater than in normal embryos. may show abnormalities along the course of their development, such as occur more abundantly in the hybrids between more distantly related forms. Hybrids between species more distantly related than above indicated, so far as my experiments go, never complete their de- velopment to the point of hatching. The stage to which they will go depends again upon the nearness of their relationship. In the more successful of such distant crosses Fundulus-Menidia hybrids, many of the embryos may go far enough to form fairly well developed eyes. ear vesicles, tail, muscles, central nervous system, heart, color patern, fins, etc., but many of these structures in the later stages are variously abnormal. A large proportion of all the embryos, however, fail to reach such advanced stage. From these hybrids we have almost every condition to such as obtains in the hybrids between Fundulus heteroclitus x Tautogolabrus adspersus, where none of the embryos go much beyond the closure of the blastopore, and where it is not possible to speak of the formation of organs. The more characteristic and striking abnormalities appearing beyond the cleayage stage in these various hybrids muy be briefiy considered. In the last stages of cleavage and during the earlier phases of germ ring formation it is usually not possible to distinguish the hybrids from the normals excepting in the stage of advancement. In some combinations, such as Fundulus heteroclitus x Tautogolabrus adspersus, etc., one can very com- monly see the formation of a rather large clear area under the blastodise which is fiJed with a clear fluid. I have followed such eggs and they do not bring their development to as advanced a stage as those eggs of the same lots that do not show this abnormality. They may form a very good embryouic ring and shield and may overlap the yolk for a third of the way 381 and there die. In a few cases the vesicle was observed to be so large as to act as the yolk ball so that the protoplasm attempted to encompass it. Embryonic shield might form and even lay down the axis of the embryo. These, like the above, soon died. In all hybrid eggs, but particularly those obtained from distantly related species, the period of gastrulation is one of great mortality. The embryos usually enter upon the germ ring and shield stage rather normally and simultaneously, but from this period to the closure of the blastopore the greatest variation in stages obtains. In some of the less successful crosses most of the eggs never succeed in properly closing the blastopore, but come to a standstill so far as this process is con- cerned at various stages, and continue the rudimentary formation of an embryo in the embryonic shield. These aborted embryos May in some cases remain alive for days, devel- oping pigment, a rudimentary heart, pericardial cavity, etc. A very common defcrinity in the mcre successful embryos is the failure of the tail to bud out so that the embryos. very generally, are too short. A striking instance of this fact appeared in the hybrids between Savelinus fontinalis, female, and Cristivomor namaycush, male. 'This cross is quite successful, and the writer has succeeded in rearing 2,300 of them to finger- lings. Among this lot, a very large per cent. were deformed, and in every instance the deformity occurred in the region posterior to the anus. The portion anterior to the anus was normal in every way so far as proportions are concerned. The same is true of the caudal fin. But the region between this and the anus showed all degrees of shortening, the extremes appearing as if the caudal fin were directly set into the body of the fish. The anal fin was often wanting altogether, even in some that had the caudal peduncle otherwise normally developed.t. This process of the elongation of the caudal end of the embryo seems evidently a difficult one, giving rise to the common abnormalities in this region. In those crosses where a portion of the embryos succeed in laying down the fundamental organs such as the eyes, ears, brain, heart, muscles, etc., promise well to carry their development to completion. In every instance, however, regardless of how normal the cerganogenetic processes may at first be, they show a very clearly defined abortive influence in a short time. This begins to show itself shortly after the time when the circulation is established in the normal embryo. This fails to develop properly in all these hybrids that fail to complete their de- 1A detailed description of these hybrids are reviewed in a separate paper. 382 velopment. The heart usually differentiates and a pericardial cavity forms which commonly distends to enormous proportions. This has the effect of deforming the heart usually into a much elongated structure. The yolk and the embryo may in some instances differentiate blood vessels, but I have only in one instance observed either the heart or blood vessels handling any blood. The result of this is that the embryo which may up to this period be quite normal in its developmental processes, has its food restricted to what may be directly absorbed from the yolk through other agents than the blood. That the embryo does thus obtain some food is evident from the progressive reduction of the yolk and the increased size, and the long con- tinued life of the embryo. The eyes in rare cases may be quite normal. From this condition all degrees of abnormalities obtain. The eyes are commonly too small, located too far forward and too low down. Often an eye is developed only on one side. The eye may be rudimentary to the extent of being only a large black pigmented area in the region of the forebrain. A large proportion of the embryo develop no indication of an eye. The ear may develop as a vesicle which in some cases shows otoliths. Commonly this vesicle becomes must distended, appearing as a prominent projection on either side. The ear less frequently appears than the eye. The central nervous system may be laid down, the brain even showing some of the primary divisions in the more successful embryos. The notocord is commonly present. The embryos may develop a varying number of somites, and quite commonly when these are present, some of the cells become contractile so that the whole embryo undergoes movements. The fins rarely appear, but in some instances the pectoral fins may be much larger than in the normal fish. If an embryo is laid down at all it rarely occurs that pigment does not develop, both on the yelk and in the body of the embryo. In some cases this may be quite heavily developed, showing accumulations of large and highly branched chromatophores. In the better developed embryos a simple pattern may develop showing varying degrees of bilateral symmetry. The rate of development of the hybrid egg compared with that of the egg species. was noted in many instances. Comparative tables are given above in the detailed descriptions of the various hybrids. The earlier cleavage stages in every case was that of the species from which the egg was taken. This is true whether the rate of cleavage from the 383 sperm species is more rapid or slower than that of the egg species. Thus, reference to Table 8, where Fundulus heteroclitus was the egg species and Tautogolabrus adspersus was the male species, the rhythm of cleavage fol- lows exactly that of Fundulus, although that of Tautogolabrus is very much faster. The reciprocal shown in Table 4 shows that the rate again is that of the egg species—Tautogolabrus. This is true all the way through, but attention is called to the hybrids with Opsanus tau, where the cleavage rhythm is relatively so extremely slow. (Page 373.) These facts are in accord with many observations made by others, especially Driesch (98) on Hechinoderms. Newman (’08, 710) obtained the same results in his Fundulus heteroclitus—Fundulus majalis hybrids. Fischel (06), on the contrary, maintains that the influence of the sperm in some of the Echino- derm hybrids, makes itself felt even in the first cleavage. It is important to note, however, that such influence as he can detect is always to slow the development. This is what I find everywhere, as will appear further on, but I have not been able to detect it during the early cleavage stages. This slowing of the developmental processes is to be looked upon as patho- logical, a sort of incompatibility of the two germinal substances in such cases as it occurs. If it is permissible, as some authors do, to speak of the rhythm of cleavage as a character of the organism, then all my experiments most clearly show that the rate of earlier cleavage of the embryo is unin- fluenced by the sperm, and may be regarded as wholly determined by the egg. In later cleavage and all subsequent stages, the influence of the strange sperm becomes apparent in all the cases that I have carefully watched. It should be said here that hybrids between the nearly related species were not studied in this particular, but only those between the more distant forms. The influence of the strange sperm was in every case to retard development, usually to a marked degree, regardless of whether the developmental processes in the sperny species was much more rapid or slower than in the egg species. Thus Tautogolabrus adspersus takes only from twenty-four to thirty-six hours to hatch, while Fundulus heteroclitus takes from ten days to fourteen days, the hybrids, using Fundulus as the egg species, are slower in their development than Fundulus itself. The tendency, then, among fish hybrids obtained by combining distantly related species, is to develop slower after their earlier cleavage stages, than the ege species. It is, therefore, interesting to note Newman’s result where 384 he found a distinct acceleration in the later cleavage stages and subse- quently in the hybrids between Fundulus majalis, female x Fundulus heteroclitus. male. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS AND THEORETICAL. SELECTIVE FERTILIZATION. In a general consideration of these experiments, perhaps the most striking fact that appears is the uniformity with which it is possible to cross-fertilize the various species of teleosts. The percentage of eggs fer- tilized is in practically all cases a high one—fifty per cent., and, in the majority of cases, seventy-five per cent. or over. When one reflects upon the reason for one’s astonishment at this, he finds it in the fact that we Have all, those of us who have given the matter any thought at all, allowed ecurselves to grow into the belief that there is a sort of specific affinity or adaptation existing between an egg and the spermatozodn of the same species. This assumption may or may not be true. So far as the writer has been able to determine, there is extant no evidence that this is the case in the animal egg. A possible exception is to be found in the ex- periments of Dungern (01), who finds that in the eggs of the star- fish there is a substance which is poisonous toward the sperm of the sea urchin, but not vice versa. It is easy to see that under such conditions the spermatozoa of the starfish would be favored. : On the other hand, we have experiments by Buller on all the groups of Echinoderms which seem to show that there exists no specifie affinity, — chemical or otherwise, between the egg and its own spermatozoon. The writer is elsewhere publishing a detailed account of his experi- ments on selective fertilization in fishes. It may be proper, however, to briefly call attention in this connection to a few of the results he obtained. First. The fact above stated, that among these fishes it is possible so uniformly to cross-fertilize the different species lends no support to the “specific adaptation” theory. Second, When a lot of Fundulus heteroclitus eggs are giyen a chance at a mixture of two sperm, one of which is their own and the other a strange species (Menidia, for instance), the eggs do not necessarily show any preference for their own sperm. In the case above mentioned, for instance, the great majority of the eggs prefer the Menidia sperm to their own. In other combinations the proportion is about equal. In still others the eggs may select more of, their own sperm. The factor 385 seems not to be the relationship of the sperm, but its vitality and fertilizing power. Third, Experiments with various egg extracts and the like on the behavior of spermatozoa give no evidence of any attraction of an egg for its own sperm or any toxic influence upon the strange sperm. It seems, therefore, that in the case of these teleosts there is no evidence of any specific adaptation of the egg for its own spermatozoon. How can we account for these varying degrees of failure in develop- ment in these various hybrids? This question is as old as our knowledge of the common infertility of hybrids. Why should an animal or plant hybrid carry its development in a perfectly normal and healthy manner up to the final stage of sex product formation, and yet at this point so com- monly fail? To this question we have up to the present time no definite answer whatsoever. DEGREE OF DEVELOPMENT AND SYSTEMATIC RELATIONSHIP. In following the development of the various hybrids hereunder discussed there appears one period in the development ‘to which we might ascribe the failure of development, more than any other: this is the defective devel- opment of the circulatory system. Development in most crosses proceeds often in a relatively normal manner up to the period of the differentiation of the heart, blood vessels and the blood. In all the hybrids here consid- ered that succeed in forming a circulatory system at all may begin to de- velop the heart more or less normally, so that it regularly and vigorously pulsates but fails to differentiate the blood and blood vessels. As a result the heart manipulates no normal blood and, as a consequence, the food ab- sorption of the embryo must occur through other channels than the blood. Following this period the embryos invariably begin to lag behind, the organs fail to properly differentiate, resulting in the stunted, sickly-looking. starved hybrid. It would seem that if it were possible in some way to help the hybrids to properly complete this system, development might be carried much further, perhaps up to the point of hatching. But in the case of some hybrids none of the embryos form a heart and a yarying per- centage of all hybrids fail to develop the heart at all, even though the more successful ones complete development. Furthermore, it often happens that the circulatory system is apparently properly established and the de- velopment carried to the point of hatching. or even beyond, but they soon die. Thus while it is undoubtedly true that the establishment of the cir- [25—26988 ] 386 culation is a vital stage in the proper progressive development of the embryo and is followed in normal embryos by a period of rapid growth, the question still remains, why does the circulatory system fail to develop properly? Why do we have so.many embryos stop their development before the period of heart formation, and why do we have so commonly failures to emerge from egg, or die shortly after, when in the latter the circulation, at least to all appearances, has been normal? If we consider the experi- ments tabulated in Table 9 from the view point of the correlation between the degree of development and the relationship of the species combined, we see at once that only those species that belong to the same genus, or to very closely related genera, will produce hybrids that develop to the point of hatching. Even within this group a difference in this respect can be observed between species very closely related, and species more distantly related. Thus Fundulus heteroclitus combined in either direction with Fundulus diaphanus will produce a large proportion of free swimming em- bryos. These two species, although the former is a marine and the latter fresh water, are structurally very closely allied. Fundulus majalis is much less closely related to Fundulus heteroclitus, although belonging to the same genus. When the latter is taken as the female a large proportion of vigorous fry are obtained. The reciprocal has never yielded me embrycs that would emerge from the egg, although, with the exception of the yolk bag, normal in appearance. Then the species used belong to separate genera the proportion of embryos that emerge normally is, as a rule, much smaller than in the preceding condition. All species that are more removed from each other than closely related genera, fail to produce hybrid embryos that will complete development to the point of hatching. Among this latter group of hybrids the stage to which development is carried varies considerably in the different com- binations. This, too, can be roughly correlated with the relationship of the species combined, so that two species belonging to distantly related orders like Fundulus heteroclitus x Tautogolabrus adspersus give rise to hybrids that can not go much beyond the closure of the blastopore, while if the same form is crossed with its nearer relative, Menidia notata, development pro- ceeds very much further although stops far from the point of hatching. This will be further taken up below. We produce, then, among fishes a series of hybrids that range in success from those in which none of the embryos develop very much be; 387 yond the “blastopore” stage though intergradations to those in which the embryos hatch normally and grow into adults, probably fertile creatures, and this series is correlated with the systematic relationship existing be- tween the two species crossed. The work of Guyer (00) on the spermatogenesis of hybrid pigeons suggests that in the final formation of the sex products, difficulties arise in the synopsis of the male and female chromatim material, resulting iv abnormal spermatozoa. Stated in more general terms in the final forma- tion of the sex cell the developmental and hereditary substances from the two parents, fail to work harmoniously, giving rise to abnormal develop- ment. It is conceivable that an analogous process takes place in those hybrids that are arrested much earlier in their development. Indeed, the prevailing habit of thinking of developmental and hereditary determinants in terms of units of some sort, suggests at once to cur minds some such picture as above indicated. In two hearly related species the develop- mental mechanisms are so nearly alike that no serious conflicts, so to speak, arise except possibly in the very last stages, namely, the forma- tion of the sex cells. As a result, the development may be completed or all but completed. When, however, two distinctly related species are combined we have to do with two developmental mechanisms that are more divergent, and the conflict develops early in the life of the organism with the con- sequent modification of development, yarying with the relationship. It is difficult to find any appearances in my hybrids that specifically support this view. It would seem that at least occasionally there would appear specific modifications to the influence of the sperm over the egg species. Thus it should be expected that the mode and rate of cleavage, the time and method of gastrulation, etc., should vary in a manner to be in a measure at least due to the specific characteristics of the developmental mechanisms of the sperm species. But this is just what one does not find. The whole process of bybrid development presents the picture of : pathological embryo. such as one sees when they are subjected to an un- favorable condition, such as foul water, insufficient oxygen, unnatural chemical media and the like. It is simply an arrest with subsequent gradual deterioration of the tissues. Thus the monocular condition is likely to result if the optic vesicles fail to form properly and the anterior brain- vesicle becoming pigmented in the cyclopian eye, or only one side develops the vesicle and becomes pigmented. The slender strangulated heart may 388 be accounted for by the abnormally large pericardial cavity which de- velops, across which it becomes stretched. The large pericardial cavity may be the result of the abnormal method of yolk absorption due to the failure of the blood vessels to differentiate. I have for three or four years looked upon these phenomena in my own hybrid experiments as a process akin to that which obtains in the transfusion of blood of strange species. The well known results of Lan- dois (75), Friedenthal (99) and others bring out the important fact that the hemolytic power of the bloods of two species varies in intensity with the nearness of relationship of the species. In general two very closely related animals will permit the transfusion of their bloods with no or rela- tively slight hemolytic action. As the forms become divergent in rela- tionship the toxic action becomes progressively greater. In a similar man- ner it has beer shown that other tissues than blood act toxically. Among these are spermatozoa. The process in hybridization may be conceived something as follows: When tbe sperm brings its material into the strange egg in fertilization it brings with it the substance capable of poisoning the egs substance or vice versa. We may suppose that the toxic action does not manifest itself at once because of the relatively small proportion of the sperm substance compared to that of the egg. Consequently early cleavage stages are in all cases passed through in a normal manner. As, however, the nuclear material grows and becomes more generally distributed through the cytoplasmic mass as cleavage proceeds, the toxic action becomes mani- fest in the retardation of the cleavage and subsequent developmental pro- cesses. The intensity of the effect will vary with the degree of toxidity existing between the two species concerned. In the cases of fishes where cross fertilizaticn is so generaluy possible it should be possible to get a measure of this in the faithfulness with which the embryo reproduces the normal developmental processes in the earlier stages, and the stage at which these become arrested. In the transfusion of bloods we have seen that the toxidity varies rather closely with the systematic relationship of the animals. My ex- periments so far as they go, show that this same law holds in hybridiza- tion, and when taken in connection with what is already well known about the production of so-called “successful” hybrids, I think, may be interpreted as furnishing evidence for this view. we 389 In order to optain a somewhat more definite idea of the influence of a strange sperm upon the developmental processes, I have made a somewhat eareful comparison of the final stages of a series of hybrids all of which lad the same species, Fundulus heteroclitus, for the female but different species for the male, these latter varying in their nearness of blood relation- ship to the egg species. ‘These males fall into four separate groups of two species each. The male species in each group are closely related, but the different groups vary in their relationship to the egg species from that of the same genus to that of most widely separated orders. These groups are as follows: Erarail { Fundulus heteroclitus « Pundulus eee Group 2 { Q ° Mend mite Group 3 f « : ates aaa Group 4 { e “ Tauteetees can In group 1, Fundulus majalis and Fundulus diaphanus will hybridize and bring their development to hatching. The same is true of the two species of Menidia in group No. 2. In group No. 3 the two species of sticklebacks will cross and hatch, although I have been able to rear the embryos for only a very short time. The Cunner and Tautog of Group No. 4 will likewise cross and, although many abnormalites occur, some of the embryos will hatch in a normal manner. When, however, these forms are crossed with Fundulus heteroclitus very divergent results are obtained, although in every case most of the eggs are impregnated. In the first grou» the embryos largely hatch and may be reared. Among the normals may be found various abnormalities, but these are relatively rare. In the re- inaining groups the embryos never hatch, although in some cases may remain Alive in the egg for three or four weeks. But each of these groups go to a characteristic stage of development and show characteristic abnor- malities. In all of the last three groups the mortality is great during the period from the formation of the germ ring to the closure of the blastopore. In group 2 a varying number may go far beyond this stage forming normally the early stages of the eye, ear, heart, notocord, somites, etc. Although the early stages in the formation of these organs may be nor- mal, it soon becomes apparent that the further processes becomes aborted. The blood vessels do not properly differentiate, the pericardial cavity be- 390 comes very large and the heart is commonly drawn out to a filamentous form. This continues to beat until the death of the embryo, but does not handle any blood. The eyes do not attain their full size, and may be poorly © pigmented. They often are abnormally set so that they occupy the fore- part of the head. This may fuse into a median single eye or may be pres- ent on one side only. The ear vesicles often become large and inflated, giv- ing rise to a large rounded prominence on each side. The pigment cells are very finely developed, show a tendency to a pattern and bilateral sym- metry, but there is a lack of uniformity in this in the different embryos. The embryos are shortened and may develop abnormally large pectoral fins. It is not necessary to give more than a general description at this place. Even within this group it is very easy to distinguish between the hybrids in which the Menidia notata is used as the male from those in which the Menidia gracilis is the male.. The development of the former is more successful in those that pass the blastopore closure stage, although my experiments show that the mortality is greater at this point. The pig- mentation is better developed and the various organs above mentioned are laid down much more normally. AS a consequence fewer and less pro- nounced abnormalities cceur. In the Fundulus-Menidia gracilis cross it is not uncommon to have only one eye formed. This may be lateral or may be median. The eyes are commonly set much further anterior so as to occupy the front of the head than in the nearly related cross. In the crosses of group 38 we obtain quite a different series of hybrid embryos. None of these will develop as far along as those in group 2. There is the usual large mortality preceding and at the blas- topore closure stage. The more successful embryos are much shorter, the pigmentation is much less perfect, the black usually predominates, the eyes are never normal, and often altogether wanting, and the life of the embryo is shorter. The heart and pericardial cavity is much the same as.in the Menidia hybrids, although I have seen no attempt to develop vessels on the yolk. Their embryos show in every way that the developmental processes have deteriorated much earlier than in the Menidia crosses. When we come to group 4 we have a still more prenounced abortion of the developmental processes. Many of the embryos close the blastopore after a fashion, but the embryo is always much shortened, usually being a mere streak of protoplasm. These embryos do not lengthen to form a , 391 tail, they form no eyes. Occasionally one or two poorly developed ear vesicles show; pigment is irregularly and rather sparingly developed on both the embryo and the yolk. These cells are practically all black with a few small, poorly developed brownish ones. The heart may develop into a protoplasmic pulsating mass showing no definite form. The pericardial cavity is poorly developed or wanting. These embryos may remain alive for a week or ten days, but never as long as the hybrids of the two pre- ceding groups. We can see from the foregoing that within the narrow limits of the species covered, that the more aGistantly two species are separated in their blood relationship when crossed, the earlier the developmental pro- cesses come te a standstill. Vhe writer, of course, thoroughly appreciates that the foregoing facts are not necessarily evidence in favor of the view taken. He desires merely to emphasize the analogy existing between the conditions of hybridization and the known conditions of blood transfusion and the like. His belief that this analogy is a significant one has been strong enough to lead him into further, more direct experiments along this line. The writer may even be permitted to express a hope of his that it may be possible to control the processes of hybridization in a manner sim- ilar to that which has already been brought about in the field of immunity. SUMMARY. 1. The eggs of any of the species of teleosts tried may be impreg- nated by the sperm of any other species tried. 2. The number of eggs fertilized is usually great, i. e., 75% or more. This bears no relation to the nearness of relationship of the two species coneerned. 3. Normal impregnation is the rule, di- and polyspermy being the exception. 4. Development in its early stages proceeds normally, the deleterious effects of the two strange sex products upon each other showing only at later cleavage or subsequently. 0. The rate of development in the early cleavage stages is always that of the egg species. Any effect of the strange sperm upon the rate of development shows itself by slowing the process regardless of whether the rate of the sperm species is faster or slower than the egg species. 6, A period of great mortality in the developing hybrids is gastrula- 392 tion. If the heart is formed, although it pumps no blood, the embryo may remain alive for a considerable period, yolk absorption taking place to a varying degree. If the heart handles blood and bloodvessels are differen-. tiated, the embryo is likely to develop to the point of hatching. 7. The numerous abnormalities appearing in the hybrid embryos are due to a deterioration in the developmental processes, resulting probably from the poisonous action of the sex products upon each other. 8. The success of the hybrids, i. e., the stage to which any given hybrid will develop, is correlated with the nearness of relationship of the two species used. 9. The mixing of unrelated sex products is looked upon as analogous to the transfusion of unrelated bloods, the more distantly related the two species concerned the greater their toxidity. LITERATURE CITED. Ackerman, K. 1898. Tierbastarde Theil 2. Die Wirbelthiere. Kassel. Appellidff. 1894. Ueber einige Resultate der Kreuzungsbefruchtung bei Knochenfischen. Bergens Museum Aarbog, No. 1, pp. 1-19. Born, G. 1883. Beitrage zur Bastardirung zwischen den einheimischen Anurenarten. Pfliiger’s Archiv, Bd. 32, pp. 453-518. Buller, A. H. Is Chemotaxis a Factor in Fertilization of Animal Eggs? Quart. Journ. Mic. Soc., Vol. 46. Driesch, H. 1898. Ueber rein-mutterliche Charactere an Bastardlarven von Echiniden. Roux Archiv, Bd. 7, pp. 65-102. Dungern, E. F. von. 1901. Die Ursachen der Specificitit bei der Befruchtung, Centralbl. f. Physiol. Bd. 15, pp. 1-4. Dungern, E. F. von. 1901. Neue Versuche Zur Physiologie der Befruchtung. Zeitsch. f. Algmein, Physiol. Bd. 1, pp. 34-55. Fischel. 1906. Ueber Bastardierungsversuche bei Echinodermen. Roux’ Archiv. Bd. 22, pp. 498-525. . Friedenthal, H., und Lewandowsky, M. 1899. Ueber das Verhalten des tierischen Organisimus gegen fremdes Blutserum. Arch-f-Anat. u. Phys.. Phys. Abt., pp. 531-545. Guyer, M.. 1900. Spermatogenesis of Normal and of Hybrid Pigeons. Chicago, Ils. Kammerer, P. 1907. Bastardierung von Flussbarsch (Perea fluvia- tilis) und Kaulbarsch (Acernia cernua) Roux’ Archiy. Bd. 23, pp. 511-550. Landois. 1875. Die Transfusion des Blutes. Leipzig. > 393 Loeb, J. 1903. On a Method by Which the Eggs of a Sea Urchin (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus) Can Be Fertilized with the Sperm of a Starfish (Asterias ochracia). Univ. Cal. Pub. Vol. 1, pp. 1-3. Mathews. 1901. The So-called Cross Fertilization of Asterias by Arbacia. Amer. Journ. Physiol. Vol. 6, pp. 216-218. Moenkhaus, W. J. 1894. The Development of the Hybrids Between Fundulus heteroclitus and Menidia notata, with Especial Reference to the Behavior of the Maternal and Paternal Chromatin. Journ. of Anat. Vol. 3, pp. 29-65. Morgan, T. H. 1893. Experimental Studies on Echinoderm Eggs. Anat. Anz. Vol. 9, pp. 141-152. Newman, H. H. 1908. The Process of Heredity as Hxhibited by the De- velopment of Fundulus Hybrids. Journ. Exp. Zool... Vol. 5, pp. 504-559. Newman, H. H. 1910. Further Studies on the Process of Heredity in Fundulus Hybrids. 1. The Influence of the Spermatozo6n on the Rate and Character of Early Cleavage. Journ. Exp. Zoél. Vol. 8, pp. 148-162. Pfliiger, HE. 1881. Die Bastardzeugen bei den Batrachiern. Pfliiger’s Archiy. Bd. 29, pp. 48-75. 395 Tue Fauna oF a Soutution Ponp. By WILL Scort. PAGE CCH EG NOCH a 5 ot hese DA URN Lahn he POR PAINE ab aL AIAN ers on Ue Aye at 8 395 The Pond— VE DORK ANOS aegis Ne Rs se ema a crn osm en eu EEC pete es ican ale a ee 396 OR TMer tL OMepnne es cer Lys SAU tee reG it Ab ihg shun eat pve ead ateceele A Aas pth ie aR Ta 396 1 DG ISUUTELYSTHI@) a 2 SOS a ea Ne ater en PRA hen SC Mt LB Seah Mea 401 We GO CLS Regrets pss hirida re pacer SCO Am ES oes Aa te Ra A rie ui eee aes acdc 402 SEY AUEOE I TUTTE 2 eat Sea ae a ede Ween nS ATE AA eter Rg Tae Cy 405 TE Vera ke EOV TGS R BS eee A Ree Dee eros a eRe Ye ev es Pty He yen Pea air eae 419 Ecological Relations— (a) of the fauna to similar habitats (migration).................... 420 (b) of the fauna to this habitat VEC INE aN Lna rN sr UMN Si rTLe/ TRU eae ISSR Coe tees ae 424 MREMpPeratline ane sca Ny UAC ad Gel Lona tes ap ae 427 TATA OAS ees eh AU ES SSE cA eg ge oS aS cet Ue Aiea tn RR a re NA 432 (c) of the species to each other- OO GRAVE la GIONS sees ree ea ete Stn A ee rota et acon a 432 velaimonmuomln akeszam cw Rulivie reyes ct mca esse ty tec etapa ss aaa Stag apt eae ea 437 Eve lennon ave blank: bones-cis i a.t aii vera cows sccm tania ator Reeea ee NE 439 MGI eCh IPR OUSH SE Berean eas ely eee Blocalans Dore pwn ore Ekao aisle blolsiawele simeciomoacl or 440 PEs bR MMs TENT MN eens cent ear e atte itn Are auspene ey Meret er steve hsp re ey ise eaee Sealer tose 440 INTRODUCTION. In 1909 I gave an account of the plankton of the subterranean stream in the caves of Indiana University’s cave farm. Among other things it was found that the plankton is composed of epigean forms and is derived from ponds in such sink-holes as have an opening above their lowest points. A study of the fauna of the ponds furnishing the cave plankton became desirable. 1Contribution from the Zoédlogical Laboratory of Indiana University No. 119. 396 Ponds of this kind form a fresh water “unit of environment” typical for an area covering a part of twenty counties of southern Indiana, a strip of Kentucky and a part of Tennessee. Instead, however, of making a gen- eral study of the faunze of many of these ponds, a typical pond one-half mile northeast of the campus of Indiana University has been studied in- tensively. Its fauna has been determined, its physical factors and environ- ment analyzed, and the processes at work determined in part, at least. Observations on this pond extend from October, 1908, to June, 1909, and from September. 1909, to September, 1910, with occasional visits from September, 1910, to May, 1911. It was visited weekly or more often during all but the summer months. No observations were made during the sum- mer of 1909, but the pond was visited monthly during the summer of 1910 (June 15, July 16, August 12). Many other ponds have been examined, but detailed data concerning them have not been collected. The observations’on these have been in- corporated in this paper when they made clear facts that could not be deter- mined from this pond alone. Aside from presenting a picture of the conditions in this pond, I hope the data collected may furnish a basis for comparison with the larger bodies of fresh water (glacial lakes and rivers), so many of which have been under observation in recent years. THE POND. The form of the pond may be seen by reference to the map, No. 1. It is oval in shape and has a maximum length of 70 feet and width of 57 feet. Its greatest depth is 46 inches, but this is attained only during the heavy rains of spring. The south, east and north slopes are quite gentle, but the west slope is so abrupt that within one foot of the shore. on the north end of the west side, a depth is attained which is only six inches less than the greatest depth of the pond. The bottom is covered with plant debris mixed with a little fine clay derived from the wash from the slope above the pond. This silt is small in quantity, the slope being slight, the area drained small, and a narrow zone of grass surrounding the pond. Location.—The location of this pond may be determined by examining the Bloomington Quadrangle of the United States Topographical Survey. It is 940 feet above sea level and about 150 feet above the floor of the valleys one mile distant. It is about 16 feet below the crest of an old 397 monadnock, probably a remnant of the tertiary peneplain and near the level of the pleistocene peneplain which forms the ‘‘skyline” in this region. SO AIOE contin Fig. 1. Map of Hill Pond, showing depth in inches at 10-ft. intervals when at the overflow point. The pleistocene peneplain is very much dissected in this locality. This particular monadnock is completely isolated, valleys having cut into its 398 sides from three directions, viz., south, west and north. The valley to the north empties into Griffey Creek, a part of the drainage system of the West Fork of White River. The valleys to the west and south empty into © Clear Creek, a part of the drainage system of the East Fork of White River. No similar pond is nearer than two miles. The nearest perennial water is in springs .33, 56 and .66 miles distant, and 100, 146 and 165 feet re- spectively below the level of the pond. The accompanying profiles indi- cate these slopes graphically. Fig. II. These statements indicate the isola- tion of the pond. Fig. 2. Profiles of valleys leading away from hill on which pond is located, from pond to closest permanent water in each valley. ; The pond is formed by soluticn in the Mitchell limestone which caps the hill to a depth of 50 feet and overlies the Bedford limestone, both being formations in the Mississippian series. The details of the formation of this pond are not different from those of any other of this region, conse- quently a general discussion will probably be more enlightening. The development of sinkholes is coincident with that of subterranean drainage systems. Both depend upon two conditions: First, the presence of soiuble rock, usually limestone: second, the movement of the solvent (meteoric water, containing as it always does, carbonic acid), through the rock. In order to have a movement of meteoric water through the rock, it is necessary to have an outlet below the general level of tbe country. This is secured by the invasion of surface drainage. A study of the topography of 2 limestone region shows that in general the sinkholes are fermed on the periphery of the valleys. ee ee 399 Vie Fig. 3. Map showing the formation of sink holes on the periphery of a valley. The accompanying map (Vig. IIl) beautifully illustrates this point. It is based on data from the Bloomington quadrangle of the United States Topographic Survey. A deep gorge from the southeast cuts well into the oid peneplain, thus tapping the water table. The water on plain around the periphery of this valley “sinks” into the limestone and comes to the sur- face near the bottom of the gorge. In the area under discussion, the Ohio river and its tributaries supply the surface drainage. Although any sort of limestone may develop sink- holes, the Mitchell is the sinkhole and cave-forming limestone par excel- lence. Its qualities in relation to cave formation have been discussed by Green (08). He summarizes them as follows: 400 “The Mitchell limestone, otherwise known as the St. Louis, barren, or cavernous limestone, is a bluish or grayish, hard, compact, even-grained stone, generally having a conchoidal fracture. It is so compact as to make it rather impervious. Intercalated layers of blue-gray shale are frequent. Large concretions of chert are characteristic of certain horizons. When the stone weathers, these masses of chert do not dissolve, but break into more or less angular fragments which strew the ground over the Mitchell area. In Indiana the formation is also characterized by the common pres- ence of a genus of corals known as Lithostrotion or Lonsdaleia. In some places, such as western Monroe or southern Crawford County, there is a typical white odlite found near the top of the formation. “Analysis shows the Mitchell to be a very pure calcium carbonate, and at Mitchell, Lawrence County, from which place the formation received its name, it is extensively quarvied for making lime and cement.’ “The Mitchell limestone has long been known as the Cavernous lime- stone. Both the Wyandotte Cave of Indiana and the Mammoth Cave of Kkentucky occur in. its strata. In three counties in the vicinity of Mammoth Cave, over five hundred caves are known to exist. ‘hese facts lead us to investigate the general adaptability of this limestone to cave formation. “The reasons of this adaptability are numerous. Besides the bedding planes, two sets of vertical joint-planes exist, one set having a general east and west direction and the other a north and south direction. Vertical joint-planes are probably more numerous in this than any other of the Mississippian jiimestones. Owing to the fact that the Mitchell is rather impervious and often of a lithographic nature, the down flowing water is forced to follow the joint and bedding planes. The underlying Salem lime- stone contains joint-planes but is porous enough to become thoroughly sat- urated instead of confining the water to joint-planes.”’ The presence of joint-planes, its impermeability and its solubility, are the qualities of the Mitchell limestone which make it favorable to the development of caves and sinkholes. It is obvious that if a stone is im- permeable and has joint-planes, the water will trickie down through these joints instead of being absorbed by the reck. If the rock is soluble and the 2In the southern part of the State it reaches a thickness of 350 to 400 feet; in the central part of its area, that is, in Lawrence and Monroe counties, the thickness is from 150 to 250 feet, and from here gradually thins toward the north.” 401 water contains carbonic acid gas in solution, as all meteoric water does, eavities will be formed in it. The regions in which sinkholes occur were originally covered with deciduous forests and as a result the surface was covered with decaying vegetable matter. It is well known that this condition reduces the surface run off and allows more water to sink into the ground. Shaler (91) has also Shown that this decaying humus produces a large amount of carbonic dioxide, so that the water, passing through it, is always saturated with this acid. From these facts, it is probable that the formation of caves and sinkholes formerly occurred more rapidly than at present. What causes a sinkhole to develop at a particular point is somewhat conjectural. Something occurs which increases the rate of solution at a particular point. There may be a place in the stone which is more soluble than the surrounding rock. It has been suggested that fault-lines may be the initial cause of at least some of them. There is a fault near the mouth of Shawnee cave in the Mitchell limestone but no line of sinkholes has de- veloped along it. It is quite possible that the tap roots of some of the walnuts, oaks and similar trees of the original forests may have determined the location of sole of these depressions. These tap roots undoubtedly reached bed rock in many places. When they decayed they left a funnel shaped opening in the soil, filled with their own decaying stems. This funnel would con- duct meteoric water immediately to bed rock and charge it with CO* as it did so. Cummings (05, page 87) explains this formation as follows: “Where two joints intersect, the enlargement is apt to be greatest, giving origin to funnels, narrowing gradually downward, and showing in a beautiful way the formation of sinkholes, which are only such funnels of solution grown large.” Whatever may initiate this process, after connection is once established with a subterranean system, the processes of weathering, erosion, etc., en- large the funnel in every direction. The funnel is really a valley whose source or upper end is the perimeter of the cone and whose mouth or outlet is the opening in the center. The sides of a young sinkhole are usually very steep and its area limited, while those of an older one are more gentle, with a much larger area. At any stage in the development of a sinkhole, [26—26988] 402 its outlet may become obstructed. The result is the formation of a pond. If a young sinkhole is obstructed, a small and relatively deep pond re- sults. The obstruction of an old sinkhole results in the formation of a shallow pond of considerable area. Destruction.—Vhe ponds are uo sooner formed than their destruction begins by means of those factors which destroy all such topographic forms. Few of them overflow, anl these only for a short time. Plant deposition and the deposition of silt are the two principal factors operating for their destruction. A pond formed in a young sinkhole which is located at or near the summit of a hill, i. e., near the level of an old peneplain, does not have as much silt washed into it as does a pond formed in an older sink- hole or one that is located on the lower slope of a hill. Plants are rela- tively a much greater factor in the destruction of the former than in the latter. Our pond belongs to the first class. It has some clay deposited in it. but plant debris forms the major part of its sediment. The rate of its de- struction is known approximately for a period of 24 years. In 1887, it was about eight or nine feet in depth (‘‘deep enough to swim a horse’). It is now Slightly less than four feet, a difference of four feet, or one-fifth foot deposition per year. So far as I know, this is the only case where the rate of plant deposition is reducible to even approximate figures. The water is usually clear. A scum of iron oxide was found on the surface April 1, 1910. On August 12, 1910, the water had a dark purplish tinge, due to the decay of organic matter. The only time the pond was seen to be muddy was after the rain of July 14. On this date it was quite opaque and of a yellowish tinge, from the suspended silt. Silt is carried into the pond only after very heavy rains, for reasons previously stated. METHODS. For collecting insects, insect larvee, alge, amphibian larvee, etc., ordi- nary insect nets and dip nets made of bobbinet and scrim, were used. A very useful net for collecting micro-organisms, when quantitative work is not demanded, is a sampling net, manufactured by the Simplex Net Com- pany, Ithaca, New York. It is made of bolting cloth No. 20, is three inches in diameter, twelve inches long, and is operated by being thrown out into the water and then drawn in. The ring is quite heavy so that it will sink 403 if properly handled.. The depth at which the net moves can then be regu- lated by the rate at which it is drawn through the water. The only difficulty experienced in operating this net was that the ring carried the open end under at once, thus catching enough air in the net to float it. To obviate this difficulty, a 25x80 mm. glass shell partially filed with water was fastened to the apex of the net by means of a cork stopper. This carried the net under at once, and when the catch was made. the cork was loosened and the collection dropped into the bottle. For quantitative work, on such plankton as was present, the following variation of the pumping method was used: The whole apparatus had to be light enough to be portable. Some difficulty was experienced in getting a satisfactory pump. The pump used is known in the trade as the Barnes hydroject pump, manufactured by Barnes Mfg. Co., Mansfield, Ohio. It has a brass cylinder and throws one-fourth liter per stroke. Its general appear- ance is shown in Fig 4. To this was attached a net of bolting silk (Du- four No. 20) and a detachable bucket. (Windows covered with wire cloth. 200 meshes to the inch.) A three-quarter inch hose (inside measurement) ‘was used. The end was closed with a cork and an opening made in the side of the hose just above the cork, so that the water from a given level might be secured with greater accuracy. The end of the hose was fastened to a float, so that the coilection could be taken from any depth desired. By means of a rope and pulley, this float could be placed at any point in the pond. Material was killed in a 4% solution of formalin. All organisms were counted in every collection except two. In investigating a small area, I believe that greater accuracy is secured by filtering a small amount of water and counting all the oragnisms than by filtering a large amount and counting a fraction of it. The amount counted in either case must be large enough to include samples of all the organisms present. The source of error in the first case is the uneven distribution of organ- isms at a given level. In the second case, the error is due to the difficulty of thoroughly mixing organisms having a different specific gravity. The soundings were taken when the pond was covered with ice. The ice was ruled at ten-foot intervals, holes bored at the intersections, depth measured through these openings and entered on the map of the pond. A guage was set December 21, 1909. From the readings of the gauge, the depth at any point at any time could be determined. 404 ‘4wop Sutovyd z0z o[you} ‘A! oyBjUT ‘Mm f4yBop ‘qd ‘! JoYoN s[qeyoR, -op ‘oO {TIS Bujoq jo you ‘gq ‘dumnd ‘wy ‘puod uo poesn 4g}NO UOJyUB[T “Pp “ST 405 The data concerning elevation were taken in part from the United States relief map of the Bloomington quadrangle, and in part from aver- ages of the barometric readings. The bench mark established by the survey on the university campus rendered exact correlation possible. The following annoted list of species gives a fairly complete picture of the life in this pond. The list of flagellates and desmids is not exhaustive. The diatoms were not identified because of the inadequacy of accessible literature. However, it nay be stated that the diatom flora consists of bottom inhabiting forms. Rhizopoda— PROTOZOA. Difflugia globulosa Dujardin. This was the most common protozoan in the pond. It was found at all seasons but was more common in 1910 than in 1909. It is reduced in numbers during the winter but when the temperature begins to rise in the spring, this species begins to increase in numbers. In 1910 this increase was very regular from March to August. The Difflugia in the quantitative plankton collections of that year belonged for the most part to this species. In these collections the‘number per 100 liters varied from 28 on February 8 to 39,780 on August 12. Diffugia oblonga Ehrenberg. This variable species was a common form in 1909 but not so plentiful in 1910. Difflugia acuminata Ehrenberg. Not common. Difflugia urceolata Carter. Common in the winter of 1909-10. Greatly outnumbered by D. globu- losa in the spring and summer. In plankton material killed in formalin, I found a typical individual of wrceolata with the mouth of its shell closely appressed to that of a specimen of D. Globulosa. Whether this was a case of fission, an animal building a new shell or an accident, I am unable to state. I am inclined to the belief that the animal was dividing. The rounded shell was slightly smaller than the spined one. If this be true, the distinction between the two forms is of course not specific. Difflugia corona Wallick. Observed occasionally. Difflugia lobastoma Leidy. Rare. 406 Many variations in the nature and form of the test have been observed. The studies of Penard (’02), Averintzev (’06) and others have resulted in more than forty species being referred to this genus. The many variations observed in the Difflugia in this limited habitat make evident the value of studies on the effect of age and environment upon the form of the test. Such studies would certainly define the species more clearly than oo are at present. The difficulties of such experiments are obvious. Lesquerensia spiralis Schlumberger. Rare. Pontigulasia compressa Carter. Nov. 9, 1909. Arcella vulgaris Ehrenberg. This species was very common on the bottom and in the vegetable debris during the year 1909 but it was very much reduced in numbers the next year. In the collections taken with the pump from Jan. 5 to Aug. 12, it occurred but once. i Centropyxis aculeata Stein. Occurred rarely. Taken Jan. 5, 1909. Actinophrys sol. Enrenberg. It was not found until May 28, 1910, when the water temperature was 20° ©. It was quite common on that date and during the following month. Flagellata— Euglena viridis Ehrenberg. Always present, but reaching its maximum development in Aug., 710, when 27,560 per 100 liters of water were taken by filtering with No. 20 bolting silk. This filter undoubtedly allows some to pass through. Phacus pleuronectes Miiller. Phacus pyrum HWhrenberg. Both species were present among the filamentous algz at all Seasons but never in great quantity. The former was much the more common. On account of their association with the algee they were always more plentiful in the margins of the pond. Peridinium tabulatum Hhrenberg. A form that was referred to this species was observed in some ma- terial brought into the laboratory Jan. 18, 1910. This material consisted of debris and water. It was kept in a clean.glass jar covered with glass. free - 407 Ordinarily this species develops in swarms but it never occurred in quantity in the pond. Yrachelomonas annata Ehrenberg. Obtained Jan. 18 and Feb. 2 by the same method as Peridinium, already described. Ciliata— Halteris sp. Common among alge at south end of pond, Apr., 1910. Vorticella. This genus occurred sporadically during the warmer months. Specific identification was not made every time it was observed. It was present as late as Nov. 25, 1909, and reappeared in May. The most common form was referred to V. microstomata Ehrenberg. V. campa- nula Ehrenberg was present in large quantities Oct. 26, 1910, when the water temperature was 13.6° C. Epistylus sp. A ciliate belonging to this well marked genus was taken March 11, attached to the edge of the thorax (usually near the posterior angle) of an aquatic beetle. It is not referable to any species to whose description I have access. The zooids, when completely expanded, are 1/5 mm. long by 1/12 mm. wide. The stems branch dichotomously and are segmented at the base of each branch. The planes of successive branchings are usually at tight angles to each other. The branches are from 30 to 40 ~ long and from 20 to 30 w wide. From this method of branching the colony tends to form a spherical sector of increasing size. ‘The outer surface of this sphere is formed by the zooids, which when contracted in a well developed colony, touch each other forming a continuous surface. The cell walls are fairly firm and a limited surface is exposed. Some water is probably re- tained among the stalks below the zooids. This seems to enable them to prevent desiccation in a degree. The following observations support this inference: A well developed colony attached to a bit of the thorax of a beetle was left on a slide under a cover glass at 4:20 p. m., room tem- * perature about 70°. The water under the cover soon evaporated. At 7:50 a. m. the following day, the slide was examined. The outlines of the con- tracted zooids were still discernible. The colony was removed to tap water in a stentor dish. At noon, about 20% had revived and were actively feed- 408 ing. The amount of drying to which they had been subjected seems to be near the limit for the species. They do not recover if completely desic- eated. The relation of this to distribution will be noted subsequently. PLATY HELMINTHES. Trematoda-— Diplodiscus sp.* Young trematodes belonging to this genus were taken from the ali- mentary tract of the larve of Rana catesbiana Shaw during Feb., ’11. They were free in the intestine of the amphibian larve. The contents of the digestive tract of the worm seemed to be derived from the surround- ing medium, i. e., the food material in the intestine of the “tadpole.” Sex- ually mature individuals were taken from larve of the same frog about one month later (Mar. 20, ’11). I have been unable thus far to determine the invertebrate host of this trematode in this pond. The most numerous molluse is Luccinea retusa Lea. But many dissections have failed to reveal trematode infection. The following intermediate stages taken with the plankton catches in the open water have been noted. One cercaria on each of the following dates: May 5, ’09; Jan. 11, 710; Apr. 15, ’10. A ciliated larva was taken May 28, 710. The only evidence that these are the developmental stages of Diplodiscus is that Diplodiscus is the only trematode known from this pond. TROCHELMINTHES. Ten rotifers were identified from the pond. Others were observed occasionally but were not identified. Their rare occurrence, and the fact that the methods used in the preservation of the material were not especially adapted to rotifers, often rendered exact identification im- possible. 5 Of the ten rotifers, three, Anurea aculatea Ehrenberg; Hydatina senta Ehrenberg, and Monostyla lunaris Ehrenberg, occurred in quantity in the open water of the pond. The first was common in 1908, the other two in 1910. The other five were never common. *Jdentified by Prof. H. B. Ward, 409 Anurea aculatea Ehrenberg. Found Nov. 25, 1908, two days after the rain which ended the drouth of that year. It was quite numerous that fall and was present the fol- lowing year until December, but not in such numbers. It was absent entirely in the collections of 1910. Cathypua luna Ehrenberg. May 15, 1910. Not common. Diurella tenuior Gosse. Spring 1907. Rare. Pedalion mirum Hudson. Present in considerable numbers during May and June, 1909. Rotifera tardus Ehrenberg. April 15, 1911. Anureea cochlearis Gosse. In quantitative collection of April 14, 1910. One specimen; spines well developed. ; Hydatina senta Ehrenberg. Appeared rarely in spring of 1910. First observed April 14. It did not develop in any quantity until July. On July 15 there were 1,560 per 100 liters of water. Aug. 12, this had increased to 1,625. Monostyla lunaris Ehrenberg. Appeared April 19, 1910. On that date there were 88 per 100 liters. It reached its maximum development in July with 1,463 per 100 liters. Monostyla cornuta Ehrenberg. Aug. 15, 1910. This form may have been counted with preceding but partial re-examination of material did not show this to be true. Diglema forcepata Ehrenberg. Occasionally from Feb. 4 to Aug. 15, 1910. ANNELIDA. Oligocheta— Limnodrilus sp. An oligochxte worm belonging to the family Tubificide was referred to this genus. Its complete anatomy has not yet been worked out. It oceurs in great numbers among the roots and about the root stalks of Typha. In this pond, this is its exclusive habitat. The alimentary tracts 410 ‘of these worms are always filled with decaying vegetable matter. They are ravenously eaten by Amblystoma larve and Diemyctylus. These two facts probably account for their occurrence in this limited habitat. ‘CRUSTACEA. Arthropoda— Daphnia pulex DeGeer. Occurred twice, in March and April, 1909, and in May, June and July, 1910. Its maximum occurrence was on June 15, 1910, when there were 80 per hundred liters of water. In towing collections, often but a single specimen was taken. Simocephalus vetellus Mueller. The most conspicuous crustacean of the pond. It is numerous at all seasons among the plants and plant remains. It is rarely taken in the open water of the central part of the pond. Adults were taken two days after the rain which terminated the drouth in 1908. It was found that in cultures it takes from 10 to 12 days for adults to develop. From these facts, it appears that this crustacean was able to survive the drouth as an adult. To do this, it must have worked its way down through the vege- table debris to the water level. It is present at all periods of the year, producing a maximum of 25 young in a brood. It makes a slight diurnal vertical migration. This is difficult to demonstrate quantitatively because of its habitat. If the surface of the water be ‘skimmed’ with a fine meshed net during the day, very few if any individuals are taken. How- ever, many individuals are taken by this operation at any hour of the night during the summer months. Alona quadrangularis Miiller. Appeared in March, 1910. Taken with young in brood chambers. Never more than 120 per hundred liters until May 28, when 696 per hun- dred were taken. It varied during June, July and August from 500 to 780 per hundred liters, the maximum occurring on Aug. 12. Eggs were present in brood chambers in a large per cent. of them from April till August of this year. Cypridopsis vidua Brady. Appeared as soon as the pond began to fill with water in Noy., 1908. During the following winter and spring it was one of the most conspicuous forms. No attempt was made to estimate its numbers, but a small quan- 411 tity of water dipped from any part of the pond during this period always contained them. They could be seen feeding at any time on vegetable debris, Typha stems and alge. During the spring of 1909 the number began to decrease, and in the autumn they disappeared. They were never observed in 1910, although the pond was examined for them many times. This fact has an important bearing upon the general problem of distribution, as will be pointed out later. Cypris virens Jurine. This form has been present at all times but never developed in great quantity. Its greenish color and the fact that it is more closely confined to the substratum than Cypridopsis vidua, render it less conspicuous. Cyclops serrulatus Fischer. Taken March 17, 1910, with eggs. Numerous in the shallower parts of the pond during the latter part of the month. Cyclops bicuspidatus Claus. The typical form ‘was present during the spring of 1910 but did not occur in great numbers. Most females taken were carrying egg sacks. During July and August as noted in the discussion of the plankton, this species occurred in great numbers, the maximum being on August 12, when 704,600 per 100 liters were present. However, the individuals were smaller and the stylets shorter and relatively thicker than in the spring forms. Pearse (°05) reports this species as occurring in the spring in Ne- braska. In the Illinois River, it is reported as a winter form, Kofoid (’03). In Lake Michigan it is a summer form, Forbes (’82). In Wisconsin lakes it is active in the cooler parts of the year and passes the summer in a gelatinous cocoon. The seasonal distribution in different habitats of this variable form offers an enticing problem. Cyclops phaleratus Koch. Taken during March, 1910. Numerous April 15, 1911. Found among Typha and near the edge of the pond. TARDIGRADA. Macrobiotus. A form which was referred to this genus was taken in the spring of 1910. They occurred in quantity on April 28, and for about one month 412 thereafter, in the gelatinous matrix around the eggs of the molluse Succinea retusa Lea. ‘they did not occur in egg masses recently laid. As the eggs develop, the matrix gradually disintegrates and a large number of minute ~ flagellates develops in the matrix during this process of disintegration. This, in part, accounts for the presence of the Tardigrada, for they were feeding on the flagellates, the disintegrating matrix or both. On May 15, one was taken containing 10 eggs which almost filled the specimen. June 15, one was taken with 11 eggs. Others taken at this time also contained eggs. None was taken after June 15. Those taken on this date were captured with a silk net in open water. Hexapoda— Notonecta sp. This backswimmer emigrated from the pond when it dried up, if it had been present previously. It was not observed during the spring of 1909, but since that time it has been abundant. Limnobates lineata sp. Frequent near the margin of the pond. Hygrothechus sp. This water strider was first observed March 7, 1909. They appear scon after the ice melts and remain until the freezing weather. Adults hibernate. They are primarily the scavengers of the surface, yet the rapidity with which they perform their work makes observation difficult, as the following example indicates: On Mar. 24, 1910, an ichneumon fly accidentally fell into the water. Instantly it was punctured by three of these water-striders. In spite of its larger size and powerful struggle, the ichneumon was soon reduced to practically an empty shell. Cnemidotus 12-punctatus Say. Always present op plant stems and debris. Noted by Blatchley as more common in northern part of State than in southern. Hibernates. Cnemidotus muticus Leclerc. Occurs with preceding species. Rather more common. Hibernates. Hydrocanthus iricolor Say. Present in considerable numbers throughout the year. Laccophilus maculosus Say. 413 Laccophilus fasciatus Aube. Both species present in about equal numbers. Hibernate Hydrovatus pustulatus Melsh. About the southern limit of its range. Present throughout the year but not numerous. Coptotomus interrogatus Fabricius. One of the common beetles in the pond. Could be taken in numbers at any season. Graphoderes liberus Say. Blatchley notes concerning this beetle: “Putnam and Lawrence coun- ties, frequent in woodland ponds.” In this pond I have taken but one specimen and have seen no other. This was taken June 6, 1910. It is quite probable that it had just immigrated. Dineutes assimilis Aube. Present from April to October in characteristic groups on the surface of the pond. Tropisternus mixtus Leclerc. The most common beetle in the pond. Could be seen beneath the ice in winter. ; Berosus peregrinus Herbst. Not common. : Of the four families of beetles found in this pond, the Gyrinid are confined to the surface, the Haliplidze occur at the bottom “crawling” over the plant stems and sticks, while the Dytiscidee and Hydrophylide occupy the intervening space as well as surface and bottom. The surface supports one species, the bottom two, while eight species are more generally dis- tributed. ‘ihe Dytiscidz are represented by six species, the Hydrophilidse by two. ‘The Dytiscidre are much stronger swimmers and more voracious feeders than the Hydrophilidz, which facts may account for their more successful occupancy of the pond. Hetzrina americana Fabricius. Taken flying over pond Aug. 12, 1910. Lestes congener Hagen. Taken Sept. 1, 1910. On that date they were numerous over pond. Ischnura verticalis Say. Emerging June 18. 414 Anax junius Drury. A single specimen Aug. 12. Sympetrum vicinum Hagen. Two specimens taken June 18. Libellula pulchella Drury. June 18, July 16, Aug. 12. Emerged from nymphs in aquaria during June and July. Nymphs of this form were the most numerous of the group. Libellula lydia Drury. Flying over pond Aug. 12. Corethra. Corethra larve either had never been in this pond before 1909, or had been exterminated by the drying up of the pond in the autumn of 1908. The latter proposition seems to be the correct one. As stated previously, no collections were taken during the summer of 1909. In the autumn when observations were resumed, corethra larve: were present in enormous numbers. Their numbers have not appreciably decreased since. The reappearance of the larve may be accounted for either (1) by eggs having lain dormant during the dry period and winter, and then hatching as the temperature increased the following spring, or (2) adult imagoes may have migrated to the pond during the spring and summer of 1909. I think that the first proposition is untenable because on May 25, 1910, larve 3 mm. long were present that had been hatched from the eggs of that year. It is not likely that larve of that size could have escaped observation the previous spring. If the species was re-introduced into the pond by the imago, it necessitated a migration of over a mile. Wind doubtless influences these flying forms, so that their migration was partially passive. Chironomus sp. Larve occurred rarely. MOLLUSCA. Gastropoda— Succinea retusa Lea. The most common molluse of the pond. Eggs laid in April, May and June. Hatched in about 15 days. This period probably varies with tem- perature. At 12°-14° C., eggs laid April 8 hatched April 23. 415 Tebennophorus dorsalis Binney. This slug is common in Indiana. However, only a single specimen was taken in the pond, Oct. 16, 1910, in the debris at the bottom. (It seems to have been recently introduced.) Ancyclus tardus Say. Not uncommon. ‘This shell is reported by Call (99) to be common in the Wabash, Ohio and Maumee rivers. In all references that I have been able to find, it is recorded from streams. But most expeditions that were for the spcial purpose of collecting molluscs, were made along streams. The forms from the land-locked pools have been collected more incidentally. These facts, together with the small size of the species, account for the oft repeated statement of its distribution. Vertebrata— AMPHIRBIA. Amblystoma jeffersonianum Green. The adult of this form has not been taken in the pond, but is known from the ravine to the north. Egg masses, referred to this species, were present March 17, 1910. One mass contained 19 eggs and another 2%. March 24, 1911, a mass was observed containing 24 unhatched larve. Di- ameter of outer envelope, 18 mm. Diameter of total mass, G0 mm. Length of larve, 13 mm. Fastened to grass 13 cm. below surface. Diemyctylus viridescens Rafinesque. Common. Six taken in an area about one foot square in February, 1911. Its habits have been worked out in detail by Gage (91) and Jor- dan (793). Hyla pickeringii Holbrook. Three. Numerous. Appeared March 24, 1910. Eggs in May. Rana catesbiana Shaw. Common. Nine specimens taken during May, 1910. Egg-laying period, June and July. Recently Inid eggs as late as July 15. Reduction in level kills many eggs. AVES. Anas discors Linneus. A duck was flushed from the pond April 21, 1909. Identification was made while the bird was on the wing. It cirched three times, coming quite near. The identification is probably correct. This bird has the greatest 416 range of any individual organism found on the pond. The A. O. U. check list, 1910, gives its range as: North America in general, but chiefly the [Eastern Province north to Alaska and south to West Indies and northerr South America; breeds from northern United States northward. It is altogether probable that other water birds visit this pond. I have seen various species of ducks and sand pipers on similar ponds in this region. On the water works reservoir, a small artificial lake about three miles distant, ducks, loons, grebes, etc., May be seen almost any time during their migration period. McAtee (’05) lists 44 water birds from this region, 20 of which he marks as regular migrants. Agelaius phoeniceus Linnzus. Red winged blackbirds were first seen on the pond May 5, 1909. Two pairs nested during the summer of 1909 on the south part of the pond. The nests were attached to the Typha stems over the water. Three pairs nested near the same place in the pond in 1910. Many other birds were seen near the pond or perched on the Typha stems. The most common of these were: Turtle Dove, Zenaiduro ma- croura L.; Quail. Colinus virginianus L.; Tree sparrow, Spizella monticola Gmelin; Fox sparrow, Passerella iliaca Merrem; Field sparrow, Spizella pusilla Wilson; Junco, Junco hyemalis L. - ° FLORA. Alge— Closterium dianz Ehrenberg. April 1, 1910. Common among filamentous alge. Cosmarium botrytis Menegh. Common, spring 1910. C. tetraophthalmum Kuetzing. Rare. Docidium crenulatum Rabenhorst. This and other species of this genus occurred sparingly in most col- lections. Spirogyra majuscula Kuetzing. During the winter of 1909-10. This alga developed in considerab!e quantity in the southern part of the pond. Zygnema stetlum Agardh. ia 417 A few filaments observed Noy. 23, 1909, Jan. 9, 1910. Never observed in fruit. Oedogonium undulatum Brebisson. The most abundant alga in the pond. It is present throughout the year. It was observed fruiting sexually on Noy. 16, 1909, and April 15, 1910. After the sexual season in the spring the plants decline in vigor. There are enormous numbers of oospores present in the water at this time. Chaetophora pisiformis Roth. Common at all seasons on stems. Typha latifolia L. This is the most conspicuous plant in the pond. It covered the shal- lower two-thirds of the pond in 1908 and has since increased to about three- fourths of the total area. It is from this plant that most of the vegetable debris on the bottom of the pond is derived. In 1910 shoots appeared frem the stolons Mar. 24. Seeds began ger- minating April 8, flowers were formed in June and seeds were ripe early in September. The seeds which fali in the water are usually blown to the lee side of the pond where they collect in dense masses. This results in very weak seedlings during germination. A slight reduction of level is fatal at this period. Besides this, the margin where these seeds germinate is already occupied by parent plants. From these facts, it is evident that the seeds of Typha are very inefficient in increasing the number of plants in a pond where it is alrendy established. ‘The increase is derived chiefly from buds from the stolons. The seeds, while ill adapted to this function, are very efficient in securing the introduction of the species into ponds unoccupied by it. On a spike 150 mm. long, I have estimated the number of seeds to be 27,600. How far they may be carried by wind is conjectural, and on that account this efficiency can not be reduced to figures. The chances of introduction of any wind-blown seed is inverse to the distance : from the center of distribution, but the proportion is unknown. Certainly it is greater in the direction of the prevailing winds than in any other. It may be observed that if the seeds were distributed evenly over a circle whose radius is one mile (the distance to the nearest pond) a seed from each spike would have approximately five chances in six of hitting a pond of that size (70 ft. in diameter) placed anywhere in this circle. [27—26988] 418 O1/21/8 009 00g 969 oI a Rk [ogpandnscllaveadatonl|odosccsed|toos wwmac|eadeahes|lannstaqabaon ---guejnduerpenb euopy 09 ie At fic VPeeb eon dadl[meondi Bsl|osenconcellaweosansal|axaeonand|jedoar Perici | Sieee tegen geal (is AEN Re ees ---x9ind eiuqdeq. 8F0'T is g < 9 2g az Sa, |eaaeeoces aed le eta low bert Ors are aac - «sdoofc Ree 8 (pao Bonnallon andro: ze ie SOF one eis i [ovatus ora lonakbdactl|anoone iollaateanunsadnadar omaceseeddon mane Wap) a||esene ise food cate (fic 2 d[eseseban lascaaeecsllaoodeoo|iansan aos jeunaa tus: So oll acoA sees [te ee te ae oe ee euyepAy 19%‘ aoe a0 Ge Gay || aioe soa feseoombed| fer contr cx|comamodne|onacti.aps|[oeosaosce|[anonevacench acon wand odcd elAqsouoyy FI 99F 2 r9c'zz | zr9'¢ (Fs, [eS seal le Sannrce a she aaa snlfrarn ca obi louse anean|[eacon ayn o|[oqoeabxooaascads sancn ane eryqaesjog GLL‘LT | OFb‘L 096€ PPS ‘S 898 8S ‘T OF8 9L 9¢ 8% (GD SER el a Pl ae tes Rg ene ee vIsnHd 2622 OF 9¢ Fig =| [henomnceas or ip tgcoee lean eezons Fie oe [ear oce mmoo nore ea ecbr snovyg 008 St8 9g SSF 91e'T 919'LT | SFg P81 'F O88 ‘2 oe 'Z OSGi ery eee IG SIPNTA vuopsngy TT ea eos OTs Ce Se ee ee wet ogg‘ez | opc‘et | ctz‘e Gage ia Cesena) srgay snow euapsng OT/9T/L | OL/ST/9 | OT/8Z/E | OT/FI/G | O1/86/F | OL/FI/F | OT/TE/E | OI/L1/E | OT/9%/% | O1/8/e | O1/S%/T : = ‘SaIOgdds “aLVd ‘O16T ‘asnbnp-hannun ¢ yuasaud susvunb..o UOJYUD) _ fipjIL]S ALOU AY} yO SLaIVT OOT ad saqunyy ay) Buinoyy 2190], ‘LON Wavy 419 Alisma Plantago aquatica lL. Occurs sparsely at the margin of the pond. Covers the bottom between the Typha stalks on the north and east sides of the pond. These three phancrogams occur in the pond. Near the margin of the pond occur Bidens and Carex, whose principal relation to it is that they cause the deposition of much of the silt before it reaches the pond. PLANKTON. The accompanying table records the observations on the more abundant and more ‘strictly plankton erganisms in the pond from Jan. 25 to Aug. 12, 1910. The most apparent fact is the dearth of organisms in the open water during the extremely low temperature of January and February, Euglena virides Ehr., and Huglena acus Ehr. being the most abundant. A few rotifers were observed during the winter, but no marked develop- ment of this class was observed until the latter part of April. Polyarthra reached its maximum on May 28, and Monostyla in August. Hydatina is strictly a summer form. Wesenberg-Lund (’08, p. 255) states: “Rhizopoda are, so far as my experience goes, of quite secondary importance in the pond plankton.” This pond certainly differs from those of Denmark, for the development of Dif- flugia is constant and fairly regular from February to August, when 297,800 per cu. m. were present. Actinophrys was very common near the margins during May. There are two pulses of cyclops. A very slight one in April and an enormous one in August. It is possible that some of the cyclops were able to avoid the intake of the collecting apparatus. This of course would make the members in the table too low. In April the cyclops were quite evident in the shallow water near the shore. However, it was difficult to apply quantitative methods to this region. During the August pulse, none was seen near the shore. This may have been due to the fact, noted else- where, that they were smaller than C. bicuspidatus usually is. ECOLOGICAL RELATIONS. In the ecology of any association of organisms, two complicated prob- lems or sets of problems present themselves. These are (1) how was each of these organisms introduced, (2) what factors condition their continu- 420 ance? Without presuming to give a final answer to these questions, I shall present such facts as bear on the distribution and interrelations of the organisms of this pond. On the basis of methods of dispersal, these organisms fall into two groups, active migrants and passive migrants. The active migrants include the vertebrates and insects, which are limited, for the most part, to the American continent, while the passive migrants include all the other forms which are practically cosmopolitan in their distribution. ‘To discuss the distribution of the active migrants would involve a consideration of their relationships and phylogeny which is not within the province of this paper. Of the passive migrants, the crustacea, rotifera, protozoa, and most of the algse are known from both Hurope and America. Some of the forms have a much wider distribution. Difflugia, for example, is recorded by Butschli from all the continents except Africa (where it doubtless exists). Recently Edmonson (710) has reported Difflugia pyriformis from Tahiti. The presence cf this form on a recently formed isle, geologically speak- ing, 4,000 miles from a mainland, certainly makes probable its worldwide distribution. The cosmopolitan distribution of the passive migrants can, I think, be explained by an analysis of the agencies by which they are carried. Of these agencies, the principal ones are birds, beetles and wind. Of the birds, only the water birds need be considered as the relation of land birds to aquatic organisms is accidental. De Guerne (88) .established that water birds do carry a great variety of small aquatic organisms. In examining the fresh water fauna of the Azores, he discovered that the micro-organisms belonged to species found in France. This suggested water birds as a distributing agency. He took a wild duck (Anas boschas L.) and made cultures from the dried particles of slime from its bill, feathers and feet. From these cultures he obtained protozoa, rotifera, nematoda, alge, cladocera, ostracoda, bryozoa and in- sect larvee. Zacharias (88) points out the feeces of these birds as an additional! source of micro-organisms. I have seen but two water frequenting birds on this pond, but it is occasionally visited, in all probability, by those in whose migration path it lies. Of the twenty-two water birds which are segulay migrants or residents (including the blue winged teal, the kildeer TaBLe No. -. 421 Nhowing the Water Birds Which Are Common in the Vicinity of the Pond at Some Time During the Year. oC Oo N DG fH He 0 foo Rm Regions Over Which They Are SPECIES. a N =) Horned grebe, Colymbus auritus Linn..................... + Pied billed grebe, Podilymbus podiceps Linn.............. -+ Loon, Gavia imber Briinnich.....................0...0...- + American merganser, Merganser americanus Cass.......... + Hooded Merganser, Lophodytes cucullatus Linn........... at Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos........................----- + Green winged teal, Nettion carolinense Gmelin............ + Blue winged teal, Querquedula discors Linn................ + Shoveller, Spatula clypeata Linn.......................... + Pinta eDatilayacuta dinnt-) --y1e-aeiae le leieeeci erie ee SI Wood duck, Aix sponsa Linn. . . NORM ORO t AAO o STONED on ar Canvas-back, Marila vallisneria Wils...................... + Lesser scaup-duck, Marila affinis Hyt...................... + American golden eye clangula, Clangula americana Bonap..| + Canada goose, Branta canadensis Linn..................... + American bittern, Botaurus lentiginosus Montag........... sr Great blue heron, Ardea herodias Linn.................... + Wilson’s snipe, Gallinago delicata Ord..................... + Pectoral sandpiper, Picobia maculata Viell................ + Solitary sandpiper, Totanus solitaris Wils..........,,...... + Spotted sandpiper, Actitis macularia Linn.,............... + Killdeer, Hgialitis vocifera Linn......,................... + ‘TOKE oatioks cutee cera een enree tere elcrtetene ence aren crashed 22 ele eet eee ee ee eee t+ e+ Ee HY [Cana Distributed. 2/8] + | + + | + +/+}+]4+ +] + + + +/+ +} +4 + +] + + +|+ +}+]+ +] + 4 +] 4 +] + fo ee I, fete lo al se |) a fe + J+{/+/+ + | se |. |e ee +)+]/+] +1. +/+]/+)+ {4+ |. +[+]/+1+]/414+ eee eee fy ee) Ey Eye +] |e | ‘yol16| 7/20| 1) 5 422 and the twenty marked by McAtee (05) as common), all are found in the United States and Canada, 19 reach Mexico, 16 Central America, 7 South America east of the Andes, 20 the West Indies, 5 Greenland and 11 are reported from Europe. (See Table No. 2.) Of the 24 other water birds listed as rare or occasional from this region, three reach Chili and one Greenland. The range of no individual bird is as great as that of its species, but many of the water birds are eregarious at some season, so that the organisms which they carry would soon be distributed over their entire range. This does not necessarily mean that these organisms would develop over the entire area. The following examples show how the area may be connected with the rest of the globe. Besides the four, indicated in the table as occurring more or less regularly in Hurcpe, cthers appear accidentally (Headley, °05). The Turnstone (Headley |. ¢.) migrates from Greenland across Hu- rope to Australia. Holbcell’s Grebe (Colymbus holboelli Reinh) is dis- tributed over North America, Greenland, Eastern Siberia, south to Japan, thus connectivg Americn and Asia. These forms all breed inland so that they are related strictly to the fresh water fauna. The list may, of course, be extended almost indefinitely. Marine birds, such as the albatross have a much wider range but they rarely come inland. Birds are the chief agencies in the distribution of crustacea (cladocera, copepoda), whose eggs are too large to be wind-blown. ‘The reduction in the number of water birds which has taken place in the last half century certainly has reduced the chances of a crustacean reaching a pond at the period suitable to its development. In the larger bodies of water this rela- tion is not so evident nor so patent because they are much more static. Insects migrate very short distances compared with birds. However they do carry organisms from one pond to another in a limited locality. The aquatic beetles and some Hemiptera are the most efficient agencies be- cause the imagoes spend most of their life in the water where alge and protozoa become attached to them. Occasionally, however, they leave the water, as is attested by the fact that they collect around a light at some distance from their habitat. In this pond I have often noted beetles with vorticelle and other cili- ates attached. The attachment of stalked ciliates to beetles is mentioned by Stein (54) and others. Migula (SS) having found a single beetle asso- ciated with algee in a pool 30 qn. in diameter near the summit of Biskiden mountains, concluded that the beetle had carried the algz. Later he ex- amined six beetles belonging to three species, from five different habitats and found attached to them twenty-three species of alge. These ciliates and algee, however, were attached to beetles in the water. When the beetles leave the water these attached organisms are suddenly iransferred from an aquatic to an ewrial environmeiat. This new environ- ment differs from the old one in temperature and humidity. How long these organisms can resist these changed conditions and how long the beetles stay out of water are facts that must be known before the role of insects in the distribution of attached organisms can be accurately deter- mined. The fact that aquatic beetles fly at night reduces the harmful effect of evaporation. Experiments are planned to selve these problems. In the notes on EHpistylis, I have indicated that that species of this genus can remain out of water for some time without fatal results. The colony 1eferred to remained on a slide under cover in a room with low relative humidity for more thau fifteen hours without it being fatal to all of the zooids. While a colony of this species attached to the thorax of a beetle making a nocturnal migratory flight would not have the protection against evaporation of the two glass plates, this would be compensated in some degree by the more humid and cooler night air. That wind is responsible for the distribution of many protozoa and rotifers is a fact which is ‘familiar to any one who hes ever made a hay infusion. The presence of these organisms and of tardigrada in the pond, is probably due to wind distribution. Just how far an organism can be transported by wina depends upon the size and specific gravity of its spores. eggs or cysts, and upon its power to resist drying, extreme temperature. etc. These facts are, in a large number cf cases, unknown. Cysts of Euglena are common in almost every culture, but it does not follow that this is the form in which they are wind-blown. Assuming a constant specific gravity, it is certain that the buoyancy of a cyst increases as the reciprocal of its diameter. As an adaptation to this law, many organisms form extremely minute spores. It is rendered very probable by Calkins (°07) that in Amcba proteus very minute spores are formed. From his figures I have determined the diameter of the tertiary »uclei (which with a bit of cytoplasm are pre- sumed to form the spore), to be 1 uw or less. Comparing these spore nuclei ii Calkins ((07), Fig. 14, with the ameeba figured in his earlier papers. 424 Calkins (04), it certainly becomes evident that there is an efficient adapta- tion to wind distribution. Attention may be called to the analogous transportation of volcanic dust which has been known to drift round the world. Volcanic dust has a higher specific gravity than that of protoplasm but, on the other hand. it is blown to a very high altitude, while organic spores usually start from the surface. The exact nature of the spore while in the air must be known before its distribution by wind can be even approximated by direct methods. = Distribution.—Of the complicated set of factors that condition the ex- istence of these organisms, only four can be discussed at this time. These are level. light, temperature and food relations. The chemical composition of the water and its variations have not been Getermined. The determina- tion of the dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide and ammonia will probably Vield valuable results in a comparative study of several ponds. Level.—The factor that affects the organisms in this pond most vitally is the extreme changes in level. The level varies from zero to 46 inches above the lowest point. So far as ascertained, its level has been reduced to zero (i. @., it has dried up) but once in its history and that was in the late Summer and early autumn of ’O8. It did not overflow until the follow- ing March. From March, ’09 to August, ‘09, the lowest observed level was 353 inches. The summer of ’OS was the dryest in 13 years (local records are not available before 1896). ‘That of ’09 was rather wet, 4.75 inches of rain falling on July 14. For these two rather extreme years, the minima have been 35.5 and 0; or to put it another way, the level has decreased 25% and 100% from the maximum. This point will be discussed more fully later. As the destructive forces gradually elevate the bottom of the pond, it is probable that in future the pond will go dry more often. Level is determined by precipitation and evaporation. The extreme variability of these factors in this pond and similar ones in this region is indicated by the weather records of the local station and those from Indianapolis. Rec- ords of sunshine, wind velocity and relative humidity are not available for any station nearer than Indiauapolis (56 miles distant). In the accompanying table IT have compiled all the climatological data Available for this lecality. TABLE 3. CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA. 425 BLoomMInGTton, Monror County, Inp.—Elevation, 800 feet. Precipitation. Year. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dee ae : nua IEMs gacueoe Bob) || Cosy Vesey | LO | lees lesspacllaacuscllboscoollodecsolledesac|loodouullucnosciosocee ite tats yee eM e eies UN elk} WV See Meier real lanes elenmeneisles| (aibercues bie et tend leicorc sua leaerctts | Incaie ene (Unicon | ia bieaal lade sing Os tah hae hal eee Gel ica alors) cane Ne eee Ar Lea Dba ad Pesan PL SP ATA ence SIG Ai ese 1.06 | AM) | alll) yf" ae 5.12 | 3.52 | 7.78 | 7.49 | 4.16 | 1.35 | 4.36 | 0.90 | 40.44 NS OTe cals che 3-17 | 3-35) |10.63 | 6.02) 2.37 | 6:27 | 2.62')| 0.59 | 0.72 || 1.83 || 7.42) 8).24 || 47.73 Rel ese eres tei 6.42 | 2.15 }10.30 | 1.88 | 3.94 | 3.03 | 2.69 | 4.43 | 7.28 | 4.00 | 3.13 | 2.90 | 52.15 W899 Seen 4.06 | 4.10 | 4.71 | 1.96 | 4.18 | 2.34 | 1.60 | 1.20 | 0.48 | 2.91 | 3.58 | 3.68 | 34.80 900 Bsr cere 2.25 | 3.55 | 3.385 | 1.14 | 4.79 | 5.73 | 3.54 | 1.64 | 2.54 | 4.00 | 3.30 | 2.05 | 37.88 IGM. sbeecose 2.15 } 2.15 | 5.42 | 3.81 | 1.00 | 4.49 | 0.77 | 2.63 | 0.99 | 4.03 | 0.95 | 4.75 | 33.14 USO 2a serertets 0.90 | 2.50 | 2.89 | 2.86 | 4.40 | 5.02 | 4.19 | 4.64 | 4.06 | 3.40 | 4.51 | 5.28 | 44.65 IM Goossens 4.44 | 6.05 | 4.75 | 4.23 | 2.22 | 2.55 | 3.90 | 5.46 | 1.50 | 2.70 | 2.11 | 2.91 | 42.77 1904 eM cae 5.50 | 4.05 | 9.86 | 2.80 | 3.67 | 4.44 | 2.20 | 1.60 | 4.84 | 1.30 | 1.00 | 6.10 | 47.36 1905ee cee 3.05 | 2.82 | 3.30 | 4.81 |,5.55 | 2.67 | 4.27 | 8.05 | 2.15 | 7.35 | 1.73 | 3.30 | 49.05 IQs coocseas 4.61 | 2.05 | 9.31 | 2:15 | 2.45 | 3.39 | 2.30 | 7.38 | 2.99 | 1.08 | 4.90 | 4.94 | 47.55 1D fae oreo et 9.74 | 0.74 | 6.48 | 3.11 | 3.98 | 3.79 | 4.35 | 3.12 | 2.52 | 4.80 | 4.20 | 4.10 | 50.98 IGT Seree a erereetets 1.50 | 7.85 | 5.26 | 5.51 | 8.91 | 1.93 | 1.81 | 2.06 | 0.88.| 0.29 | 2.65 | 2.05 | 40.65 Means SHON “3.59 5.84 | 3.13 | 3.84 3.78 3.23 | 3.87 | 2.70 | 2.96 | 3.37 | 3.55 | 43.43 O33] a f e les 3 g é hie ey ES Pi PE ee We SD ess el ey SSIS lS las le Sila ie@léleailaile Average number of days with 0.01 Fpl eee tay a netitcaa oie aes eee pol ne cer inch or more precipitation. ...... 13 8 “\10 8 | 10 | 10 7 7 6 5 7 8 93 Maximum temperature............ 13 | 70 | 68 | 84 | 87 | 93 | 97 |103 | 98 |100 | 88 | 78 | 72 | 108 Minimum temperature............. 13 |-11 |-20 Q | 22 | 29 | 42 | 51 | 50 | 28 | 22 DM LOM 20 Mean temperature................. 13 |30.7|29.3)43.3)51.0 Cao 75.1|68.6)57.4/44.2,33.2/53.8 426 Tasie 3—.Continueu INDIANAPOLIS, IND. eolelek dee | FEL See) es lavpa aeue| 3 : eye S5/ 2] S$] 4 be) 212/S|elela mo] S { k oo |i= alle x ab 1S 2 ° 3 go} 2/9/5156) 2] 2\/2) ale]s Se |} & oF] & | "oO a. Sa Sela | oulime 5 S| Ss) Sl} Ss |S | oni e | | | Relative humidity (percentage)...| 21 | 79 | 77 | 73 | 66 | 67 | 68 | 65 | 67 | 68 | 68+) 73 | 77 | 71 Sunshine (percentage)............- 12 | 41 | 47 | 40] 5 53 | 62 | 68 | 63 | 66 | 61 | 52 | 40 | 54 Average hourly wind velocity (in | STULLES) Watt een ee ey tae: eli eZ Bele Galea 9.9) 8.9} 8.2) 7.4, 8.3) 9.4)10.4111.5/10.0 | | During tke pericd Novy.—June, the level of the pond is not rapidly re duced. September and October are on the ayerage the dryest months of the year. July and August are the hottest. It is during this period (July— Oct.) that the level is reduced most rapidly and the stress on the organisms is most acute. In this period occurs the minimum precipitation, lowest rela- tive humidity and smallest number of rainy days (i. e., .01 inch or more pre- cipitation), the maximum temperature and the greatest sunshine per- centage. All of these factors tend to reduce the level of ponds by evapora- tion. The lower wind velocity tends te reduce the evaporation to a slight degree. The amount of stress produced by a reduction of the level varies in different years. In thirteen years of precipitation records for Blooming: ton, the minimum for four months, July—October, was in 1908. The mavwyi mum occurred in 1896. In 1908 the amount of precipitation for the four months was 4.99 inches. In 1896 the maximum was 20.78 inches. The average for the entire thirteen years for these nionths was 12.66 inches. To state it another way: the minimum for this period was 39+% of the average and 25.5+% of the maximum. That is, between four and five times as much rain fell during this period of one year as fell during the same period of another year. This irregularity, more than any other factor, prevents the fauna of this pond and all small solution ponds from becom- ing even relatively static. In the larger ponds the effect is less acute. The drying up of the pond in ‘OS killed all the amphibian larve, the corethra larvee and caused the emigration of some of the aquatic beetles. 427 (I am informed that Dytiscus marginalis Linn was formerly obtained from this pond in quantity for laboratory dissection material.) I have never taken a specimen from the pond. What other forms may have been elimi- nated by this “drying up,” I do not know, because I began to study it at this period. Not only were the conditions during this period of low level very dif- ferent from these preceding it. but the conditions after the dry period were also very different. When the pond began to Hll with water in November, ‘OS, the decaying wupphibian larve and other organic matter developed conditions favorable to the production of an encrmous number of flageilates. This decaying or- ganic debris and possibly the fiagellates furnished an immense amount of food for some of the crustacea, especially Cypridopsis vidua Brady. The alge are eaten by both the amphibian larve and Simcocephalus vetellus. The elimination of the former greatly increased the food material of the latter. The dragon fly nymphs and possibly Corethra larvee feed on on both of these crustaceans. Thus the conditions at this period furnished the crustacea an enormous food suppty and few enemies. The result was a very great development of crustacea. Especially was this true of Crypridopsis vidua Brady. Since the winter of 1908, conditions which I have not been able to determine have resulted in the entire elimination of this form. It is evident that variations in the level may result in the elimination of a species or its abnormal development. Temperature.—The seasonal development of different forms as indi- cated in the list and table, is probably due directly or indirectly to changes in temperature. The temperature in the water of the pond varies from 27.8° C to 0 at the surface (ice) and to 1.83° C at the bottom. Except for the first few weeks the temperatures were taken with a centigrade thermometer graded to 1/5ths. ‘The winter of 1908-1909 was fairly open. Ice formed December 2, lasting until January 20. Ice was present the latter part of February but there was none after March 3. The maximum thickness ef ice for this year was 2.5 inches. The winter of 1909-1910 was very severe for this latitude. Ice formed December 7 and lasted until March 2 and had a maximum thickness of 9 inches on January 11. During the first winter, the temperature of the water a few inches under the ice, varied but slightiy from the greatest density temperature. 428 The long period of low temperature during the winter of ’09-10 reduced the temperature of the water appreciably. In order to determine the difference in temperature between the water inunediately under the ice and that near the bottom, the following simple apparatus was used.